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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality -
+Volume III by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
+
+
+
+
+
+Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+
+by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+
+Edition 1, (October 9, 2006)
+
+
+
+
+
+                         Philadelphia and London
+                         J. B. Lippincott Company
+
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+Copyright, 1908, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+
+                  [Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.]
+
+                          DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL’S PALACE, HAVANA.
+OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA’S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+KEARNEY’S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+
+
+The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high among the important dates in
+the history of the world. For on that day men from Europe, then the centre
+of civilization, first gazed on a rich new land beyond the seas, a great
+virgin continent, destined to become the seat of flourishing civilizations
+and to play a leading part in the later history of the world. Little did
+Columbus and his companions, when they saw before them on that famous
+morning a beautiful island, rising like a pearl of promise from the
+sparkling tropical sea, dream of what time held in store for that
+new-found land, foreordained to become the "New World" of the nations, the
+hope of the oppressed, and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and
+equality.
+
+But we are here concerned with only what they saw, and this was a green
+and populous island, so covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their
+eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was, for many of the trees
+were laden with new and strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form.
+Never had they breathed air more pure and fresh, and never had they beheld
+seas of such crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue; and it is
+not surprising that their eyes sparkled with joy and their souls were
+filled with wonder and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene
+after their long and dreaded journey over a vast and unknown ocean.
+
+Not less strange to the new-comers were the people who flocked in numbers
+from the woods and ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple
+wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had never met their eyes before.
+No clothing hid their dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to
+their visitors, and they looked like the unclad tenants of some new
+paradise. Their astonishment turned into fright when they saw boats leave
+these strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad in shining steel or
+raiment of varied color. Their white faces, their curling beards, their
+splendid clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of the forest,
+and especially the air of dignity of their leader, with his ample cloak of
+scarlet, added to their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as divine
+visitors, come to them from the skies.
+
+Not less was their surprise when they saw the wonderful strangers kneel
+and kiss the soil, and then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich
+colors and designs that seemed magical to their untaught eyes. And deep
+was their delight when these strange beings distributed among them
+wonderful gifts,—glass beads, hawk’s bells, and other trifles,—which
+seemed precious gems to their untutored souls. They had nothing to offer
+in return, except tame parrots, of which they had many, and balls of
+cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards sparkled with hope when they
+saw small ornaments of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it been
+for all the natives of the New World if this yellow metal had not existed
+among them, for it was to bring them untold suffering and despair.
+
+Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus named this first-seen
+land; but, leaving it, let us go with him in his voyage through that
+island-sprinkled sea, and use his eyes in taking in the marvels with which
+it was sown. Familiar as these islands have become to many of us, to him
+they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string of tropic pearls or
+rare emeralds spread out along those shining waters of the South.
+
+On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their hearts elate with joy and
+pride in their discovery, hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn to
+the right and the left alike. They found themselves in an archipelago of
+beautiful islands, green and level, rising on all sides and seemingly
+numberless. To us they are the great green cluster of the Bahamas, but to
+Columbus, who fancied that he had reached the shores of Asia, they were
+that wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in which were seven
+thousand four hundred and fifty-eight islands, abounding with spices and
+rich in odoriferous trees and shrubs.
+
+On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright and placid waters scarce
+ruffled by the gentle breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of
+which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than the last. Besting under
+the shade of warm and verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their
+water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the admiral found the
+scene around him entrancing to his vision, "the country as fresh and green
+as the month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits, the herbs, the
+flowers, the very stones, for the most part, as different from those of
+Spain as night from day."
+
+                 [Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.]
+
+                         A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+
+
+One isle, which he honored with the name of Isabella, after his patron,
+the Spanish queen, surpassed in charm all he had yet seen. Like them all,
+it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate delightful, its air soft
+and balmy, its scenery so lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would
+never desire to depart. I know not where first to go, nor are my eyes ever
+weary of gazing on the beautiful verdure."
+
+Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all the casks of the ships to be
+filled. He could not say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here are large
+lakes, and the groves about them are marvellous, and in all the island
+everything is green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia. The singing
+of the birds is such that it seems as if one would never wish to leave
+this land. There are flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other
+birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so different from ours, that
+it is wonderful; and besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each
+having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous flavor, so that I am in
+the greatest trouble in the world not to know them, for I am very certain
+that they are each of great value."
+
+As he approached this island, he fancied that the winds bore to his senses
+the spicy odors said to be wafted from the islands of the East Indian
+seas. "As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came off a fragrance so
+good and soft of the flowers or trees of the land that it was the sweetest
+thing in the world."
+
+Not only were the islands the homes of birds of brilliant plumage and
+flowers of gorgeous hue, but the very seas seemed to their new visitors
+like tropical gardens, for the fish with which they abounded rivalled the
+birds and flowers in brilliancy of color. The scales of some of them
+glittered like precious stones, and gleams of gold and silver seemed to
+come from them as they swam around the ships, while the dolphins taken
+from the water changed color like the chameleon.
+
+The natives who had been taken on board the ships made signs which seemed
+to indicate that more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with cities
+and kings and queens, and abundance of gold and gems; or, at least, the
+Spaniards understood this from their signs, as they pointed to the south
+when gold was shown them and they were asked where it could be found. Far
+to the south was a great island which they named Cuba, and another which
+they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs appeared to show, was of vast
+extent and abounded with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined
+to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth which he and his
+companions so ardently craved. It cannot be said that the natives wished
+to deceive them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all they were
+asked, with the innocent desire of pleasing their wonderful new friends.
+Columbus, full of the idea that he was near the shores of India, hoped to
+reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco Polo had said was one of the most
+magnificent in the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns
+to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring back his reply to Spain.
+Inspired by this enticing hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows
+of his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba.
+
+It was on the morning of October 28 that the shores of this noble island
+first met the eyes of the eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along
+its coast the admiral was struck with its size and grandeur; its high and
+airy mountains, like those of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and
+the fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching forests and many
+green headlands, which led them on and on into the remote distance. They
+anchored at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were transparent and
+deeply shaded with overhanging trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up
+the stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting with every mile, forests
+of lofty and spreading trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit,
+some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at once. These woods
+swarmed with birds of brilliant plumage,—the scarlet flamingo, the
+rich-hued parrots and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds,
+which flitted on rainbow wings from flower to flower, and which no
+European had ever before seen. Even the insects were beautiful, in their
+shining coats of mail. Though most of the birds were silent, the charms of
+song were not wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected among
+them notes like those of the nightingale. Ever open to the charms of
+nature, Cuba seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful island that
+eyes ever beheld."
+
+He was sure there must here be mines of gold, groves of spices, rivers and
+seas that bore pearls. The houses, though simple in structure, were well
+built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and shaded by spreading trees.
+Led on still by his excited fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and
+rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze. Assured that the capital
+of the Grand Khan could not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with
+presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out by the people. But
+after going many miles they found only a village of fifty houses, like
+those seen on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no spices, none of
+the things they so ardently sought. The only thing new to their eyes was a
+fashion seen among the people, who rolled up certain dried and aromatic
+leaves, and, lighting one end, put the other in their mouths, and exhaled
+the smoke. This was the first ever seen by white men of that remarkable
+American plant, called by the natives by a name like tobacco, which has
+since grown to be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and hovel
+alike.
+
+Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination of Columbus was
+continually aroused by the magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of
+the scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A warm love of nature
+is frequently displayed in the description of the country which he wrote
+out for Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place, named by him
+Puerto Santo, he said: "The amenity of this river, and the clearness of
+the water, through which the sand at the bottom may be seen; the multitude
+of palm-trees of various forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have
+met with, and an infinity of other great and green trees; the birds in
+rich plumage, and the verdure of the fields, render this country, most
+Serene Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses all others
+in graces and charm, as the day doth the night in lustre. For which reason
+I often say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to give a complete
+account of it to your Majesties, my tongue cannot express the whole truth
+or my tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed at the sight of
+so much beauty that I have not known how to relate it."
+
+One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous series of
+discoveries,—the one called by the natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as
+Hayti, one of the most beautiful islands in the world in the splendor of
+its tropical vegetation. Columbus and his men could describe it only by
+comparison with the most beautiful provinces of the country from which
+they came, and in consequence he named the island Hispaniola, or "Little
+Spain."
+
+Here he found the people as innocent and simple in their habits as those
+of San Salvador, living in huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no
+clothing, for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing life in a
+holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To the Spaniards their life seemed
+like a pleasant dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where it was
+"always afternoon." They had no wants nor cares, and spent life in easy
+idleness and innocent sports. They had their fields, but the food plants
+grew bountifully with little labor. The rivers and sea yielded abundance
+of fish, and luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their forests.
+Thus favored by nature, they spent much of the day in repose, while in the
+evenings they danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or the rude
+music of their drums. After the coming of the Spaniards the clear tinkle
+of the hawk’s bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight, and for
+those musical toys they were ready to barter everything they possessed.
+
+In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than the Spaniards had yet seen,
+but they were still lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope
+that this precious metal might there be found in quantities. Yet Columbus
+felt forced to cease, for a time, the quest of the precious metal, and
+sail for home with the story of the new world he had found. One of his
+vessels had deserted him; another had been wrecked: if he should lose the
+third he would be left without means of return and his great discovery
+might remain unknown.
+
+Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493, he spread the sails of
+the one caravel left to him, and turned its prow towards Europe, to carry
+thither the news of the greatest maritime discovery the world had ever
+known. Thus ended in success and triumph the first voyage of Columbus to
+the "New World."
+
+
+
+
+
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+
+
+Of the three ships with which Columbus made his first voyage, the "Pinta"
+deserted the others and went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and
+the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran ashore on the coast
+of Hispaniola and proved a hopeless wreck. Only the little "Niña" (the
+"girl," as this word means in English) was left to carry the discoverer
+home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully taken to pieces, and from her
+timbers was constructed a small but strong fort, with a deep vault beneath
+and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians aided in this, and not a shred
+of the stranded vessel was left to the waves. As the "Niña" was too small
+to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided to leave a garrison
+to hold this fort and search for gold until he should return. That the
+island held plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was left, with a
+garrison of forty men, and the "Niña" spread her sails to the winds to
+carry to Spain the wonderful news of the great discovery.
+
+La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort, in remembrance of the day
+of the wreck, and when he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find
+its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in the precious yellow
+metal. He reached the spot to find the fort a ruin and the garrison a
+remembrance only. They had been attacked by the Indians and massacred
+during the absence of the admiral.
+
+In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians whom Columbus had met with
+on his first voyage were not the only people of the islands. There were on
+some of the West Indies a warlike race called Caribs,—cannibals, the
+Spaniards said they were,—who gave the invaders no small trouble before
+they were overcome.
+
+It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had attacked La Navidad and
+destroyed the fort and its garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by
+some of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much too ready to
+commit. The leader of these warriors was a bold cacique named Caonabo,
+chief of a warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain that we are
+at present concerned, as he was the hero, or victim rather, of the first
+romantic story known to us in Indian life.
+
+In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on the coast of
+Hispaniola, there was one built far in the interior, called Fort Santo
+Tomas. This stood in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed land of
+gold of the island. Its site lay within the territory of Caonabo, who
+ruled over a great district, his capital town or village being on the
+southern slope of the Cibao Mountains.
+
+The first conflict between the Spaniards and the natives, after the
+massacre of the garrison of La Navidad, was in the district of the Vega,
+where a fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the natives
+suffering a severe defeat. The next was at Fort Santo Tomas, which was
+commanded by Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come out with Columbus
+in his second voyage. He was a man of great courage and unusual daring,
+one of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had to do with the
+conquest of the New World.
+
+A man of his spirit was needed to command this isolated fort in the
+mountains, for the cacique, Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of
+his territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a strong force of his
+warlike race. Santo Tomas was closely invested and fiercely attacked,
+Ojeda being reduced to such an extremity that he owed his escape only to a
+rescuing force sent by Columbus from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven
+off by the superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly to his
+stronghold in the mountains. But he was quickly back again, with a larger
+force than before. He had never met his equal among the Indians, but the
+fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards proved too much even for his courage,
+and he was a second time forced to withdraw.
+
+It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously situated, surrounded as
+he was by warlike enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In the
+face of this peril he adopted an expedient as daring as any of those shown
+by Cortez, Pizarro, or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age of
+conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its daring. It is this striking
+adventure which it is our purpose to describe.
+
+Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and most trusty, Ojeda set out
+on horseback over the mountains, following paths never before traversed by
+the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib town of Maguana, where he
+found Caonabo surrounded by a throng of armed warriors. The Spaniards had
+bearded the lion in his den, and were in a position of extreme peril
+should the cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master in
+craftiness, and by professions of friendship and other arts of duplicity
+he persuaded the chief to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest.
+
+He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs, bright and shining
+manacles of which the untutored Indian had no conception of the use, but
+whose brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they were bracelets, which
+the King of Spain had graciously sent him as a present, in recognition of
+his fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor Indian probably
+understood all this very imperfectly, but he was easily brought to view
+the manacles as _Turey_ or a gift from Heaven, and willingly held out his
+wrists that his guest might adorn them with those strange and splendid
+bracelets.
+
+In a moment his hands were secured, and before he could recover from his
+surprise Ojeda, whose small frame concealed much strength, reached from
+his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a great exertion of
+muscular force lifted him from the ground and swung him up on the horse.
+The warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion, had no time to
+use their weapons before the Spaniards had put spur to their horses and
+dashed off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side of Ojeda, to
+prevent the captive throwing himself from the horse. Threatened by their
+swords and with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets, Caonabo was
+forced to submit, and was carried by his captors for many miles through
+the heart of his own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which Columbus
+had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting a bay in which all his
+vessels could ride in safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination of
+his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to Columbus, and he was
+locked up in a secure cell.
+
+As the story goes, the brave cacique had a greater admiration for courage
+than anything else in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the
+crafty way in which he had been captured, he seemed to hold him in high
+esteem as the bravest of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his
+cell he would rise and courteously salute him, while he treated the visits
+of Columbus with haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique could
+make himself understood, the high rank of Columbus was nought to him. He
+had no proof that he was a man of courage, while the manner in which Ojeda
+had captured him showed him to be a brave man. To the bold Carib courage
+was the first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect.
+
+The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his countrymen who had to do
+with the Spanish invaders. Put on board ship and sent as a prize of valor
+to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the voyage, perhaps from a broken
+heart, or as a result of the change from his free forest life to the
+narrow confines of a fifteenth-century ship.
+
+The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of adventure, in which he
+distinguished himself as much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put
+in command of an exploring expedition and sent out from Spain, one of his
+companions being Amerigo Vespucci, he whose first name gained the
+immemorial honor of being given to the great western continent. In this
+voyage Ojeda discovered part of the continent of South America, which he
+called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested by an Indian village
+built on piles in the water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a
+colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there proved too bold and hostile
+for him, and he failed to subject them to his authority.
+
+Many were his adventures, all of them characterized by a rash daring like
+that he had shown in the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died, he
+was buried, in response to his own request, in the doorway of the
+Franciscan monastery in the city of Santo Domingo, so that all who entered
+that place of worship should walk over his grave.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+
+
+The island elysium which Columbus had discovered, and of which he wrote
+and conversed in the most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of
+promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of adventurers soon crossed
+the seas, hopeful of winning gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring
+in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them were men of wealth, who were
+eager to add to their riches, but the most of them had little beyond their
+love of adventure and their thirst for gold to carry them across the seas,
+needy but bold soldiers and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise,
+however perilous, that might promise them reward. The stories of many of
+these men are full of romantic interest, and this is especially the case
+with one of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez.
+
+We propose here to deal with the interesting early history of this most
+famous of the New World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain, of good
+family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome humor led him into many wild
+escapades while still a boy. The mystery and romance of the strange land
+beyond the sea and the chance to win gold and glory which it offered were
+fascinating to a spirit like his, and he was prevented from taking part in
+an expedition when but seventeen years of age only by an unlucky accident.
+As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure like that of Romeo and
+Juliet, the stones gave way and he was thrown violently to the ground and
+buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed from his hurts the fleet
+had sailed.
+
+Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at home, engaged, perhaps, in
+similar pranks, but at length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set
+sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only nineteen years of age.
+He did not get across the sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of
+his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole away from the rest of
+the squadron, hoping to reach port and sell his cargo before the others
+arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for many days the vessel was
+tossed about, the sailors not knowing where they were, and furious at the
+treachery of their captain. At length, one morning, hope returned to them,
+in the form of a white dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the
+bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following its course the
+weary mariners finally came to the port they sought. But the captain was
+paid for his treachery by finding that the other vessels had arrived
+before him and sold their cargoes.
+
+The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope. When the governor’s
+secretary told him that no doubt he would be given a good estate to settle
+on, he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the soil, like a
+peasant."
+
+As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough to accept the land, but
+his fondness for active deeds clung to him, and he took part in the
+military expeditions sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He had his
+quarrels, too, and his duels about the love of fair ladies, and received
+wounds whose scars he carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his valor
+came in 1511, when an expedition set out for the conquest of Cuba. Cortez
+enlisted under the leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by his
+courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition, and the good
+humor and ready wit which made him a favorite with all he met.
+
+After the island had been conquered, Velasquez was made its governor,
+Cortez still being his close friend. But for some reason this friendship
+did not last, and when at length a party of discontented men formed a plan
+to complain of the acts of the governor to the higher authorities in
+Hispaniola, Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen, from his
+fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it being necessary to perform the
+perilous exploit of crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in an
+open boat.
+
+In some way the plot got wind, and, before he could leave the island,
+Cortez was arrested by order of the governor and thrown into prison, his
+limbs being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended to hang him, as
+we are told, but was persuaded by his friends not to go so far. These
+Spanish governors had the power to do almost anything they pleased, their
+distance from home enabling them to act the despot at will, and their
+influence at court saving them from evil consequences.
+
+                [Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.]
+
+                        CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+
+
+Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In some way he managed to
+open one of the bolts of his fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then,
+turning his irons into tools, he used them to force open the window of his
+cell. As he was on the second floor of the building, it was easy for one
+so agile as he to reach the ground without injury, and he made his way to
+a church near by, where he claimed the right of sanctuary.
+
+When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner he was furious. He did
+not dare attempt to take him from the church by force, since the sacred
+walls protected all who sought their asylum. But a guard was stationed
+close by, with orders to seize the fugitive if he should leave the
+sanctuary. With one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done. A few
+days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning himself outside the walls of
+the building, one of the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his
+arms, and held him till his comrades came to his aid. This man was one of
+those who afterwards took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which he
+was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps took this opportunity for
+revenge.
+
+Once more the reckless young adventurer found himself a fettered captive,
+this time being put on board a vessel that was to sail the next morning
+for Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be tried for his
+offence. But he proved a very hard prisoner to hold. That night, with much
+pain and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of the irons that
+held them, and then stole cautiously to the deck, where he found a boat
+floating by the vessel’s side. Slipping down into this, under cover of the
+darkness, he cut loose and paddled silently away.
+
+When near the shore he met with a rapid current and rough waters, to which
+he was afraid to trust the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought it
+safest to breast the water himself, and boldly plunged overboard. He found
+his task a hard, almost a fatal one; the current threatened to sweep him
+away, but after a long struggle with the waves he succeeded in reaching
+the shore, in a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now sought the
+church again, no doubt resolving this time to keep safely within its
+sacred shelter.
+
+The story goes on to state that the governor, worked upon by friends of
+the culprit, offered him forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier
+was too proud to accept. What followed is amusing. Velasquez was at a
+distance from the capital, on a military excursion, when one evening he
+was startled in his tent by the appearance of his enemy, completely armed
+and threatening in aspect. In dismay, the governor asked him what he
+wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was tired of being treated like a
+felon, and that he must have an explanation or he would know the reason
+why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and a hot altercation followed. But at
+length their talk became more friendly, and in the end their old amicable
+relations were resumed and they embraced like a pair of lovers. The
+amusing part of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to tell the
+governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary and disappeared, he found the
+governor and the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed.
+
+This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they became friends again, and
+Cortez was given a large estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and
+on which he found gold-mines, which were worked by Indian labor. He
+married a beautiful Spanish girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several
+years in happy content.
+
+This, with some, would have been the end of a career. It was only the
+beginning of that of Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history and
+a record of undying fame. All we can tell here is how this came about. It
+began in expeditions of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler, seeking
+Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was blown far westward by a storm, and
+reached an unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone buildings,
+cultivated the soil, and wore delicate cotton garments and ornaments of
+gold. In other ways they showed evidence of civilization. The land thus
+reached is that now known as Yucatan.
+
+Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova brought back, sent out a small
+fleet under his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this new
+land. Grijalva found evidence that a great civilized nation dwelt inland,
+rich in gold and far superior in civilization to any Indians whom the
+Spaniards had yet met. He named the country New Spain, and sailed back to
+Cuba with an account of his important discoveries.
+
+The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy. Here seemed to be the land of
+gold which the Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win vast wealth
+and the glory of adding a new and splendid province to Spain. He at once
+began to fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around for a man fit
+to command it. Several of the hidalgos, or gentlemen of Cuba, offered
+themselves, but none pleased the governor, and at length he settled upon
+Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By chance, rather than by
+intention, he had made a splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the
+New World, and perhaps the one man at that time in all Spain, fitted by
+nature for the difficult task which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as
+he had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a great occasion to prove
+himself a great man. He was to develop into one of the ablest military
+leaders in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was to display a
+genius and achieve a success worthy of Cæsar or Alexander or any of the
+famous soldiers of the world.
+
+But, from another point of view, Velasquez had made a bad choice. Cortez
+had disdained his fetters and his prisons, and would soon disdain his
+control. His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this young
+adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o’-the-wisp.
+
+           [Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.]
+
+                   LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+
+
+The very appointment seemed to change the whole character of the new
+admiral. He became a different man. His high spirits now changed to a
+tireless energy. He spent his money freely in fitting out the fleet, and
+even mortgaged his estate to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He
+worked incessantly, and inspired his companions and followers to active
+and enthusiastic toil. He was so popular in the island that several
+hundred recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships, some of them
+of large size, were rapidly got ready and stocked with provisions and
+military stores.
+
+Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the labor and cost of Cortez
+would go for naught. Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to rob
+him of his command and trust the fleet to safer hands. But he was not
+dealing with a man who could be played with in this fast and loose
+fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and he decided to sail at
+once, though he was still short of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That
+night he took on board all the meat in the town, weighed anchor, and got
+ready to set sail.
+
+At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that the fleet was about to depart.
+In a panic he sprang from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his
+horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez entered a boat and rowed
+near enough to the shore to speak with him.
+
+"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the angry governor; "a courteous
+leave-taking, truly."
+
+"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and there are some things that
+should be done before they are even thought of. Has your excellency any
+commands?"
+
+His excellency would have commanded him to come on shore, if it had been
+of any use. As it was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of the
+hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only their vanishing hulls were to
+be seen.
+
+The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at Trinidad. At the last
+place many men, and several cavaliers who were to prove his ablest
+officers, joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez to the
+governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet
+for a new admiral who was to command it. The governor looked at Cortez and
+his men and concluded that he had better let them alone. They were too
+strong for him to deal with.
+
+So once more the bold adventurers escaped from Velasquez and his schemes
+and sailed in triumph away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor
+of the place had received orders to arrest Cortez, and here, also, he did
+not dare attempt it. Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait
+till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly the fool to pay any heed
+to such a letter as that. The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to
+the fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer, saying that he would
+not lose sight of the interests of his excellency, and that he and the
+fleet, "God willing, would set sail the next morning."
+
+Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet lost sight of Cuba at
+Cape San Antonio, on the western end of the island. It consisted in all of
+eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on board six hundred and
+sixty-three soldiers and sailors. A few of these were armed with
+cross-bows and only thirteen with muskets, while the horses numbered only
+sixteen. In addition there were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with
+a good supply of ammunition.
+
+Such was the fleet and such the force with which Hernando Cortez set sail
+to conquer a powerful and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition had
+one of the world’s great commanders at its head, or the enterprise would
+have ended in failure instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful
+success.
+
+
+
+
+
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+
+
+It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus opened to the adventurers
+of Spain, and hundreds of them soon took that promising path. Among these
+was one Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, a man poor in gold or land, but rich in
+courage and ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at home like a
+gentleman with the means of a peasant. In the year 1501 he crossed the
+seas to Hispaniola, where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till
+the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or good luck of Cortez,
+and after years of labor he found himself poorer than when he commenced.
+He began to see that nature had not meant him for a farmer, and that if he
+wanted a fortune he must seek it in other fields.
+
+Balboa was not alone in this. There were others, with better-filled
+pockets than he, who were ripe for adventure and eager for gold. A famous
+one of these was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus and
+the hero of the adventure with the Carib chief already described, who in
+1509 sailed for South America and founded a settlement named by him San
+Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer of the town of San
+Domingo, to fit out two more vessels and follow him with provisions for
+his new settlement.
+
+Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with casks of bread and
+other food-stuffs. There was more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of,
+for when far from land there crept out of one of these casks a haggard,
+woe-begone, half-starved stowaway, who looked as if he had not many ounces
+of life left in him. It was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who had taken this way
+to join the expedition and escape from his creditors, since they would not
+have permitted him to go openly. The cask in which he snugly lay had been
+carried from his farm to the ship among others containing provisions.
+
+Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome addition to his crew. He
+threatened to throw him overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave
+him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow fell on his knees and
+tearfully begged for mercy. Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at
+length softened and spared him his life. He was to pay bitterly for his
+kindness before many days.
+
+The expedition had its adventures on the seas, ending in a wreck, and when
+San Sebastian was reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement
+was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what to do, but Balboa had been on
+that coast before, on his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an
+Indian village on the Darien River where they might find food and shelter.
+He advised Enciso to go thither, and a journey was made overland, among
+hostile Indians and with little food. The adventurers were half-starved
+when at length they reached their goal.
+
+Here they founded a new settlement named Santa Maria, no doubt first
+disposing of the Indians in the usual Spanish fashion,—killing some and
+making slaves of others. But it was not long before there were bitter
+quarrels among themselves. Enciso had forbidden them to have any private
+trade for gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly resented. The
+result was that a party rose against him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso
+was deprived of his authority, but when they tried to elect another in his
+place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa, who had made a settlement
+near there, was sent for by some of the settlers, but when he came,
+Balboa’s party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen companions,
+was placed in a crazy old barque and left to find their way back to
+Hispaniola as best they could.
+
+Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest and boldest man in
+Darien, and his influence and power grew steadily until the settlers voted
+him their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned, and finally was sent
+to Spain. With him went one of Balboa’s chief supporters, in order to gain
+for him from the king the royal right to his new office.
+
+Balboa lost no time in showing that he was worthy of the dignity given
+him. He made many incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded
+in collecting much gold, the yellow metal being more plentiful there than
+in the West India islands. In those expeditions he showed a wise spirit of
+conciliation and won the friendship of several of the Indian chiefs. In
+one of their excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards about the
+division of the gold they had obtained. They were almost at sword’s-point
+when a young Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about what seemed
+to him a useless substance, upset the gold out of the balance, and turned
+to Balboa, saying,—
+
+"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this? If you value it so highly, I
+could take you to a country where it is so common that it is used for the
+meanest utensils."
+
+These significant words filled the Spaniards with hope and desire, and
+they eagerly asked where that rich land lay, and how it might be reached.
+
+"At the distance of six suns [six days’ journey] from here," said the
+cacique, "lies another ocean as great as the one before you. Near its
+shores is the kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and if you wish
+to attack it you will need far more men than you have here."
+
+This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the great southern ocean or
+of the rich land of Peru. This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which
+Columbus sought for without success, the waters which border the East
+Indies, and the great and rich nation on its shores must be one of the
+famous countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his mind to gaze on
+that unknown sea.
+
+Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking and do it quickly. He
+had received letters from Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which
+were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to King Ferdinand of the way
+in which he had been treated, and the king had not only refused to support
+Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions, but had condemned his course
+and ordered him to return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness
+were at an end unless he could win the favor of the king by some great
+enterprise. Such would be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he
+determined to attempt.
+
+The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to cross, is not over sixty
+miles wide. But many of these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests
+so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too, where it rains for more
+than half the year, the valleys are converted into marshes, and are so
+often overflowed that in many places the natives have to dwell in the
+trees, while from the high grounds rush swollen rivers, fierce and
+threatening. To march across an unknown and perilous country like this,
+led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold and desperate enterprise,
+surpassing any which the Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one
+of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to win the favor of his
+sovereign there was no danger he was not ready to face.
+
+For the perilous expedition he could muster only one hundred and ninety
+men. But these were veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus, and
+ready to follow him whatever the peril. They had good reason to trust his
+courage and readiness in emergencies, for they had found him always brave
+and alert. A thousand Indians were taken with them, to carry their
+provisions, and they added to their force a number of the fierce
+bloodhounds which were dreaded by the natives as much as the fire-arms of
+the Spaniards.
+
+Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st of September, 1513,
+sailing along the coast to Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half
+the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes. With the remainder
+the terrible journey across the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was
+begun.
+
+No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than troubles and perils
+thickened around them. The country was difficult to traverse, the people
+were bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they proved no feeble
+antagonists. As the adventurers left the plain and toiled up the
+mountains, a warlike cacique, with a large body of followers, met them in
+a narrow pass and boldly disputed the way. A fierce battle ensued, ending
+in favor of the Spaniards, who cut their way through the savages, leaving
+hundreds of them dead on the ground.
+
+Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they toiled onward and upward,
+until the six days fixed for their journey had stretched out to
+twenty-five. But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their guides
+assured them that from the top of the next mountain they could see the
+ocean they so ardently sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near
+the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and went on alone, that he
+might be the first to gaze on the wonderful spectacle.
+
+Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there, to his infinite delight,
+sparkled and spread before his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth,
+stretching away to the north, south, and west as far as human eye could
+see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous vision, he fell prostrate on the
+ground, like a worshipper before the object of his adoration. Then, rising
+to his knees, he thanked God for the great boon vouchsafed to him.
+
+His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise and beckon them, while with
+his other hand he pointed wildly westward. With springing steps they
+rushed to his side, and joined in his delight and his thanks to God as the
+marvellous spectacle met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to show
+that they had taken possession of this spot for his sovereign, and as they
+went down the farther slope they carved on many trees the name of King
+Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this new land.
+
+Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats’s famous sonnet to Homer, in
+which a great poet has admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange
+error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa:
+
+  "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
+    When a new planet swims into his ken;
+  Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
+    He stared at the Pacific—and all his men
+  Looked at each other with a wild surmise—
+    Silent, upon a peak in Darien."
+
+Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the easiest and shortest path
+to the sea, one of them a man destined to become still more famous than
+Balboa,—Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Reaching the
+shore, they found on it two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the
+men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling on their comrades to
+witness that they were the first to embark on that sea.
+
+For three days the remaining men waited advices from their pioneers, and
+then followed the guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with his
+sword and buckler, rushing into the water to his middle, and claiming
+possession of that vast sea and all its shores in the name of his king,
+for whom he pledged himself to defend it against all comers.
+
+Such was the discovery of the great South Sea, as Balboa named it, the
+Pacific Ocean, as Magellan soon after called it. The people of the coast
+told the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that lay to the south, and
+whose people had tame animals to carry their burdens. The form of these
+they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing Balboa that they were
+camels, and that the land indicated must be Asia. They really represented
+the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel in form.
+
+After remaining for some time on the coast, gathering all the information
+he could obtain, Balboa led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved
+to return with a stronger force next year and seek that distant land of
+gold. But this exploit was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest
+of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition.
+
+It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers reached their
+starting-point at Santa Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with
+the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to Spain, with an account of
+the remarkable exploit, which was received with an enthusiasm little less
+than had been the news of the discovery of the New World. If Columbus had
+discovered a new land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of a new
+ocean, added to which was the story of a land of gold, for whose conquest
+Balboa asked for a reinforcement of a thousand men.
+
+Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery was destined to still
+greater ill-fortune, as we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached
+Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had been appointed and had set
+sail, with fifteen vessels and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly five
+hundred men under his command, but he at once submitted to the decision of
+his king and accepted Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred new
+men landed in that pestilential climate, in the unhealthy season, paid
+bitterly for their imprudence. A violent disease attacked them; scarcity
+of provisions made it worse; and within a month more than six hundred of
+them had died, while others hastened away from that noxious spot.
+
+At length news came that the king fully appreciated the splendid discovery
+of Balboa; letters of high praise were received, and he was appointed
+_Adelantado_, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias being ordered to
+support him in all his operations. The rivals now became reconciled, their
+union being made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in marriage to
+Balboa.
+
+The adventurer now began active preparations for an exploration of the
+South Sea, materials for ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest
+labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed. There was no
+lack of volunteers for the expedition, and the vessels were launched and
+sailed to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone preventing them
+from going on to the coast of Peru.
+
+Thus there seemed a great career opening before Balboa at the very moment
+when adverse fate was gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had grown
+jealous of his daring exploits and the fame that seemed his coming meed,
+and, cherishing treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced him to
+return to Acla, his new capital.
+
+On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by order of the governor,
+thrown into prison, and put on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king
+and an intention to revolt against his superior. The judge was forced to
+condemn him to death, and the fatal sentence was at once carried into
+effect, the great discoverer being beheaded on the public square of Acla.
+Thus, in blood and treachery, ended the career of one of the ablest of the
+bold adventurers of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+
+
+About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, there
+reigned over the kingdom of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch
+whose history is as interesting and romantic as any that can be found in
+the annals of Europe. His story was preserved by his descendants, and its
+principal events are as follows:
+
+            [Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.]
+
+                    FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+
+
+The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans, stood on the eastern
+borders of the lake on whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital.
+About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked by a kindred race, the
+Tepanecs, who, after a desperate struggle, captured their city, killed
+their monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir to the crown, the
+young Prince Nezahualcoyotl, concealed himself in the foliage of a tree
+when the triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his hiding-place
+saw his father killed before his eyes. This was the opening event in a
+history as full of deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the
+"Young Chevalier of English history."
+
+The young prince did not long remain at liberty. Soon after his flight
+from the city he fell into the hands of his foes, and was brought back and
+thrown into a dungeon.  This led to the first romantic incident in his
+career. The governor of the fortress prison was an old servant of the
+royal family of Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in
+disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid for his loyalty with
+his life, but he willingly gave it in exchange for the liberty of the heir
+to the throne.
+
+The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital. He was, in fact, closely
+related to the Aztec monarch, and through his good offices he was at
+length permitted to reside in that city. Afterwards he was allowed to
+return to Tezcuco, where for eight years he dwelt in privacy, studying
+under the teachers of his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power.
+Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his soul ardent hopes of
+regaining the throne of his ancestors.
+
+A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died and his son, Maxtla,
+succeeded to the throne. The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and
+when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render him homage on his
+accession, Maxtla treated with disdain the little gift of flowers which
+the young prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him in the
+presence of his chieftains. Evidently the palace was no place of safety
+for the Tezcucan prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers, he
+hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a refuge in his native city
+of Tezcuco. Here the tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His
+popular manners had won him many friends, and the ancient subjects of his
+family looked upon him as a coming leader who might win back for them
+their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence of the possession of
+talent and energy, and Maxtla, fearful of his growing popularity, resolved
+to make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly invited him to an
+evening’s entertainment, where he had assassins ready to murder him.
+Fortunately, the tutor of the prince suspected the plot, and contrived to
+replace the youth by a person who strongly resembled him, and who became
+the victim of the fate intended for him.
+
+Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now resolved to kill him
+openly, and sent a party of soldiers to the city, who were instructed to
+enter the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the spot. Again the
+watchfulness of his old teacher saved him. Warned of his danger, and
+advised to flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited the
+assassins.
+
+When they reached the palace in which he resided, they found him playing
+at ball in the court-yard. He received them courteously, showing no
+suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to take some refreshment
+after their journey. While they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly
+into an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and the soldiers able
+to see through both apartments, his movements gave them no concern. It was
+the custom, however, when any one entered the presence of a great lord,
+for the servants to throw aromatics into a burning censer. This the
+prince’s attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as to hide him
+from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus obscured, he entered a secret passage
+which led to a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring water to the
+palace. In this he concealed himself until nightfall, and then made his
+way into the suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one of his
+father’s former vassals.
+
+Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim had twice escaped him,
+grew more determined on his death, and ordered immediate and thorough
+pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take him, dead or alive, with
+the hand of a noble lady and an ample domain. Troops of armed men scoured
+the country in every direction, searching all suspected places, and some
+of them entered the cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there was a
+heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture of cloth, and hid
+beneath this the fugitive escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot
+that he left this place for the wooded hill country between his state and
+the neighboring one of Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and
+caverns.
+
+The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering from place to place,
+exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather, remaining concealed by
+day, and stealing out at night in search of food. His pursuers, eager to
+win the enticing reward, kept up an active search, more than once coming
+dangerously near to his retreat.
+
+Very interesting stories are told of his adventures in this period of
+peril. The high rewards offered did not suffice to wean from him the
+attachment of the people, and more than once he owed his safety to their
+loyalty. Some of them submitted to torture, and even to loss of life,
+rather than betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even many of the
+soldiers were his friends, and once, when hotly pursued, he took refuge
+among a small party of these, who were dancing around a large drum. To
+conceal him from his enemies they placed him in the drum and continued
+their dance around it.
+
+At another time the pursuers were so close to him that he just succeeded
+in turning the crest of a hill when they began to climb it on the other
+side. Here he fortunately found a girl who was reaping _chia_, a plant
+whose seeds were used in making palatable drinks. Telling her who he was
+and of his great danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of the
+plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came up and asked if she had
+seen him, the faithful girl coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a
+path which she said he had taken.
+
+None of the natives showed any inclination to betray him, despite the
+richness of the promised rewards.
+
+"Would you not deliver up the prince if he came in your way?" he asked of
+a peasant who did not recognize him.
+
+"Not I," was the reply.
+
+"What! not for a fair lady’s hand, and a rich domain as dowry?"
+
+The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed in disdain.
+
+But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the prince was in constant
+danger, and his situation, in the rough fastnesses of the hills and
+forests, became very distressing.
+
+"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who kept with him in his
+wanderings and shared his sufferings. "Leave me to my fate. Why should you
+throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily persecutes?"
+
+But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their danger and the fact
+that most of the great nobles of the land had sought safety and reward by
+an adhesion to the usurper.
+
+Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the fugitive. Maxtla had shown
+himself an oppressor, and his ambition and military successes had caused
+much alarm in the surrounding states, where his tyranny was contrasted
+with the mild rule of the former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the
+young prince took advantage of this feeling, and succeeded in forming a
+coalition against his enemy. A day was fixed for a general rising, and on
+the date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at the head of an army
+strong enough to face that of Maxtla and the Tepanecs.
+
+The two armies soon met and victory rested on the banner of the young
+prince, the forces of Maxtla being badly beaten. No longer a hunted
+fugitive, but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in triumph to
+the capital which he had left with a price on his head, his joyful
+subjects crowding to the route of march to render homage to their rightful
+sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla,
+readily allied themselves with the young victor, and a series of bloody
+battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated under the walls of
+his own capital. He was dragged from the baths, to which he had fled for
+concealment, and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs; his royal
+city was razed to the ground, and its site was reserved as the great
+slave-market of the surrounding nations.
+
+Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the throne of his ancestors, where
+he was to prove himself the greatest monarch of whom we have any record in
+the American annals. The story of his reign is far too full of detail for
+the space we can give to it, but is of such interest that we may venture
+on a concise account of it, as an example of the career of the most
+illustrious of the ancient American sovereigns.
+
+The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim a general amnesty. He
+not only pardoned the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts of
+honor and confidence. This was not only politic but just, since their
+offences were mainly due to fear of the usurper. Under the circumstances
+he could safely treat them with magnanimity.
+
+He next remodelled the government of the kingdom, and framed a code of
+laws which seemed so wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs
+and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and of justice were
+established, and also a council of state, whose members acted as the
+immediate advisers of the king, and aided him in the despatch of business.
+But the most remarkable of these new departments was the "council of
+music," which was devoted to the encouragement of science and art, and
+served as a general board of education for the country. Historical
+compositions and poems were recited before it, and altogether it indicated
+a degree of civilization which we would scarcely look for in any part of
+ancient America. Its historians, orators, and poets became celebrated
+throughout the country, the allied monarchs presided over its
+deliberations, and among its chief bards was the king himself, who entered
+into impartial competition with his subjects for the prizes given for the
+best poems. Many of his odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still
+rest in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain.
+
+The far-seeing monarch did not content himself with writing poetry, or
+encouraging historians,—who wrote subject to the penalty that any one who
+wilfully lied should be punished with death,—but he sought to develop all
+the arts. Agriculture was greatly encouraged, the population rapidly
+increased, new towns and cities sprang up, and the borders of the nation
+were extended by successful wars. He made his capital the most stately
+city of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles, whom he
+wished to reside at the court. There were more than four hundred of these
+palatial mansions, but far exceeding them in magnificence was the grand
+palace he built for himself. This covered a space of three thousand seven
+hundred feet in length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A wall
+surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which formed the great
+market-place of the city, and an inner one surrounded by the council
+chambers and halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors from
+other states, and a spacious saloon in which the poets and men of science
+met to study and converse. Here also were kept the public archives.
+
+The royal apartments adjoined this inner court, and rivalled in beauty
+those of Oriental lands. Alabaster or stucco of rich tints covered some of
+the walls, while others were hung with tapestries of the gorgeous Indian
+feather-work. Long arcades and winding pathways bordered with verdure led
+to gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains shadowed by lofty
+trees. Fish of various kinds stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were
+birds of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and animals were reproduced
+in gold and silver with wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner
+apartments dwelt the wives and children of the monarch, who were as
+numerous as those of an Eastern sultan. Such was the famous palace, in
+which were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty yards square. It
+is said that two hundred thousand workmen were employed in building it. In
+this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his youthful days had been
+glad to share with wild animals a shelter in the thickets and caverns of
+the mountains.
+
+Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence to this palatial
+residence. Beautiful villas were built in various picturesque localities
+and adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and comfort. His favorite
+retreat from the cares of office was built on a rounded hill about six
+miles from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached by a stairway of
+five hundred and twenty steps, many of them hewn in the native rock. In
+the summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with water by an aqueduct
+carried on masonry buttresses for several miles over hill and valley. In
+its centre was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics the
+principal events of each year of the king’s reign.
+
+Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with statuary, and yielding
+water to channels that ran through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled
+riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes and pavilions, and
+baths cut in the solid rock, which the natives still show to visitors
+under the title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the base of the hill,
+amid lofty groves of cedar, rose the royal villa, with its light arcades
+and airy halls, affording a delightful relief to the monarch from the
+duties of the court. Relics of this villa and garden still remain to
+attest their former beauty, and indicate that this Indian king lived in a
+magnificence resembling that of the far-famed court of the caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid.
+
+He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian Nights" in another way,
+for it was his custom to wander about the streets, conversing with the
+humblest of his people and learning their condition and needs from their
+own words. Many anecdotes are told of this kind, in which it was his
+delight to reward merit and relieve distress. Some of these may be read
+with interest.
+
+On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering sticks in a field for fuel,
+and asked him why he did not go into the neighboring forest, where he
+would find plenty of them.
+
+"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It’s the king’s wood, and he would
+punish me with death if I took sticks from there."
+
+"What kind of man is your king?"
+
+"He is a very hard man," answered the boy, "for he takes from his people
+what God has given them."
+
+The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco were as severe as those of
+Norman England. The king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws but
+to help himself in the forest, for there was no one who would betray him.
+But the lad sturdily refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor
+who wished to bring him into trouble.
+
+The next day the boy and his parents were sent for to come to the palace.
+They obeyed with wonder and dread, and the boy was filled with terror on
+seeing the king and recognizing him as the man with whom he had talked so
+freely. But the good-natured monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked him
+for the lesson he had given his king, praising his respect for the laws
+and commending his parents for bringing up their son so wisely. He
+dismissed them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave orders that any
+one might gather fallen wood in the forest, if they did not interfere with
+the standing timber.
+
+Another adventure was with a poor woodman and his wife. The man, as he
+stood in the marketplace with his little store, complained bitterly of his
+lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly amid luxuries in the
+palace. The wife bade him be careful, as he might be overheard in his
+complaints. The king, looking down on the market from a latticed window,
+and amusing himself with the chatter of the market people, heard the words
+of the couple, and ordered them to be brought into his presence.
+
+He asked the frightened pair what they had said, and was pleased to find
+that they answered him truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had
+great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he who had a nation to
+govern could not lead an idle life; and told them "to be more cautious in
+future, as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after giving them a
+quantity of cloth and a good supply of cacao,—the coin of the country.
+"Go," he said; "with the little you now have, you will be rich; while,
+with all my riches, I shall still be poor."
+
+Of all the stories told of this famous monarch, there is only one not to
+his credit, and of this we may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable
+resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and Uriah. He fell in love
+with a beautiful maiden, who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom,
+and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take command of a warlike
+expedition against the Tlascalans. Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him
+and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he might lose his life,
+which the king said he had forfeited by a great crime. The old man
+suspected what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment to his
+friends. He was correct in his prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in
+battle, and the royal lover’s path was clear.
+
+The king now secretly offered his hand and heart to the maiden, who was by
+no means inconsolable for the loss of her old lover, and willingly
+accepted. To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he had the maiden
+brought to his villa to witness some ceremony there. Standing on a balcony
+of the palace, the king pretended to be struck with her beauty, and asked,
+"Who is the lovely young woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those
+present soon learned her name and rank, which was that of a princess of
+the royal house of Mexico. She was asked to enter the palace and receive
+the attention due to her station, and the king was not long in publicly
+declaring his love. The marriage soon after took place, in the presence of
+his brother monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great pomp and
+ceremony.
+
+Such was the one blot in the history of this famous monarch. Aside from
+this act of treachery, it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded a
+monarch in the early annals of the nations of Mexico, and one whose
+history is so full of romantic adventure.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+
+
+There is no chapter in all history more crowded with interesting and
+romantic events than the story of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards
+under Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring and wonderful
+success, the most extraordinary is the tale of the _Noche Triste_, the
+terrible night-retreat of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital. No one can
+read this story, and that of the remarkable victory of Otumba which
+followed it, without feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors worthy
+of the most warlike age. This oft-told story we shall here again relate.
+
+In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set out from Cuba on his great
+expedition, with a few hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon,
+muskets, and horses. It may briefly be stated here that he sought to
+conquer a warlike and powerful nation with this insignificant force, less
+than a modern regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico; won, with
+the terror of his horses and guns and the valor of his men, victory in
+every battle; gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made his way
+into their capital; seized and held prisoner their emperor, Montezuma, and
+for a time seemed to be full master of the land. We might go on to tell
+how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked the Spaniards with the
+courage of desperation, mortally wounded their own emperor, and at length
+brought the invaders into such terrible straits that they were forced to
+fight their way out of the city as their last hope of life.
+
+To understand what followed, it must be stated that the city of Mexico
+lay, not in the open country, but on an island in the centre of a large
+lake, and that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow causeways of
+earth across this lake. Each of these causeways was broken at intervals by
+wide ditches, with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had removed these
+bridges, and thus added immensely to the difficulty of the night-march
+which the desperate Spaniards were obliged to make.
+
+It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that Cortez and his men threw
+open the gates of the palace fortress in which they had long defended
+themselves against the furious assaults of thousands of daring foes. The
+night was dark and cloudy, and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy
+was to be seen, and as they made their way with as little noise as
+possible along the great street of Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence,
+Hope rose in their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the rumble of the
+guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard, and they reached the head of the
+causeway without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior.
+
+Here was the first break in the causeway, and they had brought with them a
+bridge to lay across it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who
+fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city with their cries.
+The priests on the summit of the great temple pyramid were also on the
+watch, and when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from below, they
+sounded their shells and beat their huge drum, which was only heard in
+times of peril or calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber, and
+as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a distant sound was heard,
+which rapidly approached. Soon from every street and lane poured enemies,
+flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks of the Spaniards as they
+came. On the lake was heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the
+war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air. A brief interval had
+sufficed to change the silence into a frightful uproar of sound and the
+restful peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle.
+
+The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway, fighting only to drive
+back the assailants who landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon
+the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over them, riding them down; the
+men on foot cut them down with their swords, or hurled them backward with
+the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of the Spaniards attacked them
+fiercely, and the roar of war spread far through the gloom of the night.
+
+Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot; onward creaked and rumbled
+the artillery and the wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was
+reached while the rear files were not yet across the first. The Spaniards
+had made a fatal mistake in bringing with them only one bridge. When the
+last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous effort was made
+to raise it and carry it to the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of
+men, horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the earth and stones
+that it could not be moved. Every nerve was strained to lift the heavy
+mass, until, many of the workmen being killed and all wounded by the
+torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced to abandon it.
+
+When the dread tidings that the bridge could not be raised spread through
+the crowded host, a cry of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of
+conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before them lay a deep and
+yawning ditch. Behind them pressed an army of assailants. On each side
+hundreds of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding foes who rushed in
+fury upon their crowded ranks. All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at
+an end. Every one thought only of saving his own life, without regard to
+the weak or wounded. The leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf,
+were pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in front dashed into the
+water and swam across, but some of the horses failed to climb the steep
+and slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad riders headlong
+into the lake.
+
+After them pell mell came the infantry, some seeking to swim, others
+forced into the water to sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the
+arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded or stunned, dragged
+into the canoes and carried away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god
+of the pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway, from ditch to
+ditch, the contest raged fearfully. The Aztecs, satisfied that they had
+now got their detested foes in their power, fought like demons, grappling
+with the Christians and rolling with them down the sloping way together;
+seeking to take their enemies alive that they might be kept for the bloody
+sacrifice.
+
+With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the cries of vengeance and
+groans of agony, the prayers to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled
+the screams of women, of whom there were several, both Spaniard and
+Indian, in the Christian ranks. One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as
+valiantly as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword and
+target in the thickest of the fray, and proving herself as valiant a
+soldier as the best.
+
+During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at rest. He was everywhere,
+ordering, fighting, inspiring, seeking to restore the lost discipline to
+his ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal ditch could be
+crossed, and feeling that life must be considered before wealth, he
+hurried forward everything, heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans,
+and hurled them into the water along with the spoil of the Spaniards,
+bales of costly goods, chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve
+to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled bodies of men and horses,
+drowned in that deadly ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across
+which the survivors stumbled and clambered until they reached the other
+side.
+
+Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch that was fordable, and
+here, with the water up to his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out
+of confusion, and called his followers to this path to safety. But his
+voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a few cavaliers who kept with him,
+he pressed forward to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite
+page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his side.
+
+Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval, who, with about twenty
+other cavaliers, had led the van, composed of two hundred Spanish
+foot-soldiers. They were halted before the third and final breach in the
+causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those which had been passed.
+Fortunately it was not so closely beset by the enemy, who were still
+engaged with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers plunged
+without hesitation into the water, followed by the foot, some swimming,
+some clinging desperately to the manes and tails of the horses, some
+carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal gold with which they were
+heavily laden. On leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended
+themselves, much of the gold which they had gathered was necessarily
+abandoned. Cortez told the soldiers to take what they wished of it, but
+warned them not to overload themselves, saying, "He travels safest in the
+dark night who travels lightest." Many of those who failed to regard this
+wise counsel paid for their cupidity with their death.
+
+Those who safely passed this final ditch were at the end of their
+immediate peril. Soon they were off the causeway and on solid ground,
+where the roar of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But word
+came to them that the rear-guard was in imminent danger and would be
+overwhelmed unless relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return,
+but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not hesitate when this cry
+for aid was heard. Turning their horses, they galloped back, pushed
+through the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the thick of the
+fight on the opposite section of the causeway.
+
+The night was now passing, and the first gray light of day was visible in
+the east. By its dim illumination the frightful combat could be seen in
+all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead bodies of Christian or
+pagan; the dark masses of the warriors could be seen locked in deadly
+struggle crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the lake, far and
+near, was crowded with canoes, filled with armed and ardent Aztec
+warriors, yelling their triumphant war-cry.
+
+Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who led the rear, unhorsed and
+wounded, yet fighting like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him
+safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under him. With a handful of
+followers he was desperately striving to repel the overwhelming tide of
+the enemy which was pouring on him along the causeway, a dozen of the
+Indians falling for every Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work
+in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the assault had carried
+the Aztecs up to and over the guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict
+remained. The charge of the returning cavaliers created a temporary check,
+and a feeble rally was made, but the flood of foes soon came on again and
+drove them resistlessly back.
+
+Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to plunge once more into the
+canal, not all of them this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink for
+a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind him and deadly peril before.
+He was a man of great strength and agility, and despair now gave him
+courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the wreck that strewed the
+bottom, he sprang vigorously forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound,
+a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement, the natives exclaiming,
+as they beheld the seemingly impossible leap, "This is truly the
+_Tonatiuh_,—the child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado from
+his fair features and flaxen hair. How great the leap was no one has told
+us, though the name of "Alvarado’s leap" still clings to the spot.
+
+Thus ended the frightful _noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez led
+the remnant of his men off the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling
+few, faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately, the Aztecs,
+attracted by the rich spoil that strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it
+is doubtful if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and wounded state,
+would have survived. How many perished in that night of dread no one
+knows. A probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards and four
+thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard having fallen. Of forty-six
+horses, half had been slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the
+muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone. The only arms left the
+warriors were their swords and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail
+was broken, their garments were tattered, their proud crests and banners
+gone, their bright arms soiled, and only a miserable and shattered
+fragment of their proud force was left, these dragging themselves along
+with pain and difficulty.
+
+               [Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.]
+
+                       AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+
+
+Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their allies, the
+Tlascalans,—inveterate enemies of the Aztecs,—slowly moved away from that
+blood-stained avenue of death, now little molested by their foes, and
+gradually recovering from their fatigue. On the seventh morning they
+reached the mountain height which overlooks the plain of Otumba, a point
+less than thirty miles from the capital. This plain they were obliged to
+traverse on their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat.
+
+As they looked down on the broad level below them they saw with shrinking
+hearts why they had not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the
+whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards glistening in the
+sun, their numbers so great that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards
+viewed them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful as he was, felt
+that his last hour had now surely come.
+
+But this stout leader was not the man to give way to despair. There was
+nothing to do but to cut their way through this vast array or perish in
+the attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure destruction.
+Fortunately, they had rested for two nights and a day, and men and horses
+had regained much of their old strength. Without hesitation, Cortez
+prepared for the onset, giving his force as broad a front as possible, and
+guarding its flanks with his little body of horse, now twenty in all.
+Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which he told them of the
+victories they had won, and with orders to his men to thrust, not strike,
+with their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to lose their lances,
+and to strike at the faces of the foe, he gave the word to advance.
+
+At first the natives recoiled from the stern and fierce onset, rolling
+back till they left a wide lane for the passage of their foes. But they
+quickly rallied and poured on the little band in their midst, until it
+seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible fray followed, the
+Christians, as one writer says, standing "like an islet against which the
+breakers, roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain." The struggle was
+one of man to man, the Tlascalans and Spaniards alike fighting with
+obstinate courage, while the little band of horsemen charged deep into the
+enemy’s ranks, riding over them and cutting them down with thrust and
+blow, their onset giving fresh spirit to the infantry.
+
+But that so small a force could cut their way through that enormous
+multitude of armed and valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes
+lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and some of the Spaniards
+were slain, and not a man among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received a
+cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly that he was forced to
+dismount and exchange it for a strong animal from the baggage-train. The
+fight went on thus for several hours, the sun growing hotter as it rose in
+the sky, and the Christians, weak from their late wounds, gradually losing
+strength and spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers, forcing
+the horse back on the foot, and throwing the latter into some disorder.
+With every minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it seemed as if
+nothing were left but to sell their lives as dearly as possible.
+
+At this critical juncture a happy chance changed the whole fortune of the
+day. Cortez, gazing with eagle eye around the field in search of some
+vision of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great distance in the
+midst of the throng a splendidly dressed chief, who was borne in a rich
+litter and surrounded by a gayly attired body of young warriors. A
+head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and gems, rose above him, and
+over this again was a short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of
+the Aztecs.
+
+The instant Cortez beheld this person and his emblem his eye lighted with
+triumph. He knew him for the commander of the foe, and the golden net as
+its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers beside him, he pointed
+eagerly to the chief, exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!" Then,
+shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into the thick of the foe.
+Sandoval, Alvarado, and others spurred furiously after him, while the
+enemy fell back before this sudden and fierce assault.
+
+On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid ranks, strewing their
+path with the dead and dying, bearing down all who opposed them. A few
+minutes of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot on which
+were the Aztec chief and his body-guard. Thrusting and cutting with
+tiger-like strength and ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of
+young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian commander, piercing
+him with his lance and hurling him to the ground. A young cavalier beside
+him, Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and despatched the fallen
+chief. Then he tore away the banner and handed it to Cortez.
+
+All this was the work almost of a moment. Its effect was remarkable. The
+guard, overwhelmed by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was quickly
+communicated to their comrades. The tidings spread rapidly. The banner of
+the chief had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness of panic
+suddenly infected the whole host, which broke and fled in wild terror and
+confusion. The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in taking advantage
+of this new aspect of affairs. Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they
+dashed in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them down by hundreds
+as they fled. Not until they had amply repaid their losses on the bloody
+causeway did they return to gather up the booty which strewed the field.
+It was great, for, in accordance with Cortez’s instructions, they had
+struck especially at the chiefs, and many of these were richly ornamented
+with gold and jewels.
+
+Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the most remarkable victory, in
+view of the great disparity of forces, ever won in the New World. Chance
+gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a chance made useful only by the
+genius of a great commander. The following day the fugitive army reached
+the soil of Tlascala and were safe among their friends. History has not a
+more heroic story to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec
+capital, nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent return and
+conquest.
+
+
+
+
+
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA’S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+
+
+The great expedition to the land of gold, which Vasco Nuñez de Balboa had
+planned to make, was left by his death to be carried out by one of his
+companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the renowned Francisco
+Pizarro. It was an expedition full of romantic adventure, replete with
+peril and suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring deeds. But we
+must pass over all the earlier of these and come at once to the climax of
+the whole striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the Inca of
+Peru in the midst of his army and the tale of his incredible ransom.
+
+Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro, from the time when, with
+one small vessel and about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed from
+Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great unknown Pacific, to the time
+when, in 1531, he sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and about
+thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru, which he designed to
+conquer as Cortez had conquered Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was
+this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military merits of courage,
+enterprise, daring and persistency, and these qualities carried him
+through sufferings and adversities that would have discouraged almost any
+man and brought him to magical success in the end. It was the beacon of
+gold that lured him on through desperate enterprises and deadly perils and
+led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish adventurers.
+
+Landing and capturing a point on the coast of Peru, he marched with his
+handful of bold followers, his horses and guns, eastward into the empire,
+crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the Andes, and reached the
+city of Caxamalca. Close by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped
+with an army, for a civil war between him and his brother Huascar had just
+ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the latter.
+
+Desperate was the situation of the small body of Spanish soldiers, when,
+in the late afternoon of the 15th of November, 1532, they marched into
+Caxamalca, which they found empty of inhabitants. About one hundred more
+men, with arms and horses, had joined them, but in a military sense they
+were but a handful still, and they had every reason to dread the
+consequences of their rash enterprise.
+
+All seemed threatening,—the desertion of the city by its people, the
+presence of the Inca, with a powerful army, within a league’s distance,
+the probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the Spaniards had to
+rely on were their arms,—cannon, muskets and swords of steel,—new and
+terrible weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose evolutions had
+elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian with dismay. Yet what were these
+in the hands of less than three hundred men, in the presence of a strong
+and victorious army? Filled with anxiety, Pizarro at once despatched a
+body of horsemen, led by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier
+Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp.
+
+Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers as this strange
+cavalcade, with clang of arms and blast of trumpet, swept by, man and
+horse seeming like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes. De Soto, the
+best mounted of them all, showed his command of his steed in the Inca’s
+presence, by riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful curves,
+and displaying all the vigor and beauty of skilled horsemanship, finally
+checking the noble animal in full career when so near the Inca that some
+of the foam from its lips was thrown on the royal garments. Yet, while
+many of those near drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an
+unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every show of dread, if any such
+inspired him.
+
+To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the Spaniards had brought,
+"Tell your captain that I am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow
+morning. I will then visit him with my chieftains. Meanwhile, let him
+occupy the public buildings on the square, and no other."
+
+Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards, but these they declined, as
+they did not wish to dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the
+sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of great size brought by
+beautiful maidens. Then they rode slowly back, despondent at what they had
+seen,—the haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength and discipline of
+his army.
+
+That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout the camp, which were
+increased as its occupants saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army,
+glittering on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars in
+heaven." Scarcely a man among them except Pizarro retained his courage;
+but he went round among his men, bidding them to keep up their spirits,
+and saying that Providence would not desert them if they trusted to their
+strength and their cause, as Christians against pagans. They were in
+Heaven’s service and God would aid them.
+
+He then called a council of his officers and unfolded to them a desperate
+plan he had conceived. This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the
+Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding him as a hostage for
+the safety of the Christians. Nothing less decisive than this would avail
+them, he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first sign of such a
+movement the army of the Inca would be upon them, and they would all be
+destroyed, either there or in the intricacies of the mountain-passes. Nor
+could they remain inactive where they were. The Inca was crafty and
+hostile, and would soon surround them with a net-work of peril, from which
+they could not escape. To fight him in the open field was hazardous, if
+not hopeless. The only thing to do was to take him by surprise on his
+visit the next day, drive back his followers with death and terror, seize
+the monarch, and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their hands his
+followers would not dare attack them, and they would be practically
+masters of the empire.
+
+No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that which Cortez had pursued in
+Mexico. He would take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by his own
+people, as Montezuma had been, and while the monarch remained alive they
+would have the strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan suited the
+daring character of Pizarro’s officers. They agreed with him that in
+boldness lay their only hope of success or even of life, and they left the
+council with renewed confidence to prepare for the desperate enterprise.
+
+It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared, his litter borne on the
+shoulders of his chief nobles and surrounded by others, so glittering with
+ornaments that, to quote from one of the Spaniards, "they blazed like the
+sun." A large number of workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish
+from the road. Behind, and through the fields that lined the road, marched
+a great body of armed men. But when within half a mile of the city the
+procession halted, and a messenger was sent to the Spaniards to say that
+the Inca would encamp there for that night and enter the city the
+following morning.
+
+These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His men had been under arms
+since daybreak, the cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen at
+their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits of a long and trying
+suspense in such a critical situation, and sent word back to the Inca
+begging him to come on, as he had everything ready for his entertainment
+and expected to sup with him that night. This message turned the monarch
+from his purpose, and he resumed his march, though the bulk of his army
+was left behind, only a group of unarmed men accompanying him. He
+evidently had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little did he know
+them.
+
+It was near the hour of sunset when the procession reached the city,
+several thousand Indians marching into the great square, borne high above
+whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a kind of throne made of
+massive gold, while a collar of emeralds of great size and beauty
+encircled his neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He looked around
+him with surprise, as there was not a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in
+tones of annoyance, "Where are the strangers?"
+
+At this moment Pizarro’ s chaplain, a Dominican friar, came forward, with
+Bible and crucifix in hand, and began to expound to him the Christian
+doctrines, ending by asking him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the
+king of Spain. The Inca, when by aid of the interpreter he had gained a
+glimpse of the priest’s meaning, answered him with high indignation, and
+when the friar handed him the Bible as the authority for his words, he
+flung it angrily to the earth, exclaiming,—
+
+"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an account of their doings in
+my land. I will not go from here till they have made me full satisfaction
+for all the wrongs they have committed."
+
+Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened to Pizarro, told him what
+had been said, and cried out,—
+
+"Do you not see that while we stand here wasting our breath in talking
+with this dog, full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with
+Indians? Set on, at once; I absolve you."
+
+Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal agreed upon. A gun was
+fired from the fortress. Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and
+at them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into the square. From every
+avenue of the great building they occupied poured armed men, horse and
+foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians. Taken utterly by
+surprise, the latter were hurled back in confusion. Their ranks rent by
+the balls from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled under foot
+by the fierce charges of the cavalry, pierced by lances or cut down by
+swords, they were driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as they
+wildly sought to escape.
+
+The massacre went on with especial intensity around the Inca, his nobles,
+none of them armed, struggling with what strength they could in his
+defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at the Inca!" shouted
+Pizarro, fearing his valued prize might be slain in the wild tumult.
+Fiercer still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter swayed back
+and forth, and, as some of its bearers were slain, it was overturned, the
+monarch being saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some others,
+who caught him in their arms. With all haste they bore him into the
+fortress and put him under close guard.
+
+With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at an end. The unarmed
+Peruvians fled in terror from the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the
+fields were seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and dispersed in
+all directions, pursued by the Spanish cavalry, who cut them down without
+mercy. Not till night had fallen did Pizarro’s men cease the pursuit and
+return at the call of the trumpet to the bloody square of Caxamalca. In
+that frightful massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps many
+more, were slain, the most of them unarmed and helpless. That night
+Pizarro kept his word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it was a
+supper at which he might well have drunk blood. The banquet was served in
+one of the halls facing the great square, then thickly paved with the
+dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity, sitting beside his captor at
+the dread meal.
+
+Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular scene in that strange
+drama, one which proved that the Spaniards had truly at length reached the
+"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner before he discovered the
+besetting passion of the Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was
+sent to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a rich booty in gold
+and silver, whose weight and value filled the conquerors with delight.
+
+Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping from his captivity, the
+Inca one day said to Pizarro that if he would agree to set him free, he
+would cover the floor of the room in which they stood with gold. Pizarro
+listened with a smile of doubt. As he made no answer, the Inca said,
+earnestly, that "he would not merely cover the floor, but would fill the
+room with gold as high as he could reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he
+put his uplifted hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer filled
+Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such a thing could be done seemed
+utterly incredible, despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru.
+The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent offer, hastened to
+accept it, drawing a red line along the wall at the height the Inca had
+touched. How remarkable the ransom was may be judged from the fact that
+the room was about seventeen feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the
+mark on the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca offered to
+fill an adjoining but smaller room twice full with silver, and to do all
+this in the short time of two months. It would seem that he would need
+Aladdin’s wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and surprising a task.
+
+As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the Inca sent messengers to
+Cuzco, his capital city, and to the other principal places in his kingdom,
+with orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils from his palaces
+and from the temples and other public buildings, and transport them in all
+haste to Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the monarch was
+treated with the fullest respect due to his rank, having his own private
+apartments and the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted
+to visit him freely. The only thing the Spaniards took good care of was
+that he should be kept under close guard.
+
+He took one advantage of his measure of liberty. His brother and rival,
+Huascar, though a captive, might escape and seize the control of the
+state, and he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message to
+Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a much larger ransom than that
+promised by Atahualpa. The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to remove this
+danger from his path, if we may accept the evidence of his captors. At any
+rate the royal captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his dying
+breath that his rival would not long survive him, but that the white men
+would avenge his murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of great
+sorrow and indignation, of his brother’s death, and when the Spaniard
+threatened to hold him responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had
+been done without his knowledge or consent by Huascar’s keepers, who
+feared that their captive might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon
+afterward learned that the news was true. It may be that he was well
+satisfied with the fact, as it removed a leading claimant for the throne
+from his path.
+
+Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in—slowly, for the distances were
+great, and the treasure had to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of
+it consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate, some of them
+weighing from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The Spaniards beheld with
+gleaming eyes the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the shoulders
+of Indian porters, and carefully stored away under guard. On some days
+articles to the value of half a million dollars are said to have been
+brought in.
+
+Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus brought before them did not
+satisfy the avaricious impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance
+for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect the Inca of delaying the
+ransom until he could prepare a rising of his subjects against the
+strangers. When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was filled with
+surprise and indignation. "Not a man of my subjects would dare raise a
+finger without my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at your
+disposal? What better security would you have of my good faith?" He ended
+by advising him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where they could see
+for themselves how his orders were being obeyed. He would give them a
+safe-conduct, and they could superintend the work themselves.
+
+The three envoys sent were carried the whole distance of more than six
+hundred miles in litters by relays of carriers, their route laying along
+the great military road of Peru and through many populous towns. Cuzco
+they found to be a large and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun
+was covered with plates of gold, which, by the Inca’s orders, were being
+torn off. There were seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice
+of pure gold ran round the building. But this was so deeply set in the
+stone that it could not be removed. On their return, these messengers
+brought with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides great quantities
+of silver.
+
+Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca, far surpassing any paid by
+any other captive in the world’s history, was gathered in. The gold
+received came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought into goblets,
+ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms for ornament or use, utensils for
+temple or palace, tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices,
+and curious imitations of plants and animals. The most beautiful and
+artistic of these was the representation of Indian corn, the ear of gold
+being sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich tassels were made
+of the same precious metal. Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a
+sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the same metal playing in
+the waters at its base. Some of these objects were so beautifully wrought
+as to compare favorably with the work of skilled European artists.
+
+The treasure gathered was measured in the room in its original form, this
+being the compact, but even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum
+equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of dollars, with a large
+value in silver in addition. All this was melted down into ingots and
+divided among the conquerors, with the exception of the royal fifth,
+reserved for the King of Spain. The latter included many of the most
+curious works of art. The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less
+than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers received what was
+wealth to them.
+
+The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the Inca? Was he given his
+liberty, in accordance with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such men
+as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they have injured and have reason
+to fear. The total ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought in,
+but the impatient Spaniards had divided the spoil without waiting for the
+whole, and the Inca demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief
+friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his demand, but could get from
+him no direct reply. His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over some
+dark project.
+
+Soon rumors became current among the soldiers of a design of revolt
+entertained by the natives. These spread and grew until an immense army
+was conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the instigator of the
+supposed rising, and was charged with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had
+little effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence, while many
+of the soldiers began to demand the life of the Inca. To those demands
+Pizarro did not turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own
+instigation.
+
+  [Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT
+                                 CALLAO.]
+
+     DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+
+
+Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a strong friend of the captive,
+was absent. De Soto, another of his friends, was sent at the head of an
+expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles away, where it was said
+the natives were in arms. Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to
+yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to bring Atahualpa to trial
+on the charges against him.
+
+A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain Almagro as the
+judges, an attorney-general being appointed for the crown and counsel for
+the prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca were chiefly of a kind
+with which the Spaniards had nothing to do, among them the assassination
+of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were simply to bolster up the
+only real charge, that of exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards.
+The whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and was hurried through
+without waiting for the return of De Soto, who could have given useful
+evidence about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged guilty, and
+sentenced to be burnt alive that very night in the great square of
+Caxamalca!
+
+It was a sentence that might well have been expected as the termination of
+such a trial by such men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his
+captive at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the country, and the cruel
+sentence, which was common enough at that day, was carried out except in
+one particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the stake, with the fagots
+of his funeral pile heaped around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made
+a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized, promising him a
+less painful death if he would consent. The Inca, shrinking from the
+horror of the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under the name of
+Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put to death in the Spanish manner, by the
+_garrote_, or strangulation.
+
+Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of Pizarro’s treachery. Great was
+the indignation of De Soto, on his return a day or two later from an
+expedition in which he had found no rebels, at what had been done. Pizarro
+tried to exculpate himself and blame others for deceiving him, but these
+told him to his face that he alone was responsible for the deed. In all
+probability they told the truth.
+
+
+
+
+
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+
+
+We have now to relate the most remarkable adventure in the story of the
+conquest of Peru, and one of the most remarkable in the history of the New
+World,—the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro to the upper waters of the Amazon
+and the pioneer voyage down that mighty river.
+
+Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers in his great work of
+conquest, three of them—Hernando, Juan, and Gonzalo—accompanying him to
+Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising, and able men. In 1540,
+eight years after the conquest, Gonzalo was appointed by his brother
+governor of the territory of Quito, in the north of the empire, with
+instructions to explore the unknown country lying to the east, where the
+cinnamon tree was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking his
+province, and made haste in starting on his journey of exploration to the
+fabled land of spices.
+
+It was early in the year that he set out on this famous expedition, with a
+force of three hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one
+hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted. They were all thoroughly
+equipped and took with them a large supply of provisions and a great drove
+of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers say. Yet with all this
+food they were to suffer from the extremes of famine.
+
+We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary journey. At
+first it was easy enough. But when they left the land of the Incas and
+began to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found themselves
+involved in intricate and difficult passes, swept by chilling winds. In
+this cold wilderness many of the natives found an icy grave, and during
+their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains, the earth in one
+place being rent asunder. Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the
+cavity, into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred houses was
+precipitated.
+
+After the heights were passed and they descended to the lower levels,
+tropical heats succeeded the biting cold, and fierce storms of rain,
+accompanied by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost
+ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day. It was the rainy
+season of the tropics, and for more than six weeks the deluge continued,
+while the forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag themselves
+over the yielding and saturated soil.
+
+For several months this toilsome journey continued, many a mountain stream
+and dismal morass needing to be crossed. At length they reached the Land
+of Cinnamon, the _Canelas_ of the Spaniards, where were forests of the
+trees supposed by them to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the
+actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have been useless to them in
+that remote and mountain-walled wilderness. Here their journey, as
+originally laid out, should have ended, but they were lured on by the
+statements of the wild tribes they met, they being told of a rich and
+populous land at ten days’ journey in advance, in which gold could be
+found in abundance.
+
+Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and they went eagerly onward, over
+a country of broad savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests, where
+grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large that the extended arms of
+sixteen men could barely reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and
+creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree to tree, beautiful to
+look at but very difficult to pass. The axe was necessary at every step of
+the way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant rains, were torn
+into rags by the bushes and brambles of the woodland. Their provisions had
+been long since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of swine had
+vanished, such of the animals as were not consumed having strayed into the
+woods and hills. They had brought with them nearly a thousand dogs, many
+of them of the ferocious bloodhound breed, and these they were now glad
+enough to kill and eat. When these were gone no food was to be had but
+such herbs and edible roots and small animals as the forest afforded.
+
+At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on the banks of a broad
+river, the Napo, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from
+the northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of that mighty stream.
+Gladdened by the sight, they followed its banks downward, hoping in this
+way to find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way, through which
+it needed all their strength to open a passage, and after going a
+considerable distance a loud and increasing noise met their ears. For
+miles they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and at length
+they reached a place where the stream rushed furiously down steep rapids,
+and at the end poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent
+cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth.
+
+This was the height of the fall as measured by the eyes of the wanderers,
+a guide not much to be relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it
+was at this point not more than twenty feet wide, and the hungry wanderers
+determined to cross it, with the hope of finding beyond it a country
+yielding more food. A bridge was constructed by felling great trees across
+the chasm, the water here running through vertical walls several hundred
+feet in depth. Over this rude bridge men and horses made their way, only
+one Spaniard being lost by tumbling down the giddy depth.
+
+The country beyond the stream proved no better than that they had left,
+and the only signs of inhabitants they met were savage and hostile tribes
+of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady skirmish. Some of the more
+friendly told them that the fruitful land they sought was but a few days’
+journey down the river, and they went wearily on, day by day, as the
+promised land still fled before their feet. Doubtless they were led by
+their own desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians.
+
+In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a vessel large enough to
+carry the baggage and the men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant.
+The shoes of horses that had died or had been killed for food were wrought
+into nails. Pitch was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of oakum
+the tattered garments of the soldiers were used. It took two months to
+complete the difficult task, at the end of which time a rude but strong
+brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an Indian canoe that
+ever floated on the mighty waters of Brazil. It was large enough to carry
+half the Spaniards that remained alive after their months of terrible
+travel.
+
+Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco de Orellana, a man in
+whose courage and fidelity he put full trust. The company now resumed its
+march more hopefully, following the course of the Napo for weeks that
+lengthened into months, the brigantine keeping beside them and
+transporting the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country was reached.
+In this journey the last scraps of provisions were consumed, including
+their few remaining horses, and they were so pressed by hunger as to eat
+the leather of their saddles and belts. Little food was yielded by the
+forest, and such toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found were
+greedily devoured.
+
+Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by a populous nation, was
+told by the wandering Indians, but it was always several days ahead.
+Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was and feed on the scanty
+forest spoil, while Orellana went down the stream in his brigantine to
+where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into a greater river. Here the
+nation they sought was to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a
+supply of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved company.
+Taking fifty of the adventurers in the vessel, he pushed off into the
+swift channel of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage which
+quickly took him and his comrades out of sight.
+
+Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return of the voyagers appeared.
+In vain the waiting men strained their eyes down the stream and sent out
+detachments to look for the vessel farther down. Finally, deeming it
+useless to wait longer, they resumed their journey down the river,
+spending two months in advancing five or six hundred miles—those of them
+who did not die by the way. At length they reached the point they sought,
+where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream, that mighty river since
+known as the Amazon, which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through
+the vast Brazilian forest.
+
+Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and the rich and populous
+country promised them. They were still in a dense forest region, as
+unpromising as that they had left. As for Orellana and his companions, it
+was naturally supposed that they had perished by famine or by the hands of
+the ferocious natives. But they learned differently at length, when a
+half-starved and half-naked white man emerged from the forest, whom they
+recognized as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana’s companions.
+
+The tale he told them was the following: The brigantine had shot so
+swiftly down the Napo as to reach in three days the point it had taken
+them two months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies with which to
+return, Orellana could obtain barely enough food for himself and his men.
+To attempt to ascend against the swift current of the river was
+impossible. To go back by land was a formidable task, and one that would
+add nothing to the comfort of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana
+came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon, visiting the
+populous nations which he was told dwelt on its banks, descending to its
+mouth, and sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory of a
+famous adventure and noble discovery.
+
+He found his reckless companions quite ready to accept his perilous
+scheme, with little heed of the fate of the comrades left behind them in
+the wilderness. De Vargas was the only one who earnestly opposed the
+desertion as inhuman and dishonorable, and Orellana punished him by
+abandoning him in the wilderness and sailing away without him.
+
+The story of Orellana’s adventure is not the least interesting part of the
+expedition we have set out to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we
+must deal with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and unknown river,
+in a rudely built barque, it is a marvel that the voyagers escaped
+shipwreck in the descent of that vast stream, the navigation being too
+difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine, who descended it in
+1743, to be undertaken without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring
+Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their vessel narrowly escaped
+being dashed to pieces on the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still
+greater was the danger of the voyagers from the warlike forest tribes, who
+followed them for miles in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they
+landed in search of food.
+
+At length the extraordinary voyage was safely completed, and the
+brigantine, built on the Napo, several thousand miles in the interior,
+emerged on the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island of Cubagna,
+from which he made his way, with his companions, to Spain. He had a
+wonderful story to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks of
+the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in its vicinity, and other
+romances, gathered from the uncertain stories of the savages.
+
+He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and credulity, in gaining
+belief, and was sent out at the head of five hundred followers to conquer
+and colonize the realms he had seen. But he died on the outward voyage,
+and Spain got no profit from his discovery, the lands of the Amazon
+falling within the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal.
+
+Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest feats in the annals of
+travel and discovery, though his glory was won at the cost of the crime of
+deserting his companions in the depths of the untrodden wilderness. It was
+with horror and indignation that the deserted soldiers listened to the
+story of Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only apparent
+means of escape from that terrible situation. An effort was made to
+continue their journey along the banks of the Amazon, but after some days
+of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless task, and despair
+settled down upon their souls.
+
+Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able leader. He told his despairing
+followers that it was useless to advance farther, and that they could not
+stay where they were, their only hope lying in a return to Quito. This was
+more than a thousand miles away, and over a year had passed since they
+left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their only hope.
+
+Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits, speaking of the
+constancy they had shown, and bidding them to show themselves worthy of
+the name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when they should reach their
+native land. He would lead them back by another route, and somewhere on it
+they would surely reach that fruitful land of which so much had been told
+them. At any rate, every step would take them nearer home, and nothing
+else was left them to do.
+
+The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope. He had proved himself so
+far a true companion, sharing all their perils and privations, taking his
+lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick and cheering up the
+despondent. In this way he had won their fullest confidence and devotion,
+and in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his unselfish conduct.
+
+The journey back was more direct and less difficult than that they had
+already taken. Yet though this route proved an easier one, their distress
+was greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond such scanty fare as
+they could pick up in the forest or obtain by force or otherwise from the
+Indians. Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged to be left
+behind, and many a poor wretch was deserted to die alone in the
+wilderness, if not devoured by the wild beasts that roamed through it.
+
+The homeward march, like the outward one, took more than a year, and it
+was in June, 1542, that the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito.
+They were a very different looking party from the well-equipped and
+hope-inspired troop of cavaliers and men-at-arms who had left that upland
+city nearly two and a half years before. Their horses were gone, their
+bright arms were rusted and broken, their clothing was replaced by the
+skins of wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down their
+shoulders, their faces were blackened by the tropical sun, their bodies
+were wasted and scarred. A gallant troop they had set out; a body of
+meagre phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand Indians taken, less
+than half had survived. Of the Spaniards only eighty came back, and these
+so worn and broken that many of them never fully recovered from their
+sufferings. Thus in suffering and woe ended the famous expedition to the
+Land of Cinnamon.
+
+
+
+
+
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+
+
+The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in Mexico and Peru went far
+to convince the Spaniards that in America they had found a veritable land
+of magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in gold and gems. Ponce
+de Leon sought in Florida for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de
+Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted to find a second Peru in
+the north, and became the discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other
+adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of empire and treasure.
+Some went south to the conquest of Central America, others north to
+California and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat of the fancied
+Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for which it is here proposed to
+describe.
+
+In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed governor of New
+Galicia, as the country lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a
+certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with Pizarro in Peru, on a
+journey of exploration to the north. With him were some Indian guides and
+a negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been one of the survivors of
+the Narvaez expedition to Florida and had travelled for years among the
+Indians of the north. He was expected to be of great assistance. As the
+worthy friar went on he was told of rich regions beyond, where the people
+wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the negro in advance to
+investigate and report. Stephen was to send back by the Indians a cross,
+the size of which would indicate the importance of what he had learned.
+Within four days messengers returned with a great cross the height of a
+man, significant of great and important discoveries.
+
+One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days’ journey from the point
+they had reached was a populous country called Cibola, in which were seven
+great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized nation that dwelt in
+large houses well built of stone and lime, some of them several stories in
+height. The entrances to the principal houses were richly wrought with
+turquoise, which was there in great abundance. Farther on they had been
+told were other provinces, each of them much greater than that of the
+seven cities.
+
+Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out on the track of his
+pioneer, eager to reach the land of wonders and riches of which he had
+been told. Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second Mexico or
+Peru. The land through which lay his route was strange and picturesque.
+Here were fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by mountains;
+there were narrow cañons through which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls
+hundreds of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets and towers.
+
+As he went on he heard more of the seven cities and the distant kingdoms,
+and of the abundance of turquoises with which the natives adorned their
+persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen of Stephen, though
+shelter and provisions were found which he had left at points along the
+route. As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never to set eyes on him
+again.
+
+At length the good monk reached a fertile region, irrigated like a garden,
+where the men wore three or four strings of turquoises around their necks;
+and the women wore them in their ears and noses. But Cibola lay still
+beyond, the tales of the natives magnifying its houses till some of them
+were ten stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in place of
+stairways. Reaching at length the Gila River, a stream flowing through
+deep and rugged valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was crossing the
+wilderness to the northeast, escorted like a prince by some three hundred
+natives. Fifteen days journey still lay between Fray Marcos and Cibola,
+and he went on into the wilderness, escorted, like his pioneer, by a large
+train of natives, who volunteered their services.
+
+For twelve days the journey continued through a rough mountain region,
+abundantly supplied with game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and
+partridges, which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But now there came
+back startling news, for one of the negro’s guides appeared, pallid with
+fright, telling how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had been seized,
+plundered, and imprisoned. Farther on two more Indians were met, covered
+with blood and wounds, who said that they had escaped from the slaughter
+of all their comrades by the warlike people of Cibola.
+
+The bold monk had now much trouble in getting his frightened followers to
+go on with him, but by means of abundant presents he induced two of the
+chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at least a sight of the land
+of wonders, and with the chiefs and his own followers he cautiously
+proceeded. At length, from a hill summit, he looked down on a broad plain
+on which he saw the first of the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy
+it was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of stone in many
+stories and with flat roofs. This was all he could tell from his distant
+view, in which the mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his power
+of vision.
+
+That was the end of Fray Marcos’s journey. He did not dare to approach
+nearer to that terrible people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with
+more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort, which, moved by still
+greater fear, had not waited for him. Back to Coronado he went with his
+story, a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of either gold,
+silver, or precious stones, the nearest approach to treasure being the
+greenish turquoise.
+
+The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards learned, was one that might
+have fitted the Orient. He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and
+feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he carried a gourd
+decorated with bells and with white and red feathers. This he knew to be a
+symbol of authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds followed
+him, and a number of handsome Indian women, whom he had taken up on the
+way, attended him. He was followed with a large escort of Indians,
+carrying his provisions and other effects, among them gifts received, or
+plunder taken, from the natives.
+
+When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the orders given him, sent
+messengers to the city bearing his gourd, and saying that he came to treat
+for peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the gourd was presented,
+on observing the bells, cast it angrily to the ground, exclaiming,—
+
+"I know not those people; their bells are not of our fashion; tell them to
+return at once, or not a man of them will be left alive."
+
+In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious negro went on. He
+and his company were not permitted to enter the city, but were given a
+house outside of it, and here they were stripped of all their possessions
+and refused food and drink. The next morning they left the house, where
+they were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great number of the
+townspeople, all of them being killed except the two Indians who had
+brought the news to Fray Marcos.
+
+Why they were treated in this manner is not known. They seem to have been
+looked on as spies or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of
+the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a pueblo of the Zuñi
+Indians, though three centuries and a half have since then elapsed.
+
+The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as told by the worthy Fray
+Marcos, when repeated in the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a
+new El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an expedition to explore
+and conquer Cibola. The city was then well filled with adventurers eager
+for fame and fortune, many of them men of good family, cavaliers of rank
+"floating about like corks on water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any
+promising service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a company of over
+three hundred were enlisted, a large proportion of them mounted. The
+Indians of the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some small
+field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and cows were to be driven to
+supply the army with fresh meat.
+
+Francisco de Coronado was given the command, and so distinguished was the
+cavalcade that the viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen a
+captain but for fear of making the command top-heavy with officers. It was
+early in 1540 that the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen
+arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with swords and lances,
+others wearing helmets of iron or tough bullhide, while the footmen
+carried cross-bows and muskets, and the Indians were armed with bows and
+clubs. Splendid they were—but woe-befallen were they to be on their
+return, such of them as came back. An accessory party was sent by sea,
+along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de Alarcon, to aid, as far as it
+could, in the success of the army. But in spite of all Alarcon’s efforts,
+he failed to get in communication with Coronado and his men.
+
+On the 7th of July, after following the monk’s route through the mountain
+wilderness, the expedition came within two days’ march of the first city
+of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on the hills and other
+signs of hostility that the Spaniards would have to fight; but for this
+the cavaliers of that day seem to have been always ready, and the next day
+Coronado moved forward towards the desired goal.
+
+At length the gallant little army was before Hawaikuh, the city on which
+Fray Marcos had gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now was seen to
+be a village of some two hundred houses. It lay about fifteen miles
+southwest of the present Zuñi. The natives were ready for war. All the old
+men, with the women and children, had been sent away, and the Spaniards
+were received with volleys of arrows.
+
+The houses were built in retreating terraces, each story being smaller
+than that below it, and from these points of vantage the arrows of the
+natives came in showers. Evidently the place was only to be taken by
+assault, and the infantry was posted so as to fire on the warriors, while
+a number of dismounted horsemen sought to scale the walls by a ladder
+which they had found. This proved no easy task. Coronado’s glittering
+armor especially made him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with
+arrows and battered with stones as he sought to ascend that he was wounded
+and had to be carried from the field. Others were injured and three horses
+were killed, but in less than an hour the place was carried, the warriors
+retreating in dismay before the impetuous assault.
+
+Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted houses. Their food
+had given out and they were half starved, but in the store-rooms they
+found "that of which there was greater need than of gold or silver, which
+was much corn and beans and chickens, better than those of New Spain, and
+salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my life." The chickens seem
+to have been wild turkeys, kept by the natives for their plumage. But of
+the much-desired gold and silver there was not a trace.
+
+The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards in this country is too
+extended and not of enough interest to be given here. It must suffice to
+say that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded into phantoms,
+or rather contracted into villages of terraced houses like that they had
+captured. Food was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil, even the
+turquoises of which so much had been told proving to be of little value.
+Expeditions were sent out in different directions, some of them
+discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on their almost
+inaccessible summits, the only approach being by narrow steps cut in the
+rock. Others came upon deep cañons, one of them discovering the wonderful
+Grand Cañon of the Colorado River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve
+villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some on the lofty heights.
+The people here received the Spaniards peaceably and with much show of
+welcome.
+
+In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by the Spaniards El Turco,
+from his resemblance to the Turks, who said he had come from a rich
+country in the east, where were numbers of great animals with shaggy
+manes,—evidently the buffalo or bison, now first heard of. Some time
+later, being brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco had a more
+wonderful story to tell, to the effect that "In his land there was a river
+in the level country which was two leagues wide, in which were fishes as
+big as horses, and large numbers of very big canoes with more than twenty
+rowers on a side, and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop
+under awnings, and on the prow they had a great golden eagle. He said also
+that the lord of that country took his afternoon nap under a great tree on
+which were hung a large number of little gold bells, which put him to
+sleep as they swung in the air. He said also that every one had his
+ordinary dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates, and bowls
+were of gold."
+
+No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the yellow metal that
+inspired El Turco to these alluring stories, in the hope of getting rid of
+the unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the effect it had. After
+wintering in the villages of the Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed
+and taken, they set out in the following April in search of Quivira, the
+land of gold, which El Turco had painted in such enticing colors. Against
+the advice of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions, the
+imaginative Indian saying that this was useless, as the laden animals
+could not bring back the gold and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the
+romancing Indian was taken with them as a guide.
+
+On for many leagues they went until the Pecos River was crossed and the
+great northern plains were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless
+country, covered with high grasses and peopled by herds of the great maned
+animals which El Turco had described. These strange creatures were seen in
+extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one day, when a herd was put to
+flight, they fell in such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it
+up, so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the dead bodies.
+
+Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they told not at all
+agreeing with that of El Turco, who accordingly was now put in chains.
+Coronado, not wishing to subject all his companions to suffering, but
+eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length sent all his followers
+back except thirty horsemen and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued
+his journey to the north, the bisons supplying them with abundance of
+food.
+
+For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at the end of thirty days a
+wide stream, which is thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at last
+reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in the present State of Kansas.
+A pleasing land it was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in
+place of El Turco’s many-storied stone houses, only rude wigwams were to
+be seen, and the civilized people proved to be naked savages. The only
+yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one of the chiefs and some
+bells of the same substance. The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a
+cross and claim this wide region in the name of his master; and his chief
+satisfaction was in strangling El Turco for his many embellished lies.
+
+We shall not describe the return journey, though it was not lacking in
+interesting incidents. Finally, having lost many of their horses, being
+harassed by the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions, the
+way-worn army reached known soil in the valley of Culiacan. Here all
+discipline was at an end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues
+down the valley, all Coronado’s entreaties failing to restore any order to
+the ranks.
+
+At length the sorely disappointed commander presented himself before the
+viceroy Mendoza, with scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone
+remained with him of the splendid cavalcade with which he had set out.
+
+Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores, who had found only
+villages of barbarians and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned
+empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o’ the-wisp of Quivira and
+its fleeting treasures. Little did he dream that Quivira would yet become
+the central region of one of the greatest civilized nations of the world,
+and rich in productions beyond his most avaricious vision.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+
+
+The early history of America has few romantic tales of love and devotion,
+but there is one woven in with the history of the settlement of Buenos
+Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all the historians of the
+time, and which exists as the one striking love romance of the Spanish
+conquest. It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do to
+dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the plea that historical
+critics have questioned them.
+
+It may not be generally known to our readers that the man who explored and
+took possession of the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was
+Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had with his father discovered
+North America in the service of England. It was in the year 1526 that he
+sailed up the noble river which he named the Rio de la Plata, a name
+suggested by the bars of silver which he obtained from the Indians on its
+banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay River, he built at the
+mouth of the river Zarcaranna a stronghold which he named the Fort of the
+Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set sail for Spain, leaving Nuno
+de Lara as commander of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and
+twenty men.
+
+These historical details are important, as a necessary setting for the
+love-romance which followed the founding of this fort. Lara, being left
+with his handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory peopled
+with Indians, felt strongly that in his situation prudence was the better
+part of valor, and strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest
+and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez. His success in this
+brought about, in an unexpected manner, his death and the loss of the
+fort, with other evils in their train.
+
+                 [Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.]
+
+                         COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+
+
+The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado, one of Lara’s
+principal officers, had brought with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a
+Spanish lady of much beauty and purity of soul. During the frequent visits
+which Mangora, the cacique of the Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this
+lady and became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that he could not
+conceal the evidence of his love.
+
+Miranda was not long in observing the ardent looks of the Indian chief and
+in understanding their significance, and the discovery filled her with
+dread and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the commandant to keep
+on good terms with this powerful chief, and fearing that she might be
+sacrificed to this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his sight,
+and also to guard against any surprise or violence, not knowing to what
+extremes the passion of love might lead an Indian.
+
+Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the fair lady out of the
+fort, and with this in view pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring
+his wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do, for Miranda had told
+him of her fears, and he suspected the Indian’s design. With a policy
+demanded by the situation, he declined the invitations of the chief, on
+the plea that a Castilian soldier could not leave his post of duty without
+permission from his commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that
+permission except to fight his enemies.
+
+The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He saw that Hurtado suspected
+his purpose, and the removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary step
+for its accomplishment. While seeking to devise a plan for this, he
+learned, to his great satisfaction, that Hurtado and another officer, with
+fifty soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect provisions,
+of which a supply was needed.
+
+Here was the opportunity which the treacherous chief awaited. It not only
+removed the husband, but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the wife
+in his absence. Late one day the chief placed four thousand armed men in
+ambush in a marsh near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty
+others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates, he sent word to Lara
+that he had heard of his want of food, and had brought enough to serve him
+until the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of friendship greatly
+pleased Lara. He met the chief with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and
+insisted on entertaining him and his followers.
+
+So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had been successful. The men
+in the marsh had their instructions and patiently awaited the fixed
+signals, while the feast in the fort went on till the night was well
+advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards were given time to retire; then
+the food-bearing Indians set fire to the magazines, and the ambushed
+savages, responding to the signal, broke into the fort and ruthlessly cut
+down all the Spaniards they met. Those who had gone to bed were killed in
+their sleep or slain as they sprang up in alarm. The governor was severely
+wounded, but had strength enough to revenge himself on the faithless
+Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran through the body with his sword. In a
+moment more he was himself slain.
+
+At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in the fort only the
+women and children remained alive—spared, no doubt, by order of the chief.
+These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent cause of this bloody
+catastrophe, four other women, and as many children. The weeping captives
+were bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of Mangora, and his
+successor as cacique of the tribe.
+
+No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman whom his brother had loved,
+her beauty heightened in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like
+passion was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered his men to
+remove her bonds. He then told her that she must not consider herself a
+captive, and solicited her favor with the gentleness and address that love
+can implant in the breast of the savage as well as of the son of
+civilization. Her husband, he told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the
+forests of a hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful nation and
+could surround her with luxuries and wealth. Could she hesitate to accept
+his love in preference to that of a man who was lost to her.
+
+These persuasions excited only horror and anguish in the soul of the
+faithful wife. Her love for her husband was proof against all that Siripa
+could say, and also against the fear of slavery or death, which might
+follow her rejection of his suit. In fact, death seemed to her a smaller
+evil than life as the wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his
+offers with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she hoped would excite
+his rage and induce him to put her to instant death.
+
+Her flashing eyes and excited words, however, had a very different effect
+from that she intended. They served only to heighten her charms in the
+eyes of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever in his
+persuasions. Taking her to his village, he treated her with every mark of
+kindness and gentleness, and showed her the utmost respect and civility,
+doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and raise a feeling in her
+breast corresponding to his own.
+
+Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with the provisions they had
+collected, and viewed with consternation the ruins of the fort which they
+had so lately left. Their position was a desperate one, alone and
+undefended as they were, in the midst of treacherous tribes; but the fears
+which troubled the minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado.
+He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands of the cacique of
+Timbuez, and love and indignation in his soul suppressed all other
+feelings. With a temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he sought
+alone the village of the chief and demanded the release of his wife.
+
+Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption and savage joy at
+having at his mercy the man who stood between him and the object of his
+affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to his suit, he at once
+ordered him to be seized, bound to a tree, and pierced with arrows.
+
+This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with anguish, she rushed out,
+cast herself at the Indian’s feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her
+husband’s life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado was
+unbound, but he was still kept in captivity.
+
+Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined passions of a savage,
+and the fate of husband and wife alike was at constant risk in his hands.
+Now, tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed bent on sacrificing
+the husband to his rage. Again, the desire of winning the esteem of
+Miranda softened his soul, and he permitted the husband and wife to meet.
+
+As the days of captivity passed the strictness of their detention was
+relaxed and they were permitted greater freedom of action. As a result
+they met each other more frequently and under less restraint. But this
+growing leniency in the cacique had its limits: they might converse, but
+they were warned against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love.
+Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda would not become his, he
+was resolved that no one else should enjoy the evidence of her affection.
+
+The situation was a painful one. Husband and wife, as Hurtado and Miranda
+were, they continued lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the
+feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them avoid any show of love, and
+they resolved to obey its dictates; but prudence is weak where love
+commands, and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised them clasped in each
+other’s arms and indulging in the ardent kisses of love.
+
+Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried away by ungovernable
+fury at their contempt of his authority and their daring disregard of his
+feelings, he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado’s old
+sentence was renewed: he was bound to a tree and his body pierced with
+arrows. As for Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and furious
+savage to a more painful death, that of the flames. Yet painful as it was,
+the loyal wife doubtless preferred it to yielding to the passion of the
+chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life her lover and
+husband.
+
+Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story of love and faith that the
+early annals of America have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda
+has become a classic in the love-lore of the America of the south.
+
+
+
+
+
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+
+
+The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries the boundary
+between liberty and oppression in South America. South of it lay the land
+of the Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who preserved their
+independence against the whites, the only Indian nation in America of
+which this can be said. Valorous and daring as were the American Indians,
+their arms and their arts were those of the savage, and the great
+multitude of them were unable to stand before the weapons and the
+discipline of their white invaders. But such was not the case with the
+valiant Araucanians. From the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro
+and the first invader of Chili, down to our own days these bold Americans
+fought for and retained their independence, holding the Biobio as their
+national frontier, and driving army after army from their soil. Not until
+1882 did they consent to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own
+free will, and they still retain their native habits and their pride in
+their pure blood.
+
+The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races, they defied the armies
+of the Incas long before the Spaniards came, and the armies of the
+Spaniards for centuries afterwards, and though they have now consented to
+become a part of the Chilian nation, this has not been through conquest,
+and they are as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike years of
+the past. Their hardy and daring character infects the whole of Chili, and
+has given that little republic, drawn out like a long string between the
+Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one of the most warlike and
+unyielding of countries, while to its people has been applied the
+suggestive title of "the Yankees of the South."
+
+It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the heroes who arose in
+succession to defend the land of Araucania from the arms of those who so
+easily overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall, therefore, confine
+ourselves to the exploits of one of the earliest of these, a youthful
+warrior with a genius for war that might have raised him to the rank of a
+great commander had not death early cut short his career. The second
+Spaniard who attempted the conquest of this valiant people was Pedro de
+Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an able soldier, but one of those
+who fancied that a handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the
+strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the spirit of the race with
+which he would have to deal.
+
+Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia with two hundred Spaniards
+at his back. With them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable
+force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he proposed to settle and
+hold the land as his own after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles
+southward he went, fighting the hostile natives at every step, and on the
+14th of February, 1541, stopped and laid the foundations of a town which
+he named St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago, a city of
+three hundred thousand souls.
+
+We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia’s wars with the many
+tribes of Chili. He was in that land nine years before his conquests
+brought him to the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with whom alone
+we are concerned. On the coast near the mouth of this river he founded a
+new town, which he named Concepcion, and made this the basis of an
+invasion of the land of the Araucanians, whom he proposed to subdue.
+
+As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this time was a man with the body
+of a giant and the soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of the
+Spaniards until they had overrun most of the country, built towns and
+forts, and had reason to believe that the whole of Chili was theirs.
+Valdivia went on founding cities until he had seven in all, and gave
+himself the proud title of the Marquis of Arauco, fancying that he was
+lord and master of the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was not yet
+his.
+
+A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians, disgusted with the
+timid policy of their leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as
+their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man, the new toqui soon
+taught the Spaniards a lesson. He began with an attack on their forts. At
+one of these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty Indians employed in
+bringing them forage for their horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these
+laborers by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their arms in the bundles
+of hay they carried. On reaching the fort they were to attack the guards
+and hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could come to their aid.
+
+This device failed, the garrison attacking and driving back the
+forage-bearers before Caupolican could reach the place. Foiled in this, he
+made a fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty cannons proved
+too much for Indian means of defence, and the assailants were forced to
+draw back and convert their assault into a siege. This did not continue
+long before the Spaniards found themselves in peril of starvation. Vainly
+they sallied out on their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and
+finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered garrison cut its
+way by a sudden night attack through the besieging lines and retired to
+the neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took place at another fort
+called Tucapel, its garrison also seeking a refuge at Puren.
+
+When news of these events reached Valdivia, he saw that his conquests were
+in peril, and at once set out for the seat of war with all his forces,
+amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four or five thousand
+Indians. A small party of cavalry were despatched in advance to
+reconnoitre the enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians and
+their heads were hung on roadside trees as a warning to their approaching
+comrades. This gruesome spectacle had much of the effect intended. On
+seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and clamored to return. But
+Valdivia insisted on advancing, and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two
+armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel.
+
+Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary Indians to deal with. These
+were not of the kind that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry. A
+fierce charge was made on his left wing, which was cut to pieces by the
+daring warriors of Caupolican. The right wing was also vigorously
+attacked. But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards were mowing down
+the ranks of the Araucanians, whose rude war-clubs and spears were
+ill-fitted to cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven back, and
+hundreds of them falling, they returned with heroic courage three times to
+the assault. But at length the slaughter became too great to bear and the
+warriors were ready to flee in dismay.
+
+At this critical moment the first great hero of the Araucanians appeared.
+He was a boy of only sixteen years of age, a mere lad, who some time
+before had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made his page. But
+young as he was, he loved his country ardently and hated the invaders with
+a bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved the day for his
+countrymen and snatched victory out of defeat.
+
+Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the Araucanians were shrinking in
+dismay, he rushed into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn, accused
+them of cowardice, and bade them to face their foes like men. Seizing a
+lance, he charged alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to
+follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries, the Araucanians charged
+with such fury that the ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were
+broken, and they were cut down until the whole force was annihilated. It
+is said that of the entire expedition only two Indians escaped.
+
+Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to pray, on seeing the fortune
+of war turning against him, was seized by a party of the victors and
+brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive begged the chief for his
+life, promising to leave Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his
+late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief, and this the generous
+boy did. But the Araucanians had little faith in Spanish promises, and an
+old warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising his war-club and
+dashing out the captive’s brains. Thus tragically ended the career of one
+of the least cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty of his
+disdain of Indian courage.
+
+Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in his veins, and was
+endowed by nature with beauty of person, nobleness of character, and
+intrepidity of soul. His people honored him highly in the festival with
+which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican appointed him his
+special lieutenant, raising him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his
+own.
+
+There was fighting still to be done. The leader of the Spaniards was dead,
+but he had left many behind him, and there were still strongholds in the
+Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing of the terrible disaster
+to their cause, the Spaniards hastily evacuated their forts beyond the
+Biobio and retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia. Here they were
+besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro was given the difficult task of
+defending the border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful general
+at once fortified himself on the steep mount of Mariguenu, a fort made
+very strong by nature.
+
+Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped from Tucapel brought the news
+of the disaster to Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with
+terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of fourteen horsemen, of whom
+seven were slain, added to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing
+with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost their terrors was not
+reassuring to the invaders of the land. Evidently their position was
+hazardous; they must fight to win or retreat.
+
+Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia, decided to fight. With a
+small army of Spaniards and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio
+and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending Mount Mariguenu to attack
+the stronghold on its top.
+
+Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an old soldier in dealing with
+his well-armed foe. While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass of
+the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell upon them, and for three
+hours gave them as sharp a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the
+Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind which Lantaro awaited the
+foe.
+
+Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party of Spanish horsemen, with
+the purpose of forcing a passage, but near the summit they were met with
+such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it became necessary to
+support them with infantry and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the
+defence, endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body of his warriors,
+but the success of this stratagem was prevented by the advance of
+Villagrau to their support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in
+particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians.
+
+At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he was a born captain.
+Calling to him one of his officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see
+those thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes. There is your
+work. Do not dare show your face to me until you have made them your own."
+
+Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company and fell in fury upon the
+battery, driving back the gunners and capturing their cannon. This
+successful charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce attack on the
+Spanish front, which broke their ranks, throwing them into confusion and
+putting them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three thousand of the
+Spaniards and their allies being slain, while Villagrau was saved with
+difficulty and at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who picked
+him up where he lay wounded and carried him off on his horse.
+
+In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again the defile by which
+they had ascended. Lantaro had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees,
+and the few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before they could
+escape. The Araucanians pursued them to the Biobio, fatigue preventing
+their following beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their flight
+until Concepcion was reached, and here the old men and women were speedily
+sent north in ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the city in a
+panic, and started for Santiago by land. All their property was left, and
+the victors found a rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro, after
+destroying the place, returned home, to be greeted with the acclamations
+of his people.
+
+We must deal more rapidly with the remaining events of the boy hero’s
+career. Some time after this defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild
+Concepcion, but while thus employed they were attacked and defeated by
+Lantaro, who pursued them through the open gates of their fortress and
+took possession of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the woods
+and the ships in the harbor. Once more burning the city, Lantaro withdrew
+in triumph.
+
+The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been with much justice called, now
+advanced against Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid to
+Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia. Reaching the country of
+the Indian allies of the Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He
+then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio Claro and sent out spies
+into the country of the enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish horsemen
+were sent from the city to reconnoitre the position of their enemies, but
+they were met and driven back in dismay, being severely handled by the
+Araucanians. The news of their repulse filled the people of Santiago with
+consternation.
+
+Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro against Lantaro, and
+ordered the roads leading to the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved
+no match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent. When the
+Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards
+following tumultuously into the fortifications. Once inside, the Indians
+turned on them and cut them down so furiously that none but the horsemen
+escaped.
+
+Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each time was repulsed. The young
+Spanish leader then withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped on a
+neighboring hill, with the design in mind of turning the waters of a
+mountain stream on Pedro’s camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy
+informed him of the purpose to drown him out, and he hastily retired to
+Santiago.
+
+Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his son of the task which
+had proved too much for him. At the head of a strong force, he took a
+secret route by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the
+Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his sentinels aroused Lantaro to
+the impending danger, and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his
+works to observe the coming enemy. He had hardly reached there when an
+arrow from the bow of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a mortal
+wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead in the arms of his followers.
+
+A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed and the fight not ending
+till none of the Araucanians remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew
+to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated the death of their foe;
+while his countrymen, dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege of
+the invested cities and returned home.
+
+A remarkable career was that of this young captain, begun at sixteen and
+ending at nineteen. History presents no rival to his precocious military
+genius, though in the centuries of war for independence in his country
+many older heroes of equal fame and daring arose for the defence of their
+native land against the Spanish foe.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+
+
+At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake, the Sea-King of Devon, as
+he was called, and the most daring and persistent of the enemies of the
+Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape Horn, at the southern
+extremity of the continent, and steered northward into the great Pacific,
+with the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year before he had left the
+harbor of Plymouth, England, with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But
+these had been lost or left behind until only the "Golden Hind," a ship of
+one hundred tons burden, was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron.
+Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom he started only about sixty
+remained.
+
+The bold Drake had previously made himself terrible to the Spaniards of
+Mexico and the West Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the walls
+of Panama. Now for the first time the foot of a white man trod the barren
+rocks of Cape Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific waves.
+Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons to take and rich Spanish cities
+to raid, and the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope of a golden
+harvest as they sailed north into that unknown sea.
+
+Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the famous adventures of Pizarro,
+and about the 1st of December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili.
+Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills on which sheep and
+cattle were grazing and corn and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the
+natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted with the presents
+which were given them. But soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his
+men, who had gone on shore to procure fresh water, were fiercely attacked
+by ambushed Indians, and every man on board was wounded before they could
+pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched from them by the Indians,
+and Drake was wounded by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone on
+the side of his face.
+
+                [Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+                        THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+
+
+Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew wished to attack the hostile
+natives, but Drake refused to do so.
+
+"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards," he said; "and we cannot
+blame them for attacking any man from Spain."
+
+Some days later a native fisherman was captured and brought on board the
+ship. He was in a terrible fright, but was reassured when he learned that
+his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a nation whose people did
+not love Spain. He was highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of
+linen cloth that were given him, and was sent ashore, promising to induce
+his people to sell some provisions to the ship’s crew. He kept his word,
+and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog were obtained.
+
+With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to see any white men who
+hated the Spaniards as deeply as he did himself. He was well received and
+served to the best the ship could afford. Then he said to his entertainer
+in Spanish, a language he spoke fairly well,—
+
+"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be glad to go with you, and
+think I can be of much use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far
+south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon, nearly ready to sail
+with a rich treasure. We should all like much to have you capture that
+vessel."
+
+This was good news to Drake. The next day the "Golden Hind" turned its
+prow down the coast under full sail, with the friendly native on board.
+When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight that his dusky pilot
+had told the truth. There lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not
+dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards were unsuspicious
+until the "Golden Hind" had been laid alongside and its armed crew were
+clambering over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured almost without a
+blow.
+
+The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected treasure, and to his joy
+found that she was laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand dollars
+in gold coin, and with other costly goods, including about two thousand
+jars of Chili wine. This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the
+"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her disconsolate captain and
+crew.
+
+After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast, in which the rich
+viands obtained were washed down freely with the captured wine, an armed
+force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose people fled hurriedly to the
+fields when they saw the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted
+houses and the church a fair supply of gold and silver spoil was found,
+and what was equally welcome, an abundant addition to their scanty store
+of provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the "Golden Hind" set sail
+again up the coast, putting the native pilot ashore at the place where he
+wished to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from him eager
+protestations of joy and gratitude.
+
+Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers in this voyage up the South
+American coast. One of the examples of good fortune came at a place called
+Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who had gone ashore, came upon a
+Spaniard lying fast asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side, to
+their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid silver. The sleepy
+treasure-bearer and his silver were speedily secured. Farther inland the
+party met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who were driving some
+sheep, with bulging bags upon their backs. On opening those they were
+found also to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that returned to
+the "Golden Hind" with the treasure thus unexpectedly obtained, and it
+began to look almost as if the country grew silver.
+
+The next raid of the adventurers was at a place called Arica, a small
+seaport town at the output of a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two
+or three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured and searched for
+goods of value. The town was not taken, for a native whom Drake met here
+told him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a valuable cargo, which
+had recently passed up the coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a
+small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was speedily under sail again.
+
+"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to his men. "I am told she is
+richly laden. The first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my hearty
+thanks and a heavy gold chain into the bargain."
+
+It may well be imagined that the eyes of the sailors were kept wide open
+in the days that followed. The man to win the golden chain was John Drake,
+the admiral’s brother, who rushed to him one morning, as he came on deck,
+with the glad tidings,—
+
+"Yonder is the galleon!"
+
+He pointed to the far northern horizon, where the sails of a great ship
+were just becoming visible through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was
+the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward before the fresh
+breeze towards the slow-moving Spanish ship.
+
+Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an English ship in those waters,
+as yet never broken except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon
+took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and shortened sail as the
+"Golden Hind" came up, signalling for its officers to come on board. Drake
+did so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when the Spanish captain
+learned his mistake it was too late to resist. The crew of the galleon
+were put under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be rich in gold and
+silver, was quickly transferred to the "Golden Hind." Then captain and
+crew of the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship was set adrift,
+to try her chances without pilot or helmsman in those perilous seas. The
+next storm probably made her a grave in the breakers.
+
+Great had been the spoil gathered by the English rovers, a rich wealth of
+treasure being within the coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was
+abundantly supplied with provisions. Drake now thought of returning home
+with the riches he had won for himself and his comrades. But the port of
+Lima, Pizarro’s capital, lay not far up the coast, and here he hoped for a
+rich addition to his spoil. Though satisfied that a messenger had been
+sent from Valparaiso to warn the people of the presence of an armed
+English ship on the coast, he had no doubt of reaching Lima in advance of
+news brought overland.
+
+On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish vessels were found, and,
+their captains being unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained
+no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay several miles inland from the port,
+and the governor, on hearing of these depredations, imagined that the
+stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had fallen into the hands of
+pirates and was on a freebooting cruise. While he was making preparations
+for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso arrived and told him the
+real character of the unwelcome visitor.
+
+This news spurred the governor to increased exertions. An armed English
+war-ship on their coast was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and
+the wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth recapture. With all
+haste the governor got together a force of two thousand men, horse and
+foot, and at their head hurried to the port. There in the offing was the
+dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm, and offering a promising
+chance for capture.
+
+Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and manning them heavily from his
+forces, he sent them out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached
+Drake’s sails. But before they had gone far the "Golden Hind" felt the
+welcome wind and was soon gliding through the water. With his small force
+it was hopeless for the English captain to face the strongly armed
+Spaniards, and his only hope for safety lay in flight.
+
+The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards at times coming near
+enough to reach the "Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind varied in
+strength, now the chase, now the pursuers, gained in speed. The Spanish
+ships proved fair sailers and might in the end have overhauled the
+Englishman but for a precaution the governor had neglected in his haste.
+Expecting to capture the English ship in a short run, he had not thought
+of provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on their small food
+supply gave out and the soldiers were nearly famished. In the end the
+governor, who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order a return to
+port.
+
+Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the English rovers. On reaching
+Lima he sent out three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But Drake
+and his men had won too good a start to be overtaken, and the new pursuers
+never came within sight of him.
+
+Homeward bound with an abundant treasure, the rovers pressed merrily on.
+To return by the Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with the
+Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous Englishman decided to
+sail north, expecting to be able to find a passage through the seas north
+of the American continent. The icy and impassable character of these seas
+was at that early date quite unknown.
+
+Onward through the Spanish waters they went, taking new prizes and adding
+to their store of treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns were also
+visited and booty obtained from them. At length the South American
+continent was left behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast of
+Central America. About mid April they left the shore and stood out to sea,
+at last bound definitely for home.
+
+Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched due northward to the limit
+of the continent, where he hoped to find an easy passage back to the
+Atlantic, but after more than five weeks of a north-westward course,
+gradually verging to due north, he was surprised to see land again to his
+right. At first taking it for a large island, he soon learned that he had
+met the continent again and that America here stretched to the northwest.
+
+He was off the coast of the country now called California, in a new region
+which English eyes had never seen, though Spaniards had been there before.
+The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very different in character and
+degree of civilization from those of Peru. They were simple-minded
+savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since, as they lay in harbor,
+the ship sprang a leak, and it became necessary to take measures to repair
+the damage.
+
+The ship was anchored in shallow water near the shore, her cargo and
+provisions were landed and stored, and steps taken to make the necessary
+repairs. While this was going on the mariners were visited by the savages
+in large numbers, occasionally with what were thought to be signs of
+hostility. But their friendliness never ceased, and when at length their
+visitors, with whom they had established very amicable relations, were
+ready to depart they manifested the greatest grief, moaning, wringing
+their hands, and shedding tears.
+
+The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or near what is now called the
+Golden Gate, the entrance to the magnificent bay of San Francisco. On the
+23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor and sailed out of the harbor.
+On the hill-side in the rear was gathered a large body of Indians, some of
+them fantastically attired in skins and adorned with feathers, others
+naked but for the painted designs which covered their bodies. They built
+bonfires in all directions in token of farewell, and Drake and his
+officers stood on deck, waving their hats to their new-made friends.
+Slowly the hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from view, and
+they were on the open ocean again.
+
+From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting the coast. But the
+farther they went the colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak
+that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope of reaching home by the
+northern route. Yet to return by the way they had come would be very
+dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards would probably be
+keenly on the lookout for them. Only one course remained, which was to
+follow the route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across the vast
+Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and around the Cape of Good Hope.
+Drake had with him the narratives and copies of the charts of the first
+circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck him that it would be a great
+and glorious thing to take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and win him
+the credit of being the first Englishman to accomplish this wonderful
+task.
+
+The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon turned to the west. Quick and
+prosperous was the voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and
+after sixty-eight days in which land had not been seen a green shore came
+in view. It was the last day of September, 1579.
+
+The voyagers had many interesting experiences in the eastern archipelago,
+but no mishaps except that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one of
+the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and after throwing overboard
+eight of their cannon, three tons of cloves they had gathered in their
+voyage through the isles of spices, and many bags of meal, the "Golden
+Hind" was got afloat again, none the worse for her dangerous misadventure.
+
+Stocking their vessel once more with spices and sago at the island of
+Booten, and meeting with a hospitable reception at the large island of
+Java, they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape of Good Hope
+without mishap and entering the Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of
+September, 1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth harbor, from
+which she had sailed nearly three years before, and with wealth enough to
+make all on board rich.
+
+Never had England been more full of joy and pride than when the news of
+the wonderful voyage of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received and
+its strange adventures told. Queen Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of
+the bold sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis Drake to Sir
+Francis Drake, and the people looked on him as their greatest hero of the
+sea. In our days acts like his would have been called piracy, for England
+was not at war with Spain. But Drake was made a hero all the same, and in
+the war that soon after began he did noble work in the great sea fight
+with the Spanish Armada.
+
+
+
+
+
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+
+
+Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to America, and dazzling
+stories were told by them of the riches of the countries they explored,
+stories illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It was well known
+that Cortez had not obtained all the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro
+all those of Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures had been
+carried far away by the servants of those unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the
+northeastern section of South America, was looked upon by the Spanish
+adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous wealth. Others fancied
+that Guiana was the true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in
+gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro, in his expedition in
+1540, had heard much from the Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana
+brought back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous stories of
+the riches in gold, silver, and precious stones of the land of the north.
+
+These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder and magnitude through pure
+love of the marvellous or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the
+Indians. Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran, was a mighty
+city, whose very street watering-troughs were made of solid gold and
+silver, while "billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were logs of
+wood marked out to burn."
+
+In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence a mighty king. The
+legend went that it was a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine
+and then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable golden image.
+Then, entering his barge of state, with a retinue of nobles whose dresses
+glittered with gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending their
+tour by a bath in the cooling waters.
+
+Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned king? Certainly none
+of those who went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish
+adventurers who sought for that land of treasure, the most persistent was
+a bold explorer named Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out
+thence with a large body of followers—seven hundred horsemen, the story
+goes. His route lay along the river Negro, and then down the broad
+Orinoco. Boats were built for the descent of this great stream. But the
+route was difficult and exhausting and the natives usually hostile, and as
+they went on many of the men and horses died or were slain.
+
+For more than a year these sturdy explorers pushed on, reaching a point
+from which, if they could believe the natives, the city they sought was
+not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near at hand. As evidence,
+the Indians had treasure of their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images
+of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as he had not seen the like
+in Italy, Spain, or the Low Countries." But as they went on the gallant
+seven hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and these so eager to
+return home that their leader was forced to give up the quest. He sought
+the island of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and there, as
+governor, he dwelt for years, keeping alive in his soul the dream of some
+day going again in search of El Dorado.
+
+While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in England a man of romantic
+and adventurous nature named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous
+as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years devoted himself to the attempt
+to plant an English colony on the coast of North America. On this project
+he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune haunted him and all his
+colonies failed. Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and restore
+his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish treasure-ships, after the
+fashion of the bold Sir Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end to
+this project by clapping him in prison, on a matter of royal jealousy.
+While one of the queen’s lovers, he had dared to marry another woman.
+
+While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of the fleet he had fitted
+out came back with a Spanish galleon they had taken, so richly laden with
+costly goods that the whole court was filled with delight. Part of the
+spoils went to the queen and another part to Raleigh, and when at length
+he was released from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning more of
+the American gold. The stories of El Dorado and its marvellous city were
+then in great vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his
+expedition—with no gold, indeed, but with new tales of marvel he had
+gathered from the Indians.
+
+It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but forty-two years of age, in the
+prime of life and full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of mind
+led him to a full belief in the stories that floated about, and he grew
+eager to attempt the brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had
+failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had failed, he had opened up
+what might prove the track to success. Raleigh had sent various
+expeditions to the New World, but had never crossed the ocean himself. He
+now decided to seek Guiana and its fairyland of gold.
+
+A small vessel was sent in advance, under command of Raleigh’s friend,
+Jacob Whiddon, to feel the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco, which
+was deemed to be the gateway to the golden realm. Whiddon stopped at
+Trinidad, and found Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial.
+But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous Spaniard had the English
+sailors arrested and put in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small
+that he was obliged to go back to England without seeing the Orinoco.
+
+Whiddon’s report made Raleigh more eager than ever. He believed that
+Berreo was getting ready to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to
+rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations accordingly, and in
+February, 1595, set sail from Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied
+vessels, taking with him about one hundred gentlemen adventurers in
+addition to the crews. A number of small and light boats were also taken
+for use on the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came to see the
+voyagers off, flags floated on all the vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh
+and his companions, dressed in their best array, stood on the decks, as,
+with set sails and flying pennons, the stout ships moved slowly away on
+their voyage of chance and hope.
+
+Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers of his day, committing what
+would now be called piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet left
+the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was seen and captured. It was
+quickly emptied of its cargo,—a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms.
+Very soon after a second ship was captured. This was a Flemish vessel,
+laden with wines. These were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About
+two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad were sighted, and
+Raleigh’s eyes rested for the first time on the shores of that New World
+in which he had so long taken a warm interest.
+
+Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had done his agent,
+forbidding any of the Indians to go on his ships on peril of death. But
+they went on board, for all that, and were delighted with the kind
+treatment they received. They told Raleigh that several of their chiefs
+had been seized and imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged him
+to rescue them. No Englishman of that day hesitated when the chance came
+to deal the Spaniards a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made on the
+town, it being captured, the chiefs set free, and the governor himself
+made a prisoner.
+
+              [Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.]
+
+                      A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+
+
+Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive on his flag-ship, treated
+him with every courtesy, and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo,
+who did not suspect the purpose of the English, talked freely about his
+former expedition and gave his captor a good deal of very useful
+information. One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could not be
+taken up the Orinoco, on account of the sand-banks at its mouth and its
+dangerous channels. He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at
+Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he had brought with him.
+
+One hundred men were chosen for the journey, the others being left to
+guard the fleet. An old galley, a barge, a ship’s-boat, and two wherries
+carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who claimed to be familiar with
+the coast, was taken along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the
+mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers, and they were glad
+enough to enter one of the mouths of the river and escape the ocean
+billows. But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature of which
+Raleigh described later, in his account of the expedition. He wrote:
+
+"If God had not sent us help, we might have wandered a whole year in that
+labyrinth of rivers, ere we had found any way. I know all the earth does
+not yield the like confluence of streams and branches, the one crossing
+the other so many times, and all so fair and large, and so like one
+another as no man can tell which to take. And if we went by the sun or
+compass, hoping thereby to go directly one way or the other, yet that way
+also we were carried in a circle among multitudes of islands. Every island
+was so bordered with big trees as no man could see any farther than the
+breadth of the river or length of the branch."
+
+The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this medley of water-ways, and
+only chance extricated the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were
+involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing a canoe with three
+natives, who became friendly when they found they had nothing to fear from
+the strange white men. One of them was an old man who knew the river
+thoroughly, and whom presents and kind words induced to guide them past
+their difficulties.
+
+Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded banks of the stream,
+they were off again early the next morning. The river was still swift and
+violent, broken here and there with rapids, where they had to land and
+pull the boats. There were shoals also, which they had much trouble in
+getting over. And the banks were so crowded with trees and high reeds that
+they could not land, and were almost stifled from the closeness of the
+air.
+
+After four hard and weary days of this kind they reached a smoother
+channel and could proceed more easily. But their work was still far from
+easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them and they had the swift
+current of the river to breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive
+day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen rovers in that tropical
+climate, where the dense forest growth cut off every breath of air and
+their diminishing bread forced them to be put on short allowance. They
+began to complain bitterly, and Raleigh had to use all his powers of
+persuasion to induce them to go on.
+
+Yet the country was in many ways beautiful. Here and there the woods
+ceased and broad plains spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid
+which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees. Graceful deer would
+come down to the water’s edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with
+their big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers," says Raleigh, "were
+divers sorts of fruits good to eat; flowers, too, and trees of such
+variety as were sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed
+ourselves many times with the fruits of the country, and sometimes with
+fowls and fish. We saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson,
+orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was unto us a great good passing
+time to behold them, besides the relief we found by killing some store of
+them with our fowling-pieces."
+
+The adventurers at length reached an Indian village of which their old
+guide had told them, and here, after the natives had got over their fright
+and learned that the strangers meant them no harm, they were very
+hospitably entertained. Thence they went onward, day after day, seeing
+many canoes on the river and landing at various villages. One of the
+canoes contained three Spaniards, who escaped from the effort to capture
+them, and Raleigh soon learned that the Spaniards had told the natives
+that the English were robbers and cannibals. To overcome the effect of
+this story, the greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with kindness
+and gentleness, and to punish in their presence any of the men who
+maltreated them. This quickly had its effect, for the news spread that the
+new-comers were the friends of the red men, and they were rewarded by
+every attention the natives could bestow on them. Provisions were brought
+them in profusion,—fish, fowl, and fruit, great roasted haunches of
+venison, and other viands. Among these were sweet and delicious pineapples
+of enormous size, "the prince of fruits," as Raleigh called them.
+
+Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and fifty miles up the
+Orinoco, they reached the point where another great river, the Caroni,
+empties into it. The country here was more beautiful than they had yet
+seen, and prosperous Indian villages were numerous on the bordering
+plains. The natives had heard of the amicable character of the new-comers,
+and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all they could to show how
+they trusted and admired them. With one old chief, named Topiawara,
+Raleigh held many interesting talks and learned from him much about the
+country and the people. In return he told him about his own country and
+its great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of Queen Elizabeth,
+before which the simple natives bowed themselves as if it were the figure
+of a goddess they saw.
+
+Many days were spent with these people, in hunting, fishing, and
+exploring, but, ask as they would, they could learn nothing about the land
+of gold and the marvellous city they had come so far to seek. The old
+chief told him that Guiana had many fertile plains and valleys and had
+mines of silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew nothing about.
+Finally, Raleigh decided to go up the Caroni, three parties being sent to
+explore its vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the stream. He had
+been told of a mighty cataract, which he was very anxious to see, and this
+was at length reached, after a long struggle with the strong current of
+the river.
+
+The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades, ten or twelve in
+number, in the words of Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a
+church tower, which fell with that fury that the rebound of waters made it
+seem as if it had been all covered over with a great shower of rain. And
+in some places we took it at first for a smoke that had risen over some
+great town.
+
+"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues, "or more lively
+prospects; hills so raised, here and there, over the valleys; the river
+winding into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green grass without
+bush or stubble; the ground of hard sand, easy to march on, either for
+horses or foot; the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree with a
+thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons of white, crimson, and carnation,
+perching on the river’s side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly wind;
+and every stone we stooped to pick up promising either gold or silver by
+its complexion."
+
+On the return to the junction of the rivers, the land parties had similar
+stories to tell, and had pieces of golden ore to show, of which they
+claimed to have found plentiful indications. This story filled the whole
+party with dazzling hopes. Here, in the rocks at least, were the riches of
+which they had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist, here was the
+native wealth that might well bring it into existence.
+
+The prospectors had done all that lay in their power, and now felt it
+necessary to return to their ships, taking with them, at his request, the
+son of the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and perhaps to
+return at some time to succeed him, with the aid of the valiant English.
+
+We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and his quest. After various
+adventures, the party reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the
+narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere with the utmost
+interest.
+
+But many years passed before the explorer could return again. He became
+engaged in the wars against Spain, and after the death of the queen was
+arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned for thirteen
+years. In 1617, twenty-two years after his first expedition, he returned
+to the Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels.
+
+His release from prison had been gained by bribery and the promise to open
+a rich mine of gold in Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There
+was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St. Thomas, in which
+Raleigh’s son was killed. As for the gold mine, it could not be found, and
+the expedition was forced to return with none of the hoped-for wealth to
+show.
+
+And now Raleigh’s misfortunes culminated. He had been sentenced to death
+for treason in 1603, but had been reprieved. The king had him arrested
+again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded that he should be
+punished for the attack on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not
+like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain, so the famous explorer
+fell a victim to the royal policy and dislike and was beheaded under the
+old sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado has lain concealed in
+the mists of legend and romance, though mines of gold have been worked in
+the region which Raleigh explored.
+
+
+
+
+
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+
+
+During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main was beset with a horde of
+freebooters or buccaneers, as they called themselves, to whose fierce
+attacks the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly exposed, and
+who did not hesitate to assail the strongholds of the Spaniards in quest
+of plunder. They differed from pirates only in the fact that their
+operations were confined to Spain and her colonies, no war giving warrant
+to their atrocities. Most ferocious and most successful among these
+worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth, who made his name dreaded
+by his daring and cruelty throughout the New-World realms of Spain. The
+most famous among the deeds of this rover of the seas was his capture of
+the city of Panama, which we shall here describe.
+
+On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from the island haunts of the
+freebooters the greatest fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got
+together. It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small and large, Morgan’s
+flag-ship, of thirty-two guns, being the largest, and flying the English
+standard. The men had gathered from all the abiding-places of their
+fraternity, eager to serve under so famous a leader as Morgan, and looking
+for rich spoil under a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the Spaniards
+obstinately defend themselves there is something to take, and their best
+fortified places are those which contain the most treasure."
+
+                   [Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA.]
+
+                           THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+
+
+Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus did Morgan announce to
+his followers the plan he had conceived, which was to attack the important
+and opulent city of Panama, in which he expected to find a vast wealth of
+gold and silver. It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on the
+Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and could be reached only by a long
+and toilsome land journey, the route well defended by nature and doubtless
+by art, while not a man on board the fleet had ever trod the way thither.
+To supply themselves with a guide the island of St. Catharine, where the
+Spaniards confined their criminals, was attacked and taken, and three of
+the convicts were selected for guides, under promise of liberty and
+reward.
+
+Panama was at that time one of the largest and wealthiest cities in
+America. It contained some seven thousand houses, one-third the number
+being large and handsome dwellings, many of them strongly built of stone
+and richly furnished. Walls surrounded the city, which was well prepared
+for defence. It was the emporium for the precious metals of Peru and
+Mexico, two thousand mules being kept for the transportation of those rich
+ores. It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves, for the
+supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants of the place lived in great
+opulence and the churches were magnificently adorned, the chief among them
+being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings and other costly works of
+art ornamented the principal dwellings, and everything concurred to add to
+the importance and beauty of the place.
+
+A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his men near enough to Panama
+to behold the distant sea from the top of a high tree. But he had
+contented himself with waylaying and plundering a mule-train laden with
+treasure, and in 1670 it seemed the act of madness for a horde of
+freebooters to attack the city itself. Yet this was what the daring Morgan
+designed to do.
+
+The first thing to be done was to capture Fort St. Laurent, a strong place
+on an almost inaccessible hill, near the banks of the Chagres River. Four
+ships, with four hundred men, were sent against this fort, which was
+vigorously defended by its garrison, but was taken at length by the
+expedient of firing the palisades and buildings of the fort—composed of
+light wood—by means of burning arrows. The assailants suffered heavily,
+losing more than half their force, while of the garrison only twenty-four
+were taken, many of the others having leaped from the walls into the
+river, preferring death to capture by their ferocious foes. From the
+prisoners it was learned that the people of Panama were not ignorant of
+Morgan’s purpose, and that the threatened city was defended by more than
+three thousand men.
+
+As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the freebooters, seeing the
+English flag flying on the fort, manifested their joy by the depths of
+their potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed to run four
+of the ships on the rocks at the mouth of the Chagres, among them the
+admiral’s ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the vessels were
+total wrecks, much to Morgan’s chagrin.
+
+At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the march on Panama actually
+began, with a force of thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being
+left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty to seize some Spanish
+vessels that were in the river. The means of conveyance being limited, and
+the need of marching light important, a very small supply of provisions
+was taken, it being expected to find an abundance on the route. But in
+this the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards fleeing with all
+their cattle and cutting all the growing grain, so that the buccaneers
+soon found themselves almost destitute of supplies.
+
+The journey was made in boats up the river as far as practicable, five
+small vessels carrying the artillery. At the end of the second day most of
+the men were forced to abandon the boats and prosecute their journey on
+foot. On the third day they found themselves in a marshy forest, which
+they traversed with difficulty and reached the town of Cedro Bueno. Here
+they had hoped to find food, but the place was deserted and not a scrap of
+provisions left.
+
+The affair was now growing very serious, all their food having been
+consumed and they left in imminent danger of starvation. Many of them were
+reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity. They found
+themselves also benumbed with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on
+the chilly river-bank. During the next day their route followed the
+stream, the canoes being dragged along, or rowed where the water was of
+sufficient depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food from the
+country before them, the only things they found being some large sacks of
+hides. These, in their extremity, were used as food, the leather being
+scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it was roasted. Even
+then it could not be swallowed without the aid of copious draughts of
+water.
+
+Only the courage and determination of the chiefs induced the men to go on
+under such severe privations. The fifth day’s journey ended as badly as
+the previous ones, the only food found being a little flour, fruit, and
+wine, so small in quantity that Morgan had it distributed among the weaker
+members of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to seem on the point
+of death. For the rest of the men there was nothing to eat but leaves and
+the grass of the meadows.
+
+The feebler men were now put on board the boats, the stronger continuing
+to travel by land, but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account
+of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed, as if the expedition would
+have to be abandoned, when, to their delirious joy, they found a great
+supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some oversight had abandoned in a
+granary. Many of them, in their starving condition, devoured this grain
+raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana leaves. The supply was soon
+exhausted, but for a time it gave new vigor to the famished men.
+
+On the following day all the food they found was a sack of bread and some
+cats and dogs, all of which were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the
+town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the Chagres, a number of vessels
+of wine were discovered. This they hastily drank, with the result that all
+the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were poisoned. Their illness,
+however, was merely the natural effect of hasty drinking in their
+exhausted state, and soon left them.
+
+At this point a number of the men were sent back with the boats to where
+the ships had been left, the force that continued the march amounting to
+eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded, the principal adventure
+being an attack by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders with
+much valor, only retreating when their chief was killed.
+
+About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended, from whose summit,
+to their delight, the buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what gave
+them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley below them, a great herd of
+bulls, cows, horses, and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who took
+to flight the moment they saw the formidable force of invaders. Only an
+utter lack of judgment, or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could
+have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly starved foes. It was
+an oversight which was to prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack
+instead of to feed their ruthless enemies.
+
+The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue, gained new strength at the
+sight of the welcome herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down and
+killed a large number of them, devouring the raw flesh with such a fury of
+hunger that the blood ran in streams from their lips. What could not be
+eaten was taken away to serve for a future supply. As yet Panama had not
+been seen, but soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant towers.
+The vision was hailed with the blare of trumpets and shouts of "victory!"
+and the buccaneers encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the city the
+next day.
+
+The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A troop of fifty horsemen was
+sent to reconnoitre, and a second detachment occupied the passes, to
+prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat. But the freebooters
+were not disturbed in their camp, and were allowed a quiet night’s rest
+after their abundant meal of raw flesh.
+
+The next day Morgan led his men against the city, skilfully avoiding the
+main road, which was defended by batteries, and passing through a thick
+and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking march brought them in sight
+of the Spanish forces, which were very numerous, consisting of four
+regiments of the line and nearly three thousand other soldiers. They had
+with them also a great herd of wild bulls under the charge of Indians and
+negroes, from which much was hoped in the assault.
+
+Morgan and his men were much discouraged by the multitude and military
+array of their foes, but nothing remained for them but a desperate fight,
+and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in front, they descended to
+the broad plain on which the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner
+reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while the bulls were driven
+tumultuously upon them.
+
+This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous failure. The horsemen
+found themselves in marshy ground, where they were exposed to a hot and
+well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before they could effect a
+retreat. The charge of the bulls, on which so much reliance had been
+placed, proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the freebooters
+advanced, firing rapidly and with an accuracy of aim that soon strewed the
+ground with the dead.
+
+The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous charge, now turned the bulls
+against the rear of their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers
+and knew well how to act against such a foe, driving them off with shouts
+and the waving of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In the end,
+after a battle of two hours’ duration, the Spaniards, despite their great
+superiority of numbers, were utterly defeated, a great many being killed
+on the field and others in the panic of flight.
+
+But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama, a city defended by walls
+and forts, remained to be taken. Morgan knew that success depended on
+taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy, and he advanced
+without delay against the town. It was strongly defended with artillery,
+but the impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all before it, and
+after a three hours’ fight the city was in their hands.
+
+The scenes that followed were marked by the most atrocious ferocity and
+vandalism. The city was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by
+outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on fire by Morgan’s orders
+and burned to the ground, much of its great wealth being utterly consumed
+through the sheer instinct of destruction.
+
+Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority of them had sought
+safety in flight, taking their women and all their portable wealth. In
+pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan sent out a well-manned
+ship, which returned after a two days’ cruise with three prizes. It also
+brought back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with treasure in gold
+and silver and carrying away the principal women of the town, with their
+jewels, had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended and for days Morgan
+made strenuous efforts to discover and capture it, but fortunately this
+rich prize eluded his grasp.
+
+For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site of the burned city, many
+of them engaged in searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some,
+who were discontented with the acts of their leader, conspired to seize
+the largest ship in the harbor and start on a piratical cruise of their
+own down the Pacific. This coming to Morgan’s ears on the eve of its
+execution, he defeated it by causing the main-mast of the ship to be cut
+down, and afterwards by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor.
+
+The return of the freebooters had its items of interest. The booty,
+consisting of gold, silver, and jewels, was laden on a large number of
+animals, beside which disconsolately walked six hundred prisoners, men,
+women, and children, Morgan refusing them their liberty except on payment
+of a ransom which they could not procure. Some of them succeeded in
+obtaining the ransom on the march, but the majority were taken to Chagres.
+From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello, a neighboring coast
+town, Morgan threatening that place with destruction unless a heavy ransom
+was sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not a half-penny would
+be paid, and that he might do what he pleased. What he pleased to do was
+to carry out his threat of destroying the town.
+
+The final outcome of this frightful raid remains to be told. It
+demonstrated that Morgan was as faithless to his companions as he was
+ferocious to his victims. On their way back from Panama he ordered that
+every man should be searched and every article they had secreted be added
+to the general store. To induce them to consent he offered himself to be
+searched first. In the final division, however, of the spoil, which was
+valued at four hundred and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds weight
+of silver, he played the part of a traitor, many of the most precious
+articles disappearing from the store and the bulk of the precious stones
+especially being added by Morgan to his share.
+
+This and other acts of the leader created such a hostile feeling among the
+men that a mutiny was imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail
+with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders had shared with him
+in the unequal division of the spoil. The fury of the remaining
+freebooters, on finding that they had been abandoned, was extreme, and
+they determined to pursue and attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack
+of provisions prevented them from carrying this into effect.
+
+Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to the comfort of the
+freebooting fraternity. An English ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica
+with orders to bring home the governor to answer for the protection he had
+given "these bloodthirsty and plundering rascals," while the governor who
+succeeded him issued the severest orders against any future operations of
+the freebooters.
+
+From this time Morgan withdrew from his career of robbery, content to
+enjoy the wealth which he had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He
+settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy in security his
+ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British government showed its real
+sentiment concerning his career by promoting him to high offices and
+giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result this faithless and cruel
+pirate bore during the remainder of his life the distinction of being
+addressed as Sir Henry Morgan.
+
+
+
+
+
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+
+
+A famous story of American history is that which tells of the massacre of
+the French settlers in Florida by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of
+the signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French chevalier
+Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel tale to tell about Brazil, not
+so full of the element of romance, yet for all that an interesting story
+and well worth the telling.
+
+The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many of the Spanish colonies,
+was open to the attacks of buccaneers and of free lances of the seas
+bearing the flags of various countries of Europe. There was not an
+important port of the country, except its capital, Rio Janeiro, that
+escaped attack by hostile fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth
+century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was made the victim of
+assault. A city of over twelve thousand people, and the gateway to a rich
+gold-mining country in the rear, its wealth invited a visit from the
+prize-seekers, though the strength of its population and garrison long
+kept these away. Its turn for assault came in 1710.
+
+In that year a squadron appeared in the waters outside the harbor on which
+the people looked with doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard
+had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In fact, it was commanded by a
+daring Frenchman named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But a look
+at the strong defences of the harbor entrance, and some exchange of shots,
+warned him of the perils that would attend an attempt to pass them by
+force, and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down the coast, where
+he landed a party of a thousand marines.
+
+His design to attack the city with this small party seemed folly. The
+governor, Francisco de Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese
+troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and several hundred Indian
+bowmen. But he lacked the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc’s marines
+marched like so many buccaneers through the forest for seven days without
+meeting a foeman. Even when near the city the only enemies in sight were a
+handful of men led by a friar, who attacked them boldly in defence of his
+church. After capturing this, the daring French charged into the city in
+the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding hills, to which the
+governor’s troops had been withdrawn.
+
+The very boldness of the assault, and the failure of the governor to guard
+the streets with troops, nearly led to success. Little resistance was made
+by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed the narrow
+streets until the central square was reached. Here they met their first
+check from a party of fifty students, who had entered the palace of the
+governor and fired upon them from the windows. The first French assailants
+who forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied to the furniture. In
+the custom-house adjoining was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was
+hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a lighted match approached
+and carelessly set fire to the powder. In a moment the building was blown
+into the air, and the palace, which the French were still assailing, was
+set on fire.
+
+The people were now rising, and the several detachments into which the
+attacking force had divided found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc,
+at the head of the main body, after losing heavily, barricaded himself in
+a stone warehouse on the quay, round which his foes gathered thickly.
+While there the bells of the city rang out merrily, a sound which he
+fancied to be made by his own men, who he thought were thus celebrating
+their victory. In reality it signified the victory of the Portuguese, who
+had fallen upon, defeated, and slaughtered one of his detachments. A
+second detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder the magazine,
+was set upon by the rabble and completely butchered. Duclerc’s defence
+soon grew hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion. The
+Portuguese sullied their victory by acts of cruel reprisal, many of the
+prisoners in their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven hundred of
+the French were killed and wounded. Six hundred, including the wounded,
+were taken prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment in the
+prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months after being taken. Soon after
+the fight the squadron appeared off the port, where its officers, learning
+of the loss of the assailants, squared their yards and sailed away for
+France. Thus ended the first act in our tragedy of plunder.
+
+The second act was one of revenge. In France was found a second Dominique
+de Gourgues to call to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen.
+France, indeed, was in a fury throughout when the news came of the inhuman
+slaughter of its citizens. The man who played the part of De Gourgues was
+a distinguished and able naval officer named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was
+moved by a double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope for plunder was
+an equally inspiring force. And the fame that might come to him with
+victory added still another motive. The path was made easy for him, for
+the government gave its approval to his enterprise, and certain wealthy
+citizens of St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to fit out the
+expedition.
+
+It was important to keep the affair secret, and the vessels were fitted
+out at different ports to avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual
+number of war-vessels were being got ready was soon afloat and reached
+Portugal, where its purpose was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and
+war-vessels was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements for Rio.
+The suspicion reached England, also, and that country, then on the side of
+Portugal, sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels of the
+expedition then lay, and prevent its sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not
+the man to be caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port
+before they were quite ready, leaving the British an empty harbor to seal
+up. The work of preparation was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet
+sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle ships, their
+number of guns varying from seventy-four to fifty-six, six frigates, and
+four smaller vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,—a
+formidable force to send against a colonial city.
+
+The powerful fleet made its way safely over the sea, and reached the
+vicinity of the northern Brazilian port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had
+some thought of beginning his work here, but his water-supply was getting
+low and he felt obliged to hasten on. On the 11th of September he found
+himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the city and its environing
+hills in full view.
+
+The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet from Lisbon having arrived,
+giving warning of the danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts and
+eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed harbor, within which lay four
+ships-of-the-line and as many frigates. Had all this force been directed
+by a man of ability the French might have found entrance to the bay
+impossible. But Francisco de Castro, the hopeless governor of the year
+before, was still at the head of affairs, and no man could have played
+more thoroughly into the hands of the French.
+
+As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A heavy fog descended,
+under cover of which the fleet ran with little damage past the forts and
+entered the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese were dismayed to see
+their foes inside. Gaspar da Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known
+as an able commander, but he was old and in feeble health, and such a
+panic now assailed him that he ran his ships in haste ashore and set fire
+to them, leaving to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor. Admiral
+Trouin had won the first move in the game.
+
+Governor de Castro proved to be as completely demoralized as Admiral da
+Costa. He had twice as many troops as the French, but not half the courage
+and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon, one of the chief defences,
+was blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during the state of
+panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed about four thousand men, erecting a
+battery on an island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying a
+range of hills to the left which gave him command of that section of the
+place. The governor with his troops looked on from a distance while the
+French pillaged the adjoining suburb, destitute of tactics that any one
+could discover unless he proposed to let the French enter the streets and
+then attack them from the houses.
+
+It was in this way they had been defeated the year before, but Trouin was
+too old a soldier to be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries on the
+surrounding hill-slopes till the town was commanded on three sides, while
+the governor kept the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no one
+knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with scarcely a blow in defence, to
+make himself master of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns
+in place to be able to batter the town to the dust.
+
+He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender, saying that he had been
+sent by the king of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc and
+the inhuman slaughter of his men. De Castro answered that his duty to his
+king would not permit him to surrender, and sought to show that the French
+had been honorably killed in battle and Duclerc murdered by an assassin
+beyond his control.
+
+A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved, and the French were
+permitted to go on with their works almost unmolested, the Portuguese
+occupying hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the enemy.
+Trouin had already begun the bombardment of the city, and on receiving the
+governor’s answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the same time
+there raged a tropical storm of great violence, accompanied by thunders
+that drowned the roar of the guns, the frightful combination throwing the
+people into such a state that they all fled in blind terror, the troops in
+the town with them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to launch his
+storming parties, word was brought him that the city was deserted and lay
+at his mercy. Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire by the
+governor’s order, but otherwise the rich city was abandoned, with all its
+wealth, to the French.
+
+Of the relics of Duclerc’s force, about five hundred remained alive in the
+city. These do not seem to have been then in prison, but living at large,
+and they were already abroad and plundering the abandoned city when the
+French forces entered. They had met good treatment as well as bad. Some of
+the people had been kind and hospitable to them, and in the sack of the
+city that ensued the houses of these charitable citizens were marked and
+left untouched.
+
+Otherwise the sack was general, houses and warehouses being broken open,
+and quantities of valuable goods which could not be taken off being thrown
+into the mud of the streets. Now was the opportunity for the Portuguese to
+attack. Trouin was aware of the danger, but was unable to control his men,
+and a sudden assault by the garrison might have proved disastrous to the
+French. But the opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in fact,
+surrendering all his forts and marching his troops a league from the city,
+where he lay waiting reinforcements from the interior while the French
+plundered at their leisure.
+
+Trouin was wise enough to know that his position was perilous. He might be
+overwhelmed by numbers, and it was important to finish his work and get
+away with little delay. But the plunder of the city was not sufficient for
+his purpose, and he sent word to the governor that he must ransom it or it
+would be burned. To make his word good he began by setting fire to the
+environs.
+
+De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any price, offered six hundred
+thousand _cruzadoes_. This was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the
+governor to a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through the
+city and showed him that he was spoiling everything that fire would not
+burn. Learning, however, that the expected reinforcements might soon
+arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to the front of the
+Portuguese camp, where he began to negotiate for better terms. The only
+addition De Castro would agree to was to promise the French a supply of
+cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed to collect the ransom.
+
+Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to waste, accepted the terms, and
+none too soon, for shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements, led
+by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp. They came too late, the
+treaty had been made, and the new general felt bound in honor to make it
+good. So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November the triumphant
+French set sail, their ships deep laden with the rich plunder of the
+Brazilian capital and the gold of the governor’s ransom.
+
+The return home was not attended with the success of the earlier part of
+the expedition. Trouin had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his
+return, but when he came near it the weather was so stormy that he was
+obliged to abandon this part of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on
+its way across the seas, and rose to such a height that two of his ships
+went to the bottom, carrying down twelve hundred men. One of these was the
+finest ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been laden with the most
+valuable booty. Of gold and silver alone it took down with it a weight
+valued at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel went ashore and was
+wrecked at Cayenne. Yet with all these losses, so much wealth was brought
+home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of ninety-two per cent.
+on their investment.
+
+The French had won in large measure revenge and plunder, while Trouin had
+gained his meed of fame. It was now Portugal’s time for vengeance, and it
+was visited principally on the worthless governor to whose cowardice the
+disaster was due. He had been praised and rewarded for the victory over
+Duclerc’ s expedition—praise and reward which he certainly did not
+deserve. For very similar conduct he was now deposed and sentenced to
+degradation and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge of cowardice and
+lack of judgment. His nephew was banished for life for bad conduct, and a
+captain who had given up his fort and fled was hung in effigy. There were
+no others to punish, and Portugal was obliged to hold its hand, France
+being a foe beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible misfortune, from
+which it took many years to recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds
+of a murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+
+
+The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon to the Black Sea, is one of
+the famous events of history. The march of the three hundred, from the
+Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to tell, is scarcely known to
+history at all, yet it was marked by a courage and command of resources as
+great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think our readers will agree with
+us when they read this story, taken from the records of the freebooters on
+the Spanish Main.
+
+After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the Atlantic coasts, various
+fleets of these piratical adventurers sought the Pacific waters in 1685,
+and there for several years made life scarce worth living to the
+inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities. Time and again these were
+plundered of their wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a
+veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went on, however, most of
+these freebooters withdrew, satisfied with their abundant gains, so that,
+by the end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and these were eager to
+return with their ill-gotten wealth to their native land.
+
+This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than three hundred in
+number, had their head-quarters on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the
+Central American coast. What vessels they had left were in a wretched
+condition, utterly unfit to attempt the vast sea voyage by way of the
+Straits of Magellan, and nothing seemed to remain for them but an attempt
+to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua and Honduras, fighting their
+way through a multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau de Lussan, one
+of the adventurers, we are indebted for the narrative of the singular and
+interesting adventure which follows.
+
+The daring band of French and English freebooters were very ill provided
+for the dangerous enterprise they had in view. They proposed to cross an
+unknown country without guides and with a meagre supply of provisions,
+fighting as they went and conveying their sick and wounded as best they
+could. They had also a number of prisoners whom they felt it necessary to
+take with them, since to set them free would be to divulge their weakness
+to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed to combine against them,
+yet if they ever wished to see their native lands again they must face
+every danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might escape to enjoy
+their spoils.
+
+After questioning their prisoners, they decided to take a route by way of
+the city of New Segovia, which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about
+one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and seventy-five miles from
+the waters of a river that flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic
+opposite Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further information about
+the route, sixty men were sent to explore the neighboring country. These
+advanced till they were near the small city of Chiloteca. Here, worn out
+by their journey and learning that they were in a thickly settled country,
+most of the pioneers decided to return. But eighteen of the bolder spirits
+had the audacity to advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand
+inhabitants.
+
+Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and so terrific a fusillade
+of shots that the frightened inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled
+in mortal terror, leaving the place to its captors. These quickly seized a
+number of horses, and made haste to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued
+by the Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful of men they had
+surrendered their city.
+
+On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters determined on the
+desperate venture. They had little to convey except their spoil, which,
+the result of numerous raids, was valued at about one million dollars. It
+chiefly consisted of gold and jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver,
+being left in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The spoil was very
+unequally owned, since the gambling which had gone on actively among them
+had greatly varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome the anger
+and jealousy which this created among the poorer, those with much to carry
+shared their portions among their companions, with the understanding that,
+if they reached the Antilles in safety, half of it should be returned. As
+for the prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and make use of them
+for carrying the utensils, provisions, and sick.
+
+On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters, two hundred and
+eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight horses, crossed in boats from
+their island refuge to the main-land and began their march. Their ships
+had been first destroyed, their cannon cast into the sea, and their
+bulkier effects burned. Divided into four companies, with forty men in
+front as an advance guard, they moved forward into a land of adventure and
+peril.
+
+It was soon found that the people expected and had prepared for their
+coming. Trees had been felled across the roads and efforts made to
+obstruct all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried away, and the dry
+herbage of the fields was set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating
+them with the heat and smoke. This was done to hinder their march until
+the Spaniards had completed a strong intrenchment which was being built at
+a suitable place on the route.
+
+Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the eighth day of their march they
+fell into one of these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards lay
+concealed on the ground and fired into their ranks. Though these were
+dispersed by a fierce charge, they followed the freebooters closely,
+annoying them from the shelter of woods and thickets. The next day a still
+larger ambuscade was laid, which, fortunately for the freebooters, was
+discovered and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards leaving their
+horses behind.
+
+Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here the buccaneers expected a
+severe engagement, and hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both they
+were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped, carrying all food with them.
+Their prisoners, who had served them as guides to this point, knew nothing
+of the country beyond, but they succeeded in taking a new prisoner who was
+familiar with the further route.
+
+The country they were passing through was mountainous and very difficult.
+Steep acclivities had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the
+borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid slopes to be descended.
+The nights were bitterly cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs,
+and their whole route was attended with danger, discomfort, and fatigue.
+
+New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all sides by mountains, one of
+which had to be ascended immediately on leaving the town. The next day’s
+dawn found them on its summit, with a valley far below them, in which, to
+their joy, they beheld a large number of animals which they took to be
+oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however, when the scouts they sent out
+came back with the information that these animals were horses, saddled and
+bridled, and that a series of formidable intrenchments had been built in
+the valley, rising like terraces, one above another, and carried to the
+mountains on each side, so as completely to close the route.
+
+There seemed no way to avoid these defences. On one side of the mountain
+flowed a river. A small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded the
+only passage which the freebooters could follow. The whole country round
+was thick forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not the slightest
+indication of a path could be seen. Yet to attack those works in front
+promised quick and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction
+they must find some way to outwit their foes. It was decided that the
+forest presented less dangers and difficulties than the fortified road,
+and that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement which would lead
+them to the rear of the enemy.
+
+During that day active preparations were made for the proposed movement.
+The three hundred Spaniards who had ambushed them some days before still
+hung upon their rear. Their horses, sick, and prisoners were therefore
+left in an enclosed camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and guarded
+by eighty of their number. As a means of impressing the enemy with their
+numbers and alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated at
+intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the sentinels with a great
+noise, and varied these signs of activity with cries and occasional
+discharges of musketry.
+
+Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended, the remainder of
+the freebooters, some two hundred in number, began their march, following
+the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine the forest. The
+difficulties of that night journey through the dense wood proved very
+great, there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend, and this
+needed to be done with as little noise as possible. Daybreak found the
+adventurers on a mountain elevation, from which they could see the Spanish
+intrenchments below them on the left. The greatest of their impediments
+had been surmounted, but there were difficulties still to be overcome.
+
+Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the morning light, which,
+while it rendered their downward passage critical, served to conceal them
+from the enemy below. As they came near the works the heavy tread of a
+patrol guided them in their course, and the morning prayers of the
+Spaniards were of still more advantage in indicating their distance and
+position. The freebooting band had reached the rear of the hostile army,
+composed of five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise on seeing
+their ferocious enemy rushing upon them with shouts and volleys, from this
+unlooked-for quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence.
+
+The other Spaniards behaved more courageously, but the appearance of the
+buccaneers within the works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them of
+spirit, and after an hour’s fight they, too, broke and fled. The trees
+they had felled to obstruct the road now contributed to their utter
+defeat, and they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an attempt at
+resistance. We can scarcely credit the testimony of the freebooters,
+however, that their sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The
+success of the advance party was equalled by that of the guard of armed
+men left in the camp, who, after some negotiations with the troop of
+Spaniards in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and dispersed all
+who were not cut down.
+
+That the freebooters were as much surprised as gratified by the signal
+success of their stratagem need scarcely be said. One of the panics which
+are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them from threatened
+annihilation. They learned, however, the disquieting fact that six miles
+farther on was another strong intrenchment which could not be avoided, the
+country permitting no choice of roads. In their situation there was
+nothing to do but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately for them
+their remarkable success spread such terror before it that, when they
+appeared before these new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but
+remained quietly behind their breastworks while their dreaded foes marched
+past.
+
+The seventeenth day of their march carried them to the banks of the river
+towards which their route had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream
+which rises in the mountains near New Segovia and flows through a
+difficult rock channel, with numerous cascades, three of them amounting to
+cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after a course of several
+hundred miles.
+
+How they were to descend this mountain torrent was the question which now
+offered itself to them. It presented a more attractive route of travel
+than the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was marked by
+difficulties of a formidable character. These were overcome by the
+freebooters in an extraordinary manner, one almost or quite without
+parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they adopted was certainly
+of curious interest.
+
+Before them was a large and rapid river, its current impeded by a
+multitude of rocks and broken by rapids and cascades. They were destitute
+of ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any ordinary kind of
+boats would have been of no use to them in such a stream. It occurred to
+them that what they needed to navigate a river of this character was
+something of the nature of large baskets or tuns, in which they might
+float enclosed to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact with
+the rocks by the aid of poles.
+
+They had no models for such floating contrivances, and were obliged to
+invent them. Near the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied
+them abundantly with young trees, of light wood. These they cut down,
+stripped off their bark, collected them by fives, and, lacking ropes,
+fastened them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of gum which the
+forest provided. A large number of small, frail, basket-like contrivances
+were thus made, each large enough to carry two men, with whom they would
+sink in the water as deep as the waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but
+his description does not make it clear just what they were like.
+
+While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part of their horses, and
+salted their flesh for food, all the work being done with the energy and
+activity necessary in their critical situation. During it they were not
+molested by the Spaniards, but no one could tell how soon they might be.
+When all was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty of which
+they had long been deprived, and entered upon one of the most perilous
+examples of navigation that can well be imagined.
+
+Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found themselves tossed about
+by the impetuous current, and speedily covered with spray. The lightness
+of their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but the energetic
+efforts they were obliged to make to keep from being thrown out or dashed
+on the rocks soon exhausted them. A short experience taught them the
+necessity of fastening themselves in the piperies, so that their hands
+might be free to keep them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally
+their frail crafts were overturned or buried under the waves in the swift
+rapids, and the inmates were either drowned or escaped by abandoning the
+treasures which weighed them down.
+
+Whatever else may be said of this method of navigation, it proved a rapid
+one, the frail barks being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of the
+cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water, and here it became
+necessary to swim to the shore and descend the rocks to the bottom of the
+fall. Some who remained behind threw the piperies into the stream to be
+carried over the liquid precipice, and recovered by swimming out to meet
+them, or replaced by new ones when lost.
+
+After three days of this singular navigation it was decided, in view of
+the fact that the piperies were often dashed together to their mutual
+injury, to separate and keep at a distance from each other, those who went
+first marking out by small flags where it was necessary to land. During
+their progress the question of food again became prominent, the salted
+horsemeat they had brought with them being spoiled by its frequent
+wetting. Game was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and the
+only food to be found was the fruit of the banana-tree, which grew
+abundantly on the banks.
+
+The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by the danger of their
+situation. They made the most earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil,
+and some of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to gain the wealth of
+their richer comrades. The dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and
+six conspiring Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked and killed five
+Englishmen who were known to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies,
+they took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses on the bank.
+Those who saw them had no time to think of avenging them.
+
+Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and its course less impetuous.
+The cascades were all passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating or
+anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies were overturned and
+their occupants drowned. To avoid this danger the piperies were now
+abandoned and the freebooters divided themselves into detachments and
+began to build large canoes from the forest trees. Four of these, carrying
+one hundred and thirty men, were soon ready and their builders again took
+to the stream. Of the fate of the others, who remained behind, no further
+account is given by the historian of this adventure.
+
+On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure from the Pacific,
+the adventurers reached the river’s mouth, having completed their
+remarkable feat of crossing the continent in the face of the most
+threatening perils from man and nature. But fortune only partly favored
+them, for many had lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their
+career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags about their limbs.
+Some, indeed, had been more fortunate or more adroit in their singular
+navigation, but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and miserable party
+when, a few days afterwards, they reached the isle of Perlas. Here were
+some friendly vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end of April
+they reached the West Indies, with the little that remained of their
+plunder.
+
+Such was the end of this remarkable achievement, one which for boldness,
+intrepidity, and skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals of
+history, and which, if performed by men of note, instead of by an obscure
+band of robbers, would have won for them a high meed of fame.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+
+
+Never were a people more terribly treated than the natives of America
+under the Spanish adventurers. The often told story that the Indians of
+Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after the settlement of that
+island is sufficient evidence of the frightfully inhuman treatment to
+which they were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for justice and
+humanity in the dealings with the Indians, but the settlers, thousands of
+miles away, paid no attention to these laws, and the red men were almost
+everywhere reduced to slavery, or where free and given political rights,
+were looked upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district Spain
+placed an official called the "Protector of the Indians," but it does not
+appear that they were much the better off for their "Protectors." It is
+our purpose here to say something about the cruel treatment of the natives
+in South America.
+
+                 [Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.]
+
+                         INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+
+
+The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied to their dealings with
+the Indians, the _encomiendo_, the _mitad_, and the _repartimiento_, each
+indicating a form of injustice. The conquerors divided the country between
+them, and the _encomiendos_ were rights granted them to hold the Indians
+for a number of years as workers in their fields or their mines. Under
+these grants, the natives were converted into beasts of burden, and forced
+to do the hardest work without the least compensation. They were obliged
+to labor all day long under the burning tropical sun, to dive into the sea
+in search of pearls for their masters, or to toil buried from the light of
+day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising that these miserable
+slaves, accustomed to a life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed
+to a killing plague.
+
+The _mitad_ was a law formed for their protection, but it soon became one
+of the worst of the abuses. Under it every man from the age of eighteen to
+fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives of each mining
+colony of South America being divided into seven sections, each of which
+had to work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner could demand the
+number of Indians he needed. In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were
+worked, and labor of this kind was in constant demand.
+
+As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need only say that when any man
+was called upon to work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence of
+death. Before going he gave all his possessions to his relatives, and they
+went through the funeral service, as if he were already dead. They well
+knew the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was said for him at the
+church, and he had to take an oath of fidelity to the king. Then he was
+sprinkled with holy water and sent away to his deadly service. Deadly we
+may well call it, for it is said that scarcely a fifth part of these
+miners lived through their term of labor.
+
+Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep underground shafts and
+galleries, and passing from the pure air of heaven to a pestilential
+atmosphere, excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of strength and
+often of life. If they survived this, a species of asthma usually carried
+them off during the year. We may judge of the results from the calculation
+that the _mitad_ in Peru alone had eight million victims.
+
+The law limited the _mitad_ to those living within thirty miles of a mine,
+but laborers were often brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As
+for the small wages paid them, the masters took part of it from them in
+payment for their food, and usually got the remainder by giving credit for
+clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by good fortune the Indian
+had not lost his life at the end of his term of service, he might be
+brought into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a slave for life.
+
+The _repartimiento_ was another protective law, which also became a means
+of oppression. Under it the district officials were required to supply all
+things needed by the Indians, there being, when the law was passed, no
+peddlers or travelling dealers. This privilege was quickly and shamelessly
+abused, the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain, sour wine,
+and other inferior supplies, often at three or four times their value when
+of good quality. They were even made to buy things at high prices which
+were of no possible use to them, such as silk stockings for men who went
+barefoot, and razors for those who had scarcely any beard to shave. One
+_corregidor_ bought a box of spectacles from a trader, and made the
+natives buy these at his own price, to wear when they went to mass,
+without regard to the fact that they were utterly useless to them.
+
+The oppression of the natives was not confined to the laity, but the
+clergy were often as unjust. They forced them to pay not only the tithes,
+but extravagant prices for every church service, forty reals being charged
+for a baptism, twenty for a marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial,
+etc. Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the poor Indians, enabled
+the clergy to build costly churches and mission houses and to keep up
+abundant revenues.
+
+These general statements very faintly picture the actual state to which
+the Indians were reduced. This may be better shown by some instances of
+their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example, of the province of
+Velez, New Grenada, were reduced to such extreme misery by the
+embezzlement of the funds, that whole families flung themselves from the
+top of a rock twelve hundred feet high into the river below. One night, in
+order to escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole tribes of the
+Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves, preferring death to the horrors of
+Spanish rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in peril of being
+enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that a quick death was better than a
+slow one under the torture of incessant toil.
+
+In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives had come together with
+the intention of killing themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope
+in his hand, and told them that if they did not give up their purpose he
+would hang himself with them. This threat filled them with such horror at
+the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit world, that they fled
+from the spot, preferring life with all its terrors to such a companion.
+
+As may well be imagined, the natives did not all yield resistlessly to
+their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation at the quantity of gold-dust which
+they were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm, in the
+province of Canas, seized the brutal Spanish collector one day, and gave
+him melted gold to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst
+for gold."
+
+In December, 1767, the descendants of the two tribes which had owned the
+mining valley of Caravaya descended on the white inhabitants in revenge
+for a usurpation of their lands which had taken place more than two
+centuries before. They settled the question of ownership by burning the
+city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and clubs. When news of
+this was received by the viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece of
+the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru. He was prevented from
+carrying out this threat only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita
+Gallegas, whom he loved, and who convinced him that it was his duty as a
+Christian to convert them to the religion of Christ rather than to
+massacre them.
+
+In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of the persecuted natives. It
+was especially notable as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca
+Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards in 1562. This noble
+Indian, the last of the Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in
+Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His virtues were such as to
+gain him the respect and esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated
+him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient emperors.
+
+One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity of the _corregidor_ of
+Tuita, who had laid three _repartimientos_ on the Indians in a single
+year, seized the tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own hands.
+Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru, he proclaimed himself
+the chief of all those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards.
+
+His error seems to have been in not fraternizing with the creoles, or
+white natives of the country, who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the
+Indians themselves. On the contrary he treated these as enemies also, and
+thus greatly augmented the number of his foes. The Indians, their memories
+of their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his ranks in
+enthusiastic numbers and won several victories over the whites, the whole
+of Upper Peru breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as they did,
+they kept up the struggle for a year, the outbreak being brought to an end
+at last by treachery instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to whom the
+Spaniards promised a colonel’s commission,—a promise they did not
+keep,—the Inca was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to Cuzco,
+the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here he was tried and condemned to
+death, and executed with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with
+horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale became known.
+
+Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and children, and his
+brother-in-law, Bastidas, were brought before him, their tongues cut out,
+and then put to death by the Spanish method of strangling before his eyes.
+His little son was left alive to witness his death. This was one in which
+the most brutal tortures of mediæval times seemed revived. His tongue
+being torn out, his limbs were tied to four horses, which were driven in
+different directions with the purpose of tearing him limb from limb. The
+horses proved unable to do this, and he remained suspended in agony, until
+one of the more merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by cutting off
+his head. During this revolting scene the little son of the victim gave
+vent to a terrible scream of agony, the memory of which haunted many of
+the executioners to their death.
+
+The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the rebellious towns, his
+body was burned to ashes, his house was razed, his property confiscated,
+and his family declared infamous forever. One of his brothers was sent to
+Spain and condemned to the galleys, in which he remained for thirty years.
+Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to overcome the love of liberty
+in the natives of Peru.
+
+As for the natives themselves, what few privileges they had retained were
+taken from them, their meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any
+one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal. These severe
+measures were thought sufficient to intimidate the Indians, but they only
+exasperated them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a cousin of
+Amaru, who had escaped capture, and another chief named Catari, led them
+in a campaign of revenge in which they fought with the fury of despair.
+The lives of five hundred Spaniards, it is said, paid the penalty for each
+of the victims of that dread execution in Cuzco.
+
+Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all the white families of the
+vicinity had taken refuge with their treasures. The artillery of the
+fortifications seemed an invulnerable defence against the poorly armed
+besiegers, but Andres succeeded in making a breach by turning the mountain
+streams against the walls. Once within, the exasperated Indians took a
+terrible revenge, a single priest being, as we are told, the sole survivor
+of the twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards put down the
+insurrection by treachery and cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres
+to Ceuta, in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820.
+
+We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese of Brazil treated the
+natives of that land with a cruelty little less than that shown by the
+Spaniards, sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians to serve as
+slaves. Those who opposed them were shot down without mercy, and it is
+said that, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants infected
+with the virus of smallpox were sent to the Botocudos, as a convenient
+means of getting rid of that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the
+greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared. The natives
+of South America obtained justice and honorable treatment only after the
+people of that country had won their liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+When the English conquered the island of Jamaica and drove the Spaniards
+out of it, they failed to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had
+been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought for and maintained their
+freedom. Such were the Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica,
+whose story is well worth telling.
+
+First we must say something about the history of this island, and how it
+came into English hands. It was long held by the Spaniards, being
+discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In his last voyage
+he had a dismal experience there. With his vessels battered and ready to
+sink, after running through a severe wind storm, he put into the harbor of
+Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica. He afterwards left this for a small bay,
+still known after him as Don Christopher’s Cove, and here, attacked by the
+warlike natives, and unable to put to sea, he was kept captive in his
+shattered hulks for a whole year.
+
+The Indians refused him food, and the tradition goes that he got this at
+length by a skilful artifice. Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon
+would soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief that the lights in
+the sky were under his control, and if they did not give him supplies he
+would put out the light of the moon and never let it shine again on their
+island. The Indians laughed with scorn at this threat, but when they saw
+the moon gradually losing its light and fading into darkness, they fell
+into a panic, and begged him to let it shine again, promising to bring him
+all the food he wanted. At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after
+retiring for a time to his cabin, came forth and told them that he would
+consent to bring back the lost moonlight. After that the Indians saw that
+the crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his crew were finally
+rescued by an expedition sent from Hispaniola.
+
+Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of keeping its old Indian
+name, signifying a land of springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land
+of mountains also; if it had not been we would have had no story to tell,
+for these mountains were the haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons.
+The island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after the detention of
+Columbus on its shores. Many years after that we find its Spanish settlers
+oppressing all the English that fell into their hands. This was the case,
+in fact, all through the West Indies, English seamen being put in the
+stocks, sent to the galleys, or murdered outright.
+
+It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell to put an end to these
+outrages. He sent word to the Spanish minister that there must be a stop
+put to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction of free
+navigation in the West Indies. The minister replied, that to ask for these
+two things was "to ask for his master’s two eyes," and that no such thing
+could be allowed. Cromwell’s reply was to the point:
+
+"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but by force, which by the
+same title may be repelled. And as to the first discovery—to me it seems
+as little reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon the coast of
+India should entitle the king of Spain to that country as the sailing of
+an Indian or English ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle either
+the Indians or the English to the dominion thereof. The Spaniards have
+contravented the Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable when peace
+is not allowable."
+
+This reply was certainly one marked by sound logic and good sense. It was
+the rule of force, not of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in
+America, and this rule could be set aside by superior force. So Cromwell
+sent out a great fleet under command of Admiral Penn,—father of William
+Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,—with a land force commanded by General
+Venables. The first attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here, the
+fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards surrendered on the 11th of
+May, 1655. They tried to take it back again shortly before Cromwell’s
+death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained an English island
+from that day to this.
+
+This is about all we need say by way of preface, except to remark that
+many settlers were sent to Jamaica, and the island soon became well
+peopled and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor, coming to be the
+liveliest city in the West Indies. It was known as the wickedest city as
+well as the richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and Port Royal,
+with the sandy slope on which it was built, slipped into the sea with all
+its dwellings, warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people, the
+disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment from heaven. There is one
+thing more worth mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer, whose deeds
+of shameful cruelty at Panama we have described, became afterwards deputy
+governor of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was given him by
+King Charles II. It is not easy to know why this was done, unless it be
+true, as was then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his bloody
+deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan, as governor, turned hotly upon
+his former associates, and hunted down the buccaneers without mercy,
+hanging and shooting all he could lay hands on, until he fairly put an end
+to the trade which had made him rich.
+
+Let us come now to the story of the Maroons, that nest of fugitives who
+made things hot enough for the English in Jamaica for many years. When
+Cromwell’s soldiers took possession of Jamaica few or none of those
+warlike Indians, who had given Columbus so much trouble, were left. In
+their place were about two thousand negro slaves, and these fled to the
+mountains, as the Indians had done before them. There they remained in
+freedom, though the English did their best to coax them to come down and
+enjoy the blessings of slavery again, and though they tried their utmost
+to drive them down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns. In spite
+of all the whites could do, the negroes, "Maroons," as they were called,
+long preserved their liberty.
+
+In 1663 the British, finding that they could not master the warlike
+fugitives by force, offered them a full pardon, with liberty and twenty
+acres of land apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who were
+masters of the whole mountainous interior, where thousands could live in
+plenty, chose to stay where they were and not to trust to the slippery
+faith of the white man. And so it went on until after 1730, when the
+depredations of the negroes upon the settlements became so annoying that
+two regiments of British regulars and all the militia of the island were
+sent into the mountains to put them down. As it proved, the negroes still
+held their own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and very few of them
+killed. They were decidedly masters of the situation.
+
+At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by name, was a dusky dwarf,
+sable, ugly, and uncouth, but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of
+discounting all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian he, but a full
+Pagan, worshipping, with his followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the
+deities of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in the defiles of
+the John Crow Mountains, was named Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two
+mountain streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high into a
+romantic gorge, where their waters met in a seething caldron called
+"Nanny’s Pot." Into this, as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny
+could, by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued them. As for
+old Cudjoe himself, the English declared that he must be in league with
+the devil, whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother. And they
+were not without warrant for this belief, for he held his own against them
+for nine long years, at the end of which the Maroons were more numerous
+than at the beginning, since those who were killed were more than made up
+by fresh accessions of runaway slaves.
+
+It is certain that the British soldiers were no match for Cudjoe the
+dwarf. Retreating warily before them, he drew them into many an ambush in
+the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were cut down like sheep,
+the waters of the "Pot" being often reddened with their blood. From many
+of the expeditions sent against him only a few weary and wounded survivors
+returned, and it became difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into
+that den of death.
+
+At length a British officer succeeded in dragging two mountain howitzers
+up the cliffs to a position from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon
+stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells, hurled from the distant
+cannon, began to burst among them, the Maroons were at first so filled
+with terror that some of them threw themselves over the cliffs, but the
+bulk of them merely scattered and let the howitzers do their work among
+empty walls.
+
+Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but he was too old a bird to
+be frightened. "Dis a new way de buckra man got to fight," he said. "He
+fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire little ones arter you.
+Dat’s berry cunnin’, but ole Cudjoe know somethin’ better un dat."
+
+Leading his men through the woods with the stealthy tread and noiseless
+skill of the American Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst
+upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they were busy about their
+guns, delivering a telling volley and then rushing upon them with blade
+and axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious onset, and the
+shell-delivering howitzers remained in Cudjoe’s hands.
+
+Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons by the arts of civilized
+warfare, the British were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they brought
+from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians, who were fully the equal of
+the negroes in bush fighting. These were launched upon the track of the
+Maroons and soon ran them down in their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny
+Town the seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island, but at
+length the Maroons, finding their new foes fully their match in their own
+methods, consented to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though only
+on the terms that they should retain their full freedom.
+
+The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town, the Maroons being
+represented by Captains Cudjoe, Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and
+a number of their followers, "who have been in a state of war and
+hostility for several years past against our sovereign lord the king and
+the inhabitants of this island."
+
+By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to retain their liberty
+forever, to be granted a large tract of land in the mountains, and to
+enjoy full freedom of trade with the whites. On their part they agreed to
+keep peace with the whites, to return all runaway slaves who should come
+among them, and to aid the whites in putting down the rebellion and in
+fighting any foreign invader.
+
+In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against local outbreaks was put to
+the test when the fierce Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and
+committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons joined the whites and
+seemed very zealous in their cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a
+large number of ears, which they said they had cut from the heads of
+rebels killed by them. It afterwards was found that the ears had been
+obtained from the negroes who had been slain by the troops and left where
+they fell.
+
+The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795, not without outbreaks on their
+part and depredations on the settlements. In the year named two of them
+were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to the workhouse and given
+thirty-nine lashes on the bare back. When set free they went home in a
+fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they had suffered, being
+whipped by the black driver of the workhouse in the presence of felon
+slaves. The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who felt that
+they had been outraged by this insult to two of their kindred, and a
+revolt broke out that spread rapidly throughout the mountains.
+
+The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to put down the rebels by force
+of arms might lead to the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But it
+was remembered that in the former war the use of dogs had proved very
+advantageous, so agents were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of
+bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the Spaniards against the
+Indians two centuries before were once more brought into use. One hundred
+hounds were bought and with them came forty Cuban huntsmen, mostly
+mulattoes. As it proved, the very news of the coming of the hounds had the
+desired effect, the Maroons being apparently much more afraid of these
+ferocious dogs than of trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately
+sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us, "It is pleasing to
+observe that not a drop of blood was spilt after the dogs arrived in the
+island." Peace was made within a week, and in the next year the chief
+offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and put at work on the
+fortifications. They were afterwards sent to Liberia.
+
+From that time forward there was no trouble with the Maroons. Their
+descendants still dwell in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there
+was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery having been abolished
+thirty years before. The Maroons were called upon to help the troops put
+down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and rendered useful aid in the
+brief conflict. When it was over the black warriors were invited to
+Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city had their first sight
+of the redoubtable Maroons. Black and brawny, they had the dignified
+carriage of men who had always been free and independent, while some of
+them wore with pride silver medals which their ancestors had been given
+for former aid to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons are
+now among its most trusty inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+
+TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+
+
+The people of Europe have not stood alone in settling and ruling America,
+for the blacks of Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have made
+themselves masters of one of the largest and most fertile islands of the
+West Indies, that attractive gem of the tropics which, under the name of
+Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish dominions on American soil.
+
+Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history. The Spaniards enslaved its
+original inhabitants and treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon
+annihilated. Then the island was filled with negro slaves. About 1630 the
+buccaneers, or hunters of wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these
+were mostly French, the western part of the island was ceded to France in
+1697. During the century that followed Africans were brought over in
+multitudes, until there were nearly half a million blacks in Hayti,—the
+Indian name of the island,—while there were less than forty thousand
+whites and thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither citizens
+nor slaves. These facts are given as a necessary introduction to the story
+we are about to tell.
+
+It was the white revolution in France that brought about the black
+revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the States-General met in France and
+overturned the ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty for all
+was the tocsin of its members, and it was proclaimed that not only the
+whites of France and her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to
+freedom and a voice in the government. The news of this decree created a
+ferment of passion in Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had
+long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore all allegiance to
+France, and trampled the national flag under foot in their rage.
+
+But they had others than the French Assembly to deal with. The mulattoes,
+or free people of color, rose in arms for the rights of which they had
+been deprived. They were soon put down, but in the following year (1791) a
+much more terrible outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There followed
+a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as that of France. The revolt
+began on the night of August 21, on the plantation of Noé, near Cape
+Haytien. The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly killed all the
+whites who fell into their hands. Down from the mountains they poured on
+every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation. Hills and plains
+were swept with fire and sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were
+committed, and nearly all the residents on the plantations, more than two
+thousand in number, were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar and
+coffee estates were swept by fire.
+
+In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the whites of the cities to
+repel the blacks, but later, believing themselves betrayed by the whites,
+they joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of extermination. It
+did not end until the negroes became masters of all the country districts,
+and gained a control of the mountainous interior of the island which,
+except for a brief interval, they have ever since retained.
+
+This success was in great part due to the famous leader of the blacks, the
+renowned Toussaint L’Ouverture, a man who proved himself one of the
+greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti, of negro parents, he was
+descended from an African prince, and, slave though he was in condition,
+had himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to read and write, and
+also something of mathematics and of Latin, and was taken from the fields
+to become coachman for the overseer of the estate of his master, the Count
+de Breda.
+
+When the negro revolt began, and the furious blacks were seeking victims
+on all sides, Toussaint concealed the overseer and his family in the
+forest, took them food at the risk of his own life, and finally led them
+to the coast, where they took ship for the United States.
+
+While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a gigantic black named
+Bouckman, and subsequently by three others, were continuing their course
+of butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them after the escape of the
+overseer, and quickly gained an influence over them, largely from his
+knowledge of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery. This
+influence enabled him to put himself at their head and to mitigate the
+ferocity of their actions. His ascendency was due not only to his
+knowledge, but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening a breach
+in the ranks of the enemy he became known as L’Ouverture, or the opener.
+
+                [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.]
+
+                        SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+
+
+Under their new leader the revolted slaves held their own against their
+enemies, declaring in favor of the king, Louis XVI., and against the
+revolutionists. On the other hand, the English came to the aid of the
+whites, and the island was thrown into a state of horrible confusion,
+increased by the interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern
+section of the island.
+
+In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued a decree demanding the
+liberation of the slaves, Toussaint and his followers joined the
+revolutionary cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to expel the
+British and Spanish invaders. In this campaign he won a number of
+victories, and showed such military skill and ability as to prove him a
+leader of the highest qualities. Beard says of him, "His energy and his
+prowess made him the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike
+achievements he equalled the great captains of ancient and modern times."
+
+One example of the risks which he ran in battle occurred in his efforts to
+put down an insurrection of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an
+ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a shower of bullets sweeping
+his ranks. His private physician fell dead by his side and a plume of
+feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained unharmed. The same was
+the case soon after when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot down.
+The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to bear a charmed life.
+
+Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony, he wrote to the
+Directory in Paris, guaranteeing to be responsible for the orderly
+behavior of the blacks and their good will to France. He sent at the same
+time his two elder sons to Paris to be educated, making them practically
+hostages for his honor and good faith.
+
+In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came to an end, the British
+being expelled from the island and the rebellious mulattoes put down.
+Peace prevailed, and the negro conqueror now devoted himself to the
+complete pacification of the people. Agriculture was encouraged, the
+churches were reopened, schools were established, and law and justice were
+made equal for all. At the same time the army was kept in excellent
+training and a rigid discipline exacted.
+
+As is usual in such cases, there were abundant applications among the
+negroes for official positions, and Toussaint was sorely put to it to
+dispose of these ignorant aspirers after high places without giving
+offence. He seems, however, to have been well versed in political
+management, and is said to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a
+judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you would make an excellent
+magistrate. Of course you understand Latin.—No?—Why, that is very
+unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely necessary."
+
+There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing with his people that is
+worth repeating. As has been said, when the revolution began Hayti had
+about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand whites and mulattoes.
+Toussaint adopted an original method of making the force of this fact
+evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with black grains of corn
+and throw upon them a few grains of white. "You are the black grains," he
+would say; "your enemies are the white." Then he would shake the glass.
+"Where are the white grains now? You see they have disappeared."
+
+The authorities in France could not but recognize the ability and the
+moderation of the black leader, and in 1796 he was appointed
+commander-in-chief in the island, a commission which was confirmed by
+Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes and colors regarded him as a
+general benefactor and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity
+were restored, and his government was conducted with moderation and
+humanity. It looked as though peace and good will might continue in Hayti
+as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily he had to deal with a
+man in whom ambition and pride of place overruled all conceptions of
+justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had now risen to the supreme
+power in France.
+
+Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two letters which Toussaint sent
+him, after having completely pacified the island. These were addressed,
+"The First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites." The assumed equality
+seems to have touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained to
+answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early in 1800 a republican
+constitution was drafted under the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti
+virtually independent, though under the guardianship of France. An
+election was held and the liberator chosen president for life.
+
+When the news of this action reached France in July, 1800, Napoleon was
+furious. He had just been made First Consul and would brook no equal. "He
+is a revolted slave, whom we must punish," he exclaimed; "the honor of
+France is outraged." Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he
+sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of about thirty-five
+thousand men, under General Leclerc, the husband of Pauline Bonaparte.
+Pauline accompanied him, and also several officers who had been former
+opponents of Toussaint.
+
+Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been idle. Having subdued the
+French portion of the island, he led his army into the Spanish portion,
+which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital, being taken on January
+2, 1801. When the keys of this city were handed to him by its governor,
+the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept them in the name of the
+French Republic." Yet his conquests in the name of France did not soften
+the heart of the First Consul, who was bent on treating him as a daring
+rebel. The Peace of Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe, and
+the expedition under Leclerc reached the island about the end of 1801.
+
+To oppose the strong army of Napoleon’s veterans, men who had been trained
+to victory under his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little more
+than half as strong. As he looked at the soldiers disembarking from the
+ships in the Bay of Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost! All
+France is coming to invade our poor island!"
+
+The French made landings at several of the ports of Hayti, driving back
+their defenders. The city of San Domingo, held by Toussaint’s brother,
+Paul, was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was to figure high in the
+subsequent history of the island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when
+Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go tell your general that the
+French shall march here only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn
+beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for when he found further
+defence impossible, he set fire to the city and retreated to the
+mountains, taking with him two thousand white prisoners. Grief and despair
+filled the soul of Toussaint when, marching to the relief of Cristophe, he
+saw the roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes.
+
+But though the French became masters of the ports, the army of the blacks
+maintained itself in the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied
+all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost heavily, and began to
+despair of subduing his able opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to
+strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint’s two sons. Napoleon had
+interviewed these boys before their departure from France, saying to them,
+"Your father is a great man, and has rendered good service to France. Tell
+him I say so, and bid him not to believe I have any hostile intention
+against the island. The troops I send are not designed to fight the
+natives, but to increase their strength, and the man I have appointed to
+command is my own brother-in-law."
+
+Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the demand that he should
+submit or send his children back as hostages. An affecting interview took
+place between the boys and their father, and when they repeated to him
+Napoleon’s words, he was at first inclined to yield, but fuller
+consideration induced him to refuse.
+
+"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The First Consul offers me peace,
+but his general no sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No; my
+country demands my first consideration. Take back my sons."
+
+In the continuation of the war a French force of twenty thousand men under
+Rochambeau marched against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at Crête
+à Pierrot. In the contest that followed Toussaint at first outgeneralled
+Rochambeau and defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance he looked
+for from his subordinates failed to reach him, and at length he was forced
+to retreat.
+
+The French, however, despite their superior numbers and the military
+experience of their leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in the
+negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to negotiation, offering the
+blacks their freedom if they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was
+unable to hold his own against his powerful foe, and convinced that the
+terms offered would be advantageous to his country, now decided to accept
+them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable for the people and
+for the army; as for myself, I wish to live in retirement."
+
+The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much. The pride of Napoleon
+had not yet digested the affront of Toussaint’s message, "From the First
+of the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent orders to Leclerc
+to arrest and send him to France. In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly
+at night to Toussaint’s home, where he was dwelling in peace and quiet.
+The house was surrounded, two blacks that sought to defend him were killed
+on the spot, and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the coast. Here
+he was placed on board a man-of-war, which at once set sail for France.
+
+Napoleon’s treatment of Toussaint was one of the dark deeds in his career.
+Reaching France, the captive was separated from his wife and children and
+confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier castle. Here, one morning in
+April, 1803, Toussaint L’Ouverture, the negro liberator, was found dead.
+He had been starved to death, if we may accept the belief of some authors.
+
+The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he might easily have
+accumulated vast wealth. In his official position he had maintained a
+degree of magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had concealed great
+riches somewhere in the island. He sent spies to question him, but
+Toussaint’s only reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not those I
+have lost." The lost ones were his wife, his children, and his liberty.
+
+Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was soon to find that he had
+made a fatal mistake in his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed
+at his seizure, and having no one to control them, the negroes flew to
+arms, and soon the revolt spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came
+to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc’s army until thousands of
+soldiers and fifteen hundred officers found graves in the land they had
+invaded. In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was taken back to
+France. When Napoleon heard the story of the fate of his expedition, he
+exclaimed in dismay,—
+
+"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine army; the body of a
+brother-in-law, of a general, my right arm, a handful of dust! All has
+perished, all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land! Perfidious
+colonists! A wretched slave in revolt. These are the causes of so many
+evils." He might more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause of all
+those evils."
+
+A few words must conclude this tale. General Rochambeau was sent large
+reinforcements, and with an army of twenty thousand men attempted the
+reconquest of the island. After a campaign of ferocity on both sides, he
+found himself blockaded at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to
+the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom he yielded the eight
+thousand men he had left. As he sailed from the island he saw the
+mountain-tops blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled by the blacks.
+From that day to this the island of Hayti has remained in the hands of the
+negro race.
+
+
+
+
+
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+
+
+One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer crept stealthily into a
+house in Jamaica, where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing
+silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin plunged his knife into
+his breast, then turned and fled. Fortunately for American independence he
+had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had been hired to kill was Simon
+Bolivar, the great leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But on that
+night Bolivar’s secretary occupied his hammock, and the "Liberator"
+escaped.
+
+Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island, after the failure of his
+early attempt to win freedom for his native land of Venezuela. He was soon
+back there again, however, with recruited forces, and for years afterwards
+the war went on, with variations of failure and success, the Spanish
+general Morillo treating the people who fell into his hands with revolting
+cruelty.
+
+It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the true road to success.
+This was by leaving Venezuela, from which he had sought in vain to
+dislodge the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more promising field
+of New Granada. So confident of victory did he feel in this new plan that
+he issued the following proclamation to the people of New Granada: "The
+day of America has come; no human power can stay the course of Nature
+guided by Providence. Before the sun has again run his annual course
+altars to Liberty will arise throughout your land."
+
+Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a British legion, recruited in
+London among the disbanded soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had also
+sent General Santander to the frontier of New Granada, and General
+Barreiro, the Spanish general, had been driven back. Encouraged by this
+success, he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in June, 1819,
+bringing with him a force of twenty-five hundred men, including his
+British auxiliaries.
+
+Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to conquer in nature as in
+the human enemy. In order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an
+enormous plain which at that season of the year was covered with water,
+and to swim some deep rivers, his war materials needing to be transported
+over these streams. But this was child’s play compared with what lay
+before him. To reach his goal the Andes had to be crossed at some of their
+most forbidding points, a region over which it seemed next to impossible
+for men to go, even without military supplies.
+
+When the invading army left the plains for the mountains the soldiers
+quickly found themselves amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose
+the snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera, and the waters of
+the plain through which they had waded were here replaced by the rapids
+and cataracts of mountain streams. The roads in many places followed the
+edge of steep precipices, and were bordered by gigantic trees, while the
+clouds above them poured down incessant rains.
+
+Four days of this march used up most of the horses, which were foundered
+by the difficulties of the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of
+Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were at home only on the plain,
+deserted on finding themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents
+there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed of tree-trunks, or the
+aërial _taravitas_. These consisted of stout ropes made by twisting
+several thongs of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees on the
+two banks of the ravine, while from them was suspended a cradle or hammock
+of capacity for two persons, which was drawn backward and forward by long
+lines. Horses and mules were similarly drawn across, suspended by long
+girths around their bodies.
+
+Where the streams were fordable the current was usually so strong that the
+infantry had to pass two by two with their arms thrown round each other’s
+shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their lives. Bolivar
+frequently passed these torrents back and forward on horseback, carrying
+the sick and weakly, or the women who accompanied the expedition.
+
+In the lower levels the climate was moist and warm, only a little firewood
+being needed for their nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached
+localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the stoutest clothing,
+while immense heaps of rocks and hills of snow bounded the view on every
+side and clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only sounds to be
+heard were those of the roaring torrents they had passed and the scream of
+the condor as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all vegetation
+disappeared except the clinging lichens and a tall plant which bore plumes
+instead of leaves and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a
+funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey the path was marked by
+crosses, erected in memory of travellers who had perished by the way.
+
+In this glacial region the provisions brought with them gave out. The
+cattle on which they had depended as their chief resource could go no
+farther. Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at length they
+reached the summit of the Paya pass, a natural stronghold where a
+battalion would have been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost of
+three hundred men occupied it, but these were easily dispersed by
+Santander, who led the van.
+
+At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties of the way, began to
+murmur. Bolivar called a council of war and told its members that there
+were greater difficulties still to surmount. He asked if they would keep
+on, or if they preferred to return. They all voted in favor of going
+onward, and the knowledge of their decision inspired the weary troops with
+new spirit.
+
+Before the terrible passage was completed one hundred men had died of
+cold, fifty of them being Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was
+necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even some of those borne by the
+soldiers. It was little more than the skeleton of an army that at length
+reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the heart of the province of
+Tunja, on the 6th of July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent back
+assistance to the stragglers who still lingered on the road, and
+despatched parties to collect horses and communicate with the few
+guerillas who roamed about that region.
+
+Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja province with two thousand
+infantry and four hundred horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand
+troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments elsewhere, while there was
+another royalist army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and to the
+support of the people to overcome these odds, and he succeeded in the
+first, for Barreiro was ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage
+of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the year.
+
+He was soon aware, however, that the patriots had achieved this impossible
+thing and were in his close vicinity, and with all haste collected his
+forces and took possession of the heights above the plain of Vargas. By
+this movement he interposed between the patriots and the town of Tunja,
+which, as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was anxious to occupy.
+It was not long, therefore, before the opposing armies met, and a battle
+took place that lasted five hours. The patriots won, chiefly by the aid of
+the English infantry, led by Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune
+to lose an arm in the engagement.
+
+                  [Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.]
+
+                          BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+
+
+The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the road to Tunja remained
+in the hands of the royalists. Instead of again attacking his intrenched
+foe, Bolivar now employed strategy, retreating during the day, then making
+a rapid countermarch at night, thus passing Barreiro’s forces in the dark
+over by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into his hands. He found
+there an abundance of war material, and by holding it he cut off
+Barreiro’s communication with Bogota.
+
+The strength of Bolivar’s generalship lay in rapid and unexpected
+movements like this. The Spanish leaders, bound in the shackles of
+military routine, were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches of
+their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for the passage of an army.
+While they were manœuvring, calculating, hesitating, guarding the
+customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would surprise them by
+concentrating a superior force upon a point which they imagined safe from
+attack, and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut up their forces in
+detail. As a result, the actions of the patriot commander in the field
+seemed less impressive than those of less notable generals, but the sum of
+effects was far superior.
+
+Bolivar’s occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards by surprise. Barreiro,
+finding himself unexpectedly cut off from his centre of supplies, fell
+back upon Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by his foe, anxious to
+deal a decisive blow before the royal forces could concentrate. Boyacá,
+the site now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded and mountainous
+country and one well suited to Bolivar’s characteristic tactics. Placing a
+large part of his troops in ambush and manœuvring so as to get his cavalry
+in the enemy’s rear, he advanced to the attack with a narrow front. On
+this Barreiro made a furious assault, forcing his opponents to recoil. But
+this retreat was only a stratagem, for, as they fell back, the Spaniards
+found themselves suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed troops,
+while the cavalry rode furiously upon their rear.
+
+In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the fierce attack threw them
+into utter confusion, in which the patriot army cut them down almost
+without resistance. General Barreiro was taken prisoner on the field of
+battle, throwing away his sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to
+save himself the mortification of surrendering it to General Bolivar.
+Colonel Ximenes, his second in command, was also taken, together with most
+of the officers and more than sixteen hundred men. All their artillery,
+ammunition, horses, etc., were captured, and a very small portion of the
+army escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was decided, but many
+of them were taken by the peasantry of the surrounding country and brought
+in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly small,—only
+thirteen killed and fifty-three wounded.
+
+Boyacá—after Maypo, by which Chili gained its freedom—was the great battle
+of South America. It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as Maypo
+had done in the south. New Granada was freed from the Spaniards, and on
+August 9, two days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily
+evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste that in thirty hours
+he reached Honda, usually a journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar
+triumphantly marched into the capital, and found in its coffers silver
+coin to the value of half a million dollars, which the viceroy had left
+behind in his haste.
+
+It must be said further that the English auxiliaries aided greatly in the
+results of these battles, their conduct giving Bolivar such gratification
+that he made them all members of the Order of the Liberator.
+
+It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of this implacable war, but
+simply to relate the dramatic invasion and conquest of New Granada. It
+must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on for two years longer,
+ending finally in 1821 with the victory of Carabobo, in which the
+Spaniards were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand men. After
+that they withdrew and a republic was organized, with Bolivar for its
+president.
+
+Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining their independence and
+was declared their liberator and made supreme dictator of the country.
+After ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned and gave the
+country a republican constitution. The congress of Lima elected him
+president for life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the northern
+section of Peru, to which the people gave the name of Bolivia, in honor of
+the winner of their liberties.
+
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+
+
+In the last quarter of the eighteenth century ideas of revolution were
+widely in the air. The people were rising against the tyranny of the
+kings. First in this struggle for liberty came the English colonies in
+America. Then the people of France sprang to arms and overthrew the
+moss-grown tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon spread the
+demand for freedom through Europe. In Spain the people began to fight for
+their freedom, and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to
+America, where the people of the Spanish colonies had long been oppressed
+by the tyranny of their rulers.
+
+The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected by the example of the
+great free republic of the north, and the seed of liberty grew for years
+in their minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer’s son named Miguel
+Hidalgo, a true scion of the people and an ardent lover of liberty, who
+for years longed to make his native Mexico independent of the effete
+royalty of Spain. He did not conceal his views on this subject, though his
+deeper projects were confided only to a few trusty friends, chief among
+whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of wealth and of noble Spanish descent,
+and a captain of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few intimates,
+consulted often and matured their plans, confident that the desire for
+liberty was strong in the country and that the patriot people needed only
+a leader to break out into insurrection.
+
+Hidalgo’s eager desire for liberty, long smouldering, burst into flame in
+1810, when the Spanish authorities attempted to arrest in Querétaro some
+revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned of their danger, these
+men fled or concealed themselves. News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and
+taught him that with his reputation there was but one of two things to do,
+he must flee or strike. He decided to strike, and in this he was supported
+by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger.
+
+The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September, 1810. That night
+Hidalgo was roused from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends, and
+told that the hour had come. Calling his brother to his aid and summoning
+a few of those in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists to
+the prison, broke it open, and set free certain men who had been seized
+for their liberal ideas.
+
+This took place in the early hours of a Sunday. When day broke and the
+countrymen of the neighboring parish came to early mass the news of the
+night’s event spread among them rapidly and caused great excitement. To a
+man they took the side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he found
+himself at the head of a small band of ardent revolutionists. They at once
+set out for San Miguel le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched
+before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty men, the nucleus of
+the Mexican revolution. For standard they bore a picture of the Holy
+Virgin of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New adherents came to
+their ranks till they were three hundred strong. Such was the movement
+known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry, the _Grito_,
+being, "Up with True Religion, and down with False Government."
+
+Never before had an insurrection among the submissive common people been
+known in Mexico. When news of it came to the authorities they were
+stupefied with amazement. That peasants and townspeople, the plain workers
+of the land, should have opinions of their own about government and the
+rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous to be endured, but for the
+time being they were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking any
+vigorous action.
+
+While the authorities digested the amazing news of the outbreak, the
+movement grew with surprising rapidity. Hidalgo’s little band was joined
+by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a crowd of field laborers,
+armed with slings, sticks, and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks.
+So popular did the movement prove that in a brief period the band of
+eighty men had grown to a great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers.
+Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their numbers gave them
+strength. Hidalgo put himself at their head as commander-in-chief, with
+Allende as his second in command, and active exertions were made to
+organize an army out of this undigested material.
+
+The next thing we perceive in this promising movement for liberty is the
+spectacle of Hidalgo and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on
+the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital of a mining state,
+the second largest in Mexico. This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine,
+its houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the streets climb like
+stairways.
+
+The people of the city were terrified when they saw this great body of
+people marching upon them, with some of the organization of a regular
+army, though most of them bore only the arms of a mob. The authorities,
+who were advised of their approach, showed some energy. Resolving not to
+surrender and making hasty preparations for defence, they intrenched
+themselves in a strongly built grain warehouse, with the governor at their
+head.
+
+Much better armed than the mass of their assailants, and backed up by
+strong stone walls, the authorities defended themselves vigorously, and
+for a time the affair looked anything but promising for Hidalgo’s
+improvised army. Success came at last through the courage of a little boy,
+called Pipita, who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the pavement,
+and holding a blazing torch in his hand, crept through a shower of bullets
+up to the gate of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames spread
+upward, the insurgents broke in upon the frightened defenders, killing
+some and making prisoners of the others.
+
+The common people of the city, in sympathy with the revolutionists, and
+inspired with the mob spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through
+the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and houses, until checked in
+their career of plunder by Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening
+condign punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to make the city a
+stronghold and centre for the collection of arms and money, his forces
+being increased by the defection from the Spaniards of three squadrons of
+regular troops, while the whole province declared for the cause of the
+revolution.
+
+While this was going on, the governing powers in Mexico had recovered from
+their stupefaction and begun to take active measures to suppress the
+dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy had arrived in Mexico,
+Don Francisco Venegas, a Spanish general who had distinguished himself in
+the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a peaceful life before him in
+America, he began his work of government by calling a council of prominent
+persons and asking them to help him raise money from the loyal people for
+the support of their brethren in Spain who were fighting against Napoleon.
+Three days later the Grito de Dolores broke out and he saw that his dream
+of peace was at an end, and that he would need all the funds he could
+raise to suppress revolution in his new government.
+
+The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once ordered the troops in
+garrison at Mexico to Querétaro, strengthening them by rural detachments,
+and summoning garrisons from the north, west, and east. He issued at the
+same time a decree under which all Indians were released from taxation,
+and promised pardon to all rebels who should at once lay down their arms;
+a reward of ten thousand dollars being offered for the capture or death of
+the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and Aldama.
+
+The civil authorities were vigorously supported by the clergy in this
+action against the revolution. Hidalgo and his chief comrades were
+excommunicated by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them
+bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which had taken action
+against Hidalgo in 1800 for his dangerous opinions, now cited him to
+appear before its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops and
+inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the valiant insurgents, who
+maintained that it was not religion but tyranny that they were banded
+against.
+
+The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid on the 17th of October,
+without resistance, the bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach.
+As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced the canons he had left
+behind to remove the sentence of excommunication. The town was made a
+second stronghold of the revolution and a centre for new recruiting, the
+army increasing so rapidly that in ten days’ time its leader took the bold
+step of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city.
+
+The approach of the insurgents, who had now grown greatly in numbers,
+filled the people of the capital with terror. They remembered the sack of
+Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables, while many of them
+fled for safety. As the insurgents drew near they were met by the army of
+the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place upon an elevation called the
+Monte de la Cruces, outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the
+ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm, and greatly
+outnumbering the royal troops, they swept resistlessly on, bearing down
+all before them, and sweeping the viceroy’s soldiers from the field with
+heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo, the commanding general,
+from death or capture, and bore him in safety to the city.
+
+Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the news of the disastrous
+defeat of its defenders, could perhaps have been easily taken, and its
+capture might possibly have closed the struggle in favor of liberty. It
+certainly was a moment for that boldness on which success so often
+depends, but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from prudence
+instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival of reinforcements to the
+beaten army, withdrew his forces towards Querétaro—a weak and fatal
+retrograde movement, as it proved.
+
+The viceroy had another army advancing from the north, under the command
+of Calleja, a skilful general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march
+towards Querétaro, he attacked him with such vigor that, after a hot
+combat, the insurgents were utterly worsted, losing all their artillery
+and many men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to pieces at this
+severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed to Valladolid with an
+insignificant remnant of his mighty host.
+
+Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of Allende and a fierce
+attack on him at Guanajuato, forcing him to abandon the city and retreat
+to Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence. Calleja, who had much of
+the traditional Spanish cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous
+retaliation upon the people of the city he had taken, who were most
+savagely punished for their recent plundering outbreak.
+
+The remainder of this story of revolution is a brief and unfortunate one.
+Hidalgo gathered another army and led them to Guadalajara, where he
+organized a government, appointed ministers, and styled himself
+generalissimo. He despatched a commissioner to the United States, but this
+personage soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were collected and the army
+organized as rapidly as possible, but his forces were still in the rough
+when, disregarding the advice of Allende and others, he resolved to attack
+Calleja. He advanced on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon,
+where he found himself in face of a well-equipped and disciplined army of
+ten thousand men, superior in everything but numbers to his undisciplined
+levies. They fought bravely enough in the battle of the next day, but they
+were no match for their opponents, and the contest ended in a complete
+rout, the insurgents scattering in all directions.
+
+Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on his way Allende, Jiminez,
+and other leaders who had escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The
+cause of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously putting down the
+revolution on all sides. As a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the
+United States borders with such men and money as they had left, proposing
+there to recruit and discipline another army. But before reaching the
+frontier they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured in a desert
+region near the Rio Grande.
+
+The captives were now taken under a strong escort to Chihuahua, where they
+were tried and condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez were shot
+on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo paid the penalty of his life on the 27th
+of June, 1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the first struggle
+for independence in Mexico. The heads of the four chiefs were taken to
+Guanajuato and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold which they had
+taken by storm in that city. There they remained till the freedom of
+Mexico was won, when they were given solemn burial beneath the altar of
+the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico. The Alhondiga de Grenaditas,
+the building to which their heads were attached, is now used as a prison,
+but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years held Hidalgo’s
+head. Before it there stands a bronze statue of this earliest of the
+Mexican patriot leaders.
+
+Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later course of the struggle
+for independence? The death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and
+one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the war with varying fortunes
+until 1815, when he, too, was taken and shot.
+
+The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall was Augustin de Yturbide, a
+royalist leader, who pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet it
+was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its independence. After the
+death of Moreles a chief named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and
+against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it proved, the royalist had
+changed his views, and after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands
+with him and came out openly as a patriot leader. He had under him a
+well-disciplined army, and advanced from success to success till the final
+viceroy found himself forced to acknowledge the independence of Mexico.
+
+The events that followed—how Mexico was organized into an empire, with
+Yturbide as emperor under the title of Augustin I., and how a new
+revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was shot as a traitor—belong to
+that later history of the Spanish American republics in which revolution
+and counter-revolution continued almost annual events.
+
+
+
+
+
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+
+
+On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the commander of the Spanish
+forces in Venezuela, found himself threatened in his camp by a party of
+one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had swum the Orinoco and
+galloped like centaurs upon his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish
+cavalry, with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet their
+assailants, who slowly retired before their superior numbers. In this way
+the royalists were drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio,
+where a battalion of infantry had been placed in ambush near the river.
+Here, suddenly ceasing their retreat, and dividing up into groups of
+twenty, the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and assailed them on
+all sides, driving them back under the fire of the infantry, by whom they
+were fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river with two killed and
+a few wounded, while the plain was strewn with the bodies of their foes.
+
+This anecdote may serve to introduce to our readers Joseph Antonio Paez,
+the leader of the band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most daring and
+striking figures among the liberators of South America. Born of Indian
+parents of low extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself so
+daring as a soldier that he became in time general-in-chief of the armies
+of Venezuela and the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar’s most trusted
+lieutenant during the war for independence.
+
+Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle belonging to his father, who
+was a landholder in the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled in
+the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at curing their disorders. He
+was accustomed to mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was noted for
+strength and agility and for power of enduring fatigue.
+
+A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of Venezuela, he rose
+naturally to great influence among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the
+revolution began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of the cause of
+freedom, his reputation for courage was so great that they were very ready
+to enlist under him. He chose from among them one hundred and fifty picked
+horsemen, and this band, under the title of "Guides of the Apure," soon
+made itself the terror of the Spaniards.
+
+The following story well shows his intrepid character. After the death of
+his mother young Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided it
+with his sisters who were living in that town. The Spanish forces, which
+had been driven out of it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a
+general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all property-holders to
+return and promising to reinstate them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of
+this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself before the Spanish
+commandant, saying that he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and
+take possession of his property.
+
+He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who gathered in hundreds to
+welcome and shake hands with him, and the news quickly spread among the
+Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain Paez, who had done them
+so much mischief. Seizing their arms, they called loudly on their
+commander to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as a rebel and
+traitor. But this officer, who was well aware of the valor of Paez, and
+perceived his great influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it very
+imprudent to take a step that might lead to a general outbreak, and
+concluded to let his perilous visitor alone. He therefore appeased his
+soldiers, and Paez was left unmolested in the house of his sisters.
+
+The governor, however, only bided his time. Spies were set to watch the
+daring llanero, and after some days they informed their leaders that Paez
+had gone out unarmed, and that there was a good opportunity to seize his
+weapons as a preliminary to his arrest. When Paez returned home after his
+outing, he was told that armed men had visited the house and taken away
+his sword and pistols.
+
+Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought the governor’s house
+and angrily charged him with breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he
+said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously demanded that his
+arms should be restored—not for use against the Spaniards, but for his
+personal security. His tone was so firm and indignant, and his request so
+reasonable under the circumstances, that the governor repented of his
+questionable act, and gave orders that the arms should be returned.
+
+On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas assailed the governor with
+reproaches, impetuously demanding that the guerilla chief should be
+arrested and confined in irons. The versatile governor again gave way, and
+that night the Paez mansion was entered and he taken from his bed, put in
+irons, and locked up in prison. It was no more than he might have
+expected, if he had known as much of the Spanish character then as he was
+afterwards to learn.
+
+But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In the prison he found about one
+hundred and fifty of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia, an
+officer noted for strength and courage. On Garcia complaining to him of
+the weight of his irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners, Paez
+accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange fetters with him. To
+keep his word he broke his own chains by main strength and handed them to
+his astonished friend.
+
+Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won their consent to a concerted
+break for liberty. Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give
+efficient service to the others, and before morning nearly the whole of
+them were free. When the jailor opened the door in the morning he was
+promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened with instant death if he made
+a sound. Breaking into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the guard,
+set free those whose irons were not yet broken, and marched from the
+prison, with Paez at their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred in
+number. Many of these were killed and the rest put to rout, and Barinas
+was once more in patriot hands.
+
+This anecdote will serve to show, better than pages of description, the
+kind of man that Paez was. When the act became known to the llaneros they
+proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready to follow him to the death.
+These cowboys of the Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like
+their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor their general knew
+anything about military art, and felt lost when taken from their native
+plains, a fact which was shown when they were called upon to follow
+Bolivar in his mountain expedition against New Granada. Neither persuasion
+nor force could induce them to leave the plains for the mountains. Bolivar
+and Paez entreated them in vain, and they declared that rather than go to
+the hill-country they would desert and return to their native plains,
+where alone they were willing to fight. This was their only act of
+insubordination under their favorite leader, who usually had complete
+control over them. He made himself one with his men, would divide his last
+cent with them, and was called by them uncle and father. His
+staff-officers were all llaneros and formed his regular society, they
+being alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics, but bold and
+dashing and ready to follow their leader to the cannon’s mouth.
+
+The British Legion, about six hundred strong, was in the last year of the
+war attached to the llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed by
+Paez, who called them "my friends, the English." The soldiers of the
+legion, however, were bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel
+Bossuet, whom they held responsible for the miserable state of their
+rations and clothes and their want of pay. At the end of one day, which
+was so scorchingly hot that the soldiers were excused from their usual
+five o’clock parade, the legion rushed from their quarters at this hour
+and placed themselves in order of battle, crying that they would rather
+have a creole to lead them than their colonel.
+
+Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in vain, and the
+lieutenant-colonel, against whom they had taken offence, was attacked and
+mortally wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel Bossuet appeared and
+sought to speak to them they rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it
+needed the active efforts of the other officers to save him from their
+revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny were brought to General Paez in
+his quarters and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing his sword, he
+rushed upon the mutineers, killed three of them instantly, and would have
+continued this bloody work but that his sword broke on the body of a
+fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon, he seized some of the most
+rebellious, dragged them from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them
+to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his spirited conduct,
+hastily dispersed and sought their quarters. The next day three of the
+most seditious of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was accused of
+aiding in the mutiny,—though probably innocent of it,—were arrested and
+shot without trial.
+
+Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with Paez. After the battle of Ortiz,
+in which his daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction, he
+was seized with a fit, and lay on the ground, foaming at the mouth.
+Colonel English went to his aid, but his men warned him to let their
+general alone, saying, "He is often so, and will soon be all right. None
+of us dare touch him when he is in one of these spells."
+
+But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his face with water and forcing
+some down his throat. The general soon recovered and thanked him for his
+aid, saying that he was a little overcome with fatigue, as he had killed
+thirty-nine of the enemy with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth
+through the body he felt his illness coming on. By way of reward he
+presented Colonel English with the lance which had done this bloody work
+and gave him three fine horses from his own stud.
+
+These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the llaneros, who, like all
+Indians, viewed the Spaniards with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of
+more interest than the details of his services in the years of
+campaigning. In the field, it may be said, he was an invaluable aid to
+General Bolivar. In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish
+commander-in-chief, his daring activity and success were striking, and to
+him was largely due the winning the last great battle of the war, that of
+Carabobo.
+
+In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821, Bolivar had about
+sixteen hundred infantry, a thousand or more of them being British, and
+three thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The Spaniards, under La
+Torre, had fewer men, but occupied a very strong defensive position. This
+was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded hills, and giving abundant
+space for military movements, while if driven back they could retire to
+one strong point after another, holding the enemy at disadvantage
+throughout. In front there was only one defile, and their wings were well
+protected, the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron of cavalry
+protected their right wing, and on a hill opposite the defile—through
+which ran the road to Valencia—was posted a small battery.
+
+This position seemed to give the royalists a decisive superiority over
+their patriot antagonists, and for twenty days they waited an attack, in
+full confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an attack, fearing
+that the destiny of his country might rest upon the result. He proposed an
+armistice, but this was unanimously rejected by his council of war. Then
+it was suggested to seek to turn the position of the enemy, but this was
+also rejected, and it was finally decided to take every risk and assail
+the enemy in his stronghold, trusting to courage and the fortune of war
+for success.
+
+While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar and his staff, one of the
+guides of the army, who was thoroughly familiar with the country they
+occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation. At its end he drew
+near Bolivar, and in a whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path
+by which the right wing of the Spaniards might be turned.
+
+This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation with his
+informant, Bolivar secretly detached three battalions of his best troops,
+including the British legion and a strong column of cavalry under General
+Paez, directing them to follow the guide and preserve as much silence and
+secrecy as possible.
+
+The path proved to be narrow and very difficult. They were obliged to
+traverse it in single file, and it was paved with sharp stones that cut
+their shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet. Many of them tore
+their shirts and made bandages for their feet to enable them to go on.
+Fortunately for the success of the movement, it was masked by the forest,
+and the expedition was able to concentrate in a position on the flank of
+the enemy without discovery.
+
+When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome force on their flank
+they hastily despatched against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving
+back the nearest troops and unmasking the British legion. This they fired
+upon and then charged with the bayonet. The British returned the fire and
+charged in their turn, and with such dash and vigor that the Spaniards
+soon gave way. In their retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron
+called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got back to their ranks. In
+return a squadron of the Spaniards charged the British, but with less
+success, being dispersed by a hot musketry fire.
+
+"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt with, a fierce attack
+had been made upon the front. The unexpected flank and rear attack was so
+disconcerting that La Torre lost all presence of mind, and on every side
+his men were driven back and thrown into confusion. In front and on flank
+they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating to the succession
+of defensive points in the rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that
+invaded their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate retreat, their
+cavalry dispersed without making a charge, their infantry in the utmost
+disorder, their cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the enemy.
+
+In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary dash and activity. He
+pursued the Spaniards at the head of the cavalry, cutting them down
+vigorously, and few of them would have escaped but for the fatigued and
+weak condition of his horses, which rendered them unable to break the
+files of the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful charges
+General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black man called, from his courage,
+El Primero (the first), finding that they could not break the infantry
+lines, rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and were killed.
+
+The news of this defeat spread consternation among the Spaniards.
+Thousands of the royalists in the cities hastened to leave the country,
+fearing the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders lost all
+spirit, and three months later the strong fortress of Carthagena
+surrendered to the Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it
+surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated and the long
+contest was at an end.
+
+This final surrender was due in great measure to General Paez, who thus
+sustained his military service to the end. Though not gaining the renown
+of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an army and conducting a
+campaign, as a cavalry leader he was indispensable, and to him and his
+gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+
+
+At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili was at its lowest ebb.
+After four years of struggle the patriots had met with a crushing defeat
+in 1814, and had been scattered to the four winds. Since then the viceroy
+of Spain had ruled the land with an iron hand, many of the leading
+citizens being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez, the
+imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe’s career, while many others were
+severely punished and all the people were oppressed.
+
+In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero came across the
+mountains to strike a new blow for liberty. Don José de San Martin had
+fought valiantly for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the battle of San
+Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots sent him to the aid of their
+fellow-patriots in Chili and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in
+the latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the scattered bands
+of Chilian troops and adding them to men of his own command, got together
+a formidable array five thousand strong. The "Liberating Army of the
+Andes" these were called.
+
+An able organizer was San Martin, and he put his men through a thorough
+course of discipline. Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a force
+made up of the _Gauchos_, or cattlemen of the Pampas, whose life was
+passed in the saddle, and who were genuine centaurs of the plains.
+
+San Martin had the Andes to cross with his army, and this was a task like
+that which Hannibal and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps. He set out
+himself at the head of his cavalry on the 17th of January, 1817, the
+infantry and artillery advancing by a different route. The men of the army
+carried their own food, consisting of dried meat and parched corn, and
+depots of food were established at intervals along the route, the
+difficulty of transporting provision-trains being thus avoided. The
+field-pieces were slung between mules or dragged on sledges made of tough
+hide, and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when steep places were
+reached. Some two thousand cattle were driven along to add to their food
+supply.
+
+Thus equipped, San Martin’s army set out on its difficult passage of the
+snow-topped Andes. He had previously sent over guerilla bands whose active
+movements thoroughly deceived the royalist generals as to his intended
+place of crossing. Onward went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary
+exertion by the fact that provisions began to run short. The passes to be
+traversed, thirteen thousand feet high and white with perpetual snow,
+formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the plains, yet they pushed
+on over the rugged mountains, with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as
+to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The infantry advanced with
+equal fortitude and energy, and early in February the combined forces
+descended the mountains and struck the royalist army at the foot with such
+energy that it was soon fleeing in a total rout. So utterly defeated and
+demoralized were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was abandoned
+and was entered by San Martin at the head of his wild gauchos and host of
+refugees on the 15th of February. His funds at this time consisted of the
+two doubloons remaining in his pocket, while he had no military chest, no
+surgeons nor medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply of the
+indispensable requisites of an army. About all he had to depend on was the
+patriotism of his men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing
+of the Andes and their easy victory over their foes.
+
+For the time being Chili was free. The royalists had vanished and the
+patriots were in full possession. Thirty or more years before, a bold
+Irishman, bearing the name of O’Higgins, had come to Chili, where he
+quickly rose in position until he was given the title of Don Ambrosio, and
+attained successively the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron,
+marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don Bernardo, was a man of
+his own type, able in peace and brilliant in war, and he was now made
+supreme dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had refused. The
+banished patriots were brought home from their desert island, the
+royalists severely punished, and a new army was organized to dislodge the
+fragment of the Spanish army which still held out in the south.
+
+On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary of the decisive victory of
+the "Liberating Army of the Andes," O’Higgins declared the absolute
+independence of Chili. A vote of the people was taken in a peculiar
+manner. Two blank books were opened for signatures in every city, the
+first for independence, the second for those who preferred the rule of
+Spain. For fifteen days these remained, and then it was found that the
+first books were filled with names, while the second had not a single
+name. This vote O’Higgins declared settled the question of Chilian
+freedom.
+
+The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the energetic viceroy of
+Peru, was taking vigorous steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three
+months before he had received a reinforcement of three thousand five
+hundred veterans from Spain, and these he sent to southern Chili to join
+the forces still in arms. United, they formed an army of about six
+thousand, under General Osorio, the able commander who had subdued Chili
+in 1814. It was evident that the newly declared independence of Chili was
+to be severely tried.
+
+In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it seemed overthrown. On the
+19th of March San Martin’s army, while in camp near Talca, was
+unexpectedly and violently attacked by the royalist troops, the onslaught
+being so sudden and furious, and the storm of cannon and musket shot so
+rapid and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken with panic, their
+divisions firing at each other as well as at the enemy. Within fifteen
+minutes the whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely sought to
+stop the demoralized troops, but in vain, O’Higgins, though severely
+wounded, throwing himself before them without effect. Nothing could check
+them, and the defeat became in large measure a total rout.
+
+When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter consternation prevailed.
+Patriots hastily gathered their valuables for flight; carriages of those
+seeking to leave the country thronged the streets; women wrung their hands
+in wild despair; the funds of the treasury were got ready to load on
+mules; the whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety.
+
+Several days passed before it was known what had become of San Martin.
+Then news arrived that he was at San Fernando at the head of the right
+wing, three thousand strong. These had escaped the panic on account of two
+divisions of Osorio’s army mistaking each other for the enemy and firing
+into their own ranks. In the confusion that ensued the right wing was led
+unbroken from the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer named
+Rodriguez had done good work in checking the flight of the fugitives, and
+in a brief time had organized a regiment which he named the "Hussars of
+Death."
+
+Six days after the defeat General O’Higgins made his appearance in
+Santiago. He was badly wounded, but was at once named dictator of the
+republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of his officers, entered the
+city. Wearied and dusty with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "_La
+patria triunfa_" gave new heart to the people. For several days fragments
+of the routed army came pouring in, and ten days after the battle Colonel
+Las Heras arrived with the three thousand of the right wing. The patriot
+cause seemed far less hopeless than had been the case a week before.
+
+Yet it was evident that liberty could come only from strenuous exertion,
+and the people of wealth freely subscribed of their money, plate, and
+jewels for the cause. It was not long before a new army five thousand five
+hundred strong, freshly clothed and in fair fighting condition, was
+gathered in a camp near the city. The artillery lost in the flight could
+not be replaced, but a few field-pieces were secured. San Martin and
+O’Higgins, with other able officers, were in command, and hope once more
+began to dawn upon despair.
+
+The enemy was known to be approaching, and the army was moved to a point
+about nine miles from the capital, occupying a location known as the farm
+of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited. On the afternoon of April
+3, Osorio crossed the Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank and
+rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army took up a position on the brow of
+a hill opposite that occupied by the patriot forces.
+
+Passing out from Santiago there is a succession of white hills, known as
+the Lorna Blanca, on one crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords
+of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army was encamped. The royalists
+occupied the crest and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran the
+Maypo with its forests and hills.
+
+As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San Martin saw with satisfaction
+the royalist force beginning to occupy the high ground in his front. With
+hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to witness that the day is ours."
+As he spoke, the golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest to
+crest. At ten o’clock when the movement of the armies began, he said, with
+assurance, "A half-hour will decide the fate of Chili."
+
+A few words will serve to describe the positions of the armies. Each was
+more than five thousand strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller. It
+had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat, the memory of which also
+hung about it like a cloud, while the royalists were filled with
+enthusiasm from their late victory. The royalist lines were about a mile
+in length, four squadrons of dragoons flanking their right wing and a body
+of lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill on the extreme
+left. Confronting them were the patriots, the left commanded by General
+Alverado, the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras, while Quintana
+headed the reserves.
+
+The battle opened with a brisk fire from the patriot artillery, and in
+about an hour the infantry forces joined in full action. As the royalists
+moved down the hill they were swept with the fire of the patriot battery,
+while shortly afterwards the royal battery on the left was captured by a
+dashing cavalry charge and the guns were turned against their own line.
+
+The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the Espejo estate, which was
+charged furiously by both sides, being taken and retaken several times
+during the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage seemed to be on the
+side of Osorio, who held the field with the centre and one wing of his
+army. Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots. It came nearer
+when the regiment of negroes which had for some time withstood the Burgos
+regiment—the flower of Osorio’s force—gave way and retreated, leaving four
+hundred of its number stretched upon the field.
+
+The critical moment of the battle was now at hand. The Burgos regiment
+attempted to follow up its success by forming itself into a square for a
+decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines were broken and thrown into
+temporary disorder. Colonel O’Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish
+blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his troops with Quintana’s
+reserves, he broke in a fierce charge upon the Burgos regiment while in
+the act of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion.
+
+This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio’s army changed the whole aspect
+of affairs. The patriots, inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed
+their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought refuge in the
+farm-house, and were followed by the left, which was similarly broken and
+dispersed. The centre kept up the action for a time, but with both wings
+in retreat it also was soon forced back, and the whole royalist army was
+demoralized.
+
+The patriots did not fail to press their advantage to the utmost. On all
+sides the royalists were cut down or captured, until nearly half their
+force were killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken prisoners. A
+stand was made by those at the farm house, but they were soon driven out,
+and about five hundred of them killed and wounded in the court and
+vineyard adjoining. Of the total army less than three hundred escaped,
+General Osorio and some other officers among them. These fled to
+Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of the patriots more than a
+thousand had fallen in the hot engagement.
+
+This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the battle of the Maypo,
+gave San Martin immense renown, and justly so, for it established the
+independence of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke the power which
+Abascal had long sustained in Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of
+that land from the rule of Spain.
+
+This feat also was the work of San Martin, who soon after invaded Peru,
+and, aided by a Chilian fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming
+its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th of July, 1821. Later
+on, indeed, its freedom was seriously threatened, and it was not until
+1824 that General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru, in the
+victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar became as the Liberator of
+South America, some generous portion of fame should rightly be accorded to
+San Martin, the Liberator of Chili.
+
+
+
+
+
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+
+
+While the Spanish colonies of South America were battling for their
+liberties, the great Portuguese colony of Brazil was going through a very
+different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots were seeking to drive
+Spain out of America. On the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of
+Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king and its throne, so that,
+for a time, the colony became the state, and the state became the
+dependency. It was a marked instance of the tail wagging the dog. Brazil
+became the one empire in America, and was destined not to become a
+republic until many years later. Such are the themes with which we here
+propose to deal.
+
+To begin this tale we must go back to those stirring times in Europe when
+Napoleon, the great conqueror, was in the height of his career, and was
+disposing of countries at his will, much as a chess-player moves the king,
+queen, and knights upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by
+Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the purpose of punishing
+Portugal for the crime of being a friend of the English realm.
+
+John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a weak-minded, feeble
+specimen of royalty, who did not keep of one mind two days together. Now
+he clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he claimed to be a friend of
+France; and thus he shifted back and forward until the French despot sent
+an army to his kingdom to help him make up his mind. The people were ready
+to fight for their country, but the prince still wobbled between two
+opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and was fast making his way
+to Lisbon.
+
+Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed tears over the fate of
+his country, but, as for himself, he wanted badly to save his precious
+person. Across the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil, in
+whose vast forest area he might find a safe refuge. The terrible French
+were close at hand. He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste he
+and his court had their treasures carried on a man-of-war in the Lisbon
+harbor and prepared for flight. Most of the nobility of the country
+followed him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing fifteen thousand
+persons, who took with them valuables worth fifty millions of dollars. On
+November 29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as the
+advance guard of the French came near enough to gaze on its swelling
+sails. It was a remarkable spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of
+the world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country with his nobility
+and treasures, to transfer his government to a distant colony of the
+realm.
+
+Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil, where they were received
+with an enthusiastic show of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the
+loyal colonists by lifting their country into the condition of a separate
+nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved for Portuguese ships, were opened to
+the world’s commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly was brought to
+a sudden end; manufactures were set free from their fetters; a national
+bank was established; Brazil was thrown open freely to foreigners; schools
+and a medical college were opened, and every colonial restriction was
+swept away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency to a kingdom at
+a word. John, while bearing the title of prince, was practically king, for
+his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly insane, and he ruled in
+her stead.
+
+He became actual king, as John VI., on the death of his mother in 1816,
+and as such he soon found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians
+had been given so much that they wanted more. The opening of their country
+to commerce and travel had let in new ideas, and the people began to
+discover that they were the slaves of an absolute government. This feeling
+of unrest passed out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion
+at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put down, but a wider revolt came on in
+1820, and spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro, the capital,
+whose people demanded of their ruler a liberal constitution.
+
+A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened monarch taking
+refuge in his palace in the suburbs, where he lay trembling with fear.
+Fortunately, his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute character,
+and he quieted the people by swearing that his father and himself would
+accept the constitution they offered. Full of joy, the throng marched with
+enthusiasm to the palace of the king, who on seeing them approach was not
+sure whether he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to get into his
+carriage, he quite mistook their meaning, and fell into a paroxysm of
+terror when the people took out the horses that they might draw him to the
+city with their own hands. He actually fainted from fright, and when his
+senses came back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that he would
+agree to anything,—anything his dear people wanted.
+
+King John by this time had had quite enough of Brazil and the Brazilians.
+As soon as he could decide on anything, he determined to take his throne
+and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had brought them fourteen years
+before, leaving his son Pedro—young, ardent, and popular—to take care of
+Brazil in his stead.
+
+But the people were not satisfied to let him go until he had given his
+royal warrant to the new constitution, and just before he was ready to
+depart a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding that he should give
+his assent to the charter of the people’s rights. He had never read it,
+and likely knew very little what it was about, but he signed what they
+asked for, all the same, and then made haste on shipboard, leaving Prince
+Pedro as regent, and as glad to get away from his _loyal_ Brazilians as he
+had once before been to get away from Junot and his Frenchmen.
+
+Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it was not long to remain
+so. The Cortes of Portugal grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and
+passed laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control. One of these
+required the young prince to leave Brazil. They were laying plans to throw
+the great colony back into its former state.
+
+When news of these acts reached Rio the city broke into a tumult. Pedro
+was begged not to abandon his loving people, and he agreed—thus defying
+the Cortes and its orders. This was on January 9, 1822. The Cortes next,
+to carry out its work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron to
+bring back the prince. This forced him to take a decided stand. On May 13
+he took the title of "Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;" and on
+the 7th of September, when word came that the Cortes had taken still more
+violent action, he drew his sword in the presence of a party of
+revolutionists, with the exclamation, "Independence or Death." On the 12th
+of the following month he was solemnly crowned as Pedro I.,
+"Constitutional Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated.
+Within less than a year thereafter not a hostile Portuguese soldier
+remained in Brazil, and it had taken its place definitely among the
+nations of America.
+
+This is but half the story of Brazil’s struggle for freedom. It seems
+advisable to tell the other half, which took place in 1889, sixty-seven
+years after the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent
+empire. The second made it a republic, and brought it into line with the
+republican nations of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar fate
+attended the establishment of monarchy in Brazil. We have seen how John,
+the first emperor, "left his country for the country’s good." The same was
+the case with his two successors, Pedro I. and Pedro II.
+
+Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed declarations of his aspirations
+for liberty. He was going to be a second Washington. But it was all empty
+talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere dramatic posing, to which he
+was given. His ardor for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before
+he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution promised was
+not given until it was fairly forced from him, and then it proved to be a
+worthless document, made only to be disregarded. A congress was called
+into being, but the emperor wished to confine its functions to the
+increase of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to worse until by 1831
+the indignation of the people grew intense. The troops were in sympathy
+with the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he stood alone against
+the country, finally abdicated the throne in haste in favor of his infant
+son. He took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and left the
+country never to return. The remainder of his short life was spent as king
+of Portugal.
+
+Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from his father. Studious, liberal,
+high-minded, he did not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress
+and its powers. But for all his liberality, Brazil was not satisfied. All
+around it were republics, and the spirit of republicanism invaded the
+empire and grew apace. From the people it made its way into the army, and
+in time it began to look as if no other emperor would be permitted to
+succeed Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he was growing old and
+feeble and there was a general feeling that he ought to be left to end his
+reign undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his grave. Unfortunately
+for him, many began to believe that a plot was in the air to make him give
+up the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular, and her husband,
+the Count d’Eu, was hated, and when the ministry began to send the
+military away from the capital, as if to carry out such a plot, an
+outbreak came.
+
+Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a professor in the military
+school, and Marshal Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of the
+army. There was one brigade they could count on,—the second,—and all the
+forces in Rio were republican in sentiment.
+
+On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread about that Constant and
+Deodoro were to be arrested and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away.
+It was time to strike. Early the next morning Constant rode out to the
+quarters of the Second Brigade, called it out, and led it to the great
+square in front of the War Department building. Deodoro took command and
+sent an officer into the building to demand the surrender of the ministry.
+They yielded, and telegraphed their resignation to the emperor, who was at
+Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.
+
+The revolution was phenomenally successful. When the other troops in the
+city heard of the revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets to
+join the Second Brigade, while the people, who did not dream of what was
+afoot, looked on in astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and when
+Dom Pedro reached the city at three o’clock in the afternoon, it was to
+find that he was no longer emperor. A provisional government had been
+organized, the chiefs of the revolution had named themselves ministers,
+and they had taken possession of the public buildings. A decree was issued
+that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become a federal republic.
+
+So great a change has rarely been accomplished so easily. A few friends
+visited the emperor, but there was no one to strike a blow for him. And
+the feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to be kept on the
+throne by the shedding of blood. That night word was sent him that he had
+been deposed and would be compelled to leave the country with his family.
+During the next night the royal victims of the revolution were sent on
+shipboard and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus was the third emperor
+sent out of Brazil through a bloodless revolution.
+
+Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic was organized, with a
+constitution closely like that of the United States. But the men at the
+head of government had the army at their back and were rather military
+dictators than presidents, and it was not long before rebellions broke out
+in some of the states. For three years there was war between the two
+factions of the people, with frightful destruction of life and property.
+Then, in September, 1893, the navy rebelled.
+
+The navy had always been officered by aristocrats, and looked with
+contempt upon the army. At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in
+the harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city. It soon became
+evident that it was the purpose of Mello and his fellows to re-establish
+the empire and bring back Dom Pedro to the throne.
+
+But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult situation. He hesitated
+about bombarding the city, which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the
+president, filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval officers had much
+trouble to obtain supplies. Mello, finding himself in a dilemma, left the
+harbor with one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina. Saraiva, an
+able chief of his party, invaded this and the neighboring districts, but
+he was hotly pursued and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to Rio
+without having gained any advantage. Here he found his position a very
+awkward one. The rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain by
+bombarding the city. The best they could do was to try and establish a
+commercial blockade, so as to force the government to terms, and in doing
+this Mello found himself running up against the power of the United
+States.
+
+                 [Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.]
+
+                         RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+
+
+We have given these incidents not so much for the interest they may have
+in themselves, but because they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems
+worth relating. There were warships of several nations in the harbor, the
+officers of most of which accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel
+navy, though it had not a foot of land under its control. Saldana da Gama,
+then in command of the ships, refused permission to any merchant vessel to
+go to the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire on any one
+that should venture. Thus the fleet of merchantmen was forced to lie out
+in the bay and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact that yellow
+fever was making havoc among the crews.
+
+The captains of the American merchant ships applied for protection to the
+senior American officer present, but he refused to interfere, and the
+commercial blockade went on. Such was the state of affairs when the United
+States Admiral Andrew E. Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the
+situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities.
+
+"Go in," he said to the American captains. "Trust to me to protect you
+from attack or to revenge you if injured."
+
+This promise put new spirit into the captains. Captain Blackford, of the
+barque "Amy," and two other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29,
+1894, that they would take their ships in to the wharves the next morning.
+When Da Gama heard of this he announced that he would fire on any vessel
+that dared attempt it.
+
+When Monday morning dawned there was a state of excitement in Rio Janeiro
+harbor. Da Gama might keep his word, and what would the American admiral
+do in that event? The commanders of the other war-vessels looked on with
+interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham meant business. The dawn
+of day showed active movements in the small American squadron. The ships
+were clearing for action, and the cruiser "Detroit" took a position from
+which she could command two of Da Gama’s vessels, the "Guanabara" and the
+"Trajano."
+
+When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy" began to warp in towards the
+pier. A musket-shot came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara."
+Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past the bow of the Brazilian
+ship. A second followed that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian
+tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram his vessel, Captain
+Brownson of the "Detroit" took his ship in between the two Brazilian
+war-vessels, in a position to rake them and their supporting tugs.
+
+This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama’s guns remained silent, and
+the "Amy," followed by the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to the
+wharves. Others followed, and before night all the British and other
+merchantmen in the harbor were hastening in to discharge their cargoes.
+Benham had brought to a quick end the "intolerable situation" in Rio
+Janeiro harbor.
+
+This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists to bring Peixoto to
+terms. Some of the ironclads escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa
+Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans. A few months
+sufficed to bring the revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length
+firmly established in Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+
+
+Among the varied countries of South America the little republic of
+Paraguay, clipped closely in between Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil,
+presents the most singular history, this being due to the remarkable
+career of the dictator Francia, who ruled over it for a quarter of a
+century, and to the warlike energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny of
+Francia was one of the strangest which history records, no man ever ruling
+with more absolute authority and more capricious cruelty. For many years
+Paraguay was completely cut off by him from the rest of the world, much as
+Japan was until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry. Unlucky was the
+stranger who then dared set foot on Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass
+before he could see the outer world again. Such was the fate of Bonpland,
+the celebrated botanist and companion of Humboldt, who rashly entered this
+forbidden land and was forced to spend ten years within its locked
+confines. Such is the country, and such was the singular policy of its
+dictator, whose strange story we have here to tell.
+
+In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries of South America in the
+general revolt against Spain. There was here no invasion and no
+blood-shed; the armies of Spain were kept too busy elsewhere, and the
+revolution was accomplished in peace. A governing committee was formed,
+with Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and José Gaspar Rodriguez de
+Francia for its secretary. The first was a man of little ability; the
+latter was a man whose powers will soon be seen.
+
+The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay. Two years later a new
+convention was held, which dissolved the committee and elected two
+consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country. Two chairs were made
+for them, resembling the curule chairs of Rome, and called Cæsar’s and
+Pompey’s chairs. On entering office Francia coolly seated himself in
+Cæsar’s chair, leaving that of Pompey for his associate. This action
+showed the difference in force of character between the two men.
+
+In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all the powers of government.
+He was a true Cæsar. He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to
+reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived the Spaniards in the
+country of all civil rights. This was done to gain the support of the
+Indian population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He soon went farther.
+Yegros was in his way and he got rid of him, making the simple-minded and
+ignorant members of the congress believe that only a sovereign magistrate
+could save the country, which was then threatened by its neighbors. In
+consequence, on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was made dictator for
+three years. This was not enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he
+played his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816, a new congress
+proclaimed him supreme and perpetual dictator.
+
+It was no common man who could thus induce the congress of a republic to
+raise him to absolute power over its members and the people. Francia at
+that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and vigorous man, of medium
+stature, with piercing black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked.
+The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco manufacturer in Paraguay, he
+was at first intended for the church, but subsequently studied the law. In
+this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent, and honorable, and
+always ready to defend the poor and weak against the rich. It was the
+reputation thus gained which first made him prominent in political
+affairs.
+
+Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia quickly began to show his
+innate qualities. Love of money was not one of his faults, and while
+strictly economical with the public funds, he was free-handed and generous
+with his own. Thus, of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned
+him, he would accept only three thousand, and made it a strict rule to
+receive no present, either returning or paying for any sent him. At first
+he went regularly every day to mass, but he soon gave up this show of
+religious faith and dismissed his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to
+despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing the priests,
+saying that they talked about things and represented mysteries of which
+they knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he said, "serve more to
+make men believe in the devil than in God."
+
+Of the leading principle of Francia’s political system we have already
+spoken. It had been the policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the
+people and keep them in strict obedience to the priesthood, and Francia
+adopted a similar policy. Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might
+penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was seeking to absorb the
+country. With these excuses he forbade, under the severest penalties,
+intercourse of any character between the people of Paraguay and those of
+neighboring countries and the entry of any foreigner to the country under
+his rule.
+
+In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling himself an envoy from Spain,
+should dare to enter Paraguay without authority from himself should be put
+to death and his body denied a burial. The same severe penalty was decreed
+against any native who received a letter speaking of political affairs and
+did not at once present it to the public tribunals. These rigid orders
+were probably caused by some mysterious movements of that period, which
+made him fear that Spain was laying plans to get possession of the
+country.
+
+In the same year the dictator made a new move in the game of politics. He
+called into being a kind of national assembly, professed to submit to its
+authority, and ratified a declaration of independence. Just why this was
+done is not very clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the
+Spanish government, and these may have had something to do with it. At any
+rate, a timely military conspiracy was just then discovered or
+manufactured, a colonel was condemned to death, and Francia was pressed by
+the assembly to resume his power. He consented with a show of reluctance,
+and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini, his envoy to Spain,
+should return, when he would yield up his rule to the marquis. All this,
+however, was probably a mere dramatic move, and Francia had no idea of
+yielding his power to any one.
+
+The dictator had a policy of his own—in fact, a double policy, one devoted
+to dealing with the land and its people; one to dealing with his enemies
+or those who questioned his authority. The one was as arbitrary, the other
+as cruel, as that of the tyrants of Rome.
+
+The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil yields two harvests annually,
+were seized by the dictator and stored on account of the government. The
+latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the land, and a communal system
+was adopted under which Francia disposed at will of the country and its
+people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of the fields, and when
+hands were needed for the harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet
+agriculture made little progress under the primitive methods employed, a
+broad board serving for a plough, while the wheat was ground in mortars,
+and a piece of wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The cotton, as
+soon as picked from the pods, was spun on the spinning-wheel, and then
+woven by a travelling weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on the back
+of an ox or a mule, and, when in use, was hung from the branch of a tree.
+
+Commerce was dealt with in the same way as agriculture. The market was
+under Francia’s control, and all exchange of goods was managed under rules
+laid down by him. He found that he must open the country in a measure to
+foreign goods, if he wanted to develop the resources of the country, and a
+channel of commerce was opened on the frontier of Brazil. But soldiers
+vigilantly watched all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant
+without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on imports, kept them in a
+bazaar under military guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the
+amount of goods which any of his subjects could purchase.
+
+As a result of all this Francia brought about a complete cessation of all
+private action, the state being all, and he being the state. All dealing
+for profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce alike made no
+progress. On the other hand, everything relating to war was developed. It
+was his purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign countries, and
+to be fully prepared to defend it against warlike invasion.
+
+               [Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.]
+
+                       INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+
+
+Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted was a French dictionary
+of the arts and industries. From this he gained the idea of founding
+public workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated to activity alike
+by threats and money. At one time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor
+for awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a gallows, he proposed to
+try it on a shoemaker if he did not do his work properly, while promising
+to richly reward him if he did.
+
+Military roads were laid out, the capital and other cities were fortified,
+and a new city was built in the north as a military post to keep the
+savage Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized Mission Indians,
+they were gradually brought under the yoke, made to work on the land, and
+enrolled in the army like other citizens. In this way a body of twenty
+thousand militia and five thousand regular troops was formed, all being
+well drilled and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry force. The
+body-guard of the dictator was made up of picked troops on whose fidelity
+he could rely.
+
+Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish governors, tearing down
+adjoining houses to isolate it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he
+did not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but nightly slept in a
+different room, so that his sleeping apartment should not be known. In
+this he resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also imitated in his
+austerity and simplicity of manners, and the fact that his principal
+confidant was his barber,—a mulatto inclined to drink. His other associate
+was Patiños, his secretary, who made the public suffer for any
+ill-treatment from his master. The remainder of the despot’s household
+consisted of four slaves, two men and two women. In dress he strove to
+imitate Napoleon, whom he greatly admired, and when drilling his troops
+was armed with a large sword and pistols.
+
+There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of this Paraguayan Nero.
+With his suspicious nature and his absolute power, his subjects had no
+more security for their lives than those of old Rome. Plots against his
+person—which he identified with the state—served him as a pretext for
+seizing and shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was suspicious. One
+of his first victims was Yegros, his former associate in the consulate.
+Accused of favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty others were
+condemned to death in 1819.
+
+More than three hundred others were imprisoned on the same charge, and
+were held captive for eighteen months, during which they were subjected by
+the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious dictator took special pleasure
+in the torment of these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own and
+making a diversion out of his revenge. From his actions it has been
+supposed that there were the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is
+certain that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria that he issued
+his decrees of proscription and carried out his excesses of cruelty.
+
+When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless wretch who omitted to
+address him as "Your Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and
+Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the man who, wishing to speak
+with him, dared to approach too closely and did not keep his hands well in
+view, to show that he had no concealed weapons. Treason, daggers, and
+assassins seemed the perpetual tenants of Francia’s thoughts. One
+country-woman was seized for coming too near his office window to present
+a petition; and he went so far, on one occasion, as to order his guard to
+fire on any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever he went abroad a
+numerous escort attended him, and the moment he put his foot outside the
+palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a warning to all the
+inhabitants to go into their houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head
+nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to the dictator’s
+dreaded face.
+
+It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth century, and in a
+little state of South America, there should have arisen a tyrant equal in
+cruelty, in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula of old or the
+Louis XI. of mediæval times. Death came to him in 1840, after twenty-six
+years of this absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came after a
+few days of illness, during which he attended to business, refused
+assistance, and forbade any one not called by him to enter his room. Only
+the quick coming of death prevented him from ending his life with a crime;
+for in a fit of anger at the _curandero_, a sort of quack doctor who
+attended him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword, and rushed
+furiously upon the trembling wretch. Before he could reach his intended
+victim he fell down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard his
+orders and come to his aid, and death soon followed. His funeral was
+splendid, and a grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was thrown
+down by the hands of some enemies unknown.
+
+Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage, one of the most
+remarkable characters of the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his
+nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as president of the republic
+for ten years, during which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued
+in power till his death in 1862, but put an end to the isolation of
+Paraguay, opening it to the world’s commerce.
+
+He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom we mention here simply
+from the fact that the war which Francia had so diligently prepared for
+came in his time. In 1864 the question of the true frontier of the state
+brought on a war in which Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay
+combined to crush the little country in their midst. We need only say here
+that Lopez displayed remarkable powers as a soldier, appeared again and
+again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and fought off his
+powerful opponents for five years. Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was
+slain in a battle in which his small army was completely destroyed.
+Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic struggle, was at the mercy of the
+allies. It was restored to national life again, but under penalty of the
+great indemnity, for so small a state, of two hundred and thirty-six
+million pesos.
+
+
+
+
+
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+
+
+In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most vigorous and tyrannical of the
+governor-generals of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled with
+a stern will and an iron hand. One of the purposes in which he was most
+earnest was that of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast, all the
+naval vessels under his command being ordered to patrol the coast night
+and day, and to have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it proved, all
+his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers continuing to ply their trade
+in spite of Tacon and his agents.
+
+The despoilers of the revenue were too daring and adroit, and too familiar
+with the shoals and rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and
+the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation prevented any
+close approach to their haunts. In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient
+of offering a large and tempting reward to any one who would desert the
+fraternity and agree to pilot the government vessels through the perilous
+channels which they frequented. Double this reward, an almost princely
+prize, was offered for the person of one Marti, dead or alive.
+
+Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward for the arrest of Marti,
+who was looked upon as the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A
+daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler and half pirate, his name
+was as well known in Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The
+admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him as the King of the Isle
+of Pines, this island being his principal rendezvous, from which he sent
+his fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on the neighboring
+coast. As for Tacon’s rewards, they were long as ineffective as his
+revenue cutters and gunboats, and the government officials fell at length
+into a state of despair as to how they should deal with the nefarious and
+defiant band.
+
+One dark, dull night, several months after the placards offering these
+rewards had been posted in conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two
+sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor’s palace, which stood
+opposite the grand plaza of the capital city. Shortly before midnight a
+cloaked individual stealthily approached and slipped behind the statue of
+the Spanish king near the fountain in the plaza. From this lurking-place
+he watched the movements of the sentinels, as they walked until they met
+face to face, and then turned back to back for their brief walk in the
+opposite direction.
+
+It was a delicate movement to slip between the soldiers during the short
+interval when their eyes were turned from the entrance, but the stranger
+at length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently across the
+short space and hiding himself behind one of the pillars of the palace
+before they turned again. During their next turn he entered the palace,
+now safe from their espionage, and sought the broad flight of stairs which
+led to the governor’s rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly familiar
+with the place.
+
+          [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL’S PALACE, HAVANA.]
+
+                  THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL’S PALACE, HAVANA.
+
+
+At the head of the stairs there was another guard to be passed, but this
+the stranger did with a formal military salute and an air of authority as
+if his right to enter was beyond question. His manner quieted all
+suspicion in the mind of the sentinel, and the newcomer entered the
+governor’s room unchallenged, closing the door behind him.
+
+Before him sat the governor-general in a large easy-chair, quite alone and
+busily engaged in writing. On seeing him thus unattended the
+weather-beaten face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction.
+Evidently his secret plans had worked fully to his desire. Taking off his
+cloak, he tossed it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the
+governor’s attention. Tacon looked up in surprise, fixing his eyes keenly
+upon his unlooked-for visitor.
+
+"Who is this that enters, at this late hour, without warning or
+announcement?" he sternly asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face.
+
+"One who brings information that the governor-general wants. You are he, I
+believe?"
+
+"I am. What do you want? And how did you, a stranger, pass my guard
+without challenge?"
+
+"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I understand, has offered a
+handsome reward to any one who will put you on the track of the rovers of
+the gulf?"
+
+"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon, with sudden interest. "What
+know you of them?"
+
+"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said the stranger. "I have my own
+safety to consider."
+
+"That you need not fear. My offer of reward also carries pardon to the
+informant. If you are even a member of the confederation itself you will
+be safe in speaking freely."
+
+"I understand you offer an additional reward, a rich one, for the
+discovery of Captain Marti, the chief of the smugglers?"
+
+"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to reward and protect any one who
+puts me on the track of that leader of the villains."
+
+"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance of this. Do you give me
+your knightly word that you will grant me a free pardon for all offences
+against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know, even to the most
+secret hiding-places of the rovers?"
+
+"I pledge you my full word of honor for that," said the governor, now
+deeply interested.
+
+"You will grant me full pardon, under the king’s seal, no matter how great
+my offences or crimes, if you call them so, may have been?"
+
+"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said Tacon, wondering why his
+visitor was so unduly cautious.
+
+"Even if I were a leader among the rovers myself?"
+
+Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the stalwart stranger, while
+considering the purport of his words.
+
+"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead our ships to the haunts of
+Marti and his followers, you can fully depend on the reward and the
+pardon."
+
+"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust your word, or I should never
+have put myself in your power."
+
+"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently. "Now come to the point;
+I have no time to waste."
+
+"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have offered the largest reward,
+dead or alive, stands before you."
+
+"Ha! you are
+
+"Captain Marti."
+
+The governor started in surprise, and laid his hand hastily on a pistol
+that lay before him. But he regained his self-possession in a moment, and
+solemnly said,—
+
+"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours. You have offended deeply, but
+my word is my law. But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for the
+present under guard."
+
+"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti.
+
+Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered, and soon after Marti
+was safely locked up, orders being given to make him comfortable until he
+was sent for. And so this strange interview ended.
+
+During the next day there was a commotion in the harbor of Havana. An
+armed revenue cutter, which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of
+Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity; food, ammunition, and
+other stores being taken on board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and
+she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was a man unknown to captain
+or crew, otherwise than as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping
+his word.
+
+A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,—faithful to them, but faithless
+and treacherous to his late comrades and followers,—for he guided the ship
+with wonderful ease and assurance through all the shoals and perils of the
+coast waters, taking her to the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing
+their depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places. Many a craft of
+the smugglers was taken and destroyed and large quantities of their goods
+were captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued. The returns to
+the government were of great value and the business of the smugglers was
+effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned to the governor to claim
+the reward for his base treachery.
+
+"You have kept your word faithfully," said Tacon. "It is now for me to
+keep mine. In this document you will find a free and unconditional pardon
+for all the offences you have committed against the laws. As for your
+reward, here’s an order on the treasury for—"
+
+"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?" said Marti. "I am glad
+to have the pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to make you a
+proposition in place of the money you offer. What I ask is that you grant
+me the sole right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare the
+trade in fish contraband to any one except my agents. This will repay me
+quite well enough for my service to the government, and I shall build at
+my own expense a public market of stone, which shall be an ornament to the
+city. At the expiration of a certain term of years this market, with all
+right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the government."
+
+Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition. He would save the large
+sum which he had promised Marti, and the city would gain a fine
+fish-market without expense. So, after weighing fully all the _pros_ and
+_cons_, Tacon assented to the proposition, granting Marti in full legal
+form the sole right to fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets.
+Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him of this concession.
+During his life as a rover he had become familiar with the best
+fishing-grounds, and for years furnished the city bountifully with fish,
+reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise. At the close of the
+period of his monopoly the market and privileges reverted to the
+government.
+
+Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of large wealth. How he should
+invest it was the question that next concerned him. He finally decided to
+try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical performances in Havana on
+condition of building there one of the largest and finest theatres in the
+world. This was done, paying the speculator a large interest on his
+wealth, and he died at length rich and honored, his money serving as a
+gravestone for his sins.
+
+
+
+
+
+KEARNEY’S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+
+
+We have told the story of the remarkable expedition of Vasquez de Coronado
+from Mexico northward to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to tell the
+story of an expedition which took place three centuries later from this
+prairie land to the once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." In
+1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he found it inhabited by tribes
+of wandering savages, living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return
+expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful farms and populous
+cities. Yet it was to pass through a country as wild and uncultivated as
+that which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries before.
+
+The invasion of Mexico by the United States armies in 1846 was made in
+several divisions, one being known as the Army of the West, led by Colonel
+Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march to Santa Fé, seize New Mexico, and
+then push on and occupy California, both of which were then provinces of
+Mexico. It was an expedition in which the soldiers would have to fight far
+more with nature than with man, and force their way through desolate
+regions and over deserts rarely trodden by the human foot.
+
+The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri
+River, in the month of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen
+hundred men, all from Missouri, and all mounted except one battalion of
+infantry. Accompanying it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A march of two
+thousand miles in length lay before this small corps, much of it through
+the land of the enemy, where much larger forces were likely to be met.
+Before the adventurers, after the green prairies had been passed, lay hot
+and treeless plains and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry snow
+still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile Mexicans, whose numbers
+were unknown, might make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those who
+gathered to see them start looked upon them as heroes who might never see
+their homes again.
+
+On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition began its march,
+taking the trail of a provision train of two hundred wagons and two
+companies of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three days later, by
+Kearney with the rear. For the first time in history an army under the
+American standard, and with all the bravery of glittering guns and
+floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains. For years the Santa
+Fé trail had been a synonym for deeds of horror, including famine,
+bloodshed, and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones of men and of
+beasts of burden paved the way, and served as a gruesome pathway for the
+long line of marching troops.
+
+The early route led, now through thick timber, now over plains carpeted
+with tall grasses, now across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground
+in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and tried the horses
+severely to pull them out. To draw the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of
+the table-lands the tugging strength of a hundred men was sometimes
+needed.
+
+Summer was now on the land, and for days together the heat was almost
+unbearable. There was trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals,
+unused to their new trappings and discipline, and which often broke loose
+and scampered away, only to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane
+ejaculations.
+
+For six hundred miles the column traversed the great Santa Fé trail
+without sight of habitation and over a dreary expanse, no break to the
+monotony appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile and flowery
+prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the Arkansas. Here was a rich and
+well-watered level, with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming
+convenient halting-places for rest and bathing. As yet there had been no
+want of food, a large merchant train of food wagons having set out in
+advance of their own provision train, and for a few days life ceased to be
+a burden and became a pleasure.
+
+They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey to Fort Bent had been
+one of toil and hardships, of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless
+dreary miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance and food at times
+grew scanty, while the scarcity of fuel made it difficult to warm their
+sparse supplies. During part of the journey they were drenched by heavy
+rains. To these succeeded days of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst
+in its train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering souls. When
+at length the Arkansas River was reached, men and animals alike rushed
+madly into its waters to slake their torment of thirst.
+
+At times their route led through great herds of grazing buffaloes which
+supplied the hungry men with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they
+were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores of the provision
+wagons. This was especially the case when they left the grassy and flowery
+prairie and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months of the year no
+drop of rain or dew fell, while the whitened bones of men and beasts told
+of former havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface was in places
+incrusted with alkaline earth worn into ash-like dust, or paved with
+pebbles blistering hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by
+variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow in hue.
+
+A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent, but on the 2d of August
+the column was on the trail again, the sick and worn-out being left
+behind. As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still. Neither grass
+nor shrubs was to be found for the famishing animals; the water, what
+little there was, proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank deep in
+the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike were nearly suffocated by
+the clouds of dust that blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad
+were they when, after three days of this frightful passage, they halted on
+the welcome banks of the Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw
+rising before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron and Spanish
+peaks and knew that the desert was passed.
+
+The sight of the rugged mountains infused new energy into their weary
+souls, and it was with fresh spirit that they climbed the rough hills
+leading upward towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length into a grand
+mountain amphitheatre closed in with steep walls of basalt and granite.
+They seemed to be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they enjoyed
+their first Sunday’s rest since they had left Fort Leavenworth.
+
+The food supply had now fallen so low that the rations of the men were
+reduced to one-third the usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts
+helped them to endure this severe privation, and they made their way
+rapidly through the mountain gorges and over the plains beyond, covering
+from seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition had diminished as
+well as food, and the men were forbidden to waste any on game, for news
+had been received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute their path
+and all their powder and shot might be needed.
+
+The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was reached on August 14, and
+their desert-weary eyes beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens
+surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while groves of cedar and pine
+diversified the scene. With new animation the troops marched on, elated
+with the tidings which now reached them from the north, that Colonel
+Kearney had been raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and a second
+item of news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held the cañon six
+miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared to dispute its passage.
+
+This was what they had come for, and it was a welcome diversion to learn
+that the weariness of marching was likely to be diversified by a season of
+fighting. They had made the longest march ever achieved by an American
+army, nearly all of it through a barren and inhospitable country, and it
+was with genuine elation that they pressed forward to the cañon, hopeful
+of having a brush with the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment
+when they found the pass empty of foes. The Mexicans had failed to await
+their coming.
+
+Kearney had already begun his prescribed work of annexing New Mexico to
+the United States, the Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas
+having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws and government of the
+United States. As they marched on, a similar oath was administered at San
+Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the soldiers fairly revelled
+in the fresh vegetables, milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the
+inhabitants were glad to exchange for the money of their new guests.
+Orders had been given that all food and forage obtained from the peaceable
+inhabitants should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was done.
+
+At Pecos they had their first experience of the antiquities of the land.
+Here was the traditional birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient
+temple still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled by that famous
+monarch, and kept burning for long years after his death, in the hope that
+he would come again to deliver his people from bondage. At length, as
+tradition held, the fire was extinguished by accident, and the temple and
+village were abandoned. The walls of the temple still stood, six feet
+thick, and covering with their rooms and passages a considerable space.
+The Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight for the Mexicans,
+for tradition told them that a people would come from the East to free
+them from Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about to be fulfilled.
+
+The next hostile news that reached the small army was to the effect that
+seven thousand Mexicans awaited them in Gallisteo Cañon, fifteen miles
+from Santa Fé. This was far from agreeable tidings, since the Mexicans far
+outnumbered the Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a much
+smaller force might have easily defended it against a numerous foe. The
+pass had been fortified and the works there mounted with six pieces of
+cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders’ ranks.
+
+Fortunately, once more the advancing troops found a strong pass
+undefended. The Mexican officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who
+felt no enmity towards the Americans, had left them to fight it out
+between themselves. Deserted by his soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with
+a few dragoons, and the Americans marched unmolested through the pass. On
+the same day they reached Santa Fé, taking peaceful possession of the
+capital of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country in the name of the
+United States.
+
+Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the last of their wearisome
+march of nine hundred miles, which had been completed in about fifty days.
+So exhausting had this final day’s march proved that many of the animals
+sank down to die, and the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side,
+without food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep. As the flag of
+the United States was hoisted in the public square, a national salute of
+twenty-eight guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry rode with
+waving banners and loud cheers through the streets. They had cause for
+great gratulation, for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had won a
+great province without the loss of a single man in battle.
+
+By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff one hundred feet high was
+raised in the plaza for the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was
+taken by the officials of the town. They were willing enough to take it,
+since their new masters left them in office, while the people, who had
+been told that they would be robbed and mercilessly treated, hailed the
+Americans as deliverers rather than as enemies. The same was the case with
+all the surrounding people, who, when they found that they would be paid
+for their provisions and be left secure in their homes, settled down in
+seeming high good will under the new rule.
+
+       [Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.]
+
+               OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+
+
+Santa Fé at that time contained about six thousand inhabitants. After St.
+Augustine it was the oldest city within the limits of the United States.
+When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was built on the site of one of
+the old Indian pueblos, whose date went back to the earliest history of
+the country. The Spanish town—The Royal City of the Holy Faith, _La Villa
+Real del Santa Fé_, as they called it—was also full of the flavor of
+antiquity, with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old churches, built
+nearly three centuries before. These were of rude architecture and hung
+with battered old bells, but they were ornamented with curiously carved
+beams of cedar and oak. The residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as
+the churches, and the abundant relies of the more ancient Indian
+inhabitants gave the charm of a double antiquity to the place.
+
+From Santa Fé as a centre General Kearney sent out expeditions to put down
+all reported risings through the province, one of the most important of
+these being to the country of the warlike Navajo Indians, who had just
+made a raid on New Mexico, driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many
+captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs to the officers of the
+expedition is interesting.
+
+"Americans, you have a strange cause of war against the Navajos," he said.
+"We have waged war against the New Mexicans for several years. You now
+turn upon us for attempting to do what you have done yourselves. We cannot
+see why you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the New Mexicans in
+the West, while you do the same thing in the East. We have no more right
+to complain of you for interfering in our war than you have to quarrel
+with us for continuing a war we had begun long before you got here. If you
+will act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences."
+
+The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let the New Mexicans alone, as
+American citizens, and the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly
+conclude the story of Kearney’s expedition, which was but half done when
+Santa Fé was reached. He was to continue his march to California, and set
+out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on a journey as long and
+difficult as that he had already made. He reached the Californian soil
+only to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished the work set for
+him, and a little more fighting added the great province of California to
+the American conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied and
+conquered a vast section of northern Mexico and added some of its richest
+possessions to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+
+
+The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the Aztecs and their Spanish
+successors, has been the scene of two great military events, its siege and
+capture by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture by the American
+army under General Scott in 1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of
+the remarkable career of Cortez we have given the most striking incident,
+the story of the thrilling _Noche triste_ and the victory of Otumba. A
+series of interesting tales might have been told of the siege that
+followed, but we prefer to leave that period of mediæval cruelty and
+injustice and come down to the events of a more civilized age.
+
+One of the most striking scenes in the campaign of 1847 was the taking of
+the fortified hill of Chapultepec, but before describing this we may
+briefly outline the events of which it formed the dramatic culmination.
+Vera Cruz, "the city of the True Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was
+the scene of the American landing, and was captured by the army under
+General Scott in March, 1847. Then, marching inland as Cortez had done
+more than three centuries before, the American army, about twelve thousand
+strong, soon began to ascend the mountain-slope leading from the torrid
+sea-level plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm.
+
+Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces came to the mountain-pass
+of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the
+invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men. The heights overhanging
+the road bristled with guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was
+strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable to an attack
+from the direction of Vera Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the
+lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took the wiser plan of
+cutting a new road along the mountain-slopes and through ravines out of
+sight of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican rear. An uphill
+charge from this point gave the Americans command of all the minor hills,
+leaving to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo, with its
+intrenchments and the strong fortress on its summit.
+
+On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred feet in rugged height, was
+assailed in front and rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep
+rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one barricade after another,
+and at length sweeping over the ramparts of the summit fortress and
+driving the defenders from their stronghold down the mountain-side. Santa
+Anna took with him only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving
+three thousand as prisoners in the American hands, with forty-three pieces
+of bronze artillery and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a month
+afterwards Scott’s army marched into the city of Puebla, on the
+table-land, sixty-eight miles from the capital. Here they rested for
+several months, awaiting reinforcements.
+
+On August 7 the army resumed its march, now less than eleven thousand
+strong, the term of several regiments having expired and their places been
+partly filled by untried men, none of whom had ever fired a gun in war. On
+they went, up-hill still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula
+with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through a mountain region till
+Rio Frio was reached, fifty miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand
+feet above the level of the sea.
+
+A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of Mexico lay suddenly
+revealed before them like a vision of enchantment. It was a scene of
+verdant charm, the bright green of the fields and groves diversified with
+the white walls of villages and farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams,
+and the gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond and around a wall
+of wooded mountains ascended to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer
+charm that had not been gazed upon by an invading army since the days when
+Cortez and his men looked down upon it with warm delight.
+
+The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco, with the long, narrow lake
+of Xochimilco near it, and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near the
+western shore of which the city of Mexico was visible. Between Chalco and
+Tezcuco ran the national road, for much of its length a narrow causeway
+between borders of marsh-land. Near Lake Xochimilco was visible the
+Acapulco road. Strong works of defence commanded both these highways.
+
+              [Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.]
+
+                      ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+
+
+Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of approach, the national road
+being commanded by the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Peñon,
+precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes and a deep ditch on the
+other. The Acapulco road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses at
+Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more available than the other route.
+Still farther north and west of the capital was a third approach to it
+over the road to Toluco, defended by works at Molino del Rey and by the
+fortified hill of Chapultepec. It was evident that the army under Scott
+would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting before the city could
+be reached.
+
+It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements by which this
+work was accomplished. It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of
+Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached by a road leading to
+its rear during the night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen minutes
+sufficing for the important victory. The garrison fled in dismay, after
+losing heavily.
+
+An advance was made the same day on the nearby Mexican works at San
+Antonio and Churubusco, and with the same result. The garrison at San
+Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American movement, evacuated the
+works and retired upon Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired
+by success, carried all before them, taking the works at the bridge of
+Churubusco by an impetuous charge and soon putting the enemy to flight.
+Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the Mexican reserve, consisting of
+four thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry, whose line was broken
+by a bayonet charge.
+
+The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised movements, forced back
+in terrible confusion, and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives
+were cut down by the pursuing Americans, who followed to the immediate
+defences of the capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy fire of
+grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans, nine thousand strong, had
+captured three strong positions, held by three times their number, the
+Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners over six thousand men,
+while the American loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand.
+
+Negotiations for peace followed, but they came to nothing, the armistice
+that had been declared terminating on the 7th of September. The problem
+that now lay before General Scott was a very different one from that which
+Cortez had faced in his siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on
+an island in the centre of a large lake, which was crossed by a number of
+causeways, broken at intervals by canals whose bridges could be removed.
+
+During the centuries that succeeded this lake had disappeared, low, marshy
+lands occupying its site. The city, however, was still reached by
+causeways, eight in number, raised about six feet above the marsh level.
+In these ended the five main roads leading to the city. A large canal
+surrounded the capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all now
+filled with water, as this was the rainy season. The problem of bridging
+these under fire was one of the difficulties that confronted the
+Americans.
+
+General Scott decided to approach the city by the causeways of San Cosmé,
+Belen, and Tacubaya, which were defended by formidable works, the
+outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified position at the foot of
+a slope beyond which a grove of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec.
+It consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of which had been used
+as a foundry, but which were now converted into fortresses. This place was
+carried by storm in the early morning of September 8, and the stronger
+position of Casa de Mata, a quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was
+captured by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec now lay
+between the Americans and the Mexican capital.
+
+The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the places just taken were in the
+nature of outworks, remained to be captured before the city could be
+reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated rocky hill, about
+one hundred and fifty feet in height, and was surmounted by a large stone
+building which had been used as the bishop’s palace, but was now converted
+into a strong fortress. It was well prepared for defence in guns and
+garrison, and was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of the
+capital. The western side was the most accessible, but the face of this,
+above the grove of cypresses which covered its base, presented a steep,
+rocky, and difficult ascent.
+
+To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon another section of the city
+was made on the 12th of September. The two divisions engaged in this
+returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec, though a force still
+threatened the southern causeways. Four batteries had been posted within
+easy range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night of the 11th, and
+all next day they kept up a steady fire upon it, driving its defenders
+back and partly wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th the
+batteries resumed their fire, while the forces chosen for the assault
+approached the hill from different directions through the fire of the
+enemy.
+
+Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty picked men each, from
+Worth’s and Twigg’s divisions, advanced with scaling ladders, while the
+batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to drive the defenders
+from the walls. Major-General Pillow led his division through the grove on
+the east side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound, and General
+Cadwalader succeeded him. Before him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a
+redoubt midway in its height. Up the steep rocks climbed the gallant
+stormers, broke into the redoubt with a wild cheer, and put its defenders
+to flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing without injury the
+mines which the Mexicans had planted, but which they could not fire
+without killing their own men. In a few minutes more the storming party
+reached the summit and climbed over the castle wall with shouts of
+victory, driving back its defenders. Soon the United States flag was seen
+floating over the ramparts, a roar of cheers greeting the inspiring
+spectacle.
+
+On the southeast Quitman’s column of assault was making like progress,
+while Smith’s brigade captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on
+the right, and Shield’s brigade crossed the meadows under a hot fire of
+musketry and artillery and swept up the hill to the support of the
+stormers.
+
+Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and strongest citadel of the
+Mexicans, had fallen before an impetuous charge up a hill deemed
+inaccessible, in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at the
+mercy of the invaders. The causeway which it defended formed a double
+roadway on each side of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars.
+Shields charged impetuously along this causeway, towards the city, two
+miles distant, while Quitman pursued the fleeing enemy along the
+neighboring causeway of Belen.
+
+An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields to bid him halt till
+Worth, who was following the San Cosmé causeway, could force its defences.
+The aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general and began,
+"General Scott presents his compliments
+
+"I have no time for compliments just now," roared out Shields, and spurred
+briskly onward to escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were coming.
+Soon he had led his men into the suburbs of the city, while Worth and
+Quitman charged inward over the neighboring causeways with equal
+impetuosity.
+
+A strong force was quickly within the streets of the city, assailed by
+skirmishers firing from houses and gardens, who could be reached only by
+forcing a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were brought in by
+Worth’s column and planted in position to batter down the San Cosmé gate,
+the barrier to the great square in the city’s centre, and which fronted
+the cathedral and palace. Quitman and Shields had to fight their way
+through as hot a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves before
+the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this point a severe loss was
+sustained, but the assailants held their own, mounting guns to attack the
+citadel the next morning.
+
+These guns were not used. Before daylight a deputation of the city council
+waited on General Scott and announced that the army had evacuated the
+city, and the government officials had fled. It was not long afterwards
+before the Stars and Stripes were floating over the National Palace and in
+the great plaza.
+
+Fighting continued for a day longer between the Americans and about four
+thousand soldiers and liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury
+for their country and were not put down without considerable loss. On the
+morning of September 16 the army of the United States held undisputed
+possession of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting continued,
+however, elsewhere for some months later, and it was not till the 2d of
+February, 1848, that a treaty of peace was signed.
+
+
+
+
+
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+
+
+On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring band of reckless
+adventurers sailed from San Francisco, on an enterprise seemingly madder
+and wilder than that which Cortez had undertaken more than three centuries
+before. The purpose of this handful of men—filibusters they were called,
+as lawless in their way as the buccaneers of old—was the conquest of
+Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all Mexico and Central America.
+No one knows what wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their
+leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his admirers called him.
+
+Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner of the Gulf of California,
+with his few companions, he captured a number of hamlets and then
+grandiloquently proclaimed Lower California an independent state and
+himself its president. His next proclamation "annexed" to his territory
+the large Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite the California
+Gulf, and for a brief period he posed among the sparse inhabitants as a
+ruler. Some reinforcements reached him by water, but another party that
+started overland was dispersed by starvation, their food giving out.
+
+Walker now set out with his buccaneering band on a long march of six
+hundred miles through a barren and unpeopled country towards his
+"possessions" in the interior. The Mexicans did not need any forces to
+defeat him. Fatigue and famine did the work for them, desertion decimated
+the band of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula ended at San
+Diego, where he and his men surrendered to the United States authorities.
+Walker was tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the neutrality
+laws, but was acquitted.
+
+This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted Walker’s filibustering
+appetite. Looking about for "new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising
+field in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions. Invited by certain
+American speculators or adventurers to lend his aid to the democratic
+party of insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected a
+band of men of his own type and set sail for this new field of labor and
+ambition. On the 11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force of
+sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan coast, and was joined there by
+about a hundred of the native rebels.
+
+Making his way inland, his first encounter with the government forces took
+place at Rivas, where he met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His
+native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans fought with such
+valor and energy that the enemy were defeated with a loss of one-third
+their number, his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at Virgin Bay
+he was equally successful, and on the 15th of October he captured the
+important city of Granada.
+
+These few successes gave him such prestige and brought such aid from the
+revolutionists that the opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on
+the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its leader, which made him
+fairly master of the country. He declined the office of president, which
+was offered him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic, an
+office better suited to maintain his position. His rapid success brought
+him not only the support of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits
+from the United States, who made their way into the country from the east
+and the west alike until he had a force of twelve hundred Americans under
+his command.
+
+General Corral, who had treated with him for peace, was soon to pay the
+penalty for his readiness to make terms with an invader. He was arrested
+for treason, on some charge brought by Walker, tried before a
+court-martial at which the new generalissimo presided, sentenced to death,
+and executed without delay.
+
+The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism was a war with the
+neighboring republic of Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a
+hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March 20, 1856, in which
+Walker was worsted. He kept the field, however, and met the foe again at
+Rivas, on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the two republics now
+made peace.
+
+His military success seemed to have made the invader securely the lord and
+master of Nicaragua, and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty
+and had himself elected president on June 25. He had so fully established
+himself that he was recognized as head of the republic by President
+Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he immediately began to act
+the master and tyrant in a way that was likely to bring his government to
+a speedy end.
+
+Money being scarce, he issued currency on a liberal scale, and by a decree
+he restored the system of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two
+years before. Not content with these radical measures within the republic
+itself, he was unwise enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in the
+United States by meddling with the privileges of the Vanderbilt Steamship
+Company, then engaged in transporting the stream of gold-hunters to
+California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker revoked their charter and
+confiscated their property, thus bringing against his new government a
+fire in the rear.
+
+His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies on all sides, the Central
+American states bordering on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their
+ambitious neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company worked
+industriously to stir up a revolt against this soaring eagle of
+filibusterism.
+
+The result was a strong revolt against his rule, and he soon found himself
+confronted by a force of patriots in the field. For a short time there
+were busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being fought by the
+contending forces, the war ending with the burning of Granada by the
+president. Finding that the whole country was rising against him and that
+his case had grown desperate, Walker soon gave up the hopeless contest and
+surrendered, on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the United States
+sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took him to Panama, where he made his way
+back to the United States.
+
+Thus closed the conquering career of this minor Cortez of the nineteenth
+century. But while Walker the president was no more, Walker the filibuster
+was not squelched. The passion for adventure was as strong in his mind as
+ever, and his brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable
+thirst for rule. In consequence he made effort after effort to get back to
+the scene of his exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent thirst
+for invasion giving the United States authorities no small trouble and
+ending only with his death.
+
+In fact, he was barely at home before he was hatching new schemes and
+devising fresh exploits. To check a new expedition which he was organizing
+in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had him arrested and put
+under bonds to keep the peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their
+jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile, yet making port
+first in Central America, where he landed on November 25, 1857.
+
+This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the pan. No support awaited
+him and his deluded followers, and in two weeks’ time he found it
+judicious to surrender once more to the naval authorities of the United
+States; this time to Commodore Paulding, who took him to New York with his
+followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number.
+
+His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the United States.
+President Buchanan had strongly condemned the invasion of friendly
+territory in his annual message, but he now sent a special message to
+Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore Paulding for landing an
+American force on foreign soil. He decided that under the circumstances,
+the government must decline to hold Walker as a prisoner, unless he was
+properly arrested under judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan
+strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions.
+
+The result of this was that Walker was again set free, and it was not long
+before he had a new following, there being many of the adventurous class
+who sympathized warmly with his enterprising efforts. This was especially
+the case in the South. Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old
+enthusiasm, he soon organized another company, which sought to leave the
+country in October, 1858. He was closely watched, however, and the whole
+company was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi on the steamer on
+which passage had been taken.
+
+President Buchanan had issued a proclamation forbidding all such
+expeditions, and Walker was now put on trial before the United States
+Court at New Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack satisfactory
+evidence, and he was acquitted.
+
+Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied himself in writing
+an account of his exploits, in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But
+this was far too tame work for one of his stirring disposition, and in
+June, 1860, he was off again, this time making Honduras the scene of his
+invading energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized that town and
+held it for eight weeks, at the end of which time he was ordered to leave
+the place by the captain of a British man-of-war. The president of
+Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive force. Walker marched
+south, but his force was too small to cope with the president’s army, and
+he had not gone far before he found himself a captive in the hands of the
+Honduran government. Central America had by this time more than enough of
+William Walker and his methods, and five days after his capture he was
+condemned to death and shot at Truxillo.
+
+Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of the chief of filibusters, the
+most persistent of modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless
+exploits were of the mediæval rather than of the modern type. A short,
+slender, not especially demonstrative man, Walker did not seem made for a
+hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking feature was his keen
+gray eyes, which brought him the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny."
+
+
+
+
+
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+
+
+It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and submission of the
+Indians in Mexico, that the final blow for freedom in that country should
+have been made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name was Benito
+Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was against the French invaders and
+Maximilian, the puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the Mexican
+throne. In the words of Shakespeare, "Thereby hangs a tale."
+
+For many years after the Spanish colonies had won their independence the
+nations of Europe looked upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly
+have liked to snap up some of these weak countries, which Spain had been
+unable to hold, but the great republic of the United States stood as their
+protector, and none of them felt it quite safe to step over that
+threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe Doctrine." "Hands off," said
+Uncle Sam, and they obeyed, though much against their will.
+
+In 1861 began a war in the United States which gave the people of that
+country all they wanted to do. Here was the chance for Europe, and
+Napoleon III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to send an army
+to Mexico and attempt the conquest of that country. It was the overweening
+ambition of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his scheme to found an
+empire in Mexico which, while having the name of being independent, would
+be under the control of France and would shed glory on his reign.
+
+At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian we have named, was Benito
+Juarez, a descendant of the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood
+of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family was of the lowest class of
+the Indians, and when he was twelve years old he did not know how to read
+or write. After that he obtained a chance for education, and in time
+became a lawyer, was made governor of his native state, and kept on
+climbing upward till he became secretary of state, president of the
+Supreme Court, and finally president of Mexico.
+
+He was the man who had the invaders of his country to fight, and he fought
+them well and long. But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no match
+for the trained troops of France, and they were driven back step by step
+until the invaders were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet Juarez
+still had a capital and a government at San Luis Potosi, and all loyal
+Mexicans still looked on him as their president.
+
+When Napoleon III. found himself master of Mexico, he looked around for a
+man who would serve him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he found
+in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother of the emperor of Austria, a
+dreamer rather than a man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine
+right of kings." This was the kind of man that the French usurper was in
+want of, and he offered him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian
+was taken by surprise. The proposition was a startling one. But in the end
+ambition overcame judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous
+position on the condition that France should sustain him on the throne.
+
+            [Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.]
+
+                    HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was for the time at an end, and
+the French had almost everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor
+and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera Cruz and made their way to the
+city of Mexico. This they entered with great show and ceremony and amid
+the cheers of many of the lookers on, though the mass of the people, who
+had no love for emperors, kept away or held their peace.
+
+The new empire began with imperial display. All the higher society of
+Mexico were at the feet of the new monarchs. With French money to pay
+their way and a French army to protect them, there was nothing for
+Maximilian and Carlotta to do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their
+new dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec, two hundred feet
+above the valley, stood the old palace which had been ruined by the
+American guns when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by Maximilian on
+a grand scale, hanging gardens were constructed and walled in by galleries
+with marble columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe, and here
+the new emperor and empress held their court, with a brilliant succession
+of fêtes, dinners, dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and gayety,
+and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of proud and royal reign.
+
+But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had reached Mexico in June, 1864.
+For a year longer the civil war in the great republic of the north
+continued; then it came to an end, and the government of the United States
+was free to take a hand in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near
+neighbor to the south.
+
+It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon, it was like the
+rumble of an earthquake under the throne of Maximilian, when from
+Washington came a diplomatic demand which, translated into plain English,
+meant, you had better make haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they
+stay there, you will have the United States to deal with. It hurt Louis
+Napoleon’s pride. He shifted and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of
+the great republic was on the throat of his new empire, and there was
+nothing for him to do but obey. He knew very well that if he resisted, the
+armies of the civil war would make very short work of his forces in
+Mexico.
+
+Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his dream of an empire and
+leave the country with the French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times,
+but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could hold his throne with
+the aid of the loyal Mexicans. Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe
+and appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very plainly what she
+thought of his actions; but it was all of no avail, and she left the
+palace almost broken-hearted. Soon after Maximilian received the
+distressing news that his wife had lost her reason through grief, and was
+quite insane. At once he made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out
+for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed his mind again and
+concluded to remain.
+
+At the end of January, 1867, the French army, which had held on until
+then, with one excuse after another, left the capital city, which it had
+occupied for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore at Vera
+Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon were broken up as useless, horses sold
+for a song, and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian and Austrian
+troops which the new emperor had brought with him going with the French.
+Maximilian did not want them; he preferred to trust himself to the loyal
+arms of his Mexican subjects, hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the
+United States, it had no more to say; it was content to leave this shadow
+of an empire to its _loyal_ Mexicans.
+
+It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the right course to make
+himself beloved by the Mexicans. Full of his obsolete notion of the
+"divine right of kings," a year after he had reached Mexico he issued a
+decree saying that all who clung to the republic or resisted his authority
+should be shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many decrees, for a
+number of prisoners were shot under its cruel mandate, one of them being
+General Orteaga. It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to order
+that the whole laboring population of the country should be reduced to
+slavery.
+
+While all this was going on President Juarez was not idle. During the
+whole French occupation he had kept in arms, and now began his advance
+from his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo, chief of his
+armies, soon conquered the northern part of the country, and occupied the
+various states and cities as soon as they were left by the French.
+
+But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the Church party had finally
+induced him to remain, and this party now came to his aid. General
+Miramon, an able leader, commanded his army, which was recruited to the
+strength of eight thousand men, most of them trained soldiers, though
+nearly half of them were raw recruits.
+
+With this force Maximilian advanced to Querétaro and made it his
+head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his
+residence there with his government about him. But the president and
+cabinet came very near being taken captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon
+suddenly advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez and his
+government barely escaping.
+
+What would have been the result if the whole Mexican government had been
+taken prisoners it is not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General
+Escobedo would have done what he now did, which was to advance on
+Querétaro and invest it with his army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was
+limited to this one town, where it was besieged by an army of Mexican
+patriots, while, with the exception of a few cities, the whole country
+outside was free from imperial rule.
+
+Soon the emperor and his army found themselves closely confined within the
+walls of Querétaro. Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both
+sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions grew scarce and
+foraging parties were sent out, but after each attack the lines of the
+besiegers became closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of forces
+and funds, and General Marquez was sent to the city of Mexico to obtain
+them. He managed to get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to
+return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian of the promised aid. Such
+forces and funds as Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz,
+who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and took Pueblo, and then
+turned on Marquez, whom he defeated so completely that he made his way
+back to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night. It was the glory
+gained by this act that later raised Diaz to the presidency, which he held
+so brilliantly for so many years.
+
+The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a shadow. For two months the
+siege of Querétaro continued, steadily growing closer. During this trying
+time Maximilian showed the best elements of his character. He was gentle
+and cheerful in demeanor, and brave in action, not hesitating to expose
+himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made for his escape, that he
+might put himself at the head of his troops elsewhere, but he refused,
+through a sense of honor, to desert his brave companions.
+
+Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian himself had only the coarse,
+tough food which was served to the common soldiers. Day after day Marquez
+was looked for with the promised aid, but night after night brought only
+disappointment. At length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in
+charge of the most important point in the city, turned traitor and
+admitted two battalions of the enemy. From this point the assailants
+swarmed into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere prevailed.
+Lopez had not intended that the emperor should be captured, and gave him
+warning in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and reached a little
+hill outside the town, but here he was surrounded by foes and forced to
+deliver up his sword.
+
+Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full master of Mexico, and
+held its late emperor in his hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon
+his word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but always at the last
+moment he failed to avail himself of them. His friends sought to win for
+him the clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible. The traitors,
+as he called them, should be tried by court-martial, he said and abide the
+decision of the court.
+
+Tried they were, though the trial was little more than a farce, with the
+verdict fixed in advance. This verdict was death. The condemned, in
+addition to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command, Miramon and Medjia.
+The late emperor rose early on the fatal morning and heard mass. He
+embraced his fellow victims, and as he reached the street said, "What a
+beautiful day! On such a one I have always wished to die."
+
+He was greeted with respect by the people in the street, the women
+weeping. He responded with a brief address, closing with the words, "May
+my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country, and if more
+should be shed, may it flow for its good, and not by treason. Viva
+Independencia! Viva Mexico!"
+
+In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired, and the empire of
+Maximilian was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+
+
+On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of Havana, the capital of Cuba,
+were startled by a report that rebels were in the field, a band of
+twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in the province of
+Matanzas. Other small bands were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A
+trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba was guarded by twenty
+thousand Spanish troops and had on its military rolls the names of sixty
+thousand volunteers. But the island was seething with discontent, and
+trifles grow fast under such circumstances. Twenty years before a great
+rebellion had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in 1878, but Spain had
+ignored the promises of the treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new
+flame which had now burst out.
+
+As the days and weeks went on the movement grew, many of the plantation
+hands joining the insurgents until there were several thousand men in
+arms. For a time these had it all their own way, raiding and plundering
+the plantations of the loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and
+mountains when the troops appeared.
+
+The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque old affairs of
+battles and banners, marches and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp
+and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes, sudden attacks, quick
+retreats, and brisk affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of the
+conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing over the armed and
+trained troops of Spain, but they hoped to wear them out and make the war
+so costly to Spain that she would in the end give up the island in
+despair.
+
+The work of the Cuban patriots was like the famous deeds of Marion and his
+men in the swampy region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba were
+uncultivated and half its area was covered with thickets and forests. In
+the wet season the low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps of
+sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests, so thick and dense as to
+be almost impassable. The high bushes and thick grasses of the plains
+formed a jungle which could be traversed only with the aid of the machete,
+the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and
+sword, now cutting his way through bush and jungle, now slicing off the
+head of an enemy in war.
+
+Everywhere in the island there are woods, there are hills and mountains,
+there are growths of lofty grass, affording countless recesses and refuges
+for fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To retire to the "long
+grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning, to gain safety from pursuit, and a
+patriot force might lie unseen and unheard while an army marched by. In
+brief, Cuba is a paradise for the bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain
+were none too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where the flame of
+death might suddenly burst forth from the most innocent-looking woodland
+retreat or grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for days for a foe
+who could not be found, and as for starving out the rebels, that was no
+easy thing to do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet potato, the
+wild fruits of the woodland, which the fertile soil bore abundantly, while
+the country-people were always ready to supply their brothers in the
+field.
+
+Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion of 1895. For a time
+the rebels gathered in small bands with none but local leaders. But the
+outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives from the former war,
+and early in April twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica,
+landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of the island.
+
+Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo, a mulatto, who had won a
+high reputation for his daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had
+unbounded influence over the negro element of the rebellion. Wherever
+Maceo was ready to lead, they were ready to follow to the death if he gave
+the word, and he soon proved himself the most daring and successful
+soldier in the war.
+
+He did not make his way inland with safety. Spanish cavalry were
+patrolling the coast to prevent landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a
+brisk fight with a party of these soon after landing, he getting away with
+a bullet-hole through his hat. For ten days they were in imminent danger,
+now fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland fruits for food,
+and so pestered by the Spanish patrols that the party was forced to break
+up, only two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end these fell in with
+a party of rebels, from whom they received a warm and enthusiastic
+welcome.
+
+Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one of the leaders in the
+former war who had refused to sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the
+fight for two months longer, and finally escaped from the country, now to
+return without the load of a broken promise on his conscience.
+
+The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large following of insurgents
+at his back, and in several sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he
+could more than hold his own. Other patriots soon arrived from exile,—José
+Marti, the fomenter of the insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier;
+and several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the rebels. The
+movement, which had as yet been a mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming
+the dimensions of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining the ranks of
+these able leaders, until more than six thousand men were in the field.
+
+Almost everywhere that they met their enemy they were largely outnumbered,
+and they fought mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least
+expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such hidden paths that pursuit
+was usually idle. Much of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks
+or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which art they were far
+superior to the Spanish cavalry. Many stories are told of women who rode
+in their ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully as the
+men, and in this there is doubtless much truth. Their horses were no show
+animals, but a sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there being
+no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain or shine, but as tough and
+tireless beasts as our own bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders
+in mad dashes on the foe.
+
+The favorite mode of fighting practised by the insurgents was to surprise
+the enemy by a sharp skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick
+off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity, they would dash
+from their covert in a wild cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling
+like so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the ranks of the foe. This
+was the kind of fighting in which Maceo excelled.
+
+Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes and only one affair
+that could be called a battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader,
+while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba, a man looked upon as the
+ablest general of Spain, led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great
+annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the fortified town of
+Bayamo, and Campos determined to drive him from the field. Several columns
+of Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from different quarters, one
+of these, fifteen hundred strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of
+July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three thousand men, being
+posted on a stock-farm several miles from Bayamo.
+
+The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards, intended to strike
+the division under Campos; but by an error it fell upon the advance guard,
+led by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a brisk fire from the
+wooded hill-sides. Santocildes fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from
+the governor-general’s boot.
+
+Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the Spanish ranks that some
+important officer had fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in a
+vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded in repelling them, he
+felt himself in a critical situation, and hastily drew up his whole force
+into a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead horses and mules for
+breastworks. Around this strong formation the Cubans raged for several
+hours, only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous rout. An
+assault was made on the rear guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to
+capture the ammunition train. But its defenders held their ground
+vigorously, and fought their way to the main column, where they aided to
+form the square. Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo,
+pursued by the Cubans and having lost heavily in the fight. They were
+saved from utter destruction by Maceo’s lack of artillery, and Campos was
+very careful afterwards not to venture near this daring leader without a
+powerful force.
+
+Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in the earlier war, had now
+been appointed commander-in-chief of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo
+as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way westward into the province
+of Santa Clara, and in November Maceo left the eastern province of
+Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the trocha, the famous device
+of the Spaniards to prevent the free movement of the Cuban forces. It may
+be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare, devised by the
+Spaniards to check the free movement of their rebel foes.
+
+The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish trochas were military lines
+cut through the woods and across the island from side to side, and
+defended by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees were piled along
+both sides of the roadway, making a difficult breastwork of jagged roots
+and branches. At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this
+well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison of about one hundred
+men, it needing about fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the
+trocha from sea to sea.
+
+Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos, and by Weyler after him,
+to check the Cuban movements. We need only say here that, despite its cost
+and the number of men it tied up on guard duty, the trocha failed to
+restrain the alert islanders. Gomez had crossed it in his movement
+westward, and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He made a feint of
+an attack in force on one part of the line, and when the Spaniards had
+concentrated to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected spot,
+without firing a shot or losing a man.
+
+Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas and Spaniards. From
+Santa Clara they entered Matanzas province, and from this made their way
+into the province of Havana, bringing the war almost to the gates of the
+capital. Spain had now sent more than one hundred thousand troops across
+the ocean, though many of these were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans,
+the island had now risen almost from end to end, and their force was
+estimated at from thirty to fifty thousand men. It was no longer a rebel
+outbreak that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war.
+
+By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly fixed in Havana province,
+many negro field-hands and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They
+fought not only against the Spaniards, but against the bandits also, of
+whom there were many abroad plundering from both sides alike. These were
+hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo was the active fighter of
+the force, Gomez being occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and
+destroying railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of war.
+
+In January, 1896, a new movement westward was made, Maceo leading his men
+into the province of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end of the
+island. Here was the great tobacco district, one into which insurrection
+had never before made its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the
+island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure nowhere but within the
+cities, while the insurgents moved wherever they chose in the country. The
+sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by day and lurid with the
+flames of burning fields at night, showing that Gomez was busy with his
+work of destruction, burning the crops of every planter who sought to
+grind his cane.
+
+Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader through the remainder of his
+career. General Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his official
+life with the boast that he would soon clear the provinces near Havana of
+rebels in arms. But he was hardly in the governor’s chair when Maceo was
+back from the west and swooping down on the city of Jaruco, which he
+looted and burned.
+
+Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where they found no one to oppose
+them, and he was soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that this
+province was pacified. But the ink was barely dry upon it when Maceo,
+having burnt the port of Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the
+"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters in the mountains and
+defied all the power of Spain.
+
+Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted to confine him by
+building a new trocha, cutting off that end of the island. This took two
+months to complete, during which Maceo continued his work almost
+unopposed, destroying the tobacco of loyalists, defeating every force sent
+against him, and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the
+southern part of the province.
+
+Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the field, marching into Pinar del
+Rio at the head of thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an end to
+the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt sure he had hemmed in with
+his trocha. Between the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province was
+sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting a large force that
+Maceo was obliged to dismiss the most of his men.
+
+Leaving the slender remnant under the control of one of his lieutenants,
+he once more passed the trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat
+and landing in Havana province. He had sent orders in advance for a
+concentration of the Cuban forces in this region, that he might give
+Weyler a new employment.
+
+The daring partisan leader was near the end of his career, brought to his
+death by the work of a traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for
+the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men with him, was fired on
+from a Spanish ambush, and fell, mortally wounded.
+
+Thus died the most dashing soldier that the Cuban rebellion called into
+the field. Dr. Zertucha, of his staff, was charged with treachery in
+leading him into this ambush, though that is by no means proved. Maceo was
+one of nine brothers, all soldiers, and all of whom had now died in the
+great struggle for Cuban independence. His body was recovered from the
+enemy after a desperate fight; his valiant spirit was lost to the cause.
+Yet his work had not been without avail, and the country for which he had
+fought so bravely was left by him on the highroad to liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+About three o’clock of a dark morning, whose deep gloom shrouded alike the
+shores and waters of Cuba’s tropic isle, a large craft left the side of
+the "New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson’s fleet off Santiago, and
+glided towards the throat of the narrow channel leading to its land-locked
+harbor. This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier named the
+"Merrimac." On board were Richmond P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor,
+and seven volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the old hulk in the
+channel and thus to seal up the Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact
+that there were ten chances to one that they would go to the bottom with
+their craft, or be riddled with Spanish bullets, did not trouble their
+daring souls. Their country called, and they obeyed.
+
+Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks, was a series of
+torpedoes, prepared to blow the vessel into a hopeless wreck when the
+proper moment came. A heavy weight in coal had been left on board, to
+carry her rapidly to the bottom, and there was strong hope that she could
+be dropped in the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle," and
+"bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers. That it was an errand of
+imminent risk did not trouble the bold American tars. There were
+volunteers enough eager to undertake the perilous task to form a ship’s
+crew, and to the six seamen chosen Coxswain Clausen added himself as a
+stowaway. The love of adventure was stronger than fear of death or
+captivity.
+
+It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the night before an attempt to
+go in had been made, but the hour was so late that the admiral called the
+vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and there was no hinderance to
+the adventurous voyage. Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac" glided
+in towards the dark line of coast. Not a light was shown, and great skill
+was needed to strike the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From the
+"New York" eager eyes watched the collier until its outlines were lost
+beneath the shadow of the hills. Eyes continued to peer into the darkness
+and ears to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the nerves of
+the watching crew. Then came a booming roar from Morro Castle and the
+flash of a cannon lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and
+booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes there seemed a battle
+going on in the darkness. The "Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting
+her doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men?
+
+Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with a steam launch and four
+men, prepared to pick up any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went
+daringly under the batteries and hung about until daylight revealed his
+small craft, but not a man was seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned
+disappointed at 6.15 A.M., pestered by spiteful shots from the Spanish
+guns. He had followed the "Merrimac" until the low-lying smoke from the
+roaring guns hid her from view. Then came the explosion of the torpedoes.
+Hobson had done his work. Powell kept under the shelter of the cliffs
+until full day had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of the
+"Merrimac" rising out of the water of the channel. The sinking had been
+accomplished, but no one could say with what result to Hobson and his men.
+
+Let us now leave the distant spectators and go on board the "Merrimac,"
+seeking the company of her devoted crew. It was Hobson’s purpose to sink
+her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping the anchor and handling
+the rudder so as to turn her across the stream. Her length was sufficient
+to close up completely the deeper channel. He would stop the engines, let
+fall the anchor, open the traps made for the sea-water to flow in, and
+explode the torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the ship, each
+containing eighty-two pounds of powder, and they were connected so that
+they could be fired in train. There were two men below, one to reverse the
+engines, the other to break open the sea-traps with a sledge hammer. Those
+on deck were to let fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson would
+touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes, and all would leap
+overboard and swim to the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to
+escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it so often does, set them
+sadly astray.
+
+On through the darkness they went, hitting the channel squarely, and
+steaming in under the frowning walls of the Morro through gloom and
+death-like silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A small picket-boat
+came gliding out under the collier’s stern and fired several shots at the
+suspicious craft. One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled one
+important item of the plans. The dingy, which was trusted to for escape,
+disappeared, perhaps hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having
+done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and gave the alarm, and
+quickly the shore batteries were firing on the dark hull. The ships in the
+harbor echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards were alert. They
+thought that an American battle-ship was trying to force its way in,
+perhaps with the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give it a hard
+fight.
+
+Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove on, unhurt by the
+bombardment, and even by a submarine mine which exploded near her stern.
+The darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to hit, and she
+reached the desired spot, in the narrowest spot of the channel, none the
+worse for the shower of iron hail.
+
+So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment had arrived. Hobson gave
+the signal fixed upon, and the men below reversed the engine and opened
+the sea connections. They then dashed for the deck. Those above dropped
+the anchor and set the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter
+disappointment, discover that the rudder had been lost. The ship refused
+to answer her helm, and the plan of setting her lengthwise across the
+channel failed. The final task remained. Touching the electric button, the
+torpedoes went off with a sullen roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath
+their feet. The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail. The others
+leaped into the sea. Down went the "Merrimac" with a surge at the bow,
+cheers from the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank. The gunners
+thought they had sent to the depths one of the hostile men-of-war.
+
+At the last moment of leaving the "New York" an old catamaran had been
+thrown on the "Merrimac’s" deck, as a possible aid to the crew in
+extremity. This float lay on the roof of the midship house, a rope
+fastening it to the taffrail, with enough slack to let it float loose
+after the ship had sunk. It was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it
+afforded them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy.
+
+We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself at this point in our
+narrative. He says, "I swam away from the ship as soon as I struck the
+water, but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward in spite of all I
+could do. This did not last very long, however, and as soon as I felt the
+tugging cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I could see
+dimly bobbing up and down over the sunken hull.
+
+"The ’Merrimac’s’ masts were plainly visible, and I could see the heads of
+my seven men as they followed my example and made for the float also. We
+had expected, of course, that the Spaniards would investigate the wreck,
+but we had no idea that they would be at it as quickly as they were.
+Before we could get to the float several row-boats and launches came
+around the bluff from inside the harbor. They had officers on board and
+armed marines as well, and they searched that passage, rowing backward and
+forward, until the next morning. It was only by good luck that we got to
+the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly that we had barely
+concealed ourselves when a boat with quite a large party on board was
+right beside us."
+
+An event which they thought unlucky now proved to be the salvation of the
+fugitives, who very likely would have been shot on the spot by the marines
+if they had then been seen from the boats. The rope which fastened the
+float to the ship was too short to let it swing free, and one of the
+pontoons that supported it was dragged partly under water, lifting the
+other above the surface. If the raft had lain flat on the water they would
+have had to climb on top and would have made an excellent mark for the
+marines. As it was they got under its lifted side, and by thrusting their
+hands through the slats that formed the deck they kept their heads above
+the water, and had a chance to breathe.
+
+Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention to the old, half-sunken
+raft that floated above the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the
+hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one seemed to suspect it.
+The fugitives spoke only in whispers and at times were almost afraid to
+breathe, lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place remained
+unsuspected.
+
+The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours went on, and their
+fingers ached as they clung desperately to the slats. As the night passed
+their teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed to them as if
+the Spaniards must hear the sound, so distinctly to their ears came the
+noises on the water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became at last
+so trying that one of the men let go and began to swim ashore. Hobson
+called him back, and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men in the
+boats and created some commotion. They rowed up towards the float and
+looked sharply about, but no one thought of investigating the float
+itself, and soon they went off into the shadows again, letting the hidden
+men once more breathe freely.
+
+The question that most interested the Spaniards was to learn what ship it
+was they had sunk. Hobson heard them talking and guessing about it and
+understood many of their words. He soon perceived that the officers had
+taken in the situation and were astonished at the boldness and audacity of
+the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the fleet, a fact to the
+lieutenant’s satisfaction, as he felt more like trusting to the tender
+mercies of a Spanish sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him
+take up the narrative again.
+
+"When daylight came a steam-launch full of officers and marines came out
+from behind the cliff that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards
+us. All the men on board were looking curiously in our direction. They did
+not see us. Knowing that some one of rank must be on board, I waited till
+the launch was quite close and hailed her.
+
+"My voice produced the utmost consternation on board. Every one sprang up,
+the marines now crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were reversed.
+She not only stopped, but she backed off until nearly a quarter of a mile
+away, where she stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the word of
+command when we clambered out from under the float. There were ten of the
+marines, and they would have fired in a minute had they not been
+restrained.
+
+"I swam towards the launch, and then she started towards me. I called out
+in Spanish, ’Is there an officer on board?’ An officer answered in the
+affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again, ’I have seven men to
+surrender.’ I continued swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the
+water.
+
+"As I looked up when they were dragging me into the launch, I saw that it
+was Admiral Cervera himself who had hold of me. He looked at me rather
+dubiously at first, because I had been down in the engine-room of the
+’Merrimac,’ where I got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and
+coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable. I had put on my officer’s
+belt before sinking the ’Merrimac,’ as a means of identification, no
+matter what happened to me, and when I pointed to it in the launch the
+admiral understood and seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me
+when he understood who I was were, ’_Bienvenida sea usted_,’ which means
+’You are welcome.’ My treatment by the naval officers, and that of my men
+also, was courteous all the time I was a prisoner. They heard my story, as
+much of it as I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more.
+
+"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of them that night," was
+Hobson’s reply to a question. "We saw a great many things, though, and
+went through a great many experiences. When we started out from the fleet
+I tied to my belt a flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my ship’s
+surgeon. The frequency with which we all felt thirsty on the short run
+into the passage and the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe that
+I was frightened. The men felt the same, and all the way the flask went
+from hand to hand. Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened, but to
+my surprise I found it normal. Later we forgot all about it, and when we
+got into the water there was no need for the flask."
+
+The remainder of this stirring adventure must be told more briefly. The
+prisoners were taken ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle.
+Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as to their fate, but this
+was relieved by the generous conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his
+chief-of-staff out the next morning under a flag of truce to report their
+safety and to make an offer for their exchange. Cervera’s message was
+highly complimentary. It ran:
+
+"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish fleet, is most profoundly
+impressed with the brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the steamer
+’Merrimac’ in our harbor, and in admiration of their courage he has
+directed me to say to their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the
+exception of two of the men who were slightly hurt, they are uninjured.
+They are now prisoners of war and are being well cared for, and will be
+treated with every consideration."
+
+Cervera kept his word, though the captives found themselves in different
+hands later, when they were turned over to General Linares, commander of
+the troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity about five weeks, being
+exchanged on July 7, when a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were
+offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant seven. The story of their
+return to the American ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave eight
+passed up the trail leading to the American lines through the avenue of
+palms that bordered the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence,
+baring their heads as the band struck up "The Star-Spangled Banner." But
+as Hobson and his men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome broke the
+silence, while a cowboy yell came from the Rough Riders. Breaking from all
+restraint, the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of Hobson and his
+men. All the way to Siboney the cheers and excitement continued, and when
+Hobson set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew grew wild with
+enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson embraced him in the warmth of his
+greeting. As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up in the
+delirious delight of the men. Thus ended one of the most gallant deeds of
+that short war.
+
+It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had been managed, the
+effort to close the port proved a failure. Though the sunken ship closed
+part of the channel, there was room enough to pass beside her, this being
+strikingly proved on the morning of July 3, when the squadron which Hobson
+had sought to bottle up came steaming down the channel past the sunken
+"Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it started on a wild fight for
+freedom. The result of this venture does not need to be retold, and it
+must suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish ships were
+shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore, and Cervera and all who survived
+of his men were prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was as much
+of a hero as a captive, for his captors could not soon forget his generous
+treatment of Hobson and his men.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality -
+Volume III by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
+
+
+
+
+
+Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+
+by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+
+Edition 1, (October 9, 2006)
+
+
+
+
+
+                         Philadelphia and London
+                         J. B. Lippincott Company
+
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+Copyright, 1908, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+
+                  [Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.]
+
+                          DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.
+OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+
+
+The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high among the important dates in
+the history of the world. For on that day men from Europe, then the centre
+of civilization, first gazed on a rich new land beyond the seas, a great
+virgin continent, destined to become the seat of flourishing civilizations
+and to play a leading part in the later history of the world. Little did
+Columbus and his companions, when they saw before them on that famous
+morning a beautiful island, rising like a pearl of promise from the
+sparkling tropical sea, dream of what time held in store for that
+new-found land, foreordained to become the "New World" of the nations, the
+hope of the oppressed, and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and
+equality.
+
+But we are here concerned with only what they saw, and this was a green
+and populous island, so covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their
+eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was, for many of the trees
+were laden with new and strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form.
+Never had they breathed air more pure and fresh, and never had they beheld
+seas of such crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue; and it is
+not surprising that their eyes sparkled with joy and their souls were
+filled with wonder and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene
+after their long and dreaded journey over a vast and unknown ocean.
+
+Not less strange to the new-comers were the people who flocked in numbers
+from the woods and ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple
+wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had never met their eyes before.
+No clothing hid their dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to
+their visitors, and they looked like the unclad tenants of some new
+paradise. Their astonishment turned into fright when they saw boats leave
+these strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad in shining steel or
+raiment of varied color. Their white faces, their curling beards, their
+splendid clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of the forest,
+and especially the air of dignity of their leader, with his ample cloak of
+scarlet, added to their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as divine
+visitors, come to them from the skies.
+
+Not less was their surprise when they saw the wonderful strangers kneel
+and kiss the soil, and then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich
+colors and designs that seemed magical to their untaught eyes. And deep
+was their delight when these strange beings distributed among them
+wonderful gifts,--glass beads, hawk's bells, and other trifles,--which
+seemed precious gems to their untutored souls. They had nothing to offer
+in return, except tame parrots, of which they had many, and balls of
+cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards sparkled with hope when they
+saw small ornaments of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it been
+for all the natives of the New World if this yellow metal had not existed
+among them, for it was to bring them untold suffering and despair.
+
+Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus named this first-seen
+land; but, leaving it, let us go with him in his voyage through that
+island-sprinkled sea, and use his eyes in taking in the marvels with which
+it was sown. Familiar as these islands have become to many of us, to him
+they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string of tropic pearls or
+rare emeralds spread out along those shining waters of the South.
+
+On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their hearts elate with joy and
+pride in their discovery, hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn to
+the right and the left alike. They found themselves in an archipelago of
+beautiful islands, green and level, rising on all sides and seemingly
+numberless. To us they are the great green cluster of the Bahamas, but to
+Columbus, who fancied that he had reached the shores of Asia, they were
+that wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in which were seven
+thousand four hundred and fifty-eight islands, abounding with spices and
+rich in odoriferous trees and shrubs.
+
+On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright and placid waters scarce
+ruffled by the gentle breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of
+which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than the last. Besting under
+the shade of warm and verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their
+water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the admiral found the
+scene around him entrancing to his vision, "the country as fresh and green
+as the month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits, the herbs, the
+flowers, the very stones, for the most part, as different from those of
+Spain as night from day."
+
+                 [Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.]
+
+                         A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+
+
+One isle, which he honored with the name of Isabella, after his patron,
+the Spanish queen, surpassed in charm all he had yet seen. Like them all,
+it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate delightful, its air soft
+and balmy, its scenery so lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would
+never desire to depart. I know not where first to go, nor are my eyes ever
+weary of gazing on the beautiful verdure."
+
+Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all the casks of the ships to be
+filled. He could not say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here are large
+lakes, and the groves about them are marvellous, and in all the island
+everything is green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia. The singing
+of the birds is such that it seems as if one would never wish to leave
+this land. There are flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other
+birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so different from ours, that
+it is wonderful; and besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each
+having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous flavor, so that I am in
+the greatest trouble in the world not to know them, for I am very certain
+that they are each of great value."
+
+As he approached this island, he fancied that the winds bore to his senses
+the spicy odors said to be wafted from the islands of the East Indian
+seas. "As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came off a fragrance so
+good and soft of the flowers or trees of the land that it was the sweetest
+thing in the world."
+
+Not only were the islands the homes of birds of brilliant plumage and
+flowers of gorgeous hue, but the very seas seemed to their new visitors
+like tropical gardens, for the fish with which they abounded rivalled the
+birds and flowers in brilliancy of color. The scales of some of them
+glittered like precious stones, and gleams of gold and silver seemed to
+come from them as they swam around the ships, while the dolphins taken
+from the water changed color like the chameleon.
+
+The natives who had been taken on board the ships made signs which seemed
+to indicate that more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with cities
+and kings and queens, and abundance of gold and gems; or, at least, the
+Spaniards understood this from their signs, as they pointed to the south
+when gold was shown them and they were asked where it could be found. Far
+to the south was a great island which they named Cuba, and another which
+they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs appeared to show, was of vast
+extent and abounded with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined
+to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth which he and his
+companions so ardently craved. It cannot be said that the natives wished
+to deceive them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all they were
+asked, with the innocent desire of pleasing their wonderful new friends.
+Columbus, full of the idea that he was near the shores of India, hoped to
+reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco Polo had said was one of the most
+magnificent in the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns
+to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring back his reply to Spain.
+Inspired by this enticing hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows
+of his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba.
+
+It was on the morning of October 28 that the shores of this noble island
+first met the eyes of the eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along
+its coast the admiral was struck with its size and grandeur; its high and
+airy mountains, like those of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and
+the fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching forests and many
+green headlands, which led them on and on into the remote distance. They
+anchored at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were transparent and
+deeply shaded with overhanging trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up
+the stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting with every mile, forests
+of lofty and spreading trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit,
+some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at once. These woods
+swarmed with birds of brilliant plumage,--the scarlet flamingo, the
+rich-hued parrots and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds,
+which flitted on rainbow wings from flower to flower, and which no
+European had ever before seen. Even the insects were beautiful, in their
+shining coats of mail. Though most of the birds were silent, the charms of
+song were not wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected among
+them notes like those of the nightingale. Ever open to the charms of
+nature, Cuba seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful island that
+eyes ever beheld."
+
+He was sure there must here be mines of gold, groves of spices, rivers and
+seas that bore pearls. The houses, though simple in structure, were well
+built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and shaded by spreading trees.
+Led on still by his excited fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and
+rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze. Assured that the capital
+of the Grand Khan could not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with
+presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out by the people. But
+after going many miles they found only a village of fifty houses, like
+those seen on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no spices, none of
+the things they so ardently sought. The only thing new to their eyes was a
+fashion seen among the people, who rolled up certain dried and aromatic
+leaves, and, lighting one end, put the other in their mouths, and exhaled
+the smoke. This was the first ever seen by white men of that remarkable
+American plant, called by the natives by a name like tobacco, which has
+since grown to be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and hovel
+alike.
+
+Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination of Columbus was
+continually aroused by the magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of
+the scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A warm love of nature
+is frequently displayed in the description of the country which he wrote
+out for Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place, named by him
+Puerto Santo, he said: "The amenity of this river, and the clearness of
+the water, through which the sand at the bottom may be seen; the multitude
+of palm-trees of various forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have
+met with, and an infinity of other great and green trees; the birds in
+rich plumage, and the verdure of the fields, render this country, most
+Serene Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses all others
+in graces and charm, as the day doth the night in lustre. For which reason
+I often say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to give a complete
+account of it to your Majesties, my tongue cannot express the whole truth
+or my tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed at the sight of
+so much beauty that I have not known how to relate it."
+
+One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous series of
+discoveries,--the one called by the natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as
+Hayti, one of the most beautiful islands in the world in the splendor of
+its tropical vegetation. Columbus and his men could describe it only by
+comparison with the most beautiful provinces of the country from which
+they came, and in consequence he named the island Hispaniola, or "Little
+Spain."
+
+Here he found the people as innocent and simple in their habits as those
+of San Salvador, living in huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no
+clothing, for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing life in a
+holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To the Spaniards their life seemed
+like a pleasant dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where it was
+"always afternoon." They had no wants nor cares, and spent life in easy
+idleness and innocent sports. They had their fields, but the food plants
+grew bountifully with little labor. The rivers and sea yielded abundance
+of fish, and luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their forests.
+Thus favored by nature, they spent much of the day in repose, while in the
+evenings they danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or the rude
+music of their drums. After the coming of the Spaniards the clear tinkle
+of the hawk's bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight, and for
+those musical toys they were ready to barter everything they possessed.
+
+In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than the Spaniards had yet seen,
+but they were still lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope
+that this precious metal might there be found in quantities. Yet Columbus
+felt forced to cease, for a time, the quest of the precious metal, and
+sail for home with the story of the new world he had found. One of his
+vessels had deserted him; another had been wrecked: if he should lose the
+third he would be left without means of return and his great discovery
+might remain unknown.
+
+Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493, he spread the sails of
+the one caravel left to him, and turned its prow towards Europe, to carry
+thither the news of the greatest maritime discovery the world had ever
+known. Thus ended in success and triumph the first voyage of Columbus to
+the "New World."
+
+
+
+
+
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+
+
+Of the three ships with which Columbus made his first voyage, the "Pinta"
+deserted the others and went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and
+the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran ashore on the coast
+of Hispaniola and proved a hopeless wreck. Only the little "Ni�a" (the
+"girl," as this word means in English) was left to carry the discoverer
+home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully taken to pieces, and from her
+timbers was constructed a small but strong fort, with a deep vault beneath
+and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians aided in this, and not a shred
+of the stranded vessel was left to the waves. As the "Ni�a" was too small
+to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided to leave a garrison
+to hold this fort and search for gold until he should return. That the
+island held plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was left, with a
+garrison of forty men, and the "Ni�a" spread her sails to the winds to
+carry to Spain the wonderful news of the great discovery.
+
+La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort, in remembrance of the day
+of the wreck, and when he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find
+its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in the precious yellow
+metal. He reached the spot to find the fort a ruin and the garrison a
+remembrance only. They had been attacked by the Indians and massacred
+during the absence of the admiral.
+
+In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians whom Columbus had met with
+on his first voyage were not the only people of the islands. There were on
+some of the West Indies a warlike race called Caribs,--cannibals, the
+Spaniards said they were,--who gave the invaders no small trouble before
+they were overcome.
+
+It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had attacked La Navidad and
+destroyed the fort and its garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by
+some of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much too ready to
+commit. The leader of these warriors was a bold cacique named Caonabo,
+chief of a warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain that we are
+at present concerned, as he was the hero, or victim rather, of the first
+romantic story known to us in Indian life.
+
+In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on the coast of
+Hispaniola, there was one built far in the interior, called Fort Santo
+Tomas. This stood in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed land of
+gold of the island. Its site lay within the territory of Caonabo, who
+ruled over a great district, his capital town or village being on the
+southern slope of the Cibao Mountains.
+
+The first conflict between the Spaniards and the natives, after the
+massacre of the garrison of La Navidad, was in the district of the Vega,
+where a fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the natives
+suffering a severe defeat. The next was at Fort Santo Tomas, which was
+commanded by Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come out with Columbus
+in his second voyage. He was a man of great courage and unusual daring,
+one of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had to do with the
+conquest of the New World.
+
+A man of his spirit was needed to command this isolated fort in the
+mountains, for the cacique, Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of
+his territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a strong force of his
+warlike race. Santo Tomas was closely invested and fiercely attacked,
+Ojeda being reduced to such an extremity that he owed his escape only to a
+rescuing force sent by Columbus from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven
+off by the superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly to his
+stronghold in the mountains. But he was quickly back again, with a larger
+force than before. He had never met his equal among the Indians, but the
+fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards proved too much even for his courage,
+and he was a second time forced to withdraw.
+
+It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously situated, surrounded as
+he was by warlike enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In the
+face of this peril he adopted an expedient as daring as any of those shown
+by Cortez, Pizarro, or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age of
+conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its daring. It is this striking
+adventure which it is our purpose to describe.
+
+Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and most trusty, Ojeda set out
+on horseback over the mountains, following paths never before traversed by
+the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib town of Maguana, where he
+found Caonabo surrounded by a throng of armed warriors. The Spaniards had
+bearded the lion in his den, and were in a position of extreme peril
+should the cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master in
+craftiness, and by professions of friendship and other arts of duplicity
+he persuaded the chief to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest.
+
+He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs, bright and shining
+manacles of which the untutored Indian had no conception of the use, but
+whose brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they were bracelets, which
+the King of Spain had graciously sent him as a present, in recognition of
+his fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor Indian probably
+understood all this very imperfectly, but he was easily brought to view
+the manacles as _Turey_ or a gift from Heaven, and willingly held out his
+wrists that his guest might adorn them with those strange and splendid
+bracelets.
+
+In a moment his hands were secured, and before he could recover from his
+surprise Ojeda, whose small frame concealed much strength, reached from
+his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a great exertion of
+muscular force lifted him from the ground and swung him up on the horse.
+The warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion, had no time to
+use their weapons before the Spaniards had put spur to their horses and
+dashed off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side of Ojeda, to
+prevent the captive throwing himself from the horse. Threatened by their
+swords and with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets, Caonabo was
+forced to submit, and was carried by his captors for many miles through
+the heart of his own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which Columbus
+had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting a bay in which all his
+vessels could ride in safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination of
+his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to Columbus, and he was
+locked up in a secure cell.
+
+As the story goes, the brave cacique had a greater admiration for courage
+than anything else in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the
+crafty way in which he had been captured, he seemed to hold him in high
+esteem as the bravest of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his
+cell he would rise and courteously salute him, while he treated the visits
+of Columbus with haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique could
+make himself understood, the high rank of Columbus was nought to him. He
+had no proof that he was a man of courage, while the manner in which Ojeda
+had captured him showed him to be a brave man. To the bold Carib courage
+was the first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect.
+
+The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his countrymen who had to do
+with the Spanish invaders. Put on board ship and sent as a prize of valor
+to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the voyage, perhaps from a broken
+heart, or as a result of the change from his free forest life to the
+narrow confines of a fifteenth-century ship.
+
+The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of adventure, in which he
+distinguished himself as much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put
+in command of an exploring expedition and sent out from Spain, one of his
+companions being Amerigo Vespucci, he whose first name gained the
+immemorial honor of being given to the great western continent. In this
+voyage Ojeda discovered part of the continent of South America, which he
+called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested by an Indian village
+built on piles in the water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a
+colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there proved too bold and hostile
+for him, and he failed to subject them to his authority.
+
+Many were his adventures, all of them characterized by a rash daring like
+that he had shown in the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died, he
+was buried, in response to his own request, in the doorway of the
+Franciscan monastery in the city of Santo Domingo, so that all who entered
+that place of worship should walk over his grave.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+
+
+The island elysium which Columbus had discovered, and of which he wrote
+and conversed in the most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of
+promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of adventurers soon crossed
+the seas, hopeful of winning gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring
+in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them were men of wealth, who were
+eager to add to their riches, but the most of them had little beyond their
+love of adventure and their thirst for gold to carry them across the seas,
+needy but bold soldiers and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise,
+however perilous, that might promise them reward. The stories of many of
+these men are full of romantic interest, and this is especially the case
+with one of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez.
+
+We propose here to deal with the interesting early history of this most
+famous of the New World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain, of good
+family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome humor led him into many wild
+escapades while still a boy. The mystery and romance of the strange land
+beyond the sea and the chance to win gold and glory which it offered were
+fascinating to a spirit like his, and he was prevented from taking part in
+an expedition when but seventeen years of age only by an unlucky accident.
+As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure like that of Romeo and
+Juliet, the stones gave way and he was thrown violently to the ground and
+buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed from his hurts the fleet
+had sailed.
+
+Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at home, engaged, perhaps, in
+similar pranks, but at length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set
+sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only nineteen years of age.
+He did not get across the sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of
+his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole away from the rest of
+the squadron, hoping to reach port and sell his cargo before the others
+arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for many days the vessel was
+tossed about, the sailors not knowing where they were, and furious at the
+treachery of their captain. At length, one morning, hope returned to them,
+in the form of a white dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the
+bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following its course the
+weary mariners finally came to the port they sought. But the captain was
+paid for his treachery by finding that the other vessels had arrived
+before him and sold their cargoes.
+
+The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope. When the governor's
+secretary told him that no doubt he would be given a good estate to settle
+on, he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the soil, like a
+peasant."
+
+As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough to accept the land, but
+his fondness for active deeds clung to him, and he took part in the
+military expeditions sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He had his
+quarrels, too, and his duels about the love of fair ladies, and received
+wounds whose scars he carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his valor
+came in 1511, when an expedition set out for the conquest of Cuba. Cortez
+enlisted under the leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by his
+courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition, and the good
+humor and ready wit which made him a favorite with all he met.
+
+After the island had been conquered, Velasquez was made its governor,
+Cortez still being his close friend. But for some reason this friendship
+did not last, and when at length a party of discontented men formed a plan
+to complain of the acts of the governor to the higher authorities in
+Hispaniola, Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen, from his
+fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it being necessary to perform the
+perilous exploit of crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in an
+open boat.
+
+In some way the plot got wind, and, before he could leave the island,
+Cortez was arrested by order of the governor and thrown into prison, his
+limbs being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended to hang him, as
+we are told, but was persuaded by his friends not to go so far. These
+Spanish governors had the power to do almost anything they pleased, their
+distance from home enabling them to act the despot at will, and their
+influence at court saving them from evil consequences.
+
+                [Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.]
+
+                        CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+
+
+Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In some way he managed to
+open one of the bolts of his fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then,
+turning his irons into tools, he used them to force open the window of his
+cell. As he was on the second floor of the building, it was easy for one
+so agile as he to reach the ground without injury, and he made his way to
+a church near by, where he claimed the right of sanctuary.
+
+When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner he was furious. He did
+not dare attempt to take him from the church by force, since the sacred
+walls protected all who sought their asylum. But a guard was stationed
+close by, with orders to seize the fugitive if he should leave the
+sanctuary. With one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done. A few
+days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning himself outside the walls of
+the building, one of the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his
+arms, and held him till his comrades came to his aid. This man was one of
+those who afterwards took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which he
+was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps took this opportunity for
+revenge.
+
+Once more the reckless young adventurer found himself a fettered captive,
+this time being put on board a vessel that was to sail the next morning
+for Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be tried for his
+offence. But he proved a very hard prisoner to hold. That night, with much
+pain and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of the irons that
+held them, and then stole cautiously to the deck, where he found a boat
+floating by the vessel's side. Slipping down into this, under cover of the
+darkness, he cut loose and paddled silently away.
+
+When near the shore he met with a rapid current and rough waters, to which
+he was afraid to trust the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought it
+safest to breast the water himself, and boldly plunged overboard. He found
+his task a hard, almost a fatal one; the current threatened to sweep him
+away, but after a long struggle with the waves he succeeded in reaching
+the shore, in a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now sought the
+church again, no doubt resolving this time to keep safely within its
+sacred shelter.
+
+The story goes on to state that the governor, worked upon by friends of
+the culprit, offered him forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier
+was too proud to accept. What followed is amusing. Velasquez was at a
+distance from the capital, on a military excursion, when one evening he
+was startled in his tent by the appearance of his enemy, completely armed
+and threatening in aspect. In dismay, the governor asked him what he
+wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was tired of being treated like a
+felon, and that he must have an explanation or he would know the reason
+why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and a hot altercation followed. But at
+length their talk became more friendly, and in the end their old amicable
+relations were resumed and they embraced like a pair of lovers. The
+amusing part of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to tell the
+governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary and disappeared, he found the
+governor and the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed.
+
+This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they became friends again, and
+Cortez was given a large estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and
+on which he found gold-mines, which were worked by Indian labor. He
+married a beautiful Spanish girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several
+years in happy content.
+
+This, with some, would have been the end of a career. It was only the
+beginning of that of Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history and
+a record of undying fame. All we can tell here is how this came about. It
+began in expeditions of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler, seeking
+Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was blown far westward by a storm, and
+reached an unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone buildings,
+cultivated the soil, and wore delicate cotton garments and ornaments of
+gold. In other ways they showed evidence of civilization. The land thus
+reached is that now known as Yucatan.
+
+Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova brought back, sent out a small
+fleet under his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this new
+land. Grijalva found evidence that a great civilized nation dwelt inland,
+rich in gold and far superior in civilization to any Indians whom the
+Spaniards had yet met. He named the country New Spain, and sailed back to
+Cuba with an account of his important discoveries.
+
+The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy. Here seemed to be the land of
+gold which the Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win vast wealth
+and the glory of adding a new and splendid province to Spain. He at once
+began to fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around for a man fit
+to command it. Several of the hidalgos, or gentlemen of Cuba, offered
+themselves, but none pleased the governor, and at length he settled upon
+Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By chance, rather than by
+intention, he had made a splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the
+New World, and perhaps the one man at that time in all Spain, fitted by
+nature for the difficult task which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as
+he had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a great occasion to prove
+himself a great man. He was to develop into one of the ablest military
+leaders in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was to display a
+genius and achieve a success worthy of C�sar or Alexander or any of the
+famous soldiers of the world.
+
+But, from another point of view, Velasquez had made a bad choice. Cortez
+had disdained his fetters and his prisons, and would soon disdain his
+control. His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this young
+adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o'-the-wisp.
+
+           [Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.]
+
+                   LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+
+
+The very appointment seemed to change the whole character of the new
+admiral. He became a different man. His high spirits now changed to a
+tireless energy. He spent his money freely in fitting out the fleet, and
+even mortgaged his estate to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He
+worked incessantly, and inspired his companions and followers to active
+and enthusiastic toil. He was so popular in the island that several
+hundred recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships, some of them
+of large size, were rapidly got ready and stocked with provisions and
+military stores.
+
+Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the labor and cost of Cortez
+would go for naught. Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to rob
+him of his command and trust the fleet to safer hands. But he was not
+dealing with a man who could be played with in this fast and loose
+fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and he decided to sail at
+once, though he was still short of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That
+night he took on board all the meat in the town, weighed anchor, and got
+ready to set sail.
+
+At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that the fleet was about to depart.
+In a panic he sprang from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his
+horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez entered a boat and rowed
+near enough to the shore to speak with him.
+
+"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the angry governor; "a courteous
+leave-taking, truly."
+
+"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and there are some things that
+should be done before they are even thought of. Has your excellency any
+commands?"
+
+His excellency would have commanded him to come on shore, if it had been
+of any use. As it was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of the
+hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only their vanishing hulls were to
+be seen.
+
+The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at Trinidad. At the last
+place many men, and several cavaliers who were to prove his ablest
+officers, joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez to the
+governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet
+for a new admiral who was to command it. The governor looked at Cortez and
+his men and concluded that he had better let them alone. They were too
+strong for him to deal with.
+
+So once more the bold adventurers escaped from Velasquez and his schemes
+and sailed in triumph away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor
+of the place had received orders to arrest Cortez, and here, also, he did
+not dare attempt it. Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait
+till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly the fool to pay any heed
+to such a letter as that. The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to
+the fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer, saying that he would
+not lose sight of the interests of his excellency, and that he and the
+fleet, "God willing, would set sail the next morning."
+
+Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet lost sight of Cuba at
+Cape San Antonio, on the western end of the island. It consisted in all of
+eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on board six hundred and
+sixty-three soldiers and sailors. A few of these were armed with
+cross-bows and only thirteen with muskets, while the horses numbered only
+sixteen. In addition there were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with
+a good supply of ammunition.
+
+Such was the fleet and such the force with which Hernando Cortez set sail
+to conquer a powerful and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition had
+one of the world's great commanders at its head, or the enterprise would
+have ended in failure instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful
+success.
+
+
+
+
+
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+
+
+It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus opened to the adventurers
+of Spain, and hundreds of them soon took that promising path. Among these
+was one Vasco Nu�ez de Balboa, a man poor in gold or land, but rich in
+courage and ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at home like a
+gentleman with the means of a peasant. In the year 1501 he crossed the
+seas to Hispaniola, where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till
+the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or good luck of Cortez,
+and after years of labor he found himself poorer than when he commenced.
+He began to see that nature had not meant him for a farmer, and that if he
+wanted a fortune he must seek it in other fields.
+
+Balboa was not alone in this. There were others, with better-filled
+pockets than he, who were ripe for adventure and eager for gold. A famous
+one of these was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus and
+the hero of the adventure with the Carib chief already described, who in
+1509 sailed for South America and founded a settlement named by him San
+Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer of the town of San
+Domingo, to fit out two more vessels and follow him with provisions for
+his new settlement.
+
+Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with casks of bread and
+other food-stuffs. There was more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of,
+for when far from land there crept out of one of these casks a haggard,
+woe-begone, half-starved stowaway, who looked as if he had not many ounces
+of life left in him. It was Vasco Nu�ez de Balboa, who had taken this way
+to join the expedition and escape from his creditors, since they would not
+have permitted him to go openly. The cask in which he snugly lay had been
+carried from his farm to the ship among others containing provisions.
+
+Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome addition to his crew. He
+threatened to throw him overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave
+him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow fell on his knees and
+tearfully begged for mercy. Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at
+length softened and spared him his life. He was to pay bitterly for his
+kindness before many days.
+
+The expedition had its adventures on the seas, ending in a wreck, and when
+San Sebastian was reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement
+was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what to do, but Balboa had been on
+that coast before, on his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an
+Indian village on the Darien River where they might find food and shelter.
+He advised Enciso to go thither, and a journey was made overland, among
+hostile Indians and with little food. The adventurers were half-starved
+when at length they reached their goal.
+
+Here they founded a new settlement named Santa Maria, no doubt first
+disposing of the Indians in the usual Spanish fashion,--killing some and
+making slaves of others. But it was not long before there were bitter
+quarrels among themselves. Enciso had forbidden them to have any private
+trade for gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly resented. The
+result was that a party rose against him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso
+was deprived of his authority, but when they tried to elect another in his
+place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa, who had made a settlement
+near there, was sent for by some of the settlers, but when he came,
+Balboa's party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen companions,
+was placed in a crazy old barque and left to find their way back to
+Hispaniola as best they could.
+
+Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest and boldest man in
+Darien, and his influence and power grew steadily until the settlers voted
+him their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned, and finally was sent
+to Spain. With him went one of Balboa's chief supporters, in order to gain
+for him from the king the royal right to his new office.
+
+Balboa lost no time in showing that he was worthy of the dignity given
+him. He made many incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded
+in collecting much gold, the yellow metal being more plentiful there than
+in the West India islands. In those expeditions he showed a wise spirit of
+conciliation and won the friendship of several of the Indian chiefs. In
+one of their excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards about the
+division of the gold they had obtained. They were almost at sword's-point
+when a young Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about what seemed
+to him a useless substance, upset the gold out of the balance, and turned
+to Balboa, saying,--
+
+"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this? If you value it so highly, I
+could take you to a country where it is so common that it is used for the
+meanest utensils."
+
+These significant words filled the Spaniards with hope and desire, and
+they eagerly asked where that rich land lay, and how it might be reached.
+
+"At the distance of six suns [six days' journey] from here," said the
+cacique, "lies another ocean as great as the one before you. Near its
+shores is the kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and if you wish
+to attack it you will need far more men than you have here."
+
+This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the great southern ocean or
+of the rich land of Peru. This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which
+Columbus sought for without success, the waters which border the East
+Indies, and the great and rich nation on its shores must be one of the
+famous countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his mind to gaze on
+that unknown sea.
+
+Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking and do it quickly. He
+had received letters from Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which
+were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to King Ferdinand of the way
+in which he had been treated, and the king had not only refused to support
+Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions, but had condemned his course
+and ordered him to return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness
+were at an end unless he could win the favor of the king by some great
+enterprise. Such would be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he
+determined to attempt.
+
+The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to cross, is not over sixty
+miles wide. But many of these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests
+so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too, where it rains for more
+than half the year, the valleys are converted into marshes, and are so
+often overflowed that in many places the natives have to dwell in the
+trees, while from the high grounds rush swollen rivers, fierce and
+threatening. To march across an unknown and perilous country like this,
+led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold and desperate enterprise,
+surpassing any which the Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one
+of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to win the favor of his
+sovereign there was no danger he was not ready to face.
+
+For the perilous expedition he could muster only one hundred and ninety
+men. But these were veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus, and
+ready to follow him whatever the peril. They had good reason to trust his
+courage and readiness in emergencies, for they had found him always brave
+and alert. A thousand Indians were taken with them, to carry their
+provisions, and they added to their force a number of the fierce
+bloodhounds which were dreaded by the natives as much as the fire-arms of
+the Spaniards.
+
+Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st of September, 1513,
+sailing along the coast to Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half
+the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes. With the remainder
+the terrible journey across the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was
+begun.
+
+No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than troubles and perils
+thickened around them. The country was difficult to traverse, the people
+were bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they proved no feeble
+antagonists. As the adventurers left the plain and toiled up the
+mountains, a warlike cacique, with a large body of followers, met them in
+a narrow pass and boldly disputed the way. A fierce battle ensued, ending
+in favor of the Spaniards, who cut their way through the savages, leaving
+hundreds of them dead on the ground.
+
+Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they toiled onward and upward,
+until the six days fixed for their journey had stretched out to
+twenty-five. But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their guides
+assured them that from the top of the next mountain they could see the
+ocean they so ardently sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near
+the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and went on alone, that he
+might be the first to gaze on the wonderful spectacle.
+
+Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there, to his infinite delight,
+sparkled and spread before his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth,
+stretching away to the north, south, and west as far as human eye could
+see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous vision, he fell prostrate on the
+ground, like a worshipper before the object of his adoration. Then, rising
+to his knees, he thanked God for the great boon vouchsafed to him.
+
+His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise and beckon them, while with
+his other hand he pointed wildly westward. With springing steps they
+rushed to his side, and joined in his delight and his thanks to God as the
+marvellous spectacle met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to show
+that they had taken possession of this spot for his sovereign, and as they
+went down the farther slope they carved on many trees the name of King
+Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this new land.
+
+Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats's famous sonnet to Homer, in
+which a great poet has admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange
+error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa:
+
+  "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
+    When a new planet swims into his ken;
+  Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
+    He stared at the Pacific--and all his men
+  Looked at each other with a wild surmise--
+    Silent, upon a peak in Darien."
+
+Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the easiest and shortest path
+to the sea, one of them a man destined to become still more famous than
+Balboa,--Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Reaching the
+shore, they found on it two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the
+men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling on their comrades to
+witness that they were the first to embark on that sea.
+
+For three days the remaining men waited advices from their pioneers, and
+then followed the guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with his
+sword and buckler, rushing into the water to his middle, and claiming
+possession of that vast sea and all its shores in the name of his king,
+for whom he pledged himself to defend it against all comers.
+
+Such was the discovery of the great South Sea, as Balboa named it, the
+Pacific Ocean, as Magellan soon after called it. The people of the coast
+told the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that lay to the south, and
+whose people had tame animals to carry their burdens. The form of these
+they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing Balboa that they were
+camels, and that the land indicated must be Asia. They really represented
+the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel in form.
+
+After remaining for some time on the coast, gathering all the information
+he could obtain, Balboa led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved
+to return with a stronger force next year and seek that distant land of
+gold. But this exploit was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest
+of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition.
+
+It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers reached their
+starting-point at Santa Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with
+the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to Spain, with an account of
+the remarkable exploit, which was received with an enthusiasm little less
+than had been the news of the discovery of the New World. If Columbus had
+discovered a new land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of a new
+ocean, added to which was the story of a land of gold, for whose conquest
+Balboa asked for a reinforcement of a thousand men.
+
+Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery was destined to still
+greater ill-fortune, as we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached
+Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had been appointed and had set
+sail, with fifteen vessels and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly five
+hundred men under his command, but he at once submitted to the decision of
+his king and accepted Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred new
+men landed in that pestilential climate, in the unhealthy season, paid
+bitterly for their imprudence. A violent disease attacked them; scarcity
+of provisions made it worse; and within a month more than six hundred of
+them had died, while others hastened away from that noxious spot.
+
+At length news came that the king fully appreciated the splendid discovery
+of Balboa; letters of high praise were received, and he was appointed
+_Adelantado_, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias being ordered to
+support him in all his operations. The rivals now became reconciled, their
+union being made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in marriage to
+Balboa.
+
+The adventurer now began active preparations for an exploration of the
+South Sea, materials for ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest
+labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed. There was no
+lack of volunteers for the expedition, and the vessels were launched and
+sailed to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone preventing them
+from going on to the coast of Peru.
+
+Thus there seemed a great career opening before Balboa at the very moment
+when adverse fate was gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had grown
+jealous of his daring exploits and the fame that seemed his coming meed,
+and, cherishing treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced him to
+return to Acla, his new capital.
+
+On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by order of the governor,
+thrown into prison, and put on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king
+and an intention to revolt against his superior. The judge was forced to
+condemn him to death, and the fatal sentence was at once carried into
+effect, the great discoverer being beheaded on the public square of Acla.
+Thus, in blood and treachery, ended the career of one of the ablest of the
+bold adventurers of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+
+
+About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, there
+reigned over the kingdom of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch
+whose history is as interesting and romantic as any that can be found in
+the annals of Europe. His story was preserved by his descendants, and its
+principal events are as follows:
+
+            [Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.]
+
+                    FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+
+
+The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans, stood on the eastern
+borders of the lake on whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital.
+About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked by a kindred race, the
+Tepanecs, who, after a desperate struggle, captured their city, killed
+their monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir to the crown, the
+young Prince Nezahualcoyotl, concealed himself in the foliage of a tree
+when the triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his hiding-place
+saw his father killed before his eyes. This was the opening event in a
+history as full of deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the
+"Young Chevalier of English history."
+
+The young prince did not long remain at liberty. Soon after his flight
+from the city he fell into the hands of his foes, and was brought back and
+thrown into a dungeon.  This led to the first romantic incident in his
+career. The governor of the fortress prison was an old servant of the
+royal family of Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in
+disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid for his loyalty with
+his life, but he willingly gave it in exchange for the liberty of the heir
+to the throne.
+
+The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital. He was, in fact, closely
+related to the Aztec monarch, and through his good offices he was at
+length permitted to reside in that city. Afterwards he was allowed to
+return to Tezcuco, where for eight years he dwelt in privacy, studying
+under the teachers of his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power.
+Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his soul ardent hopes of
+regaining the throne of his ancestors.
+
+A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died and his son, Maxtla,
+succeeded to the throne. The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and
+when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render him homage on his
+accession, Maxtla treated with disdain the little gift of flowers which
+the young prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him in the
+presence of his chieftains. Evidently the palace was no place of safety
+for the Tezcucan prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers, he
+hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a refuge in his native city
+of Tezcuco. Here the tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His
+popular manners had won him many friends, and the ancient subjects of his
+family looked upon him as a coming leader who might win back for them
+their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence of the possession of
+talent and energy, and Maxtla, fearful of his growing popularity, resolved
+to make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly invited him to an
+evening's entertainment, where he had assassins ready to murder him.
+Fortunately, the tutor of the prince suspected the plot, and contrived to
+replace the youth by a person who strongly resembled him, and who became
+the victim of the fate intended for him.
+
+Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now resolved to kill him
+openly, and sent a party of soldiers to the city, who were instructed to
+enter the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the spot. Again the
+watchfulness of his old teacher saved him. Warned of his danger, and
+advised to flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited the
+assassins.
+
+When they reached the palace in which he resided, they found him playing
+at ball in the court-yard. He received them courteously, showing no
+suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to take some refreshment
+after their journey. While they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly
+into an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and the soldiers able
+to see through both apartments, his movements gave them no concern. It was
+the custom, however, when any one entered the presence of a great lord,
+for the servants to throw aromatics into a burning censer. This the
+prince's attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as to hide him
+from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus obscured, he entered a secret passage
+which led to a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring water to the
+palace. In this he concealed himself until nightfall, and then made his
+way into the suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one of his
+father's former vassals.
+
+Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim had twice escaped him,
+grew more determined on his death, and ordered immediate and thorough
+pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take him, dead or alive, with
+the hand of a noble lady and an ample domain. Troops of armed men scoured
+the country in every direction, searching all suspected places, and some
+of them entered the cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there was a
+heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture of cloth, and hid
+beneath this the fugitive escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot
+that he left this place for the wooded hill country between his state and
+the neighboring one of Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and
+caverns.
+
+The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering from place to place,
+exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather, remaining concealed by
+day, and stealing out at night in search of food. His pursuers, eager to
+win the enticing reward, kept up an active search, more than once coming
+dangerously near to his retreat.
+
+Very interesting stories are told of his adventures in this period of
+peril. The high rewards offered did not suffice to wean from him the
+attachment of the people, and more than once he owed his safety to their
+loyalty. Some of them submitted to torture, and even to loss of life,
+rather than betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even many of the
+soldiers were his friends, and once, when hotly pursued, he took refuge
+among a small party of these, who were dancing around a large drum. To
+conceal him from his enemies they placed him in the drum and continued
+their dance around it.
+
+At another time the pursuers were so close to him that he just succeeded
+in turning the crest of a hill when they began to climb it on the other
+side. Here he fortunately found a girl who was reaping _chia_, a plant
+whose seeds were used in making palatable drinks. Telling her who he was
+and of his great danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of the
+plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came up and asked if she had
+seen him, the faithful girl coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a
+path which she said he had taken.
+
+None of the natives showed any inclination to betray him, despite the
+richness of the promised rewards.
+
+"Would you not deliver up the prince if he came in your way?" he asked of
+a peasant who did not recognize him.
+
+"Not I," was the reply.
+
+"What! not for a fair lady's hand, and a rich domain as dowry?"
+
+The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed in disdain.
+
+But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the prince was in constant
+danger, and his situation, in the rough fastnesses of the hills and
+forests, became very distressing.
+
+"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who kept with him in his
+wanderings and shared his sufferings. "Leave me to my fate. Why should you
+throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily persecutes?"
+
+But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their danger and the fact
+that most of the great nobles of the land had sought safety and reward by
+an adhesion to the usurper.
+
+Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the fugitive. Maxtla had shown
+himself an oppressor, and his ambition and military successes had caused
+much alarm in the surrounding states, where his tyranny was contrasted
+with the mild rule of the former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the
+young prince took advantage of this feeling, and succeeded in forming a
+coalition against his enemy. A day was fixed for a general rising, and on
+the date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at the head of an army
+strong enough to face that of Maxtla and the Tepanecs.
+
+The two armies soon met and victory rested on the banner of the young
+prince, the forces of Maxtla being badly beaten. No longer a hunted
+fugitive, but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in triumph to
+the capital which he had left with a price on his head, his joyful
+subjects crowding to the route of march to render homage to their rightful
+sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla,
+readily allied themselves with the young victor, and a series of bloody
+battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated under the walls of
+his own capital. He was dragged from the baths, to which he had fled for
+concealment, and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs; his royal
+city was razed to the ground, and its site was reserved as the great
+slave-market of the surrounding nations.
+
+Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the throne of his ancestors, where
+he was to prove himself the greatest monarch of whom we have any record in
+the American annals. The story of his reign is far too full of detail for
+the space we can give to it, but is of such interest that we may venture
+on a concise account of it, as an example of the career of the most
+illustrious of the ancient American sovereigns.
+
+The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim a general amnesty. He
+not only pardoned the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts of
+honor and confidence. This was not only politic but just, since their
+offences were mainly due to fear of the usurper. Under the circumstances
+he could safely treat them with magnanimity.
+
+He next remodelled the government of the kingdom, and framed a code of
+laws which seemed so wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs
+and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and of justice were
+established, and also a council of state, whose members acted as the
+immediate advisers of the king, and aided him in the despatch of business.
+But the most remarkable of these new departments was the "council of
+music," which was devoted to the encouragement of science and art, and
+served as a general board of education for the country. Historical
+compositions and poems were recited before it, and altogether it indicated
+a degree of civilization which we would scarcely look for in any part of
+ancient America. Its historians, orators, and poets became celebrated
+throughout the country, the allied monarchs presided over its
+deliberations, and among its chief bards was the king himself, who entered
+into impartial competition with his subjects for the prizes given for the
+best poems. Many of his odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still
+rest in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain.
+
+The far-seeing monarch did not content himself with writing poetry, or
+encouraging historians,--who wrote subject to the penalty that any one who
+wilfully lied should be punished with death,--but he sought to develop all
+the arts. Agriculture was greatly encouraged, the population rapidly
+increased, new towns and cities sprang up, and the borders of the nation
+were extended by successful wars. He made his capital the most stately
+city of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles, whom he
+wished to reside at the court. There were more than four hundred of these
+palatial mansions, but far exceeding them in magnificence was the grand
+palace he built for himself. This covered a space of three thousand seven
+hundred feet in length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A wall
+surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which formed the great
+market-place of the city, and an inner one surrounded by the council
+chambers and halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors from
+other states, and a spacious saloon in which the poets and men of science
+met to study and converse. Here also were kept the public archives.
+
+The royal apartments adjoined this inner court, and rivalled in beauty
+those of Oriental lands. Alabaster or stucco of rich tints covered some of
+the walls, while others were hung with tapestries of the gorgeous Indian
+feather-work. Long arcades and winding pathways bordered with verdure led
+to gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains shadowed by lofty
+trees. Fish of various kinds stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were
+birds of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and animals were reproduced
+in gold and silver with wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner
+apartments dwelt the wives and children of the monarch, who were as
+numerous as those of an Eastern sultan. Such was the famous palace, in
+which were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty yards square. It
+is said that two hundred thousand workmen were employed in building it. In
+this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his youthful days had been
+glad to share with wild animals a shelter in the thickets and caverns of
+the mountains.
+
+Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence to this palatial
+residence. Beautiful villas were built in various picturesque localities
+and adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and comfort. His favorite
+retreat from the cares of office was built on a rounded hill about six
+miles from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached by a stairway of
+five hundred and twenty steps, many of them hewn in the native rock. In
+the summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with water by an aqueduct
+carried on masonry buttresses for several miles over hill and valley. In
+its centre was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics the
+principal events of each year of the king's reign.
+
+Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with statuary, and yielding
+water to channels that ran through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled
+riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes and pavilions, and
+baths cut in the solid rock, which the natives still show to visitors
+under the title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the base of the hill,
+amid lofty groves of cedar, rose the royal villa, with its light arcades
+and airy halls, affording a delightful relief to the monarch from the
+duties of the court. Relics of this villa and garden still remain to
+attest their former beauty, and indicate that this Indian king lived in a
+magnificence resembling that of the far-famed court of the caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid.
+
+He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian Nights" in another way,
+for it was his custom to wander about the streets, conversing with the
+humblest of his people and learning their condition and needs from their
+own words. Many anecdotes are told of this kind, in which it was his
+delight to reward merit and relieve distress. Some of these may be read
+with interest.
+
+On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering sticks in a field for fuel,
+and asked him why he did not go into the neighboring forest, where he
+would find plenty of them.
+
+"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It's the king's wood, and he would
+punish me with death if I took sticks from there."
+
+"What kind of man is your king?"
+
+"He is a very hard man," answered the boy, "for he takes from his people
+what God has given them."
+
+The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco were as severe as those of
+Norman England. The king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws but
+to help himself in the forest, for there was no one who would betray him.
+But the lad sturdily refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor
+who wished to bring him into trouble.
+
+The next day the boy and his parents were sent for to come to the palace.
+They obeyed with wonder and dread, and the boy was filled with terror on
+seeing the king and recognizing him as the man with whom he had talked so
+freely. But the good-natured monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked him
+for the lesson he had given his king, praising his respect for the laws
+and commending his parents for bringing up their son so wisely. He
+dismissed them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave orders that any
+one might gather fallen wood in the forest, if they did not interfere with
+the standing timber.
+
+Another adventure was with a poor woodman and his wife. The man, as he
+stood in the marketplace with his little store, complained bitterly of his
+lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly amid luxuries in the
+palace. The wife bade him be careful, as he might be overheard in his
+complaints. The king, looking down on the market from a latticed window,
+and amusing himself with the chatter of the market people, heard the words
+of the couple, and ordered them to be brought into his presence.
+
+He asked the frightened pair what they had said, and was pleased to find
+that they answered him truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had
+great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he who had a nation to
+govern could not lead an idle life; and told them "to be more cautious in
+future, as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after giving them a
+quantity of cloth and a good supply of cacao,--the coin of the country.
+"Go," he said; "with the little you now have, you will be rich; while,
+with all my riches, I shall still be poor."
+
+Of all the stories told of this famous monarch, there is only one not to
+his credit, and of this we may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable
+resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and Uriah. He fell in love
+with a beautiful maiden, who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom,
+and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take command of a warlike
+expedition against the Tlascalans. Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him
+and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he might lose his life,
+which the king said he had forfeited by a great crime. The old man
+suspected what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment to his
+friends. He was correct in his prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in
+battle, and the royal lover's path was clear.
+
+The king now secretly offered his hand and heart to the maiden, who was by
+no means inconsolable for the loss of her old lover, and willingly
+accepted. To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he had the maiden
+brought to his villa to witness some ceremony there. Standing on a balcony
+of the palace, the king pretended to be struck with her beauty, and asked,
+"Who is the lovely young woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those
+present soon learned her name and rank, which was that of a princess of
+the royal house of Mexico. She was asked to enter the palace and receive
+the attention due to her station, and the king was not long in publicly
+declaring his love. The marriage soon after took place, in the presence of
+his brother monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great pomp and
+ceremony.
+
+Such was the one blot in the history of this famous monarch. Aside from
+this act of treachery, it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded a
+monarch in the early annals of the nations of Mexico, and one whose
+history is so full of romantic adventure.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+
+
+There is no chapter in all history more crowded with interesting and
+romantic events than the story of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards
+under Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring and wonderful
+success, the most extraordinary is the tale of the _Noche Triste_, the
+terrible night-retreat of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital. No one can
+read this story, and that of the remarkable victory of Otumba which
+followed it, without feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors worthy
+of the most warlike age. This oft-told story we shall here again relate.
+
+In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set out from Cuba on his great
+expedition, with a few hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon,
+muskets, and horses. It may briefly be stated here that he sought to
+conquer a warlike and powerful nation with this insignificant force, less
+than a modern regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico; won, with
+the terror of his horses and guns and the valor of his men, victory in
+every battle; gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made his way
+into their capital; seized and held prisoner their emperor, Montezuma, and
+for a time seemed to be full master of the land. We might go on to tell
+how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked the Spaniards with the
+courage of desperation, mortally wounded their own emperor, and at length
+brought the invaders into such terrible straits that they were forced to
+fight their way out of the city as their last hope of life.
+
+To understand what followed, it must be stated that the city of Mexico
+lay, not in the open country, but on an island in the centre of a large
+lake, and that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow causeways of
+earth across this lake. Each of these causeways was broken at intervals by
+wide ditches, with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had removed these
+bridges, and thus added immensely to the difficulty of the night-march
+which the desperate Spaniards were obliged to make.
+
+It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that Cortez and his men threw
+open the gates of the palace fortress in which they had long defended
+themselves against the furious assaults of thousands of daring foes. The
+night was dark and cloudy, and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy
+was to be seen, and as they made their way with as little noise as
+possible along the great street of Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence,
+Hope rose in their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the rumble of the
+guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard, and they reached the head of the
+causeway without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior.
+
+Here was the first break in the causeway, and they had brought with them a
+bridge to lay across it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who
+fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city with their cries.
+The priests on the summit of the great temple pyramid were also on the
+watch, and when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from below, they
+sounded their shells and beat their huge drum, which was only heard in
+times of peril or calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber, and
+as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a distant sound was heard,
+which rapidly approached. Soon from every street and lane poured enemies,
+flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks of the Spaniards as they
+came. On the lake was heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the
+war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air. A brief interval had
+sufficed to change the silence into a frightful uproar of sound and the
+restful peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle.
+
+The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway, fighting only to drive
+back the assailants who landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon
+the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over them, riding them down; the
+men on foot cut them down with their swords, or hurled them backward with
+the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of the Spaniards attacked them
+fiercely, and the roar of war spread far through the gloom of the night.
+
+Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot; onward creaked and rumbled
+the artillery and the wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was
+reached while the rear files were not yet across the first. The Spaniards
+had made a fatal mistake in bringing with them only one bridge. When the
+last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous effort was made
+to raise it and carry it to the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of
+men, horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the earth and stones
+that it could not be moved. Every nerve was strained to lift the heavy
+mass, until, many of the workmen being killed and all wounded by the
+torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced to abandon it.
+
+When the dread tidings that the bridge could not be raised spread through
+the crowded host, a cry of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of
+conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before them lay a deep and
+yawning ditch. Behind them pressed an army of assailants. On each side
+hundreds of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding foes who rushed in
+fury upon their crowded ranks. All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at
+an end. Every one thought only of saving his own life, without regard to
+the weak or wounded. The leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf,
+were pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in front dashed into the
+water and swam across, but some of the horses failed to climb the steep
+and slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad riders headlong
+into the lake.
+
+After them pell mell came the infantry, some seeking to swim, others
+forced into the water to sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the
+arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded or stunned, dragged
+into the canoes and carried away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god
+of the pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway, from ditch to
+ditch, the contest raged fearfully. The Aztecs, satisfied that they had
+now got their detested foes in their power, fought like demons, grappling
+with the Christians and rolling with them down the sloping way together;
+seeking to take their enemies alive that they might be kept for the bloody
+sacrifice.
+
+With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the cries of vengeance and
+groans of agony, the prayers to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled
+the screams of women, of whom there were several, both Spaniard and
+Indian, in the Christian ranks. One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as
+valiantly as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword and
+target in the thickest of the fray, and proving herself as valiant a
+soldier as the best.
+
+During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at rest. He was everywhere,
+ordering, fighting, inspiring, seeking to restore the lost discipline to
+his ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal ditch could be
+crossed, and feeling that life must be considered before wealth, he
+hurried forward everything, heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans,
+and hurled them into the water along with the spoil of the Spaniards,
+bales of costly goods, chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve
+to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled bodies of men and horses,
+drowned in that deadly ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across
+which the survivors stumbled and clambered until they reached the other
+side.
+
+Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch that was fordable, and
+here, with the water up to his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out
+of confusion, and called his followers to this path to safety. But his
+voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a few cavaliers who kept with him,
+he pressed forward to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite
+page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his side.
+
+Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval, who, with about twenty
+other cavaliers, had led the van, composed of two hundred Spanish
+foot-soldiers. They were halted before the third and final breach in the
+causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those which had been passed.
+Fortunately it was not so closely beset by the enemy, who were still
+engaged with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers plunged
+without hesitation into the water, followed by the foot, some swimming,
+some clinging desperately to the manes and tails of the horses, some
+carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal gold with which they were
+heavily laden. On leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended
+themselves, much of the gold which they had gathered was necessarily
+abandoned. Cortez told the soldiers to take what they wished of it, but
+warned them not to overload themselves, saying, "He travels safest in the
+dark night who travels lightest." Many of those who failed to regard this
+wise counsel paid for their cupidity with their death.
+
+Those who safely passed this final ditch were at the end of their
+immediate peril. Soon they were off the causeway and on solid ground,
+where the roar of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But word
+came to them that the rear-guard was in imminent danger and would be
+overwhelmed unless relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return,
+but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not hesitate when this cry
+for aid was heard. Turning their horses, they galloped back, pushed
+through the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the thick of the
+fight on the opposite section of the causeway.
+
+The night was now passing, and the first gray light of day was visible in
+the east. By its dim illumination the frightful combat could be seen in
+all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead bodies of Christian or
+pagan; the dark masses of the warriors could be seen locked in deadly
+struggle crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the lake, far and
+near, was crowded with canoes, filled with armed and ardent Aztec
+warriors, yelling their triumphant war-cry.
+
+Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who led the rear, unhorsed and
+wounded, yet fighting like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him
+safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under him. With a handful of
+followers he was desperately striving to repel the overwhelming tide of
+the enemy which was pouring on him along the causeway, a dozen of the
+Indians falling for every Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work
+in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the assault had carried
+the Aztecs up to and over the guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict
+remained. The charge of the returning cavaliers created a temporary check,
+and a feeble rally was made, but the flood of foes soon came on again and
+drove them resistlessly back.
+
+Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to plunge once more into the
+canal, not all of them this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink for
+a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind him and deadly peril before.
+He was a man of great strength and agility, and despair now gave him
+courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the wreck that strewed the
+bottom, he sprang vigorously forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound,
+a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement, the natives exclaiming,
+as they beheld the seemingly impossible leap, "This is truly the
+_Tonatiuh_,--the child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado from
+his fair features and flaxen hair. How great the leap was no one has told
+us, though the name of "Alvarado's leap" still clings to the spot.
+
+Thus ended the frightful _noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez led
+the remnant of his men off the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling
+few, faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately, the Aztecs,
+attracted by the rich spoil that strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it
+is doubtful if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and wounded state,
+would have survived. How many perished in that night of dread no one
+knows. A probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards and four
+thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard having fallen. Of forty-six
+horses, half had been slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the
+muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone. The only arms left the
+warriors were their swords and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail
+was broken, their garments were tattered, their proud crests and banners
+gone, their bright arms soiled, and only a miserable and shattered
+fragment of their proud force was left, these dragging themselves along
+with pain and difficulty.
+
+               [Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.]
+
+                       AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+
+
+Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their allies, the
+Tlascalans,--inveterate enemies of the Aztecs,--slowly moved away from that
+blood-stained avenue of death, now little molested by their foes, and
+gradually recovering from their fatigue. On the seventh morning they
+reached the mountain height which overlooks the plain of Otumba, a point
+less than thirty miles from the capital. This plain they were obliged to
+traverse on their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat.
+
+As they looked down on the broad level below them they saw with shrinking
+hearts why they had not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the
+whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards glistening in the
+sun, their numbers so great that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards
+viewed them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful as he was, felt
+that his last hour had now surely come.
+
+But this stout leader was not the man to give way to despair. There was
+nothing to do but to cut their way through this vast array or perish in
+the attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure destruction.
+Fortunately, they had rested for two nights and a day, and men and horses
+had regained much of their old strength. Without hesitation, Cortez
+prepared for the onset, giving his force as broad a front as possible, and
+guarding its flanks with his little body of horse, now twenty in all.
+Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which he told them of the
+victories they had won, and with orders to his men to thrust, not strike,
+with their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to lose their lances,
+and to strike at the faces of the foe, he gave the word to advance.
+
+At first the natives recoiled from the stern and fierce onset, rolling
+back till they left a wide lane for the passage of their foes. But they
+quickly rallied and poured on the little band in their midst, until it
+seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible fray followed, the
+Christians, as one writer says, standing "like an islet against which the
+breakers, roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain." The struggle was
+one of man to man, the Tlascalans and Spaniards alike fighting with
+obstinate courage, while the little band of horsemen charged deep into the
+enemy's ranks, riding over them and cutting them down with thrust and
+blow, their onset giving fresh spirit to the infantry.
+
+But that so small a force could cut their way through that enormous
+multitude of armed and valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes
+lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and some of the Spaniards
+were slain, and not a man among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received a
+cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly that he was forced to
+dismount and exchange it for a strong animal from the baggage-train. The
+fight went on thus for several hours, the sun growing hotter as it rose in
+the sky, and the Christians, weak from their late wounds, gradually losing
+strength and spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers, forcing
+the horse back on the foot, and throwing the latter into some disorder.
+With every minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it seemed as if
+nothing were left but to sell their lives as dearly as possible.
+
+At this critical juncture a happy chance changed the whole fortune of the
+day. Cortez, gazing with eagle eye around the field in search of some
+vision of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great distance in the
+midst of the throng a splendidly dressed chief, who was borne in a rich
+litter and surrounded by a gayly attired body of young warriors. A
+head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and gems, rose above him, and
+over this again was a short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of
+the Aztecs.
+
+The instant Cortez beheld this person and his emblem his eye lighted with
+triumph. He knew him for the commander of the foe, and the golden net as
+its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers beside him, he pointed
+eagerly to the chief, exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!" Then,
+shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into the thick of the foe.
+Sandoval, Alvarado, and others spurred furiously after him, while the
+enemy fell back before this sudden and fierce assault.
+
+On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid ranks, strewing their
+path with the dead and dying, bearing down all who opposed them. A few
+minutes of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot on which
+were the Aztec chief and his body-guard. Thrusting and cutting with
+tiger-like strength and ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of
+young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian commander, piercing
+him with his lance and hurling him to the ground. A young cavalier beside
+him, Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and despatched the fallen
+chief. Then he tore away the banner and handed it to Cortez.
+
+All this was the work almost of a moment. Its effect was remarkable. The
+guard, overwhelmed by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was quickly
+communicated to their comrades. The tidings spread rapidly. The banner of
+the chief had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness of panic
+suddenly infected the whole host, which broke and fled in wild terror and
+confusion. The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in taking advantage
+of this new aspect of affairs. Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they
+dashed in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them down by hundreds
+as they fled. Not until they had amply repaid their losses on the bloody
+causeway did they return to gather up the booty which strewed the field.
+It was great, for, in accordance with Cortez's instructions, they had
+struck especially at the chiefs, and many of these were richly ornamented
+with gold and jewels.
+
+Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the most remarkable victory, in
+view of the great disparity of forces, ever won in the New World. Chance
+gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a chance made useful only by the
+genius of a great commander. The following day the fugitive army reached
+the soil of Tlascala and were safe among their friends. History has not a
+more heroic story to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec
+capital, nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent return and
+conquest.
+
+
+
+
+
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+
+
+The great expedition to the land of gold, which Vasco Nu�ez de Balboa had
+planned to make, was left by his death to be carried out by one of his
+companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the renowned Francisco
+Pizarro. It was an expedition full of romantic adventure, replete with
+peril and suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring deeds. But we
+must pass over all the earlier of these and come at once to the climax of
+the whole striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the Inca of
+Peru in the midst of his army and the tale of his incredible ransom.
+
+Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro, from the time when, with
+one small vessel and about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed from
+Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great unknown Pacific, to the time
+when, in 1531, he sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and about
+thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru, which he designed to
+conquer as Cortez had conquered Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was
+this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military merits of courage,
+enterprise, daring and persistency, and these qualities carried him
+through sufferings and adversities that would have discouraged almost any
+man and brought him to magical success in the end. It was the beacon of
+gold that lured him on through desperate enterprises and deadly perils and
+led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish adventurers.
+
+Landing and capturing a point on the coast of Peru, he marched with his
+handful of bold followers, his horses and guns, eastward into the empire,
+crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the Andes, and reached the
+city of Caxamalca. Close by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped
+with an army, for a civil war between him and his brother Huascar had just
+ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the latter.
+
+Desperate was the situation of the small body of Spanish soldiers, when,
+in the late afternoon of the 15th of November, 1532, they marched into
+Caxamalca, which they found empty of inhabitants. About one hundred more
+men, with arms and horses, had joined them, but in a military sense they
+were but a handful still, and they had every reason to dread the
+consequences of their rash enterprise.
+
+All seemed threatening,--the desertion of the city by its people, the
+presence of the Inca, with a powerful army, within a league's distance,
+the probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the Spaniards had to
+rely on were their arms,--cannon, muskets and swords of steel,--new and
+terrible weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose evolutions had
+elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian with dismay. Yet what were these
+in the hands of less than three hundred men, in the presence of a strong
+and victorious army? Filled with anxiety, Pizarro at once despatched a
+body of horsemen, led by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier
+Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp.
+
+Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers as this strange
+cavalcade, with clang of arms and blast of trumpet, swept by, man and
+horse seeming like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes. De Soto, the
+best mounted of them all, showed his command of his steed in the Inca's
+presence, by riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful curves,
+and displaying all the vigor and beauty of skilled horsemanship, finally
+checking the noble animal in full career when so near the Inca that some
+of the foam from its lips was thrown on the royal garments. Yet, while
+many of those near drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an
+unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every show of dread, if any such
+inspired him.
+
+To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the Spaniards had brought,
+"Tell your captain that I am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow
+morning. I will then visit him with my chieftains. Meanwhile, let him
+occupy the public buildings on the square, and no other."
+
+Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards, but these they declined, as
+they did not wish to dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the
+sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of great size brought by
+beautiful maidens. Then they rode slowly back, despondent at what they had
+seen,--the haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength and discipline of
+his army.
+
+That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout the camp, which were
+increased as its occupants saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army,
+glittering on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars in
+heaven." Scarcely a man among them except Pizarro retained his courage;
+but he went round among his men, bidding them to keep up their spirits,
+and saying that Providence would not desert them if they trusted to their
+strength and their cause, as Christians against pagans. They were in
+Heaven's service and God would aid them.
+
+He then called a council of his officers and unfolded to them a desperate
+plan he had conceived. This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the
+Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding him as a hostage for
+the safety of the Christians. Nothing less decisive than this would avail
+them, he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first sign of such a
+movement the army of the Inca would be upon them, and they would all be
+destroyed, either there or in the intricacies of the mountain-passes. Nor
+could they remain inactive where they were. The Inca was crafty and
+hostile, and would soon surround them with a net-work of peril, from which
+they could not escape. To fight him in the open field was hazardous, if
+not hopeless. The only thing to do was to take him by surprise on his
+visit the next day, drive back his followers with death and terror, seize
+the monarch, and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their hands his
+followers would not dare attack them, and they would be practically
+masters of the empire.
+
+No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that which Cortez had pursued in
+Mexico. He would take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by his own
+people, as Montezuma had been, and while the monarch remained alive they
+would have the strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan suited the
+daring character of Pizarro's officers. They agreed with him that in
+boldness lay their only hope of success or even of life, and they left the
+council with renewed confidence to prepare for the desperate enterprise.
+
+It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared, his litter borne on the
+shoulders of his chief nobles and surrounded by others, so glittering with
+ornaments that, to quote from one of the Spaniards, "they blazed like the
+sun." A large number of workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish
+from the road. Behind, and through the fields that lined the road, marched
+a great body of armed men. But when within half a mile of the city the
+procession halted, and a messenger was sent to the Spaniards to say that
+the Inca would encamp there for that night and enter the city the
+following morning.
+
+These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His men had been under arms
+since daybreak, the cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen at
+their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits of a long and trying
+suspense in such a critical situation, and sent word back to the Inca
+begging him to come on, as he had everything ready for his entertainment
+and expected to sup with him that night. This message turned the monarch
+from his purpose, and he resumed his march, though the bulk of his army
+was left behind, only a group of unarmed men accompanying him. He
+evidently had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little did he know
+them.
+
+It was near the hour of sunset when the procession reached the city,
+several thousand Indians marching into the great square, borne high above
+whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a kind of throne made of
+massive gold, while a collar of emeralds of great size and beauty
+encircled his neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He looked around
+him with surprise, as there was not a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in
+tones of annoyance, "Where are the strangers?"
+
+At this moment Pizarro' s chaplain, a Dominican friar, came forward, with
+Bible and crucifix in hand, and began to expound to him the Christian
+doctrines, ending by asking him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the
+king of Spain. The Inca, when by aid of the interpreter he had gained a
+glimpse of the priest's meaning, answered him with high indignation, and
+when the friar handed him the Bible as the authority for his words, he
+flung it angrily to the earth, exclaiming,--
+
+"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an account of their doings in
+my land. I will not go from here till they have made me full satisfaction
+for all the wrongs they have committed."
+
+Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened to Pizarro, told him what
+had been said, and cried out,--
+
+"Do you not see that while we stand here wasting our breath in talking
+with this dog, full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with
+Indians? Set on, at once; I absolve you."
+
+Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal agreed upon. A gun was
+fired from the fortress. Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and
+at them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into the square. From every
+avenue of the great building they occupied poured armed men, horse and
+foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians. Taken utterly by
+surprise, the latter were hurled back in confusion. Their ranks rent by
+the balls from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled under foot
+by the fierce charges of the cavalry, pierced by lances or cut down by
+swords, they were driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as they
+wildly sought to escape.
+
+The massacre went on with especial intensity around the Inca, his nobles,
+none of them armed, struggling with what strength they could in his
+defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at the Inca!" shouted
+Pizarro, fearing his valued prize might be slain in the wild tumult.
+Fiercer still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter swayed back
+and forth, and, as some of its bearers were slain, it was overturned, the
+monarch being saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some others,
+who caught him in their arms. With all haste they bore him into the
+fortress and put him under close guard.
+
+With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at an end. The unarmed
+Peruvians fled in terror from the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the
+fields were seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and dispersed in
+all directions, pursued by the Spanish cavalry, who cut them down without
+mercy. Not till night had fallen did Pizarro's men cease the pursuit and
+return at the call of the trumpet to the bloody square of Caxamalca. In
+that frightful massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps many
+more, were slain, the most of them unarmed and helpless. That night
+Pizarro kept his word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it was a
+supper at which he might well have drunk blood. The banquet was served in
+one of the halls facing the great square, then thickly paved with the
+dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity, sitting beside his captor at
+the dread meal.
+
+Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular scene in that strange
+drama, one which proved that the Spaniards had truly at length reached the
+"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner before he discovered the
+besetting passion of the Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was
+sent to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a rich booty in gold
+and silver, whose weight and value filled the conquerors with delight.
+
+Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping from his captivity, the
+Inca one day said to Pizarro that if he would agree to set him free, he
+would cover the floor of the room in which they stood with gold. Pizarro
+listened with a smile of doubt. As he made no answer, the Inca said,
+earnestly, that "he would not merely cover the floor, but would fill the
+room with gold as high as he could reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he
+put his uplifted hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer filled
+Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such a thing could be done seemed
+utterly incredible, despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru.
+The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent offer, hastened to
+accept it, drawing a red line along the wall at the height the Inca had
+touched. How remarkable the ransom was may be judged from the fact that
+the room was about seventeen feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the
+mark on the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca offered to
+fill an adjoining but smaller room twice full with silver, and to do all
+this in the short time of two months. It would seem that he would need
+Aladdin's wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and surprising a task.
+
+As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the Inca sent messengers to
+Cuzco, his capital city, and to the other principal places in his kingdom,
+with orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils from his palaces
+and from the temples and other public buildings, and transport them in all
+haste to Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the monarch was
+treated with the fullest respect due to his rank, having his own private
+apartments and the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted
+to visit him freely. The only thing the Spaniards took good care of was
+that he should be kept under close guard.
+
+He took one advantage of his measure of liberty. His brother and rival,
+Huascar, though a captive, might escape and seize the control of the
+state, and he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message to
+Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a much larger ransom than that
+promised by Atahualpa. The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to remove this
+danger from his path, if we may accept the evidence of his captors. At any
+rate the royal captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his dying
+breath that his rival would not long survive him, but that the white men
+would avenge his murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of great
+sorrow and indignation, of his brother's death, and when the Spaniard
+threatened to hold him responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had
+been done without his knowledge or consent by Huascar's keepers, who
+feared that their captive might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon
+afterward learned that the news was true. It may be that he was well
+satisfied with the fact, as it removed a leading claimant for the throne
+from his path.
+
+Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in--slowly, for the distances were
+great, and the treasure had to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of
+it consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate, some of them
+weighing from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The Spaniards beheld with
+gleaming eyes the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the shoulders
+of Indian porters, and carefully stored away under guard. On some days
+articles to the value of half a million dollars are said to have been
+brought in.
+
+Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus brought before them did not
+satisfy the avaricious impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance
+for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect the Inca of delaying the
+ransom until he could prepare a rising of his subjects against the
+strangers. When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was filled with
+surprise and indignation. "Not a man of my subjects would dare raise a
+finger without my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at your
+disposal? What better security would you have of my good faith?" He ended
+by advising him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where they could see
+for themselves how his orders were being obeyed. He would give them a
+safe-conduct, and they could superintend the work themselves.
+
+The three envoys sent were carried the whole distance of more than six
+hundred miles in litters by relays of carriers, their route laying along
+the great military road of Peru and through many populous towns. Cuzco
+they found to be a large and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun
+was covered with plates of gold, which, by the Inca's orders, were being
+torn off. There were seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice
+of pure gold ran round the building. But this was so deeply set in the
+stone that it could not be removed. On their return, these messengers
+brought with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides great quantities
+of silver.
+
+Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca, far surpassing any paid by
+any other captive in the world's history, was gathered in. The gold
+received came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought into goblets,
+ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms for ornament or use, utensils for
+temple or palace, tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices,
+and curious imitations of plants and animals. The most beautiful and
+artistic of these was the representation of Indian corn, the ear of gold
+being sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich tassels were made
+of the same precious metal. Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a
+sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the same metal playing in
+the waters at its base. Some of these objects were so beautifully wrought
+as to compare favorably with the work of skilled European artists.
+
+The treasure gathered was measured in the room in its original form, this
+being the compact, but even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum
+equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of dollars, with a large
+value in silver in addition. All this was melted down into ingots and
+divided among the conquerors, with the exception of the royal fifth,
+reserved for the King of Spain. The latter included many of the most
+curious works of art. The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less
+than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers received what was
+wealth to them.
+
+The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the Inca? Was he given his
+liberty, in accordance with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such men
+as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they have injured and have reason
+to fear. The total ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought in,
+but the impatient Spaniards had divided the spoil without waiting for the
+whole, and the Inca demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief
+friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his demand, but could get from
+him no direct reply. His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over some
+dark project.
+
+Soon rumors became current among the soldiers of a design of revolt
+entertained by the natives. These spread and grew until an immense army
+was conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the instigator of the
+supposed rising, and was charged with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had
+little effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence, while many
+of the soldiers began to demand the life of the Inca. To those demands
+Pizarro did not turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own
+instigation.
+
+  [Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT
+                                 CALLAO.]
+
+     DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+
+
+Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a strong friend of the captive,
+was absent. De Soto, another of his friends, was sent at the head of an
+expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles away, where it was said
+the natives were in arms. Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to
+yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to bring Atahualpa to trial
+on the charges against him.
+
+A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain Almagro as the
+judges, an attorney-general being appointed for the crown and counsel for
+the prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca were chiefly of a kind
+with which the Spaniards had nothing to do, among them the assassination
+of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were simply to bolster up the
+only real charge, that of exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards.
+The whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and was hurried through
+without waiting for the return of De Soto, who could have given useful
+evidence about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged guilty, and
+sentenced to be burnt alive that very night in the great square of
+Caxamalca!
+
+It was a sentence that might well have been expected as the termination of
+such a trial by such men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his
+captive at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the country, and the cruel
+sentence, which was common enough at that day, was carried out except in
+one particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the stake, with the fagots
+of his funeral pile heaped around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made
+a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized, promising him a
+less painful death if he would consent. The Inca, shrinking from the
+horror of the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under the name of
+Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put to death in the Spanish manner, by the
+_garrote_, or strangulation.
+
+Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of Pizarro's treachery. Great was
+the indignation of De Soto, on his return a day or two later from an
+expedition in which he had found no rebels, at what had been done. Pizarro
+tried to exculpate himself and blame others for deceiving him, but these
+told him to his face that he alone was responsible for the deed. In all
+probability they told the truth.
+
+
+
+
+
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+
+
+We have now to relate the most remarkable adventure in the story of the
+conquest of Peru, and one of the most remarkable in the history of the New
+World,--the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro to the upper waters of the Amazon
+and the pioneer voyage down that mighty river.
+
+Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers in his great work of
+conquest, three of them--Hernando, Juan, and Gonzalo--accompanying him to
+Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising, and able men. In 1540,
+eight years after the conquest, Gonzalo was appointed by his brother
+governor of the territory of Quito, in the north of the empire, with
+instructions to explore the unknown country lying to the east, where the
+cinnamon tree was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking his
+province, and made haste in starting on his journey of exploration to the
+fabled land of spices.
+
+It was early in the year that he set out on this famous expedition, with a
+force of three hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one
+hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted. They were all thoroughly
+equipped and took with them a large supply of provisions and a great drove
+of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers say. Yet with all this
+food they were to suffer from the extremes of famine.
+
+We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary journey. At
+first it was easy enough. But when they left the land of the Incas and
+began to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found themselves
+involved in intricate and difficult passes, swept by chilling winds. In
+this cold wilderness many of the natives found an icy grave, and during
+their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains, the earth in one
+place being rent asunder. Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the
+cavity, into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred houses was
+precipitated.
+
+After the heights were passed and they descended to the lower levels,
+tropical heats succeeded the biting cold, and fierce storms of rain,
+accompanied by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost
+ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day. It was the rainy
+season of the tropics, and for more than six weeks the deluge continued,
+while the forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag themselves
+over the yielding and saturated soil.
+
+For several months this toilsome journey continued, many a mountain stream
+and dismal morass needing to be crossed. At length they reached the Land
+of Cinnamon, the _Canelas_ of the Spaniards, where were forests of the
+trees supposed by them to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the
+actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have been useless to them in
+that remote and mountain-walled wilderness. Here their journey, as
+originally laid out, should have ended, but they were lured on by the
+statements of the wild tribes they met, they being told of a rich and
+populous land at ten days' journey in advance, in which gold could be
+found in abundance.
+
+Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and they went eagerly onward, over
+a country of broad savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests, where
+grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large that the extended arms of
+sixteen men could barely reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and
+creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree to tree, beautiful to
+look at but very difficult to pass. The axe was necessary at every step of
+the way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant rains, were torn
+into rags by the bushes and brambles of the woodland. Their provisions had
+been long since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of swine had
+vanished, such of the animals as were not consumed having strayed into the
+woods and hills. They had brought with them nearly a thousand dogs, many
+of them of the ferocious bloodhound breed, and these they were now glad
+enough to kill and eat. When these were gone no food was to be had but
+such herbs and edible roots and small animals as the forest afforded.
+
+At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on the banks of a broad
+river, the Napo, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from
+the northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of that mighty stream.
+Gladdened by the sight, they followed its banks downward, hoping in this
+way to find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way, through which
+it needed all their strength to open a passage, and after going a
+considerable distance a loud and increasing noise met their ears. For
+miles they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and at length
+they reached a place where the stream rushed furiously down steep rapids,
+and at the end poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent
+cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth.
+
+This was the height of the fall as measured by the eyes of the wanderers,
+a guide not much to be relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it
+was at this point not more than twenty feet wide, and the hungry wanderers
+determined to cross it, with the hope of finding beyond it a country
+yielding more food. A bridge was constructed by felling great trees across
+the chasm, the water here running through vertical walls several hundred
+feet in depth. Over this rude bridge men and horses made their way, only
+one Spaniard being lost by tumbling down the giddy depth.
+
+The country beyond the stream proved no better than that they had left,
+and the only signs of inhabitants they met were savage and hostile tribes
+of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady skirmish. Some of the more
+friendly told them that the fruitful land they sought was but a few days'
+journey down the river, and they went wearily on, day by day, as the
+promised land still fled before their feet. Doubtless they were led by
+their own desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians.
+
+In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a vessel large enough to
+carry the baggage and the men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant.
+The shoes of horses that had died or had been killed for food were wrought
+into nails. Pitch was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of oakum
+the tattered garments of the soldiers were used. It took two months to
+complete the difficult task, at the end of which time a rude but strong
+brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an Indian canoe that
+ever floated on the mighty waters of Brazil. It was large enough to carry
+half the Spaniards that remained alive after their months of terrible
+travel.
+
+Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco de Orellana, a man in
+whose courage and fidelity he put full trust. The company now resumed its
+march more hopefully, following the course of the Napo for weeks that
+lengthened into months, the brigantine keeping beside them and
+transporting the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country was reached.
+In this journey the last scraps of provisions were consumed, including
+their few remaining horses, and they were so pressed by hunger as to eat
+the leather of their saddles and belts. Little food was yielded by the
+forest, and such toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found were
+greedily devoured.
+
+Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by a populous nation, was
+told by the wandering Indians, but it was always several days ahead.
+Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was and feed on the scanty
+forest spoil, while Orellana went down the stream in his brigantine to
+where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into a greater river. Here the
+nation they sought was to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a
+supply of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved company.
+Taking fifty of the adventurers in the vessel, he pushed off into the
+swift channel of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage which
+quickly took him and his comrades out of sight.
+
+Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return of the voyagers appeared.
+In vain the waiting men strained their eyes down the stream and sent out
+detachments to look for the vessel farther down. Finally, deeming it
+useless to wait longer, they resumed their journey down the river,
+spending two months in advancing five or six hundred miles--those of them
+who did not die by the way. At length they reached the point they sought,
+where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream, that mighty river since
+known as the Amazon, which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through
+the vast Brazilian forest.
+
+Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and the rich and populous
+country promised them. They were still in a dense forest region, as
+unpromising as that they had left. As for Orellana and his companions, it
+was naturally supposed that they had perished by famine or by the hands of
+the ferocious natives. But they learned differently at length, when a
+half-starved and half-naked white man emerged from the forest, whom they
+recognized as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana's companions.
+
+The tale he told them was the following: The brigantine had shot so
+swiftly down the Napo as to reach in three days the point it had taken
+them two months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies with which to
+return, Orellana could obtain barely enough food for himself and his men.
+To attempt to ascend against the swift current of the river was
+impossible. To go back by land was a formidable task, and one that would
+add nothing to the comfort of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana
+came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon, visiting the
+populous nations which he was told dwelt on its banks, descending to its
+mouth, and sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory of a
+famous adventure and noble discovery.
+
+He found his reckless companions quite ready to accept his perilous
+scheme, with little heed of the fate of the comrades left behind them in
+the wilderness. De Vargas was the only one who earnestly opposed the
+desertion as inhuman and dishonorable, and Orellana punished him by
+abandoning him in the wilderness and sailing away without him.
+
+The story of Orellana's adventure is not the least interesting part of the
+expedition we have set out to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we
+must deal with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and unknown river,
+in a rudely built barque, it is a marvel that the voyagers escaped
+shipwreck in the descent of that vast stream, the navigation being too
+difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine, who descended it in
+1743, to be undertaken without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring
+Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their vessel narrowly escaped
+being dashed to pieces on the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still
+greater was the danger of the voyagers from the warlike forest tribes, who
+followed them for miles in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they
+landed in search of food.
+
+At length the extraordinary voyage was safely completed, and the
+brigantine, built on the Napo, several thousand miles in the interior,
+emerged on the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island of Cubagna,
+from which he made his way, with his companions, to Spain. He had a
+wonderful story to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks of
+the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in its vicinity, and other
+romances, gathered from the uncertain stories of the savages.
+
+He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and credulity, in gaining
+belief, and was sent out at the head of five hundred followers to conquer
+and colonize the realms he had seen. But he died on the outward voyage,
+and Spain got no profit from his discovery, the lands of the Amazon
+falling within the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal.
+
+Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest feats in the annals of
+travel and discovery, though his glory was won at the cost of the crime of
+deserting his companions in the depths of the untrodden wilderness. It was
+with horror and indignation that the deserted soldiers listened to the
+story of Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only apparent
+means of escape from that terrible situation. An effort was made to
+continue their journey along the banks of the Amazon, but after some days
+of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless task, and despair
+settled down upon their souls.
+
+Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able leader. He told his despairing
+followers that it was useless to advance farther, and that they could not
+stay where they were, their only hope lying in a return to Quito. This was
+more than a thousand miles away, and over a year had passed since they
+left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their only hope.
+
+Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits, speaking of the
+constancy they had shown, and bidding them to show themselves worthy of
+the name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when they should reach their
+native land. He would lead them back by another route, and somewhere on it
+they would surely reach that fruitful land of which so much had been told
+them. At any rate, every step would take them nearer home, and nothing
+else was left them to do.
+
+The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope. He had proved himself so
+far a true companion, sharing all their perils and privations, taking his
+lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick and cheering up the
+despondent. In this way he had won their fullest confidence and devotion,
+and in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his unselfish conduct.
+
+The journey back was more direct and less difficult than that they had
+already taken. Yet though this route proved an easier one, their distress
+was greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond such scanty fare as
+they could pick up in the forest or obtain by force or otherwise from the
+Indians. Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged to be left
+behind, and many a poor wretch was deserted to die alone in the
+wilderness, if not devoured by the wild beasts that roamed through it.
+
+The homeward march, like the outward one, took more than a year, and it
+was in June, 1542, that the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito.
+They were a very different looking party from the well-equipped and
+hope-inspired troop of cavaliers and men-at-arms who had left that upland
+city nearly two and a half years before. Their horses were gone, their
+bright arms were rusted and broken, their clothing was replaced by the
+skins of wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down their
+shoulders, their faces were blackened by the tropical sun, their bodies
+were wasted and scarred. A gallant troop they had set out; a body of
+meagre phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand Indians taken, less
+than half had survived. Of the Spaniards only eighty came back, and these
+so worn and broken that many of them never fully recovered from their
+sufferings. Thus in suffering and woe ended the famous expedition to the
+Land of Cinnamon.
+
+
+
+
+
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+
+
+The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in Mexico and Peru went far
+to convince the Spaniards that in America they had found a veritable land
+of magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in gold and gems. Ponce
+de Leon sought in Florida for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de
+Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted to find a second Peru in
+the north, and became the discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other
+adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of empire and treasure.
+Some went south to the conquest of Central America, others north to
+California and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat of the fancied
+Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for which it is here proposed to
+describe.
+
+In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed governor of New
+Galicia, as the country lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a
+certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with Pizarro in Peru, on a
+journey of exploration to the north. With him were some Indian guides and
+a negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been one of the survivors of
+the Narvaez expedition to Florida and had travelled for years among the
+Indians of the north. He was expected to be of great assistance. As the
+worthy friar went on he was told of rich regions beyond, where the people
+wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the negro in advance to
+investigate and report. Stephen was to send back by the Indians a cross,
+the size of which would indicate the importance of what he had learned.
+Within four days messengers returned with a great cross the height of a
+man, significant of great and important discoveries.
+
+One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days' journey from the point
+they had reached was a populous country called Cibola, in which were seven
+great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized nation that dwelt in
+large houses well built of stone and lime, some of them several stories in
+height. The entrances to the principal houses were richly wrought with
+turquoise, which was there in great abundance. Farther on they had been
+told were other provinces, each of them much greater than that of the
+seven cities.
+
+Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out on the track of his
+pioneer, eager to reach the land of wonders and riches of which he had
+been told. Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second Mexico or
+Peru. The land through which lay his route was strange and picturesque.
+Here were fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by mountains;
+there were narrow ca�ons through which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls
+hundreds of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets and towers.
+
+As he went on he heard more of the seven cities and the distant kingdoms,
+and of the abundance of turquoises with which the natives adorned their
+persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen of Stephen, though
+shelter and provisions were found which he had left at points along the
+route. As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never to set eyes on him
+again.
+
+At length the good monk reached a fertile region, irrigated like a garden,
+where the men wore three or four strings of turquoises around their necks;
+and the women wore them in their ears and noses. But Cibola lay still
+beyond, the tales of the natives magnifying its houses till some of them
+were ten stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in place of
+stairways. Reaching at length the Gila River, a stream flowing through
+deep and rugged valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was crossing the
+wilderness to the northeast, escorted like a prince by some three hundred
+natives. Fifteen days journey still lay between Fray Marcos and Cibola,
+and he went on into the wilderness, escorted, like his pioneer, by a large
+train of natives, who volunteered their services.
+
+For twelve days the journey continued through a rough mountain region,
+abundantly supplied with game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and
+partridges, which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But now there came
+back startling news, for one of the negro's guides appeared, pallid with
+fright, telling how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had been seized,
+plundered, and imprisoned. Farther on two more Indians were met, covered
+with blood and wounds, who said that they had escaped from the slaughter
+of all their comrades by the warlike people of Cibola.
+
+The bold monk had now much trouble in getting his frightened followers to
+go on with him, but by means of abundant presents he induced two of the
+chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at least a sight of the land
+of wonders, and with the chiefs and his own followers he cautiously
+proceeded. At length, from a hill summit, he looked down on a broad plain
+on which he saw the first of the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy
+it was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of stone in many
+stories and with flat roofs. This was all he could tell from his distant
+view, in which the mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his power
+of vision.
+
+That was the end of Fray Marcos's journey. He did not dare to approach
+nearer to that terrible people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with
+more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort, which, moved by still
+greater fear, had not waited for him. Back to Coronado he went with his
+story, a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of either gold,
+silver, or precious stones, the nearest approach to treasure being the
+greenish turquoise.
+
+The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards learned, was one that might
+have fitted the Orient. He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and
+feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he carried a gourd
+decorated with bells and with white and red feathers. This he knew to be a
+symbol of authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds followed
+him, and a number of handsome Indian women, whom he had taken up on the
+way, attended him. He was followed with a large escort of Indians,
+carrying his provisions and other effects, among them gifts received, or
+plunder taken, from the natives.
+
+When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the orders given him, sent
+messengers to the city bearing his gourd, and saying that he came to treat
+for peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the gourd was presented,
+on observing the bells, cast it angrily to the ground, exclaiming,--
+
+"I know not those people; their bells are not of our fashion; tell them to
+return at once, or not a man of them will be left alive."
+
+In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious negro went on. He
+and his company were not permitted to enter the city, but were given a
+house outside of it, and here they were stripped of all their possessions
+and refused food and drink. The next morning they left the house, where
+they were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great number of the
+townspeople, all of them being killed except the two Indians who had
+brought the news to Fray Marcos.
+
+Why they were treated in this manner is not known. They seem to have been
+looked on as spies or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of
+the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a pueblo of the Zu�i
+Indians, though three centuries and a half have since then elapsed.
+
+The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as told by the worthy Fray
+Marcos, when repeated in the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a
+new El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an expedition to explore
+and conquer Cibola. The city was then well filled with adventurers eager
+for fame and fortune, many of them men of good family, cavaliers of rank
+"floating about like corks on water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any
+promising service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a company of over
+three hundred were enlisted, a large proportion of them mounted. The
+Indians of the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some small
+field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and cows were to be driven to
+supply the army with fresh meat.
+
+Francisco de Coronado was given the command, and so distinguished was the
+cavalcade that the viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen a
+captain but for fear of making the command top-heavy with officers. It was
+early in 1540 that the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen
+arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with swords and lances,
+others wearing helmets of iron or tough bullhide, while the footmen
+carried cross-bows and muskets, and the Indians were armed with bows and
+clubs. Splendid they were--but woe-befallen were they to be on their
+return, such of them as came back. An accessory party was sent by sea,
+along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de Alarcon, to aid, as far as it
+could, in the success of the army. But in spite of all Alarcon's efforts,
+he failed to get in communication with Coronado and his men.
+
+On the 7th of July, after following the monk's route through the mountain
+wilderness, the expedition came within two days' march of the first city
+of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on the hills and other
+signs of hostility that the Spaniards would have to fight; but for this
+the cavaliers of that day seem to have been always ready, and the next day
+Coronado moved forward towards the desired goal.
+
+At length the gallant little army was before Hawaikuh, the city on which
+Fray Marcos had gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now was seen to
+be a village of some two hundred houses. It lay about fifteen miles
+southwest of the present Zu�i. The natives were ready for war. All the old
+men, with the women and children, had been sent away, and the Spaniards
+were received with volleys of arrows.
+
+The houses were built in retreating terraces, each story being smaller
+than that below it, and from these points of vantage the arrows of the
+natives came in showers. Evidently the place was only to be taken by
+assault, and the infantry was posted so as to fire on the warriors, while
+a number of dismounted horsemen sought to scale the walls by a ladder
+which they had found. This proved no easy task. Coronado's glittering
+armor especially made him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with
+arrows and battered with stones as he sought to ascend that he was wounded
+and had to be carried from the field. Others were injured and three horses
+were killed, but in less than an hour the place was carried, the warriors
+retreating in dismay before the impetuous assault.
+
+Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted houses. Their food
+had given out and they were half starved, but in the store-rooms they
+found "that of which there was greater need than of gold or silver, which
+was much corn and beans and chickens, better than those of New Spain, and
+salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my life." The chickens seem
+to have been wild turkeys, kept by the natives for their plumage. But of
+the much-desired gold and silver there was not a trace.
+
+The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards in this country is too
+extended and not of enough interest to be given here. It must suffice to
+say that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded into phantoms,
+or rather contracted into villages of terraced houses like that they had
+captured. Food was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil, even the
+turquoises of which so much had been told proving to be of little value.
+Expeditions were sent out in different directions, some of them
+discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on their almost
+inaccessible summits, the only approach being by narrow steps cut in the
+rock. Others came upon deep ca�ons, one of them discovering the wonderful
+Grand Ca�on of the Colorado River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve
+villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some on the lofty heights.
+The people here received the Spaniards peaceably and with much show of
+welcome.
+
+In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by the Spaniards El Turco,
+from his resemblance to the Turks, who said he had come from a rich
+country in the east, where were numbers of great animals with shaggy
+manes,--evidently the buffalo or bison, now first heard of. Some time
+later, being brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco had a more
+wonderful story to tell, to the effect that "In his land there was a river
+in the level country which was two leagues wide, in which were fishes as
+big as horses, and large numbers of very big canoes with more than twenty
+rowers on a side, and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop
+under awnings, and on the prow they had a great golden eagle. He said also
+that the lord of that country took his afternoon nap under a great tree on
+which were hung a large number of little gold bells, which put him to
+sleep as they swung in the air. He said also that every one had his
+ordinary dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates, and bowls
+were of gold."
+
+No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the yellow metal that
+inspired El Turco to these alluring stories, in the hope of getting rid of
+the unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the effect it had. After
+wintering in the villages of the Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed
+and taken, they set out in the following April in search of Quivira, the
+land of gold, which El Turco had painted in such enticing colors. Against
+the advice of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions, the
+imaginative Indian saying that this was useless, as the laden animals
+could not bring back the gold and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the
+romancing Indian was taken with them as a guide.
+
+On for many leagues they went until the Pecos River was crossed and the
+great northern plains were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless
+country, covered with high grasses and peopled by herds of the great maned
+animals which El Turco had described. These strange creatures were seen in
+extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one day, when a herd was put to
+flight, they fell in such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it
+up, so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the dead bodies.
+
+Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they told not at all
+agreeing with that of El Turco, who accordingly was now put in chains.
+Coronado, not wishing to subject all his companions to suffering, but
+eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length sent all his followers
+back except thirty horsemen and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued
+his journey to the north, the bisons supplying them with abundance of
+food.
+
+For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at the end of thirty days a
+wide stream, which is thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at last
+reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in the present State of Kansas.
+A pleasing land it was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in
+place of El Turco's many-storied stone houses, only rude wigwams were to
+be seen, and the civilized people proved to be naked savages. The only
+yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one of the chiefs and some
+bells of the same substance. The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a
+cross and claim this wide region in the name of his master; and his chief
+satisfaction was in strangling El Turco for his many embellished lies.
+
+We shall not describe the return journey, though it was not lacking in
+interesting incidents. Finally, having lost many of their horses, being
+harassed by the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions, the
+way-worn army reached known soil in the valley of Culiacan. Here all
+discipline was at an end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues
+down the valley, all Coronado's entreaties failing to restore any order to
+the ranks.
+
+At length the sorely disappointed commander presented himself before the
+viceroy Mendoza, with scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone
+remained with him of the splendid cavalcade with which he had set out.
+
+Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores, who had found only
+villages of barbarians and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned
+empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o' the-wisp of Quivira and
+its fleeting treasures. Little did he dream that Quivira would yet become
+the central region of one of the greatest civilized nations of the world,
+and rich in productions beyond his most avaricious vision.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+
+
+The early history of America has few romantic tales of love and devotion,
+but there is one woven in with the history of the settlement of Buenos
+Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all the historians of the
+time, and which exists as the one striking love romance of the Spanish
+conquest. It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do to
+dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the plea that historical
+critics have questioned them.
+
+It may not be generally known to our readers that the man who explored and
+took possession of the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was
+Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had with his father discovered
+North America in the service of England. It was in the year 1526 that he
+sailed up the noble river which he named the Rio de la Plata, a name
+suggested by the bars of silver which he obtained from the Indians on its
+banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay River, he built at the
+mouth of the river Zarcaranna a stronghold which he named the Fort of the
+Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set sail for Spain, leaving Nuno
+de Lara as commander of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and
+twenty men.
+
+These historical details are important, as a necessary setting for the
+love-romance which followed the founding of this fort. Lara, being left
+with his handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory peopled
+with Indians, felt strongly that in his situation prudence was the better
+part of valor, and strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest
+and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez. His success in this
+brought about, in an unexpected manner, his death and the loss of the
+fort, with other evils in their train.
+
+                 [Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.]
+
+                         COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+
+
+The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado, one of Lara's
+principal officers, had brought with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a
+Spanish lady of much beauty and purity of soul. During the frequent visits
+which Mangora, the cacique of the Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this
+lady and became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that he could not
+conceal the evidence of his love.
+
+Miranda was not long in observing the ardent looks of the Indian chief and
+in understanding their significance, and the discovery filled her with
+dread and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the commandant to keep
+on good terms with this powerful chief, and fearing that she might be
+sacrificed to this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his sight,
+and also to guard against any surprise or violence, not knowing to what
+extremes the passion of love might lead an Indian.
+
+Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the fair lady out of the
+fort, and with this in view pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring
+his wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do, for Miranda had told
+him of her fears, and he suspected the Indian's design. With a policy
+demanded by the situation, he declined the invitations of the chief, on
+the plea that a Castilian soldier could not leave his post of duty without
+permission from his commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that
+permission except to fight his enemies.
+
+The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He saw that Hurtado suspected
+his purpose, and the removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary step
+for its accomplishment. While seeking to devise a plan for this, he
+learned, to his great satisfaction, that Hurtado and another officer, with
+fifty soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect provisions,
+of which a supply was needed.
+
+Here was the opportunity which the treacherous chief awaited. It not only
+removed the husband, but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the wife
+in his absence. Late one day the chief placed four thousand armed men in
+ambush in a marsh near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty
+others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates, he sent word to Lara
+that he had heard of his want of food, and had brought enough to serve him
+until the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of friendship greatly
+pleased Lara. He met the chief with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and
+insisted on entertaining him and his followers.
+
+So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had been successful. The men
+in the marsh had their instructions and patiently awaited the fixed
+signals, while the feast in the fort went on till the night was well
+advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards were given time to retire; then
+the food-bearing Indians set fire to the magazines, and the ambushed
+savages, responding to the signal, broke into the fort and ruthlessly cut
+down all the Spaniards they met. Those who had gone to bed were killed in
+their sleep or slain as they sprang up in alarm. The governor was severely
+wounded, but had strength enough to revenge himself on the faithless
+Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran through the body with his sword. In a
+moment more he was himself slain.
+
+At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in the fort only the
+women and children remained alive--spared, no doubt, by order of the chief.
+These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent cause of this bloody
+catastrophe, four other women, and as many children. The weeping captives
+were bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of Mangora, and his
+successor as cacique of the tribe.
+
+No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman whom his brother had loved,
+her beauty heightened in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like
+passion was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered his men to
+remove her bonds. He then told her that she must not consider herself a
+captive, and solicited her favor with the gentleness and address that love
+can implant in the breast of the savage as well as of the son of
+civilization. Her husband, he told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the
+forests of a hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful nation and
+could surround her with luxuries and wealth. Could she hesitate to accept
+his love in preference to that of a man who was lost to her.
+
+These persuasions excited only horror and anguish in the soul of the
+faithful wife. Her love for her husband was proof against all that Siripa
+could say, and also against the fear of slavery or death, which might
+follow her rejection of his suit. In fact, death seemed to her a smaller
+evil than life as the wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his
+offers with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she hoped would excite
+his rage and induce him to put her to instant death.
+
+Her flashing eyes and excited words, however, had a very different effect
+from that she intended. They served only to heighten her charms in the
+eyes of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever in his
+persuasions. Taking her to his village, he treated her with every mark of
+kindness and gentleness, and showed her the utmost respect and civility,
+doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and raise a feeling in her
+breast corresponding to his own.
+
+Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with the provisions they had
+collected, and viewed with consternation the ruins of the fort which they
+had so lately left. Their position was a desperate one, alone and
+undefended as they were, in the midst of treacherous tribes; but the fears
+which troubled the minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado.
+He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands of the cacique of
+Timbuez, and love and indignation in his soul suppressed all other
+feelings. With a temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he sought
+alone the village of the chief and demanded the release of his wife.
+
+Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption and savage joy at
+having at his mercy the man who stood between him and the object of his
+affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to his suit, he at once
+ordered him to be seized, bound to a tree, and pierced with arrows.
+
+This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with anguish, she rushed out,
+cast herself at the Indian's feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her
+husband's life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado was
+unbound, but he was still kept in captivity.
+
+Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined passions of a savage,
+and the fate of husband and wife alike was at constant risk in his hands.
+Now, tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed bent on sacrificing
+the husband to his rage. Again, the desire of winning the esteem of
+Miranda softened his soul, and he permitted the husband and wife to meet.
+
+As the days of captivity passed the strictness of their detention was
+relaxed and they were permitted greater freedom of action. As a result
+they met each other more frequently and under less restraint. But this
+growing leniency in the cacique had its limits: they might converse, but
+they were warned against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love.
+Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda would not become his, he
+was resolved that no one else should enjoy the evidence of her affection.
+
+The situation was a painful one. Husband and wife, as Hurtado and Miranda
+were, they continued lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the
+feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them avoid any show of love, and
+they resolved to obey its dictates; but prudence is weak where love
+commands, and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised them clasped in each
+other's arms and indulging in the ardent kisses of love.
+
+Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried away by ungovernable
+fury at their contempt of his authority and their daring disregard of his
+feelings, he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado's old
+sentence was renewed: he was bound to a tree and his body pierced with
+arrows. As for Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and furious
+savage to a more painful death, that of the flames. Yet painful as it was,
+the loyal wife doubtless preferred it to yielding to the passion of the
+chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life her lover and
+husband.
+
+Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story of love and faith that the
+early annals of America have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda
+has become a classic in the love-lore of the America of the south.
+
+
+
+
+
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+
+
+The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries the boundary
+between liberty and oppression in South America. South of it lay the land
+of the Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who preserved their
+independence against the whites, the only Indian nation in America of
+which this can be said. Valorous and daring as were the American Indians,
+their arms and their arts were those of the savage, and the great
+multitude of them were unable to stand before the weapons and the
+discipline of their white invaders. But such was not the case with the
+valiant Araucanians. From the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro
+and the first invader of Chili, down to our own days these bold Americans
+fought for and retained their independence, holding the Biobio as their
+national frontier, and driving army after army from their soil. Not until
+1882 did they consent to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own
+free will, and they still retain their native habits and their pride in
+their pure blood.
+
+The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races, they defied the armies
+of the Incas long before the Spaniards came, and the armies of the
+Spaniards for centuries afterwards, and though they have now consented to
+become a part of the Chilian nation, this has not been through conquest,
+and they are as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike years of
+the past. Their hardy and daring character infects the whole of Chili, and
+has given that little republic, drawn out like a long string between the
+Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one of the most warlike and
+unyielding of countries, while to its people has been applied the
+suggestive title of "the Yankees of the South."
+
+It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the heroes who arose in
+succession to defend the land of Araucania from the arms of those who so
+easily overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall, therefore, confine
+ourselves to the exploits of one of the earliest of these, a youthful
+warrior with a genius for war that might have raised him to the rank of a
+great commander had not death early cut short his career. The second
+Spaniard who attempted the conquest of this valiant people was Pedro de
+Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an able soldier, but one of those
+who fancied that a handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the
+strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the spirit of the race with
+which he would have to deal.
+
+Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia with two hundred Spaniards
+at his back. With them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable
+force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he proposed to settle and
+hold the land as his own after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles
+southward he went, fighting the hostile natives at every step, and on the
+14th of February, 1541, stopped and laid the foundations of a town which
+he named St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago, a city of
+three hundred thousand souls.
+
+We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia's wars with the many
+tribes of Chili. He was in that land nine years before his conquests
+brought him to the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with whom alone
+we are concerned. On the coast near the mouth of this river he founded a
+new town, which he named Concepcion, and made this the basis of an
+invasion of the land of the Araucanians, whom he proposed to subdue.
+
+As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this time was a man with the body
+of a giant and the soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of the
+Spaniards until they had overrun most of the country, built towns and
+forts, and had reason to believe that the whole of Chili was theirs.
+Valdivia went on founding cities until he had seven in all, and gave
+himself the proud title of the Marquis of Arauco, fancying that he was
+lord and master of the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was not yet
+his.
+
+A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians, disgusted with the
+timid policy of their leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as
+their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man, the new toqui soon
+taught the Spaniards a lesson. He began with an attack on their forts. At
+one of these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty Indians employed in
+bringing them forage for their horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these
+laborers by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their arms in the bundles
+of hay they carried. On reaching the fort they were to attack the guards
+and hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could come to their aid.
+
+This device failed, the garrison attacking and driving back the
+forage-bearers before Caupolican could reach the place. Foiled in this, he
+made a fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty cannons proved
+too much for Indian means of defence, and the assailants were forced to
+draw back and convert their assault into a siege. This did not continue
+long before the Spaniards found themselves in peril of starvation. Vainly
+they sallied out on their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and
+finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered garrison cut its
+way by a sudden night attack through the besieging lines and retired to
+the neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took place at another fort
+called Tucapel, its garrison also seeking a refuge at Puren.
+
+When news of these events reached Valdivia, he saw that his conquests were
+in peril, and at once set out for the seat of war with all his forces,
+amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four or five thousand
+Indians. A small party of cavalry were despatched in advance to
+reconnoitre the enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians and
+their heads were hung on roadside trees as a warning to their approaching
+comrades. This gruesome spectacle had much of the effect intended. On
+seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and clamored to return. But
+Valdivia insisted on advancing, and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two
+armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel.
+
+Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary Indians to deal with. These
+were not of the kind that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry. A
+fierce charge was made on his left wing, which was cut to pieces by the
+daring warriors of Caupolican. The right wing was also vigorously
+attacked. But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards were mowing down
+the ranks of the Araucanians, whose rude war-clubs and spears were
+ill-fitted to cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven back, and
+hundreds of them falling, they returned with heroic courage three times to
+the assault. But at length the slaughter became too great to bear and the
+warriors were ready to flee in dismay.
+
+At this critical moment the first great hero of the Araucanians appeared.
+He was a boy of only sixteen years of age, a mere lad, who some time
+before had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made his page. But
+young as he was, he loved his country ardently and hated the invaders with
+a bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved the day for his
+countrymen and snatched victory out of defeat.
+
+Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the Araucanians were shrinking in
+dismay, he rushed into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn, accused
+them of cowardice, and bade them to face their foes like men. Seizing a
+lance, he charged alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to
+follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries, the Araucanians charged
+with such fury that the ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were
+broken, and they were cut down until the whole force was annihilated. It
+is said that of the entire expedition only two Indians escaped.
+
+Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to pray, on seeing the fortune
+of war turning against him, was seized by a party of the victors and
+brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive begged the chief for his
+life, promising to leave Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his
+late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief, and this the generous
+boy did. But the Araucanians had little faith in Spanish promises, and an
+old warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising his war-club and
+dashing out the captive's brains. Thus tragically ended the career of one
+of the least cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty of his
+disdain of Indian courage.
+
+Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in his veins, and was
+endowed by nature with beauty of person, nobleness of character, and
+intrepidity of soul. His people honored him highly in the festival with
+which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican appointed him his
+special lieutenant, raising him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his
+own.
+
+There was fighting still to be done. The leader of the Spaniards was dead,
+but he had left many behind him, and there were still strongholds in the
+Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing of the terrible disaster
+to their cause, the Spaniards hastily evacuated their forts beyond the
+Biobio and retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia. Here they were
+besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro was given the difficult task of
+defending the border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful general
+at once fortified himself on the steep mount of Mariguenu, a fort made
+very strong by nature.
+
+Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped from Tucapel brought the news
+of the disaster to Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with
+terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of fourteen horsemen, of whom
+seven were slain, added to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing
+with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost their terrors was not
+reassuring to the invaders of the land. Evidently their position was
+hazardous; they must fight to win or retreat.
+
+Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia, decided to fight. With a
+small army of Spaniards and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio
+and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending Mount Mariguenu to attack
+the stronghold on its top.
+
+Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an old soldier in dealing with
+his well-armed foe. While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass of
+the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell upon them, and for three
+hours gave them as sharp a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the
+Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind which Lantaro awaited the
+foe.
+
+Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party of Spanish horsemen, with
+the purpose of forcing a passage, but near the summit they were met with
+such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it became necessary to
+support them with infantry and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the
+defence, endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body of his warriors,
+but the success of this stratagem was prevented by the advance of
+Villagrau to their support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in
+particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians.
+
+At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he was a born captain.
+Calling to him one of his officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see
+those thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes. There is your
+work. Do not dare show your face to me until you have made them your own."
+
+Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company and fell in fury upon the
+battery, driving back the gunners and capturing their cannon. This
+successful charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce attack on the
+Spanish front, which broke their ranks, throwing them into confusion and
+putting them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three thousand of the
+Spaniards and their allies being slain, while Villagrau was saved with
+difficulty and at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who picked
+him up where he lay wounded and carried him off on his horse.
+
+In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again the defile by which
+they had ascended. Lantaro had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees,
+and the few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before they could
+escape. The Araucanians pursued them to the Biobio, fatigue preventing
+their following beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their flight
+until Concepcion was reached, and here the old men and women were speedily
+sent north in ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the city in a
+panic, and started for Santiago by land. All their property was left, and
+the victors found a rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro, after
+destroying the place, returned home, to be greeted with the acclamations
+of his people.
+
+We must deal more rapidly with the remaining events of the boy hero's
+career. Some time after this defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild
+Concepcion, but while thus employed they were attacked and defeated by
+Lantaro, who pursued them through the open gates of their fortress and
+took possession of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the woods
+and the ships in the harbor. Once more burning the city, Lantaro withdrew
+in triumph.
+
+The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been with much justice called, now
+advanced against Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid to
+Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia. Reaching the country of
+the Indian allies of the Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He
+then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio Claro and sent out spies
+into the country of the enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish horsemen
+were sent from the city to reconnoitre the position of their enemies, but
+they were met and driven back in dismay, being severely handled by the
+Araucanians. The news of their repulse filled the people of Santiago with
+consternation.
+
+Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro against Lantaro, and
+ordered the roads leading to the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved
+no match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent. When the
+Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards
+following tumultuously into the fortifications. Once inside, the Indians
+turned on them and cut them down so furiously that none but the horsemen
+escaped.
+
+Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each time was repulsed. The young
+Spanish leader then withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped on a
+neighboring hill, with the design in mind of turning the waters of a
+mountain stream on Pedro's camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy
+informed him of the purpose to drown him out, and he hastily retired to
+Santiago.
+
+Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his son of the task which
+had proved too much for him. At the head of a strong force, he took a
+secret route by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the
+Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his sentinels aroused Lantaro to
+the impending danger, and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his
+works to observe the coming enemy. He had hardly reached there when an
+arrow from the bow of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a mortal
+wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead in the arms of his followers.
+
+A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed and the fight not ending
+till none of the Araucanians remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew
+to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated the death of their foe;
+while his countrymen, dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege of
+the invested cities and returned home.
+
+A remarkable career was that of this young captain, begun at sixteen and
+ending at nineteen. History presents no rival to his precocious military
+genius, though in the centuries of war for independence in his country
+many older heroes of equal fame and daring arose for the defence of their
+native land against the Spanish foe.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+
+
+At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake, the Sea-King of Devon, as
+he was called, and the most daring and persistent of the enemies of the
+Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape Horn, at the southern
+extremity of the continent, and steered northward into the great Pacific,
+with the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year before he had left the
+harbor of Plymouth, England, with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But
+these had been lost or left behind until only the "Golden Hind," a ship of
+one hundred tons burden, was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron.
+Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom he started only about sixty
+remained.
+
+The bold Drake had previously made himself terrible to the Spaniards of
+Mexico and the West Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the walls
+of Panama. Now for the first time the foot of a white man trod the barren
+rocks of Cape Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific waves.
+Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons to take and rich Spanish cities
+to raid, and the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope of a golden
+harvest as they sailed north into that unknown sea.
+
+Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the famous adventures of Pizarro,
+and about the 1st of December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili.
+Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills on which sheep and
+cattle were grazing and corn and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the
+natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted with the presents
+which were given them. But soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his
+men, who had gone on shore to procure fresh water, were fiercely attacked
+by ambushed Indians, and every man on board was wounded before they could
+pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched from them by the Indians,
+and Drake was wounded by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone on
+the side of his face.
+
+                [Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+                        THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+
+
+Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew wished to attack the hostile
+natives, but Drake refused to do so.
+
+"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards," he said; "and we cannot
+blame them for attacking any man from Spain."
+
+Some days later a native fisherman was captured and brought on board the
+ship. He was in a terrible fright, but was reassured when he learned that
+his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a nation whose people did
+not love Spain. He was highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of
+linen cloth that were given him, and was sent ashore, promising to induce
+his people to sell some provisions to the ship's crew. He kept his word,
+and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog were obtained.
+
+With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to see any white men who
+hated the Spaniards as deeply as he did himself. He was well received and
+served to the best the ship could afford. Then he said to his entertainer
+in Spanish, a language he spoke fairly well,--
+
+"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be glad to go with you, and
+think I can be of much use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far
+south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon, nearly ready to sail
+with a rich treasure. We should all like much to have you capture that
+vessel."
+
+This was good news to Drake. The next day the "Golden Hind" turned its
+prow down the coast under full sail, with the friendly native on board.
+When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight that his dusky pilot
+had told the truth. There lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not
+dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards were unsuspicious
+until the "Golden Hind" had been laid alongside and its armed crew were
+clambering over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured almost without a
+blow.
+
+The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected treasure, and to his joy
+found that she was laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand dollars
+in gold coin, and with other costly goods, including about two thousand
+jars of Chili wine. This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the
+"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her disconsolate captain and
+crew.
+
+After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast, in which the rich
+viands obtained were washed down freely with the captured wine, an armed
+force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose people fled hurriedly to the
+fields when they saw the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted
+houses and the church a fair supply of gold and silver spoil was found,
+and what was equally welcome, an abundant addition to their scanty store
+of provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the "Golden Hind" set sail
+again up the coast, putting the native pilot ashore at the place where he
+wished to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from him eager
+protestations of joy and gratitude.
+
+Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers in this voyage up the South
+American coast. One of the examples of good fortune came at a place called
+Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who had gone ashore, came upon a
+Spaniard lying fast asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side, to
+their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid silver. The sleepy
+treasure-bearer and his silver were speedily secured. Farther inland the
+party met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who were driving some
+sheep, with bulging bags upon their backs. On opening those they were
+found also to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that returned to
+the "Golden Hind" with the treasure thus unexpectedly obtained, and it
+began to look almost as if the country grew silver.
+
+The next raid of the adventurers was at a place called Arica, a small
+seaport town at the output of a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two
+or three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured and searched for
+goods of value. The town was not taken, for a native whom Drake met here
+told him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a valuable cargo, which
+had recently passed up the coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a
+small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was speedily under sail again.
+
+"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to his men. "I am told she is
+richly laden. The first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my hearty
+thanks and a heavy gold chain into the bargain."
+
+It may well be imagined that the eyes of the sailors were kept wide open
+in the days that followed. The man to win the golden chain was John Drake,
+the admiral's brother, who rushed to him one morning, as he came on deck,
+with the glad tidings,--
+
+"Yonder is the galleon!"
+
+He pointed to the far northern horizon, where the sails of a great ship
+were just becoming visible through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was
+the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward before the fresh
+breeze towards the slow-moving Spanish ship.
+
+Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an English ship in those waters,
+as yet never broken except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon
+took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and shortened sail as the
+"Golden Hind" came up, signalling for its officers to come on board. Drake
+did so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when the Spanish captain
+learned his mistake it was too late to resist. The crew of the galleon
+were put under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be rich in gold and
+silver, was quickly transferred to the "Golden Hind." Then captain and
+crew of the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship was set adrift,
+to try her chances without pilot or helmsman in those perilous seas. The
+next storm probably made her a grave in the breakers.
+
+Great had been the spoil gathered by the English rovers, a rich wealth of
+treasure being within the coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was
+abundantly supplied with provisions. Drake now thought of returning home
+with the riches he had won for himself and his comrades. But the port of
+Lima, Pizarro's capital, lay not far up the coast, and here he hoped for a
+rich addition to his spoil. Though satisfied that a messenger had been
+sent from Valparaiso to warn the people of the presence of an armed
+English ship on the coast, he had no doubt of reaching Lima in advance of
+news brought overland.
+
+On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish vessels were found, and,
+their captains being unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained
+no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay several miles inland from the port,
+and the governor, on hearing of these depredations, imagined that the
+stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had fallen into the hands of
+pirates and was on a freebooting cruise. While he was making preparations
+for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso arrived and told him the
+real character of the unwelcome visitor.
+
+This news spurred the governor to increased exertions. An armed English
+war-ship on their coast was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and
+the wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth recapture. With all
+haste the governor got together a force of two thousand men, horse and
+foot, and at their head hurried to the port. There in the offing was the
+dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm, and offering a promising
+chance for capture.
+
+Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and manning them heavily from his
+forces, he sent them out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached
+Drake's sails. But before they had gone far the "Golden Hind" felt the
+welcome wind and was soon gliding through the water. With his small force
+it was hopeless for the English captain to face the strongly armed
+Spaniards, and his only hope for safety lay in flight.
+
+The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards at times coming near
+enough to reach the "Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind varied in
+strength, now the chase, now the pursuers, gained in speed. The Spanish
+ships proved fair sailers and might in the end have overhauled the
+Englishman but for a precaution the governor had neglected in his haste.
+Expecting to capture the English ship in a short run, he had not thought
+of provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on their small food
+supply gave out and the soldiers were nearly famished. In the end the
+governor, who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order a return to
+port.
+
+Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the English rovers. On reaching
+Lima he sent out three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But Drake
+and his men had won too good a start to be overtaken, and the new pursuers
+never came within sight of him.
+
+Homeward bound with an abundant treasure, the rovers pressed merrily on.
+To return by the Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with the
+Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous Englishman decided to
+sail north, expecting to be able to find a passage through the seas north
+of the American continent. The icy and impassable character of these seas
+was at that early date quite unknown.
+
+Onward through the Spanish waters they went, taking new prizes and adding
+to their store of treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns were also
+visited and booty obtained from them. At length the South American
+continent was left behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast of
+Central America. About mid April they left the shore and stood out to sea,
+at last bound definitely for home.
+
+Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched due northward to the limit
+of the continent, where he hoped to find an easy passage back to the
+Atlantic, but after more than five weeks of a north-westward course,
+gradually verging to due north, he was surprised to see land again to his
+right. At first taking it for a large island, he soon learned that he had
+met the continent again and that America here stretched to the northwest.
+
+He was off the coast of the country now called California, in a new region
+which English eyes had never seen, though Spaniards had been there before.
+The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very different in character and
+degree of civilization from those of Peru. They were simple-minded
+savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since, as they lay in harbor,
+the ship sprang a leak, and it became necessary to take measures to repair
+the damage.
+
+The ship was anchored in shallow water near the shore, her cargo and
+provisions were landed and stored, and steps taken to make the necessary
+repairs. While this was going on the mariners were visited by the savages
+in large numbers, occasionally with what were thought to be signs of
+hostility. But their friendliness never ceased, and when at length their
+visitors, with whom they had established very amicable relations, were
+ready to depart they manifested the greatest grief, moaning, wringing
+their hands, and shedding tears.
+
+The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or near what is now called the
+Golden Gate, the entrance to the magnificent bay of San Francisco. On the
+23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor and sailed out of the harbor.
+On the hill-side in the rear was gathered a large body of Indians, some of
+them fantastically attired in skins and adorned with feathers, others
+naked but for the painted designs which covered their bodies. They built
+bonfires in all directions in token of farewell, and Drake and his
+officers stood on deck, waving their hats to their new-made friends.
+Slowly the hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from view, and
+they were on the open ocean again.
+
+From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting the coast. But the
+farther they went the colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak
+that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope of reaching home by the
+northern route. Yet to return by the way they had come would be very
+dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards would probably be
+keenly on the lookout for them. Only one course remained, which was to
+follow the route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across the vast
+Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and around the Cape of Good Hope.
+Drake had with him the narratives and copies of the charts of the first
+circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck him that it would be a great
+and glorious thing to take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and win him
+the credit of being the first Englishman to accomplish this wonderful
+task.
+
+The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon turned to the west. Quick and
+prosperous was the voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and
+after sixty-eight days in which land had not been seen a green shore came
+in view. It was the last day of September, 1579.
+
+The voyagers had many interesting experiences in the eastern archipelago,
+but no mishaps except that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one of
+the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and after throwing overboard
+eight of their cannon, three tons of cloves they had gathered in their
+voyage through the isles of spices, and many bags of meal, the "Golden
+Hind" was got afloat again, none the worse for her dangerous misadventure.
+
+Stocking their vessel once more with spices and sago at the island of
+Booten, and meeting with a hospitable reception at the large island of
+Java, they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape of Good Hope
+without mishap and entering the Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of
+September, 1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth harbor, from
+which she had sailed nearly three years before, and with wealth enough to
+make all on board rich.
+
+Never had England been more full of joy and pride than when the news of
+the wonderful voyage of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received and
+its strange adventures told. Queen Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of
+the bold sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis Drake to Sir
+Francis Drake, and the people looked on him as their greatest hero of the
+sea. In our days acts like his would have been called piracy, for England
+was not at war with Spain. But Drake was made a hero all the same, and in
+the war that soon after began he did noble work in the great sea fight
+with the Spanish Armada.
+
+
+
+
+
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+
+
+Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to America, and dazzling
+stories were told by them of the riches of the countries they explored,
+stories illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It was well known
+that Cortez had not obtained all the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro
+all those of Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures had been
+carried far away by the servants of those unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the
+northeastern section of South America, was looked upon by the Spanish
+adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous wealth. Others fancied
+that Guiana was the true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in
+gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro, in his expedition in
+1540, had heard much from the Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana
+brought back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous stories of
+the riches in gold, silver, and precious stones of the land of the north.
+
+These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder and magnitude through pure
+love of the marvellous or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the
+Indians. Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran, was a mighty
+city, whose very street watering-troughs were made of solid gold and
+silver, while "billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were logs of
+wood marked out to burn."
+
+In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence a mighty king. The
+legend went that it was a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine
+and then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable golden image.
+Then, entering his barge of state, with a retinue of nobles whose dresses
+glittered with gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending their
+tour by a bath in the cooling waters.
+
+Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned king? Certainly none
+of those who went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish
+adventurers who sought for that land of treasure, the most persistent was
+a bold explorer named Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out
+thence with a large body of followers--seven hundred horsemen, the story
+goes. His route lay along the river Negro, and then down the broad
+Orinoco. Boats were built for the descent of this great stream. But the
+route was difficult and exhausting and the natives usually hostile, and as
+they went on many of the men and horses died or were slain.
+
+For more than a year these sturdy explorers pushed on, reaching a point
+from which, if they could believe the natives, the city they sought was
+not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near at hand. As evidence,
+the Indians had treasure of their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images
+of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as he had not seen the like
+in Italy, Spain, or the Low Countries." But as they went on the gallant
+seven hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and these so eager to
+return home that their leader was forced to give up the quest. He sought
+the island of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and there, as
+governor, he dwelt for years, keeping alive in his soul the dream of some
+day going again in search of El Dorado.
+
+While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in England a man of romantic
+and adventurous nature named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous
+as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years devoted himself to the attempt
+to plant an English colony on the coast of North America. On this project
+he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune haunted him and all his
+colonies failed. Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and restore
+his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish treasure-ships, after the
+fashion of the bold Sir Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end to
+this project by clapping him in prison, on a matter of royal jealousy.
+While one of the queen's lovers, he had dared to marry another woman.
+
+While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of the fleet he had fitted
+out came back with a Spanish galleon they had taken, so richly laden with
+costly goods that the whole court was filled with delight. Part of the
+spoils went to the queen and another part to Raleigh, and when at length
+he was released from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning more of
+the American gold. The stories of El Dorado and its marvellous city were
+then in great vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his
+expedition--with no gold, indeed, but with new tales of marvel he had
+gathered from the Indians.
+
+It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but forty-two years of age, in the
+prime of life and full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of mind
+led him to a full belief in the stories that floated about, and he grew
+eager to attempt the brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had
+failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had failed, he had opened up
+what might prove the track to success. Raleigh had sent various
+expeditions to the New World, but had never crossed the ocean himself. He
+now decided to seek Guiana and its fairyland of gold.
+
+A small vessel was sent in advance, under command of Raleigh's friend,
+Jacob Whiddon, to feel the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco, which
+was deemed to be the gateway to the golden realm. Whiddon stopped at
+Trinidad, and found Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial.
+But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous Spaniard had the English
+sailors arrested and put in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small
+that he was obliged to go back to England without seeing the Orinoco.
+
+Whiddon's report made Raleigh more eager than ever. He believed that
+Berreo was getting ready to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to
+rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations accordingly, and in
+February, 1595, set sail from Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied
+vessels, taking with him about one hundred gentlemen adventurers in
+addition to the crews. A number of small and light boats were also taken
+for use on the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came to see the
+voyagers off, flags floated on all the vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh
+and his companions, dressed in their best array, stood on the decks, as,
+with set sails and flying pennons, the stout ships moved slowly away on
+their voyage of chance and hope.
+
+Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers of his day, committing what
+would now be called piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet left
+the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was seen and captured. It was
+quickly emptied of its cargo,--a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms.
+Very soon after a second ship was captured. This was a Flemish vessel,
+laden with wines. These were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About
+two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad were sighted, and
+Raleigh's eyes rested for the first time on the shores of that New World
+in which he had so long taken a warm interest.
+
+Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had done his agent,
+forbidding any of the Indians to go on his ships on peril of death. But
+they went on board, for all that, and were delighted with the kind
+treatment they received. They told Raleigh that several of their chiefs
+had been seized and imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged him
+to rescue them. No Englishman of that day hesitated when the chance came
+to deal the Spaniards a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made on the
+town, it being captured, the chiefs set free, and the governor himself
+made a prisoner.
+
+              [Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.]
+
+                      A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+
+
+Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive on his flag-ship, treated
+him with every courtesy, and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo,
+who did not suspect the purpose of the English, talked freely about his
+former expedition and gave his captor a good deal of very useful
+information. One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could not be
+taken up the Orinoco, on account of the sand-banks at its mouth and its
+dangerous channels. He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at
+Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he had brought with him.
+
+One hundred men were chosen for the journey, the others being left to
+guard the fleet. An old galley, a barge, a ship's-boat, and two wherries
+carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who claimed to be familiar with
+the coast, was taken along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the
+mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers, and they were glad
+enough to enter one of the mouths of the river and escape the ocean
+billows. But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature of which
+Raleigh described later, in his account of the expedition. He wrote:
+
+"If God had not sent us help, we might have wandered a whole year in that
+labyrinth of rivers, ere we had found any way. I know all the earth does
+not yield the like confluence of streams and branches, the one crossing
+the other so many times, and all so fair and large, and so like one
+another as no man can tell which to take. And if we went by the sun or
+compass, hoping thereby to go directly one way or the other, yet that way
+also we were carried in a circle among multitudes of islands. Every island
+was so bordered with big trees as no man could see any farther than the
+breadth of the river or length of the branch."
+
+The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this medley of water-ways, and
+only chance extricated the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were
+involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing a canoe with three
+natives, who became friendly when they found they had nothing to fear from
+the strange white men. One of them was an old man who knew the river
+thoroughly, and whom presents and kind words induced to guide them past
+their difficulties.
+
+Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded banks of the stream,
+they were off again early the next morning. The river was still swift and
+violent, broken here and there with rapids, where they had to land and
+pull the boats. There were shoals also, which they had much trouble in
+getting over. And the banks were so crowded with trees and high reeds that
+they could not land, and were almost stifled from the closeness of the
+air.
+
+After four hard and weary days of this kind they reached a smoother
+channel and could proceed more easily. But their work was still far from
+easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them and they had the swift
+current of the river to breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive
+day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen rovers in that tropical
+climate, where the dense forest growth cut off every breath of air and
+their diminishing bread forced them to be put on short allowance. They
+began to complain bitterly, and Raleigh had to use all his powers of
+persuasion to induce them to go on.
+
+Yet the country was in many ways beautiful. Here and there the woods
+ceased and broad plains spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid
+which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees. Graceful deer would
+come down to the water's edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with
+their big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers," says Raleigh, "were
+divers sorts of fruits good to eat; flowers, too, and trees of such
+variety as were sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed
+ourselves many times with the fruits of the country, and sometimes with
+fowls and fish. We saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson,
+orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was unto us a great good passing
+time to behold them, besides the relief we found by killing some store of
+them with our fowling-pieces."
+
+The adventurers at length reached an Indian village of which their old
+guide had told them, and here, after the natives had got over their fright
+and learned that the strangers meant them no harm, they were very
+hospitably entertained. Thence they went onward, day after day, seeing
+many canoes on the river and landing at various villages. One of the
+canoes contained three Spaniards, who escaped from the effort to capture
+them, and Raleigh soon learned that the Spaniards had told the natives
+that the English were robbers and cannibals. To overcome the effect of
+this story, the greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with kindness
+and gentleness, and to punish in their presence any of the men who
+maltreated them. This quickly had its effect, for the news spread that the
+new-comers were the friends of the red men, and they were rewarded by
+every attention the natives could bestow on them. Provisions were brought
+them in profusion,--fish, fowl, and fruit, great roasted haunches of
+venison, and other viands. Among these were sweet and delicious pineapples
+of enormous size, "the prince of fruits," as Raleigh called them.
+
+Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and fifty miles up the
+Orinoco, they reached the point where another great river, the Caroni,
+empties into it. The country here was more beautiful than they had yet
+seen, and prosperous Indian villages were numerous on the bordering
+plains. The natives had heard of the amicable character of the new-comers,
+and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all they could to show how
+they trusted and admired them. With one old chief, named Topiawara,
+Raleigh held many interesting talks and learned from him much about the
+country and the people. In return he told him about his own country and
+its great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of Queen Elizabeth,
+before which the simple natives bowed themselves as if it were the figure
+of a goddess they saw.
+
+Many days were spent with these people, in hunting, fishing, and
+exploring, but, ask as they would, they could learn nothing about the land
+of gold and the marvellous city they had come so far to seek. The old
+chief told him that Guiana had many fertile plains and valleys and had
+mines of silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew nothing about.
+Finally, Raleigh decided to go up the Caroni, three parties being sent to
+explore its vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the stream. He had
+been told of a mighty cataract, which he was very anxious to see, and this
+was at length reached, after a long struggle with the strong current of
+the river.
+
+The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades, ten or twelve in
+number, in the words of Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a
+church tower, which fell with that fury that the rebound of waters made it
+seem as if it had been all covered over with a great shower of rain. And
+in some places we took it at first for a smoke that had risen over some
+great town.
+
+"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues, "or more lively
+prospects; hills so raised, here and there, over the valleys; the river
+winding into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green grass without
+bush or stubble; the ground of hard sand, easy to march on, either for
+horses or foot; the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree with a
+thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons of white, crimson, and carnation,
+perching on the river's side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly wind;
+and every stone we stooped to pick up promising either gold or silver by
+its complexion."
+
+On the return to the junction of the rivers, the land parties had similar
+stories to tell, and had pieces of golden ore to show, of which they
+claimed to have found plentiful indications. This story filled the whole
+party with dazzling hopes. Here, in the rocks at least, were the riches of
+which they had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist, here was the
+native wealth that might well bring it into existence.
+
+The prospectors had done all that lay in their power, and now felt it
+necessary to return to their ships, taking with them, at his request, the
+son of the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and perhaps to
+return at some time to succeed him, with the aid of the valiant English.
+
+We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and his quest. After various
+adventures, the party reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the
+narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere with the utmost
+interest.
+
+But many years passed before the explorer could return again. He became
+engaged in the wars against Spain, and after the death of the queen was
+arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned for thirteen
+years. In 1617, twenty-two years after his first expedition, he returned
+to the Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels.
+
+His release from prison had been gained by bribery and the promise to open
+a rich mine of gold in Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There
+was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St. Thomas, in which
+Raleigh's son was killed. As for the gold mine, it could not be found, and
+the expedition was forced to return with none of the hoped-for wealth to
+show.
+
+And now Raleigh's misfortunes culminated. He had been sentenced to death
+for treason in 1603, but had been reprieved. The king had him arrested
+again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded that he should be
+punished for the attack on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not
+like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain, so the famous explorer
+fell a victim to the royal policy and dislike and was beheaded under the
+old sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado has lain concealed in
+the mists of legend and romance, though mines of gold have been worked in
+the region which Raleigh explored.
+
+
+
+
+
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+
+
+During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main was beset with a horde of
+freebooters or buccaneers, as they called themselves, to whose fierce
+attacks the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly exposed, and
+who did not hesitate to assail the strongholds of the Spaniards in quest
+of plunder. They differed from pirates only in the fact that their
+operations were confined to Spain and her colonies, no war giving warrant
+to their atrocities. Most ferocious and most successful among these
+worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth, who made his name dreaded
+by his daring and cruelty throughout the New-World realms of Spain. The
+most famous among the deeds of this rover of the seas was his capture of
+the city of Panama, which we shall here describe.
+
+On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from the island haunts of the
+freebooters the greatest fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got
+together. It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small and large, Morgan's
+flag-ship, of thirty-two guns, being the largest, and flying the English
+standard. The men had gathered from all the abiding-places of their
+fraternity, eager to serve under so famous a leader as Morgan, and looking
+for rich spoil under a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the Spaniards
+obstinately defend themselves there is something to take, and their best
+fortified places are those which contain the most treasure."
+
+                   [Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA.]
+
+                           THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+
+
+Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus did Morgan announce to
+his followers the plan he had conceived, which was to attack the important
+and opulent city of Panama, in which he expected to find a vast wealth of
+gold and silver. It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on the
+Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and could be reached only by a long
+and toilsome land journey, the route well defended by nature and doubtless
+by art, while not a man on board the fleet had ever trod the way thither.
+To supply themselves with a guide the island of St. Catharine, where the
+Spaniards confined their criminals, was attacked and taken, and three of
+the convicts were selected for guides, under promise of liberty and
+reward.
+
+Panama was at that time one of the largest and wealthiest cities in
+America. It contained some seven thousand houses, one-third the number
+being large and handsome dwellings, many of them strongly built of stone
+and richly furnished. Walls surrounded the city, which was well prepared
+for defence. It was the emporium for the precious metals of Peru and
+Mexico, two thousand mules being kept for the transportation of those rich
+ores. It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves, for the
+supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants of the place lived in great
+opulence and the churches were magnificently adorned, the chief among them
+being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings and other costly works of
+art ornamented the principal dwellings, and everything concurred to add to
+the importance and beauty of the place.
+
+A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his men near enough to Panama
+to behold the distant sea from the top of a high tree. But he had
+contented himself with waylaying and plundering a mule-train laden with
+treasure, and in 1670 it seemed the act of madness for a horde of
+freebooters to attack the city itself. Yet this was what the daring Morgan
+designed to do.
+
+The first thing to be done was to capture Fort St. Laurent, a strong place
+on an almost inaccessible hill, near the banks of the Chagres River. Four
+ships, with four hundred men, were sent against this fort, which was
+vigorously defended by its garrison, but was taken at length by the
+expedient of firing the palisades and buildings of the fort--composed of
+light wood--by means of burning arrows. The assailants suffered heavily,
+losing more than half their force, while of the garrison only twenty-four
+were taken, many of the others having leaped from the walls into the
+river, preferring death to capture by their ferocious foes. From the
+prisoners it was learned that the people of Panama were not ignorant of
+Morgan's purpose, and that the threatened city was defended by more than
+three thousand men.
+
+As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the freebooters, seeing the
+English flag flying on the fort, manifested their joy by the depths of
+their potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed to run four
+of the ships on the rocks at the mouth of the Chagres, among them the
+admiral's ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the vessels were
+total wrecks, much to Morgan's chagrin.
+
+At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the march on Panama actually
+began, with a force of thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being
+left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty to seize some Spanish
+vessels that were in the river. The means of conveyance being limited, and
+the need of marching light important, a very small supply of provisions
+was taken, it being expected to find an abundance on the route. But in
+this the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards fleeing with all
+their cattle and cutting all the growing grain, so that the buccaneers
+soon found themselves almost destitute of supplies.
+
+The journey was made in boats up the river as far as practicable, five
+small vessels carrying the artillery. At the end of the second day most of
+the men were forced to abandon the boats and prosecute their journey on
+foot. On the third day they found themselves in a marshy forest, which
+they traversed with difficulty and reached the town of Cedro Bueno. Here
+they had hoped to find food, but the place was deserted and not a scrap of
+provisions left.
+
+The affair was now growing very serious, all their food having been
+consumed and they left in imminent danger of starvation. Many of them were
+reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity. They found
+themselves also benumbed with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on
+the chilly river-bank. During the next day their route followed the
+stream, the canoes being dragged along, or rowed where the water was of
+sufficient depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food from the
+country before them, the only things they found being some large sacks of
+hides. These, in their extremity, were used as food, the leather being
+scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it was roasted. Even
+then it could not be swallowed without the aid of copious draughts of
+water.
+
+Only the courage and determination of the chiefs induced the men to go on
+under such severe privations. The fifth day's journey ended as badly as
+the previous ones, the only food found being a little flour, fruit, and
+wine, so small in quantity that Morgan had it distributed among the weaker
+members of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to seem on the point
+of death. For the rest of the men there was nothing to eat but leaves and
+the grass of the meadows.
+
+The feebler men were now put on board the boats, the stronger continuing
+to travel by land, but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account
+of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed, as if the expedition would
+have to be abandoned, when, to their delirious joy, they found a great
+supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some oversight had abandoned in a
+granary. Many of them, in their starving condition, devoured this grain
+raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana leaves. The supply was soon
+exhausted, but for a time it gave new vigor to the famished men.
+
+On the following day all the food they found was a sack of bread and some
+cats and dogs, all of which were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the
+town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the Chagres, a number of vessels
+of wine were discovered. This they hastily drank, with the result that all
+the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were poisoned. Their illness,
+however, was merely the natural effect of hasty drinking in their
+exhausted state, and soon left them.
+
+At this point a number of the men were sent back with the boats to where
+the ships had been left, the force that continued the march amounting to
+eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded, the principal adventure
+being an attack by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders with
+much valor, only retreating when their chief was killed.
+
+About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended, from whose summit,
+to their delight, the buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what gave
+them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley below them, a great herd of
+bulls, cows, horses, and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who took
+to flight the moment they saw the formidable force of invaders. Only an
+utter lack of judgment, or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could
+have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly starved foes. It was
+an oversight which was to prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack
+instead of to feed their ruthless enemies.
+
+The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue, gained new strength at the
+sight of the welcome herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down and
+killed a large number of them, devouring the raw flesh with such a fury of
+hunger that the blood ran in streams from their lips. What could not be
+eaten was taken away to serve for a future supply. As yet Panama had not
+been seen, but soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant towers.
+The vision was hailed with the blare of trumpets and shouts of "victory!"
+and the buccaneers encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the city the
+next day.
+
+The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A troop of fifty horsemen was
+sent to reconnoitre, and a second detachment occupied the passes, to
+prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat. But the freebooters
+were not disturbed in their camp, and were allowed a quiet night's rest
+after their abundant meal of raw flesh.
+
+The next day Morgan led his men against the city, skilfully avoiding the
+main road, which was defended by batteries, and passing through a thick
+and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking march brought them in sight
+of the Spanish forces, which were very numerous, consisting of four
+regiments of the line and nearly three thousand other soldiers. They had
+with them also a great herd of wild bulls under the charge of Indians and
+negroes, from which much was hoped in the assault.
+
+Morgan and his men were much discouraged by the multitude and military
+array of their foes, but nothing remained for them but a desperate fight,
+and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in front, they descended to
+the broad plain on which the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner
+reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while the bulls were driven
+tumultuously upon them.
+
+This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous failure. The horsemen
+found themselves in marshy ground, where they were exposed to a hot and
+well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before they could effect a
+retreat. The charge of the bulls, on which so much reliance had been
+placed, proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the freebooters
+advanced, firing rapidly and with an accuracy of aim that soon strewed the
+ground with the dead.
+
+The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous charge, now turned the bulls
+against the rear of their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers
+and knew well how to act against such a foe, driving them off with shouts
+and the waving of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In the end,
+after a battle of two hours' duration, the Spaniards, despite their great
+superiority of numbers, were utterly defeated, a great many being killed
+on the field and others in the panic of flight.
+
+But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama, a city defended by walls
+and forts, remained to be taken. Morgan knew that success depended on
+taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy, and he advanced
+without delay against the town. It was strongly defended with artillery,
+but the impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all before it, and
+after a three hours' fight the city was in their hands.
+
+The scenes that followed were marked by the most atrocious ferocity and
+vandalism. The city was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by
+outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on fire by Morgan's orders
+and burned to the ground, much of its great wealth being utterly consumed
+through the sheer instinct of destruction.
+
+Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority of them had sought
+safety in flight, taking their women and all their portable wealth. In
+pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan sent out a well-manned
+ship, which returned after a two days' cruise with three prizes. It also
+brought back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with treasure in gold
+and silver and carrying away the principal women of the town, with their
+jewels, had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended and for days Morgan
+made strenuous efforts to discover and capture it, but fortunately this
+rich prize eluded his grasp.
+
+For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site of the burned city, many
+of them engaged in searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some,
+who were discontented with the acts of their leader, conspired to seize
+the largest ship in the harbor and start on a piratical cruise of their
+own down the Pacific. This coming to Morgan's ears on the eve of its
+execution, he defeated it by causing the main-mast of the ship to be cut
+down, and afterwards by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor.
+
+The return of the freebooters had its items of interest. The booty,
+consisting of gold, silver, and jewels, was laden on a large number of
+animals, beside which disconsolately walked six hundred prisoners, men,
+women, and children, Morgan refusing them their liberty except on payment
+of a ransom which they could not procure. Some of them succeeded in
+obtaining the ransom on the march, but the majority were taken to Chagres.
+From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello, a neighboring coast
+town, Morgan threatening that place with destruction unless a heavy ransom
+was sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not a half-penny would
+be paid, and that he might do what he pleased. What he pleased to do was
+to carry out his threat of destroying the town.
+
+The final outcome of this frightful raid remains to be told. It
+demonstrated that Morgan was as faithless to his companions as he was
+ferocious to his victims. On their way back from Panama he ordered that
+every man should be searched and every article they had secreted be added
+to the general store. To induce them to consent he offered himself to be
+searched first. In the final division, however, of the spoil, which was
+valued at four hundred and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds weight
+of silver, he played the part of a traitor, many of the most precious
+articles disappearing from the store and the bulk of the precious stones
+especially being added by Morgan to his share.
+
+This and other acts of the leader created such a hostile feeling among the
+men that a mutiny was imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail
+with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders had shared with him
+in the unequal division of the spoil. The fury of the remaining
+freebooters, on finding that they had been abandoned, was extreme, and
+they determined to pursue and attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack
+of provisions prevented them from carrying this into effect.
+
+Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to the comfort of the
+freebooting fraternity. An English ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica
+with orders to bring home the governor to answer for the protection he had
+given "these bloodthirsty and plundering rascals," while the governor who
+succeeded him issued the severest orders against any future operations of
+the freebooters.
+
+From this time Morgan withdrew from his career of robbery, content to
+enjoy the wealth which he had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He
+settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy in security his
+ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British government showed its real
+sentiment concerning his career by promoting him to high offices and
+giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result this faithless and cruel
+pirate bore during the remainder of his life the distinction of being
+addressed as Sir Henry Morgan.
+
+
+
+
+
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+
+
+A famous story of American history is that which tells of the massacre of
+the French settlers in Florida by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of
+the signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French chevalier
+Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel tale to tell about Brazil, not
+so full of the element of romance, yet for all that an interesting story
+and well worth the telling.
+
+The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many of the Spanish colonies,
+was open to the attacks of buccaneers and of free lances of the seas
+bearing the flags of various countries of Europe. There was not an
+important port of the country, except its capital, Rio Janeiro, that
+escaped attack by hostile fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth
+century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was made the victim of
+assault. A city of over twelve thousand people, and the gateway to a rich
+gold-mining country in the rear, its wealth invited a visit from the
+prize-seekers, though the strength of its population and garrison long
+kept these away. Its turn for assault came in 1710.
+
+In that year a squadron appeared in the waters outside the harbor on which
+the people looked with doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard
+had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In fact, it was commanded by a
+daring Frenchman named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But a look
+at the strong defences of the harbor entrance, and some exchange of shots,
+warned him of the perils that would attend an attempt to pass them by
+force, and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down the coast, where
+he landed a party of a thousand marines.
+
+His design to attack the city with this small party seemed folly. The
+governor, Francisco de Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese
+troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and several hundred Indian
+bowmen. But he lacked the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc's marines
+marched like so many buccaneers through the forest for seven days without
+meeting a foeman. Even when near the city the only enemies in sight were a
+handful of men led by a friar, who attacked them boldly in defence of his
+church. After capturing this, the daring French charged into the city in
+the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding hills, to which the
+governor's troops had been withdrawn.
+
+The very boldness of the assault, and the failure of the governor to guard
+the streets with troops, nearly led to success. Little resistance was made
+by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed the narrow
+streets until the central square was reached. Here they met their first
+check from a party of fifty students, who had entered the palace of the
+governor and fired upon them from the windows. The first French assailants
+who forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied to the furniture. In
+the custom-house adjoining was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was
+hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a lighted match approached
+and carelessly set fire to the powder. In a moment the building was blown
+into the air, and the palace, which the French were still assailing, was
+set on fire.
+
+The people were now rising, and the several detachments into which the
+attacking force had divided found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc,
+at the head of the main body, after losing heavily, barricaded himself in
+a stone warehouse on the quay, round which his foes gathered thickly.
+While there the bells of the city rang out merrily, a sound which he
+fancied to be made by his own men, who he thought were thus celebrating
+their victory. In reality it signified the victory of the Portuguese, who
+had fallen upon, defeated, and slaughtered one of his detachments. A
+second detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder the magazine,
+was set upon by the rabble and completely butchered. Duclerc's defence
+soon grew hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion. The
+Portuguese sullied their victory by acts of cruel reprisal, many of the
+prisoners in their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven hundred of
+the French were killed and wounded. Six hundred, including the wounded,
+were taken prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment in the
+prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months after being taken. Soon after
+the fight the squadron appeared off the port, where its officers, learning
+of the loss of the assailants, squared their yards and sailed away for
+France. Thus ended the first act in our tragedy of plunder.
+
+The second act was one of revenge. In France was found a second Dominique
+de Gourgues to call to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen.
+France, indeed, was in a fury throughout when the news came of the inhuman
+slaughter of its citizens. The man who played the part of De Gourgues was
+a distinguished and able naval officer named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was
+moved by a double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope for plunder was
+an equally inspiring force. And the fame that might come to him with
+victory added still another motive. The path was made easy for him, for
+the government gave its approval to his enterprise, and certain wealthy
+citizens of St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to fit out the
+expedition.
+
+It was important to keep the affair secret, and the vessels were fitted
+out at different ports to avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual
+number of war-vessels were being got ready was soon afloat and reached
+Portugal, where its purpose was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and
+war-vessels was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements for Rio.
+The suspicion reached England, also, and that country, then on the side of
+Portugal, sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels of the
+expedition then lay, and prevent its sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not
+the man to be caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port
+before they were quite ready, leaving the British an empty harbor to seal
+up. The work of preparation was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet
+sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle ships, their
+number of guns varying from seventy-four to fifty-six, six frigates, and
+four smaller vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,--a
+formidable force to send against a colonial city.
+
+The powerful fleet made its way safely over the sea, and reached the
+vicinity of the northern Brazilian port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had
+some thought of beginning his work here, but his water-supply was getting
+low and he felt obliged to hasten on. On the 11th of September he found
+himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the city and its environing
+hills in full view.
+
+The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet from Lisbon having arrived,
+giving warning of the danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts and
+eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed harbor, within which lay four
+ships-of-the-line and as many frigates. Had all this force been directed
+by a man of ability the French might have found entrance to the bay
+impossible. But Francisco de Castro, the hopeless governor of the year
+before, was still at the head of affairs, and no man could have played
+more thoroughly into the hands of the French.
+
+As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A heavy fog descended,
+under cover of which the fleet ran with little damage past the forts and
+entered the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese were dismayed to see
+their foes inside. Gaspar da Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known
+as an able commander, but he was old and in feeble health, and such a
+panic now assailed him that he ran his ships in haste ashore and set fire
+to them, leaving to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor. Admiral
+Trouin had won the first move in the game.
+
+Governor de Castro proved to be as completely demoralized as Admiral da
+Costa. He had twice as many troops as the French, but not half the courage
+and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon, one of the chief defences,
+was blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during the state of
+panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed about four thousand men, erecting a
+battery on an island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying a
+range of hills to the left which gave him command of that section of the
+place. The governor with his troops looked on from a distance while the
+French pillaged the adjoining suburb, destitute of tactics that any one
+could discover unless he proposed to let the French enter the streets and
+then attack them from the houses.
+
+It was in this way they had been defeated the year before, but Trouin was
+too old a soldier to be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries on the
+surrounding hill-slopes till the town was commanded on three sides, while
+the governor kept the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no one
+knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with scarcely a blow in defence, to
+make himself master of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns
+in place to be able to batter the town to the dust.
+
+He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender, saying that he had been
+sent by the king of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc and
+the inhuman slaughter of his men. De Castro answered that his duty to his
+king would not permit him to surrender, and sought to show that the French
+had been honorably killed in battle and Duclerc murdered by an assassin
+beyond his control.
+
+A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved, and the French were
+permitted to go on with their works almost unmolested, the Portuguese
+occupying hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the enemy.
+Trouin had already begun the bombardment of the city, and on receiving the
+governor's answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the same time
+there raged a tropical storm of great violence, accompanied by thunders
+that drowned the roar of the guns, the frightful combination throwing the
+people into such a state that they all fled in blind terror, the troops in
+the town with them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to launch his
+storming parties, word was brought him that the city was deserted and lay
+at his mercy. Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire by the
+governor's order, but otherwise the rich city was abandoned, with all its
+wealth, to the French.
+
+Of the relics of Duclerc's force, about five hundred remained alive in the
+city. These do not seem to have been then in prison, but living at large,
+and they were already abroad and plundering the abandoned city when the
+French forces entered. They had met good treatment as well as bad. Some of
+the people had been kind and hospitable to them, and in the sack of the
+city that ensued the houses of these charitable citizens were marked and
+left untouched.
+
+Otherwise the sack was general, houses and warehouses being broken open,
+and quantities of valuable goods which could not be taken off being thrown
+into the mud of the streets. Now was the opportunity for the Portuguese to
+attack. Trouin was aware of the danger, but was unable to control his men,
+and a sudden assault by the garrison might have proved disastrous to the
+French. But the opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in fact,
+surrendering all his forts and marching his troops a league from the city,
+where he lay waiting reinforcements from the interior while the French
+plundered at their leisure.
+
+Trouin was wise enough to know that his position was perilous. He might be
+overwhelmed by numbers, and it was important to finish his work and get
+away with little delay. But the plunder of the city was not sufficient for
+his purpose, and he sent word to the governor that he must ransom it or it
+would be burned. To make his word good he began by setting fire to the
+environs.
+
+De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any price, offered six hundred
+thousand _cruzadoes_. This was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the
+governor to a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through the
+city and showed him that he was spoiling everything that fire would not
+burn. Learning, however, that the expected reinforcements might soon
+arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to the front of the
+Portuguese camp, where he began to negotiate for better terms. The only
+addition De Castro would agree to was to promise the French a supply of
+cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed to collect the ransom.
+
+Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to waste, accepted the terms, and
+none too soon, for shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements, led
+by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp. They came too late, the
+treaty had been made, and the new general felt bound in honor to make it
+good. So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November the triumphant
+French set sail, their ships deep laden with the rich plunder of the
+Brazilian capital and the gold of the governor's ransom.
+
+The return home was not attended with the success of the earlier part of
+the expedition. Trouin had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his
+return, but when he came near it the weather was so stormy that he was
+obliged to abandon this part of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on
+its way across the seas, and rose to such a height that two of his ships
+went to the bottom, carrying down twelve hundred men. One of these was the
+finest ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been laden with the most
+valuable booty. Of gold and silver alone it took down with it a weight
+valued at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel went ashore and was
+wrecked at Cayenne. Yet with all these losses, so much wealth was brought
+home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of ninety-two per cent.
+on their investment.
+
+The French had won in large measure revenge and plunder, while Trouin had
+gained his meed of fame. It was now Portugal's time for vengeance, and it
+was visited principally on the worthless governor to whose cowardice the
+disaster was due. He had been praised and rewarded for the victory over
+Duclerc' s expedition--praise and reward which he certainly did not
+deserve. For very similar conduct he was now deposed and sentenced to
+degradation and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge of cowardice and
+lack of judgment. His nephew was banished for life for bad conduct, and a
+captain who had given up his fort and fled was hung in effigy. There were
+no others to punish, and Portugal was obliged to hold its hand, France
+being a foe beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible misfortune, from
+which it took many years to recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds
+of a murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+
+
+The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon to the Black Sea, is one of
+the famous events of history. The march of the three hundred, from the
+Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to tell, is scarcely known to
+history at all, yet it was marked by a courage and command of resources as
+great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think our readers will agree with
+us when they read this story, taken from the records of the freebooters on
+the Spanish Main.
+
+After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the Atlantic coasts, various
+fleets of these piratical adventurers sought the Pacific waters in 1685,
+and there for several years made life scarce worth living to the
+inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities. Time and again these were
+plundered of their wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a
+veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went on, however, most of
+these freebooters withdrew, satisfied with their abundant gains, so that,
+by the end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and these were eager to
+return with their ill-gotten wealth to their native land.
+
+This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than three hundred in
+number, had their head-quarters on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the
+Central American coast. What vessels they had left were in a wretched
+condition, utterly unfit to attempt the vast sea voyage by way of the
+Straits of Magellan, and nothing seemed to remain for them but an attempt
+to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua and Honduras, fighting their
+way through a multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau de Lussan, one
+of the adventurers, we are indebted for the narrative of the singular and
+interesting adventure which follows.
+
+The daring band of French and English freebooters were very ill provided
+for the dangerous enterprise they had in view. They proposed to cross an
+unknown country without guides and with a meagre supply of provisions,
+fighting as they went and conveying their sick and wounded as best they
+could. They had also a number of prisoners whom they felt it necessary to
+take with them, since to set them free would be to divulge their weakness
+to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed to combine against them,
+yet if they ever wished to see their native lands again they must face
+every danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might escape to enjoy
+their spoils.
+
+After questioning their prisoners, they decided to take a route by way of
+the city of New Segovia, which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about
+one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and seventy-five miles from
+the waters of a river that flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic
+opposite Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further information about
+the route, sixty men were sent to explore the neighboring country. These
+advanced till they were near the small city of Chiloteca. Here, worn out
+by their journey and learning that they were in a thickly settled country,
+most of the pioneers decided to return. But eighteen of the bolder spirits
+had the audacity to advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand
+inhabitants.
+
+Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and so terrific a fusillade
+of shots that the frightened inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled
+in mortal terror, leaving the place to its captors. These quickly seized a
+number of horses, and made haste to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued
+by the Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful of men they had
+surrendered their city.
+
+On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters determined on the
+desperate venture. They had little to convey except their spoil, which,
+the result of numerous raids, was valued at about one million dollars. It
+chiefly consisted of gold and jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver,
+being left in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The spoil was very
+unequally owned, since the gambling which had gone on actively among them
+had greatly varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome the anger
+and jealousy which this created among the poorer, those with much to carry
+shared their portions among their companions, with the understanding that,
+if they reached the Antilles in safety, half of it should be returned. As
+for the prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and make use of them
+for carrying the utensils, provisions, and sick.
+
+On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters, two hundred and
+eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight horses, crossed in boats from
+their island refuge to the main-land and began their march. Their ships
+had been first destroyed, their cannon cast into the sea, and their
+bulkier effects burned. Divided into four companies, with forty men in
+front as an advance guard, they moved forward into a land of adventure and
+peril.
+
+It was soon found that the people expected and had prepared for their
+coming. Trees had been felled across the roads and efforts made to
+obstruct all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried away, and the dry
+herbage of the fields was set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating
+them with the heat and smoke. This was done to hinder their march until
+the Spaniards had completed a strong intrenchment which was being built at
+a suitable place on the route.
+
+Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the eighth day of their march they
+fell into one of these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards lay
+concealed on the ground and fired into their ranks. Though these were
+dispersed by a fierce charge, they followed the freebooters closely,
+annoying them from the shelter of woods and thickets. The next day a still
+larger ambuscade was laid, which, fortunately for the freebooters, was
+discovered and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards leaving their
+horses behind.
+
+Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here the buccaneers expected a
+severe engagement, and hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both they
+were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped, carrying all food with them.
+Their prisoners, who had served them as guides to this point, knew nothing
+of the country beyond, but they succeeded in taking a new prisoner who was
+familiar with the further route.
+
+The country they were passing through was mountainous and very difficult.
+Steep acclivities had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the
+borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid slopes to be descended.
+The nights were bitterly cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs,
+and their whole route was attended with danger, discomfort, and fatigue.
+
+New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all sides by mountains, one of
+which had to be ascended immediately on leaving the town. The next day's
+dawn found them on its summit, with a valley far below them, in which, to
+their joy, they beheld a large number of animals which they took to be
+oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however, when the scouts they sent out
+came back with the information that these animals were horses, saddled and
+bridled, and that a series of formidable intrenchments had been built in
+the valley, rising like terraces, one above another, and carried to the
+mountains on each side, so as completely to close the route.
+
+There seemed no way to avoid these defences. On one side of the mountain
+flowed a river. A small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded the
+only passage which the freebooters could follow. The whole country round
+was thick forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not the slightest
+indication of a path could be seen. Yet to attack those works in front
+promised quick and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction
+they must find some way to outwit their foes. It was decided that the
+forest presented less dangers and difficulties than the fortified road,
+and that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement which would lead
+them to the rear of the enemy.
+
+During that day active preparations were made for the proposed movement.
+The three hundred Spaniards who had ambushed them some days before still
+hung upon their rear. Their horses, sick, and prisoners were therefore
+left in an enclosed camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and guarded
+by eighty of their number. As a means of impressing the enemy with their
+numbers and alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated at
+intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the sentinels with a great
+noise, and varied these signs of activity with cries and occasional
+discharges of musketry.
+
+Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended, the remainder of
+the freebooters, some two hundred in number, began their march, following
+the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine the forest. The
+difficulties of that night journey through the dense wood proved very
+great, there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend, and this
+needed to be done with as little noise as possible. Daybreak found the
+adventurers on a mountain elevation, from which they could see the Spanish
+intrenchments below them on the left. The greatest of their impediments
+had been surmounted, but there were difficulties still to be overcome.
+
+Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the morning light, which,
+while it rendered their downward passage critical, served to conceal them
+from the enemy below. As they came near the works the heavy tread of a
+patrol guided them in their course, and the morning prayers of the
+Spaniards were of still more advantage in indicating their distance and
+position. The freebooting band had reached the rear of the hostile army,
+composed of five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise on seeing
+their ferocious enemy rushing upon them with shouts and volleys, from this
+unlooked-for quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence.
+
+The other Spaniards behaved more courageously, but the appearance of the
+buccaneers within the works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them of
+spirit, and after an hour's fight they, too, broke and fled. The trees
+they had felled to obstruct the road now contributed to their utter
+defeat, and they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an attempt at
+resistance. We can scarcely credit the testimony of the freebooters,
+however, that their sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The
+success of the advance party was equalled by that of the guard of armed
+men left in the camp, who, after some negotiations with the troop of
+Spaniards in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and dispersed all
+who were not cut down.
+
+That the freebooters were as much surprised as gratified by the signal
+success of their stratagem need scarcely be said. One of the panics which
+are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them from threatened
+annihilation. They learned, however, the disquieting fact that six miles
+farther on was another strong intrenchment which could not be avoided, the
+country permitting no choice of roads. In their situation there was
+nothing to do but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately for them
+their remarkable success spread such terror before it that, when they
+appeared before these new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but
+remained quietly behind their breastworks while their dreaded foes marched
+past.
+
+The seventeenth day of their march carried them to the banks of the river
+towards which their route had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream
+which rises in the mountains near New Segovia and flows through a
+difficult rock channel, with numerous cascades, three of them amounting to
+cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after a course of several
+hundred miles.
+
+How they were to descend this mountain torrent was the question which now
+offered itself to them. It presented a more attractive route of travel
+than the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was marked by
+difficulties of a formidable character. These were overcome by the
+freebooters in an extraordinary manner, one almost or quite without
+parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they adopted was certainly
+of curious interest.
+
+Before them was a large and rapid river, its current impeded by a
+multitude of rocks and broken by rapids and cascades. They were destitute
+of ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any ordinary kind of
+boats would have been of no use to them in such a stream. It occurred to
+them that what they needed to navigate a river of this character was
+something of the nature of large baskets or tuns, in which they might
+float enclosed to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact with
+the rocks by the aid of poles.
+
+They had no models for such floating contrivances, and were obliged to
+invent them. Near the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied
+them abundantly with young trees, of light wood. These they cut down,
+stripped off their bark, collected them by fives, and, lacking ropes,
+fastened them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of gum which the
+forest provided. A large number of small, frail, basket-like contrivances
+were thus made, each large enough to carry two men, with whom they would
+sink in the water as deep as the waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but
+his description does not make it clear just what they were like.
+
+While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part of their horses, and
+salted their flesh for food, all the work being done with the energy and
+activity necessary in their critical situation. During it they were not
+molested by the Spaniards, but no one could tell how soon they might be.
+When all was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty of which
+they had long been deprived, and entered upon one of the most perilous
+examples of navigation that can well be imagined.
+
+Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found themselves tossed about
+by the impetuous current, and speedily covered with spray. The lightness
+of their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but the energetic
+efforts they were obliged to make to keep from being thrown out or dashed
+on the rocks soon exhausted them. A short experience taught them the
+necessity of fastening themselves in the piperies, so that their hands
+might be free to keep them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally
+their frail crafts were overturned or buried under the waves in the swift
+rapids, and the inmates were either drowned or escaped by abandoning the
+treasures which weighed them down.
+
+Whatever else may be said of this method of navigation, it proved a rapid
+one, the frail barks being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of the
+cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water, and here it became
+necessary to swim to the shore and descend the rocks to the bottom of the
+fall. Some who remained behind threw the piperies into the stream to be
+carried over the liquid precipice, and recovered by swimming out to meet
+them, or replaced by new ones when lost.
+
+After three days of this singular navigation it was decided, in view of
+the fact that the piperies were often dashed together to their mutual
+injury, to separate and keep at a distance from each other, those who went
+first marking out by small flags where it was necessary to land. During
+their progress the question of food again became prominent, the salted
+horsemeat they had brought with them being spoiled by its frequent
+wetting. Game was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and the
+only food to be found was the fruit of the banana-tree, which grew
+abundantly on the banks.
+
+The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by the danger of their
+situation. They made the most earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil,
+and some of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to gain the wealth of
+their richer comrades. The dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and
+six conspiring Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked and killed five
+Englishmen who were known to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies,
+they took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses on the bank.
+Those who saw them had no time to think of avenging them.
+
+Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and its course less impetuous.
+The cascades were all passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating or
+anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies were overturned and
+their occupants drowned. To avoid this danger the piperies were now
+abandoned and the freebooters divided themselves into detachments and
+began to build large canoes from the forest trees. Four of these, carrying
+one hundred and thirty men, were soon ready and their builders again took
+to the stream. Of the fate of the others, who remained behind, no further
+account is given by the historian of this adventure.
+
+On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure from the Pacific,
+the adventurers reached the river's mouth, having completed their
+remarkable feat of crossing the continent in the face of the most
+threatening perils from man and nature. But fortune only partly favored
+them, for many had lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their
+career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags about their limbs.
+Some, indeed, had been more fortunate or more adroit in their singular
+navigation, but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and miserable party
+when, a few days afterwards, they reached the isle of Perlas. Here were
+some friendly vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end of April
+they reached the West Indies, with the little that remained of their
+plunder.
+
+Such was the end of this remarkable achievement, one which for boldness,
+intrepidity, and skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals of
+history, and which, if performed by men of note, instead of by an obscure
+band of robbers, would have won for them a high meed of fame.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+
+
+Never were a people more terribly treated than the natives of America
+under the Spanish adventurers. The often told story that the Indians of
+Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after the settlement of that
+island is sufficient evidence of the frightfully inhuman treatment to
+which they were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for justice and
+humanity in the dealings with the Indians, but the settlers, thousands of
+miles away, paid no attention to these laws, and the red men were almost
+everywhere reduced to slavery, or where free and given political rights,
+were looked upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district Spain
+placed an official called the "Protector of the Indians," but it does not
+appear that they were much the better off for their "Protectors." It is
+our purpose here to say something about the cruel treatment of the natives
+in South America.
+
+                 [Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.]
+
+                         INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+
+
+The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied to their dealings with
+the Indians, the _encomiendo_, the _mitad_, and the _repartimiento_, each
+indicating a form of injustice. The conquerors divided the country between
+them, and the _encomiendos_ were rights granted them to hold the Indians
+for a number of years as workers in their fields or their mines. Under
+these grants, the natives were converted into beasts of burden, and forced
+to do the hardest work without the least compensation. They were obliged
+to labor all day long under the burning tropical sun, to dive into the sea
+in search of pearls for their masters, or to toil buried from the light of
+day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising that these miserable
+slaves, accustomed to a life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed
+to a killing plague.
+
+The _mitad_ was a law formed for their protection, but it soon became one
+of the worst of the abuses. Under it every man from the age of eighteen to
+fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives of each mining
+colony of South America being divided into seven sections, each of which
+had to work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner could demand the
+number of Indians he needed. In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were
+worked, and labor of this kind was in constant demand.
+
+As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need only say that when any man
+was called upon to work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence of
+death. Before going he gave all his possessions to his relatives, and they
+went through the funeral service, as if he were already dead. They well
+knew the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was said for him at the
+church, and he had to take an oath of fidelity to the king. Then he was
+sprinkled with holy water and sent away to his deadly service. Deadly we
+may well call it, for it is said that scarcely a fifth part of these
+miners lived through their term of labor.
+
+Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep underground shafts and
+galleries, and passing from the pure air of heaven to a pestilential
+atmosphere, excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of strength and
+often of life. If they survived this, a species of asthma usually carried
+them off during the year. We may judge of the results from the calculation
+that the _mitad_ in Peru alone had eight million victims.
+
+The law limited the _mitad_ to those living within thirty miles of a mine,
+but laborers were often brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As
+for the small wages paid them, the masters took part of it from them in
+payment for their food, and usually got the remainder by giving credit for
+clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by good fortune the Indian
+had not lost his life at the end of his term of service, he might be
+brought into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a slave for life.
+
+The _repartimiento_ was another protective law, which also became a means
+of oppression. Under it the district officials were required to supply all
+things needed by the Indians, there being, when the law was passed, no
+peddlers or travelling dealers. This privilege was quickly and shamelessly
+abused, the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain, sour wine,
+and other inferior supplies, often at three or four times their value when
+of good quality. They were even made to buy things at high prices which
+were of no possible use to them, such as silk stockings for men who went
+barefoot, and razors for those who had scarcely any beard to shave. One
+_corregidor_ bought a box of spectacles from a trader, and made the
+natives buy these at his own price, to wear when they went to mass,
+without regard to the fact that they were utterly useless to them.
+
+The oppression of the natives was not confined to the laity, but the
+clergy were often as unjust. They forced them to pay not only the tithes,
+but extravagant prices for every church service, forty reals being charged
+for a baptism, twenty for a marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial,
+etc. Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the poor Indians, enabled
+the clergy to build costly churches and mission houses and to keep up
+abundant revenues.
+
+These general statements very faintly picture the actual state to which
+the Indians were reduced. This may be better shown by some instances of
+their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example, of the province of
+Velez, New Grenada, were reduced to such extreme misery by the
+embezzlement of the funds, that whole families flung themselves from the
+top of a rock twelve hundred feet high into the river below. One night, in
+order to escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole tribes of the
+Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves, preferring death to the horrors of
+Spanish rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in peril of being
+enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that a quick death was better than a
+slow one under the torture of incessant toil.
+
+In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives had come together with
+the intention of killing themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope
+in his hand, and told them that if they did not give up their purpose he
+would hang himself with them. This threat filled them with such horror at
+the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit world, that they fled
+from the spot, preferring life with all its terrors to such a companion.
+
+As may well be imagined, the natives did not all yield resistlessly to
+their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation at the quantity of gold-dust which
+they were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm, in the
+province of Canas, seized the brutal Spanish collector one day, and gave
+him melted gold to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst
+for gold."
+
+In December, 1767, the descendants of the two tribes which had owned the
+mining valley of Caravaya descended on the white inhabitants in revenge
+for a usurpation of their lands which had taken place more than two
+centuries before. They settled the question of ownership by burning the
+city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and clubs. When news of
+this was received by the viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece of
+the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru. He was prevented from
+carrying out this threat only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita
+Gallegas, whom he loved, and who convinced him that it was his duty as a
+Christian to convert them to the religion of Christ rather than to
+massacre them.
+
+In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of the persecuted natives. It
+was especially notable as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca
+Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards in 1562. This noble
+Indian, the last of the Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in
+Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His virtues were such as to
+gain him the respect and esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated
+him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient emperors.
+
+One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity of the _corregidor_ of
+Tuita, who had laid three _repartimientos_ on the Indians in a single
+year, seized the tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own hands.
+Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru, he proclaimed himself
+the chief of all those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards.
+
+His error seems to have been in not fraternizing with the creoles, or
+white natives of the country, who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the
+Indians themselves. On the contrary he treated these as enemies also, and
+thus greatly augmented the number of his foes. The Indians, their memories
+of their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his ranks in
+enthusiastic numbers and won several victories over the whites, the whole
+of Upper Peru breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as they did,
+they kept up the struggle for a year, the outbreak being brought to an end
+at last by treachery instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to whom the
+Spaniards promised a colonel's commission,--a promise they did not
+keep,--the Inca was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to Cuzco,
+the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here he was tried and condemned to
+death, and executed with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with
+horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale became known.
+
+Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and children, and his
+brother-in-law, Bastidas, were brought before him, their tongues cut out,
+and then put to death by the Spanish method of strangling before his eyes.
+His little son was left alive to witness his death. This was one in which
+the most brutal tortures of medi�val times seemed revived. His tongue
+being torn out, his limbs were tied to four horses, which were driven in
+different directions with the purpose of tearing him limb from limb. The
+horses proved unable to do this, and he remained suspended in agony, until
+one of the more merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by cutting off
+his head. During this revolting scene the little son of the victim gave
+vent to a terrible scream of agony, the memory of which haunted many of
+the executioners to their death.
+
+The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the rebellious towns, his
+body was burned to ashes, his house was razed, his property confiscated,
+and his family declared infamous forever. One of his brothers was sent to
+Spain and condemned to the galleys, in which he remained for thirty years.
+Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to overcome the love of liberty
+in the natives of Peru.
+
+As for the natives themselves, what few privileges they had retained were
+taken from them, their meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any
+one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal. These severe
+measures were thought sufficient to intimidate the Indians, but they only
+exasperated them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a cousin of
+Amaru, who had escaped capture, and another chief named Catari, led them
+in a campaign of revenge in which they fought with the fury of despair.
+The lives of five hundred Spaniards, it is said, paid the penalty for each
+of the victims of that dread execution in Cuzco.
+
+Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all the white families of the
+vicinity had taken refuge with their treasures. The artillery of the
+fortifications seemed an invulnerable defence against the poorly armed
+besiegers, but Andres succeeded in making a breach by turning the mountain
+streams against the walls. Once within, the exasperated Indians took a
+terrible revenge, a single priest being, as we are told, the sole survivor
+of the twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards put down the
+insurrection by treachery and cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres
+to Ceuta, in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820.
+
+We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese of Brazil treated the
+natives of that land with a cruelty little less than that shown by the
+Spaniards, sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians to serve as
+slaves. Those who opposed them were shot down without mercy, and it is
+said that, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants infected
+with the virus of smallpox were sent to the Botocudos, as a convenient
+means of getting rid of that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the
+greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared. The natives
+of South America obtained justice and honorable treatment only after the
+people of that country had won their liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+When the English conquered the island of Jamaica and drove the Spaniards
+out of it, they failed to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had
+been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought for and maintained their
+freedom. Such were the Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica,
+whose story is well worth telling.
+
+First we must say something about the history of this island, and how it
+came into English hands. It was long held by the Spaniards, being
+discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In his last voyage
+he had a dismal experience there. With his vessels battered and ready to
+sink, after running through a severe wind storm, he put into the harbor of
+Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica. He afterwards left this for a small bay,
+still known after him as Don Christopher's Cove, and here, attacked by the
+warlike natives, and unable to put to sea, he was kept captive in his
+shattered hulks for a whole year.
+
+The Indians refused him food, and the tradition goes that he got this at
+length by a skilful artifice. Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon
+would soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief that the lights in
+the sky were under his control, and if they did not give him supplies he
+would put out the light of the moon and never let it shine again on their
+island. The Indians laughed with scorn at this threat, but when they saw
+the moon gradually losing its light and fading into darkness, they fell
+into a panic, and begged him to let it shine again, promising to bring him
+all the food he wanted. At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after
+retiring for a time to his cabin, came forth and told them that he would
+consent to bring back the lost moonlight. After that the Indians saw that
+the crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his crew were finally
+rescued by an expedition sent from Hispaniola.
+
+Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of keeping its old Indian
+name, signifying a land of springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land
+of mountains also; if it had not been we would have had no story to tell,
+for these mountains were the haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons.
+The island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after the detention of
+Columbus on its shores. Many years after that we find its Spanish settlers
+oppressing all the English that fell into their hands. This was the case,
+in fact, all through the West Indies, English seamen being put in the
+stocks, sent to the galleys, or murdered outright.
+
+It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell to put an end to these
+outrages. He sent word to the Spanish minister that there must be a stop
+put to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction of free
+navigation in the West Indies. The minister replied, that to ask for these
+two things was "to ask for his master's two eyes," and that no such thing
+could be allowed. Cromwell's reply was to the point:
+
+"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but by force, which by the
+same title may be repelled. And as to the first discovery--to me it seems
+as little reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon the coast of
+India should entitle the king of Spain to that country as the sailing of
+an Indian or English ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle either
+the Indians or the English to the dominion thereof. The Spaniards have
+contravented the Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable when peace
+is not allowable."
+
+This reply was certainly one marked by sound logic and good sense. It was
+the rule of force, not of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in
+America, and this rule could be set aside by superior force. So Cromwell
+sent out a great fleet under command of Admiral Penn,--father of William
+Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,--with a land force commanded by General
+Venables. The first attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here, the
+fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards surrendered on the 11th of
+May, 1655. They tried to take it back again shortly before Cromwell's
+death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained an English island
+from that day to this.
+
+This is about all we need say by way of preface, except to remark that
+many settlers were sent to Jamaica, and the island soon became well
+peopled and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor, coming to be the
+liveliest city in the West Indies. It was known as the wickedest city as
+well as the richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and Port Royal,
+with the sandy slope on which it was built, slipped into the sea with all
+its dwellings, warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people, the
+disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment from heaven. There is one
+thing more worth mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer, whose deeds
+of shameful cruelty at Panama we have described, became afterwards deputy
+governor of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was given him by
+King Charles II. It is not easy to know why this was done, unless it be
+true, as was then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his bloody
+deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan, as governor, turned hotly upon
+his former associates, and hunted down the buccaneers without mercy,
+hanging and shooting all he could lay hands on, until he fairly put an end
+to the trade which had made him rich.
+
+Let us come now to the story of the Maroons, that nest of fugitives who
+made things hot enough for the English in Jamaica for many years. When
+Cromwell's soldiers took possession of Jamaica few or none of those
+warlike Indians, who had given Columbus so much trouble, were left. In
+their place were about two thousand negro slaves, and these fled to the
+mountains, as the Indians had done before them. There they remained in
+freedom, though the English did their best to coax them to come down and
+enjoy the blessings of slavery again, and though they tried their utmost
+to drive them down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns. In spite
+of all the whites could do, the negroes, "Maroons," as they were called,
+long preserved their liberty.
+
+In 1663 the British, finding that they could not master the warlike
+fugitives by force, offered them a full pardon, with liberty and twenty
+acres of land apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who were
+masters of the whole mountainous interior, where thousands could live in
+plenty, chose to stay where they were and not to trust to the slippery
+faith of the white man. And so it went on until after 1730, when the
+depredations of the negroes upon the settlements became so annoying that
+two regiments of British regulars and all the militia of the island were
+sent into the mountains to put them down. As it proved, the negroes still
+held their own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and very few of them
+killed. They were decidedly masters of the situation.
+
+At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by name, was a dusky dwarf,
+sable, ugly, and uncouth, but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of
+discounting all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian he, but a full
+Pagan, worshipping, with his followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the
+deities of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in the defiles of
+the John Crow Mountains, was named Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two
+mountain streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high into a
+romantic gorge, where their waters met in a seething caldron called
+"Nanny's Pot." Into this, as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny
+could, by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued them. As for
+old Cudjoe himself, the English declared that he must be in league with
+the devil, whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother. And they
+were not without warrant for this belief, for he held his own against them
+for nine long years, at the end of which the Maroons were more numerous
+than at the beginning, since those who were killed were more than made up
+by fresh accessions of runaway slaves.
+
+It is certain that the British soldiers were no match for Cudjoe the
+dwarf. Retreating warily before them, he drew them into many an ambush in
+the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were cut down like sheep,
+the waters of the "Pot" being often reddened with their blood. From many
+of the expeditions sent against him only a few weary and wounded survivors
+returned, and it became difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into
+that den of death.
+
+At length a British officer succeeded in dragging two mountain howitzers
+up the cliffs to a position from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon
+stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells, hurled from the distant
+cannon, began to burst among them, the Maroons were at first so filled
+with terror that some of them threw themselves over the cliffs, but the
+bulk of them merely scattered and let the howitzers do their work among
+empty walls.
+
+Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but he was too old a bird to
+be frightened. "Dis a new way de buckra man got to fight," he said. "He
+fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire little ones arter you.
+Dat's berry cunnin', but ole Cudjoe know somethin' better un dat."
+
+Leading his men through the woods with the stealthy tread and noiseless
+skill of the American Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst
+upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they were busy about their
+guns, delivering a telling volley and then rushing upon them with blade
+and axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious onset, and the
+shell-delivering howitzers remained in Cudjoe's hands.
+
+Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons by the arts of civilized
+warfare, the British were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they brought
+from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians, who were fully the equal of
+the negroes in bush fighting. These were launched upon the track of the
+Maroons and soon ran them down in their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny
+Town the seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island, but at
+length the Maroons, finding their new foes fully their match in their own
+methods, consented to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though only
+on the terms that they should retain their full freedom.
+
+The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town, the Maroons being
+represented by Captains Cudjoe, Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and
+a number of their followers, "who have been in a state of war and
+hostility for several years past against our sovereign lord the king and
+the inhabitants of this island."
+
+By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to retain their liberty
+forever, to be granted a large tract of land in the mountains, and to
+enjoy full freedom of trade with the whites. On their part they agreed to
+keep peace with the whites, to return all runaway slaves who should come
+among them, and to aid the whites in putting down the rebellion and in
+fighting any foreign invader.
+
+In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against local outbreaks was put to
+the test when the fierce Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and
+committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons joined the whites and
+seemed very zealous in their cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a
+large number of ears, which they said they had cut from the heads of
+rebels killed by them. It afterwards was found that the ears had been
+obtained from the negroes who had been slain by the troops and left where
+they fell.
+
+The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795, not without outbreaks on their
+part and depredations on the settlements. In the year named two of them
+were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to the workhouse and given
+thirty-nine lashes on the bare back. When set free they went home in a
+fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they had suffered, being
+whipped by the black driver of the workhouse in the presence of felon
+slaves. The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who felt that
+they had been outraged by this insult to two of their kindred, and a
+revolt broke out that spread rapidly throughout the mountains.
+
+The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to put down the rebels by force
+of arms might lead to the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But it
+was remembered that in the former war the use of dogs had proved very
+advantageous, so agents were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of
+bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the Spaniards against the
+Indians two centuries before were once more brought into use. One hundred
+hounds were bought and with them came forty Cuban huntsmen, mostly
+mulattoes. As it proved, the very news of the coming of the hounds had the
+desired effect, the Maroons being apparently much more afraid of these
+ferocious dogs than of trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately
+sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us, "It is pleasing to
+observe that not a drop of blood was spilt after the dogs arrived in the
+island." Peace was made within a week, and in the next year the chief
+offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and put at work on the
+fortifications. They were afterwards sent to Liberia.
+
+From that time forward there was no trouble with the Maroons. Their
+descendants still dwell in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there
+was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery having been abolished
+thirty years before. The Maroons were called upon to help the troops put
+down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and rendered useful aid in the
+brief conflict. When it was over the black warriors were invited to
+Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city had their first sight
+of the redoubtable Maroons. Black and brawny, they had the dignified
+carriage of men who had always been free and independent, while some of
+them wore with pride silver medals which their ancestors had been given
+for former aid to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons are
+now among its most trusty inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+
+TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+
+
+The people of Europe have not stood alone in settling and ruling America,
+for the blacks of Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have made
+themselves masters of one of the largest and most fertile islands of the
+West Indies, that attractive gem of the tropics which, under the name of
+Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish dominions on American soil.
+
+Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history. The Spaniards enslaved its
+original inhabitants and treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon
+annihilated. Then the island was filled with negro slaves. About 1630 the
+buccaneers, or hunters of wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these
+were mostly French, the western part of the island was ceded to France in
+1697. During the century that followed Africans were brought over in
+multitudes, until there were nearly half a million blacks in Hayti,--the
+Indian name of the island,--while there were less than forty thousand
+whites and thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither citizens
+nor slaves. These facts are given as a necessary introduction to the story
+we are about to tell.
+
+It was the white revolution in France that brought about the black
+revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the States-General met in France and
+overturned the ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty for all
+was the tocsin of its members, and it was proclaimed that not only the
+whites of France and her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to
+freedom and a voice in the government. The news of this decree created a
+ferment of passion in Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had
+long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore all allegiance to
+France, and trampled the national flag under foot in their rage.
+
+But they had others than the French Assembly to deal with. The mulattoes,
+or free people of color, rose in arms for the rights of which they had
+been deprived. They were soon put down, but in the following year (1791) a
+much more terrible outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There followed
+a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as that of France. The revolt
+began on the night of August 21, on the plantation of No�, near Cape
+Haytien. The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly killed all the
+whites who fell into their hands. Down from the mountains they poured on
+every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation. Hills and plains
+were swept with fire and sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were
+committed, and nearly all the residents on the plantations, more than two
+thousand in number, were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar and
+coffee estates were swept by fire.
+
+In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the whites of the cities to
+repel the blacks, but later, believing themselves betrayed by the whites,
+they joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of extermination. It
+did not end until the negroes became masters of all the country districts,
+and gained a control of the mountainous interior of the island which,
+except for a brief interval, they have ever since retained.
+
+This success was in great part due to the famous leader of the blacks, the
+renowned Toussaint L'Ouverture, a man who proved himself one of the
+greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti, of negro parents, he was
+descended from an African prince, and, slave though he was in condition,
+had himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to read and write, and
+also something of mathematics and of Latin, and was taken from the fields
+to become coachman for the overseer of the estate of his master, the Count
+de Breda.
+
+When the negro revolt began, and the furious blacks were seeking victims
+on all sides, Toussaint concealed the overseer and his family in the
+forest, took them food at the risk of his own life, and finally led them
+to the coast, where they took ship for the United States.
+
+While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a gigantic black named
+Bouckman, and subsequently by three others, were continuing their course
+of butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them after the escape of the
+overseer, and quickly gained an influence over them, largely from his
+knowledge of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery. This
+influence enabled him to put himself at their head and to mitigate the
+ferocity of their actions. His ascendency was due not only to his
+knowledge, but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening a breach
+in the ranks of the enemy he became known as L'Ouverture, or the opener.
+
+                [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.]
+
+                        SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+
+
+Under their new leader the revolted slaves held their own against their
+enemies, declaring in favor of the king, Louis XVI., and against the
+revolutionists. On the other hand, the English came to the aid of the
+whites, and the island was thrown into a state of horrible confusion,
+increased by the interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern
+section of the island.
+
+In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued a decree demanding the
+liberation of the slaves, Toussaint and his followers joined the
+revolutionary cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to expel the
+British and Spanish invaders. In this campaign he won a number of
+victories, and showed such military skill and ability as to prove him a
+leader of the highest qualities. Beard says of him, "His energy and his
+prowess made him the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike
+achievements he equalled the great captains of ancient and modern times."
+
+One example of the risks which he ran in battle occurred in his efforts to
+put down an insurrection of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an
+ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a shower of bullets sweeping
+his ranks. His private physician fell dead by his side and a plume of
+feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained unharmed. The same was
+the case soon after when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot down.
+The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to bear a charmed life.
+
+Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony, he wrote to the
+Directory in Paris, guaranteeing to be responsible for the orderly
+behavior of the blacks and their good will to France. He sent at the same
+time his two elder sons to Paris to be educated, making them practically
+hostages for his honor and good faith.
+
+In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came to an end, the British
+being expelled from the island and the rebellious mulattoes put down.
+Peace prevailed, and the negro conqueror now devoted himself to the
+complete pacification of the people. Agriculture was encouraged, the
+churches were reopened, schools were established, and law and justice were
+made equal for all. At the same time the army was kept in excellent
+training and a rigid discipline exacted.
+
+As is usual in such cases, there were abundant applications among the
+negroes for official positions, and Toussaint was sorely put to it to
+dispose of these ignorant aspirers after high places without giving
+offence. He seems, however, to have been well versed in political
+management, and is said to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a
+judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you would make an excellent
+magistrate. Of course you understand Latin.--No?--Why, that is very
+unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely necessary."
+
+There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing with his people that is
+worth repeating. As has been said, when the revolution began Hayti had
+about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand whites and mulattoes.
+Toussaint adopted an original method of making the force of this fact
+evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with black grains of corn
+and throw upon them a few grains of white. "You are the black grains," he
+would say; "your enemies are the white." Then he would shake the glass.
+"Where are the white grains now? You see they have disappeared."
+
+The authorities in France could not but recognize the ability and the
+moderation of the black leader, and in 1796 he was appointed
+commander-in-chief in the island, a commission which was confirmed by
+Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes and colors regarded him as a
+general benefactor and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity
+were restored, and his government was conducted with moderation and
+humanity. It looked as though peace and good will might continue in Hayti
+as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily he had to deal with a
+man in whom ambition and pride of place overruled all conceptions of
+justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had now risen to the supreme
+power in France.
+
+Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two letters which Toussaint sent
+him, after having completely pacified the island. These were addressed,
+"The First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites." The assumed equality
+seems to have touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained to
+answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early in 1800 a republican
+constitution was drafted under the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti
+virtually independent, though under the guardianship of France. An
+election was held and the liberator chosen president for life.
+
+When the news of this action reached France in July, 1800, Napoleon was
+furious. He had just been made First Consul and would brook no equal. "He
+is a revolted slave, whom we must punish," he exclaimed; "the honor of
+France is outraged." Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he
+sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of about thirty-five
+thousand men, under General Leclerc, the husband of Pauline Bonaparte.
+Pauline accompanied him, and also several officers who had been former
+opponents of Toussaint.
+
+Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been idle. Having subdued the
+French portion of the island, he led his army into the Spanish portion,
+which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital, being taken on January
+2, 1801. When the keys of this city were handed to him by its governor,
+the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept them in the name of the
+French Republic." Yet his conquests in the name of France did not soften
+the heart of the First Consul, who was bent on treating him as a daring
+rebel. The Peace of Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe, and
+the expedition under Leclerc reached the island about the end of 1801.
+
+To oppose the strong army of Napoleon's veterans, men who had been trained
+to victory under his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little more
+than half as strong. As he looked at the soldiers disembarking from the
+ships in the Bay of Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost! All
+France is coming to invade our poor island!"
+
+The French made landings at several of the ports of Hayti, driving back
+their defenders. The city of San Domingo, held by Toussaint's brother,
+Paul, was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was to figure high in the
+subsequent history of the island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when
+Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go tell your general that the
+French shall march here only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn
+beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for when he found further
+defence impossible, he set fire to the city and retreated to the
+mountains, taking with him two thousand white prisoners. Grief and despair
+filled the soul of Toussaint when, marching to the relief of Cristophe, he
+saw the roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes.
+
+But though the French became masters of the ports, the army of the blacks
+maintained itself in the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied
+all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost heavily, and began to
+despair of subduing his able opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to
+strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint's two sons. Napoleon had
+interviewed these boys before their departure from France, saying to them,
+"Your father is a great man, and has rendered good service to France. Tell
+him I say so, and bid him not to believe I have any hostile intention
+against the island. The troops I send are not designed to fight the
+natives, but to increase their strength, and the man I have appointed to
+command is my own brother-in-law."
+
+Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the demand that he should
+submit or send his children back as hostages. An affecting interview took
+place between the boys and their father, and when they repeated to him
+Napoleon's words, he was at first inclined to yield, but fuller
+consideration induced him to refuse.
+
+"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The First Consul offers me peace,
+but his general no sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No; my
+country demands my first consideration. Take back my sons."
+
+In the continuation of the war a French force of twenty thousand men under
+Rochambeau marched against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at Cr�te
+� Pierrot. In the contest that followed Toussaint at first outgeneralled
+Rochambeau and defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance he looked
+for from his subordinates failed to reach him, and at length he was forced
+to retreat.
+
+The French, however, despite their superior numbers and the military
+experience of their leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in the
+negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to negotiation, offering the
+blacks their freedom if they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was
+unable to hold his own against his powerful foe, and convinced that the
+terms offered would be advantageous to his country, now decided to accept
+them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable for the people and
+for the army; as for myself, I wish to live in retirement."
+
+The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much. The pride of Napoleon
+had not yet digested the affront of Toussaint's message, "From the First
+of the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent orders to Leclerc
+to arrest and send him to France. In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly
+at night to Toussaint's home, where he was dwelling in peace and quiet.
+The house was surrounded, two blacks that sought to defend him were killed
+on the spot, and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the coast. Here
+he was placed on board a man-of-war, which at once set sail for France.
+
+Napoleon's treatment of Toussaint was one of the dark deeds in his career.
+Reaching France, the captive was separated from his wife and children and
+confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier castle. Here, one morning in
+April, 1803, Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator, was found dead.
+He had been starved to death, if we may accept the belief of some authors.
+
+The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he might easily have
+accumulated vast wealth. In his official position he had maintained a
+degree of magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had concealed great
+riches somewhere in the island. He sent spies to question him, but
+Toussaint's only reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not those I
+have lost." The lost ones were his wife, his children, and his liberty.
+
+Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was soon to find that he had
+made a fatal mistake in his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed
+at his seizure, and having no one to control them, the negroes flew to
+arms, and soon the revolt spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came
+to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc's army until thousands of
+soldiers and fifteen hundred officers found graves in the land they had
+invaded. In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was taken back to
+France. When Napoleon heard the story of the fate of his expedition, he
+exclaimed in dismay,--
+
+"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine army; the body of a
+brother-in-law, of a general, my right arm, a handful of dust! All has
+perished, all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land! Perfidious
+colonists! A wretched slave in revolt. These are the causes of so many
+evils." He might more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause of all
+those evils."
+
+A few words must conclude this tale. General Rochambeau was sent large
+reinforcements, and with an army of twenty thousand men attempted the
+reconquest of the island. After a campaign of ferocity on both sides, he
+found himself blockaded at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to
+the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom he yielded the eight
+thousand men he had left. As he sailed from the island he saw the
+mountain-tops blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled by the blacks.
+From that day to this the island of Hayti has remained in the hands of the
+negro race.
+
+
+
+
+
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+
+
+One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer crept stealthily into a
+house in Jamaica, where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing
+silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin plunged his knife into
+his breast, then turned and fled. Fortunately for American independence he
+had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had been hired to kill was Simon
+Bolivar, the great leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But on that
+night Bolivar's secretary occupied his hammock, and the "Liberator"
+escaped.
+
+Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island, after the failure of his
+early attempt to win freedom for his native land of Venezuela. He was soon
+back there again, however, with recruited forces, and for years afterwards
+the war went on, with variations of failure and success, the Spanish
+general Morillo treating the people who fell into his hands with revolting
+cruelty.
+
+It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the true road to success.
+This was by leaving Venezuela, from which he had sought in vain to
+dislodge the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more promising field
+of New Granada. So confident of victory did he feel in this new plan that
+he issued the following proclamation to the people of New Granada: "The
+day of America has come; no human power can stay the course of Nature
+guided by Providence. Before the sun has again run his annual course
+altars to Liberty will arise throughout your land."
+
+Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a British legion, recruited in
+London among the disbanded soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had also
+sent General Santander to the frontier of New Granada, and General
+Barreiro, the Spanish general, had been driven back. Encouraged by this
+success, he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in June, 1819,
+bringing with him a force of twenty-five hundred men, including his
+British auxiliaries.
+
+Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to conquer in nature as in
+the human enemy. In order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an
+enormous plain which at that season of the year was covered with water,
+and to swim some deep rivers, his war materials needing to be transported
+over these streams. But this was child's play compared with what lay
+before him. To reach his goal the Andes had to be crossed at some of their
+most forbidding points, a region over which it seemed next to impossible
+for men to go, even without military supplies.
+
+When the invading army left the plains for the mountains the soldiers
+quickly found themselves amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose
+the snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera, and the waters of
+the plain through which they had waded were here replaced by the rapids
+and cataracts of mountain streams. The roads in many places followed the
+edge of steep precipices, and were bordered by gigantic trees, while the
+clouds above them poured down incessant rains.
+
+Four days of this march used up most of the horses, which were foundered
+by the difficulties of the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of
+Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were at home only on the plain,
+deserted on finding themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents
+there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed of tree-trunks, or the
+a�rial _taravitas_. These consisted of stout ropes made by twisting
+several thongs of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees on the
+two banks of the ravine, while from them was suspended a cradle or hammock
+of capacity for two persons, which was drawn backward and forward by long
+lines. Horses and mules were similarly drawn across, suspended by long
+girths around their bodies.
+
+Where the streams were fordable the current was usually so strong that the
+infantry had to pass two by two with their arms thrown round each other's
+shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their lives. Bolivar
+frequently passed these torrents back and forward on horseback, carrying
+the sick and weakly, or the women who accompanied the expedition.
+
+In the lower levels the climate was moist and warm, only a little firewood
+being needed for their nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached
+localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the stoutest clothing,
+while immense heaps of rocks and hills of snow bounded the view on every
+side and clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only sounds to be
+heard were those of the roaring torrents they had passed and the scream of
+the condor as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all vegetation
+disappeared except the clinging lichens and a tall plant which bore plumes
+instead of leaves and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a
+funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey the path was marked by
+crosses, erected in memory of travellers who had perished by the way.
+
+In this glacial region the provisions brought with them gave out. The
+cattle on which they had depended as their chief resource could go no
+farther. Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at length they
+reached the summit of the Paya pass, a natural stronghold where a
+battalion would have been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost of
+three hundred men occupied it, but these were easily dispersed by
+Santander, who led the van.
+
+At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties of the way, began to
+murmur. Bolivar called a council of war and told its members that there
+were greater difficulties still to surmount. He asked if they would keep
+on, or if they preferred to return. They all voted in favor of going
+onward, and the knowledge of their decision inspired the weary troops with
+new spirit.
+
+Before the terrible passage was completed one hundred men had died of
+cold, fifty of them being Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was
+necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even some of those borne by the
+soldiers. It was little more than the skeleton of an army that at length
+reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the heart of the province of
+Tunja, on the 6th of July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent back
+assistance to the stragglers who still lingered on the road, and
+despatched parties to collect horses and communicate with the few
+guerillas who roamed about that region.
+
+Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja province with two thousand
+infantry and four hundred horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand
+troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments elsewhere, while there was
+another royalist army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and to the
+support of the people to overcome these odds, and he succeeded in the
+first, for Barreiro was ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage
+of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the year.
+
+He was soon aware, however, that the patriots had achieved this impossible
+thing and were in his close vicinity, and with all haste collected his
+forces and took possession of the heights above the plain of Vargas. By
+this movement he interposed between the patriots and the town of Tunja,
+which, as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was anxious to occupy.
+It was not long, therefore, before the opposing armies met, and a battle
+took place that lasted five hours. The patriots won, chiefly by the aid of
+the English infantry, led by Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune
+to lose an arm in the engagement.
+
+                  [Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.]
+
+                          BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+
+
+The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the road to Tunja remained
+in the hands of the royalists. Instead of again attacking his intrenched
+foe, Bolivar now employed strategy, retreating during the day, then making
+a rapid countermarch at night, thus passing Barreiro's forces in the dark
+over by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into his hands. He found
+there an abundance of war material, and by holding it he cut off
+Barreiro's communication with Bogota.
+
+The strength of Bolivar's generalship lay in rapid and unexpected
+movements like this. The Spanish leaders, bound in the shackles of
+military routine, were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches of
+their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for the passage of an army.
+While they were manoeuvring, calculating, hesitating, guarding the
+customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would surprise them by
+concentrating a superior force upon a point which they imagined safe from
+attack, and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut up their forces in
+detail. As a result, the actions of the patriot commander in the field
+seemed less impressive than those of less notable generals, but the sum of
+effects was far superior.
+
+Bolivar's occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards by surprise. Barreiro,
+finding himself unexpectedly cut off from his centre of supplies, fell
+back upon Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by his foe, anxious to
+deal a decisive blow before the royal forces could concentrate. Boyac�,
+the site now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded and mountainous
+country and one well suited to Bolivar's characteristic tactics. Placing a
+large part of his troops in ambush and manoeuvring so as to get his cavalry
+in the enemy's rear, he advanced to the attack with a narrow front. On
+this Barreiro made a furious assault, forcing his opponents to recoil. But
+this retreat was only a stratagem, for, as they fell back, the Spaniards
+found themselves suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed troops,
+while the cavalry rode furiously upon their rear.
+
+In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the fierce attack threw them
+into utter confusion, in which the patriot army cut them down almost
+without resistance. General Barreiro was taken prisoner on the field of
+battle, throwing away his sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to
+save himself the mortification of surrendering it to General Bolivar.
+Colonel Ximenes, his second in command, was also taken, together with most
+of the officers and more than sixteen hundred men. All their artillery,
+ammunition, horses, etc., were captured, and a very small portion of the
+army escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was decided, but many
+of them were taken by the peasantry of the surrounding country and brought
+in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly small,--only
+thirteen killed and fifty-three wounded.
+
+Boyac�--after Maypo, by which Chili gained its freedom--was the great battle
+of South America. It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as Maypo
+had done in the south. New Granada was freed from the Spaniards, and on
+August 9, two days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily
+evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste that in thirty hours
+he reached Honda, usually a journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar
+triumphantly marched into the capital, and found in its coffers silver
+coin to the value of half a million dollars, which the viceroy had left
+behind in his haste.
+
+It must be said further that the English auxiliaries aided greatly in the
+results of these battles, their conduct giving Bolivar such gratification
+that he made them all members of the Order of the Liberator.
+
+It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of this implacable war, but
+simply to relate the dramatic invasion and conquest of New Granada. It
+must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on for two years longer,
+ending finally in 1821 with the victory of Carabobo, in which the
+Spaniards were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand men. After
+that they withdrew and a republic was organized, with Bolivar for its
+president.
+
+Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining their independence and
+was declared their liberator and made supreme dictator of the country.
+After ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned and gave the
+country a republican constitution. The congress of Lima elected him
+president for life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the northern
+section of Peru, to which the people gave the name of Bolivia, in honor of
+the winner of their liberties.
+
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+
+
+In the last quarter of the eighteenth century ideas of revolution were
+widely in the air. The people were rising against the tyranny of the
+kings. First in this struggle for liberty came the English colonies in
+America. Then the people of France sprang to arms and overthrew the
+moss-grown tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon spread the
+demand for freedom through Europe. In Spain the people began to fight for
+their freedom, and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to
+America, where the people of the Spanish colonies had long been oppressed
+by the tyranny of their rulers.
+
+The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected by the example of the
+great free republic of the north, and the seed of liberty grew for years
+in their minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer's son named Miguel
+Hidalgo, a true scion of the people and an ardent lover of liberty, who
+for years longed to make his native Mexico independent of the effete
+royalty of Spain. He did not conceal his views on this subject, though his
+deeper projects were confided only to a few trusty friends, chief among
+whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of wealth and of noble Spanish descent,
+and a captain of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few intimates,
+consulted often and matured their plans, confident that the desire for
+liberty was strong in the country and that the patriot people needed only
+a leader to break out into insurrection.
+
+Hidalgo's eager desire for liberty, long smouldering, burst into flame in
+1810, when the Spanish authorities attempted to arrest in Quer�taro some
+revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned of their danger, these
+men fled or concealed themselves. News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and
+taught him that with his reputation there was but one of two things to do,
+he must flee or strike. He decided to strike, and in this he was supported
+by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger.
+
+The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September, 1810. That night
+Hidalgo was roused from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends, and
+told that the hour had come. Calling his brother to his aid and summoning
+a few of those in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists to
+the prison, broke it open, and set free certain men who had been seized
+for their liberal ideas.
+
+This took place in the early hours of a Sunday. When day broke and the
+countrymen of the neighboring parish came to early mass the news of the
+night's event spread among them rapidly and caused great excitement. To a
+man they took the side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he found
+himself at the head of a small band of ardent revolutionists. They at once
+set out for San Miguel le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched
+before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty men, the nucleus of
+the Mexican revolution. For standard they bore a picture of the Holy
+Virgin of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New adherents came to
+their ranks till they were three hundred strong. Such was the movement
+known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry, the _Grito_,
+being, "Up with True Religion, and down with False Government."
+
+Never before had an insurrection among the submissive common people been
+known in Mexico. When news of it came to the authorities they were
+stupefied with amazement. That peasants and townspeople, the plain workers
+of the land, should have opinions of their own about government and the
+rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous to be endured, but for the
+time being they were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking any
+vigorous action.
+
+While the authorities digested the amazing news of the outbreak, the
+movement grew with surprising rapidity. Hidalgo's little band was joined
+by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a crowd of field laborers,
+armed with slings, sticks, and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks.
+So popular did the movement prove that in a brief period the band of
+eighty men had grown to a great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers.
+Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their numbers gave them
+strength. Hidalgo put himself at their head as commander-in-chief, with
+Allende as his second in command, and active exertions were made to
+organize an army out of this undigested material.
+
+The next thing we perceive in this promising movement for liberty is the
+spectacle of Hidalgo and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on
+the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital of a mining state,
+the second largest in Mexico. This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine,
+its houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the streets climb like
+stairways.
+
+The people of the city were terrified when they saw this great body of
+people marching upon them, with some of the organization of a regular
+army, though most of them bore only the arms of a mob. The authorities,
+who were advised of their approach, showed some energy. Resolving not to
+surrender and making hasty preparations for defence, they intrenched
+themselves in a strongly built grain warehouse, with the governor at their
+head.
+
+Much better armed than the mass of their assailants, and backed up by
+strong stone walls, the authorities defended themselves vigorously, and
+for a time the affair looked anything but promising for Hidalgo's
+improvised army. Success came at last through the courage of a little boy,
+called Pipita, who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the pavement,
+and holding a blazing torch in his hand, crept through a shower of bullets
+up to the gate of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames spread
+upward, the insurgents broke in upon the frightened defenders, killing
+some and making prisoners of the others.
+
+The common people of the city, in sympathy with the revolutionists, and
+inspired with the mob spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through
+the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and houses, until checked in
+their career of plunder by Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening
+condign punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to make the city a
+stronghold and centre for the collection of arms and money, his forces
+being increased by the defection from the Spaniards of three squadrons of
+regular troops, while the whole province declared for the cause of the
+revolution.
+
+While this was going on, the governing powers in Mexico had recovered from
+their stupefaction and begun to take active measures to suppress the
+dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy had arrived in Mexico,
+Don Francisco Venegas, a Spanish general who had distinguished himself in
+the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a peaceful life before him in
+America, he began his work of government by calling a council of prominent
+persons and asking them to help him raise money from the loyal people for
+the support of their brethren in Spain who were fighting against Napoleon.
+Three days later the Grito de Dolores broke out and he saw that his dream
+of peace was at an end, and that he would need all the funds he could
+raise to suppress revolution in his new government.
+
+The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once ordered the troops in
+garrison at Mexico to Quer�taro, strengthening them by rural detachments,
+and summoning garrisons from the north, west, and east. He issued at the
+same time a decree under which all Indians were released from taxation,
+and promised pardon to all rebels who should at once lay down their arms;
+a reward of ten thousand dollars being offered for the capture or death of
+the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and Aldama.
+
+The civil authorities were vigorously supported by the clergy in this
+action against the revolution. Hidalgo and his chief comrades were
+excommunicated by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them
+bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which had taken action
+against Hidalgo in 1800 for his dangerous opinions, now cited him to
+appear before its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops and
+inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the valiant insurgents, who
+maintained that it was not religion but tyranny that they were banded
+against.
+
+The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid on the 17th of October,
+without resistance, the bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach.
+As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced the canons he had left
+behind to remove the sentence of excommunication. The town was made a
+second stronghold of the revolution and a centre for new recruiting, the
+army increasing so rapidly that in ten days' time its leader took the bold
+step of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city.
+
+The approach of the insurgents, who had now grown greatly in numbers,
+filled the people of the capital with terror. They remembered the sack of
+Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables, while many of them
+fled for safety. As the insurgents drew near they were met by the army of
+the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place upon an elevation called the
+Monte de la Cruces, outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the
+ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm, and greatly
+outnumbering the royal troops, they swept resistlessly on, bearing down
+all before them, and sweeping the viceroy's soldiers from the field with
+heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo, the commanding general,
+from death or capture, and bore him in safety to the city.
+
+Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the news of the disastrous
+defeat of its defenders, could perhaps have been easily taken, and its
+capture might possibly have closed the struggle in favor of liberty. It
+certainly was a moment for that boldness on which success so often
+depends, but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from prudence
+instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival of reinforcements to the
+beaten army, withdrew his forces towards Quer�taro--a weak and fatal
+retrograde movement, as it proved.
+
+The viceroy had another army advancing from the north, under the command
+of Calleja, a skilful general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march
+towards Quer�taro, he attacked him with such vigor that, after a hot
+combat, the insurgents were utterly worsted, losing all their artillery
+and many men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to pieces at this
+severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed to Valladolid with an
+insignificant remnant of his mighty host.
+
+Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of Allende and a fierce
+attack on him at Guanajuato, forcing him to abandon the city and retreat
+to Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence. Calleja, who had much of
+the traditional Spanish cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous
+retaliation upon the people of the city he had taken, who were most
+savagely punished for their recent plundering outbreak.
+
+The remainder of this story of revolution is a brief and unfortunate one.
+Hidalgo gathered another army and led them to Guadalajara, where he
+organized a government, appointed ministers, and styled himself
+generalissimo. He despatched a commissioner to the United States, but this
+personage soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were collected and the army
+organized as rapidly as possible, but his forces were still in the rough
+when, disregarding the advice of Allende and others, he resolved to attack
+Calleja. He advanced on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon,
+where he found himself in face of a well-equipped and disciplined army of
+ten thousand men, superior in everything but numbers to his undisciplined
+levies. They fought bravely enough in the battle of the next day, but they
+were no match for their opponents, and the contest ended in a complete
+rout, the insurgents scattering in all directions.
+
+Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on his way Allende, Jiminez,
+and other leaders who had escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The
+cause of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously putting down the
+revolution on all sides. As a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the
+United States borders with such men and money as they had left, proposing
+there to recruit and discipline another army. But before reaching the
+frontier they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured in a desert
+region near the Rio Grande.
+
+The captives were now taken under a strong escort to Chihuahua, where they
+were tried and condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez were shot
+on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo paid the penalty of his life on the 27th
+of June, 1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the first struggle
+for independence in Mexico. The heads of the four chiefs were taken to
+Guanajuato and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold which they had
+taken by storm in that city. There they remained till the freedom of
+Mexico was won, when they were given solemn burial beneath the altar of
+the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico. The Alhondiga de Grenaditas,
+the building to which their heads were attached, is now used as a prison,
+but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years held Hidalgo's
+head. Before it there stands a bronze statue of this earliest of the
+Mexican patriot leaders.
+
+Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later course of the struggle
+for independence? The death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and
+one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the war with varying fortunes
+until 1815, when he, too, was taken and shot.
+
+The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall was Augustin de Yturbide, a
+royalist leader, who pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet it
+was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its independence. After the
+death of Moreles a chief named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and
+against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it proved, the royalist had
+changed his views, and after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands
+with him and came out openly as a patriot leader. He had under him a
+well-disciplined army, and advanced from success to success till the final
+viceroy found himself forced to acknowledge the independence of Mexico.
+
+The events that followed--how Mexico was organized into an empire, with
+Yturbide as emperor under the title of Augustin I., and how a new
+revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was shot as a traitor--belong to
+that later history of the Spanish American republics in which revolution
+and counter-revolution continued almost annual events.
+
+
+
+
+
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+
+
+On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the commander of the Spanish
+forces in Venezuela, found himself threatened in his camp by a party of
+one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had swum the Orinoco and
+galloped like centaurs upon his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish
+cavalry, with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet their
+assailants, who slowly retired before their superior numbers. In this way
+the royalists were drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio,
+where a battalion of infantry had been placed in ambush near the river.
+Here, suddenly ceasing their retreat, and dividing up into groups of
+twenty, the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and assailed them on
+all sides, driving them back under the fire of the infantry, by whom they
+were fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river with two killed and
+a few wounded, while the plain was strewn with the bodies of their foes.
+
+This anecdote may serve to introduce to our readers Joseph Antonio Paez,
+the leader of the band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most daring and
+striking figures among the liberators of South America. Born of Indian
+parents of low extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself so
+daring as a soldier that he became in time general-in-chief of the armies
+of Venezuela and the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar's most trusted
+lieutenant during the war for independence.
+
+Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle belonging to his father, who
+was a landholder in the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled in
+the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at curing their disorders. He
+was accustomed to mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was noted for
+strength and agility and for power of enduring fatigue.
+
+A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of Venezuela, he rose
+naturally to great influence among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the
+revolution began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of the cause of
+freedom, his reputation for courage was so great that they were very ready
+to enlist under him. He chose from among them one hundred and fifty picked
+horsemen, and this band, under the title of "Guides of the Apure," soon
+made itself the terror of the Spaniards.
+
+The following story well shows his intrepid character. After the death of
+his mother young Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided it
+with his sisters who were living in that town. The Spanish forces, which
+had been driven out of it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a
+general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all property-holders to
+return and promising to reinstate them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of
+this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself before the Spanish
+commandant, saying that he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and
+take possession of his property.
+
+He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who gathered in hundreds to
+welcome and shake hands with him, and the news quickly spread among the
+Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain Paez, who had done them
+so much mischief. Seizing their arms, they called loudly on their
+commander to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as a rebel and
+traitor. But this officer, who was well aware of the valor of Paez, and
+perceived his great influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it very
+imprudent to take a step that might lead to a general outbreak, and
+concluded to let his perilous visitor alone. He therefore appeased his
+soldiers, and Paez was left unmolested in the house of his sisters.
+
+The governor, however, only bided his time. Spies were set to watch the
+daring llanero, and after some days they informed their leaders that Paez
+had gone out unarmed, and that there was a good opportunity to seize his
+weapons as a preliminary to his arrest. When Paez returned home after his
+outing, he was told that armed men had visited the house and taken away
+his sword and pistols.
+
+Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought the governor's house
+and angrily charged him with breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he
+said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously demanded that his
+arms should be restored--not for use against the Spaniards, but for his
+personal security. His tone was so firm and indignant, and his request so
+reasonable under the circumstances, that the governor repented of his
+questionable act, and gave orders that the arms should be returned.
+
+On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas assailed the governor with
+reproaches, impetuously demanding that the guerilla chief should be
+arrested and confined in irons. The versatile governor again gave way, and
+that night the Paez mansion was entered and he taken from his bed, put in
+irons, and locked up in prison. It was no more than he might have
+expected, if he had known as much of the Spanish character then as he was
+afterwards to learn.
+
+But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In the prison he found about one
+hundred and fifty of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia, an
+officer noted for strength and courage. On Garcia complaining to him of
+the weight of his irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners, Paez
+accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange fetters with him. To
+keep his word he broke his own chains by main strength and handed them to
+his astonished friend.
+
+Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won their consent to a concerted
+break for liberty. Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give
+efficient service to the others, and before morning nearly the whole of
+them were free. When the jailor opened the door in the morning he was
+promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened with instant death if he made
+a sound. Breaking into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the guard,
+set free those whose irons were not yet broken, and marched from the
+prison, with Paez at their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred in
+number. Many of these were killed and the rest put to rout, and Barinas
+was once more in patriot hands.
+
+This anecdote will serve to show, better than pages of description, the
+kind of man that Paez was. When the act became known to the llaneros they
+proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready to follow him to the death.
+These cowboys of the Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like
+their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor their general knew
+anything about military art, and felt lost when taken from their native
+plains, a fact which was shown when they were called upon to follow
+Bolivar in his mountain expedition against New Granada. Neither persuasion
+nor force could induce them to leave the plains for the mountains. Bolivar
+and Paez entreated them in vain, and they declared that rather than go to
+the hill-country they would desert and return to their native plains,
+where alone they were willing to fight. This was their only act of
+insubordination under their favorite leader, who usually had complete
+control over them. He made himself one with his men, would divide his last
+cent with them, and was called by them uncle and father. His
+staff-officers were all llaneros and formed his regular society, they
+being alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics, but bold and
+dashing and ready to follow their leader to the cannon's mouth.
+
+The British Legion, about six hundred strong, was in the last year of the
+war attached to the llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed by
+Paez, who called them "my friends, the English." The soldiers of the
+legion, however, were bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel
+Bossuet, whom they held responsible for the miserable state of their
+rations and clothes and their want of pay. At the end of one day, which
+was so scorchingly hot that the soldiers were excused from their usual
+five o'clock parade, the legion rushed from their quarters at this hour
+and placed themselves in order of battle, crying that they would rather
+have a creole to lead them than their colonel.
+
+Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in vain, and the
+lieutenant-colonel, against whom they had taken offence, was attacked and
+mortally wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel Bossuet appeared and
+sought to speak to them they rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it
+needed the active efforts of the other officers to save him from their
+revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny were brought to General Paez in
+his quarters and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing his sword, he
+rushed upon the mutineers, killed three of them instantly, and would have
+continued this bloody work but that his sword broke on the body of a
+fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon, he seized some of the most
+rebellious, dragged them from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them
+to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his spirited conduct,
+hastily dispersed and sought their quarters. The next day three of the
+most seditious of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was accused of
+aiding in the mutiny,--though probably innocent of it,--were arrested and
+shot without trial.
+
+Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with Paez. After the battle of Ortiz,
+in which his daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction, he
+was seized with a fit, and lay on the ground, foaming at the mouth.
+Colonel English went to his aid, but his men warned him to let their
+general alone, saying, "He is often so, and will soon be all right. None
+of us dare touch him when he is in one of these spells."
+
+But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his face with water and forcing
+some down his throat. The general soon recovered and thanked him for his
+aid, saying that he was a little overcome with fatigue, as he had killed
+thirty-nine of the enemy with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth
+through the body he felt his illness coming on. By way of reward he
+presented Colonel English with the lance which had done this bloody work
+and gave him three fine horses from his own stud.
+
+These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the llaneros, who, like all
+Indians, viewed the Spaniards with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of
+more interest than the details of his services in the years of
+campaigning. In the field, it may be said, he was an invaluable aid to
+General Bolivar. In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish
+commander-in-chief, his daring activity and success were striking, and to
+him was largely due the winning the last great battle of the war, that of
+Carabobo.
+
+In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821, Bolivar had about
+sixteen hundred infantry, a thousand or more of them being British, and
+three thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The Spaniards, under La
+Torre, had fewer men, but occupied a very strong defensive position. This
+was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded hills, and giving abundant
+space for military movements, while if driven back they could retire to
+one strong point after another, holding the enemy at disadvantage
+throughout. In front there was only one defile, and their wings were well
+protected, the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron of cavalry
+protected their right wing, and on a hill opposite the defile--through
+which ran the road to Valencia--was posted a small battery.
+
+This position seemed to give the royalists a decisive superiority over
+their patriot antagonists, and for twenty days they waited an attack, in
+full confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an attack, fearing
+that the destiny of his country might rest upon the result. He proposed an
+armistice, but this was unanimously rejected by his council of war. Then
+it was suggested to seek to turn the position of the enemy, but this was
+also rejected, and it was finally decided to take every risk and assail
+the enemy in his stronghold, trusting to courage and the fortune of war
+for success.
+
+While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar and his staff, one of the
+guides of the army, who was thoroughly familiar with the country they
+occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation. At its end he drew
+near Bolivar, and in a whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path
+by which the right wing of the Spaniards might be turned.
+
+This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation with his
+informant, Bolivar secretly detached three battalions of his best troops,
+including the British legion and a strong column of cavalry under General
+Paez, directing them to follow the guide and preserve as much silence and
+secrecy as possible.
+
+The path proved to be narrow and very difficult. They were obliged to
+traverse it in single file, and it was paved with sharp stones that cut
+their shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet. Many of them tore
+their shirts and made bandages for their feet to enable them to go on.
+Fortunately for the success of the movement, it was masked by the forest,
+and the expedition was able to concentrate in a position on the flank of
+the enemy without discovery.
+
+When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome force on their flank
+they hastily despatched against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving
+back the nearest troops and unmasking the British legion. This they fired
+upon and then charged with the bayonet. The British returned the fire and
+charged in their turn, and with such dash and vigor that the Spaniards
+soon gave way. In their retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron
+called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got back to their ranks. In
+return a squadron of the Spaniards charged the British, but with less
+success, being dispersed by a hot musketry fire.
+
+"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt with, a fierce attack
+had been made upon the front. The unexpected flank and rear attack was so
+disconcerting that La Torre lost all presence of mind, and on every side
+his men were driven back and thrown into confusion. In front and on flank
+they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating to the succession
+of defensive points in the rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that
+invaded their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate retreat, their
+cavalry dispersed without making a charge, their infantry in the utmost
+disorder, their cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the enemy.
+
+In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary dash and activity. He
+pursued the Spaniards at the head of the cavalry, cutting them down
+vigorously, and few of them would have escaped but for the fatigued and
+weak condition of his horses, which rendered them unable to break the
+files of the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful charges
+General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black man called, from his courage,
+El Primero (the first), finding that they could not break the infantry
+lines, rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and were killed.
+
+The news of this defeat spread consternation among the Spaniards.
+Thousands of the royalists in the cities hastened to leave the country,
+fearing the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders lost all
+spirit, and three months later the strong fortress of Carthagena
+surrendered to the Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it
+surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated and the long
+contest was at an end.
+
+This final surrender was due in great measure to General Paez, who thus
+sustained his military service to the end. Though not gaining the renown
+of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an army and conducting a
+campaign, as a cavalry leader he was indispensable, and to him and his
+gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+
+
+At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili was at its lowest ebb.
+After four years of struggle the patriots had met with a crushing defeat
+in 1814, and had been scattered to the four winds. Since then the viceroy
+of Spain had ruled the land with an iron hand, many of the leading
+citizens being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez, the
+imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe's career, while many others were
+severely punished and all the people were oppressed.
+
+In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero came across the
+mountains to strike a new blow for liberty. Don Jos� de San Martin had
+fought valiantly for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the battle of San
+Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots sent him to the aid of their
+fellow-patriots in Chili and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in
+the latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the scattered bands
+of Chilian troops and adding them to men of his own command, got together
+a formidable array five thousand strong. The "Liberating Army of the
+Andes" these were called.
+
+An able organizer was San Martin, and he put his men through a thorough
+course of discipline. Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a force
+made up of the _Gauchos_, or cattlemen of the Pampas, whose life was
+passed in the saddle, and who were genuine centaurs of the plains.
+
+San Martin had the Andes to cross with his army, and this was a task like
+that which Hannibal and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps. He set out
+himself at the head of his cavalry on the 17th of January, 1817, the
+infantry and artillery advancing by a different route. The men of the army
+carried their own food, consisting of dried meat and parched corn, and
+depots of food were established at intervals along the route, the
+difficulty of transporting provision-trains being thus avoided. The
+field-pieces were slung between mules or dragged on sledges made of tough
+hide, and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when steep places were
+reached. Some two thousand cattle were driven along to add to their food
+supply.
+
+Thus equipped, San Martin's army set out on its difficult passage of the
+snow-topped Andes. He had previously sent over guerilla bands whose active
+movements thoroughly deceived the royalist generals as to his intended
+place of crossing. Onward went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary
+exertion by the fact that provisions began to run short. The passes to be
+traversed, thirteen thousand feet high and white with perpetual snow,
+formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the plains, yet they pushed
+on over the rugged mountains, with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as
+to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The infantry advanced with
+equal fortitude and energy, and early in February the combined forces
+descended the mountains and struck the royalist army at the foot with such
+energy that it was soon fleeing in a total rout. So utterly defeated and
+demoralized were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was abandoned
+and was entered by San Martin at the head of his wild gauchos and host of
+refugees on the 15th of February. His funds at this time consisted of the
+two doubloons remaining in his pocket, while he had no military chest, no
+surgeons nor medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply of the
+indispensable requisites of an army. About all he had to depend on was the
+patriotism of his men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing
+of the Andes and their easy victory over their foes.
+
+For the time being Chili was free. The royalists had vanished and the
+patriots were in full possession. Thirty or more years before, a bold
+Irishman, bearing the name of O'Higgins, had come to Chili, where he
+quickly rose in position until he was given the title of Don Ambrosio, and
+attained successively the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron,
+marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don Bernardo, was a man of
+his own type, able in peace and brilliant in war, and he was now made
+supreme dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had refused. The
+banished patriots were brought home from their desert island, the
+royalists severely punished, and a new army was organized to dislodge the
+fragment of the Spanish army which still held out in the south.
+
+On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary of the decisive victory of
+the "Liberating Army of the Andes," O'Higgins declared the absolute
+independence of Chili. A vote of the people was taken in a peculiar
+manner. Two blank books were opened for signatures in every city, the
+first for independence, the second for those who preferred the rule of
+Spain. For fifteen days these remained, and then it was found that the
+first books were filled with names, while the second had not a single
+name. This vote O'Higgins declared settled the question of Chilian
+freedom.
+
+The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the energetic viceroy of
+Peru, was taking vigorous steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three
+months before he had received a reinforcement of three thousand five
+hundred veterans from Spain, and these he sent to southern Chili to join
+the forces still in arms. United, they formed an army of about six
+thousand, under General Osorio, the able commander who had subdued Chili
+in 1814. It was evident that the newly declared independence of Chili was
+to be severely tried.
+
+In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it seemed overthrown. On the
+19th of March San Martin's army, while in camp near Talca, was
+unexpectedly and violently attacked by the royalist troops, the onslaught
+being so sudden and furious, and the storm of cannon and musket shot so
+rapid and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken with panic, their
+divisions firing at each other as well as at the enemy. Within fifteen
+minutes the whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely sought to
+stop the demoralized troops, but in vain, O'Higgins, though severely
+wounded, throwing himself before them without effect. Nothing could check
+them, and the defeat became in large measure a total rout.
+
+When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter consternation prevailed.
+Patriots hastily gathered their valuables for flight; carriages of those
+seeking to leave the country thronged the streets; women wrung their hands
+in wild despair; the funds of the treasury were got ready to load on
+mules; the whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety.
+
+Several days passed before it was known what had become of San Martin.
+Then news arrived that he was at San Fernando at the head of the right
+wing, three thousand strong. These had escaped the panic on account of two
+divisions of Osorio's army mistaking each other for the enemy and firing
+into their own ranks. In the confusion that ensued the right wing was led
+unbroken from the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer named
+Rodriguez had done good work in checking the flight of the fugitives, and
+in a brief time had organized a regiment which he named the "Hussars of
+Death."
+
+Six days after the defeat General O'Higgins made his appearance in
+Santiago. He was badly wounded, but was at once named dictator of the
+republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of his officers, entered the
+city. Wearied and dusty with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "_La
+patria triunfa_" gave new heart to the people. For several days fragments
+of the routed army came pouring in, and ten days after the battle Colonel
+Las Heras arrived with the three thousand of the right wing. The patriot
+cause seemed far less hopeless than had been the case a week before.
+
+Yet it was evident that liberty could come only from strenuous exertion,
+and the people of wealth freely subscribed of their money, plate, and
+jewels for the cause. It was not long before a new army five thousand five
+hundred strong, freshly clothed and in fair fighting condition, was
+gathered in a camp near the city. The artillery lost in the flight could
+not be replaced, but a few field-pieces were secured. San Martin and
+O'Higgins, with other able officers, were in command, and hope once more
+began to dawn upon despair.
+
+The enemy was known to be approaching, and the army was moved to a point
+about nine miles from the capital, occupying a location known as the farm
+of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited. On the afternoon of April
+3, Osorio crossed the Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank and
+rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army took up a position on the brow of
+a hill opposite that occupied by the patriot forces.
+
+Passing out from Santiago there is a succession of white hills, known as
+the Lorna Blanca, on one crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords
+of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army was encamped. The royalists
+occupied the crest and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran the
+Maypo with its forests and hills.
+
+As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San Martin saw with satisfaction
+the royalist force beginning to occupy the high ground in his front. With
+hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to witness that the day is ours."
+As he spoke, the golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest to
+crest. At ten o'clock when the movement of the armies began, he said, with
+assurance, "A half-hour will decide the fate of Chili."
+
+A few words will serve to describe the positions of the armies. Each was
+more than five thousand strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller. It
+had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat, the memory of which also
+hung about it like a cloud, while the royalists were filled with
+enthusiasm from their late victory. The royalist lines were about a mile
+in length, four squadrons of dragoons flanking their right wing and a body
+of lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill on the extreme
+left. Confronting them were the patriots, the left commanded by General
+Alverado, the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras, while Quintana
+headed the reserves.
+
+The battle opened with a brisk fire from the patriot artillery, and in
+about an hour the infantry forces joined in full action. As the royalists
+moved down the hill they were swept with the fire of the patriot battery,
+while shortly afterwards the royal battery on the left was captured by a
+dashing cavalry charge and the guns were turned against their own line.
+
+The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the Espejo estate, which was
+charged furiously by both sides, being taken and retaken several times
+during the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage seemed to be on the
+side of Osorio, who held the field with the centre and one wing of his
+army. Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots. It came nearer
+when the regiment of negroes which had for some time withstood the Burgos
+regiment--the flower of Osorio's force--gave way and retreated, leaving four
+hundred of its number stretched upon the field.
+
+The critical moment of the battle was now at hand. The Burgos regiment
+attempted to follow up its success by forming itself into a square for a
+decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines were broken and thrown into
+temporary disorder. Colonel O'Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish
+blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his troops with Quintana's
+reserves, he broke in a fierce charge upon the Burgos regiment while in
+the act of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion.
+
+This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio's army changed the whole aspect
+of affairs. The patriots, inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed
+their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought refuge in the
+farm-house, and were followed by the left, which was similarly broken and
+dispersed. The centre kept up the action for a time, but with both wings
+in retreat it also was soon forced back, and the whole royalist army was
+demoralized.
+
+The patriots did not fail to press their advantage to the utmost. On all
+sides the royalists were cut down or captured, until nearly half their
+force were killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken prisoners. A
+stand was made by those at the farm house, but they were soon driven out,
+and about five hundred of them killed and wounded in the court and
+vineyard adjoining. Of the total army less than three hundred escaped,
+General Osorio and some other officers among them. These fled to
+Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of the patriots more than a
+thousand had fallen in the hot engagement.
+
+This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the battle of the Maypo,
+gave San Martin immense renown, and justly so, for it established the
+independence of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke the power which
+Abascal had long sustained in Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of
+that land from the rule of Spain.
+
+This feat also was the work of San Martin, who soon after invaded Peru,
+and, aided by a Chilian fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming
+its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th of July, 1821. Later
+on, indeed, its freedom was seriously threatened, and it was not until
+1824 that General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru, in the
+victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar became as the Liberator of
+South America, some generous portion of fame should rightly be accorded to
+San Martin, the Liberator of Chili.
+
+
+
+
+
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+
+
+While the Spanish colonies of South America were battling for their
+liberties, the great Portuguese colony of Brazil was going through a very
+different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots were seeking to drive
+Spain out of America. On the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of
+Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king and its throne, so that,
+for a time, the colony became the state, and the state became the
+dependency. It was a marked instance of the tail wagging the dog. Brazil
+became the one empire in America, and was destined not to become a
+republic until many years later. Such are the themes with which we here
+propose to deal.
+
+To begin this tale we must go back to those stirring times in Europe when
+Napoleon, the great conqueror, was in the height of his career, and was
+disposing of countries at his will, much as a chess-player moves the king,
+queen, and knights upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by
+Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the purpose of punishing
+Portugal for the crime of being a friend of the English realm.
+
+John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a weak-minded, feeble
+specimen of royalty, who did not keep of one mind two days together. Now
+he clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he claimed to be a friend of
+France; and thus he shifted back and forward until the French despot sent
+an army to his kingdom to help him make up his mind. The people were ready
+to fight for their country, but the prince still wobbled between two
+opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and was fast making his way
+to Lisbon.
+
+Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed tears over the fate of
+his country, but, as for himself, he wanted badly to save his precious
+person. Across the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil, in
+whose vast forest area he might find a safe refuge. The terrible French
+were close at hand. He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste he
+and his court had their treasures carried on a man-of-war in the Lisbon
+harbor and prepared for flight. Most of the nobility of the country
+followed him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing fifteen thousand
+persons, who took with them valuables worth fifty millions of dollars. On
+November 29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as the
+advance guard of the French came near enough to gaze on its swelling
+sails. It was a remarkable spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of
+the world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country with his nobility
+and treasures, to transfer his government to a distant colony of the
+realm.
+
+Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil, where they were received
+with an enthusiastic show of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the
+loyal colonists by lifting their country into the condition of a separate
+nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved for Portuguese ships, were opened to
+the world's commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly was brought to
+a sudden end; manufactures were set free from their fetters; a national
+bank was established; Brazil was thrown open freely to foreigners; schools
+and a medical college were opened, and every colonial restriction was
+swept away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency to a kingdom at
+a word. John, while bearing the title of prince, was practically king, for
+his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly insane, and he ruled in
+her stead.
+
+He became actual king, as John VI., on the death of his mother in 1816,
+and as such he soon found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians
+had been given so much that they wanted more. The opening of their country
+to commerce and travel had let in new ideas, and the people began to
+discover that they were the slaves of an absolute government. This feeling
+of unrest passed out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion
+at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put down, but a wider revolt came on in
+1820, and spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro, the capital,
+whose people demanded of their ruler a liberal constitution.
+
+A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened monarch taking
+refuge in his palace in the suburbs, where he lay trembling with fear.
+Fortunately, his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute character,
+and he quieted the people by swearing that his father and himself would
+accept the constitution they offered. Full of joy, the throng marched with
+enthusiasm to the palace of the king, who on seeing them approach was not
+sure whether he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to get into his
+carriage, he quite mistook their meaning, and fell into a paroxysm of
+terror when the people took out the horses that they might draw him to the
+city with their own hands. He actually fainted from fright, and when his
+senses came back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that he would
+agree to anything,--anything his dear people wanted.
+
+King John by this time had had quite enough of Brazil and the Brazilians.
+As soon as he could decide on anything, he determined to take his throne
+and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had brought them fourteen years
+before, leaving his son Pedro--young, ardent, and popular--to take care of
+Brazil in his stead.
+
+But the people were not satisfied to let him go until he had given his
+royal warrant to the new constitution, and just before he was ready to
+depart a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding that he should give
+his assent to the charter of the people's rights. He had never read it,
+and likely knew very little what it was about, but he signed what they
+asked for, all the same, and then made haste on shipboard, leaving Prince
+Pedro as regent, and as glad to get away from his _loyal_ Brazilians as he
+had once before been to get away from Junot and his Frenchmen.
+
+Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it was not long to remain
+so. The Cortes of Portugal grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and
+passed laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control. One of these
+required the young prince to leave Brazil. They were laying plans to throw
+the great colony back into its former state.
+
+When news of these acts reached Rio the city broke into a tumult. Pedro
+was begged not to abandon his loving people, and he agreed--thus defying
+the Cortes and its orders. This was on January 9, 1822. The Cortes next,
+to carry out its work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron to
+bring back the prince. This forced him to take a decided stand. On May 13
+he took the title of "Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;" and on
+the 7th of September, when word came that the Cortes had taken still more
+violent action, he drew his sword in the presence of a party of
+revolutionists, with the exclamation, "Independence or Death." On the 12th
+of the following month he was solemnly crowned as Pedro I.,
+"Constitutional Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated.
+Within less than a year thereafter not a hostile Portuguese soldier
+remained in Brazil, and it had taken its place definitely among the
+nations of America.
+
+This is but half the story of Brazil's struggle for freedom. It seems
+advisable to tell the other half, which took place in 1889, sixty-seven
+years after the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent
+empire. The second made it a republic, and brought it into line with the
+republican nations of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar fate
+attended the establishment of monarchy in Brazil. We have seen how John,
+the first emperor, "left his country for the country's good." The same was
+the case with his two successors, Pedro I. and Pedro II.
+
+Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed declarations of his aspirations
+for liberty. He was going to be a second Washington. But it was all empty
+talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere dramatic posing, to which he
+was given. His ardor for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before
+he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution promised was
+not given until it was fairly forced from him, and then it proved to be a
+worthless document, made only to be disregarded. A congress was called
+into being, but the emperor wished to confine its functions to the
+increase of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to worse until by 1831
+the indignation of the people grew intense. The troops were in sympathy
+with the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he stood alone against
+the country, finally abdicated the throne in haste in favor of his infant
+son. He took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and left the
+country never to return. The remainder of his short life was spent as king
+of Portugal.
+
+Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from his father. Studious, liberal,
+high-minded, he did not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress
+and its powers. But for all his liberality, Brazil was not satisfied. All
+around it were republics, and the spirit of republicanism invaded the
+empire and grew apace. From the people it made its way into the army, and
+in time it began to look as if no other emperor would be permitted to
+succeed Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he was growing old and
+feeble and there was a general feeling that he ought to be left to end his
+reign undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his grave. Unfortunately
+for him, many began to believe that a plot was in the air to make him give
+up the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular, and her husband,
+the Count d'Eu, was hated, and when the ministry began to send the
+military away from the capital, as if to carry out such a plot, an
+outbreak came.
+
+Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a professor in the military
+school, and Marshal Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of the
+army. There was one brigade they could count on,--the second,--and all the
+forces in Rio were republican in sentiment.
+
+On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread about that Constant and
+Deodoro were to be arrested and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away.
+It was time to strike. Early the next morning Constant rode out to the
+quarters of the Second Brigade, called it out, and led it to the great
+square in front of the War Department building. Deodoro took command and
+sent an officer into the building to demand the surrender of the ministry.
+They yielded, and telegraphed their resignation to the emperor, who was at
+Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.
+
+The revolution was phenomenally successful. When the other troops in the
+city heard of the revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets to
+join the Second Brigade, while the people, who did not dream of what was
+afoot, looked on in astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and when
+Dom Pedro reached the city at three o'clock in the afternoon, it was to
+find that he was no longer emperor. A provisional government had been
+organized, the chiefs of the revolution had named themselves ministers,
+and they had taken possession of the public buildings. A decree was issued
+that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become a federal republic.
+
+So great a change has rarely been accomplished so easily. A few friends
+visited the emperor, but there was no one to strike a blow for him. And
+the feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to be kept on the
+throne by the shedding of blood. That night word was sent him that he had
+been deposed and would be compelled to leave the country with his family.
+During the next night the royal victims of the revolution were sent on
+shipboard and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus was the third emperor
+sent out of Brazil through a bloodless revolution.
+
+Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic was organized, with a
+constitution closely like that of the United States. But the men at the
+head of government had the army at their back and were rather military
+dictators than presidents, and it was not long before rebellions broke out
+in some of the states. For three years there was war between the two
+factions of the people, with frightful destruction of life and property.
+Then, in September, 1893, the navy rebelled.
+
+The navy had always been officered by aristocrats, and looked with
+contempt upon the army. At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in
+the harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city. It soon became
+evident that it was the purpose of Mello and his fellows to re-establish
+the empire and bring back Dom Pedro to the throne.
+
+But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult situation. He hesitated
+about bombarding the city, which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the
+president, filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval officers had much
+trouble to obtain supplies. Mello, finding himself in a dilemma, left the
+harbor with one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina. Saraiva, an
+able chief of his party, invaded this and the neighboring districts, but
+he was hotly pursued and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to Rio
+without having gained any advantage. Here he found his position a very
+awkward one. The rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain by
+bombarding the city. The best they could do was to try and establish a
+commercial blockade, so as to force the government to terms, and in doing
+this Mello found himself running up against the power of the United
+States.
+
+                 [Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.]
+
+                         RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+
+
+We have given these incidents not so much for the interest they may have
+in themselves, but because they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems
+worth relating. There were warships of several nations in the harbor, the
+officers of most of which accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel
+navy, though it had not a foot of land under its control. Saldana da Gama,
+then in command of the ships, refused permission to any merchant vessel to
+go to the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire on any one
+that should venture. Thus the fleet of merchantmen was forced to lie out
+in the bay and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact that yellow
+fever was making havoc among the crews.
+
+The captains of the American merchant ships applied for protection to the
+senior American officer present, but he refused to interfere, and the
+commercial blockade went on. Such was the state of affairs when the United
+States Admiral Andrew E. Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the
+situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities.
+
+"Go in," he said to the American captains. "Trust to me to protect you
+from attack or to revenge you if injured."
+
+This promise put new spirit into the captains. Captain Blackford, of the
+barque "Amy," and two other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29,
+1894, that they would take their ships in to the wharves the next morning.
+When Da Gama heard of this he announced that he would fire on any vessel
+that dared attempt it.
+
+When Monday morning dawned there was a state of excitement in Rio Janeiro
+harbor. Da Gama might keep his word, and what would the American admiral
+do in that event? The commanders of the other war-vessels looked on with
+interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham meant business. The dawn
+of day showed active movements in the small American squadron. The ships
+were clearing for action, and the cruiser "Detroit" took a position from
+which she could command two of Da Gama's vessels, the "Guanabara" and the
+"Trajano."
+
+When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy" began to warp in towards the
+pier. A musket-shot came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara."
+Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past the bow of the Brazilian
+ship. A second followed that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian
+tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram his vessel, Captain
+Brownson of the "Detroit" took his ship in between the two Brazilian
+war-vessels, in a position to rake them and their supporting tugs.
+
+This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama's guns remained silent, and
+the "Amy," followed by the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to the
+wharves. Others followed, and before night all the British and other
+merchantmen in the harbor were hastening in to discharge their cargoes.
+Benham had brought to a quick end the "intolerable situation" in Rio
+Janeiro harbor.
+
+This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists to bring Peixoto to
+terms. Some of the ironclads escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa
+Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans. A few months
+sufficed to bring the revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length
+firmly established in Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+
+
+Among the varied countries of South America the little republic of
+Paraguay, clipped closely in between Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil,
+presents the most singular history, this being due to the remarkable
+career of the dictator Francia, who ruled over it for a quarter of a
+century, and to the warlike energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny of
+Francia was one of the strangest which history records, no man ever ruling
+with more absolute authority and more capricious cruelty. For many years
+Paraguay was completely cut off by him from the rest of the world, much as
+Japan was until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry. Unlucky was the
+stranger who then dared set foot on Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass
+before he could see the outer world again. Such was the fate of Bonpland,
+the celebrated botanist and companion of Humboldt, who rashly entered this
+forbidden land and was forced to spend ten years within its locked
+confines. Such is the country, and such was the singular policy of its
+dictator, whose strange story we have here to tell.
+
+In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries of South America in the
+general revolt against Spain. There was here no invasion and no
+blood-shed; the armies of Spain were kept too busy elsewhere, and the
+revolution was accomplished in peace. A governing committee was formed,
+with Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and Jos� Gaspar Rodriguez de
+Francia for its secretary. The first was a man of little ability; the
+latter was a man whose powers will soon be seen.
+
+The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay. Two years later a new
+convention was held, which dissolved the committee and elected two
+consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country. Two chairs were made
+for them, resembling the curule chairs of Rome, and called C�sar's and
+Pompey's chairs. On entering office Francia coolly seated himself in
+C�sar's chair, leaving that of Pompey for his associate. This action
+showed the difference in force of character between the two men.
+
+In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all the powers of government.
+He was a true C�sar. He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to
+reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived the Spaniards in the
+country of all civil rights. This was done to gain the support of the
+Indian population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He soon went farther.
+Yegros was in his way and he got rid of him, making the simple-minded and
+ignorant members of the congress believe that only a sovereign magistrate
+could save the country, which was then threatened by its neighbors. In
+consequence, on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was made dictator for
+three years. This was not enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he
+played his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816, a new congress
+proclaimed him supreme and perpetual dictator.
+
+It was no common man who could thus induce the congress of a republic to
+raise him to absolute power over its members and the people. Francia at
+that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and vigorous man, of medium
+stature, with piercing black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked.
+The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco manufacturer in Paraguay, he
+was at first intended for the church, but subsequently studied the law. In
+this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent, and honorable, and
+always ready to defend the poor and weak against the rich. It was the
+reputation thus gained which first made him prominent in political
+affairs.
+
+Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia quickly began to show his
+innate qualities. Love of money was not one of his faults, and while
+strictly economical with the public funds, he was free-handed and generous
+with his own. Thus, of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned
+him, he would accept only three thousand, and made it a strict rule to
+receive no present, either returning or paying for any sent him. At first
+he went regularly every day to mass, but he soon gave up this show of
+religious faith and dismissed his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to
+despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing the priests,
+saying that they talked about things and represented mysteries of which
+they knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he said, "serve more to
+make men believe in the devil than in God."
+
+Of the leading principle of Francia's political system we have already
+spoken. It had been the policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the
+people and keep them in strict obedience to the priesthood, and Francia
+adopted a similar policy. Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might
+penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was seeking to absorb the
+country. With these excuses he forbade, under the severest penalties,
+intercourse of any character between the people of Paraguay and those of
+neighboring countries and the entry of any foreigner to the country under
+his rule.
+
+In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling himself an envoy from Spain,
+should dare to enter Paraguay without authority from himself should be put
+to death and his body denied a burial. The same severe penalty was decreed
+against any native who received a letter speaking of political affairs and
+did not at once present it to the public tribunals. These rigid orders
+were probably caused by some mysterious movements of that period, which
+made him fear that Spain was laying plans to get possession of the
+country.
+
+In the same year the dictator made a new move in the game of politics. He
+called into being a kind of national assembly, professed to submit to its
+authority, and ratified a declaration of independence. Just why this was
+done is not very clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the
+Spanish government, and these may have had something to do with it. At any
+rate, a timely military conspiracy was just then discovered or
+manufactured, a colonel was condemned to death, and Francia was pressed by
+the assembly to resume his power. He consented with a show of reluctance,
+and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini, his envoy to Spain,
+should return, when he would yield up his rule to the marquis. All this,
+however, was probably a mere dramatic move, and Francia had no idea of
+yielding his power to any one.
+
+The dictator had a policy of his own--in fact, a double policy, one devoted
+to dealing with the land and its people; one to dealing with his enemies
+or those who questioned his authority. The one was as arbitrary, the other
+as cruel, as that of the tyrants of Rome.
+
+The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil yields two harvests annually,
+were seized by the dictator and stored on account of the government. The
+latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the land, and a communal system
+was adopted under which Francia disposed at will of the country and its
+people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of the fields, and when
+hands were needed for the harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet
+agriculture made little progress under the primitive methods employed, a
+broad board serving for a plough, while the wheat was ground in mortars,
+and a piece of wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The cotton, as
+soon as picked from the pods, was spun on the spinning-wheel, and then
+woven by a travelling weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on the back
+of an ox or a mule, and, when in use, was hung from the branch of a tree.
+
+Commerce was dealt with in the same way as agriculture. The market was
+under Francia's control, and all exchange of goods was managed under rules
+laid down by him. He found that he must open the country in a measure to
+foreign goods, if he wanted to develop the resources of the country, and a
+channel of commerce was opened on the frontier of Brazil. But soldiers
+vigilantly watched all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant
+without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on imports, kept them in a
+bazaar under military guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the
+amount of goods which any of his subjects could purchase.
+
+As a result of all this Francia brought about a complete cessation of all
+private action, the state being all, and he being the state. All dealing
+for profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce alike made no
+progress. On the other hand, everything relating to war was developed. It
+was his purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign countries, and
+to be fully prepared to defend it against warlike invasion.
+
+               [Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.]
+
+                       INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+
+
+Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted was a French dictionary
+of the arts and industries. From this he gained the idea of founding
+public workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated to activity alike
+by threats and money. At one time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor
+for awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a gallows, he proposed to
+try it on a shoemaker if he did not do his work properly, while promising
+to richly reward him if he did.
+
+Military roads were laid out, the capital and other cities were fortified,
+and a new city was built in the north as a military post to keep the
+savage Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized Mission Indians,
+they were gradually brought under the yoke, made to work on the land, and
+enrolled in the army like other citizens. In this way a body of twenty
+thousand militia and five thousand regular troops was formed, all being
+well drilled and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry force. The
+body-guard of the dictator was made up of picked troops on whose fidelity
+he could rely.
+
+Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish governors, tearing down
+adjoining houses to isolate it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he
+did not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but nightly slept in a
+different room, so that his sleeping apartment should not be known. In
+this he resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also imitated in his
+austerity and simplicity of manners, and the fact that his principal
+confidant was his barber,--a mulatto inclined to drink. His other associate
+was Pati�os, his secretary, who made the public suffer for any
+ill-treatment from his master. The remainder of the despot's household
+consisted of four slaves, two men and two women. In dress he strove to
+imitate Napoleon, whom he greatly admired, and when drilling his troops
+was armed with a large sword and pistols.
+
+There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of this Paraguayan Nero.
+With his suspicious nature and his absolute power, his subjects had no
+more security for their lives than those of old Rome. Plots against his
+person--which he identified with the state--served him as a pretext for
+seizing and shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was suspicious. One
+of his first victims was Yegros, his former associate in the consulate.
+Accused of favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty others were
+condemned to death in 1819.
+
+More than three hundred others were imprisoned on the same charge, and
+were held captive for eighteen months, during which they were subjected by
+the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious dictator took special pleasure
+in the torment of these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own and
+making a diversion out of his revenge. From his actions it has been
+supposed that there were the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is
+certain that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria that he issued
+his decrees of proscription and carried out his excesses of cruelty.
+
+When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless wretch who omitted to
+address him as "Your Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and
+Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the man who, wishing to speak
+with him, dared to approach too closely and did not keep his hands well in
+view, to show that he had no concealed weapons. Treason, daggers, and
+assassins seemed the perpetual tenants of Francia's thoughts. One
+country-woman was seized for coming too near his office window to present
+a petition; and he went so far, on one occasion, as to order his guard to
+fire on any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever he went abroad a
+numerous escort attended him, and the moment he put his foot outside the
+palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a warning to all the
+inhabitants to go into their houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head
+nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to the dictator's
+dreaded face.
+
+It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth century, and in a
+little state of South America, there should have arisen a tyrant equal in
+cruelty, in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula of old or the
+Louis XI. of medi�val times. Death came to him in 1840, after twenty-six
+years of this absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came after a
+few days of illness, during which he attended to business, refused
+assistance, and forbade any one not called by him to enter his room. Only
+the quick coming of death prevented him from ending his life with a crime;
+for in a fit of anger at the _curandero_, a sort of quack doctor who
+attended him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword, and rushed
+furiously upon the trembling wretch. Before he could reach his intended
+victim he fell down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard his
+orders and come to his aid, and death soon followed. His funeral was
+splendid, and a grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was thrown
+down by the hands of some enemies unknown.
+
+Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage, one of the most
+remarkable characters of the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his
+nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as president of the republic
+for ten years, during which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued
+in power till his death in 1862, but put an end to the isolation of
+Paraguay, opening it to the world's commerce.
+
+He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom we mention here simply
+from the fact that the war which Francia had so diligently prepared for
+came in his time. In 1864 the question of the true frontier of the state
+brought on a war in which Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay
+combined to crush the little country in their midst. We need only say here
+that Lopez displayed remarkable powers as a soldier, appeared again and
+again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and fought off his
+powerful opponents for five years. Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was
+slain in a battle in which his small army was completely destroyed.
+Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic struggle, was at the mercy of the
+allies. It was restored to national life again, but under penalty of the
+great indemnity, for so small a state, of two hundred and thirty-six
+million pesos.
+
+
+
+
+
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+
+
+In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most vigorous and tyrannical of the
+governor-generals of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled with
+a stern will and an iron hand. One of the purposes in which he was most
+earnest was that of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast, all the
+naval vessels under his command being ordered to patrol the coast night
+and day, and to have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it proved, all
+his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers continuing to ply their trade
+in spite of Tacon and his agents.
+
+The despoilers of the revenue were too daring and adroit, and too familiar
+with the shoals and rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and
+the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation prevented any
+close approach to their haunts. In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient
+of offering a large and tempting reward to any one who would desert the
+fraternity and agree to pilot the government vessels through the perilous
+channels which they frequented. Double this reward, an almost princely
+prize, was offered for the person of one Marti, dead or alive.
+
+Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward for the arrest of Marti,
+who was looked upon as the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A
+daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler and half pirate, his name
+was as well known in Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The
+admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him as the King of the Isle
+of Pines, this island being his principal rendezvous, from which he sent
+his fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on the neighboring
+coast. As for Tacon's rewards, they were long as ineffective as his
+revenue cutters and gunboats, and the government officials fell at length
+into a state of despair as to how they should deal with the nefarious and
+defiant band.
+
+One dark, dull night, several months after the placards offering these
+rewards had been posted in conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two
+sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor's palace, which stood
+opposite the grand plaza of the capital city. Shortly before midnight a
+cloaked individual stealthily approached and slipped behind the statue of
+the Spanish king near the fountain in the plaza. From this lurking-place
+he watched the movements of the sentinels, as they walked until they met
+face to face, and then turned back to back for their brief walk in the
+opposite direction.
+
+It was a delicate movement to slip between the soldiers during the short
+interval when their eyes were turned from the entrance, but the stranger
+at length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently across the
+short space and hiding himself behind one of the pillars of the palace
+before they turned again. During their next turn he entered the palace,
+now safe from their espionage, and sought the broad flight of stairs which
+led to the governor's rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly familiar
+with the place.
+
+          [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.]
+
+                  THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.
+
+
+At the head of the stairs there was another guard to be passed, but this
+the stranger did with a formal military salute and an air of authority as
+if his right to enter was beyond question. His manner quieted all
+suspicion in the mind of the sentinel, and the newcomer entered the
+governor's room unchallenged, closing the door behind him.
+
+Before him sat the governor-general in a large easy-chair, quite alone and
+busily engaged in writing. On seeing him thus unattended the
+weather-beaten face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction.
+Evidently his secret plans had worked fully to his desire. Taking off his
+cloak, he tossed it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the
+governor's attention. Tacon looked up in surprise, fixing his eyes keenly
+upon his unlooked-for visitor.
+
+"Who is this that enters, at this late hour, without warning or
+announcement?" he sternly asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face.
+
+"One who brings information that the governor-general wants. You are he, I
+believe?"
+
+"I am. What do you want? And how did you, a stranger, pass my guard
+without challenge?"
+
+"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I understand, has offered a
+handsome reward to any one who will put you on the track of the rovers of
+the gulf?"
+
+"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon, with sudden interest. "What
+know you of them?"
+
+"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said the stranger. "I have my own
+safety to consider."
+
+"That you need not fear. My offer of reward also carries pardon to the
+informant. If you are even a member of the confederation itself you will
+be safe in speaking freely."
+
+"I understand you offer an additional reward, a rich one, for the
+discovery of Captain Marti, the chief of the smugglers?"
+
+"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to reward and protect any one who
+puts me on the track of that leader of the villains."
+
+"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance of this. Do you give me
+your knightly word that you will grant me a free pardon for all offences
+against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know, even to the most
+secret hiding-places of the rovers?"
+
+"I pledge you my full word of honor for that," said the governor, now
+deeply interested.
+
+"You will grant me full pardon, under the king's seal, no matter how great
+my offences or crimes, if you call them so, may have been?"
+
+"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said Tacon, wondering why his
+visitor was so unduly cautious.
+
+"Even if I were a leader among the rovers myself?"
+
+Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the stalwart stranger, while
+considering the purport of his words.
+
+"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead our ships to the haunts of
+Marti and his followers, you can fully depend on the reward and the
+pardon."
+
+"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust your word, or I should never
+have put myself in your power."
+
+"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently. "Now come to the point;
+I have no time to waste."
+
+"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have offered the largest reward,
+dead or alive, stands before you."
+
+"Ha! you are
+
+"Captain Marti."
+
+The governor started in surprise, and laid his hand hastily on a pistol
+that lay before him. But he regained his self-possession in a moment, and
+solemnly said,--
+
+"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours. You have offended deeply, but
+my word is my law. But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for the
+present under guard."
+
+"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti.
+
+Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered, and soon after Marti
+was safely locked up, orders being given to make him comfortable until he
+was sent for. And so this strange interview ended.
+
+During the next day there was a commotion in the harbor of Havana. An
+armed revenue cutter, which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of
+Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity; food, ammunition, and
+other stores being taken on board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and
+she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was a man unknown to captain
+or crew, otherwise than as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping
+his word.
+
+A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,--faithful to them, but faithless
+and treacherous to his late comrades and followers,--for he guided the ship
+with wonderful ease and assurance through all the shoals and perils of the
+coast waters, taking her to the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing
+their depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places. Many a craft of
+the smugglers was taken and destroyed and large quantities of their goods
+were captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued. The returns to
+the government were of great value and the business of the smugglers was
+effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned to the governor to claim
+the reward for his base treachery.
+
+"You have kept your word faithfully," said Tacon. "It is now for me to
+keep mine. In this document you will find a free and unconditional pardon
+for all the offences you have committed against the laws. As for your
+reward, here's an order on the treasury for--"
+
+"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?" said Marti. "I am glad
+to have the pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to make you a
+proposition in place of the money you offer. What I ask is that you grant
+me the sole right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare the
+trade in fish contraband to any one except my agents. This will repay me
+quite well enough for my service to the government, and I shall build at
+my own expense a public market of stone, which shall be an ornament to the
+city. At the expiration of a certain term of years this market, with all
+right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the government."
+
+Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition. He would save the large
+sum which he had promised Marti, and the city would gain a fine
+fish-market without expense. So, after weighing fully all the _pros_ and
+_cons_, Tacon assented to the proposition, granting Marti in full legal
+form the sole right to fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets.
+Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him of this concession.
+During his life as a rover he had become familiar with the best
+fishing-grounds, and for years furnished the city bountifully with fish,
+reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise. At the close of the
+period of his monopoly the market and privileges reverted to the
+government.
+
+Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of large wealth. How he should
+invest it was the question that next concerned him. He finally decided to
+try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical performances in Havana on
+condition of building there one of the largest and finest theatres in the
+world. This was done, paying the speculator a large interest on his
+wealth, and he died at length rich and honored, his money serving as a
+gravestone for his sins.
+
+
+
+
+
+KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+
+
+We have told the story of the remarkable expedition of Vasquez de Coronado
+from Mexico northward to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to tell the
+story of an expedition which took place three centuries later from this
+prairie land to the once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." In
+1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he found it inhabited by tribes
+of wandering savages, living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return
+expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful farms and populous
+cities. Yet it was to pass through a country as wild and uncultivated as
+that which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries before.
+
+The invasion of Mexico by the United States armies in 1846 was made in
+several divisions, one being known as the Army of the West, led by Colonel
+Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march to Santa F�, seize New Mexico, and
+then push on and occupy California, both of which were then provinces of
+Mexico. It was an expedition in which the soldiers would have to fight far
+more with nature than with man, and force their way through desolate
+regions and over deserts rarely trodden by the human foot.
+
+The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri
+River, in the month of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen
+hundred men, all from Missouri, and all mounted except one battalion of
+infantry. Accompanying it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A march of two
+thousand miles in length lay before this small corps, much of it through
+the land of the enemy, where much larger forces were likely to be met.
+Before the adventurers, after the green prairies had been passed, lay hot
+and treeless plains and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry snow
+still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile Mexicans, whose numbers
+were unknown, might make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those who
+gathered to see them start looked upon them as heroes who might never see
+their homes again.
+
+On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition began its march,
+taking the trail of a provision train of two hundred wagons and two
+companies of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three days later, by
+Kearney with the rear. For the first time in history an army under the
+American standard, and with all the bravery of glittering guns and
+floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains. For years the Santa
+F� trail had been a synonym for deeds of horror, including famine,
+bloodshed, and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones of men and of
+beasts of burden paved the way, and served as a gruesome pathway for the
+long line of marching troops.
+
+The early route led, now through thick timber, now over plains carpeted
+with tall grasses, now across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground
+in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and tried the horses
+severely to pull them out. To draw the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of
+the table-lands the tugging strength of a hundred men was sometimes
+needed.
+
+Summer was now on the land, and for days together the heat was almost
+unbearable. There was trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals,
+unused to their new trappings and discipline, and which often broke loose
+and scampered away, only to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane
+ejaculations.
+
+For six hundred miles the column traversed the great Santa F� trail
+without sight of habitation and over a dreary expanse, no break to the
+monotony appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile and flowery
+prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the Arkansas. Here was a rich and
+well-watered level, with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming
+convenient halting-places for rest and bathing. As yet there had been no
+want of food, a large merchant train of food wagons having set out in
+advance of their own provision train, and for a few days life ceased to be
+a burden and became a pleasure.
+
+They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey to Fort Bent had been
+one of toil and hardships, of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless
+dreary miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance and food at times
+grew scanty, while the scarcity of fuel made it difficult to warm their
+sparse supplies. During part of the journey they were drenched by heavy
+rains. To these succeeded days of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst
+in its train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering souls. When
+at length the Arkansas River was reached, men and animals alike rushed
+madly into its waters to slake their torment of thirst.
+
+At times their route led through great herds of grazing buffaloes which
+supplied the hungry men with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they
+were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores of the provision
+wagons. This was especially the case when they left the grassy and flowery
+prairie and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months of the year no
+drop of rain or dew fell, while the whitened bones of men and beasts told
+of former havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface was in places
+incrusted with alkaline earth worn into ash-like dust, or paved with
+pebbles blistering hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by
+variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow in hue.
+
+A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent, but on the 2d of August
+the column was on the trail again, the sick and worn-out being left
+behind. As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still. Neither grass
+nor shrubs was to be found for the famishing animals; the water, what
+little there was, proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank deep in
+the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike were nearly suffocated by
+the clouds of dust that blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad
+were they when, after three days of this frightful passage, they halted on
+the welcome banks of the Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw
+rising before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron and Spanish
+peaks and knew that the desert was passed.
+
+The sight of the rugged mountains infused new energy into their weary
+souls, and it was with fresh spirit that they climbed the rough hills
+leading upward towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length into a grand
+mountain amphitheatre closed in with steep walls of basalt and granite.
+They seemed to be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they enjoyed
+their first Sunday's rest since they had left Fort Leavenworth.
+
+The food supply had now fallen so low that the rations of the men were
+reduced to one-third the usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts
+helped them to endure this severe privation, and they made their way
+rapidly through the mountain gorges and over the plains beyond, covering
+from seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition had diminished as
+well as food, and the men were forbidden to waste any on game, for news
+had been received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute their path
+and all their powder and shot might be needed.
+
+The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was reached on August 14, and
+their desert-weary eyes beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens
+surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while groves of cedar and pine
+diversified the scene. With new animation the troops marched on, elated
+with the tidings which now reached them from the north, that Colonel
+Kearney had been raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and a second
+item of news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held the ca�on six
+miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared to dispute its passage.
+
+This was what they had come for, and it was a welcome diversion to learn
+that the weariness of marching was likely to be diversified by a season of
+fighting. They had made the longest march ever achieved by an American
+army, nearly all of it through a barren and inhospitable country, and it
+was with genuine elation that they pressed forward to the ca�on, hopeful
+of having a brush with the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment
+when they found the pass empty of foes. The Mexicans had failed to await
+their coming.
+
+Kearney had already begun his prescribed work of annexing New Mexico to
+the United States, the Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas
+having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws and government of the
+United States. As they marched on, a similar oath was administered at San
+Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the soldiers fairly revelled
+in the fresh vegetables, milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the
+inhabitants were glad to exchange for the money of their new guests.
+Orders had been given that all food and forage obtained from the peaceable
+inhabitants should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was done.
+
+At Pecos they had their first experience of the antiquities of the land.
+Here was the traditional birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient
+temple still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled by that famous
+monarch, and kept burning for long years after his death, in the hope that
+he would come again to deliver his people from bondage. At length, as
+tradition held, the fire was extinguished by accident, and the temple and
+village were abandoned. The walls of the temple still stood, six feet
+thick, and covering with their rooms and passages a considerable space.
+The Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight for the Mexicans,
+for tradition told them that a people would come from the East to free
+them from Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about to be fulfilled.
+
+The next hostile news that reached the small army was to the effect that
+seven thousand Mexicans awaited them in Gallisteo Ca�on, fifteen miles
+from Santa F�. This was far from agreeable tidings, since the Mexicans far
+outnumbered the Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a much
+smaller force might have easily defended it against a numerous foe. The
+pass had been fortified and the works there mounted with six pieces of
+cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders' ranks.
+
+Fortunately, once more the advancing troops found a strong pass
+undefended. The Mexican officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who
+felt no enmity towards the Americans, had left them to fight it out
+between themselves. Deserted by his soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with
+a few dragoons, and the Americans marched unmolested through the pass. On
+the same day they reached Santa F�, taking peaceful possession of the
+capital of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country in the name of the
+United States.
+
+Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the last of their wearisome
+march of nine hundred miles, which had been completed in about fifty days.
+So exhausting had this final day's march proved that many of the animals
+sank down to die, and the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side,
+without food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep. As the flag of
+the United States was hoisted in the public square, a national salute of
+twenty-eight guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry rode with
+waving banners and loud cheers through the streets. They had cause for
+great gratulation, for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had won a
+great province without the loss of a single man in battle.
+
+By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff one hundred feet high was
+raised in the plaza for the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was
+taken by the officials of the town. They were willing enough to take it,
+since their new masters left them in office, while the people, who had
+been told that they would be robbed and mercilessly treated, hailed the
+Americans as deliverers rather than as enemies. The same was the case with
+all the surrounding people, who, when they found that they would be paid
+for their provisions and be left secure in their homes, settled down in
+seeming high good will under the new rule.
+
+       [Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.]
+
+               OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+
+
+Santa F� at that time contained about six thousand inhabitants. After St.
+Augustine it was the oldest city within the limits of the United States.
+When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was built on the site of one of
+the old Indian pueblos, whose date went back to the earliest history of
+the country. The Spanish town--The Royal City of the Holy Faith, _La Villa
+Real del Santa F�_, as they called it--was also full of the flavor of
+antiquity, with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old churches, built
+nearly three centuries before. These were of rude architecture and hung
+with battered old bells, but they were ornamented with curiously carved
+beams of cedar and oak. The residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as
+the churches, and the abundant relies of the more ancient Indian
+inhabitants gave the charm of a double antiquity to the place.
+
+From Santa F� as a centre General Kearney sent out expeditions to put down
+all reported risings through the province, one of the most important of
+these being to the country of the warlike Navajo Indians, who had just
+made a raid on New Mexico, driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many
+captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs to the officers of the
+expedition is interesting.
+
+"Americans, you have a strange cause of war against the Navajos," he said.
+"We have waged war against the New Mexicans for several years. You now
+turn upon us for attempting to do what you have done yourselves. We cannot
+see why you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the New Mexicans in
+the West, while you do the same thing in the East. We have no more right
+to complain of you for interfering in our war than you have to quarrel
+with us for continuing a war we had begun long before you got here. If you
+will act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences."
+
+The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let the New Mexicans alone, as
+American citizens, and the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly
+conclude the story of Kearney's expedition, which was but half done when
+Santa F� was reached. He was to continue his march to California, and set
+out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on a journey as long and
+difficult as that he had already made. He reached the Californian soil
+only to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished the work set for
+him, and a little more fighting added the great province of California to
+the American conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied and
+conquered a vast section of northern Mexico and added some of its richest
+possessions to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+
+
+The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the Aztecs and their Spanish
+successors, has been the scene of two great military events, its siege and
+capture by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture by the American
+army under General Scott in 1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of
+the remarkable career of Cortez we have given the most striking incident,
+the story of the thrilling _Noche triste_ and the victory of Otumba. A
+series of interesting tales might have been told of the siege that
+followed, but we prefer to leave that period of medi�val cruelty and
+injustice and come down to the events of a more civilized age.
+
+One of the most striking scenes in the campaign of 1847 was the taking of
+the fortified hill of Chapultepec, but before describing this we may
+briefly outline the events of which it formed the dramatic culmination.
+Vera Cruz, "the city of the True Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was
+the scene of the American landing, and was captured by the army under
+General Scott in March, 1847. Then, marching inland as Cortez had done
+more than three centuries before, the American army, about twelve thousand
+strong, soon began to ascend the mountain-slope leading from the torrid
+sea-level plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm.
+
+Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces came to the mountain-pass
+of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the
+invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men. The heights overhanging
+the road bristled with guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was
+strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable to an attack
+from the direction of Vera Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the
+lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took the wiser plan of
+cutting a new road along the mountain-slopes and through ravines out of
+sight of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican rear. An uphill
+charge from this point gave the Americans command of all the minor hills,
+leaving to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo, with its
+intrenchments and the strong fortress on its summit.
+
+On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred feet in rugged height, was
+assailed in front and rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep
+rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one barricade after another,
+and at length sweeping over the ramparts of the summit fortress and
+driving the defenders from their stronghold down the mountain-side. Santa
+Anna took with him only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving
+three thousand as prisoners in the American hands, with forty-three pieces
+of bronze artillery and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a month
+afterwards Scott's army marched into the city of Puebla, on the
+table-land, sixty-eight miles from the capital. Here they rested for
+several months, awaiting reinforcements.
+
+On August 7 the army resumed its march, now less than eleven thousand
+strong, the term of several regiments having expired and their places been
+partly filled by untried men, none of whom had ever fired a gun in war. On
+they went, up-hill still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula
+with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through a mountain region till
+Rio Frio was reached, fifty miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand
+feet above the level of the sea.
+
+A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of Mexico lay suddenly
+revealed before them like a vision of enchantment. It was a scene of
+verdant charm, the bright green of the fields and groves diversified with
+the white walls of villages and farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams,
+and the gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond and around a wall
+of wooded mountains ascended to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer
+charm that had not been gazed upon by an invading army since the days when
+Cortez and his men looked down upon it with warm delight.
+
+The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco, with the long, narrow lake
+of Xochimilco near it, and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near the
+western shore of which the city of Mexico was visible. Between Chalco and
+Tezcuco ran the national road, for much of its length a narrow causeway
+between borders of marsh-land. Near Lake Xochimilco was visible the
+Acapulco road. Strong works of defence commanded both these highways.
+
+              [Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.]
+
+                      ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+
+
+Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of approach, the national road
+being commanded by the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Pe�on,
+precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes and a deep ditch on the
+other. The Acapulco road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses at
+Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more available than the other route.
+Still farther north and west of the capital was a third approach to it
+over the road to Toluco, defended by works at Molino del Rey and by the
+fortified hill of Chapultepec. It was evident that the army under Scott
+would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting before the city could
+be reached.
+
+It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements by which this
+work was accomplished. It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of
+Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached by a road leading to
+its rear during the night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen minutes
+sufficing for the important victory. The garrison fled in dismay, after
+losing heavily.
+
+An advance was made the same day on the nearby Mexican works at San
+Antonio and Churubusco, and with the same result. The garrison at San
+Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American movement, evacuated the
+works and retired upon Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired
+by success, carried all before them, taking the works at the bridge of
+Churubusco by an impetuous charge and soon putting the enemy to flight.
+Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the Mexican reserve, consisting of
+four thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry, whose line was broken
+by a bayonet charge.
+
+The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised movements, forced back
+in terrible confusion, and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives
+were cut down by the pursuing Americans, who followed to the immediate
+defences of the capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy fire of
+grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans, nine thousand strong, had
+captured three strong positions, held by three times their number, the
+Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners over six thousand men,
+while the American loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand.
+
+Negotiations for peace followed, but they came to nothing, the armistice
+that had been declared terminating on the 7th of September. The problem
+that now lay before General Scott was a very different one from that which
+Cortez had faced in his siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on
+an island in the centre of a large lake, which was crossed by a number of
+causeways, broken at intervals by canals whose bridges could be removed.
+
+During the centuries that succeeded this lake had disappeared, low, marshy
+lands occupying its site. The city, however, was still reached by
+causeways, eight in number, raised about six feet above the marsh level.
+In these ended the five main roads leading to the city. A large canal
+surrounded the capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all now
+filled with water, as this was the rainy season. The problem of bridging
+these under fire was one of the difficulties that confronted the
+Americans.
+
+General Scott decided to approach the city by the causeways of San Cosm�,
+Belen, and Tacubaya, which were defended by formidable works, the
+outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified position at the foot of
+a slope beyond which a grove of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec.
+It consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of which had been used
+as a foundry, but which were now converted into fortresses. This place was
+carried by storm in the early morning of September 8, and the stronger
+position of Casa de Mata, a quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was
+captured by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec now lay
+between the Americans and the Mexican capital.
+
+The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the places just taken were in the
+nature of outworks, remained to be captured before the city could be
+reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated rocky hill, about
+one hundred and fifty feet in height, and was surmounted by a large stone
+building which had been used as the bishop's palace, but was now converted
+into a strong fortress. It was well prepared for defence in guns and
+garrison, and was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of the
+capital. The western side was the most accessible, but the face of this,
+above the grove of cypresses which covered its base, presented a steep,
+rocky, and difficult ascent.
+
+To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon another section of the city
+was made on the 12th of September. The two divisions engaged in this
+returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec, though a force still
+threatened the southern causeways. Four batteries had been posted within
+easy range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night of the 11th, and
+all next day they kept up a steady fire upon it, driving its defenders
+back and partly wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th the
+batteries resumed their fire, while the forces chosen for the assault
+approached the hill from different directions through the fire of the
+enemy.
+
+Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty picked men each, from
+Worth's and Twigg's divisions, advanced with scaling ladders, while the
+batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to drive the defenders
+from the walls. Major-General Pillow led his division through the grove on
+the east side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound, and General
+Cadwalader succeeded him. Before him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a
+redoubt midway in its height. Up the steep rocks climbed the gallant
+stormers, broke into the redoubt with a wild cheer, and put its defenders
+to flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing without injury the
+mines which the Mexicans had planted, but which they could not fire
+without killing their own men. In a few minutes more the storming party
+reached the summit and climbed over the castle wall with shouts of
+victory, driving back its defenders. Soon the United States flag was seen
+floating over the ramparts, a roar of cheers greeting the inspiring
+spectacle.
+
+On the southeast Quitman's column of assault was making like progress,
+while Smith's brigade captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on
+the right, and Shield's brigade crossed the meadows under a hot fire of
+musketry and artillery and swept up the hill to the support of the
+stormers.
+
+Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and strongest citadel of the
+Mexicans, had fallen before an impetuous charge up a hill deemed
+inaccessible, in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at the
+mercy of the invaders. The causeway which it defended formed a double
+roadway on each side of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars.
+Shields charged impetuously along this causeway, towards the city, two
+miles distant, while Quitman pursued the fleeing enemy along the
+neighboring causeway of Belen.
+
+An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields to bid him halt till
+Worth, who was following the San Cosm� causeway, could force its defences.
+The aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general and began,
+"General Scott presents his compliments
+
+"I have no time for compliments just now," roared out Shields, and spurred
+briskly onward to escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were coming.
+Soon he had led his men into the suburbs of the city, while Worth and
+Quitman charged inward over the neighboring causeways with equal
+impetuosity.
+
+A strong force was quickly within the streets of the city, assailed by
+skirmishers firing from houses and gardens, who could be reached only by
+forcing a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were brought in by
+Worth's column and planted in position to batter down the San Cosm� gate,
+the barrier to the great square in the city's centre, and which fronted
+the cathedral and palace. Quitman and Shields had to fight their way
+through as hot a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves before
+the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this point a severe loss was
+sustained, but the assailants held their own, mounting guns to attack the
+citadel the next morning.
+
+These guns were not used. Before daylight a deputation of the city council
+waited on General Scott and announced that the army had evacuated the
+city, and the government officials had fled. It was not long afterwards
+before the Stars and Stripes were floating over the National Palace and in
+the great plaza.
+
+Fighting continued for a day longer between the Americans and about four
+thousand soldiers and liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury
+for their country and were not put down without considerable loss. On the
+morning of September 16 the army of the United States held undisputed
+possession of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting continued,
+however, elsewhere for some months later, and it was not till the 2d of
+February, 1848, that a treaty of peace was signed.
+
+
+
+
+
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+
+
+On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring band of reckless
+adventurers sailed from San Francisco, on an enterprise seemingly madder
+and wilder than that which Cortez had undertaken more than three centuries
+before. The purpose of this handful of men--filibusters they were called,
+as lawless in their way as the buccaneers of old--was the conquest of
+Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all Mexico and Central America.
+No one knows what wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their
+leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his admirers called him.
+
+Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner of the Gulf of California,
+with his few companions, he captured a number of hamlets and then
+grandiloquently proclaimed Lower California an independent state and
+himself its president. His next proclamation "annexed" to his territory
+the large Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite the California
+Gulf, and for a brief period he posed among the sparse inhabitants as a
+ruler. Some reinforcements reached him by water, but another party that
+started overland was dispersed by starvation, their food giving out.
+
+Walker now set out with his buccaneering band on a long march of six
+hundred miles through a barren and unpeopled country towards his
+"possessions" in the interior. The Mexicans did not need any forces to
+defeat him. Fatigue and famine did the work for them, desertion decimated
+the band of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula ended at San
+Diego, where he and his men surrendered to the United States authorities.
+Walker was tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the neutrality
+laws, but was acquitted.
+
+This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted Walker's filibustering
+appetite. Looking about for "new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising
+field in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions. Invited by certain
+American speculators or adventurers to lend his aid to the democratic
+party of insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected a
+band of men of his own type and set sail for this new field of labor and
+ambition. On the 11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force of
+sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan coast, and was joined there by
+about a hundred of the native rebels.
+
+Making his way inland, his first encounter with the government forces took
+place at Rivas, where he met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His
+native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans fought with such
+valor and energy that the enemy were defeated with a loss of one-third
+their number, his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at Virgin Bay
+he was equally successful, and on the 15th of October he captured the
+important city of Granada.
+
+These few successes gave him such prestige and brought such aid from the
+revolutionists that the opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on
+the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its leader, which made him
+fairly master of the country. He declined the office of president, which
+was offered him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic, an
+office better suited to maintain his position. His rapid success brought
+him not only the support of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits
+from the United States, who made their way into the country from the east
+and the west alike until he had a force of twelve hundred Americans under
+his command.
+
+General Corral, who had treated with him for peace, was soon to pay the
+penalty for his readiness to make terms with an invader. He was arrested
+for treason, on some charge brought by Walker, tried before a
+court-martial at which the new generalissimo presided, sentenced to death,
+and executed without delay.
+
+The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism was a war with the
+neighboring republic of Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a
+hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March 20, 1856, in which
+Walker was worsted. He kept the field, however, and met the foe again at
+Rivas, on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the two republics now
+made peace.
+
+His military success seemed to have made the invader securely the lord and
+master of Nicaragua, and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty
+and had himself elected president on June 25. He had so fully established
+himself that he was recognized as head of the republic by President
+Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he immediately began to act
+the master and tyrant in a way that was likely to bring his government to
+a speedy end.
+
+Money being scarce, he issued currency on a liberal scale, and by a decree
+he restored the system of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two
+years before. Not content with these radical measures within the republic
+itself, he was unwise enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in the
+United States by meddling with the privileges of the Vanderbilt Steamship
+Company, then engaged in transporting the stream of gold-hunters to
+California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker revoked their charter and
+confiscated their property, thus bringing against his new government a
+fire in the rear.
+
+His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies on all sides, the Central
+American states bordering on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their
+ambitious neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company worked
+industriously to stir up a revolt against this soaring eagle of
+filibusterism.
+
+The result was a strong revolt against his rule, and he soon found himself
+confronted by a force of patriots in the field. For a short time there
+were busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being fought by the
+contending forces, the war ending with the burning of Granada by the
+president. Finding that the whole country was rising against him and that
+his case had grown desperate, Walker soon gave up the hopeless contest and
+surrendered, on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the United States
+sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took him to Panama, where he made his way
+back to the United States.
+
+Thus closed the conquering career of this minor Cortez of the nineteenth
+century. But while Walker the president was no more, Walker the filibuster
+was not squelched. The passion for adventure was as strong in his mind as
+ever, and his brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable
+thirst for rule. In consequence he made effort after effort to get back to
+the scene of his exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent thirst
+for invasion giving the United States authorities no small trouble and
+ending only with his death.
+
+In fact, he was barely at home before he was hatching new schemes and
+devising fresh exploits. To check a new expedition which he was organizing
+in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had him arrested and put
+under bonds to keep the peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their
+jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile, yet making port
+first in Central America, where he landed on November 25, 1857.
+
+This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the pan. No support awaited
+him and his deluded followers, and in two weeks' time he found it
+judicious to surrender once more to the naval authorities of the United
+States; this time to Commodore Paulding, who took him to New York with his
+followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number.
+
+His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the United States.
+President Buchanan had strongly condemned the invasion of friendly
+territory in his annual message, but he now sent a special message to
+Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore Paulding for landing an
+American force on foreign soil. He decided that under the circumstances,
+the government must decline to hold Walker as a prisoner, unless he was
+properly arrested under judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan
+strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions.
+
+The result of this was that Walker was again set free, and it was not long
+before he had a new following, there being many of the adventurous class
+who sympathized warmly with his enterprising efforts. This was especially
+the case in the South. Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old
+enthusiasm, he soon organized another company, which sought to leave the
+country in October, 1858. He was closely watched, however, and the whole
+company was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi on the steamer on
+which passage had been taken.
+
+President Buchanan had issued a proclamation forbidding all such
+expeditions, and Walker was now put on trial before the United States
+Court at New Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack satisfactory
+evidence, and he was acquitted.
+
+Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied himself in writing
+an account of his exploits, in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But
+this was far too tame work for one of his stirring disposition, and in
+June, 1860, he was off again, this time making Honduras the scene of his
+invading energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized that town and
+held it for eight weeks, at the end of which time he was ordered to leave
+the place by the captain of a British man-of-war. The president of
+Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive force. Walker marched
+south, but his force was too small to cope with the president's army, and
+he had not gone far before he found himself a captive in the hands of the
+Honduran government. Central America had by this time more than enough of
+William Walker and his methods, and five days after his capture he was
+condemned to death and shot at Truxillo.
+
+Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of the chief of filibusters, the
+most persistent of modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless
+exploits were of the medi�val rather than of the modern type. A short,
+slender, not especially demonstrative man, Walker did not seem made for a
+hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking feature was his keen
+gray eyes, which brought him the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny."
+
+
+
+
+
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+
+
+It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and submission of the
+Indians in Mexico, that the final blow for freedom in that country should
+have been made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name was Benito
+Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was against the French invaders and
+Maximilian, the puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the Mexican
+throne. In the words of Shakespeare, "Thereby hangs a tale."
+
+For many years after the Spanish colonies had won their independence the
+nations of Europe looked upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly
+have liked to snap up some of these weak countries, which Spain had been
+unable to hold, but the great republic of the United States stood as their
+protector, and none of them felt it quite safe to step over that
+threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe Doctrine." "Hands off," said
+Uncle Sam, and they obeyed, though much against their will.
+
+In 1861 began a war in the United States which gave the people of that
+country all they wanted to do. Here was the chance for Europe, and
+Napoleon III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to send an army
+to Mexico and attempt the conquest of that country. It was the overweening
+ambition of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his scheme to found an
+empire in Mexico which, while having the name of being independent, would
+be under the control of France and would shed glory on his reign.
+
+At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian we have named, was Benito
+Juarez, a descendant of the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood
+of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family was of the lowest class of
+the Indians, and when he was twelve years old he did not know how to read
+or write. After that he obtained a chance for education, and in time
+became a lawyer, was made governor of his native state, and kept on
+climbing upward till he became secretary of state, president of the
+Supreme Court, and finally president of Mexico.
+
+He was the man who had the invaders of his country to fight, and he fought
+them well and long. But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no match
+for the trained troops of France, and they were driven back step by step
+until the invaders were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet Juarez
+still had a capital and a government at San Luis Potosi, and all loyal
+Mexicans still looked on him as their president.
+
+When Napoleon III. found himself master of Mexico, he looked around for a
+man who would serve him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he found
+in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother of the emperor of Austria, a
+dreamer rather than a man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine
+right of kings." This was the kind of man that the French usurper was in
+want of, and he offered him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian
+was taken by surprise. The proposition was a startling one. But in the end
+ambition overcame judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous
+position on the condition that France should sustain him on the throne.
+
+            [Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.]
+
+                    HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was for the time at an end, and
+the French had almost everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor
+and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera Cruz and made their way to the
+city of Mexico. This they entered with great show and ceremony and amid
+the cheers of many of the lookers on, though the mass of the people, who
+had no love for emperors, kept away or held their peace.
+
+The new empire began with imperial display. All the higher society of
+Mexico were at the feet of the new monarchs. With French money to pay
+their way and a French army to protect them, there was nothing for
+Maximilian and Carlotta to do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their
+new dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec, two hundred feet
+above the valley, stood the old palace which had been ruined by the
+American guns when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by Maximilian on
+a grand scale, hanging gardens were constructed and walled in by galleries
+with marble columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe, and here
+the new emperor and empress held their court, with a brilliant succession
+of f�tes, dinners, dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and gayety,
+and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of proud and royal reign.
+
+But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had reached Mexico in June, 1864.
+For a year longer the civil war in the great republic of the north
+continued; then it came to an end, and the government of the United States
+was free to take a hand in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near
+neighbor to the south.
+
+It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon, it was like the
+rumble of an earthquake under the throne of Maximilian, when from
+Washington came a diplomatic demand which, translated into plain English,
+meant, you had better make haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they
+stay there, you will have the United States to deal with. It hurt Louis
+Napoleon's pride. He shifted and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of
+the great republic was on the throat of his new empire, and there was
+nothing for him to do but obey. He knew very well that if he resisted, the
+armies of the civil war would make very short work of his forces in
+Mexico.
+
+Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his dream of an empire and
+leave the country with the French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times,
+but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could hold his throne with
+the aid of the loyal Mexicans. Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe
+and appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very plainly what she
+thought of his actions; but it was all of no avail, and she left the
+palace almost broken-hearted. Soon after Maximilian received the
+distressing news that his wife had lost her reason through grief, and was
+quite insane. At once he made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out
+for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed his mind again and
+concluded to remain.
+
+At the end of January, 1867, the French army, which had held on until
+then, with one excuse after another, left the capital city, which it had
+occupied for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore at Vera
+Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon were broken up as useless, horses sold
+for a song, and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian and Austrian
+troops which the new emperor had brought with him going with the French.
+Maximilian did not want them; he preferred to trust himself to the loyal
+arms of his Mexican subjects, hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the
+United States, it had no more to say; it was content to leave this shadow
+of an empire to its _loyal_ Mexicans.
+
+It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the right course to make
+himself beloved by the Mexicans. Full of his obsolete notion of the
+"divine right of kings," a year after he had reached Mexico he issued a
+decree saying that all who clung to the republic or resisted his authority
+should be shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many decrees, for a
+number of prisoners were shot under its cruel mandate, one of them being
+General Orteaga. It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to order
+that the whole laboring population of the country should be reduced to
+slavery.
+
+While all this was going on President Juarez was not idle. During the
+whole French occupation he had kept in arms, and now began his advance
+from his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo, chief of his
+armies, soon conquered the northern part of the country, and occupied the
+various states and cities as soon as they were left by the French.
+
+But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the Church party had finally
+induced him to remain, and this party now came to his aid. General
+Miramon, an able leader, commanded his army, which was recruited to the
+strength of eight thousand men, most of them trained soldiers, though
+nearly half of them were raw recruits.
+
+With this force Maximilian advanced to Quer�taro and made it his
+head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his
+residence there with his government about him. But the president and
+cabinet came very near being taken captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon
+suddenly advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez and his
+government barely escaping.
+
+What would have been the result if the whole Mexican government had been
+taken prisoners it is not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General
+Escobedo would have done what he now did, which was to advance on
+Quer�taro and invest it with his army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was
+limited to this one town, where it was besieged by an army of Mexican
+patriots, while, with the exception of a few cities, the whole country
+outside was free from imperial rule.
+
+Soon the emperor and his army found themselves closely confined within the
+walls of Quer�taro. Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both
+sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions grew scarce and
+foraging parties were sent out, but after each attack the lines of the
+besiegers became closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of forces
+and funds, and General Marquez was sent to the city of Mexico to obtain
+them. He managed to get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to
+return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian of the promised aid. Such
+forces and funds as Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz,
+who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and took Pueblo, and then
+turned on Marquez, whom he defeated so completely that he made his way
+back to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night. It was the glory
+gained by this act that later raised Diaz to the presidency, which he held
+so brilliantly for so many years.
+
+The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a shadow. For two months the
+siege of Quer�taro continued, steadily growing closer. During this trying
+time Maximilian showed the best elements of his character. He was gentle
+and cheerful in demeanor, and brave in action, not hesitating to expose
+himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made for his escape, that he
+might put himself at the head of his troops elsewhere, but he refused,
+through a sense of honor, to desert his brave companions.
+
+Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian himself had only the coarse,
+tough food which was served to the common soldiers. Day after day Marquez
+was looked for with the promised aid, but night after night brought only
+disappointment. At length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in
+charge of the most important point in the city, turned traitor and
+admitted two battalions of the enemy. From this point the assailants
+swarmed into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere prevailed.
+Lopez had not intended that the emperor should be captured, and gave him
+warning in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and reached a little
+hill outside the town, but here he was surrounded by foes and forced to
+deliver up his sword.
+
+Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full master of Mexico, and
+held its late emperor in his hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon
+his word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but always at the last
+moment he failed to avail himself of them. His friends sought to win for
+him the clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible. The traitors,
+as he called them, should be tried by court-martial, he said and abide the
+decision of the court.
+
+Tried they were, though the trial was little more than a farce, with the
+verdict fixed in advance. This verdict was death. The condemned, in
+addition to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command, Miramon and Medjia.
+The late emperor rose early on the fatal morning and heard mass. He
+embraced his fellow victims, and as he reached the street said, "What a
+beautiful day! On such a one I have always wished to die."
+
+He was greeted with respect by the people in the street, the women
+weeping. He responded with a brief address, closing with the words, "May
+my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country, and if more
+should be shed, may it flow for its good, and not by treason. Viva
+Independencia! Viva Mexico!"
+
+In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired, and the empire of
+Maximilian was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+
+
+On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of Havana, the capital of Cuba,
+were startled by a report that rebels were in the field, a band of
+twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in the province of
+Matanzas. Other small bands were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A
+trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba was guarded by twenty
+thousand Spanish troops and had on its military rolls the names of sixty
+thousand volunteers. But the island was seething with discontent, and
+trifles grow fast under such circumstances. Twenty years before a great
+rebellion had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in 1878, but Spain had
+ignored the promises of the treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new
+flame which had now burst out.
+
+As the days and weeks went on the movement grew, many of the plantation
+hands joining the insurgents until there were several thousand men in
+arms. For a time these had it all their own way, raiding and plundering
+the plantations of the loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and
+mountains when the troops appeared.
+
+The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque old affairs of
+battles and banners, marches and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp
+and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes, sudden attacks, quick
+retreats, and brisk affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of the
+conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing over the armed and
+trained troops of Spain, but they hoped to wear them out and make the war
+so costly to Spain that she would in the end give up the island in
+despair.
+
+The work of the Cuban patriots was like the famous deeds of Marion and his
+men in the swampy region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba were
+uncultivated and half its area was covered with thickets and forests. In
+the wet season the low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps of
+sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests, so thick and dense as to
+be almost impassable. The high bushes and thick grasses of the plains
+formed a jungle which could be traversed only with the aid of the machete,
+the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and
+sword, now cutting his way through bush and jungle, now slicing off the
+head of an enemy in war.
+
+Everywhere in the island there are woods, there are hills and mountains,
+there are growths of lofty grass, affording countless recesses and refuges
+for fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To retire to the "long
+grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning, to gain safety from pursuit, and a
+patriot force might lie unseen and unheard while an army marched by. In
+brief, Cuba is a paradise for the bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain
+were none too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where the flame of
+death might suddenly burst forth from the most innocent-looking woodland
+retreat or grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for days for a foe
+who could not be found, and as for starving out the rebels, that was no
+easy thing to do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet potato, the
+wild fruits of the woodland, which the fertile soil bore abundantly, while
+the country-people were always ready to supply their brothers in the
+field.
+
+Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion of 1895. For a time
+the rebels gathered in small bands with none but local leaders. But the
+outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives from the former war,
+and early in April twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica,
+landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of the island.
+
+Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo, a mulatto, who had won a
+high reputation for his daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had
+unbounded influence over the negro element of the rebellion. Wherever
+Maceo was ready to lead, they were ready to follow to the death if he gave
+the word, and he soon proved himself the most daring and successful
+soldier in the war.
+
+He did not make his way inland with safety. Spanish cavalry were
+patrolling the coast to prevent landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a
+brisk fight with a party of these soon after landing, he getting away with
+a bullet-hole through his hat. For ten days they were in imminent danger,
+now fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland fruits for food,
+and so pestered by the Spanish patrols that the party was forced to break
+up, only two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end these fell in with
+a party of rebels, from whom they received a warm and enthusiastic
+welcome.
+
+Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one of the leaders in the
+former war who had refused to sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the
+fight for two months longer, and finally escaped from the country, now to
+return without the load of a broken promise on his conscience.
+
+The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large following of insurgents
+at his back, and in several sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he
+could more than hold his own. Other patriots soon arrived from exile,--Jos�
+Marti, the fomenter of the insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier;
+and several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the rebels. The
+movement, which had as yet been a mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming
+the dimensions of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining the ranks of
+these able leaders, until more than six thousand men were in the field.
+
+Almost everywhere that they met their enemy they were largely outnumbered,
+and they fought mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least
+expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such hidden paths that pursuit
+was usually idle. Much of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks
+or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which art they were far
+superior to the Spanish cavalry. Many stories are told of women who rode
+in their ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully as the
+men, and in this there is doubtless much truth. Their horses were no show
+animals, but a sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there being
+no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain or shine, but as tough and
+tireless beasts as our own bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders
+in mad dashes on the foe.
+
+The favorite mode of fighting practised by the insurgents was to surprise
+the enemy by a sharp skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick
+off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity, they would dash
+from their covert in a wild cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling
+like so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the ranks of the foe. This
+was the kind of fighting in which Maceo excelled.
+
+Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes and only one affair
+that could be called a battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader,
+while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba, a man looked upon as the
+ablest general of Spain, led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great
+annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the fortified town of
+Bayamo, and Campos determined to drive him from the field. Several columns
+of Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from different quarters, one
+of these, fifteen hundred strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of
+July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three thousand men, being
+posted on a stock-farm several miles from Bayamo.
+
+The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards, intended to strike
+the division under Campos; but by an error it fell upon the advance guard,
+led by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a brisk fire from the
+wooded hill-sides. Santocildes fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from
+the governor-general's boot.
+
+Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the Spanish ranks that some
+important officer had fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in a
+vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded in repelling them, he
+felt himself in a critical situation, and hastily drew up his whole force
+into a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead horses and mules for
+breastworks. Around this strong formation the Cubans raged for several
+hours, only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous rout. An
+assault was made on the rear guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to
+capture the ammunition train. But its defenders held their ground
+vigorously, and fought their way to the main column, where they aided to
+form the square. Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo,
+pursued by the Cubans and having lost heavily in the fight. They were
+saved from utter destruction by Maceo's lack of artillery, and Campos was
+very careful afterwards not to venture near this daring leader without a
+powerful force.
+
+Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in the earlier war, had now
+been appointed commander-in-chief of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo
+as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way westward into the province
+of Santa Clara, and in November Maceo left the eastern province of
+Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the trocha, the famous device
+of the Spaniards to prevent the free movement of the Cuban forces. It may
+be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare, devised by the
+Spaniards to check the free movement of their rebel foes.
+
+The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish trochas were military lines
+cut through the woods and across the island from side to side, and
+defended by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees were piled along
+both sides of the roadway, making a difficult breastwork of jagged roots
+and branches. At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this
+well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison of about one hundred
+men, it needing about fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the
+trocha from sea to sea.
+
+Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos, and by Weyler after him,
+to check the Cuban movements. We need only say here that, despite its cost
+and the number of men it tied up on guard duty, the trocha failed to
+restrain the alert islanders. Gomez had crossed it in his movement
+westward, and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He made a feint of
+an attack in force on one part of the line, and when the Spaniards had
+concentrated to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected spot,
+without firing a shot or losing a man.
+
+Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas and Spaniards. From
+Santa Clara they entered Matanzas province, and from this made their way
+into the province of Havana, bringing the war almost to the gates of the
+capital. Spain had now sent more than one hundred thousand troops across
+the ocean, though many of these were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans,
+the island had now risen almost from end to end, and their force was
+estimated at from thirty to fifty thousand men. It was no longer a rebel
+outbreak that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war.
+
+By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly fixed in Havana province,
+many negro field-hands and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They
+fought not only against the Spaniards, but against the bandits also, of
+whom there were many abroad plundering from both sides alike. These were
+hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo was the active fighter of
+the force, Gomez being occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and
+destroying railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of war.
+
+In January, 1896, a new movement westward was made, Maceo leading his men
+into the province of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end of the
+island. Here was the great tobacco district, one into which insurrection
+had never before made its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the
+island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure nowhere but within the
+cities, while the insurgents moved wherever they chose in the country. The
+sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by day and lurid with the
+flames of burning fields at night, showing that Gomez was busy with his
+work of destruction, burning the crops of every planter who sought to
+grind his cane.
+
+Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader through the remainder of his
+career. General Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his official
+life with the boast that he would soon clear the provinces near Havana of
+rebels in arms. But he was hardly in the governor's chair when Maceo was
+back from the west and swooping down on the city of Jaruco, which he
+looted and burned.
+
+Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where they found no one to oppose
+them, and he was soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that this
+province was pacified. But the ink was barely dry upon it when Maceo,
+having burnt the port of Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the
+"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters in the mountains and
+defied all the power of Spain.
+
+Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted to confine him by
+building a new trocha, cutting off that end of the island. This took two
+months to complete, during which Maceo continued his work almost
+unopposed, destroying the tobacco of loyalists, defeating every force sent
+against him, and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the
+southern part of the province.
+
+Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the field, marching into Pinar del
+Rio at the head of thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an end to
+the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt sure he had hemmed in with
+his trocha. Between the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province was
+sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting a large force that
+Maceo was obliged to dismiss the most of his men.
+
+Leaving the slender remnant under the control of one of his lieutenants,
+he once more passed the trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat
+and landing in Havana province. He had sent orders in advance for a
+concentration of the Cuban forces in this region, that he might give
+Weyler a new employment.
+
+The daring partisan leader was near the end of his career, brought to his
+death by the work of a traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for
+the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men with him, was fired on
+from a Spanish ambush, and fell, mortally wounded.
+
+Thus died the most dashing soldier that the Cuban rebellion called into
+the field. Dr. Zertucha, of his staff, was charged with treachery in
+leading him into this ambush, though that is by no means proved. Maceo was
+one of nine brothers, all soldiers, and all of whom had now died in the
+great struggle for Cuban independence. His body was recovered from the
+enemy after a desperate fight; his valiant spirit was lost to the cause.
+Yet his work had not been without avail, and the country for which he had
+fought so bravely was left by him on the highroad to liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+About three o'clock of a dark morning, whose deep gloom shrouded alike the
+shores and waters of Cuba's tropic isle, a large craft left the side of
+the "New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson's fleet off Santiago, and
+glided towards the throat of the narrow channel leading to its land-locked
+harbor. This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier named the
+"Merrimac." On board were Richmond P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor,
+and seven volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the old hulk in the
+channel and thus to seal up the Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact
+that there were ten chances to one that they would go to the bottom with
+their craft, or be riddled with Spanish bullets, did not trouble their
+daring souls. Their country called, and they obeyed.
+
+Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks, was a series of
+torpedoes, prepared to blow the vessel into a hopeless wreck when the
+proper moment came. A heavy weight in coal had been left on board, to
+carry her rapidly to the bottom, and there was strong hope that she could
+be dropped in the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle," and
+"bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers. That it was an errand of
+imminent risk did not trouble the bold American tars. There were
+volunteers enough eager to undertake the perilous task to form a ship's
+crew, and to the six seamen chosen Coxswain Clausen added himself as a
+stowaway. The love of adventure was stronger than fear of death or
+captivity.
+
+It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the night before an attempt to
+go in had been made, but the hour was so late that the admiral called the
+vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and there was no hinderance to
+the adventurous voyage. Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac" glided
+in towards the dark line of coast. Not a light was shown, and great skill
+was needed to strike the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From the
+"New York" eager eyes watched the collier until its outlines were lost
+beneath the shadow of the hills. Eyes continued to peer into the darkness
+and ears to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the nerves of
+the watching crew. Then came a booming roar from Morro Castle and the
+flash of a cannon lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and
+booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes there seemed a battle
+going on in the darkness. The "Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting
+her doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men?
+
+Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with a steam launch and four
+men, prepared to pick up any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went
+daringly under the batteries and hung about until daylight revealed his
+small craft, but not a man was seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned
+disappointed at 6.15 A.M., pestered by spiteful shots from the Spanish
+guns. He had followed the "Merrimac" until the low-lying smoke from the
+roaring guns hid her from view. Then came the explosion of the torpedoes.
+Hobson had done his work. Powell kept under the shelter of the cliffs
+until full day had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of the
+"Merrimac" rising out of the water of the channel. The sinking had been
+accomplished, but no one could say with what result to Hobson and his men.
+
+Let us now leave the distant spectators and go on board the "Merrimac,"
+seeking the company of her devoted crew. It was Hobson's purpose to sink
+her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping the anchor and handling
+the rudder so as to turn her across the stream. Her length was sufficient
+to close up completely the deeper channel. He would stop the engines, let
+fall the anchor, open the traps made for the sea-water to flow in, and
+explode the torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the ship, each
+containing eighty-two pounds of powder, and they were connected so that
+they could be fired in train. There were two men below, one to reverse the
+engines, the other to break open the sea-traps with a sledge hammer. Those
+on deck were to let fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson would
+touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes, and all would leap
+overboard and swim to the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to
+escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it so often does, set them
+sadly astray.
+
+On through the darkness they went, hitting the channel squarely, and
+steaming in under the frowning walls of the Morro through gloom and
+death-like silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A small picket-boat
+came gliding out under the collier's stern and fired several shots at the
+suspicious craft. One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled one
+important item of the plans. The dingy, which was trusted to for escape,
+disappeared, perhaps hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having
+done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and gave the alarm, and
+quickly the shore batteries were firing on the dark hull. The ships in the
+harbor echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards were alert. They
+thought that an American battle-ship was trying to force its way in,
+perhaps with the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give it a hard
+fight.
+
+Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove on, unhurt by the
+bombardment, and even by a submarine mine which exploded near her stern.
+The darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to hit, and she
+reached the desired spot, in the narrowest spot of the channel, none the
+worse for the shower of iron hail.
+
+So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment had arrived. Hobson gave
+the signal fixed upon, and the men below reversed the engine and opened
+the sea connections. They then dashed for the deck. Those above dropped
+the anchor and set the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter
+disappointment, discover that the rudder had been lost. The ship refused
+to answer her helm, and the plan of setting her lengthwise across the
+channel failed. The final task remained. Touching the electric button, the
+torpedoes went off with a sullen roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath
+their feet. The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail. The others
+leaped into the sea. Down went the "Merrimac" with a surge at the bow,
+cheers from the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank. The gunners
+thought they had sent to the depths one of the hostile men-of-war.
+
+At the last moment of leaving the "New York" an old catamaran had been
+thrown on the "Merrimac's" deck, as a possible aid to the crew in
+extremity. This float lay on the roof of the midship house, a rope
+fastening it to the taffrail, with enough slack to let it float loose
+after the ship had sunk. It was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it
+afforded them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy.
+
+We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself at this point in our
+narrative. He says, "I swam away from the ship as soon as I struck the
+water, but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward in spite of all I
+could do. This did not last very long, however, and as soon as I felt the
+tugging cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I could see
+dimly bobbing up and down over the sunken hull.
+
+"The 'Merrimac's' masts were plainly visible, and I could see the heads of
+my seven men as they followed my example and made for the float also. We
+had expected, of course, that the Spaniards would investigate the wreck,
+but we had no idea that they would be at it as quickly as they were.
+Before we could get to the float several row-boats and launches came
+around the bluff from inside the harbor. They had officers on board and
+armed marines as well, and they searched that passage, rowing backward and
+forward, until the next morning. It was only by good luck that we got to
+the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly that we had barely
+concealed ourselves when a boat with quite a large party on board was
+right beside us."
+
+An event which they thought unlucky now proved to be the salvation of the
+fugitives, who very likely would have been shot on the spot by the marines
+if they had then been seen from the boats. The rope which fastened the
+float to the ship was too short to let it swing free, and one of the
+pontoons that supported it was dragged partly under water, lifting the
+other above the surface. If the raft had lain flat on the water they would
+have had to climb on top and would have made an excellent mark for the
+marines. As it was they got under its lifted side, and by thrusting their
+hands through the slats that formed the deck they kept their heads above
+the water, and had a chance to breathe.
+
+Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention to the old, half-sunken
+raft that floated above the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the
+hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one seemed to suspect it.
+The fugitives spoke only in whispers and at times were almost afraid to
+breathe, lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place remained
+unsuspected.
+
+The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours went on, and their
+fingers ached as they clung desperately to the slats. As the night passed
+their teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed to them as if
+the Spaniards must hear the sound, so distinctly to their ears came the
+noises on the water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became at last
+so trying that one of the men let go and began to swim ashore. Hobson
+called him back, and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men in the
+boats and created some commotion. They rowed up towards the float and
+looked sharply about, but no one thought of investigating the float
+itself, and soon they went off into the shadows again, letting the hidden
+men once more breathe freely.
+
+The question that most interested the Spaniards was to learn what ship it
+was they had sunk. Hobson heard them talking and guessing about it and
+understood many of their words. He soon perceived that the officers had
+taken in the situation and were astonished at the boldness and audacity of
+the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the fleet, a fact to the
+lieutenant's satisfaction, as he felt more like trusting to the tender
+mercies of a Spanish sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him
+take up the narrative again.
+
+"When daylight came a steam-launch full of officers and marines came out
+from behind the cliff that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards
+us. All the men on board were looking curiously in our direction. They did
+not see us. Knowing that some one of rank must be on board, I waited till
+the launch was quite close and hailed her.
+
+"My voice produced the utmost consternation on board. Every one sprang up,
+the marines now crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were reversed.
+She not only stopped, but she backed off until nearly a quarter of a mile
+away, where she stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the word of
+command when we clambered out from under the float. There were ten of the
+marines, and they would have fired in a minute had they not been
+restrained.
+
+"I swam towards the launch, and then she started towards me. I called out
+in Spanish, 'Is there an officer on board?' An officer answered in the
+affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again, 'I have seven men to
+surrender.' I continued swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the
+water.
+
+"As I looked up when they were dragging me into the launch, I saw that it
+was Admiral Cervera himself who had hold of me. He looked at me rather
+dubiously at first, because I had been down in the engine-room of the
+'Merrimac,' where I got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and
+coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable. I had put on my officer's
+belt before sinking the 'Merrimac,' as a means of identification, no
+matter what happened to me, and when I pointed to it in the launch the
+admiral understood and seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me
+when he understood who I was were, '_Bienvenida sea usted_,' which means
+'You are welcome.' My treatment by the naval officers, and that of my men
+also, was courteous all the time I was a prisoner. They heard my story, as
+much of it as I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more.
+
+"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of them that night," was
+Hobson's reply to a question. "We saw a great many things, though, and
+went through a great many experiences. When we started out from the fleet
+I tied to my belt a flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my ship's
+surgeon. The frequency with which we all felt thirsty on the short run
+into the passage and the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe that
+I was frightened. The men felt the same, and all the way the flask went
+from hand to hand. Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened, but to
+my surprise I found it normal. Later we forgot all about it, and when we
+got into the water there was no need for the flask."
+
+The remainder of this stirring adventure must be told more briefly. The
+prisoners were taken ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle.
+Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as to their fate, but this
+was relieved by the generous conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his
+chief-of-staff out the next morning under a flag of truce to report their
+safety and to make an offer for their exchange. Cervera's message was
+highly complimentary. It ran:
+
+"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish fleet, is most profoundly
+impressed with the brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the steamer
+'Merrimac' in our harbor, and in admiration of their courage he has
+directed me to say to their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the
+exception of two of the men who were slightly hurt, they are uninjured.
+They are now prisoners of war and are being well cared for, and will be
+treated with every consideration."
+
+Cervera kept his word, though the captives found themselves in different
+hands later, when they were turned over to General Linares, commander of
+the troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity about five weeks, being
+exchanged on July 7, when a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were
+offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant seven. The story of their
+return to the American ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave eight
+passed up the trail leading to the American lines through the avenue of
+palms that bordered the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence,
+baring their heads as the band struck up "The Star-Spangled Banner." But
+as Hobson and his men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome broke the
+silence, while a cowboy yell came from the Rough Riders. Breaking from all
+restraint, the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of Hobson and his
+men. All the way to Siboney the cheers and excitement continued, and when
+Hobson set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew grew wild with
+enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson embraced him in the warmth of his
+greeting. As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up in the
+delirious delight of the men. Thus ended one of the most gallant deeds of
+that short war.
+
+It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had been managed, the
+effort to close the port proved a failure. Though the sunken ship closed
+part of the channel, there was room enough to pass beside her, this being
+strikingly proved on the morning of July 3, when the squadron which Hobson
+had sought to bottle up came steaming down the channel past the sunken
+"Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it started on a wild fight for
+freedom. The result of this venture does not need to be retold, and it
+must suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish ships were
+shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore, and Cervera and all who survived
+of his men were prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was as much
+of a hero as a captive, for his captors could not soon forget his generous
+treatment of Hobson and his men.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
+
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+
+
+
+  
+
+
+<div lang="en" class="tei tei-text" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em" xml:lang="en">
+  <div class="tei tei-front" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <div id="pgheader" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em">The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III by Charles Morris</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost
+          and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it,
+          give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project
+          Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this
+          eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
+</pre></div>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      
+    </div>
+
+    <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <div class="block tei tei-docTitle"><div class="block tei tei-titlePart" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III</span></div></div><div class="block tei tei-byline" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">by </span><span class="inline tei tei-docAuthor" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%">Charles Morris</span></span></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 5.76em; margin-top: 5.76em"><span class="tei tei-docEdition" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-edition" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">Edition 1</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 144%">, (</span><span class="tei tei-docDate" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-date" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">October 9, 2006</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 144%">)</span></div>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Philadelphia and London<br />
+      J. B. Lippincott Company</p>
+    </div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright, 1904, by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. B. Lippincott Company</span></span>.<br />
+Copyright, 1908, by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. B. Lippincott Company</span></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image01.png" width="640" height="438" alt="Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS." title="DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.</div></div>
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>
+</div>
+
+    <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Illustrations</span></h1>
+      <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-fig"><li><a href="#fig1">DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig4">A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig9">CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.</a></li><li><a href="#fig10">LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.</a></li><li><a href="#fig15">FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig18">AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig21">DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.</a></li><li><a href="#fig28">COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.</a></li><li><a href="#fig33">THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.</a></li><li><a href="#fig36">A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig39">THE CITY OF PANAMA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig46">INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.</a></li><li><a href="#fig51">SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.</a></li><li><a href="#fig54">BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.</a></li><li><a href="#fig63">RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.</a></li><li><a href="#fig66">INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.</a></li><li><a href="#fig69">THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig72">OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig75">ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.</a></li><li><a href="#fig80">HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.</a></li></ul>
+    </div>
+
+    <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>
+      <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc2">THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc16">THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc19">PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.</a></li><li><a href="#toc22">GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.</a></li><li><a href="#toc24">CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc27">THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc29">LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc31">DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc34">SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc37">MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc40">A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE</a></li><li><a href="#toc42">THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS</a></li><li><a href="#toc44">THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc47">CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc49">TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.</a></li><li><a href="#toc52">BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc55">HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.</a></li><li><a href="#toc57">PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.</a></li><li><a href="#toc59">THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.</a></li><li><a href="#toc61">COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.</a></li><li><a href="#toc64">FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.</a></li><li><a href="#toc67">TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.</a></li><li><a href="#toc70">KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc73">THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc76">WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc78">MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc81">MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc83">LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."</a></li></ul>
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<a name="toc2" id="toc2"></a>
+<a name="pdf3" id="pdf3"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high
+among the important dates in the history of the
+world. For on that day men from Europe, then
+the centre of civilization, first gazed on a rich new
+land beyond the seas, a great virgin continent, destined
+to become the seat of flourishing civilizations
+and to play a leading part in the later history of
+the world. Little did Columbus and his companions,
+when they saw before them on that
+famous morning a beautiful island, rising like a
+pearl of promise from the sparkling tropical sea,
+dream of what time held in store for that new-found
+land, foreordained to become the "New
+World" of the nations, the hope of the oppressed,
+and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and
+equality.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But we are here concerned with only what they
+saw, and this was a green and populous island, so
+covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their
+eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was,
+for many of the trees were laden with new and
+strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form.
+Never had they breathed air more pure and
+fresh, and never had they beheld seas of such
+crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue;<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and it is not surprising that their eyes sparkled
+with joy and their souls were filled with wonder
+and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene
+after their long and dreaded journey over a vast
+and unknown ocean.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not less strange to the new-comers were the
+people who flocked in numbers from the woods and
+ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple
+wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had
+never met their eyes before. No clothing hid their
+dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to
+their visitors, and they looked like the unclad
+tenants of some new paradise. Their astonishment
+turned into fright when they saw boats leave these
+strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad
+in shining steel or raiment of varied color. Their
+white faces, their curling beards, their splendid
+clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of
+the forest, and especially the air of dignity of their
+leader, with his ample cloak of scarlet, added to
+their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as
+divine visitors, come to them from the skies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not less was their surprise when they saw the
+wonderful strangers kneel and kiss the soil, and
+then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich
+colors and designs that seemed magical to their
+untaught eyes. And deep was their delight when
+these strange beings distributed among them wonderful
+gifts,—glass beads, hawk's bells, and other
+trifles,—which seemed precious gems to their untutored
+souls. They had nothing to offer in return,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+except tame parrots, of which they had many, and
+balls of cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards
+sparkled with hope when they saw small ornaments
+of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it
+been for all the natives of the New World if this
+yellow metal had not existed among them, for it
+was to bring them untold suffering and despair.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus
+named this first-seen land; but, leaving it, let
+us go with him in his voyage through that island-sprinkled
+sea, and use his eyes in taking in the
+marvels with which it was sown. Familiar as
+these islands have become to many of us, to him
+they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string
+of tropic pearls or rare emeralds spread out along
+those shining waters of the South.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their
+hearts elate with joy and pride in their discovery,
+hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn
+to the right and the left alike. They found themselves
+in an archipelago of beautiful islands, green
+and level, rising on all sides and seemingly numberless.
+To us they are the great green cluster of the
+Bahamas, but to Columbus, who fancied that he
+had reached the shores of Asia, they were that
+wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in
+which were seven thousand four hundred and fifty-eight
+islands, abounding with spices and rich in
+odoriferous trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright
+and placid waters scarce ruffled by the gentle<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of
+which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than
+the last. Besting under the shade of warm and
+verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their
+water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the
+admiral found the scene around him entrancing to
+his vision, "the country as fresh and green as the
+month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits,
+the herbs, the flowers, the very stones, for the most
+part, as different from those of Spain as night from
+day."</p>
+
+<a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image02.png" width="640" height="354" alt="Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE." title="A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One isle, which he honored with the name of
+Isabella, after his patron, the Spanish queen, surpassed
+in charm all he had yet seen. Like them
+all, it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate
+delightful, its air soft and balmy, its scenery so
+lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would
+never desire to depart. I know not where first to
+go, nor are my eyes ever weary of gazing on the
+beautiful verdure."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all
+the casks of the ships to be filled. He could not
+say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here
+are large lakes, and the groves about them are
+marvellous, and in all the island everything is
+green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia.
+The singing of the birds is such that it seems as if
+one would never wish to leave this land. There are
+flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other
+birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so
+different from ours, that it is wonderful; and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each
+having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous
+flavor, so that I am in the greatest trouble in the
+world not to know them, for I am very certain that
+they are each of great value."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As he approached this island, he fancied that the
+winds bore to his senses the spicy odors said to be
+wafted from the islands of the East Indian seas.
+"As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came
+off a fragrance so good and soft of the flowers or
+trees of the land that it was the sweetest thing in
+the world."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not only were the islands the homes of birds of
+brilliant plumage and flowers of gorgeous hue, but
+the very seas seemed to their new visitors like
+tropical gardens, for the fish with which they
+abounded rivalled the birds and flowers in brilliancy
+of color. The scales of some of them glittered
+like precious stones, and gleams of gold and
+silver seemed to come from them as they swam
+around the ships, while the dolphins taken from
+the water changed color like the chameleon.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The natives who had been taken on board the
+ships made signs which seemed to indicate that
+more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with
+cities and kings and queens, and abundance of gold
+and gems; or, at least, the Spaniards understood
+this from their signs, as they pointed to the south
+when gold was shown them and they were asked
+where it could be found. Far to the south was a
+great island which they named Cuba, and another<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+which they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs
+appeared to show, was of vast extent and abounded
+with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined
+to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth
+which he and his companions so ardently craved.
+It cannot be said that the natives wished to deceive
+them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all
+they were asked, with the innocent desire of
+pleasing their wonderful new friends. Columbus,
+full of the idea that he was near the shores of India,
+hoped to reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco
+Polo had said was one of the most magnificent in
+the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns
+to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring
+back his reply to Spain. Inspired by this enticing
+hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows of
+his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was on the morning of October 28 that the
+shores of this noble island first met the eyes of the
+eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along its
+coast the admiral was struck with its size and
+grandeur; its high and airy mountains, like those
+of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and the
+fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching
+forests and many green headlands, which led them
+on and on into the remote distance. They anchored
+at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were
+transparent and deeply shaded with overhanging
+trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up the
+stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting
+with every mile, forests of lofty and spreading<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit,
+some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at
+once. These woods swarmed with birds of brilliant
+plumage,—the scarlet flamingo, the rich-hued parrots
+and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds,
+which flitted on rainbow wings from
+flower to flower, and which no European had ever
+before seen. Even the insects were beautiful,
+in their shining coats of mail. Though most of
+the birds were silent, the charms of song were not
+wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected
+among them notes like those of the nightingale.
+Ever open to the charms of nature, Cuba
+seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful
+island that eyes ever beheld."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was sure there must here be mines of gold,
+groves of spices, rivers and seas that bore pearls.
+The houses, though simple in structure, were
+well built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and
+shaded by spreading trees. Led on still by his excited
+fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and
+rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze.
+Assured that the capital of the Grand Khan could
+not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with
+presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out
+by the people. But after going many miles they
+found only a village of fifty houses, like those seen
+on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no
+spices, none of the things they so ardently sought.
+The only thing new to their eyes was a fashion seen
+among the people, who rolled up certain dried and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+aromatic leaves, and, lighting one end, put the
+other in their mouths, and exhaled the smoke.
+This was the first ever seen by white men of that
+remarkable American plant, called by the natives
+by a name like tobacco, which has since grown to
+be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and
+hovel alike.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination
+of Columbus was continually aroused by the
+magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of the
+scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A
+warm love of nature is frequently displayed in the
+description of the country which he wrote out for
+Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place,
+named by him Puerto Santo, he said: "The
+amenity of this river, and the clearness of the
+water, through which the sand at the bottom may
+be seen; the multitude of palm-trees of various
+forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have
+met with, and an infinity of other great and green
+trees; the birds in rich plumage, and the verdure
+of the fields, render this country, most Serene
+Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses
+all others in graces and charm, as the day
+doth the night in lustre. For which reason I often
+say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to
+give a complete account of it to your Majesties,
+my tongue cannot express the whole truth or my
+tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed
+at the sight of so much beauty that I
+have not known how to relate it."</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous
+series of discoveries,—the one called by the
+natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as Hayti,
+one of the most beautiful islands in the world in
+the splendor of its tropical vegetation. Columbus
+and his men could describe it only by comparison
+with the most beautiful provinces of the country
+from which they came, and in consequence he
+named the island Hispaniola, or "Little Spain."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here he found the people as innocent and simple
+in their habits as those of San Salvador, living in
+huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no clothing,
+for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing
+life in a holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To
+the Spaniards their life seemed like a pleasant
+dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where
+it was "always afternoon." They had no wants
+nor cares, and spent life in easy idleness and innocent
+sports. They had their fields, but the food
+plants grew bountifully with little labor. The
+rivers and sea yielded abundance of fish, and
+luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their
+forests. Thus favored by nature, they spent much
+of the day in repose, while in the evenings they
+danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or
+the rude music of their drums. After the coming
+of the Spaniards the clear tinkle of the hawk's
+bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight,
+and for those musical toys they were ready to
+barter everything they possessed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the Spaniards had yet seen, but they were still
+lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope
+that this precious metal might there be found in
+quantities. Yet Columbus felt forced to cease, for
+a time, the quest of the precious metal, and sail for
+home with the story of the new world he had
+found. One of his vessels had deserted him; another
+had been wrecked: if he should lose the third
+he would be left without means of return and his
+great discovery might remain unknown.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493,
+he spread the sails of the one caravel left to him, and
+turned its prow towards Europe, to carry thither
+the news of the greatest maritime discovery the
+world had ever known. Thus ended in success and
+triumph the first voyage of Columbus to the "New
+World."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a>
+<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the three ships with which Columbus made
+his first voyage, the "Pinta" deserted the others and
+went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and
+the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran
+ashore on the coast of Hispaniola and proved a
+hopeless wreck. Only the little "Niña" (the "girl,"
+as this word means in English) was left to carry the
+discoverer home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully
+taken to pieces, and from her timbers was constructed
+a small but strong fort, with a deep vault
+beneath and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians
+aided in this, and not a shred of the stranded vessel
+was left to the waves. As the "Niña" was too small
+to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided
+to leave a garrison to hold this fort and search for
+gold until he should return. That the island held
+plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was
+left, with a garrison of forty men, and the "Niña"
+spread her sails to the winds to carry to Spain the
+wonderful news of the great discovery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort,
+in remembrance of the day of the wreck, and when
+he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find
+its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in
+the precious yellow metal. He reached the spot to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+find the fort a ruin and the garrison a remembrance
+only. They had been attacked by the Indians and
+massacred during the absence of the admiral.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians
+whom Columbus had met with on his first voyage
+were not the only people of the islands. There
+were on some of the West Indies a warlike race
+called Caribs,—cannibals, the Spaniards said they
+were,—who gave the invaders no small trouble
+before they were overcome.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had
+attacked La Navidad and destroyed the fort and its
+garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by some
+of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much
+too ready to commit. The leader of these warriors
+was a bold cacique named Caonabo, chief of a
+warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain
+that we are at present concerned, as he was the
+hero, or victim rather, of the first romantic story
+known to us in Indian life.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on
+the coast of Hispaniola, there was one built far in
+the interior, called Fort Santo Tomas. This stood
+in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed
+land of gold of the island. Its site lay within the
+territory of Caonabo, who ruled over a great district,
+his capital town or village being on the
+southern slope of the Cibao Mountains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first conflict between the Spaniards and the
+natives, after the massacre of the garrison of La
+Navidad, was in the district of the Vega, where a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the
+natives suffering a severe defeat. The next was at
+Fort Santo Tomas, which was commanded by
+Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come
+out with Columbus in his second voyage. He was
+a man of great courage and unusual daring, one
+of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had
+to do with the conquest of the New World.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A man of his spirit was needed to command this
+isolated fort in the mountains, for the cacique,
+Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of his
+territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a
+strong force of his warlike race. Santo Tomas was
+closely invested and fiercely attacked, Ojeda being
+reduced to such an extremity that he owed his
+escape only to a rescuing force sent by Columbus
+from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven off by the
+superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly
+to his stronghold in the mountains. But he
+was quickly back again, with a larger force than
+before. He had never met his equal among the
+Indians, but the fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards
+proved too much even for his courage, and he was
+a second time forced to withdraw.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously
+situated, surrounded as he was by warlike
+enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In
+the face of this peril he adopted an expedient as
+daring as any of those shown by Cortez, Pizarro,
+or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age
+of conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+daring. It is this striking adventure which it is
+our purpose to describe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and
+most trusty, Ojeda set out on horseback over the
+mountains, following paths never before traversed
+by the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib
+town of Maguana, where he found Caonabo surrounded
+by a throng of armed warriors. The
+Spaniards had bearded the lion in his den, and
+were in a position of extreme peril should the
+cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master
+in craftiness, and by professions of friendship
+and other arts of duplicity he persuaded the chief
+to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs,
+bright and shining manacles of which the untutored
+Indian had no conception of the use, but whose
+brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they
+were bracelets, which the King of Spain had graciously
+sent him as a present, in recognition of his
+fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor
+Indian probably understood all this very imperfectly,
+but he was easily brought to view the manacles
+as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Turey</span></span> or a gift from Heaven, and willingly
+held out his wrists that his guest might adorn them
+with those strange and splendid bracelets.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a moment his hands were secured, and before
+he could recover from his surprise Ojeda, whose
+small frame concealed much strength, reached from
+his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a
+great exertion of muscular force lifted him from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the ground and swung him up on the horse. The
+warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion,
+had no time to use their weapons before the
+Spaniards had put spur to their horses and dashed
+off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side
+of Ojeda, to prevent the captive throwing himself
+from the horse. Threatened by their swords and
+with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets,
+Caonabo was forced to submit, and was carried by
+his captors for many miles through the heart of his
+own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which
+Columbus had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting
+a bay in which all his vessels could ride in
+safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination
+of his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to
+Columbus, and he was locked up in a secure cell.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the story goes, the brave cacique had a
+greater admiration for courage than anything else
+in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the
+crafty way in which he had been captured, he
+seemed to hold him in high esteem as the bravest
+of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his
+cell he would rise and courteously salute him,
+while he treated the visits of Columbus with
+haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique
+could make himself understood, the high rank of
+Columbus was nought to him. He had no proof
+that he was a man of courage, while the manner in
+which Ojeda had captured him showed him to be
+a brave man. To the bold Carib courage was the
+first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his
+countrymen who had to do with the Spanish invaders.
+Put on board ship and sent as a prize of
+valor to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the
+voyage, perhaps from a broken heart, or as a result
+of the change from his free forest life to the narrow
+confines of a fifteenth-century ship.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of
+adventure, in which he distinguished himself as
+much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put
+in command of an exploring expedition and sent
+out from Spain, one of his companions being Amerigo
+Vespucci, he whose first name gained the immemorial
+honor of being given to the great western
+continent. In this voyage Ojeda discovered
+part of the continent of South America, which he
+called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested
+by an Indian village built on piles in the
+water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a
+colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there
+proved too bold and hostile for him, and he failed
+to subject them to his authority.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many were his adventures, all of them characterized
+by a rash daring like that he had shown in
+the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died,
+he was buried, in response to his own request, in the
+doorway of the Franciscan monastery in the city of
+Santo Domingo, so that all who entered that place
+of worship should walk over his grave.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a>
+<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The island elysium which Columbus had discovered,
+and of which he wrote and conversed in the
+most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of
+promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of
+adventurers soon crossed the seas, hopeful of winning
+gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring
+in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them
+were men of wealth, who were eager to add to
+their riches, but the most of them had little beyond
+their love of adventure and their thirst for gold to
+carry them across the seas, needy but bold soldiers
+and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise,
+however perilous, that might promise them reward.
+The stories of many of these men are full of romantic
+interest, and this is especially the case with one
+of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We propose here to deal with the interesting
+early history of this most famous of the New
+World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain,
+of good family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome
+humor led him into many wild escapades while
+still a boy. The mystery and romance of the
+strange land beyond the sea and the chance to
+win gold and glory which it offered were fascinating<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to a spirit like his, and he was prevented
+from taking part in an expedition when but seventeen
+years of age only by an unlucky accident.
+As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure
+like that of Romeo and Juliet, the stones gave way
+and he was thrown violently to the ground and
+buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed
+from his hurts the fleet had sailed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at
+home, engaged, perhaps, in similar pranks, but at
+length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set
+sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only
+nineteen years of age. He did not get across the
+sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of
+his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole
+away from the rest of the squadron, hoping to
+reach port and sell his cargo before the others
+arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for
+many days the vessel was tossed about, the sailors
+not knowing where they were, and furious at the
+treachery of their captain. At length, one morning,
+hope returned to them, in the form of a white
+dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the
+bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following
+its course the weary mariners finally came
+to the port they sought. But the captain was paid
+for his treachery by finding that the other vessels
+had arrived before him and sold their cargoes.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope.
+When the governor's secretary told him that no
+doubt he would be given a good estate to settle on,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the
+soil, like a peasant."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough
+to accept the land, but his fondness for active deeds
+clung to him, and he took part in the military expeditions
+sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He
+had his quarrels, too, and his duels about the love
+of fair ladies, and received wounds whose scars he
+carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his
+valor came in 1511, when an expedition set out for
+the conquest of Cuba. Cortez enlisted under the
+leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by
+his courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition,
+and the good humor and ready wit which
+made him a favorite with all he met.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the island had been conquered, Velasquez
+was made its governor, Cortez still being his close
+friend. But for some reason this friendship did not
+last, and when at length a party of discontented
+men formed a plan to complain of the acts of the
+governor to the higher authorities in Hispaniola,
+Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen,
+from his fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it
+being necessary to perform the perilous exploit of
+crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in
+an open boat.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some way the plot got wind, and, before he
+could leave the island, Cortez was arrested by order
+of the governor and thrown into prison, his limbs
+being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended
+to hang him, as we are told, but was persuaded by<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+his friends not to go so far. These Spanish governors
+had the power to do almost anything they pleased,
+their distance from home enabling them to act the
+despot at will, and their influence at court saving
+them from evil consequences.</p>
+
+<a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image03.png" width="640" height="363" alt="Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO." title="CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In
+some way he managed to open one of the bolts of his
+fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then, turning
+his irons into tools, he used them to force open the
+window of his cell. As he was on the second floor
+of the building, it was easy for one so agile as he
+to reach the ground without injury, and he made
+his way to a church near by, where he claimed the
+right of sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner
+he was furious. He did not dare attempt to
+take him from the church by force, since the sacred
+walls protected all who sought their asylum. But
+a guard was stationed close by, with orders to seize
+the fugitive if he should leave the sanctuary. With
+one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done.
+A few days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning
+himself outside the walls of the building, one of
+the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his
+arms, and held him till his comrades came to his
+aid. This man was one of those who afterwards
+took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which
+he was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps
+took this opportunity for revenge.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once more the reckless young adventurer found
+himself a fettered captive, this time being put on<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+board a vessel that was to sail the next morning for
+Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be
+tried for his offence. But he proved a very hard
+prisoner to hold. That night, with much pain
+and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of
+the irons that held them, and then stole cautiously
+to the deck, where he found a boat floating by
+the vessel's side. Slipping down into this, under
+cover of the darkness, he cut loose and paddled
+silently away.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When near the shore he met with a rapid current
+and rough waters, to which he was afraid to trust
+the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought
+it safest to breast the water himself, and boldly
+plunged overboard. He found his task a hard,
+almost a fatal one; the current threatened to
+sweep him away, but after a long struggle with
+the waves he succeeded in reaching the shore, in
+a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now
+sought the church again, no doubt resolving this
+time to keep safely within its sacred shelter.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story goes on to state that the governor,
+worked upon by friends of the culprit, offered him
+forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier was
+too proud to accept. What followed is amusing.
+Velasquez was at a distance from the capital, on
+a military excursion, when one evening he was
+startled in his tent by the appearance of his
+enemy, completely armed and threatening in aspect.
+In dismay, the governor asked him what
+he wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+tired of being treated like a felon, and that he
+must have an explanation or he would know the
+reason why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and
+a hot altercation followed. But at length their
+talk became more friendly, and in the end their
+old amicable relations were resumed and they embraced
+like a pair of lovers. The amusing part
+of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to
+tell the governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary
+and disappeared, he found the governor and
+the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they
+became friends again, and Cortez was given a large
+estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and
+on which he found gold-mines, which were worked
+by Indian labor. He married a beautiful Spanish
+girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several years in
+happy content.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This, with some, would have been the end of a
+career. It was only the beginning of that of
+Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history
+and a record of undying fame. All we can tell
+here is how this came about. It began in expeditions
+of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler,
+seeking Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was
+blown far westward by a storm, and reached an
+unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone
+buildings, cultivated the soil, and wore delicate
+cotton garments and ornaments of gold. In other
+ways they showed evidence of civilization. The
+land thus reached is that now known as Yucatan.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova
+brought back, sent out a small fleet under his
+nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this
+new land. Grijalva found evidence that a great
+civilized nation dwelt inland, rich in gold and far
+superior in civilization to any Indians whom the
+Spaniards had yet met. He named the country
+New Spain, and sailed back to Cuba with an account
+of his important discoveries.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy.
+Here seemed to be the land of gold which the
+Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win
+vast wealth and the glory of adding a new and
+splendid province to Spain. He at once began to
+fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around
+for a man fit to command it. Several of the hidalgos,
+or gentlemen of Cuba, offered themselves, but
+none pleased the governor, and at length he settled
+upon Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By
+chance, rather than by intention, he had made a
+splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the
+New World, and perhaps the one man at that time
+in all Spain, fitted by nature for the difficult task
+which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as he
+had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a
+great occasion to prove himself a great man. He
+was to develop into one of the ablest military leaders
+in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was
+to display a genius and achieve a success worthy
+of Cæsar or Alexander or any of the famous soldiers
+of the world.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, from another point of view, Velasquez had
+made a bad choice. Cortez had disdained his fetters
+and his prisons, and would soon disdain his control.
+His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this
+young adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o'-the-wisp.</p>
+
+<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image04.png" width="640" height="342" alt="Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ." title="LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The very appointment seemed to change the
+whole character of the new admiral. He became
+a different man. His high spirits now changed to
+a tireless energy. He spent his money freely in
+fitting out the fleet, and even mortgaged his estate
+to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He
+worked incessantly, and inspired his companions
+and followers to active and enthusiastic toil. He
+was so popular in the island that several hundred
+recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships,
+some of them of large size, were rapidly got ready
+and stocked with provisions and military stores.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the
+labor and cost of Cortez would go for naught.
+Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to
+rob him of his command and trust the fleet to
+safer hands. But he was not dealing with a man
+who could be played with in this fast and loose
+fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and
+he decided to sail at once, though he was still short
+of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That night he
+took on board all the meat in the town, weighed
+anchor, and got ready to set sail.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that
+the fleet was about to depart. In a panic he sprang<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his
+horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez
+entered a boat and rowed near enough to the shore
+to speak with him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the
+angry governor; "a courteous leave-taking, truly."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and
+there are some things that should be done before
+they are even thought of. Has your excellency
+any commands?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His excellency would have commanded him to
+come on shore, if it had been of any use. As it
+was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of
+the hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only
+their vanishing hulls were to be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at
+Trinidad. At the last place many men, and several
+cavaliers who were to prove his ablest officers,
+joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez
+to the governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta
+arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet for a new admiral
+who was to command it. The governor looked at
+Cortez and his men and concluded that he had
+better let them alone. They were too strong for
+him to deal with.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So once more the bold adventurers escaped from
+Velasquez and his schemes and sailed in triumph
+away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor
+of the place had received orders to arrest
+Cortez, and here, also, he did not dare attempt it.
+Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly
+the fool to pay any heed to such a letter as that.
+The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to the
+fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer,
+saying that he would not lose sight of the interests
+of his excellency, and that he and the fleet, "God
+willing, would set sail the next morning."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet
+lost sight of Cuba at Cape San Antonio, on the
+western end of the island. It consisted in all of
+eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on
+board six hundred and sixty-three soldiers and
+sailors. A few of these were armed with cross-bows
+and only thirteen with muskets, while the
+horses numbered only sixteen. In addition there
+were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with a
+good supply of ammunition.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the fleet and such the force with which
+Hernando Cortez set sail to conquer a powerful
+and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition
+had one of the world's great commanders at its
+head, or the enterprise would have ended in failure
+instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful success.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a>
+<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus
+opened to the adventurers of Spain, and hundreds
+of them soon took that promising path.
+Among these was one Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, a
+man poor in gold or land, but rich in courage and
+ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at
+home like a gentleman with the means of a peasant.
+In the year 1501 he crossed the seas to Hispaniola,
+where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till
+the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or
+good luck of Cortez, and after years of labor he
+found himself poorer than when he commenced.
+He began to see that nature had not meant him for
+a farmer, and that if he wanted a fortune he must
+seek it in other fields.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Balboa was not alone in this. There were others,
+with better-filled pockets than he, who were ripe for
+adventure and eager for gold. A famous one of these
+was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus
+and the hero of the adventure with the Carib
+chief already described, who in 1509 sailed for South
+America and founded a settlement named by him
+San Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer
+of the town of San Domingo, to fit out two more<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+vessels and follow him with provisions for his new
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with
+casks of bread and other food-stuffs. There was
+more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of, for
+when far from land there crept out of one of these
+casks a haggard, woe-begone, half-starved stowaway,
+who looked as if he had not many ounces of life
+left in him. It was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who
+had taken this way to join the expedition and
+escape from his creditors, since they would not have
+permitted him to go openly. The cask in which
+he snugly lay had been carried from his farm to
+the ship among others containing provisions.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome
+addition to his crew. He threatened to throw him
+overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave
+him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow
+fell on his knees and tearfully begged for mercy.
+Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at
+length softened and spared him his life. He was to
+pay bitterly for his kindness before many days.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The expedition had its adventures on the seas,
+ending in a wreck, and when San Sebastian was
+reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement
+was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what
+to do, but Balboa had been on that coast before, on
+his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an
+Indian village on the Darien River where they
+might find food and shelter. He advised Enciso to
+go thither, and a journey was made overland,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+among hostile Indians and with little food. The
+adventurers were half-starved when at length they
+reached their goal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here they founded a new settlement named
+Santa Maria, no doubt first disposing of the Indians in
+the usual Spanish fashion,—killing some and making
+slaves of others. But it was not long before there
+were bitter quarrels among themselves. Enciso
+had forbidden them to have any private trade for
+gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly
+resented. The result was that a party rose against
+him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso was deprived
+of his authority, but when they tried to elect another
+in his place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa,
+who had made a settlement near there, was sent for
+by some of the settlers, but when he came, Balboa's
+party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen
+companions, was placed in a crazy old barque
+and left to find their way back to Hispaniola as best
+they could.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest
+and boldest man in Darien, and his influence and
+power grew steadily until the settlers voted him
+their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned,
+and finally was sent to Spain. With him went one
+of Balboa's chief supporters, in order to gain for
+him from the king the royal right to his new
+office.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Balboa lost no time in showing that he was
+worthy of the dignity given him. He made many
+incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in collecting much gold, the yellow metal
+being more plentiful there than in the West
+India islands. In those expeditions he showed a
+wise spirit of conciliation and won the friendship
+of several of the Indian chiefs. In one of their
+excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards
+about the division of the gold they had obtained.
+They were almost at sword's-point when a young
+Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about
+what seemed to him a useless substance, upset the
+gold out of the balance, and turned to Balboa,
+saying,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this?
+If you value it so highly, I could take you to a
+country where it is so common that it is used for
+the meanest utensils."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These significant words filled the Spaniards with
+hope and desire, and they eagerly asked where that
+rich land lay, and how it might be reached.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"At the distance of six suns [six days' journey]
+from here," said the cacique, "lies another ocean as
+great as the one before you. Near its shores is the
+kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and
+if you wish to attack it you will need far more
+men than you have here."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the
+great southern ocean or of the rich land of Peru.
+This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which
+Columbus sought for without success, the waters
+which border the East Indies, and the great and
+rich nation on its shores must be one of the famous<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his
+mind to gaze on that unknown sea.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking
+and do it quickly. He had received letters from
+Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which
+were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to
+King Ferdinand of the way in which he had been
+treated, and the king had not only refused to support
+Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions,
+but had condemned his course and ordered him to
+return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness
+were at an end unless he could win the favor
+of the king by some great enterprise. Such would
+be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he
+determined to attempt.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to
+cross, is not over sixty miles wide. But many of
+these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests
+so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too,
+where it rains for more than half the year, the
+valleys are converted into marshes, and are so often
+overflowed that in many places the natives have to
+dwell in the trees, while from the high grounds
+rush swollen rivers, fierce and threatening. To
+march across an unknown and perilous country like
+this, led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold
+and desperate enterprise, surpassing any which the
+Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one
+of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to
+win the favor of his sovereign there was no danger
+he was not ready to face.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the perilous expedition he could muster only
+one hundred and ninety men. But these were
+veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus,
+and ready to follow him whatever the peril. They
+had good reason to trust his courage and readiness
+in emergencies, for they had found him always
+brave and alert. A thousand Indians were taken
+with them, to carry their provisions, and they added
+to their force a number of the fierce bloodhounds
+which were dreaded by the natives as much as the
+fire-arms of the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st
+of September, 1513, sailing along the coast to
+Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half
+the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes.
+With the remainder the terrible journey across
+the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was
+begun.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than
+troubles and perils thickened around them. The
+country was difficult to traverse, the people were
+bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they
+proved no feeble antagonists. As the adventurers
+left the plain and toiled up the mountains, a warlike
+cacique, with a large body of followers, met
+them in a narrow pass and boldly disputed the
+way. A fierce battle ensued, ending in favor of
+the Spaniards, who cut their way through the
+savages, leaving hundreds of them dead on the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+toiled onward and upward, until the six days fixed
+for their journey had stretched out to twenty-five.
+But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their
+guides assured them that from the top of the next
+mountain they could see the ocean they so ardently
+sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near
+the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and
+went on alone, that he might be the first to gaze
+on the wonderful spectacle.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there,
+to his infinite delight, sparkled and spread before
+his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth, stretching
+away to the north, south, and west as far as
+human eye could see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous
+vision, he fell prostrate on the ground,
+like a worshipper before the object of his adoration.
+Then, rising to his knees, he thanked God for the
+great boon vouchsafed to him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise
+and beckon them, while with his other hand he
+pointed wildly westward. With springing steps
+they rushed to his side, and joined in his delight
+and his thanks to God as the marvellous spectacle
+met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to
+show that they had taken possession of this spot
+for his sovereign, and as they went down the farther
+slope they carved on many trees the name
+of King Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this
+new land.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats's
+famous sonnet to Homer, in which a great poet has<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange
+error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa:</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">"Then felt I like some watcher of the skies</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">  When a new planet swims into his ken;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">  He stared at the Pacific—and all his men</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Looked at each other with a wild surmise—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">  Silent, upon a peak in Darien."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the
+easiest and shortest path to the sea, one of them
+a man destined to become still more famous than
+Balboa,—Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror
+of Peru. Reaching the shore, they found on it
+two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the
+men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling
+on their comrades to witness that they were the
+first to embark on that sea.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For three days the remaining men waited advices
+from their pioneers, and then followed the
+guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with
+his sword and buckler, rushing into the water to
+his middle, and claiming possession of that vast sea
+and all its shores in the name of his king, for
+whom he pledged himself to defend it against all
+comers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the discovery of the great South Sea,
+as Balboa named it, the Pacific Ocean, as Magellan
+soon after called it. The people of the coast told
+the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that
+lay to the south, and whose people had tame<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+animals to carry their burdens. The form of these
+they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing
+Balboa that they were camels, and that the land
+indicated must be Asia. They really represented
+the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel
+in form.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After remaining for some time on the coast,
+gathering all the information he could obtain, Balboa
+led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved
+to return with a stronger force next year and
+seek that distant land of gold. But this exploit
+was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest
+of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers
+reached their starting-point at Santa
+Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with
+the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to
+Spain, with an account of the remarkable exploit,
+which was received with an enthusiasm little less
+than had been the news of the discovery of the
+New World. If Columbus had discovered a new
+land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of
+a new ocean, added to which was the story of a
+land of gold, for whose conquest Balboa asked for
+a reinforcement of a thousand men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery
+was destined to still greater ill-fortune, as
+we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached
+Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had
+been appointed and had set sail, with fifteen vessels<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly
+five hundred men under his command, but he at once
+submitted to the decision of his king and accepted
+Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred
+new men landed in that pestilential climate, in the
+unhealthy season, paid bitterly for their imprudence.
+A violent disease attacked them; scarcity
+of provisions made it worse; and within a month
+more than six hundred of them had died, while
+others hastened away from that noxious spot.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length news came that the king fully appreciated
+the splendid discovery of Balboa; letters of
+high praise were received, and he was appointed
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adelantado</span></span>, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias
+being ordered to support him in all his operations.
+The rivals now became reconciled, their union being
+made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in
+marriage to Balboa.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The adventurer now began active preparations
+for an exploration of the South Sea, materials for
+ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest
+labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed.
+There was no lack of volunteers for the
+expedition, and the vessels were launched and sailed
+to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone
+preventing them from going on to the coast of Peru.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus there seemed a great career opening before
+Balboa at the very moment when adverse fate was
+gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had
+grown jealous of his daring exploits and the fame
+that seemed his coming meed, and, cherishing<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced
+him to return to Acla, his new capital.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by
+order of the governor, thrown into prison, and put
+on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king and
+an intention to revolt against his superior. The
+judge was forced to condemn him to death, and the
+fatal sentence was at once carried into effect, the
+great discoverer being beheaded on the public
+square of Acla. Thus, in blood and treachery,
+ended the career of one of the ablest of the bold
+adventurers of Spain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a>
+<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest
+of the Aztecs, there reigned over the kingdom
+of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch
+whose history is as interesting and romantic as any
+that can be found in the annals of Europe. His
+story was preserved by his descendants, and its
+principal events are as follows:</p>
+
+<a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image05.png" width="640" height="380" alt="Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS." title="FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans,
+stood on the eastern borders of the lake on
+whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital.
+About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked
+by a kindred race, the Tepanecs, who, after a desperate
+struggle, captured their city, killed their
+monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir
+to the crown, the young Prince Nezahualcoyotl,
+concealed himself in the foliage of a tree when the
+triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his
+hiding-place saw his father killed before his eyes.
+This was the opening event in a history as full of
+deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the
+"Young Chevalier of English history."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The young prince did not long remain at liberty.
+Soon after his flight from the city he fell into the
+hands of his foes, and was brought back and thrown
+into a dungeon.  This led to the first romantic<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+incident in his career. The governor of the fortress
+prison was an old servant of the royal family of
+Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in
+disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid
+for his loyalty with his life, but he willingly gave it
+in exchange for the liberty of the heir to the throne.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital.
+He was, in fact, closely related to the Aztec monarch,
+and through his good offices he was at length permitted
+to reside in that city. Afterwards he was
+allowed to return to Tezcuco, where for eight years
+he dwelt in privacy, studying under the teachers of
+his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power.
+Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his
+soul ardent hopes of regaining the throne of his
+ancestors.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died
+and his son, Maxtla, succeeded to the throne.
+The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and
+when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render
+him homage on his accession, Maxtla treated with
+disdain the little gift of flowers which the young
+prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him
+in the presence of his chieftains. Evidently the
+palace was no place of safety for the Tezcucan
+prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers,
+he hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a
+refuge in his native city of Tezcuco. Here the
+tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His
+popular manners had won him many friends, and
+the ancient subjects of his family looked upon him<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+as a coming leader who might win back for them
+their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence
+of the possession of talent and energy, and Maxtla,
+fearful of his growing popularity, resolved to
+make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly
+invited him to an evening's entertainment,
+where he had assassins ready to murder him. Fortunately,
+the tutor of the prince suspected the
+plot, and contrived to replace the youth by a person
+who strongly resembled him, and who became the
+victim of the fate intended for him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now
+resolved to kill him openly, and sent a party of
+soldiers to the city, who were instructed to enter
+the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the
+spot. Again the watchfulness of his old teacher
+saved him. Warned of his danger, and advised to
+flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited
+the assassins.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When they reached the palace in which he resided,
+they found him playing at ball in the court-yard.
+He received them courteously, showing no
+suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to
+take some refreshment after their journey. While
+they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly into
+an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and
+the soldiers able to see through both apartments,
+his movements gave them no concern. It was the
+custom, however, when any one entered the presence
+of a great lord, for the servants to throw aromatics
+into a burning censer. This the prince's<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as
+to hide him from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus
+obscured, he entered a secret passage which led to
+a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring
+water to the palace. In this he concealed himself
+until nightfall, and then made his way into the
+suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one
+of his father's former vassals.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim
+had twice escaped him, grew more determined on
+his death, and ordered immediate and thorough
+pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take
+him, dead or alive, with the hand of a noble lady
+and an ample domain. Troops of armed men
+scoured the country in every direction, searching
+all suspected places, and some of them entered the
+cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there
+was a heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture
+of cloth, and hid beneath this the fugitive
+escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot
+that he left this place for the wooded hill country
+between his state and the neighboring one of
+Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and
+caverns.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering
+from place to place, exposed to all the inclemencies
+of the weather, remaining concealed by
+day, and stealing out at night in search of food.
+His pursuers, eager to win the enticing reward,
+kept up an active search, more than once coming
+dangerously near to his retreat.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very interesting stories are told of his adventures
+in this period of peril. The high rewards offered
+did not suffice to wean from him the attachment
+of the people, and more than once he owed his
+safety to their loyalty. Some of them submitted
+to torture, and even to loss of life, rather than
+betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even
+many of the soldiers were his friends, and once,
+when hotly pursued, he took refuge among a small
+party of these, who were dancing around a large
+drum. To conceal him from his enemies they
+placed him in the drum and continued their dance
+around it.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At another time the pursuers were so close to him
+that he just succeeded in turning the crest of a hill
+when they began to climb it on the other side. Here
+he fortunately found a girl who was reaping <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">chia</span></span>, a
+plant whose seeds were used in making palatable
+drinks. Telling her who he was and of his great
+danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of
+the plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came
+up and asked if she had seen him, the faithful girl
+coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a path
+which she said he had taken.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">None of the natives showed any inclination to
+betray him, despite the richness of the promised
+rewards.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Would you not deliver up the prince if he
+came in your way?" he asked of a peasant who did
+not recognize him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Not I," was the reply.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What! not for a fair lady's hand, and a rich
+domain as dowry?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed
+in disdain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the
+prince was in constant danger, and his situation,
+in the rough fastnesses of the hills and forests,
+became very distressing.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who
+kept with him in his wanderings and shared his sufferings.
+"Leave me to my fate. Why should you
+throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily
+persecutes?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their
+danger and the fact that most of the great nobles
+of the land had sought safety and reward by an
+adhesion to the usurper.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the
+fugitive. Maxtla had shown himself an oppressor,
+and his ambition and military successes had caused
+much alarm in the surrounding states, where his
+tyranny was contrasted with the mild rule of the
+former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the
+young prince took advantage of this feeling, and
+succeeded in forming a coalition against his enemy.
+A day was fixed for a general rising, and on the
+date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at
+the head of an army strong enough to face that of
+Maxtla and the Tepanecs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two armies soon met and victory rested on
+the banner of the young prince, the forces of Maxtla<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+being badly beaten. No longer a hunted fugitive,
+but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in
+triumph to the capital which he had left with a
+price on his head, his joyful subjects crowding to
+the route of march to render homage to their rightful
+sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at
+the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla, readily allied themselves
+with the young victor, and a series of bloody
+battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated
+under the walls of his own capital. He was dragged
+from the baths, to which he had fled for concealment,
+and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs;
+his royal city was razed to the ground, and its site
+was reserved as the great slave-market of the surrounding
+nations.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the
+throne of his ancestors, where he was to prove
+himself the greatest monarch of whom we have
+any record in the American annals. The story of
+his reign is far too full of detail for the space we
+can give to it, but is of such interest that we may
+venture on a concise account of it, as an example
+of the career of the most illustrious of the ancient
+American sovereigns.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim
+a general amnesty. He not only pardoned
+the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts
+of honor and confidence. This was not only politic
+but just, since their offences were mainly due to fear
+of the usurper. Under the circumstances he could
+safely treat them with magnanimity.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He next remodelled the government of the kingdom,
+and framed a code of laws which seemed so
+wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs
+and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and
+of justice were established, and also a council of
+state, whose members acted as the immediate advisers
+of the king, and aided him in the despatch of
+business. But the most remarkable of these new
+departments was the "council of music," which was
+devoted to the encouragement of science and art,
+and served as a general board of education for the
+country. Historical compositions and poems were
+recited before it, and altogether it indicated a degree
+of civilization which we would scarcely look for in
+any part of ancient America. Its historians, orators,
+and poets became celebrated throughout the country,
+the allied monarchs presided over its deliberations,
+and among its chief bards was the king himself, who
+entered into impartial competition with his subjects
+for the prizes given for the best poems. Many of his
+odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still rest
+in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The far-seeing monarch did not content himself
+with writing poetry, or encouraging historians,—who
+wrote subject to the penalty that any one who
+wilfully lied should be punished with death,—but
+he sought to develop all the arts. Agriculture was
+greatly encouraged, the population rapidly increased,
+new towns and cities sprang up, and the
+borders of the nation were extended by successful
+wars. He made his capital the most stately city<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles,
+whom he wished to reside at the court. There
+were more than four hundred of these palatial mansions,
+but far exceeding them in magnificence was
+the grand palace he built for himself. This covered
+a space of three thousand seven hundred feet in
+length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A
+wall surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which
+formed the great market-place of the city, and an
+inner one surrounded by the council chambers and
+halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors
+from other states, and a spacious saloon in
+which the poets and men of science met to study
+and converse. Here also were kept the public
+archives.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The royal apartments adjoined this inner court,
+and rivalled in beauty those of Oriental lands. Alabaster
+or stucco of rich tints covered some of the
+walls, while others were hung with tapestries of
+the gorgeous Indian feather-work. Long arcades
+and winding pathways bordered with verdure led to
+gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains
+shadowed by lofty trees. Fish of various kinds
+stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were birds
+of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and
+animals were reproduced in gold and silver with
+wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner apartments
+dwelt the wives and children of the monarch,
+who were as numerous as those of an Eastern
+sultan. Such was the famous palace, in which
+were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+yards square. It is said that two hundred thousand
+workmen were employed in building it. In
+this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his
+youthful days had been glad to share with wild animals
+a shelter in the thickets and caverns of the
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence
+to this palatial residence. Beautiful villas
+were built in various picturesque localities and
+adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and
+comfort. His favorite retreat from the cares of
+office was built on a rounded hill about six miles
+from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached
+by a stairway of five hundred and twenty steps,
+many of them hewn in the native rock. In the
+summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with
+water by an aqueduct carried on masonry buttresses
+for several miles over hill and valley. In its centre
+was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics
+the principal events of each year of the
+king's reign.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with
+statuary, and yielding water to channels that ran
+through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled
+riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes
+and pavilions, and baths cut in the solid rock,
+which the natives still show to visitors under the
+title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the
+base of the hill, amid lofty groves of cedar, rose
+the royal villa, with its light arcades and airy halls,
+affording a delightful relief to the monarch from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the duties of the court. Relics of this villa and
+garden still remain to attest their former beauty,
+and indicate that this Indian king lived in a magnificence
+resembling that of the far-famed court of
+the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian
+Nights" in another way, for it was his custom
+to wander about the streets, conversing with
+the humblest of his people and learning their condition
+and needs from their own words. Many anecdotes
+are told of this kind, in which it was his delight
+to reward merit and relieve distress. Some
+of these may be read with interest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering
+sticks in a field for fuel, and asked him why he did
+not go into the neighboring forest, where he would
+find plenty of them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It's the
+king's wood, and he would punish me with death
+if I took sticks from there."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What kind of man is your king?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"He is a very hard man," answered the boy,
+"for he takes from his people what God has given
+them."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco
+were as severe as those of Norman England. The
+king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws
+but to help himself in the forest, for there was no
+one who would betray him. But the lad sturdily
+refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor
+who wished to bring him into trouble.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next day the boy and his parents were sent
+for to come to the palace. They obeyed with wonder
+and dread, and the boy was filled with terror
+on seeing the king and recognizing him as the man
+with whom he had talked so freely. But the good-natured
+monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked
+him for the lesson he had given his king, praising
+his respect for the laws and commending his parents
+for bringing up their son so wisely. He dismissed
+them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave
+orders that any one might gather fallen wood in the
+forest, if they did not interfere with the standing
+timber.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another adventure was with a poor woodman
+and his wife. The man, as he stood in the marketplace
+with his little store, complained bitterly of his
+lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly
+amid luxuries in the palace. The wife bade him be
+careful, as he might be overheard in his complaints.
+The king, looking down on the market from a latticed
+window, and amusing himself with the chatter
+of the market people, heard the words of the couple,
+and ordered them to be brought into his presence.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He asked the frightened pair what they had said,
+and was pleased to find that they answered him
+truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had
+great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he
+who had a nation to govern could not lead an idle
+life; and told them "to be more cautious in future,
+as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after
+giving them a quantity of cloth and a good supply<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of cacao,—the coin of the country. "Go," he said;
+"with the little you now have, you will be rich;
+while, with all my riches, I shall still be poor."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of all the stories told of this famous monarch,
+there is only one not to his credit, and of this we
+may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable
+resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and
+Uriah. He fell in love with a beautiful maiden,
+who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom,
+and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take
+command of a warlike expedition against the Tlascalans.
+Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him
+and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he
+might lose his life, which the king said he had forfeited
+by a great crime. The old man suspected
+what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment
+to his friends. He was correct in his
+prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in battle, and the
+royal lover's path was clear.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The king now secretly offered his hand and heart
+to the maiden, who was by no means inconsolable
+for the loss of her old lover, and willingly accepted.
+To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he
+had the maiden brought to his villa to witness some
+ceremony there. Standing on a balcony of the
+palace, the king pretended to be struck with her
+beauty, and asked, "Who is the lovely young
+woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those
+present soon learned her name and rank, which was
+that of a princess of the royal house of Mexico.
+She was asked to enter the palace and receive the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+attention due to her station, and the king was not
+long in publicly declaring his love. The marriage
+soon after took place, in the presence of his brother
+monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great
+pomp and ceremony.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the one blot in the history of this
+famous monarch. Aside from this act of treachery,
+it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded
+a monarch in the early annals of the nations of
+Mexico, and one whose history is so full of romantic
+adventure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc16" id="toc16"></a>
+<a name="pdf17" id="pdf17"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is no chapter in all history more crowded
+with interesting and romantic events than the story
+of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under
+Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring
+and wonderful success, the most extraordinary is
+the tale of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noche Triste</span></span>, the terrible night-retreat
+of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital.
+No one can read this story, and that of the remarkable
+victory of Otumba which followed it, without
+feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors
+worthy of the most warlike age. This oft-told
+story we shall here again relate.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set
+out from Cuba on his great expedition, with a few
+hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon, muskets,
+and horses. It may briefly be stated here that
+he sought to conquer a warlike and powerful nation
+with this insignificant force, less than a modern
+regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico;
+won, with the terror of his horses and guns
+and the valor of his men, victory in every battle;
+gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made
+his way into their capital; seized and held prisoner
+their emperor, Montezuma, and for a time seemed
+to be full master of the land. We might go on to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+tell how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked
+the Spaniards with the courage of desperation,
+mortally wounded their own emperor, and at
+length brought the invaders into such terrible straits
+that they were forced to fight their way out of the
+city as their last hope of life.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To understand what followed, it must be stated
+that the city of Mexico lay, not in the open country,
+but on an island in the centre of a large lake, and
+that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow
+causeways of earth across this lake. Each of these
+causeways was broken at intervals by wide ditches,
+with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had
+removed these bridges, and thus added immensely
+to the difficulty of the night-march which the desperate
+Spaniards were obliged to make.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that
+Cortez and his men threw open the gates of the
+palace fortress in which they had long defended
+themselves against the furious assaults of thousands
+of daring foes. The night was dark and cloudy,
+and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy
+was to be seen, and as they made their way with as
+little noise as possible along the great street of
+Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence, Hope rose in
+their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the
+rumble of the guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard,
+and they reached the head of the causeway
+without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here was the first break in the causeway, and
+they had brought with them a bridge to lay across<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who
+fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city
+with their cries. The priests on the summit of the
+great temple pyramid were also on the watch, and
+when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from
+below, they sounded their shells and beat their huge
+drum, which was only heard in times of peril or
+calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber,
+and as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a
+distant sound was heard, which rapidly approached.
+Soon from every street and lane poured enemies,
+flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks
+of the Spaniards as they came. On the lake was
+heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the
+war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air.
+A brief interval had sufficed to change the silence
+into a frightful uproar of sound and the restful
+peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway,
+fighting only to drive back the assailants who
+landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon
+the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over
+them, riding them down; the men on foot cut them
+down with their swords, or hurled them backward
+with the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of
+the Spaniards attacked them fiercely, and the roar
+of war spread far through the gloom of the night.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot;
+onward creaked and rumbled the artillery and the
+wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was
+reached while the rear files were not yet across the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+first. The Spaniards had made a fatal mistake in
+bringing with them only one bridge. When the
+last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous
+effort was made to raise it and carry it to
+the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of men,
+horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the
+earth and stones that it could not be moved. Every
+nerve was strained to lift the heavy mass, until,
+many of the workmen being killed and all wounded
+by the torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced
+to abandon it.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the dread tidings that the bridge could not
+be raised spread through the crowded host, a cry
+of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of
+conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before
+them lay a deep and yawning ditch. Behind them
+pressed an army of assailants. On each side hundreds
+of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding
+foes who rushed in fury upon their crowded ranks.
+All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at an end.
+Every one thought only of saving his own life,
+without regard to the weak or wounded. The
+leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf, were
+pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in
+front dashed into the water and swam across, but
+some of the horses failed to climb the steep and
+slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad
+riders headlong into the lake.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After them pell mell came the infantry, some
+seeking to swim, others forced into the water to
+sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded
+or stunned, dragged into the canoes and carried
+away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god of the
+pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway,
+from ditch to ditch, the contest raged fearfully.
+The Aztecs, satisfied that they had now got their
+detested foes in their power, fought like demons,
+grappling with the Christians and rolling with them
+down the sloping way together; seeking to take
+their enemies alive that they might be kept for the
+bloody sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the
+cries of vengeance and groans of agony, the prayers
+to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled the
+screams of women, of whom there were several,
+both Spaniard and Indian, in the Christian ranks.
+One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as valiantly
+as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword
+and target in the thickest of the fray, and
+proving herself as valiant a soldier as the best.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at
+rest. He was everywhere, ordering, fighting, inspiring,
+seeking to restore the lost discipline to his
+ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal
+ditch could be crossed, and feeling that life must be
+considered before wealth, he hurried forward everything,
+heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans,
+and hurled them into the water along with
+the spoil of the Spaniards, bales of costly goods,
+chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve
+to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+bodies of men and horses, drowned in that deadly
+ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across
+which the survivors stumbled and clambered until
+they reached the other side.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch
+that was fordable, and here, with the water up to
+his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out of confusion,
+and called his followers to this path to safety.
+But his voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a
+few cavaliers who kept with him, he pressed forward
+to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite
+page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his
+side.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval,
+who, with about twenty other cavaliers, had led the
+van, composed of two hundred Spanish foot-soldiers.
+They were halted before the third and final breach
+in the causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those
+which had been passed. Fortunately it was not so
+closely beset by the enemy, who were still engaged
+with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers
+plunged without hesitation into the water, followed
+by the foot, some swimming, some clinging desperately
+to the manes and tails of the horses, some
+carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal
+gold with which they were heavily laden. On
+leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended
+themselves, much of the gold which they
+had gathered was necessarily abandoned. Cortez
+told the soldiers to take what they wished of it,
+but warned them not to overload themselves, saying,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+"He travels safest in the dark night who
+travels lightest." Many of those who failed to
+regard this wise counsel paid for their cupidity
+with their death.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those who safely passed this final ditch were at
+the end of their immediate peril. Soon they were
+off the causeway and on solid ground, where the roar
+of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But
+word came to them that the rear-guard was in
+imminent danger and would be overwhelmed unless
+relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return,
+but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not
+hesitate when this cry for aid was heard. Turning
+their horses, they galloped back, pushed through
+the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the
+thick of the fight on the opposite section of the
+causeway.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The night was now passing, and the first gray
+light of day was visible in the east. By its dim
+illumination the frightful combat could be seen in
+all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead
+bodies of Christian or pagan; the dark masses of
+the warriors could be seen locked in deadly struggle
+crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the
+lake, far and near, was crowded with canoes, filled
+with armed and ardent Aztec warriors, yelling their
+triumphant war-cry.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who
+led the rear, unhorsed and wounded, yet fighting
+like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him
+safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+him. With a handful of followers he was desperately
+striving to repel the overwhelming tide of
+the enemy which was pouring on him along the
+causeway, a dozen of the Indians falling for every
+Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work
+in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the
+assault had carried the Aztecs up to and over the
+guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict remained.
+The charge of the returning cavaliers created a
+temporary check, and a feeble rally was made, but
+the flood of foes soon came on again and drove
+them resistlessly back.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to
+plunge once more into the canal, not all of them
+this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink
+for a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind
+him and deadly peril before. He was a man of
+great strength and agility, and despair now gave
+him courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the
+wreck that strewed the bottom, he sprang vigorously
+forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound,
+a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement,
+the natives exclaiming, as they beheld the seemingly
+impossible leap, "This is truly the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tonatiuh</span></span>,—the
+child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado
+from his fair features and flaxen hair. How
+great the leap was no one has told us, though the
+name of "Alvarado's leap" still clings to the spot.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the frightful <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">noche triste</span></span>, or "doleful
+night." Cortez led the remnant of his men off
+the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling few,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately,
+the Aztecs, attracted by the rich spoil that
+strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it is doubtful
+if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and
+wounded state, would have survived. How many
+perished in that night of dread no one knows. A
+probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards
+and four thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard
+having fallen. Of forty-six horses, half had been
+slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the
+muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone.
+The only arms left the warriors were their swords
+and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail was
+broken, their garments were tattered, their proud
+crests and banners gone, their bright arms soiled,
+and only a miserable and shattered fragment of
+their proud force was left, these dragging themselves
+along with pain and difficulty.</p>
+
+<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image06.png" width="640" height="384" alt="Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE." title="AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their
+allies, the Tlascalans,—inveterate enemies of the
+Aztecs,—slowly moved away from that blood-stained
+avenue of death, now little molested by
+their foes, and gradually recovering from their
+fatigue. On the seventh morning they reached the
+mountain height which overlooks the plain of
+Otumba, a point less than thirty miles from the
+capital. This plain they were obliged to traverse on
+their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As they looked down on the broad level below
+them they saw with shrinking hearts why they had
+not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards
+glistening in the sun, their numbers so great
+that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards viewed
+them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful
+as he was, felt that his last hour had now surely
+come.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this stout leader was not the man to give way
+to despair. There was nothing to do but to cut
+their way through this vast array or perish in the
+attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure
+destruction. Fortunately, they had rested for two
+nights and a day, and men and horses had regained
+much of their old strength. Without hesitation,
+Cortez prepared for the onset, giving his force as
+broad a front as possible, and guarding its flanks
+with his little body of horse, now twenty in all.
+Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which
+he told them of the victories they had won, and
+with orders to his men to thrust, not strike, with
+their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to
+lose their lances, and to strike at the faces of the foe,
+he gave the word to advance.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At first the natives recoiled from the stern and
+fierce onset, rolling back till they left a wide lane for
+the passage of their foes. But they quickly rallied
+and poured on the little band in their midst, until it
+seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible
+fray followed, the Christians, as one writer says,
+standing "like an islet against which the breakers,
+roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain."
+The struggle was one of man to man, the Tlascalans<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and Spaniards alike fighting with obstinate courage,
+while the little band of horsemen charged deep into
+the enemy's ranks, riding over them and cutting
+them down with thrust and blow, their onset giving
+fresh spirit to the infantry.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But that so small a force could cut their way
+through that enormous multitude of armed and
+valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes
+lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and
+some of the Spaniards were slain, and not a man
+among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received
+a cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly
+that he was forced to dismount and exchange it for
+a strong animal from the baggage-train. The fight
+went on thus for several hours, the sun growing
+hotter as it rose in the sky, and the Christians, weak
+from their late wounds, gradually losing strength and
+spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers,
+forcing the horse back on the foot, and throwing
+the latter into some disorder. With every
+minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it
+seemed as if nothing were left but to sell their lives
+as dearly as possible.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this critical juncture a happy chance changed
+the whole fortune of the day. Cortez, gazing with
+eagle eye around the field in search of some vision
+of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great
+distance in the midst of the throng a splendidly
+dressed chief, who was borne in a rich litter and surrounded
+by a gayly attired body of young warriors.
+A head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+gems, rose above him, and over this again was a
+short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of the
+Aztecs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The instant Cortez beheld this person and his
+emblem his eye lighted with triumph. He knew
+him for the commander of the foe, and the golden
+net as its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers
+beside him, he pointed eagerly to the chief,
+exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!"
+Then, shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into
+the thick of the foe. Sandoval, Alvarado, and others
+spurred furiously after him, while the enemy fell
+back before this sudden and fierce assault.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid
+ranks, strewing their path with the dead and dying,
+bearing down all who opposed them. A few minutes
+of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot
+on which were the Aztec chief and his body-guard.
+Thrusting and cutting with tiger-like strength and
+ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of
+young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian
+commander, piercing him with his lance and hurling
+him to the ground. A young cavalier beside him,
+Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and
+despatched the fallen chief. Then he tore away the
+banner and handed it to Cortez.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this was the work almost of a moment. Its
+effect was remarkable. The guard, overwhelmed
+by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was
+quickly communicated to their comrades. The
+tidings spread rapidly. The banner of the chief<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness
+of panic suddenly infected the whole host,
+which broke and fled in wild terror and confusion.
+The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in
+taking advantage of this new aspect of affairs.
+Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they dashed
+in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them
+down by hundreds as they fled. Not until they had
+amply repaid their losses on the bloody causeway
+did they return to gather up the booty which
+strewed the field. It was great, for, in accordance
+with Cortez's instructions, they had struck especially
+at the chiefs, and many of these were richly
+ornamented with gold and jewels.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the
+most remarkable victory, in view of the great disparity
+of forces, ever won in the New World.
+Chance gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a
+chance made useful only by the genius of a great
+commander. The following day the fugitive army
+reached the soil of Tlascala and were safe among
+their friends. History has not a more heroic story
+to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec capital,
+nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent
+return and conquest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a>
+<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great expedition to the land of gold, which
+Vasco Nuñez de Balboa had planned to make, was
+left by his death to be carried out by one of his
+companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the
+renowned Francisco Pizarro. It was an expedition
+full of romantic adventure, replete with peril and
+suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring
+deeds. But we must pass over all the earlier of
+these and come at once to the climax of the whole
+striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the
+Inca of Peru in the midst of his army and the tale
+of his incredible ransom.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro,
+from the time when, with one small vessel and
+about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed
+from Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great
+unknown Pacific, to the time when, in 1531, he
+sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and
+about thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru,
+which he designed to conquer as Cortez had conquered
+Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was
+this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military
+merits of courage, enterprise, daring and persistency,
+and these qualities carried him through sufferings
+and adversities that would have discouraged<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+almost any man and brought him to magical success
+in the end. It was the beacon of gold that lured
+him on through desperate enterprises and deadly
+perils and led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish
+adventurers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Landing and capturing a point on the coast of
+Peru, he marched with his handful of bold followers,
+his horses and guns, eastward into the empire,
+crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the
+Andes, and reached the city of Caxamalca. Close
+by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped
+with an army, for a civil war between him and his
+brother Huascar had just ended in the defeat and
+imprisonment of the latter.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Desperate was the situation of the small body of
+Spanish soldiers, when, in the late afternoon of the
+15th of November, 1532, they marched into Caxamalca,
+which they found empty of inhabitants.
+About one hundred more men, with arms and horses,
+had joined them, but in a military sense they were
+but a handful still, and they had every reason to
+dread the consequences of their rash enterprise.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All seemed threatening,—the desertion of the city
+by its people, the presence of the Inca, with a
+powerful army, within a league's distance, the
+probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the
+Spaniards had to rely on were their arms,—cannon,
+muskets and swords of steel,—new and terrible
+weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose
+evolutions had elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian
+with dismay. Yet what were these in the hands of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+less than three hundred men, in the presence of a
+strong and victorious army? Filled with anxiety,
+Pizarro at once despatched a body of horsemen, led
+by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier
+Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers
+as this strange cavalcade, with clang of arms and
+blast of trumpet, swept by, man and horse seeming
+like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes.
+De Soto, the best mounted of them all, showed his
+command of his steed in the Inca's presence, by
+riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful
+curves, and displaying all the vigor and beauty of
+skilled horsemanship, finally checking the noble
+animal in full career when so near the Inca that
+some of the foam from its lips was thrown on the
+royal garments. Yet, while many of those near
+drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an
+unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every
+show of dread, if any such inspired him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the
+Spaniards had brought, "Tell your captain that I
+am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow morning.
+I will then visit him with my chieftains.
+Meanwhile, let him occupy the public buildings on
+the square, and no other."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards,
+but these they declined, as they did not wish to
+dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the
+sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of
+great size brought by beautiful maidens. Then they<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+rode slowly back, despondent at what they had seen,—the
+haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength
+and discipline of his army.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout
+the camp, which were increased as its occupants
+saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army, glittering
+on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars
+in heaven." Scarcely a man among them except
+Pizarro retained his courage; but he went round
+among his men, bidding them to keep up their
+spirits, and saying that Providence would not
+desert them if they trusted to their strength and
+their cause, as Christians against pagans. They
+were in Heaven's service and God would aid them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He then called a council of his officers and unfolded
+to them a desperate plan he had conceived.
+This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the
+Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding
+him as a hostage for the safety of the Christians.
+Nothing less decisive than this would avail them,
+he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first
+sign of such a movement the army of the Inca
+would be upon them, and they would all be destroyed,
+either there or in the intricacies of the
+mountain-passes. Nor could they remain inactive
+where they were. The Inca was crafty and hostile,
+and would soon surround them with a net-work of
+peril, from which they could not escape. To fight
+him in the open field was hazardous, if not hopeless.
+The only thing to do was to take him by surprise
+on his visit the next day, drive back his followers<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+with death and terror, seize the monarch,
+and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their
+hands his followers would not dare attack them, and
+they would be practically masters of the empire.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that
+which Cortez had pursued in Mexico. He would
+take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by
+his own people, as Montezuma had been, and while
+the monarch remained alive they would have the
+strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan
+suited the daring character of Pizarro's officers.
+They agreed with him that in boldness lay their
+only hope of success or even of life, and they left
+the council with renewed confidence to prepare for
+the desperate enterprise.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared,
+his litter borne on the shoulders of his chief nobles
+and surrounded by others, so glittering with ornaments
+that, to quote from one of the Spaniards,
+"they blazed like the sun." A large number of
+workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish
+from the road. Behind, and through the fields that
+lined the road, marched a great body of armed men.
+But when within half a mile of the city the procession
+halted, and a messenger was sent to the
+Spaniards to say that the Inca would encamp there
+for that night and enter the city the following
+morning.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His
+men had been under arms since daybreak, the
+cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+at their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits
+of a long and trying suspense in such a critical situation,
+and sent word back to the Inca begging
+him to come on, as he had everything ready for his
+entertainment and expected to sup with him that
+night. This message turned the monarch from his
+purpose, and he resumed his march, though the
+bulk of his army was left behind, only a group of
+unarmed men accompanying him. He evidently
+had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little
+did he know them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was near the hour of sunset when the procession
+reached the city, several thousand Indians
+marching into the great square, borne high above
+whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a
+kind of throne made of massive gold, while a collar
+of emeralds of great size and beauty encircled his
+neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He
+looked around him with surprise, as there was not
+a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in tones of annoyance,
+"Where are the strangers?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this moment Pizarro' s chaplain, a Dominican
+friar, came forward, with Bible and crucifix in hand,
+and began to expound to him the Christian doctrines,
+ending by asking him to acknowledge himself
+a vassal of the king of Spain. The Inca, when
+by aid of the interpreter he had gained a glimpse
+of the priest's meaning, answered him with high
+indignation, and when the friar handed him the
+Bible as the authority for his words, he flung it
+angrily to the earth, exclaiming,—</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an
+account of their doings in my land. I will not go
+from here till they have made me full satisfaction
+for all the wrongs they have committed."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened
+to Pizarro, told him what had been said, and cried
+out,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Do you not see that while we stand here
+wasting our breath in talking with this dog, full of
+pride as he is, the fields are filling with Indians?
+Set on, at once; I absolve you."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal
+agreed upon. A gun was fired from the fortress.
+Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and at
+them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into
+the square. From every avenue of the great building
+they occupied poured armed men, horse and
+foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians.
+Taken utterly by surprise, the latter were hurled
+back in confusion. Their ranks rent by the balls
+from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled
+under foot by the fierce charges of the cavalry,
+pierced by lances or cut down by swords, they were
+driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as
+they wildly sought to escape.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The massacre went on with especial intensity
+around the Inca, his nobles, none of them armed,
+struggling with what strength they could in his
+defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at
+the Inca!" shouted Pizarro, fearing his valued
+prize might be slain in the wild tumult. Fiercer<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter
+swayed back and forth, and, as some of its bearers
+were slain, it was overturned, the monarch being
+saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some
+others, who caught him in their arms. With all
+haste they bore him into the fortress and put him
+under close guard.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at
+an end. The unarmed Peruvians fled in terror from
+the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the fields were
+seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and
+dispersed in all directions, pursued by the Spanish
+cavalry, who cut them down without mercy. Not
+till night had fallen did Pizarro's men cease the
+pursuit and return at the call of the trumpet to
+the bloody square of Caxamalca. In that frightful
+massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps
+many more, were slain, the most of them
+unarmed and helpless. That night Pizarro kept his
+word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it
+was a supper at which he might well have drunk
+blood. The banquet was served in one of the halls
+facing the great square, then thickly paved with
+the dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity,
+sitting beside his captor at the dread meal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular
+scene in that strange drama, one which proved that
+the Spaniards had truly at length reached the
+"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner
+before he discovered the besetting passion of the
+Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was sent<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a
+rich booty in gold and silver, whose weight and
+value filled the conquerors with delight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping
+from his captivity, the Inca one day said to Pizarro
+that if he would agree to set him free, he would
+cover the floor of the room in which they stood
+with gold. Pizarro listened with a smile of doubt.
+As he made no answer, the Inca said, earnestly,
+that "he would not merely cover the floor, but
+would fill the room with gold as high as he could
+reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he put his uplifted
+hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer
+filled Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such
+a thing could be done seemed utterly incredible,
+despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru.
+The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent
+offer, hastened to accept it, drawing a red line
+along the wall at the height the Inca had touched.
+How remarkable the ransom was may be judged
+from the fact that the room was about seventeen
+feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the mark on
+the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca
+offered to fill an adjoining but smaller room twice
+full with silver, and to do all this in the short time
+of two months. It would seem that he would need
+Aladdin's wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and
+surprising a task.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the
+Inca sent messengers to Cuzco, his capital city, and
+to the other principal places in his kingdom, with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils
+from his palaces and from the temples and other
+public buildings, and transport them in all haste to
+Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the
+monarch was treated with the fullest respect due to
+his rank, having his own private apartments and
+the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted
+to visit him freely. The only thing the
+Spaniards took good care of was that he should be
+kept under close guard.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He took one advantage of his measure of liberty.
+His brother and rival, Huascar, though a captive,
+might escape and seize the control of the state, and
+he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message
+to Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a
+much larger ransom than that promised by Atahualpa.
+The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to
+remove this danger from his path, if we may accept
+the evidence of his captors. At any rate the royal
+captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his
+dying breath that his rival would not long survive
+him, but that the white men would avenge his
+murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of
+great sorrow and indignation, of his brother's death,
+and when the Spaniard threatened to hold him
+responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had
+been done without his knowledge or consent by
+Huascar's keepers, who feared that their captive
+might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon
+afterward learned that the news was true. It may
+be that he was well satisfied with the fact, as it<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+removed a leading claimant for the throne from his
+path.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in—slowly,
+for the distances were great, and the treasure had
+to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of it
+consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate,
+some of them weighing from fifty to seventy-five
+pounds. The Spaniards beheld with gleaming eyes
+the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the
+shoulders of Indian porters, and carefully stored
+away under guard. On some days articles to the
+value of half a million dollars are said to have been
+brought in.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus
+brought before them did not satisfy the avaricious
+impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance
+for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect
+the Inca of delaying the ransom until he could
+prepare a rising of his subjects against the strangers.
+When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was
+filled with surprise and indignation. "Not a man
+of my subjects would dare raise a finger without
+my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at
+your disposal? What better security would you
+have of my good faith?" He ended by advising
+him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where
+they could see for themselves how his orders were
+being obeyed. He would give them a safe-conduct,
+and they could superintend the work themselves.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The three envoys sent were carried the whole
+distance of more than six hundred miles in litters<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+by relays of carriers, their route laying along the
+great military road of Peru and through many
+populous towns. Cuzco they found to be a large
+and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun
+was covered with plates of gold, which, by the
+Inca's orders, were being torn off. There were
+seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice
+of pure gold ran round the building. But this was
+so deeply set in the stone that it could not be removed.
+On their return, these messengers brought
+with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides
+great quantities of silver.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca,
+far surpassing any paid by any other captive in the
+world's history, was gathered in. The gold received
+came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought
+into goblets, ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms
+for ornament or use, utensils for temple or palace,
+tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices,
+and curious imitations of plants and animals. The
+most beautiful and artistic of these was the representation
+of Indian corn, the ear of gold being
+sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich
+tassels were made of the same precious metal.
+Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a
+sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the
+same metal playing in the waters at its base. Some
+of these objects were so beautifully wrought as to
+compare favorably with the work of skilled European
+artists.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The treasure gathered was measured in the room<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in its original form, this being the compact, but
+even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum
+equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of
+dollars, with a large value in silver in addition. All
+this was melted down into ingots and divided among
+the conquerors, with the exception of the royal
+fifth, reserved for the King of Spain. The latter
+included many of the most curious works of art.
+The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less
+than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers
+received what was wealth to them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the
+Inca? Was he given his liberty, in accordance
+with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such
+men as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they
+have injured and have reason to fear. The total
+ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought
+in, but the impatient Spaniards had divided the
+spoil without waiting for the whole, and the Inca
+demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief
+friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his
+demand, but could get from him no direct reply.
+His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over
+some dark project.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon rumors became current among the soldiers
+of a design of revolt entertained by the natives.
+These spread and grew until an immense army was
+conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the
+instigator of the supposed rising, and was charged
+with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had little
+effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+while many of the soldiers began to demand the life
+of the Inca. To those demands Pizarro did not
+turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own
+instigation.</p>
+
+<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image07.png" width="640" height="340" alt="Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO." title="DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a
+strong friend of the captive, was absent. De Soto,
+another of his friends, was sent at the head of an
+expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles
+away, where it was said the natives were in arms.
+Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to
+yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to
+bring Atahualpa to trial on the charges against him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain
+Almagro as the judges, an attorney-general
+being appointed for the crown and counsel for the
+prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca
+were chiefly of a kind with which the Spaniards
+had nothing to do, among them the assassination
+of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were
+simply to bolster up the only real charge, that of
+exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards. The
+whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and
+was hurried through without waiting for the return
+of De Soto, who could have given useful evidence
+about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged
+guilty, and sentenced to be burnt alive that very
+night in the great square of Caxamalca!</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a sentence that might well have been expected
+as the termination of such a trial by such
+men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his captive
+at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+country, and the cruel sentence, which was common
+enough at that day, was carried out except in one
+particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the
+stake, with the fagots of his funeral pile heaped
+around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made
+a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized,
+promising him a less painful death if he would
+consent. The Inca, shrinking from the horror of
+the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under
+the name of Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put
+to death in the Spanish manner, by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">garrote</span></span>, or
+strangulation.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of
+Pizarro's treachery. Great was the indignation of
+De Soto, on his return a day or two later from
+an expedition in which he had found no rebels, at
+what had been done. Pizarro tried to exculpate
+himself and blame others for deceiving him, but
+these told him to his face that he alone was responsible
+for the deed. In all probability they told
+the truth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc22" id="toc22"></a>
+<a name="pdf23" id="pdf23"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have now to relate the most remarkable
+adventure in the story of the conquest of Peru,
+and one of the most remarkable in the history of
+the New World,—the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro
+to the upper waters of the Amazon and the pioneer
+voyage down that mighty river.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers
+in his great work of conquest, three of them—Hernando,
+Juan, and Gonzalo—accompanying him to
+Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising,
+and able men. In 1540, eight years after the conquest,
+Gonzalo was appointed by his brother governor
+of the territory of Quito, in the north of the
+empire, with instructions to explore the unknown
+country lying to the east, where the cinnamon tree
+was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking
+his province, and made haste in starting on his
+journey of exploration to the fabled land of spices.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was early in the year that he set out on this
+famous expedition, with a force of three hundred
+and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one
+hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted.
+They were all thoroughly equipped and took with
+them a large supply of provisions and a great drove
+of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+say. Yet with all this food they were to suffer
+from the extremes of famine.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary
+journey. At first it was easy enough.
+But when they left the land of the Incas and began
+to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found
+themselves involved in intricate and difficult passes,
+swept by chilling winds. In this cold wilderness
+many of the natives found an icy grave, and during
+their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains,
+the earth in one place being rent asunder.
+Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the cavity,
+into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred
+houses was precipitated.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the heights were passed and they descended
+to the lower levels, tropical heats succeeded the
+biting cold, and fierce storms of rain, accompanied
+by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost
+ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day.
+It was the rainy season of the tropics, and for more
+than six weeks the deluge continued, while the
+forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag
+themselves over the yielding and saturated soil.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For several months this toilsome journey continued,
+many a mountain stream and dismal morass
+needing to be crossed. At length they reached the
+Land of Cinnamon, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Canelas</span></span> of the Spaniards,
+where were forests of the trees supposed by them
+to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the
+actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have
+been useless to them in that remote and mountain-walled<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+wilderness. Here their journey, as originally
+laid out, should have ended, but they were
+lured on by the statements of the wild tribes they
+met, they being told of a rich and populous land at
+ten days' journey in advance, in which gold could
+be found in abundance.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and
+they went eagerly onward, over a country of broad
+savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests,
+where grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large
+that the extended arms of sixteen men could barely
+reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and
+creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree
+to tree, beautiful to look at but very difficult to
+pass. The axe was necessary at every step of the
+way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant
+rains, were torn into rags by the bushes and brambles
+of the woodland. Their provisions had been long
+since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of
+swine had vanished, such of the animals as were not
+consumed having strayed into the woods and hills.
+They had brought with them nearly a thousand
+dogs, many of them of the ferocious bloodhound
+breed, and these they were now glad enough to kill
+and eat. When these were gone no food was to be
+had but such herbs and edible roots and small
+animals as the forest afforded.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on
+the banks of a broad river, the Napo, one of the
+great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from the
+northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that mighty stream. Gladdened by the sight, they
+followed its banks downward, hoping in this way to
+find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way,
+through which it needed all their strength to open
+a passage, and after going a considerable distance a
+loud and increasing noise met their ears. For miles
+they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and
+at length they reached a place where the stream
+rushed furiously down steep rapids, and at the end
+poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent
+cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the height of the fall as measured by
+the eyes of the wanderers, a guide not much to be
+relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it
+was at this point not more than twenty feet wide,
+and the hungry wanderers determined to cross it,
+with the hope of finding beyond it a country yielding
+more food. A bridge was constructed by felling
+great trees across the chasm, the water here running
+through vertical walls several hundred feet in depth.
+Over this rude bridge men and horses made their
+way, only one Spaniard being lost by tumbling
+down the giddy depth.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The country beyond the stream proved no better
+than that they had left, and the only signs of inhabitants
+they met were savage and hostile tribes
+of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady
+skirmish. Some of the more friendly told them
+that the fruitful land they sought was but a few
+days' journey down the river, and they went wearily
+on, day by day, as the promised land still fled before<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+their feet. Doubtless they were led by their own
+desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a
+vessel large enough to carry the baggage and the
+men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant.
+The shoes of horses that had died or had
+been killed for food were wrought into nails. Pitch
+was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of
+oakum the tattered garments of the soldiers were
+used. It took two months to complete the difficult
+task, at the end of which time a rude but strong
+brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an
+Indian canoe that ever floated on the mighty waters
+of Brazil. It was large enough to carry half the
+Spaniards that remained alive after their months
+of terrible travel.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco
+de Orellana, a man in whose courage and fidelity
+he put full trust. The company now resumed
+its march more hopefully, following the course of
+the Napo for weeks that lengthened into months,
+the brigantine keeping beside them and transporting
+the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country
+was reached. In this journey the last scraps of
+provisions were consumed, including their few remaining
+horses, and they were so pressed by hunger
+as to eat the leather of their saddles and belts.
+Little food was yielded by the forest, and such
+toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found
+were greedily devoured.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+a populous nation, was told by the wandering
+Indians, but it was always several days ahead.
+Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was
+and feed on the scanty forest spoil, while Orellana
+went down the stream in his brigantine to
+where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into
+a greater river. Here the nation they sought was
+to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a supply
+of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved
+company. Taking fifty of the adventurers
+in the vessel, he pushed off into the swift channel
+of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage
+which quickly took him and his comrades out of
+sight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return
+of the voyagers appeared. In vain the waiting
+men strained their eyes down the stream and
+sent out detachments to look for the vessel farther
+down. Finally, deeming it useless to wait longer,
+they resumed their journey down the river, spending
+two months in advancing five or six hundred
+miles—those of them who did not die by the way.
+At length they reached the point they sought,
+where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream,
+that mighty river since known as the Amazon,
+which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through
+the vast Brazilian forest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and
+the rich and populous country promised them.
+They were still in a dense forest region, as unpromising
+as that they had left. As for Orellana<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and his companions, it was naturally supposed that
+they had perished by famine or by the hands of the
+ferocious natives. But they learned differently at
+length, when a half-starved and half-naked white
+man emerged from the forest, whom they recognized
+as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana's companions.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tale he told them was the following: The
+brigantine had shot so swiftly down the Napo as to
+reach in three days the point it had taken them two
+months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies
+with which to return, Orellana could obtain barely
+enough food for himself and his men. To attempt
+to ascend against the swift current of the river was
+impossible. To go back by land was a formidable
+task, and one that would add nothing to the comfort
+of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana
+came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon,
+visiting the populous nations which he was told
+dwelt on its banks, descending to its mouth, and
+sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory
+of a famous adventure and noble discovery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He found his reckless companions quite ready to
+accept his perilous scheme, with little heed of the
+fate of the comrades left behind them in the wilderness.
+De Vargas was the only one who earnestly
+opposed the desertion as inhuman and dishonorable,
+and Orellana punished him by abandoning
+him in the wilderness and sailing away without
+him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of Orellana's adventure is not the least<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+interesting part of the expedition we have set out
+to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we must deal
+with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and
+unknown river, in a rudely built barque, it is a
+marvel that the voyagers escaped shipwreck in the
+descent of that vast stream, the navigation being
+too difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine,
+who descended it in 1743, to be undertaken
+without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring
+Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their
+vessel narrowly escaped being dashed to pieces on
+the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still
+greater was the danger of the voyagers from the
+warlike forest tribes, who followed them for miles
+in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they
+landed in search of food.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the extraordinary voyage was safely
+completed, and the brigantine, built on the Napo,
+several thousand miles in the interior, emerged on
+the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island
+of Cubagna, from which he made his way, with his
+companions, to Spain. He had a wonderful story
+to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks
+of the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in
+its vicinity, and other romances, gathered from the
+uncertain stories of the savages.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and
+credulity, in gaining belief, and was sent out at the
+head of five hundred followers to conquer and colonize
+the realms he had seen. But he died on the
+outward voyage, and Spain got no profit from his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+discovery, the lands of the Amazon falling within
+the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest
+feats in the annals of travel and discovery, though
+his glory was won at the cost of the crime of deserting
+his companions in the depths of the untrodden
+wilderness. It was with horror and indignation
+that the deserted soldiers listened to the story of
+Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only
+apparent means of escape from that terrible situation.
+An effort was made to continue their journey
+along the banks of the Amazon, but after some
+days of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless
+task, and despair settled down upon their
+souls.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able
+leader. He told his despairing followers that it was
+useless to advance farther, and that they could not
+stay where they were, their only hope lying in a
+return to Quito. This was more than a thousand
+miles away, and over a year had passed since they
+left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their
+only hope.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits,
+speaking of the constancy they had shown, and
+bidding them to show themselves worthy of the
+name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when
+they should reach their native land. He would
+lead them back by another route, and somewhere
+on it they would surely reach that fruitful land of
+which so much had been told them. At any rate,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+every step would take them nearer home, and nothing
+else was left them to do.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope.
+He had proved himself so far a true companion,
+sharing all their perils and privations, taking his
+lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick
+and cheering up the despondent. In this way he
+had won their fullest confidence and devotion, and
+in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his
+unselfish conduct.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The journey back was more direct and less difficult
+than that they had already taken. Yet though
+this route proved an easier one, their distress was
+greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond
+such scanty fare as they could pick up in the forest
+or obtain by force or otherwise from the Indians.
+Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged
+to be left behind, and many a poor wretch was
+deserted to die alone in the wilderness, if not devoured
+by the wild beasts that roamed through it.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The homeward march, like the outward one, took
+more than a year, and it was in June, 1542, that
+the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito.
+They were a very different looking party from the
+well-equipped and hope-inspired troop of cavaliers
+and men-at-arms who had left that upland city
+nearly two and a half years before. Their horses
+were gone, their bright arms were rusted and
+broken, their clothing was replaced by the skins of
+wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down
+their shoulders, their faces were blackened by the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+tropical sun, their bodies were wasted and scarred.
+A gallant troop they had set out; a body of meagre
+phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand
+Indians taken, less than half had survived. Of the
+Spaniards only eighty came back, and these so
+worn and broken that many of them never fully
+recovered from their sufferings. Thus in suffering
+and woe ended the famous expedition to the Land
+of Cinnamon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc24" id="toc24"></a>
+<a name="pdf25" id="pdf25"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in
+Mexico and Peru went far to convince the Spaniards
+that in America they had found a veritable land of
+magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in
+gold and gems. Ponce de Leon sought in Florida
+for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de
+Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted
+to find a second Peru in the north, and became the
+discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other
+adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of
+empire and treasure. Some went south to the conquest
+of Central America, others north to California
+and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat
+of the fancied Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for
+which it is here proposed to describe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed
+governor of New Galicia, as the country
+lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a
+certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with
+Pizarro in Peru, on a journey of exploration to the
+north. With him were some Indian guides and a
+negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been
+one of the survivors of the Narvaez expedition to
+Florida and had travelled for years among the
+Indians of the north. He was expected to be of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+great assistance. As the worthy friar went on he
+was told of rich regions beyond, where the people
+wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the
+negro in advance to investigate and report. Stephen
+was to send back by the Indians a cross, the size of
+which would indicate the importance of what he
+had learned. Within four days messengers returned
+with a great cross the height of a man, significant
+of great and important discoveries.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days'
+journey from the point they had reached was a
+populous country called Cibola, in which were seven
+great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized
+nation that dwelt in large houses well built of stone
+and lime, some of them several stories in height.
+The entrances to the principal houses were richly
+wrought with turquoise, which was there in great
+abundance. Farther on they had been told were
+other provinces, each of them much greater than
+that of the seven cities.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out
+on the track of his pioneer, eager to reach the land
+of wonders and riches of which he had been told.
+Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second
+Mexico or Peru. The land through which lay his
+route was strange and picturesque. Here were
+fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by
+mountains; there were narrow cañons through
+which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls hundreds
+of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets
+and towers.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As he went on he heard more of the seven cities
+and the distant kingdoms, and of the abundance of
+turquoises with which the natives adorned their
+persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen
+of Stephen, though shelter and provisions were
+found which he had left at points along the route.
+As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never
+to set eyes on him again.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the good monk reached a fertile region,
+irrigated like a garden, where the men wore three
+or four strings of turquoises around their necks;
+and the women wore them in their ears and noses.
+But Cibola lay still beyond, the tales of the natives
+magnifying its houses till some of them were ten
+stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in
+place of stairways. Reaching at length the Gila
+River, a stream flowing through deep and rugged
+valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was
+crossing the wilderness to the northeast, escorted
+like a prince by some three hundred natives. Fifteen
+days journey still lay between Fray Marcos
+and Cibola, and he went on into the wilderness, escorted,
+like his pioneer, by a large train of natives,
+who volunteered their services.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For twelve days the journey continued through a
+rough mountain region, abundantly supplied with
+game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and partridges,
+which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But
+now there came back startling news, for one of the
+negro's guides appeared, pallid with fright, telling
+how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+been seized, plundered, and imprisoned. Farther
+on two more Indians were met, covered with blood
+and wounds, who said that they had escaped from
+the slaughter of all their comrades by the warlike
+people of Cibola.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bold monk had now much trouble in getting
+his frightened followers to go on with him, but by
+means of abundant presents he induced two of the
+chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at
+least a sight of the land of wonders, and with the
+chiefs and his own followers he cautiously proceeded.
+At length, from a hill summit, he looked
+down on a broad plain on which he saw the first of
+the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy it
+was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of
+stone in many stories and with flat roofs. This was
+all he could tell from his distant view, in which the
+mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his
+power of vision.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That was the end of Fray Marcos's journey. He
+did not dare to approach nearer to that terrible
+people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with
+more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort,
+which, moved by still greater fear, had not waited
+for him. Back to Coronado he went with his story,
+a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of
+either gold, silver, or precious stones, the nearest
+approach to treasure being the greenish turquoise.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards
+learned, was one that might have fitted the Orient.
+He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he
+carried a gourd decorated with bells and with white
+and red feathers. This he knew to be a symbol of
+authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds
+followed him, and a number of handsome
+Indian women, whom he had taken up on the way,
+attended him. He was followed with a large escort
+of Indians, carrying his provisions and other effects,
+among them gifts received, or plunder taken, from
+the natives.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the
+orders given him, sent messengers to the city bearing
+his gourd, and saying that he came to treat for
+peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the
+gourd was presented, on observing the bells, cast it
+angrily to the ground, exclaiming,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I know not those people; their bells are not of
+our fashion; tell them to return at once, or not a
+man of them will be left alive."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious
+negro went on. He and his company were
+not permitted to enter the city, but were given a
+house outside of it, and here they were stripped of
+all their possessions and refused food and drink.
+The next morning they left the house, where they
+were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great
+number of the townspeople, all of them being killed
+except the two Indians who had brought the news
+to Fray Marcos.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why they were treated in this manner is not
+known. They seem to have been looked on as spies<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of
+the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a
+pueblo of the Zuñi Indians, though three centuries
+and a half have since then elapsed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as
+told by the worthy Fray Marcos, when repeated in
+the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a new
+El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an
+expedition to explore and conquer Cibola. The city
+was then well filled with adventurers eager for fame
+and fortune, many of them men of good family,
+cavaliers of rank "floating about like corks on
+water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any promising
+service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a
+company of over three hundred were enlisted, a
+large proportion of them mounted. The Indians of
+the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some
+small field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and
+cows were to be driven to supply the army with
+fresh meat.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Francisco de Coronado was given the command,
+and so distinguished was the cavalcade that the
+viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen
+a captain but for fear of making the command
+top-heavy with officers. It was early in 1540 that
+the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen
+arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with
+swords and lances, others wearing helmets of iron
+or tough bullhide, while the footmen carried cross-bows
+and muskets, and the Indians were armed
+with bows and clubs. Splendid they were—but woe-befallen<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+were they to be on their return, such of
+them as came back. An accessory party was sent
+by sea, along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de
+Alarcon, to aid, as far as it could, in the success of
+the army. But in spite of all Alarcon's efforts, he
+failed to get in communication with Coronado and
+his men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 7th of July, after following the monk's
+route through the mountain wilderness, the expedition
+came within two days' march of the first city
+of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on
+the hills and other signs of hostility that the Spaniards
+would have to fight; but for this the cavaliers
+of that day seem to have been always ready, and
+the next day Coronado moved forward towards the
+desired goal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the gallant little army was before
+Hawaikuh, the city on which Fray Marcos had
+gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now
+was seen to be a village of some two hundred houses.
+It lay about fifteen miles southwest of the present
+Zuñi. The natives were ready for war. All the
+old men, with the women and children, had been
+sent away, and the Spaniards were received with
+volleys of arrows.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The houses were built in retreating terraces, each
+story being smaller than that below it, and from
+these points of vantage the arrows of the natives
+came in showers. Evidently the place was only to
+be taken by assault, and the infantry was posted so
+as to fire on the warriors, while a number of dismounted<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+horsemen sought to scale the walls by a
+ladder which they had found. This proved no easy
+task. Coronado's glittering armor especially made
+him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with
+arrows and battered with stones as he sought to
+ascend that he was wounded and had to be carried
+from the field. Others were injured and three horses
+were killed, but in less than an hour the place was
+carried, the warriors retreating in dismay before
+the impetuous assault.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted
+houses. Their food had given out and they
+were half starved, but in the store-rooms they found
+"that of which there was greater need than of gold
+or silver, which was much corn and beans and
+chickens, better than those of New Spain, and
+salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my
+life." The chickens seem to have been wild turkeys,
+kept by the natives for their plumage. But
+of the much-desired gold and silver there was not
+a trace.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards
+in this country is too extended and not of enough
+interest to be given here. It must suffice to say
+that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded
+into phantoms, or rather contracted into villages of
+terraced houses like that they had captured. Food
+was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil,
+even the turquoises of which so much had been
+told proving to be of little value. Expeditions
+were sent out in different directions, some of them<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on
+their almost inaccessible summits, the only approach
+being by narrow steps cut in the rock.
+Others came upon deep cañons, one of them discovering
+the wonderful Grand Cañon of the Colorado
+River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve
+villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some
+on the lofty heights. The people here received the
+Spaniards peaceably and with much show of welcome.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by
+the Spaniards El Turco, from his resemblance to
+the Turks, who said he had come from a rich country
+in the east, where were numbers of great animals
+with shaggy manes,—evidently the buffalo or
+bison, now first heard of. Some time later, being
+brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco
+had a more wonderful story to tell, to the effect
+that "In his land there was a river in the level
+country which was two leagues wide, in which were
+fishes as big as horses, and large numbers of very
+big canoes with more than twenty rowers on a side,
+and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop
+under awnings, and on the prow they had a great
+golden eagle. He said also that the lord of that
+country took his afternoon nap under a great tree
+on which were hung a large number of little gold
+bells, which put him to sleep as they swung in the
+air. He said also that every one had his ordinary
+dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates,
+and bowls were of gold."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+yellow metal that inspired El Turco to these alluring
+stories, in the hope of getting rid of the
+unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the
+effect it had. After wintering in the villages of the
+Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed and taken,
+they set out in the following April in search of
+Quivira, the land of gold, which El Turco had
+painted in such enticing colors. Against the advice
+of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions,
+the imaginative Indian saying that this was useless,
+as the laden animals could not bring back the gold
+and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the romancing
+Indian was taken with them as a guide.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On for many leagues they went until the Pecos
+River was crossed and the great northern plains
+were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless
+country, covered with high grasses and peopled by
+herds of the great maned animals which El Turco
+had described. These strange creatures were seen
+in extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one
+day, when a herd was put to flight, they fell in
+such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it up,
+so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the
+dead bodies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they
+told not at all agreeing with that of El Turco, who
+accordingly was now put in chains. Coronado, not
+wishing to subject all his companions to suffering,
+but eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length
+sent all his followers back except thirty horsemen
+and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+journey to the north, the bisons supplying them
+with abundance of food.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at
+the end of thirty days a wide stream, which is
+thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at
+last reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in
+the present State of Kansas. A pleasing land it
+was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in
+place of El Turco's many-storied stone houses, only
+rude wigwams were to be seen, and the civilized
+people proved to be naked savages. The only
+yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one
+of the chiefs and some bells of the same substance.
+The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a cross
+and claim this wide region in the name of his
+master; and his chief satisfaction was in strangling
+El Turco for his many embellished lies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall not describe the return journey, though
+it was not lacking in interesting incidents. Finally,
+having lost many of their horses, being harassed by
+the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions,
+the way-worn army reached known soil in the
+valley of Culiacan. Here all discipline was at an
+end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues
+down the valley, all Coronado's entreaties failing to
+restore any order to the ranks.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the sorely disappointed commander
+presented himself before the viceroy Mendoza, with
+scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone remained
+with him of the splendid cavalcade with
+which he had set out.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores,
+who had found only villages of barbarians
+and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned
+empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o'
+the-wisp of Quivira and its fleeting treasures. Little
+did he dream that Quivira would yet become the
+central region of one of the greatest civilized nations
+of the world, and rich in productions beyond his
+most avaricious vision.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a>
+<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The early history of America has few romantic
+tales of love and devotion, but there is one woven
+in with the history of the settlement of Buenos
+Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all
+the historians of the time, and which exists as the
+one striking love romance of the Spanish conquest.
+It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do
+to dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the
+plea that historical critics have questioned them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may not be generally known to our readers
+that the man who explored and took possession of
+the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was
+Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had
+with his father discovered North America in the
+service of England. It was in the year 1526 that
+he sailed up the noble river which he named the
+Rio de la Plata, a name suggested by the bars of
+silver which he obtained from the Indians on its
+banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay
+River, he built at the mouth of the river Zarcaranna
+a stronghold which he named the Fort of
+the Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set
+sail for Spain, leaving Nuno de Lara as commander
+of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and
+twenty men.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These historical details are important, as a necessary
+setting for the love-romance which followed
+the founding of this fort. Lara, being left with his
+handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory
+peopled with Indians, felt strongly that in his
+situation prudence was the better part of valor, and
+strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest
+and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez.
+His success in this brought about, in an unexpected
+manner, his death and the loss of the fort, with
+other evils in their train.</p>
+
+<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image08.png" width="640" height="376" alt="Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM." title="COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado,
+one of Lara's principal officers, had brought
+with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a Spanish lady
+of much beauty and purity of soul. During the
+frequent visits which Mangora, the cacique of the
+Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this lady and
+became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that
+he could not conceal the evidence of his love.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Miranda was not long in observing the ardent
+looks of the Indian chief and in understanding their
+significance, and the discovery filled her with dread
+and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the
+commandant to keep on good terms with this powerful
+chief, and fearing that she might be sacrificed to
+this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his
+sight, and also to guard against any surprise or
+violence, not knowing to what extremes the passion
+of love might lead an Indian.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the
+fair lady out of the fort, and with this in view<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring his
+wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do,
+for Miranda had told him of her fears, and he suspected
+the Indian's design. With a policy demanded
+by the situation, he declined the invitations of the
+chief, on the plea that a Castilian soldier could not
+leave his post of duty without permission from his
+commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that
+permission except to fight his enemies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He
+saw that Hurtado suspected his purpose, and the
+removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary
+step for its accomplishment. While seeking to
+devise a plan for this, he learned, to his great satisfaction,
+that Hurtado and another officer, with fifty
+soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect
+provisions, of which a supply was needed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here was the opportunity which the treacherous
+chief awaited. It not only removed the husband,
+but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the
+wife in his absence. Late one day the chief placed
+four thousand armed men in ambush in a marsh
+near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty
+others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates,
+he sent word to Lara that he had heard of his want
+of food, and had brought enough to serve him until
+the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of
+friendship greatly pleased Lara. He met the chief
+with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and insisted
+on entertaining him and his followers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+been successful. The men in the marsh had their
+instructions and patiently awaited the fixed signals,
+while the feast in the fort went on till the night
+was well advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards
+were given time to retire; then the food-bearing
+Indians set fire to the magazines, and the
+ambushed savages, responding to the signal, broke
+into the fort and ruthlessly cut down all the Spaniards
+they met. Those who had gone to bed were
+killed in their sleep or slain as they sprang up in
+alarm. The governor was severely wounded, but
+had strength enough to revenge himself on the
+faithless Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran
+through the body with his sword. In a moment
+more he was himself slain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in
+the fort only the women and children remained
+alive—spared, no doubt, by order of the chief.
+These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent
+cause of this bloody catastrophe, four other women,
+and as many children. The weeping captives were
+bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of
+Mangora, and his successor as cacique of the tribe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman
+whom his brother had loved, her beauty heightened
+in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like passion
+was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered
+his men to remove her bonds. He then told her
+that she must not consider herself a captive, and
+solicited her favor with the gentleness and address
+that love can implant in the breast of the savage as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+well as of the son of civilization. Her husband, he
+told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the forests of a
+hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful
+nation and could surround her with luxuries and
+wealth. Could she hesitate to accept his love in
+preference to that of a man who was lost to her.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These persuasions excited only horror and anguish
+in the soul of the faithful wife. Her love for her
+husband was proof against all that Siripa could say,
+and also against the fear of slavery or death, which
+might follow her rejection of his suit. In fact,
+death seemed to her a smaller evil than life as the
+wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his offers
+with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she
+hoped would excite his rage and induce him to put
+her to instant death.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Her flashing eyes and excited words, however,
+had a very different effect from that she intended.
+They served only to heighten her charms in the eyes
+of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever
+in his persuasions. Taking her to his village, he
+treated her with every mark of kindness and gentleness,
+and showed her the utmost respect and civility,
+doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and
+raise a feeling in her breast corresponding to his own.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with
+the provisions they had collected, and viewed with
+consternation the ruins of the fort which they had
+so lately left. Their position was a desperate one,
+alone and undefended as they were, in the midst of
+treacherous tribes; but the fears which troubled the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado.
+He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands
+of the cacique of Timbuez, and love and indignation
+in his soul suppressed all other feelings. With a
+temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he
+sought alone the village of the chief and demanded
+the release of his wife.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption
+and savage joy at having at his mercy the
+man who stood between him and the object of his
+affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to
+his suit, he at once ordered him to be seized, bound
+to a tree, and pierced with arrows.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with
+anguish, she rushed out, cast herself at the Indian's
+feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her husband's
+life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado
+was unbound, but he was still kept in captivity.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined
+passions of a savage, and the fate of husband and
+wife alike was at constant risk in his hands. Now,
+tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed
+bent on sacrificing the husband to his rage. Again,
+the desire of winning the esteem of Miranda softened
+his soul, and he permitted the husband and
+wife to meet.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the days of captivity passed the strictness of
+their detention was relaxed and they were permitted
+greater freedom of action. As a result they met each
+other more frequently and under less restraint.
+But this growing leniency in the cacique had its<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+limits: they might converse, but they were warned
+against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love.
+Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda
+would not become his, he was resolved that no one
+else should enjoy the evidence of her affection.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The situation was a painful one. Husband and
+wife, as Hurtado and Miranda were, they continued
+lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the
+feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them
+avoid any show of love, and they resolved to obey
+its dictates; but prudence is weak where love commands,
+and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised
+them clasped in each other's arms and indulging in
+the ardent kisses of love.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried
+away by ungovernable fury at their contempt of his
+authority and their daring disregard of his feelings,
+he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado's
+old sentence was renewed: he was bound to
+a tree and his body pierced with arrows. As for
+Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and
+furious savage to a more painful death, that of the
+flames. Yet painful as it was, the loyal wife doubtless
+preferred it to yielding to the passion of the
+chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life
+her lover and husband.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story
+of love and faith that the early annals of America
+have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda
+has become a classic in the love-lore of the America
+of the south.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a>
+<a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries
+the boundary between liberty and oppression
+in South America. South of it lay the land of the
+Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who
+preserved their independence against the whites,
+the only Indian nation in America of which this
+can be said. Valorous and daring as were the
+American Indians, their arms and their arts were
+those of the savage, and the great multitude of
+them were unable to stand before the weapons and
+the discipline of their white invaders. But such was
+not the case with the valiant Araucanians. From
+the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro
+and the first invader of Chili, down to our own
+days these bold Americans fought for and retained
+their independence, holding the Biobio as their
+national frontier, and driving army after army
+from their soil. Not until 1882 did they consent
+to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own
+free will, and they still retain their native habits
+and their pride in their pure blood.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races,
+they defied the armies of the Incas long before the
+Spaniards came, and the armies of the Spaniards
+for centuries afterwards, and though they have now<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+consented to become a part of the Chilian nation,
+this has not been through conquest, and they are
+as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike
+years of the past. Their hardy and daring character
+infects the whole of Chili, and has given that
+little republic, drawn out like a long string between
+the Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one
+of the most warlike and unyielding of countries,
+while to its people has been applied the suggestive
+title of "the Yankees of the South."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the
+heroes who arose in succession to defend the land
+of Araucania from the arms of those who so easily
+overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall,
+therefore, confine ourselves to the exploits of one
+of the earliest of these, a youthful warrior with a
+genius for war that might have raised him to the
+rank of a great commander had not death early
+cut short his career. The second Spaniard who
+attempted the conquest of this valiant people was
+Pedro de Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an
+able soldier, but one of those who fancied that a
+handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the
+strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the
+spirit of the race with which he would have to
+deal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia
+with two hundred Spaniards at his back. With
+them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable
+force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he
+proposed to settle and hold the land as his own<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles southward
+he went, fighting the hostile natives at every
+step, and on the 14th of February, 1541, stopped
+and laid the foundations of a town which he named
+St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago,
+a city of three hundred thousand souls.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia's
+wars with the many tribes of Chili. He was in that
+land nine years before his conquests brought him to
+the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with
+whom alone we are concerned. On the coast near
+the mouth of this river he founded a new town,
+which he named Concepcion, and made this the
+basis of an invasion of the land of the Araucanians,
+whom he proposed to subdue.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this
+time was a man with the body of a giant and the
+soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of
+the Spaniards until they had overrun most of the
+country, built towns and forts, and had reason to
+believe that the whole of Chili was theirs. Valdivia
+went on founding cities until he had seven in
+all, and gave himself the proud title of the Marquis
+of Arauco, fancying that he was lord and master of
+the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was
+not yet his.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians,
+disgusted with the timid policy of their
+leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as
+their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man,
+the new toqui soon taught the Spaniards a lesson.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+He began with an attack on their forts. At one of
+these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty
+Indians employed in bringing them forage for their
+horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these laborers
+by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their
+arms in the bundles of hay they carried. On reaching
+the fort they were to attack the guards and
+hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could
+come to their aid.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This device failed, the garrison attacking and
+driving back the forage-bearers before Caupolican
+could reach the place. Foiled in this, he made a
+fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty
+cannons proved too much for Indian means of
+defence, and the assailants were forced to draw back
+and convert their assault into a siege. This did not
+continue long before the Spaniards found themselves
+in peril of starvation. Vainly they sallied out on
+their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and
+finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered
+garrison cut its way by a sudden night attack
+through the besieging lines and retired to the
+neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took
+place at another fort called Tucapel, its garrison
+also seeking a refuge at Puren.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When news of these events reached Valdivia, he
+saw that his conquests were in peril, and at once
+set out for the seat of war with all his forces,
+amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four
+or five thousand Indians. A small party of cavalry
+were despatched in advance to reconnoitre the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians
+and their heads were hung on roadside trees as a
+warning to their approaching comrades. This gruesome
+spectacle had much of the effect intended. On
+seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and
+clamored to return. But Valdivia insisted on advancing,
+and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two
+armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary
+Indians to deal with. These were not of the kind
+that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry.
+A fierce charge was made on his left wing, which
+was cut to pieces by the daring warriors of Caupolican.
+The right wing was also vigorously attacked.
+But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards
+were mowing down the ranks of the Araucanians,
+whose rude war-clubs and spears were ill-fitted to
+cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven
+back, and hundreds of them falling, they returned
+with heroic courage three times to the assault. But
+at length the slaughter became too great to bear and
+the warriors were ready to flee in dismay.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this critical moment the first great hero of the
+Araucanians appeared. He was a boy of only sixteen
+years of age, a mere lad, who some time before
+had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made
+his page. But young as he was, he loved his
+country ardently and hated the invaders with a
+bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved
+the day for his countrymen and snatched victory
+out of defeat.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the
+Araucanians were shrinking in dismay, he rushed
+into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn,
+accused them of cowardice, and bade them to face
+their foes like men. Seizing a lance, he charged
+alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to
+follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries,
+the Araucanians charged with such fury that the
+ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were broken,
+and they were cut down until the whole force was
+annihilated. It is said that of the entire expedition
+only two Indians escaped.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to
+pray, on seeing the fortune of war turning against
+him, was seized by a party of the victors and
+brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive
+begged the chief for his life, promising to leave
+Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his
+late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief,
+and this the generous boy did. But the Araucanians
+had little faith in Spanish promises, and an old
+warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising
+his war-club and dashing out the captive's brains.
+Thus tragically ended the career of one of the least
+cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty
+of his disdain of Indian courage.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in
+his veins, and was endowed by nature with beauty
+of person, nobleness of character, and intrepidity of
+soul. His people honored him highly in the festival
+with which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+appointed him his special lieutenant, raising
+him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his own.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was fighting still to be done. The leader
+of the Spaniards was dead, but he had left many
+behind him, and there were still strongholds in the
+Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing
+of the terrible disaster to their cause, the Spaniards
+hastily evacuated their forts beyond the Biobio and
+retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia.
+Here they were besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro
+was given the difficult task of defending the
+border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful
+general at once fortified himself on the steep
+mount of Mariguenu, a fort made very strong by
+nature.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped
+from Tucapel brought the news of the disaster to
+Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with
+terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of
+fourteen horsemen, of whom seven were slain, added
+to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing
+with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost
+their terrors was not reassuring to the invaders of
+the land. Evidently their position was hazardous;
+they must fight to win or retreat.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia,
+decided to fight. With a small army of Spaniards
+and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio
+and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending
+Mount Mariguenu to attack the stronghold on its
+top.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an
+old soldier in dealing with his well-armed foe.
+While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass
+of the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell
+upon them, and for three hours gave them as sharp
+a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the
+Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind
+which Lantaro awaited the foe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party
+of Spanish horsemen, with the purpose of forcing a
+passage, but near the summit they were met with
+such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it
+became necessary to support them with infantry
+and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the defence,
+endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body
+of his warriors, but the success of this stratagem
+was prevented by the advance of Villagrau to their
+support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in
+particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he
+was a born captain. Calling to him one of his
+officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see those
+thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes.
+There is your work. Do not dare show your face
+to me until you have made them your own."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company
+and fell in fury upon the battery, driving back
+the gunners and capturing their cannon. This successful
+charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce
+attack on the Spanish front, which broke their
+ranks, throwing them into confusion and putting<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three
+thousand of the Spaniards and their allies being
+slain, while Villagrau was saved with difficulty and
+at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who
+picked him up where he lay wounded and carried
+him off on his horse.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again
+the defile by which they had ascended. Lantaro
+had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees, and the
+few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before
+they could escape. The Araucanians pursued them
+to the Biobio, fatigue preventing their following
+beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their
+flight until Concepcion was reached, and here the
+old men and women were speedily sent north in
+ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the
+city in a panic, and started for Santiago by land.
+All their property was left, and the victors found a
+rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro,
+after destroying the place, returned home, to be
+greeted with the acclamations of his people.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must deal more rapidly with the remaining
+events of the boy hero's career. Some time after this
+defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild Concepcion,
+but while thus employed they were attacked
+and defeated by Lantaro, who pursued them through
+the open gates of their fortress and took possession
+of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the
+woods and the ships in the harbor. Once more
+burning the city, Lantaro withdrew in triumph.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+with much justice called, now advanced against
+Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid
+to Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia.
+Reaching the country of the Indian allies of the
+Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He
+then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio
+Claro and sent out spies into the country of the
+enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish
+horsemen were sent from the city to reconnoitre
+the position of their enemies, but they were met
+and driven back in dismay, being severely handled
+by the Araucanians. The news of their repulse
+filled the people of Santiago with consternation.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro
+against Lantaro, and ordered the roads leading to
+the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved no
+match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent.
+When the Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro
+withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards following
+tumultuously into the fortifications. Once
+inside, the Indians turned on them and cut them
+down so furiously that none but the horsemen
+escaped.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each
+time was repulsed. The young Spanish leader then
+withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped
+on a neighboring hill, with the design in mind of
+turning the waters of a mountain stream on Pedro's
+camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy informed
+him of the purpose to drown him out, and he
+hastily retired to Santiago.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his
+son of the task which had proved too much for him.
+At the head of a strong force, he took a secret route
+by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the
+Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his
+sentinels aroused Lantaro to the impending danger,
+and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his
+works to observe the coming enemy. He had
+hardly reached there when an arrow from the bow
+of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a
+mortal wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead
+in the arms of his followers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed
+and the fight not ending till none of the Araucanians
+remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew
+to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated
+the death of their foe; while his countrymen,
+dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege
+of the invested cities and returned home.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A remarkable career was that of this young captain,
+begun at sixteen and ending at nineteen.
+History presents no rival to his precocious military
+genius, though in the centuries of war for independence
+in his country many older heroes of equal
+fame and daring arose for the defence of their native
+land against the Spanish foe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a>
+<a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake,
+the Sea-King of Devon, as he was called, and the
+most daring and persistent of the enemies of the
+Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape
+Horn, at the southern extremity of the continent,
+and steered northward into the great Pacific, with
+the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year
+before he had left the harbor of Plymouth, England,
+with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But
+these had been lost or left behind until only the
+"Golden Hind," a ship of one hundred tons burden,
+was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron.
+Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom
+he started only about sixty remained.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bold Drake had previously made himself
+terrible to the Spaniards of Mexico and the West
+Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the
+walls of Panama. Now for the first time the foot
+of a white man trod the barren rocks of Cape
+Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific
+waves. Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons
+to take and rich Spanish cities to raid, and
+the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope
+of a golden harvest as they sailed north into that
+unknown sea.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the
+famous adventures of Pizarro, and about the 1st of
+December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili.
+Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills
+on which sheep and cattle were grazing and corn
+and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the
+natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted
+with the presents which were given them. But
+soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his men,
+who had gone on shore to procure fresh water,
+were fiercely attacked by ambushed Indians, and
+every man on board was wounded before they could
+pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched
+from them by the Indians, and Drake was wounded
+by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone
+on the side of his face.</p>
+
+<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image09.png" width="640" height="344" alt="Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO." title="THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew
+wished to attack the hostile natives, but Drake
+refused to do so.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards,"
+he said; "and we cannot blame them for
+attacking any man from Spain."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some days later a native fisherman was captured
+and brought on board the ship. He was in a terrible
+fright, but was reassured when he learned that
+his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a
+nation whose people did not love Spain. He was
+highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of
+linen cloth that were given him, and was sent
+ashore, promising to induce his people to sell some
+provisions to the ship's crew. He kept his word,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog
+were obtained.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to
+see any white men who hated the Spaniards as
+deeply as he did himself. He was well received
+and served to the best the ship could afford. Then
+he said to his entertainer in Spanish, a language he
+spoke fairly well,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be
+glad to go with you, and think I can be of much
+use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far
+south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon,
+nearly ready to sail with a rich treasure. We
+should all like much to have you capture that
+vessel."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was good news to Drake. The next day the
+"Golden Hind" turned its prow down the coast
+under full sail, with the friendly native on board.
+When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight
+that his dusky pilot had told the truth. There
+lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not
+dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards
+were unsuspicious until the "Golden Hind" had
+been laid alongside and its armed crew were clambering
+over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured
+almost without a blow.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected
+treasure, and to his joy found that she was
+laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand
+dollars in gold coin, and with other costly goods,
+including about two thousand jars of Chili wine.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the
+"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her
+disconsolate captain and crew.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast,
+in which the rich viands obtained were washed
+down freely with the captured wine, an armed
+force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose
+people fled hurriedly to the fields when they saw
+the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted
+houses and the church a fair supply of gold and
+silver spoil was found, and what was equally welcome,
+an abundant addition to their scanty store of
+provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the
+"Golden Hind" set sail again up the coast, putting
+the native pilot ashore at the place where he wished
+to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from
+him eager protestations of joy and gratitude.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers
+in this voyage up the South American coast. One
+of the examples of good fortune came at a place
+called Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who
+had gone ashore, came upon a Spaniard lying fast
+asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side,
+to their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid
+silver. The sleepy treasure-bearer and his silver
+were speedily secured. Farther inland the party
+met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who
+were driving some sheep, with bulging bags upon
+their backs. On opening those they were found also
+to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that
+returned to the "Golden Hind" with the treasure<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+thus unexpectedly obtained, and it began to look
+almost as if the country grew silver.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next raid of the adventurers was at a place
+called Arica, a small seaport town at the output of
+a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two or
+three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured
+and searched for goods of value. The town was
+not taken, for a native whom Drake met here told
+him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a
+valuable cargo, which had recently passed up the
+coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a
+small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was
+speedily under sail again.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to
+his men. "I am told she is richly laden. The
+first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my
+hearty thanks and a heavy gold chain into the
+bargain."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may well be imagined that the eyes of the
+sailors were kept wide open in the days that followed.
+The man to win the golden chain was John
+Drake, the admiral's brother, who rushed to him
+one morning, as he came on deck, with the glad
+tidings,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yonder is the galleon!"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He pointed to the far northern horizon, where
+the sails of a great ship were just becoming visible
+through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was
+the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward
+before the fresh breeze towards the slow-moving
+Spanish ship.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an
+English ship in those waters, as yet never broken
+except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon
+took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and
+shortened sail as the "Golden Hind" came up, signalling
+for its officers to come on board. Drake did
+so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when
+the Spanish captain learned his mistake it was too
+late to resist. The crew of the galleon were put
+under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be
+rich in gold and silver, was quickly transferred to
+the "Golden Hind." Then captain and crew of
+the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship
+was set adrift, to try her chances without pilot or
+helmsman in those perilous seas. The next storm
+probably made her a grave in the breakers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Great had been the spoil gathered by the English
+rovers, a rich wealth of treasure being within the
+coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was abundantly
+supplied with provisions. Drake now thought
+of returning home with the riches he had won for
+himself and his comrades. But the port of Lima,
+Pizarro's capital, lay not far up the coast, and here
+he hoped for a rich addition to his spoil. Though
+satisfied that a messenger had been sent from Valparaiso
+to warn the people of the presence of an
+armed English ship on the coast, he had no doubt
+of reaching Lima in advance of news brought
+overland.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish
+vessels were found, and, their captains being<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained
+no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay
+several miles inland from the port, and the governor,
+on hearing of these depredations, imagined
+that the stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had
+fallen into the hands of pirates and was on a freebooting
+cruise. While he was making preparations
+for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso
+arrived and told him the real character of the
+unwelcome visitor.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This news spurred the governor to increased exertions.
+An armed English war-ship on their coast
+was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and the
+wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth
+recapture. With all haste the governor got together
+a force of two thousand men, horse and foot, and at
+their head hurried to the port. There in the offing
+was the dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm,
+and offering a promising chance for capture.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and
+manning them heavily from his forces, he sent them
+out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached
+Drake's sails. But before they had gone far the
+"Golden Hind" felt the welcome wind and was
+soon gliding through the water. With his small
+force it was hopeless for the English captain to face
+the strongly armed Spaniards, and his only hope for
+safety lay in flight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards
+at times coming near enough to reach the
+"Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+varied in strength, now the chase, now the pursuers,
+gained in speed. The Spanish ships proved fair
+sailers and might in the end have overhauled the
+Englishman but for a precaution the governor had
+neglected in his haste. Expecting to capture the
+English ship in a short run, he had not thought of
+provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on
+their small food supply gave out and the soldiers
+were nearly famished. In the end the governor,
+who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order
+a return to port.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the
+English rovers. On reaching Lima he sent out
+three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But
+Drake and his men had won too good a start to be
+overtaken, and the new pursuers never came within
+sight of him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Homeward bound with an abundant treasure,
+the rovers pressed merrily on. To return by the
+Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with
+the Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous
+Englishman decided to sail north, expecting
+to be able to find a passage through the seas north
+of the American continent. The icy and impassable
+character of these seas was at that early date
+quite unknown.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward through the Spanish waters they went,
+taking new prizes and adding to their store of
+treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns
+were also visited and booty obtained from them.
+At length the South American continent was left<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast
+of Central America. About mid April they left the
+shore and stood out to sea, at last bound definitely
+for home.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched
+due northward to the limit of the continent, where
+he hoped to find an easy passage back to the Atlantic,
+but after more than five weeks of a north-westward
+course, gradually verging to due north,
+he was surprised to see land again to his right. At
+first taking it for a large island, he soon learned
+that he had met the continent again and that America
+here stretched to the northwest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was off the coast of the country now called
+California, in a new region which English eyes had
+never seen, though Spaniards had been there before.
+The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very
+different in character and degree of civilization
+from those of Peru. They were simple-minded
+savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since,
+as they lay in harbor, the ship sprang a leak, and
+it became necessary to take measures to repair the
+damage.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ship was anchored in shallow water near the
+shore, her cargo and provisions were landed and
+stored, and steps taken to make the necessary repairs.
+While this was going on the mariners were
+visited by the savages in large numbers, occasionally
+with what were thought to be signs of hostility.
+But their friendliness never ceased, and when at
+length their visitors, with whom they had established<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+very amicable relations, were ready to depart
+they manifested the greatest grief, moaning,
+wringing their hands, and shedding tears.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or
+near what is now called the Golden Gate, the entrance
+to the magnificent bay of San Francisco.
+On the 23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor
+and sailed out of the harbor. On the hill-side in
+the rear was gathered a large body of Indians,
+some of them fantastically attired in skins and
+adorned with feathers, others naked but for the
+painted designs which covered their bodies. They
+built bonfires in all directions in token of farewell,
+and Drake and his officers stood on deck, waving
+their hats to their new-made friends. Slowly the
+hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from
+view, and they were on the open ocean again.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting
+the coast. But the farther they went the
+colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak
+that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope
+of reaching home by the northern route. Yet to
+return by the way they had come would be very
+dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards
+would probably be keenly on the lookout for them.
+Only one course remained, which was to follow the
+route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across
+the vast Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and
+around the Cape of Good Hope. Drake had with
+him the narratives and copies of the charts of the
+first circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+him that it would be a great and glorious thing to
+take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and
+win him the credit of being the first Englishman to
+accomplish this wonderful task.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon
+turned to the west. Quick and prosperous was the
+voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and
+after sixty-eight days in which land had not been
+seen a green shore came in view. It was the last
+day of September, 1579.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The voyagers had many interesting experiences
+in the eastern archipelago, but no mishaps except
+that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one
+of the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and
+after throwing overboard eight of their cannon,
+three tons of cloves they had gathered in their voyage
+through the isles of spices, and many bags of
+meal, the "Golden Hind" was got afloat again,
+none the worse for her dangerous misadventure.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Stocking their vessel once more with spices and
+sago at the island of Booten, and meeting with a
+hospitable reception at the large island of Java,
+they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape
+of Good Hope without mishap and entering the
+Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of September,
+1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth
+harbor, from which she had sailed nearly
+three years before, and with wealth enough to make
+all on board rich.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Never had England been more full of joy and
+pride than when the news of the wonderful voyage<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received
+and its strange adventures told. Queen
+Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of the bold
+sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis
+Drake to Sir Francis Drake, and the people looked
+on him as their greatest hero of the sea. In our
+days acts like his would have been called piracy, for
+England was not at war with Spain. But Drake
+was made a hero all the same, and in the war that
+soon after began he did noble work in the great sea
+fight with the Spanish Armada.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc34" id="toc34"></a>
+<a name="pdf35" id="pdf35"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to
+America, and dazzling stories were told by them of
+the riches of the countries they explored, stories
+illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It
+was well known that Cortez had not obtained all
+the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro all those of
+Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures
+had been carried far away by the servants of those
+unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the northeastern section
+of South America, was looked upon by the
+Spanish adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous
+wealth. Others fancied that Guiana was the
+true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in
+gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro,
+in his expedition in 1540, had heard much from the
+Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana brought
+back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous
+stories of the riches in gold, silver, and precious
+stones of the land of the north.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder
+and magnitude through pure love of the marvellous
+or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the Indians.
+Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran,
+was a mighty city, whose very street watering-troughs
+were made of solid gold and silver, while<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+"billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were
+logs of wood marked out to burn."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence
+a mighty king. The legend went that it was
+a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine and
+then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable
+golden image. Then, entering his barge of state,
+with a retinue of nobles whose dresses glittered with
+gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending
+their tour by a bath in the cooling waters.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned
+king? Certainly none of those who
+went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish
+adventurers who sought for that land of treasure,
+the most persistent was a bold explorer named
+Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out
+thence with a large body of followers—seven hundred
+horsemen, the story goes. His route lay along
+the river Negro, and then down the broad Orinoco.
+Boats were built for the descent of this great stream.
+But the route was difficult and exhausting and the
+natives usually hostile, and as they went on many
+of the men and horses died or were slain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For more than a year these sturdy explorers
+pushed on, reaching a point from which, if they
+could believe the natives, the city they sought was
+not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near
+at hand. As evidence, the Indians had treasure of
+their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images
+of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as
+he had not seen the like in Italy, Spain, or the Low<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Countries." But as they went on the gallant seven
+hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and
+these so eager to return home that their leader was
+forced to give up the quest. He sought the island
+of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and
+there, as governor, he dwelt for years, keeping
+alive in his soul the dream of some day going again
+in search of El Dorado.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in
+England a man of romantic and adventurous nature
+named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous
+as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years
+devoted himself to the attempt to plant an English
+colony on the coast of North America. On this
+project he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune
+haunted him and all his colonies failed.
+Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and
+restore his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish
+treasure-ships, after the fashion of the bold Sir
+Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end
+to this project by clapping him in prison, on a
+matter of royal jealousy. While one of the queen's
+lovers, he had dared to marry another woman.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of
+the fleet he had fitted out came back with a Spanish
+galleon they had taken, so richly laden with costly
+goods that the whole court was filled with delight.
+Part of the spoils went to the queen and another
+part to Raleigh, and when at length he was released
+from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning
+more of the American gold. The stories of El<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Dorado and its marvellous city were then in great
+vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his
+expedition—with no gold, indeed, but with new
+tales of marvel he had gathered from the Indians.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but
+forty-two years of age, in the prime of life and
+full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of
+mind led him to a full belief in the stories that
+floated about, and he grew eager to attempt the
+brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had
+failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had
+failed, he had opened up what might prove the
+track to success. Raleigh had sent various expeditions
+to the New World, but had never crossed
+the ocean himself. He now decided to seek Guiana
+and its fairyland of gold.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A small vessel was sent in advance, under command
+of Raleigh's friend, Jacob Whiddon, to feel
+the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco,
+which was deemed to be the gateway to the golden
+realm. Whiddon stopped at Trinidad, and found
+Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial.
+But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous
+Spaniard had the English sailors arrested and put
+in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small
+that he was obliged to go back to England without
+seeing the Orinoco.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whiddon's report made Raleigh more eager than
+ever. He believed that Berreo was getting ready
+to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to
+rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+accordingly, and in February, 1595, set sail from
+Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied vessels,
+taking with him about one hundred gentlemen
+adventurers in addition to the crews. A number
+of small and light boats were also taken for use on
+the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came
+to see the voyagers off, flags floated on all the
+vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh and his companions,
+dressed in their best array, stood on the
+decks, as, with set sails and flying pennons, the
+stout ships moved slowly away on their voyage of
+chance and hope.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers
+of his day, committing what would now be called
+piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet
+left the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was
+seen and captured. It was quickly emptied of its
+cargo,—a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms.
+Very soon after a second ship was captured. This
+was a Flemish vessel, laden with wines. These
+were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About
+two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad
+were sighted, and Raleigh's eyes rested for the first
+time on the shores of that New World in which he
+had so long taken a warm interest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had
+done his agent, forbidding any of the Indians to go
+on his ships on peril of death. But they went on
+board, for all that, and were delighted with the
+kind treatment they received. They told Raleigh
+that several of their chiefs had been seized and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged
+him to rescue them. No Englishman of that day
+hesitated when the chance came to deal the Spaniards
+a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made
+on the town, it being captured, the chiefs set free,
+and the governor himself made a prisoner.</p>
+
+<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image10.png" width="640" height="391" alt="Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS." title="A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive
+on his flag-ship, treated him with every courtesy,
+and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo,
+who did not suspect the purpose of the English,
+talked freely about his former expedition and gave
+his captor a good deal of very useful information.
+One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could
+not be taken up the Orinoco, on account of the
+sand-banks at its mouth and its dangerous channels.
+He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at
+Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he
+had brought with him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One hundred men were chosen for the journey,
+the others being left to guard the fleet. An old
+galley, a barge, a ship's-boat, and two wherries
+carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who
+claimed to be familiar with the coast, was taken
+along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the
+mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers,
+and they were glad enough to enter one of the
+mouths of the river and escape the ocean billows.
+But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature
+of which Raleigh described later, in his account of
+the expedition. He wrote:</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If God had not sent us help, we might have<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+wandered a whole year in that labyrinth of rivers,
+ere we had found any way. I know all the earth
+does not yield the like confluence of streams and
+branches, the one crossing the other so many times,
+and all so fair and large, and so like one another
+as no man can tell which to take. And if we
+went by the sun or compass, hoping thereby to go
+directly one way or the other, yet that way also
+we were carried in a circle among multitudes of
+islands. Every island was so bordered with big
+trees as no man could see any farther than the
+breadth of the river or length of the branch."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this
+medley of water-ways, and only chance extricated
+the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were
+involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing
+a canoe with three natives, who became friendly
+when they found they had nothing to fear from the
+strange white men. One of them was an old man
+who knew the river thoroughly, and whom presents
+and kind words induced to guide them past their
+difficulties.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded
+banks of the stream, they were off again early the
+next morning. The river was still swift and violent,
+broken here and there with rapids, where they
+had to land and pull the boats. There were shoals
+also, which they had much trouble in getting over.
+And the banks were so crowded with trees and high
+reeds that they could not land, and were almost
+stifled from the closeness of the air.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After four hard and weary days of this kind
+they reached a smoother channel and could proceed
+more easily. But their work was still far from
+easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them
+and they had the swift current of the river to
+breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive
+day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen
+rovers in that tropical climate, where the dense forest
+growth cut off every breath of air and their
+diminishing bread forced them to be put on short
+allowance. They began to complain bitterly, and
+Raleigh had to use all his powers of persuasion to
+induce them to go on.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the country was in many ways beautiful.
+Here and there the woods ceased and broad plains
+spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid
+which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees.
+Graceful deer would come down to the water's
+edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with their
+big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers,"
+says Raleigh, "were divers sorts of fruits good to
+eat; flowers, too, and trees of such variety as were
+sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed
+ourselves many times with the fruits of the
+country, and sometimes with fowls and fish. We
+saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson,
+orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was
+unto us a great good passing time to behold them,
+besides the relief we found by killing some store of
+them with our fowling-pieces."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The adventurers at length reached an Indian<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+village of which their old guide had told them, and
+here, after the natives had got over their fright and
+learned that the strangers meant them no harm,
+they were very hospitably entertained. Thence
+they went onward, day after day, seeing many
+canoes on the river and landing at various villages.
+One of the canoes contained three Spaniards, who
+escaped from the effort to capture them, and Raleigh
+soon learned that the Spaniards had told the
+natives that the English were robbers and cannibals.
+To overcome the effect of this story, the
+greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with
+kindness and gentleness, and to punish in their
+presence any of the men who maltreated them.
+This quickly had its effect, for the news spread
+that the new-comers were the friends of the red
+men, and they were rewarded by every attention
+the natives could bestow on them. Provisions
+were brought them in profusion,—fish, fowl, and
+fruit, great roasted haunches of venison, and other
+viands. Among these were sweet and delicious
+pineapples of enormous size, "the prince of fruits,"
+as Raleigh called them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and
+fifty miles up the Orinoco, they reached the point
+where another great river, the Caroni, empties into
+it. The country here was more beautiful than they
+had yet seen, and prosperous Indian villages were
+numerous on the bordering plains. The natives had
+heard of the amicable character of the new-comers,
+and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+they could to show how they trusted and admired
+them. With one old chief, named Topiawara, Raleigh
+held many interesting talks and learned from
+him much about the country and the people. In
+return he told him about his own country and its
+great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of
+Queen Elizabeth, before which the simple natives
+bowed themselves as if it were the figure of a
+goddess they saw.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many days were spent with these people, in
+hunting, fishing, and exploring, but, ask as they
+would, they could learn nothing about the land of
+gold and the marvellous city they had come so far
+to seek. The old chief told him that Guiana had
+many fertile plains and valleys and had mines of
+silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew
+nothing about. Finally, Raleigh decided to go up
+the Caroni, three parties being sent to explore its
+vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the
+stream. He had been told of a mighty cataract,
+which he was very anxious to see, and this was at
+length reached, after a long struggle with the strong
+current of the river.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades,
+ten or twelve in number, in the words of
+Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a
+church tower, which fell with that fury that the
+rebound of waters made it seem as if it had been
+all covered over with a great shower of rain. And
+in some places we took it at first for a smoke that
+had risen over some great town.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues,
+"or more lively prospects; hills so raised,
+here and there, over the valleys; the river winding
+into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green
+grass without bush or stubble; the ground of hard
+sand, easy to march on, either for horses or foot;
+the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree
+with a thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons
+of white, crimson, and carnation, perching on the
+river's side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly
+wind; and every stone we stooped to pick up promising
+either gold or silver by its complexion."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the return to the junction of the rivers, the
+land parties had similar stories to tell, and had
+pieces of golden ore to show, of which they claimed
+to have found plentiful indications. This story
+filled the whole party with dazzling hopes. Here,
+in the rocks at least, were the riches of which they
+had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist,
+here was the native wealth that might well bring it
+into existence.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prospectors had done all that lay in their
+power, and now felt it necessary to return to their
+ships, taking with them, at his request, the son of
+the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and
+perhaps to return at some time to succeed him,
+with the aid of the valiant English.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and
+his quest. After various adventures, the party
+reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere
+with the utmost interest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But many years passed before the explorer could
+return again. He became engaged in the wars
+against Spain, and after the death of the queen was
+arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned
+for thirteen years. In 1617, twenty-two
+years after his first expedition, he returned to the
+Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His release from prison had been gained by bribery
+and the promise to open a rich mine of gold in
+Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There
+was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St.
+Thomas, in which Raleigh's son was killed. As for
+the gold mine, it could not be found, and the expedition
+was forced to return with none of the hoped-for
+wealth to show.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now Raleigh's misfortunes culminated. He
+had been sentenced to death for treason in 1603, but
+had been reprieved. The king had him arrested
+again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded
+that he should be punished for the attack
+on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not
+like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain,
+so the famous explorer fell a victim to the royal
+policy and dislike and was beheaded under the old
+sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado
+has lain concealed in the mists of legend and romance,
+though mines of gold have been worked in
+the region which Raleigh explored.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a>
+<a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main
+was beset with a horde of freebooters or buccaneers,
+as they called themselves, to whose fierce attacks
+the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly
+exposed, and who did not hesitate to assail the
+strongholds of the Spaniards in quest of plunder.
+They differed from pirates only in the fact that
+their operations were confined to Spain and her
+colonies, no war giving warrant to their atrocities.
+Most ferocious and most successful among these
+worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth,
+who made his name dreaded by his daring and cruelty
+throughout the New-World realms of Spain.
+The most famous among the deeds of this rover
+of the seas was his capture of the city of Panama,
+which we shall here describe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from
+the island haunts of the freebooters the greatest
+fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got together.
+It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small
+and large, Morgan's flag-ship, of thirty-two guns,
+being the largest, and flying the English standard.
+The men had gathered from all the abiding-places
+of their fraternity, eager to serve under so famous
+a leader as Morgan, and looking for rich spoil under<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the
+Spaniards obstinately defend themselves there is
+something to take, and their best fortified places
+are those which contain the most treasure."</p>
+
+<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image11.png" width="640" height="340" alt="Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA." title="THE CITY OF PANAMA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE CITY OF PANAMA.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus
+did Morgan announce to his followers the plan
+he had conceived, which was to attack the important
+and opulent city of Panama, in which he
+expected to find a vast wealth of gold and silver.
+It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on
+the Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and
+could be reached only by a long and toilsome land
+journey, the route well defended by nature and
+doubtless by art, while not a man on board the fleet
+had ever trod the way thither. To supply themselves
+with a guide the island of St. Catharine,
+where the Spaniards confined their criminals, was
+attacked and taken, and three of the convicts were
+selected for guides, under promise of liberty and
+reward.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Panama was at that time one of the largest and
+wealthiest cities in America. It contained some
+seven thousand houses, one-third the number being
+large and handsome dwellings, many of them
+strongly built of stone and richly furnished. Walls
+surrounded the city, which was well prepared for
+defence. It was the emporium for the precious
+metals of Peru and Mexico, two thousand mules
+being kept for the transportation of those rich ores.
+It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves,
+for the supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of the place lived in great opulence and the churches
+were magnificently adorned, the chief among them
+being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings
+and other costly works of art ornamented the principal
+dwellings, and everything concurred to add
+to the importance and beauty of the place.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his
+men near enough to Panama to behold the distant
+sea from the top of a high tree. But he had contented
+himself with waylaying and plundering a
+mule-train laden with treasure, and in 1670 it
+seemed the act of madness for a horde of freebooters
+to attack the city itself. Yet this was
+what the daring Morgan designed to do.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first thing to be done was to capture Fort
+St. Laurent, a strong place on an almost inaccessible
+hill, near the banks of the Chagres River.
+Four ships, with four hundred men, were sent
+against this fort, which was vigorously defended
+by its garrison, but was taken at length by the expedient
+of firing the palisades and buildings of the
+fort—composed of light wood—by means of burning
+arrows. The assailants suffered heavily, losing
+more than half their force, while of the garrison
+only twenty-four were taken, many of the others
+having leaped from the walls into the river, preferring
+death to capture by their ferocious foes.
+From the prisoners it was learned that the people
+of Panama were not ignorant of Morgan's purpose,
+and that the threatened city was defended by more
+than three thousand men.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the
+freebooters, seeing the English flag flying on the
+fort, manifested their joy by the depths of their
+potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed
+to run four of the ships on the rocks at the
+mouth of the Chagres, among them the admiral's
+ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the
+vessels were total wrecks, much to Morgan's chagrin.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the
+march on Panama actually began, with a force of
+thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being
+left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty
+to seize some Spanish vessels that were in the river.
+The means of conveyance being limited, and the
+need of marching light important, a very small
+supply of provisions was taken, it being expected
+to find an abundance on the route. But in this
+the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards
+fleeing with all their cattle and cutting all the growing
+grain, so that the buccaneers soon found themselves
+almost destitute of supplies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The journey was made in boats up the river as
+far as practicable, five small vessels carrying the
+artillery. At the end of the second day most of
+the men were forced to abandon the boats and
+prosecute their journey on foot. On the third day
+they found themselves in a marshy forest, which
+they traversed with difficulty and reached the town
+of Cedro Bueno. Here they had hoped to find food,
+but the place was deserted and not a scrap of provisions
+left.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The affair was now growing very serious, all their
+food having been consumed and they left in imminent
+danger of starvation. Many of them were
+reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity.
+They found themselves also benumbed
+with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on
+the chilly river-bank. During the next day their
+route followed the stream, the canoes being dragged
+along, or rowed where the water was of sufficient
+depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food
+from the country before them, the only things they
+found being some large sacks of hides. These, in
+their extremity, were used as food, the leather being
+scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it
+was roasted. Even then it could not be swallowed
+without the aid of copious draughts of water.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only the courage and determination of the chiefs
+induced the men to go on under such severe privations.
+The fifth day's journey ended as badly as
+the previous ones, the only food found being a little
+flour, fruit, and wine, so small in quantity that
+Morgan had it distributed among the weaker members
+of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to
+seem on the point of death. For the rest of the
+men there was nothing to eat but leaves and the
+grass of the meadows.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feebler men were now put on board the
+boats, the stronger continuing to travel by land,
+but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account
+of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed,
+as if the expedition would have to be abandoned,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>when, to their delirious joy, they found a great
+supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some
+oversight had abandoned in a granary. Many of
+them, in their starving condition, devoured this
+grain raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana
+leaves. The supply was soon exhausted, but for a
+time it gave new vigor to the famished men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the following day all the food they found was
+a sack of bread and some cats and dogs, all of which
+were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the
+town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the
+Chagres, a number of vessels of wine were discovered.
+This they hastily drank, with the result
+that all the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were
+poisoned. Their illness, however, was merely the
+natural effect of hasty drinking in their exhausted
+state, and soon left them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this point a number of the men were sent
+back with the boats to where the ships had been
+left, the force that continued the march amounting
+to eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded,
+the principal adventure being an attack
+by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders
+with much valor, only retreating when their
+chief was killed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended,
+from whose summit, to their delight, the
+buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what
+gave them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley
+below them, a great herd of bulls, cows, horses,
+and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>took to flight the moment they saw the formidable
+force of invaders. Only an utter lack of judgment,
+or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could
+have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly
+starved foes. It was an oversight which was to
+prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack
+instead of to feed their ruthless enemies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue,
+gained new strength at the sight of the welcome
+herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down
+and killed a large number of them, devouring the
+raw flesh with such a fury of hunger that the
+blood ran in streams from their lips. What could
+not be eaten was taken away to serve for a future
+supply. As yet Panama had not been seen, but
+soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant
+towers. The vision was hailed with the blare of
+trumpets and shouts of "victory!" and the buccaneers
+encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the
+city the next day.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A
+troop of fifty horsemen was sent to reconnoitre,
+and a second detachment occupied the passes, to
+prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat.
+But the freebooters were not disturbed in their
+camp, and were allowed a quiet night's rest after
+their abundant meal of raw flesh.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next day Morgan led his men against the
+city, skilfully avoiding the main road, which was
+defended by batteries, and passing through a thick
+and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>march brought them in sight of the Spanish forces,
+which were very numerous, consisting of four regiments
+of the line and nearly three thousand other
+soldiers. They had with them also a great herd of
+wild bulls under the charge of Indians and negroes,
+from which much was hoped in the assault.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Morgan and his men were much discouraged by
+the multitude and military array of their foes, but
+nothing remained for them but a desperate fight,
+and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in
+front, they descended to the broad plain on which
+the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner
+reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while
+the bulls were driven tumultuously upon them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous
+failure. The horsemen found themselves in marshy
+ground, where they were exposed to a hot and
+well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before
+they could effect a retreat. The charge of the
+bulls, on which so much reliance had been placed,
+proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the
+freebooters advanced, firing rapidly and with an
+accuracy of aim that soon strewed the ground with
+the dead.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous
+charge, now turned the bulls against the rear of
+their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers
+and knew well how to act against such a
+foe, driving them off with shouts and the waving
+of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In
+the end, after a battle of two hours' duration, the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>Spaniards, despite their great superiority of numbers,
+were utterly defeated, a great many being
+killed on the field and others in the panic of
+flight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama,
+a city defended by walls and forts, remained to be
+taken. Morgan knew that success depended on
+taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy,
+and he advanced without delay against the town.
+It was strongly defended with artillery, but the
+impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all
+before it, and after a three hours' fight the city was
+in their hands.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scenes that followed were marked by the
+most atrocious ferocity and vandalism. The city
+was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by
+outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on
+fire by Morgan's orders and burned to the ground,
+much of its great wealth being utterly consumed
+through the sheer instinct of destruction.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority
+of them had sought safety in flight, taking
+their women and all their portable wealth. In
+pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan
+sent out a well-manned ship, which returned after a
+two days' cruise with three prizes. It also brought
+back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with
+treasure in gold and silver and carrying away the
+principal women of the town, with their jewels,
+had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended
+and for days Morgan made strenuous efforts to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>discover and capture it, but fortunately this rich
+prize eluded his grasp.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site
+of the burned city, many of them engaged in
+searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some,
+who were discontented with the acts of their leader,
+conspired to seize the largest ship in the harbor
+and start on a piratical cruise of their own down
+the Pacific. This coming to Morgan's ears on the
+eve of its execution, he defeated it by causing the
+main-mast of the ship to be cut down, and afterwards
+by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The return of the freebooters had its items of
+interest. The booty, consisting of gold, silver, and
+jewels, was laden on a large number of animals,
+beside which disconsolately walked six hundred
+prisoners, men, women, and children, Morgan refusing
+them their liberty except on payment of a
+ransom which they could not procure. Some of
+them succeeded in obtaining the ransom on the
+march, but the majority were taken to Chagres.
+From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello,
+a neighboring coast town, Morgan threatening that
+place with destruction unless a heavy ransom was
+sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not
+a half-penny would be paid, and that he might do
+what he pleased. What he pleased to do was to
+carry out his threat of destroying the town.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The final outcome of this frightful raid remains
+to be told. It demonstrated that Morgan was as
+faithless to his companions as he was ferocious to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>his victims. On their way back from Panama he
+ordered that every man should be searched and
+every article they had secreted be added to the
+general store. To induce them to consent he offered
+himself to be searched first. In the final division,
+however, of the spoil, which was valued at four hundred
+and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds
+weight of silver, he played the part of a traitor,
+many of the most precious articles disappearing
+from the store and the bulk of the precious stones
+especially being added by Morgan to his share.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and other acts of the leader created such a
+hostile feeling among the men that a mutiny was
+imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail
+with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders
+had shared with him in the unequal division
+of the spoil. The fury of the remaining freebooters,
+on finding that they had been abandoned,
+was extreme, and they determined to pursue and
+attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack of
+provisions prevented them from carrying this into
+effect.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to
+the comfort of the freebooting fraternity. An English
+ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica with orders
+to bring home the governor to answer for the protection
+he had given "these bloodthirsty and plundering
+rascals," while the governor who succeeded
+him issued the severest orders against any future
+operations of the freebooters.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this time Morgan withdrew from his career
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>of robbery, content to enjoy the wealth which he
+had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He
+settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy
+in security his ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British
+government showed its real sentiment concerning
+his career by promoting him to high offices and
+giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result
+this faithless and cruel pirate bore during the remainder
+of his life the distinction of being addressed
+as Sir Henry Morgan.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc40" id="toc40"></a>
+<a name="pdf41" id="pdf41"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A famous story of American history is that which
+tells of the massacre of the French settlers in Florida
+by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of the
+signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French
+chevalier Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel
+tale to tell about Brazil, not so full of the element
+of romance, yet for all that an interesting
+story and well worth the telling.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many
+of the Spanish colonies, was open to the attacks of
+buccaneers and of free lances of the seas bearing
+the flags of various countries of Europe. There
+was not an important port of the country, except
+its capital, Rio Janeiro, that escaped attack by hostile
+fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth
+century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was
+made the victim of assault. A city of over twelve
+thousand people, and the gateway to a rich gold-mining
+country in the rear, its wealth invited a
+visit from the prize-seekers, though the strength
+of its population and garrison long kept these
+away. Its turn for assault came in 1710.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In that year a squadron appeared in the waters
+outside the harbor on which the people looked with
+doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In
+fact, it was commanded by a daring Frenchman
+named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But
+a look at the strong defences of the harbor entrance,
+and some exchange of shots, warned him of the perils
+that would attend an attempt to pass them by force,
+and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down
+the coast, where he landed a party of a thousand
+marines.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His design to attack the city with this small
+party seemed folly. The governor, Francisco de
+Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese
+troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and
+several hundred Indian bowmen. But he lacked
+the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc's marines
+marched like so many buccaneers through the
+forest for seven days without meeting a foeman.
+Even when near the city the only enemies in sight
+were a handful of men led by a friar, who attacked
+them boldly in defence of his church. After capturing
+this, the daring French charged into the city
+in the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding
+hills, to which the governor's troops had
+been withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The very boldness of the assault, and the failure
+of the governor to guard the streets with troops,
+nearly led to success. Little resistance was made
+by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed
+the narrow streets until the central square
+was reached. Here they met their first check
+from a party of fifty students, who had entered the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+palace of the governor and fired upon them from
+the windows. The first French assailants who
+forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied
+to the furniture. In the custom-house adjoining
+was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was
+hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a
+lighted match approached and carelessly set fire to
+the powder. In a moment the building was blown
+into the air, and the palace, which the French were
+still assailing, was set on fire.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people were now rising, and the several detachments
+into which the attacking force had divided
+found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc,
+at the head of the main body, after losing heavily,
+barricaded himself in a stone warehouse on the
+quay, round which his foes gathered thickly.
+While there the bells of the city rang out merrily,
+a sound which he fancied to be made by his own
+men, who he thought were thus celebrating their
+victory. In reality it signified the victory of the
+Portuguese, who had fallen upon, defeated, and
+slaughtered one of his detachments. A second
+detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder
+the magazine, was set upon by the rabble and
+completely butchered. Duclerc's defence soon grew
+hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion.
+The Portuguese sullied their victory by
+acts of cruel reprisal, many of the prisoners in
+their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven
+hundred of the French were killed and wounded.
+Six hundred, including the wounded, were taken<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment
+in the prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months
+after being taken. Soon after the fight the
+squadron appeared off the port, where its officers,
+learning of the loss of the assailants, squared their
+yards and sailed away for France. Thus ended the
+first act in our tragedy of plunder.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second act was one of revenge. In France
+was found a second Dominique de Gourgues to call
+to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen.
+France, indeed, was in a fury throughout
+when the news came of the inhuman slaughter of
+its citizens. The man who played the part of De
+Gourgues was a distinguished and able naval officer
+named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was moved by a
+double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope
+for plunder was an equally inspiring force. And
+the fame that might come to him with victory
+added still another motive. The path was made
+easy for him, for the government gave its approval
+to his enterprise, and certain wealthy citizens of
+St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to
+fit out the expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was important to keep the affair secret, and
+the vessels were fitted out at different ports to
+avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual
+number of war-vessels were being got ready was
+soon afloat and reached Portugal, where its purpose
+was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and war-vessels
+was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements
+for Rio. The suspicion reached England, also,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and that country, then on the side of Portugal,
+sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels
+of the expedition then lay, and prevent its
+sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not the man to be
+caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port
+before they were quite ready, leaving the British
+an empty harbor to seal up. The work of preparation
+was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet
+sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle
+ships, their number of guns varying from seventy-four
+to fifty-six, six frigates, and four smaller
+vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,—a
+formidable force to send against a colonial city.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The powerful fleet made its way safely over the
+sea, and reached the vicinity of the northern Brazilian
+port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had
+some thought of beginning his work here, but his
+water-supply was getting low and he felt obliged to
+hasten on. On the 11th of September he found
+himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the
+city and its environing hills in full view.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet
+from Lisbon having arrived, giving warning of the
+danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts
+and eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed
+harbor, within which lay four ships-of-the-line and
+as many frigates. Had all this force been directed
+by a man of ability the French might have found
+entrance to the bay impossible. But Francisco de
+Castro, the hopeless governor of the year before,
+was still at the head of affairs, and no man could<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+have played more thoroughly into the hands of the
+French.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A
+heavy fog descended, under cover of which the fleet
+ran with little damage past the forts and entered
+the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese
+were dismayed to see their foes inside. Gaspar da
+Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known as an
+able commander, but he was old and in feeble health,
+and such a panic now assailed him that he ran his
+ships in haste ashore and set fire to them, leaving
+to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor.
+Admiral Trouin had won the first move in the game.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Governor de Castro proved to be as completely
+demoralized as Admiral da Costa. He had twice
+as many troops as the French, but not half the
+courage and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon,
+one of the chief defences, was blown up
+by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during
+the state of panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed
+about four thousand men, erecting a battery on an
+island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying
+a range of hills to the left which gave him
+command of that section of the place. The governor
+with his troops looked on from a distance
+while the French pillaged the adjoining suburb,
+destitute of tactics that any one could discover
+unless he proposed to let the French enter the
+streets and then attack them from the houses.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in this way they had been defeated the
+year before, but Trouin was too old a soldier to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries
+on the surrounding hill-slopes till the town was
+commanded on three sides, while the governor kept
+the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no
+one knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with
+scarcely a blow in defence, to make himself master
+of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns
+in place to be able to batter the town to the dust.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender,
+saying that he had been sent by the king
+of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc
+and the inhuman slaughter of his men. De
+Castro answered that his duty to his king would not
+permit him to surrender, and sought to show that
+the French had been honorably killed in battle and
+Duclerc murdered by an assassin beyond his control.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved,
+and the French were permitted to go on with their
+works almost unmolested, the Portuguese occupying
+hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the
+enemy. Trouin had already begun the bombardment
+of the city, and on receiving the governor's
+answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the
+same time there raged a tropical storm of great
+violence, accompanied by thunders that drowned
+the roar of the guns, the frightful combination
+throwing the people into such a state that they all
+fled in blind terror, the troops in the town with
+them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to
+launch his storming parties, word was brought him
+that the city was deserted and lay at his mercy.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire
+by the governor's order, but otherwise the rich city
+was abandoned, with all its wealth, to the French.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the relics of Duclerc's force, about five hundred
+remained alive in the city. These do not
+seem to have been then in prison, but living at large,
+and they were already abroad and plundering the
+abandoned city when the French forces entered.
+They had met good treatment as well as bad.
+Some of the people had been kind and hospitable
+to them, and in the sack of the city that ensued
+the houses of these charitable citizens were marked
+and left untouched.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Otherwise the sack was general, houses and
+warehouses being broken open, and quantities of
+valuable goods which could not be taken off being
+thrown into the mud of the streets. Now was the
+opportunity for the Portuguese to attack. Trouin
+was aware of the danger, but was unable to control
+his men, and a sudden assault by the garrison might
+have proved disastrous to the French. But the
+opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in
+fact, surrendering all his forts and marching his
+troops a league from the city, where he lay waiting
+reinforcements from the interior while the French
+plundered at their leisure.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Trouin was wise enough to know that his position
+was perilous. He might be overwhelmed by numbers,
+and it was important to finish his work and
+get away with little delay. But the plunder of the
+city was not sufficient for his purpose, and he sent<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+word to the governor that he must ransom it or it
+would be burned. To make his word good he began
+by setting fire to the environs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any
+price, offered six hundred thousand <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cruzadoes</span></span>. This
+was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the governor to
+a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through
+the city and showed him that he was spoiling everything
+that fire would not burn. Learning, however,
+that the expected reinforcements might soon
+arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to
+the front of the Portuguese camp, where he began
+to negotiate for better terms. The only addition
+De Castro would agree to was to promise the French
+a supply of cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed
+to collect the ransom.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to
+waste, accepted the terms, and none too soon, for
+shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements,
+led by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp.
+They came too late, the treaty had been made, and
+the new general felt bound in honor to make it good.
+So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November
+the triumphant French set sail, their ships
+deep laden with the rich plunder of the Brazilian
+capital and the gold of the governor's ransom.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The return home was not attended with the success
+of the earlier part of the expedition. Trouin
+had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his
+return, but when he came near it the weather was
+so stormy that he was obliged to abandon this part<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on its
+way across the seas, and rose to such a height that
+two of his ships went to the bottom, carrying down
+twelve hundred men. One of these was the finest
+ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been
+laden with the most valuable booty. Of gold and
+silver alone it took down with it a weight valued
+at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel
+went ashore and was wrecked at Cayenne. Yet
+with all these losses, so much wealth was brought
+home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of
+ninety-two per cent. on their investment.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The French had won in large measure revenge
+and plunder, while Trouin had gained his meed of
+fame. It was now Portugal's time for vengeance,
+and it was visited principally on the worthless governor
+to whose cowardice the disaster was due. He
+had been praised and rewarded for the victory over
+Duclerc' s expedition—praise and reward which he
+certainly did not deserve. For very similar conduct
+he was now deposed and sentenced to degradation
+and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge
+of cowardice and lack of judgment. His nephew
+was banished for life for bad conduct, and a captain
+who had given up his fort and fled was hung in
+effigy. There were no others to punish, and Portugal
+was obliged to hold its hand, France being a foe
+beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible
+misfortune, from which it took many years to
+recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds of a
+murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc42" id="toc42"></a>
+<a name="pdf43" id="pdf43"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon
+to the Black Sea, is one of the famous events of
+history. The march of the three hundred, from
+the Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to
+tell, is scarcely known to history at all, yet it was
+marked by a courage and command of resources
+as great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think
+our readers will agree with us when they read this
+story, taken from the records of the freebooters on
+the Spanish Main.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the
+Atlantic coasts, various fleets of these piratical adventurers
+sought the Pacific waters in 1685, and
+there for several years made life scarce worth living
+to the inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities.
+Time and again these were plundered of their
+wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a
+veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went
+on, however, most of these freebooters withdrew,
+satisfied with their abundant gains, so that, by the
+end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and
+these were eager to return with their ill-gotten
+wealth to their native land.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than
+three hundred in number, had their head-quarters<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the Central
+American coast. What vessels they had left were
+in a wretched condition, utterly unfit to attempt
+the vast sea voyage by way of the Straits of Magellan,
+and nothing seemed to remain for them but
+an attempt to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua
+and Honduras, fighting their way through a
+multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau
+de Lussan, one of the adventurers, we are indebted
+for the narrative of the singular and interesting
+adventure which follows.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The daring band of French and English freebooters
+were very ill provided for the dangerous
+enterprise they had in view. They proposed to
+cross an unknown country without guides and with
+a meagre supply of provisions, fighting as they went
+and conveying their sick and wounded as best they
+could. They had also a number of prisoners whom
+they felt it necessary to take with them, since to
+set them free would be to divulge their weakness
+to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed
+to combine against them, yet if they ever wished
+to see their native lands again they must face every
+danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might
+escape to enjoy their spoils.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After questioning their prisoners, they decided
+to take a route by way of the city of New Segovia,
+which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about
+one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and
+seventy-five miles from the waters of a river that
+flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic opposite<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further
+information about the route, sixty men were sent
+to explore the neighboring country. These advanced
+till they were near the small city of Chiloteca.
+Here, worn out by their journey and learning
+that they were in a thickly settled country,
+most of the pioneers decided to return. But
+eighteen of the bolder spirits had the audacity to
+advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and
+so terrific a fusillade of shots that the frightened
+inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled in mortal
+terror, leaving the place to its captors. These
+quickly seized a number of horses, and made haste
+to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued by the
+Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful
+of men they had surrendered their city.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters
+determined on the desperate venture. They
+had little to convey except their spoil, which, the
+result of numerous raids, was valued at about one
+million dollars. It chiefly consisted of gold and
+jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver, being left
+in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The
+spoil was very unequally owned, since the gambling
+which had gone on actively among them had greatly
+varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome
+the anger and jealousy which this created
+among the poorer, those with much to carry shared
+their portions among their companions, with the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+understanding that, if they reached the Antilles in
+safety, half of it should be returned. As for the
+prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and
+make use of them for carrying the utensils, provisions,
+and sick.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters,
+two hundred and eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight
+horses, crossed in boats from their island
+refuge to the main-land and began their march.
+Their ships had been first destroyed, their cannon
+cast into the sea, and their bulkier effects burned.
+Divided into four companies, with forty men in
+front as an advance guard, they moved forward
+into a land of adventure and peril.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was soon found that the people expected and
+had prepared for their coming. Trees had been
+felled across the roads and efforts made to obstruct
+all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried
+away, and the dry herbage of the fields was
+set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating
+them with the heat and smoke. This was done to
+hinder their march until the Spaniards had completed
+a strong intrenchment which was being built
+at a suitable place on the route.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the
+eighth day of their march they fell into one of
+these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards
+lay concealed on the ground and fired into their
+ranks. Though these were dispersed by a fierce
+charge, they followed the freebooters closely, annoying
+them from the shelter of woods and thickets.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+The next day a still larger ambuscade was laid,
+which, fortunately for the freebooters, was discovered
+and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards
+leaving their horses behind.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here
+the buccaneers expected a severe engagement, and
+hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both
+they were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped,
+carrying all food with them. Their prisoners, who
+had served them as guides to this point, knew
+nothing of the country beyond, but they succeeded
+in taking a new prisoner who was familiar with the
+further route.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The country they were passing through was
+mountainous and very difficult. Steep acclivities
+had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the
+borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid
+slopes to be descended. The nights were bitterly
+cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs,
+and their whole route was attended with danger,
+discomfort, and fatigue.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all
+sides by mountains, one of which had to be ascended
+immediately on leaving the town. The
+next day's dawn found them on its summit, with a
+valley far below them, in which, to their joy, they
+beheld a large number of animals which they took
+to be oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however,
+when the scouts they sent out came back with the
+information that these animals were horses, saddled
+and bridled, and that a series of formidable<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+intrenchments had been built in the valley, rising
+like terraces, one above another, and carried to the
+mountains on each side, so as completely to close
+the route.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There seemed no way to avoid these defences.
+On one side of the mountain flowed a river. A
+small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded
+the only passage which the freebooters
+could follow. The whole country round was thick
+forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not
+the slightest indication of a path could be seen.
+Yet to attack those works in front promised quick
+and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction
+they must find some way to outwit their
+foes. It was decided that the forest presented less
+dangers and difficulties than the fortified road, and
+that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement
+which would lead them to the rear of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During that day active preparations were made
+for the proposed movement. The three hundred
+Spaniards who had ambushed them some days
+before still hung upon their rear. Their horses,
+sick, and prisoners were therefore left in an enclosed
+camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and
+guarded by eighty of their number. As a means
+of impressing the enemy with their numbers and
+alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated
+at intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the
+sentinels with a great noise, and varied these signs
+of activity with cries and occasional discharges of
+musketry.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended,
+the remainder of the freebooters, some two
+hundred in number, began their march, following
+the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine
+the forest. The difficulties of that night journey
+through the dense wood proved very great,
+there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend,
+and this needed to be done with as little noise
+as possible. Daybreak found the adventurers on a
+mountain elevation, from which they could see the
+Spanish intrenchments below them on the left. The
+greatest of their impediments had been surmounted,
+but there were difficulties still to be overcome.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the
+morning light, which, while it rendered their downward
+passage critical, served to conceal them from
+the enemy below. As they came near the works
+the heavy tread of a patrol guided them in their
+course, and the morning prayers of the Spaniards
+were of still more advantage in indicating their
+distance and position. The freebooting band had
+reached the rear of the hostile army, composed of
+five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise
+on seeing their ferocious enemy rushing upon them
+with shouts and volleys, from this unlooked-for
+quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other Spaniards behaved more courageously,
+but the appearance of the buccaneers within the
+works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them
+of spirit, and after an hour's fight they, too, broke<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and fled. The trees they had felled to obstruct the
+road now contributed to their utter defeat, and
+they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an
+attempt at resistance. We can scarcely credit the
+testimony of the freebooters, however, that their
+sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The
+success of the advance party was equalled by that
+of the guard of armed men left in the camp, who,
+after some negotiations with the troop of Spaniards
+in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and
+dispersed all who were not cut down.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the freebooters were as much surprised as
+gratified by the signal success of their stratagem
+need scarcely be said. One of the panics which
+are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them
+from threatened annihilation. They learned, however,
+the disquieting fact that six miles farther on
+was another strong intrenchment which could not
+be avoided, the country permitting no choice of
+roads. In their situation there was nothing to do
+but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately
+for them their remarkable success spread such terror
+before it that, when they appeared before these
+new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but
+remained quietly behind their breastworks while
+their dreaded foes marched past.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The seventeenth day of their march carried them
+to the banks of the river towards which their route
+had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream
+which rises in the mountains near New Segovia
+and flows through a difficult rock channel, with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+numerous cascades, three of them amounting to
+cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after
+a course of several hundred miles.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How they were to descend this mountain torrent
+was the question which now offered itself to them.
+It presented a more attractive route of travel than
+the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was
+marked by difficulties of a formidable character.
+These were overcome by the freebooters in an extraordinary
+manner, one almost or quite without
+parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they
+adopted was certainly of curious interest.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before them was a large and rapid river, its current
+impeded by a multitude of rocks and broken
+by rapids and cascades. They were destitute of
+ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any
+ordinary kind of boats would have been of no use
+to them in such a stream. It occurred to them
+that what they needed to navigate a river of this
+character was something of the nature of large
+baskets or tuns, in which they might float enclosed
+to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact
+with the rocks by the aid of poles.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They had no models for such floating contrivances,
+and were obliged to invent them. Near
+the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied
+them abundantly with young trees, of light wood.
+These they cut down, stripped off their bark, collected
+them by fives, and, lacking ropes, fastened
+them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of
+gum which the forest provided. A large number<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of small, frail, basket-like contrivances were thus
+made, each large enough to carry two men, with
+whom they would sink in the water as deep as the
+waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but his description
+does not make it clear just what they
+were like.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part
+of their horses, and salted their flesh for food, all
+the work being done with the energy and activity
+necessary in their critical situation. During it
+they were not molested by the Spaniards, but no
+one could tell how soon they might be. When all
+was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty
+of which they had long been deprived, and
+entered upon one of the most perilous examples of
+navigation that can well be imagined.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found
+themselves tossed about by the impetuous current,
+and speedily covered with spray. The lightness of
+their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but
+the energetic efforts they were obliged to make to
+keep from being thrown out or dashed on the rocks
+soon exhausted them. A short experience taught
+them the necessity of fastening themselves in the
+piperies, so that their hands might be free to keep
+them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally
+their frail crafts were overturned or buried under
+the waves in the swift rapids, and the inmates were
+either drowned or escaped by abandoning the treasures
+which weighed them down.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever else may be said of this method of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+navigation, it proved a rapid one, the frail barks
+being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of
+the cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water,
+and here it became necessary to swim to the shore
+and descend the rocks to the bottom of the fall.
+Some who remained behind threw the piperies into
+the stream to be carried over the liquid precipice,
+and recovered by swimming out to meet them, or
+replaced by new ones when lost.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After three days of this singular navigation it
+was decided, in view of the fact that the piperies
+were often dashed together to their mutual injury,
+to separate and keep at a distance from each other,
+those who went first marking out by small flags
+where it was necessary to land. During their
+progress the question of food again became prominent,
+the salted horsemeat they had brought with
+them being spoiled by its frequent wetting. Game
+was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and
+the only food to be found was the fruit of the
+banana-tree, which grew abundantly on the banks.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by
+the danger of their situation. They made the most
+earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil, and some
+of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to
+gain the wealth of their richer comrades. The
+dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and six conspiring
+Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked
+and killed five Englishmen who were known
+to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies, they
+took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+on the bank. Those who saw them had no time to
+think of avenging them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and
+its course less impetuous. The cascades were all
+passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating
+or anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies
+were overturned and their occupants drowned.
+To avoid this danger the piperies were now abandoned
+and the freebooters divided themselves into
+detachments and began to build large canoes from
+the forest trees. Four of these, carrying one hundred
+and thirty men, were soon ready and their
+builders again took to the stream. Of the fate of
+the others, who remained behind, no further account
+is given by the historian of this adventure.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure
+from the Pacific, the adventurers reached
+the river's mouth, having completed their remarkable
+feat of crossing the continent in the face of the
+most threatening perils from man and nature. But
+fortune only partly favored them, for many had
+lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their
+career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags
+about their limbs. Some, indeed, had been more
+fortunate or more adroit in their singular navigation,
+but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and
+miserable party when, a few days afterwards, they
+reached the isle of Perlas. Here were some friendly
+vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end
+of April they reached the West Indies, with the
+little that remained of their plunder.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the end of this remarkable achievement,
+one which for boldness, intrepidity, and
+skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals
+of history, and which, if performed by men of
+note, instead of by an obscure band of robbers,
+would have won for them a high meed of fame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc44" id="toc44"></a>
+<a name="pdf45" id="pdf45"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Never were a people more terribly treated than
+the natives of America under the Spanish adventurers.
+The often told story that the Indians of
+Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after
+the settlement of that island is sufficient evidence
+of the frightfully inhuman treatment to which they
+were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for
+justice and humanity in the dealings with the Indians,
+but the settlers, thousands of miles away,
+paid no attention to these laws, and the red men
+were almost everywhere reduced to slavery, or
+where free and given political rights, were looked
+upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district
+Spain placed an official called the "Protector of the
+Indians," but it does not appear that they were
+much the better off for their "Protectors." It is
+our purpose here to say something about the cruel
+treatment of the natives in South America.</p>
+
+<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image12.png" width="640" height="1027" alt="Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU." title="INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied
+to their dealings with the Indians, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">encomiendo</span></span>,
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mitad</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">repartimiento</span></span>, each indicating
+a form of injustice. The conquerors divided
+the country between them, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">encomiendos</span></span> were
+rights granted them to hold the Indians for a number
+of years as workers in their fields or their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+mines. Under these grants, the natives were converted
+into beasts of burden, and forced to do the
+hardest work without the least compensation. They
+were obliged to labor all day long under the burning
+tropical sun, to dive into the sea in search of pearls
+for their masters, or to toil buried from the light
+of day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising
+that these miserable slaves, accustomed to a
+life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed to
+a killing plague.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mitad</span></span> was a law formed for their protection,
+but it soon became one of the worst of the abuses.
+Under it every man from the age of eighteen to
+fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives
+of each mining colony of South America being
+divided into seven sections, each of which had to
+work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner
+could demand the number of Indians he needed.
+In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were worked,
+and labor of this kind was in constant demand.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need
+only say that when any man was called upon to
+work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence
+of death. Before going he gave all his possessions
+to his relatives, and they went through the funeral
+service, as if he were already dead. They well knew
+the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was
+said for him at the church, and he had to take an oath
+of fidelity to the king. Then he was sprinkled with
+holy water and sent away to his deadly service.
+Deadly we may well call it, for it is said that<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+scarcely a fifth part of these miners lived through
+their term of labor.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep
+underground shafts and galleries, and passing from
+the pure air of heaven to a pestilential atmosphere,
+excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of
+strength and often of life. If they survived this,
+a species of asthma usually carried them off during
+the year. We may judge of the results from the
+calculation that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mitad</span></span> in Peru alone had eight
+million victims.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The law limited the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mitad</span></span> to those living within
+thirty miles of a mine, but laborers were often
+brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As
+for the small wages paid them, the masters took
+part of it from them in payment for their food, and
+usually got the remainder by giving credit for
+clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by
+good fortune the Indian had not lost his life at the
+end of his term of service, he might be brought
+into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a
+slave for life.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">repartimiento</span></span> was another protective law,
+which also became a means of oppression. Under
+it the district officials were required to supply all
+things needed by the Indians, there being, when the
+law was passed, no peddlers or travelling dealers.
+This privilege was quickly and shamelessly abused,
+the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain,
+sour wine, and other inferior supplies, often at three
+or four times their value when of good quality.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+They were even made to buy things at high prices
+which were of no possible use to them, such as
+silk stockings for men who went barefoot, and
+razors for those who had scarcely any beard to
+shave. One <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corregidor</span></span> bought a box of spectacles
+from a trader, and made the natives buy these at his
+own price, to wear when they went to mass, without
+regard to the fact that they were utterly useless
+to them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The oppression of the natives was not confined to
+the laity, but the clergy were often as unjust. They
+forced them to pay not only the tithes, but extravagant
+prices for every church service, forty
+reals being charged for a baptism, twenty for a
+marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial, etc.
+Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the
+poor Indians, enabled the clergy to build costly
+churches and mission houses and to keep up abundant
+revenues.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These general statements very faintly picture the
+actual state to which the Indians were reduced.
+This may be better shown by some instances of
+their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example,
+of the province of Velez, New Grenada, were
+reduced to such extreme misery by the embezzlement
+of the funds, that whole families flung themselves
+from the top of a rock twelve hundred feet
+high into the river below. One night, in order to
+escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole
+tribes of the Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves,
+preferring death to the horrors of Spanish<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in
+peril of being enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that
+a quick death was better than a slow one under the
+torture of incessant toil.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives
+had come together with the intention of killing
+themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope
+in his hand, and told them that if they did not
+give up their purpose he would hang himself with
+them. This threat filled them with such horror at
+the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit
+world, that they fled from the spot, preferring life
+with all its terrors to such a companion.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As may well be imagined, the natives did not
+all yield resistlessly to their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation
+at the quantity of gold-dust which they
+were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm,
+in the province of Canas, seized the brutal
+Spanish collector one day, and gave him melted gold
+to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst
+for gold."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In December, 1767, the descendants of the two
+tribes which had owned the mining valley of Caravaya
+descended on the white inhabitants in revenge
+for a usurpation of their lands which had
+taken place more than two centuries before. They
+settled the question of ownership by burning the
+city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and
+clubs. When news of this was received by the
+viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece
+of the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+He was prevented from carrying out this threat
+only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita Gallegas,
+whom he loved, and who convinced him
+that it was his duty as a Christian to convert them
+to the religion of Christ rather than to massacre
+them.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of
+the persecuted natives. It was especially notable
+as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca
+Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards
+in 1562. This noble Indian, the last of the
+Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in
+Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His
+virtues were such as to gain him the respect and
+esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated
+him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient
+emperors.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity
+of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corregidor</span></span> of Tuita, who had laid three <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">repartimientos</span></span>
+on the Indians in a single year, seized the
+tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own
+hands. Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru,
+he proclaimed himself the chief of all
+those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His error seems to have been in not fraternizing
+with the creoles, or white natives of the country,
+who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the Indians
+themselves. On the contrary he treated these as
+enemies also, and thus greatly augmented the number
+of his foes. The Indians, their memories of
+their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+ranks in enthusiastic numbers and won several
+victories over the whites, the whole of Upper Peru
+breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as
+they did, they kept up the struggle for a year, the
+outbreak being brought to an end at last by treachery
+instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to
+whom the Spaniards promised a colonel's commission,—a
+promise they did not keep,—the Inca
+was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to
+Cuzco, the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here
+he was tried and condemned to death, and executed
+with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with
+horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale
+became known.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and
+children, and his brother-in-law, Bastidas, were
+brought before him, their tongues cut out, and then
+put to death by the Spanish method of strangling
+before his eyes. His little son was left alive to
+witness his death. This was one in which the
+most brutal tortures of mediæval times seemed revived.
+His tongue being torn out, his limbs were
+tied to four horses, which were driven in different directions
+with the purpose of tearing him limb from
+limb. The horses proved unable to do this, and he
+remained suspended in agony, until one of the more
+merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by
+cutting off his head. During this revolting scene
+the little son of the victim gave vent to a terrible
+scream of agony, the memory of which haunted
+many of the executioners to their death.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the
+rebellious towns, his body was burned to ashes, his
+house was razed, his property confiscated, and his
+family declared infamous forever. One of his
+brothers was sent to Spain and condemned to the
+galleys, in which he remained for thirty years.
+Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to
+overcome the love of liberty in the natives of Peru.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the natives themselves, what few privileges
+they had retained were taken from them, their
+meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any
+one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal.
+These severe measures were thought sufficient
+to intimidate the Indians, but they only exasperated
+them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a
+cousin of Amaru, who had escaped capture, and
+another chief named Catari, led them in a campaign
+of revenge in which they fought with the
+fury of despair. The lives of five hundred Spaniards,
+it is said, paid the penalty for each of the
+victims of that dread execution in Cuzco.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all
+the white families of the vicinity had taken refuge
+with their treasures. The artillery of the fortifications
+seemed an invulnerable defence against the
+poorly armed besiegers, but Andres succeeded in
+making a breach by turning the mountain streams
+against the walls. Once within, the exasperated
+Indians took a terrible revenge, a single priest
+being, as we are told, the sole survivor of the
+twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+put down the insurrection by treachery and
+cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres to Ceuta,
+in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese
+of Brazil treated the natives of that land with a
+cruelty little less than that shown by the Spaniards,
+sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians
+to serve as slaves. Those who opposed them were
+shot down without mercy, and it is said that, at
+the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants
+infected with the virus of smallpox were sent to the
+Botocudos, as a convenient means of getting rid of
+that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the
+greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared.
+The natives of South America obtained
+justice and honorable treatment only after the people
+of that country had won their liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a>
+<a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the English conquered the island of Jamaica
+and drove the Spaniards out of it, they failed
+to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had
+been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought
+for and maintained their freedom. Such were the
+Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica,
+whose story is well worth telling.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First we must say something about the history
+of this island, and how it came into English hands.
+It was long held by the Spaniards, being discovered
+by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In
+his last voyage he had a dismal experience there.
+With his vessels battered and ready to sink, after
+running through a severe wind storm, he put into
+the harbor of Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica.
+He afterwards left this for a small bay, still known
+after him as Don Christopher's Cove, and here, attacked
+by the warlike natives, and unable to put to
+sea, he was kept captive in his shattered hulks for
+a whole year.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Indians refused him food, and the tradition
+goes that he got this at length by a skilful artifice.
+Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon would
+soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that the lights in the sky were under his control,
+and if they did not give him supplies he would put
+out the light of the moon and never let it shine
+again on their island. The Indians laughed with
+scorn at this threat, but when they saw the moon
+gradually losing its light and fading into darkness,
+they fell into a panic, and begged him to let it shine
+again, promising to bring him all the food he wanted.
+At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after retiring
+for a time to his cabin, came forth and told
+them that he would consent to bring back the lost
+moonlight. After that the Indians saw that the
+crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his
+crew were finally rescued by an expedition sent from
+Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of
+keeping its old Indian name, signifying a land of
+springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land of
+mountains also; if it had not been we would have
+had no story to tell, for these mountains were the
+haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons. The
+island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after
+the detention of Columbus on its shores. Many
+years after that we find its Spanish settlers oppressing
+all the English that fell into their hands.
+This was the case, in fact, all through the West
+Indies, English seamen being put in the stocks, sent
+to the galleys, or murdered outright.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell
+to put an end to these outrages. He sent word to
+the Spanish minister that there must be a stop put<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction
+of free navigation in the West Indies.
+The minister replied, that to ask for these two
+things was "to ask for his master's two eyes," and
+that no such thing could be allowed. Cromwell's
+reply was to the point:</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but
+by force, which by the same title may be repelled.
+And as to the first discovery—to me it seems as little
+reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon
+the coast of India should entitle the king of Spain
+to that country as the sailing of an Indian or English
+ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle
+either the Indians or the English to the dominion
+thereof. The Spaniards have contravented the
+Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable
+when peace is not allowable."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This reply was certainly one marked by sound
+logic and good sense. It was the rule of force, not
+of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in
+America, and this rule could be set aside by superior
+force. So Cromwell sent out a great fleet under
+command of Admiral Penn,—father of William
+Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,—with a land
+force commanded by General Venables. The first
+attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here,
+the fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards
+surrendered on the 11th of May, 1655. They tried
+to take it back again shortly before Cromwell's
+death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained
+an English island from that day to this.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is about all we need say by way of preface,
+except to remark that many settlers were sent to
+Jamaica, and the island soon became well peopled
+and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor,
+coming to be the liveliest city in the West Indies.
+It was known as the wickedest city as well as the
+richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and
+Port Royal, with the sandy slope on which it was
+built, slipped into the sea with all its dwellings,
+warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people,
+the disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment
+from heaven. There is one thing more worth
+mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer,
+whose deeds of shameful cruelty at Panama we
+have described, became afterwards deputy governor
+of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was
+given him by King Charles II. It is not easy to
+know why this was done, unless it be true, as was
+then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his
+bloody deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan,
+as governor, turned hotly upon his former associates,
+and hunted down the buccaneers without
+mercy, hanging and shooting all he could lay hands
+on, until he fairly put an end to the trade which
+had made him rich.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us come now to the story of the Maroons,
+that nest of fugitives who made things hot enough
+for the English in Jamaica for many years. When
+Cromwell's soldiers took possession of Jamaica few
+or none of those warlike Indians, who had given
+Columbus so much trouble, were left. In their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+place were about two thousand negro slaves, and
+these fled to the mountains, as the Indians had done
+before them. There they remained in freedom,
+though the English did their best to coax them to
+come down and enjoy the blessings of slavery again,
+and though they tried their utmost to drive them
+down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns.
+In spite of all the whites could do, the negroes,
+"Maroons," as they were called, long preserved
+their liberty.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1663 the British, finding that they could not
+master the warlike fugitives by force, offered them
+a full pardon, with liberty and twenty acres of land
+apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who
+were masters of the whole mountainous interior,
+where thousands could live in plenty, chose to stay
+where they were and not to trust to the slippery
+faith of the white man. And so it went on until
+after 1730, when the depredations of the negroes
+upon the settlements became so annoying that two
+regiments of British regulars and all the militia of
+the island were sent into the mountains to put them
+down. As it proved, the negroes still held their
+own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and
+very few of them killed. They were decidedly
+masters of the situation.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by
+name, was a dusky dwarf, sable, ugly, and uncouth,
+but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of discounting
+all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian
+he, but a full Pagan, worshipping, with his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the deities
+of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in
+the defiles of the John Crow Mountains, was named
+Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two mountain
+streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high
+into a romantic gorge, where their waters met in a
+seething caldron called "Nanny's Pot." Into this,
+as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny could,
+by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued
+them. As for old Cudjoe himself, the English declared
+that he must be in league with the devil,
+whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother.
+And they were not without warrant for this belief,
+for he held his own against them for nine long
+years, at the end of which the Maroons were more
+numerous than at the beginning, since those who
+were killed were more than made up by fresh accessions
+of runaway slaves.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is certain that the British soldiers were no
+match for Cudjoe the dwarf. Retreating warily before
+them, he drew them into many an ambush in
+the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were
+cut down like sheep, the waters of the "Pot" being
+often reddened with their blood. From many of
+the expeditions sent against him only a few weary
+and wounded survivors returned, and it became
+difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into that
+den of death.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length a British officer succeeded in dragging
+two mountain howitzers up the cliffs to a position
+from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells,
+hurled from the distant cannon, began to burst
+among them, the Maroons were at first so filled
+with terror that some of them threw themselves
+over the cliffs, but the bulk of them merely scattered
+and let the howitzers do their work among
+empty walls.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but
+he was too old a bird to be frightened. "Dis a
+new way de buckra man got to fight," he said.
+"He fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire
+little ones arter you. Dat's berry cunnin', but ole
+Cudjoe know somethin' better un dat."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leading his men through the woods with the
+stealthy tread and noiseless skill of the American
+Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst
+upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they
+were busy about their guns, delivering a telling
+volley and then rushing upon them with blade and
+axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious
+onset, and the shell-delivering howitzers remained
+in Cudjoe's hands.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons
+by the arts of civilized warfare, the British
+were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they
+brought from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians,
+who were fully the equal of the negroes in
+bush fighting. These were launched upon the
+track of the Maroons and soon ran them down in
+their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny Town the
+seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+but at length the Maroons, finding their new foes
+fully their match in their own methods, consented
+to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though
+only on the terms that they should retain their full
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town,
+the Maroons being represented by Captains Cudjoe,
+Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and a
+number of their followers, "who have been in a
+state of war and hostility for several years past
+against our sovereign lord the king and the inhabitants
+of this island."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to
+retain their liberty forever, to be granted a large
+tract of land in the mountains, and to enjoy full
+freedom of trade with the whites. On their part
+they agreed to keep peace with the whites, to
+return all runaway slaves who should come among
+them, and to aid the whites in putting down the
+rebellion and in fighting any foreign invader.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against
+local outbreaks was put to the test when the fierce
+Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and
+committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons
+joined the whites and seemed very zealous in their
+cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a large
+number of ears, which they said they had cut from
+the heads of rebels killed by them. It afterwards
+was found that the ears had been obtained from the
+negroes who had been slain by the troops and left
+where they fell.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795,
+not without outbreaks on their part and depredations
+on the settlements. In the year named two of
+them were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to
+the workhouse and given thirty-nine lashes on the
+bare back. When set free they went home in a
+fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they
+had suffered, being whipped by the black driver of
+the workhouse in the presence of felon slaves.
+The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who
+felt that they had been outraged by this insult to
+two of their kindred, and a revolt broke out that
+spread rapidly throughout the mountains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to
+put down the rebels by force of arms might lead to
+the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But
+it was remembered that in the former war the use
+of dogs had proved very advantageous, so agents
+were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of
+bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the
+Spaniards against the Indians two centuries before
+were once more brought into use. One hundred
+hounds were bought and with them came forty
+Cuban huntsmen, mostly mulattoes. As it proved,
+the very news of the coming of the hounds had
+the desired effect, the Maroons being apparently
+much more afraid of these ferocious dogs than of
+trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately
+sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us,
+"It is pleasing to observe that not a drop of blood
+was spilt after the dogs arrived in the island."<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Peace was made within a week, and in the next
+year the chief offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova
+Scotia, and put at work on the fortifications. They
+were afterwards sent to Liberia.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From that time forward there was no trouble
+with the Maroons. Their descendants still dwell
+in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there
+was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery
+having been abolished thirty years before. The
+Maroons were called upon to help the troops put
+down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and
+rendered useful aid in the brief conflict. When
+it was over the black warriors were invited to
+Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city
+had their first sight of the redoubtable Maroons.
+Black and brawny, they had the dignified carriage
+of men who had always been free and independent,
+while some of them wore with pride silver medals
+which their ancestors had been given for former aid
+to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons
+are now among its most trusty inhabitants.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a>
+<a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people of Europe have not stood alone in
+settling and ruling America, for the blacks of
+Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have
+made themselves masters of one of the largest and
+most fertile islands of the West Indies, that attractive
+gem of the tropics which, under the name
+of Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish
+dominions on American soil.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history.
+The Spaniards enslaved its original inhabitants and
+treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon annihilated.
+Then the island was filled with negro
+slaves. About 1630 the buccaneers, or hunters of
+wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these were
+mostly French, the western part of the island was
+ceded to France in 1697. During the century that
+followed Africans were brought over in multitudes,
+until there were nearly half a million blacks in
+Hayti,—the Indian name of the island,—while
+there were less than forty thousand whites and
+thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither
+citizens nor slaves. These facts are given as a
+necessary introduction to the story we are about to
+tell.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the white revolution in France that brought<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+about the black revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the
+States-General met in France and overturned the
+ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty
+for all was the tocsin of its members, and it was
+proclaimed that not only the whites of France and
+her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to
+freedom and a voice in the government. The news
+of this decree created a ferment of passion in
+Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had
+long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore
+all allegiance to France, and trampled the
+national flag under foot in their rage.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But they had others than the French Assembly
+to deal with. The mulattoes, or free people of
+color, rose in arms for the rights of which they
+had been deprived. They were soon put down, but
+in the following year (1791) a much more terrible
+outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There
+followed a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as
+that of France. The revolt began on the night of August
+21, on the plantation of Noé, near Cape Haytien.
+The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly
+killed all the whites who fell into their
+hands. Down from the mountains they poured on
+every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation.
+Hills and plains were swept with fire and
+sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were
+committed, and nearly all the residents on the
+plantations, more than two thousand in number,
+were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar
+and coffee estates were swept by fire.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the
+whites of the cities to repel the blacks, but later,
+believing themselves betrayed by the whites, they
+joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of
+extermination. It did not end until the negroes became
+masters of all the country districts, and gained
+a control of the mountainous interior of the island
+which, except for a brief interval, they have ever
+since retained.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This success was in great part due to the famous
+leader of the blacks, the renowned Toussaint L'Ouverture,
+a man who proved himself one of the
+greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti,
+of negro parents, he was descended from an African
+prince, and, slave though he was in condition, had
+himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to
+read and write, and also something of mathematics
+and of Latin, and was taken from the fields to become
+coachman for the overseer of the estate of
+his master, the Count de Breda.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the negro revolt began, and the furious
+blacks were seeking victims on all sides, Toussaint
+concealed the overseer and his family in the forest,
+took them food at the risk of his own life, and
+finally led them to the coast, where they took ship
+for the United States.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a
+gigantic black named Bouckman, and subsequently
+by three others, were continuing their course of
+butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them
+after the escape of the overseer, and quickly gained<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+an influence over them, largely from his knowledge
+of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery.
+This influence enabled him to put himself at their
+head and to mitigate the ferocity of their actions.
+His ascendency was due not only to his knowledge,
+but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening
+a breach in the ranks of the enemy he became
+known as L'Ouverture, or the opener.</p>
+
+<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image13.png" width="640" height="388" alt="Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT." title="SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under their new leader the revolted slaves held
+their own against their enemies, declaring in favor
+of the king, Louis XVI., and against the revolutionists.
+On the other hand, the English came to
+the aid of the whites, and the island was thrown
+into a state of horrible confusion, increased by the
+interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern
+section of the island.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued
+a decree demanding the liberation of the slaves,
+Toussaint and his followers joined the revolutionary
+cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to
+expel the British and Spanish invaders. In this
+campaign he won a number of victories, and
+showed such military skill and ability as to prove
+him a leader of the highest qualities. Beard says
+of him, "His energy and his prowess made him
+the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike
+achievements he equalled the great captains of
+ancient and modern times."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One example of the risks which he ran in battle
+occurred in his efforts to put down an insurrection
+of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a
+shower of bullets sweeping his ranks. His private
+physician fell dead by his side and a plume of
+feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained
+unharmed. The same was the case soon after
+when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot
+down. The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to
+bear a charmed life.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony,
+he wrote to the Directory in Paris, guaranteeing
+to be responsible for the orderly behavior of
+the blacks and their good will to France. He sent
+at the same time his two elder sons to Paris to be
+educated, making them practically hostages for his
+honor and good faith.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came
+to an end, the British being expelled from the island
+and the rebellious mulattoes put down. Peace prevailed,
+and the negro conqueror now devoted himself
+to the complete pacification of the people.
+Agriculture was encouraged, the churches were
+reopened, schools were established, and law and
+justice were made equal for all. At the same time
+the army was kept in excellent training and a rigid
+discipline exacted.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As is usual in such cases, there were abundant
+applications among the negroes for official positions,
+and Toussaint was sorely put to it to dispose of
+these ignorant aspirers after high places without
+giving offence. He seems, however, to have been
+well versed in political management, and is said<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a
+judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you
+would make an excellent magistrate. Of course
+you understand Latin.—No?—Why, that is very
+unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely
+necessary."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing
+with his people that is worth repeating. As
+has been said, when the revolution began Hayti
+had about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand
+whites and mulattoes. Toussaint adopted an
+original method of making the force of this fact
+evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with
+black grains of corn and throw upon them a few
+grains of white. "You are the black grains," he
+would say; "your enemies are the white." Then
+he would shake the glass. "Where are the white
+grains now? You see they have disappeared."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authorities in France could not but recognize
+the ability and the moderation of the black leader,
+and in 1796 he was appointed commander-in-chief
+in the island, a commission which was confirmed
+by Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes
+and colors regarded him as a general benefactor
+and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity
+were restored, and his government was conducted
+with moderation and humanity. It looked
+as though peace and good will might continue in
+Hayti as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily
+he had to deal with a man in whom ambition
+and pride of place overruled all conceptions<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had
+now risen to the supreme power in France.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two
+letters which Toussaint sent him, after having completely
+pacified the island. These were addressed,
+"The First of the Blacks to the First of the
+Whites." The assumed equality seems to have
+touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained
+to answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early
+in 1800 a republican constitution was drafted under
+the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti virtually
+independent, though under the guardianship
+of France. An election was held and the liberator
+chosen president for life.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the news of this action reached France in
+July, 1800, Napoleon was furious. He had just
+been made First Consul and would brook no equal.
+"He is a revolted slave, whom we must punish,"
+he exclaimed; "the honor of France is outraged."
+Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he
+sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of
+about thirty-five thousand men, under General Leclerc,
+the husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Pauline
+accompanied him, and also several officers who had
+been former opponents of Toussaint.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been
+idle. Having subdued the French portion of the
+island, he led his army into the Spanish portion,
+which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital,
+being taken on January 2, 1801. When the
+keys of this city were handed to him by its governor,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept
+them in the name of the French Republic."
+Yet his conquests in the name of France did not
+soften the heart of the First Consul, who was bent
+on treating him as a daring rebel. The Peace of
+Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe,
+and the expedition under Leclerc reached the island
+about the end of 1801.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To oppose the strong army of Napoleon's veterans,
+men who had been trained to victory under
+his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little
+more than half as strong. As he looked at the
+soldiers disembarking from the ships in the Bay of
+Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost!
+All France is coming to invade our poor island!"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The French made landings at several of the ports
+of Hayti, driving back their defenders. The city
+of San Domingo, held by Toussaint's brother, Paul,
+was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was
+to figure high in the subsequent history of the
+island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when
+Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go
+tell your general that the French shall march here
+only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn
+beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for
+when he found further defence impossible, he set
+fire to the city and retreated to the mountains,
+taking with him two thousand white prisoners.
+Grief and despair filled the soul of Toussaint when,
+marching to the relief of Cristophe, he saw the
+roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But though the French became masters of the
+ports, the army of the blacks maintained itself in
+the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied
+all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost
+heavily, and began to despair of subduing his able
+opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to
+strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint's
+two sons. Napoleon had interviewed these boys
+before their departure from France, saying to them,
+"Your father is a great man, and has rendered
+good service to France. Tell him I say so, and bid
+him not to believe I have any hostile intention
+against the island. The troops I send are not designed
+to fight the natives, but to increase their
+strength, and the man I have appointed to command
+is my own brother-in-law."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the
+demand that he should submit or send his children
+back as hostages. An affecting interview took
+place between the boys and their father, and when
+they repeated to him Napoleon's words, he was at
+first inclined to yield, but fuller consideration induced
+him to refuse.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The
+First Consul offers me peace, but his general no
+sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No;
+my country demands my first consideration. Take
+back my sons."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the continuation of the war a French force of
+twenty thousand men under Rochambeau marched
+against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Crête à Pierrot. In the contest that followed
+Toussaint at first outgeneralled Rochambeau and
+defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance
+he looked for from his subordinates failed to reach
+him, and at length he was forced to retreat.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The French, however, despite their superior
+numbers and the military experience of their
+leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in
+the negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to
+negotiation, offering the blacks their freedom if
+they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was
+unable to hold his own against his powerful foe,
+and convinced that the terms offered would be advantageous
+to his country, now decided to accept
+them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable
+for the people and for the army; as for myself,
+I wish to live in retirement."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much.
+The pride of Napoleon had not yet digested the
+affront of Toussaint's message, "From the First of
+the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent
+orders to Leclerc to arrest and send him to France.
+In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly at night to
+Toussaint's home, where he was dwelling in peace
+and quiet. The house was surrounded, two blacks
+that sought to defend him were killed on the spot,
+and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the
+coast. Here he was placed on board a man-of-war,
+which at once set sail for France.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Napoleon's treatment of Toussaint was one of
+the dark deeds in his career. Reaching France,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the captive was separated from his wife and children
+and confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier
+castle. Here, one morning in April, 1803,
+Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator, was
+found dead. He had been starved to death, if we
+may accept the belief of some authors.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he
+might easily have accumulated vast wealth. In
+his official position he had maintained a degree of
+magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had
+concealed great riches somewhere in the island.
+He sent spies to question him, but Toussaint's only
+reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not
+those I have lost." The lost ones were his wife,
+his children, and his liberty.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was
+soon to find that he had made a fatal mistake in
+his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed
+at his seizure, and having no one to control them,
+the negroes flew to arms, and soon the revolt
+spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came
+to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc's army
+until thousands of soldiers and fifteen hundred
+officers found graves in the land they had invaded.
+In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was
+taken back to France. When Napoleon heard the
+story of the fate of his expedition, he exclaimed in
+dismay,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine
+army; the body of a brother-in-law, of a general,
+my right arm, a handful of dust! All has perished,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land!
+Perfidious colonists! A wretched slave in revolt.
+These are the causes of so many evils." He might
+more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause
+of all those evils."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few words must conclude this tale. General
+Rochambeau was sent large reinforcements, and
+with an army of twenty thousand men attempted
+the reconquest of the island. After a campaign of
+ferocity on both sides, he found himself blockaded
+at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to
+the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom
+he yielded the eight thousand men he had left.
+As he sailed from the island he saw the mountain-tops
+blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled
+by the blacks. From that day to this the island
+of Hayti has remained in the hands of the negro
+race.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc52" id="toc52"></a>
+<a name="pdf53" id="pdf53"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer
+crept stealthily into a house in Jamaica,
+where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing
+silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin
+plunged his knife into his breast, then turned and
+fled. Fortunately for American independence he
+had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had
+been hired to kill was Simon Bolivar, the great
+leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But
+on that night Bolivar's secretary occupied his hammock,
+and the "Liberator" escaped.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island,
+after the failure of his early attempt to win freedom
+for his native land of Venezuela. He was
+soon back there again, however, with recruited
+forces, and for years afterwards the war went on,
+with variations of failure and success, the Spanish
+general Morillo treating the people who fell into
+his hands with revolting cruelty.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the
+true road to success. This was by leaving Venezuela,
+from which he had sought in vain to dislodge
+the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more
+promising field of New Granada. So confident of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+victory did he feel in this new plan that he issued
+the following proclamation to the people of New
+Granada: "The day of America has come; no human
+power can stay the course of Nature guided
+by Providence. Before the sun has again run his
+annual course altars to Liberty will arise throughout
+your land."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a
+British legion, recruited in London among the disbanded
+soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had
+also sent General Santander to the frontier of New
+Granada, and General Barreiro, the Spanish general,
+had been driven back. Encouraged by this success,
+he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in
+June, 1819, bringing with him a force of twenty-five
+hundred men, including his British auxiliaries.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to
+conquer in nature as in the human enemy. In
+order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an
+enormous plain which at that season of the year
+was covered with water, and to swim some deep
+rivers, his war materials needing to be transported
+over these streams. But this was child's play compared
+with what lay before him. To reach his goal
+the Andes had to be crossed at some of their most
+forbidding points, a region over which it seemed
+next to impossible for men to go, even without
+military supplies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the invading army left the plains for the
+mountains the soldiers quickly found themselves
+amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera,
+and the waters of the plain through which they had
+waded were here replaced by the rapids and cataracts
+of mountain streams. The roads in many
+places followed the edge of steep precipices, and
+were bordered by gigantic trees, while the clouds
+above them poured down incessant rains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Four days of this march used up most of the
+horses, which were foundered by the difficulties of
+the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of
+Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were
+at home only on the plain, deserted on finding
+themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents
+there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed
+of tree-trunks, or the aërial <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">taravitas</span></span>. These consisted
+of stout ropes made by twisting several thongs
+of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees
+on the two banks of the ravine, while from them
+was suspended a cradle or hammock of capacity
+for two persons, which was drawn backward and
+forward by long lines. Horses and mules were
+similarly drawn across, suspended by long girths
+around their bodies.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where the streams were fordable the current was
+usually so strong that the infantry had to pass two
+by two with their arms thrown round each other's
+shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their
+lives. Bolivar frequently passed these torrents
+back and forward on horseback, carrying the sick
+and weakly, or the women who accompanied the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the lower levels the climate was moist and
+warm, only a little firewood being needed for their
+nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached
+localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the
+stoutest clothing, while immense heaps of rocks and
+hills of snow bounded the view on every side and
+clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only
+sounds to be heard were those of the roaring torrents
+they had passed and the scream of the condor
+as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all
+vegetation disappeared except the clinging lichens
+and a tall plant which bore plumes instead of leaves
+and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a
+funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey
+the path was marked by crosses, erected in memory
+of travellers who had perished by the way.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this glacial region the provisions brought with
+them gave out. The cattle on which they had depended
+as their chief resource could go no farther.
+Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at
+length they reached the summit of the Paya pass,
+a natural stronghold where a battalion would have
+been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost
+of three hundred men occupied it, but these were
+easily dispersed by Santander, who led the van.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties
+of the way, began to murmur. Bolivar called
+a council of war and told its members that there
+were greater difficulties still to surmount. He
+asked if they would keep on, or if they preferred
+to return. They all voted in favor of going onward,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and the knowledge of their decision inspired
+the weary troops with new spirit.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the terrible passage was completed one
+hundred men had died of cold, fifty of them being
+Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was
+necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even
+some of those borne by the soldiers. It was little
+more than the skeleton of an army that at length
+reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the
+heart of the province of Tunja, on the 6th of
+July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent
+back assistance to the stragglers who still lingered
+on the road, and despatched parties to collect horses
+and communicate with the few guerillas who roamed
+about that region.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja
+province with two thousand infantry and four hundred
+horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand
+troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments
+elsewhere, while there was another royalist
+army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and
+to the support of the people to overcome these
+odds, and he succeeded in the first, for Barreiro was
+ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage
+of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the
+year.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was soon aware, however, that the patriots
+had achieved this impossible thing and were in his
+close vicinity, and with all haste collected his forces
+and took possession of the heights above the plain
+of Vargas. By this movement he interposed between<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the patriots and the town of Tunja, which,
+as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was
+anxious to occupy. It was not long, therefore,
+before the opposing armies met, and a battle took
+place that lasted five hours. The patriots won,
+chiefly by the aid of the English infantry, led by
+Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune to
+lose an arm in the engagement.</p>
+
+<a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image14.png" width="640" height="339" alt="Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO." title="BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the
+road to Tunja remained in the hands of the royalists.
+Instead of again attacking his intrenched foe, Bolivar
+now employed strategy, retreating during the
+day, then making a rapid countermarch at night,
+thus passing Barreiro's forces in the dark over
+by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into
+his hands. He found there an abundance of war
+material, and by holding it he cut off Barreiro's
+communication with Bogota.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The strength of Bolivar's generalship lay in rapid
+and unexpected movements like this. The Spanish
+leaders, bound in the shackles of military routine,
+were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches
+of their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for
+the passage of an army. While they were manœuvring,
+calculating, hesitating, guarding the
+customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would
+surprise them by concentrating a superior force
+upon a point which they imagined safe from attack,
+and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut
+up their forces in detail. As a result, the actions
+of the patriot commander in the field seemed less<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+impressive than those of less notable generals, but
+the sum of effects was far superior.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bolivar's occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards
+by surprise. Barreiro, finding himself unexpectedly
+cut off from his centre of supplies, fell back upon
+Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by
+his foe, anxious to deal a decisive blow before the
+royal forces could concentrate. Boyacá, the site
+now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded
+and mountainous country and one well suited to
+Bolivar's characteristic tactics. Placing a large
+part of his troops in ambush and manœuvring so as
+to get his cavalry in the enemy's rear, he advanced
+to the attack with a narrow front. On this Barreiro
+made a furious assault, forcing his opponents
+to recoil. But this retreat was only a stratagem,
+for, as they fell back, the Spaniards found themselves
+suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed
+troops, while the cavalry rode furiously
+upon their rear.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the
+fierce attack threw them into utter confusion, in
+which the patriot army cut them down almost
+without resistance. General Barreiro was taken
+prisoner on the field of battle, throwing away his
+sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to
+save himself the mortification of surrendering it to
+General Bolivar. Colonel Ximenes, his second in
+command, was also taken, together with most of
+the officers and more than sixteen hundred men.
+All their artillery, ammunition, horses, etc., were<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+captured, and a very small portion of the army
+escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was
+decided, but many of them were taken by the
+peasantry of the surrounding country and brought
+in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly
+small,—only thirteen killed and fifty-three
+wounded.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Boyacá—after Maypo, by which Chili gained its
+freedom—was the great battle of South America.
+It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as
+Maypo had done in the south. New Granada was
+freed from the Spaniards, and on August 9, two
+days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily
+evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste
+that in thirty hours he reached Honda, usually a
+journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar triumphantly
+marched into the capital, and found in
+its coffers silver coin to the value of half a million
+dollars, which the viceroy had left behind in his
+haste.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be said further that the English auxiliaries
+aided greatly in the results of these battles, their
+conduct giving Bolivar such gratification that he
+made them all members of the Order of the Liberator.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of
+this implacable war, but simply to relate the dramatic
+invasion and conquest of New Granada. It
+must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on
+for two years longer, ending finally in 1821 with
+the victory of Carabobo, in which the Spaniards<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand
+men. After that they withdrew and a republic
+was organized, with Bolivar for its president.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining
+their independence and was declared their liberator
+and made supreme dictator of the country. After
+ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned
+and gave the country a republican constitution.
+The congress of Lima elected him president for
+life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the
+northern section of Peru, to which the people gave
+the name of Bolivia, in honor of the winner of
+their liberties.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a>
+<a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the last quarter of the eighteenth century
+ideas of revolution were widely in the air. The
+people were rising against the tyranny of the kings.
+First in this struggle for liberty came the English
+colonies in America. Then the people of France
+sprang to arms and overthrew the moss-grown
+tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon
+spread the demand for freedom through Europe.
+In Spain the people began to fight for their freedom,
+and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to
+America, where the people of the Spanish colonies
+had long been oppressed by the tyranny of their
+rulers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected
+by the example of the great free republic of the
+north, and the seed of liberty grew for years in their
+minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer's
+son named Miguel Hidalgo, a true scion of the
+people and an ardent lover of liberty, who for
+years longed to make his native Mexico independent
+of the effete royalty of Spain. He did not
+conceal his views on this subject, though his deeper
+projects were confided only to a few trusty friends,
+chief among whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of
+wealth and of noble Spanish descent, and a captain<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few
+intimates, consulted often and matured their plans,
+confident that the desire for liberty was strong in
+the country and that the patriot people needed
+only a leader to break out into insurrection.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hidalgo's eager desire for liberty, long smouldering,
+burst into flame in 1810, when the Spanish
+authorities attempted to arrest in Querétaro some
+revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned
+of their danger, these men fled or concealed themselves.
+News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and
+taught him that with his reputation there was
+but one of two things to do, he must flee or strike.
+He decided to strike, and in this he was supported
+by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September,
+1810. That night Hidalgo was roused
+from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends,
+and told that the hour had come. Calling his
+brother to his aid and summoning a few of those
+in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists
+to the prison, broke it open, and set free certain
+men who had been seized for their liberal ideas.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This took place in the early hours of a Sunday.
+When day broke and the countrymen of the neighboring
+parish came to early mass the news of the
+night's event spread among them rapidly and
+caused great excitement. To a man they took the
+side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he
+found himself at the head of a small band of ardent
+revolutionists. They at once set out for San Miguel<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched
+before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty
+men, the nucleus of the Mexican revolution. For
+standard they bore a picture of the Holy Virgin
+of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New
+adherents came to their ranks till they were three
+hundred strong. Such was the movement known in
+Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry,
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grito</span></span>, being, "Up with True Religion, and
+down with False Government."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Never before had an insurrection among the
+submissive common people been known in Mexico.
+When news of it came to the authorities they were
+stupefied with amazement. That peasants and
+townspeople, the plain workers of the land, should
+have opinions of their own about government and
+the rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous
+to be endured, but for the time being they
+were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking
+any vigorous action.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the authorities digested the amazing news
+of the outbreak, the movement grew with surprising
+rapidity. Hidalgo's little band was joined
+by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a
+crowd of field laborers, armed with slings, sticks,
+and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks. So
+popular did the movement prove that in a brief
+period the band of eighty men had grown to a
+great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers.
+Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their
+numbers gave them strength. Hidalgo put himself<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+at their head as commander-in-chief, with Allende
+as his second in command, and active exertions
+were made to organize an army out of this undigested
+material.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next thing we perceive in this promising
+movement for liberty is the spectacle of Hidalgo
+and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on
+the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital
+of a mining state, the second largest in Mexico.
+This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine, its
+houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the
+streets climb like stairways.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people of the city were terrified when they
+saw this great body of people marching upon them,
+with some of the organization of a regular army,
+though most of them bore only the arms of a mob.
+The authorities, who were advised of their approach,
+showed some energy. Resolving not to
+surrender and making hasty preparations for defence,
+they intrenched themselves in a strongly
+built grain warehouse, with the governor at their
+head.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much better armed than the mass of their assailants,
+and backed up by strong stone walls, the
+authorities defended themselves vigorously, and for
+a time the affair looked anything but promising for
+Hidalgo's improvised army. Success came at last
+through the courage of a little boy, called Pipita,
+who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the
+pavement, and holding a blazing torch in his hand,
+crept through a shower of bullets up to the gate<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames
+spread upward, the insurgents broke in upon the
+frightened defenders, killing some and making
+prisoners of the others.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The common people of the city, in sympathy
+with the revolutionists, and inspired with the mob
+spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through
+the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and
+houses, until checked in their career of plunder by
+Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening condign
+punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to
+make the city a stronghold and centre for the
+collection of arms and money, his forces being
+increased by the defection from the Spaniards of
+three squadrons of regular troops, while the whole
+province declared for the cause of the revolution.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While this was going on, the governing powers
+in Mexico had recovered from their stupefaction
+and begun to take active measures to suppress the
+dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy
+had arrived in Mexico, Don Francisco Venegas, a
+Spanish general who had distinguished himself in
+the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a
+peaceful life before him in America, he began his
+work of government by calling a council of prominent
+persons and asking them to help him raise
+money from the loyal people for the support of
+their brethren in Spain who were fighting against
+Napoleon. Three days later the Grito de Dolores
+broke out and he saw that his dream of peace was
+at an end, and that he would need all the funds<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+he could raise to suppress revolution in his new
+government.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once
+ordered the troops in garrison at Mexico to Querétaro,
+strengthening them by rural detachments,
+and summoning garrisons from the north, west,
+and east. He issued at the same time a decree
+under which all Indians were released from taxation,
+and promised pardon to all rebels who should
+at once lay down their arms; a reward of ten thousand
+dollars being offered for the capture or death
+of the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and
+Aldama.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The civil authorities were vigorously supported by
+the clergy in this action against the revolution. Hidalgo
+and his chief comrades were excommunicated
+by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them
+bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which
+had taken action against Hidalgo in 1800 for his
+dangerous opinions, now cited him to appear before
+its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops
+and inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the
+valiant insurgents, who maintained that it was not
+religion but tyranny that they were banded against.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid
+on the 17th of October, without resistance, the
+bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach.
+As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced
+the canons he had left behind to remove the sentence
+of excommunication. The town was made a
+second stronghold of the revolution and a centre<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+for new recruiting, the army increasing so rapidly
+that in ten days' time its leader took the bold step
+of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The approach of the insurgents, who had now
+grown greatly in numbers, filled the people of the
+capital with terror. They remembered the sack of
+Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables,
+while many of them fled for safety. As
+the insurgents drew near they were met by the
+army of the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place
+upon an elevation called the Monte de la Cruces,
+outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the
+ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm,
+and greatly outnumbering the royal troops, they
+swept resistlessly on, bearing down all before them,
+and sweeping the viceroy's soldiers from the field
+with heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo,
+the commanding general, from death or capture,
+and bore him in safety to the city.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the
+news of the disastrous defeat of its defenders,
+could perhaps have been easily taken, and its capture
+might possibly have closed the struggle in
+favor of liberty. It certainly was a moment for
+that boldness on which success so often depends,
+but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from
+prudence instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival
+of reinforcements to the beaten army, withdrew
+his forces towards Querétaro—a weak and fatal
+retrograde movement, as it proved.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The viceroy had another army advancing from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the north, under the command of Calleja, a skilful
+general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march
+towards Querétaro, he attacked him with such
+vigor that, after a hot combat, the insurgents were
+utterly worsted, losing all their artillery and many
+men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to
+pieces at this severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed
+to Valladolid with an insignificant remnant
+of his mighty host.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of
+Allende and a fierce attack on him at Guanajuato,
+forcing him to abandon the city and retreat to
+Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence.
+Calleja, who had much of the traditional Spanish
+cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous
+retaliation upon the people of the city he had
+taken, who were most savagely punished for their
+recent plundering outbreak.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The remainder of this story of revolution is a
+brief and unfortunate one. Hidalgo gathered another
+army and led them to Guadalajara, where he
+organized a government, appointed ministers, and
+styled himself generalissimo. He despatched a
+commissioner to the United States, but this personage
+soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were
+collected and the army organized as rapidly as
+possible, but his forces were still in the rough
+when, disregarding the advice of Allende and
+others, he resolved to attack Calleja. He advanced
+on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon,
+where he found himself in face of a well-equipped<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and disciplined army of ten thousand men, superior
+in everything but numbers to his undisciplined levies.
+They fought bravely enough in the battle of the
+next day, but they were no match for their opponents,
+and the contest ended in a complete rout,
+the insurgents scattering in all directions.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on
+his way Allende, Jiminez, and other leaders who had
+escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The cause
+of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously
+putting down the revolution on all sides. As
+a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the United
+States borders with such men and money as they
+had left, proposing there to recruit and discipline
+another army. But before reaching the frontier
+they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured
+in a desert region near the Rio Grande.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The captives were now taken under a strong
+escort to Chihuahua, where they were tried and
+condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez
+were shot on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo
+paid the penalty of his life on the 27th of June,
+1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the
+first struggle for independence in Mexico. The
+heads of the four chiefs were taken to Guanajuato
+and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold
+which they had taken by storm in that city. There
+they remained till the freedom of Mexico was won,
+when they were given solemn burial beneath the
+altar of the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico.
+The Alhondiga de Grenaditas, the building to which<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+their heads were attached, is now used as a prison,
+but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years
+held Hidalgo's head. Before it there stands a bronze
+statue of this earliest of the Mexican patriot leaders.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later
+course of the struggle for independence? The
+death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and
+one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the
+war with varying fortunes until 1815, when he,
+too, was taken and shot.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall
+was Augustin de Yturbide, a royalist leader, who
+pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet
+it was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its
+independence. After the death of Moreles a chief
+named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and
+against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it
+proved, the royalist had changed his views, and
+after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands
+with him and came out openly as a patriot leader.
+He had under him a well-disciplined army, and advanced
+from success to success till the final viceroy
+found himself forced to acknowledge the independence
+of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The events that followed—how Mexico was organized
+into an empire, with Yturbide as emperor
+under the title of Augustin I., and how a new
+revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was
+shot as a traitor—belong to that later history of the
+Spanish American republics in which revolution and
+counter-revolution continued almost annual events.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a>
+<a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the
+commander of the Spanish forces in Venezuela,
+found himself threatened in his camp by a party of
+one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had
+swum the Orinoco and galloped like centaurs upon
+his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish cavalry,
+with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet
+their assailants, who slowly retired before their
+superior numbers. In this way the royalists were
+drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio,
+where a battalion of infantry had been placed in
+ambush near the river. Here, suddenly ceasing
+their retreat, and dividing up into groups of twenty,
+the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and
+assailed them on all sides, driving them back
+under the fire of the infantry, by whom they were
+fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river
+with two killed and a few wounded, while the plain
+was strewn with the bodies of their foes.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This anecdote may serve to introduce to our
+readers Joseph Antonio Paez, the leader of the
+band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most
+daring and striking figures among the liberators of
+South America. Born of Indian parents of low
+extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+so daring as a soldier that he became in time
+general-in-chief of the armies of Venezuela and
+the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar's most
+trusted lieutenant during the war for independence.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle
+belonging to his father, who was a landholder in
+the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled
+in the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at
+curing their disorders. He was accustomed to
+mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was
+noted for strength and agility and for power of enduring
+fatigue.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of
+Venezuela, he rose naturally to great influence
+among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the revolution
+began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of
+the cause of freedom, his reputation for courage was
+so great that they were very ready to enlist under
+him. He chose from among them one hundred and
+fifty picked horsemen, and this band, under the
+title of "Guides of the Apure," soon made itself
+the terror of the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following story well shows his intrepid
+character. After the death of his mother young
+Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided
+it with his sisters who were living in that town.
+The Spanish forces, which had been driven out of
+it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a
+general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all
+property-holders to return and promising to reinstate
+them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself
+before the Spanish commandant, saying that
+he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and
+take possession of his property.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who
+gathered in hundreds to welcome and shake hands
+with him, and the news quickly spread among the
+Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain
+Paez, who had done them so much mischief. Seizing
+their arms, they called loudly on their commander
+to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as
+a rebel and traitor. But this officer, who was well
+aware of the valor of Paez, and perceived his great
+influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it
+very imprudent to take a step that might lead to
+a general outbreak, and concluded to let his perilous
+visitor alone. He therefore appeased his soldiers,
+and Paez was left unmolested in the house of
+his sisters.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The governor, however, only bided his time.
+Spies were set to watch the daring llanero, and
+after some days they informed their leaders that
+Paez had gone out unarmed, and that there was a
+good opportunity to seize his weapons as a preliminary
+to his arrest. When Paez returned home
+after his outing, he was told that armed men had
+visited the house and taken away his sword and
+pistols.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought
+the governor's house and angrily charged him with
+breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously
+demanded that his arms should be restored—not for
+use against the Spaniards, but for his personal security.
+His tone was so firm and indignant, and
+his request so reasonable under the circumstances,
+that the governor repented of his questionable act,
+and gave orders that the arms should be returned.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas
+assailed the governor with reproaches, impetuously
+demanding that the guerilla chief should be arrested
+and confined in irons. The versatile governor again
+gave way, and that night the Paez mansion was
+entered and he taken from his bed, put in irons,
+and locked up in prison. It was no more than he
+might have expected, if he had known as much of
+the Spanish character then as he was afterwards to
+learn.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In
+the prison he found about one hundred and fifty
+of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia,
+an officer noted for strength and courage. On
+Garcia complaining to him of the weight of his
+irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners,
+Paez accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange
+fetters with him. To keep his word he
+broke his own chains by main strength and handed
+them to his astonished friend.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won
+their consent to a concerted break for liberty.
+Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give
+efficient service to the others, and before morning<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+nearly the whole of them were free. When the
+jailor opened the door in the morning he was
+promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened
+with instant death if he made a sound. Breaking
+into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the
+guard, set free those whose irons were not yet
+broken, and marched from the prison, with Paez at
+their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred
+in number. Many of these were killed and the
+rest put to rout, and Barinas was once more in
+patriot hands.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This anecdote will serve to show, better than
+pages of description, the kind of man that Paez
+was. When the act became known to the llaneros
+they proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready
+to follow him to the death. These cowboys of the
+Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like
+their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor
+their general knew anything about military art,
+and felt lost when taken from their native plains, a
+fact which was shown when they were called upon
+to follow Bolivar in his mountain expedition against
+New Granada. Neither persuasion nor force could
+induce them to leave the plains for the mountains.
+Bolivar and Paez entreated them in vain, and they
+declared that rather than go to the hill-country
+they would desert and return to their native plains,
+where alone they were willing to fight. This was
+their only act of insubordination under their favorite
+leader, who usually had complete control over
+them. He made himself one with his men, would<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+divide his last cent with them, and was called by
+them uncle and father. His staff-officers were all
+llaneros and formed his regular society, they being
+alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics,
+but bold and dashing and ready to follow their
+leader to the cannon's mouth.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The British Legion, about six hundred strong,
+was in the last year of the war attached to the
+llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed
+by Paez, who called them "my friends, the English."
+The soldiers of the legion, however, were
+bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel Bossuet,
+whom they held responsible for the miserable
+state of their rations and clothes and their want of
+pay. At the end of one day, which was so scorchingly
+hot that the soldiers were excused from their
+usual five o'clock parade, the legion rushed from
+their quarters at this hour and placed themselves
+in order of battle, crying that they would rather
+have a creole to lead them than their colonel.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in
+vain, and the lieutenant-colonel, against whom they
+had taken offence, was attacked and mortally
+wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel
+Bossuet appeared and sought to speak to them they
+rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it needed
+the active efforts of the other officers to save him
+from their revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny
+were brought to General Paez in his quarters
+and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing
+his sword, he rushed upon the mutineers, killed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+three of them instantly, and would have continued
+this bloody work but that his sword broke on the
+body of a fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon,
+he seized some of the most rebellious, dragged them
+from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them
+to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his
+spirited conduct, hastily dispersed and sought their
+quarters. The next day three of the most seditious
+of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was
+accused of aiding in the mutiny,—though probably
+innocent of it,—were arrested and shot without
+trial.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with
+Paez. After the battle of Ortiz, in which his
+daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction,
+he was seized with a fit, and lay on the
+ground, foaming at the mouth. Colonel English
+went to his aid, but his men warned him to let
+their general alone, saying, "He is often so, and
+will soon be all right. None of us dare touch him
+when he is in one of these spells."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his
+face with water and forcing some down his throat.
+The general soon recovered and thanked him for
+his aid, saying that he was a little overcome with
+fatigue, as he had killed thirty-nine of the enemy
+with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth
+through the body he felt his illness coming on. By
+way of reward he presented Colonel English with
+the lance which had done this bloody work and
+gave him three fine horses from his own stud.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the
+llaneros, who, like all Indians, viewed the Spaniards
+with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of
+more interest than the details of his services in the
+years of campaigning. In the field, it may be
+said, he was an invaluable aid to General Bolivar.
+In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish commander-in-chief,
+his daring activity and success were
+striking, and to him was largely due the winning
+the last great battle of the war, that of Carabobo.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821,
+Bolivar had about sixteen hundred infantry, a
+thousand or more of them being British, and three
+thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The
+Spaniards, under La Torre, had fewer men, but
+occupied a very strong defensive position. This
+was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded
+hills, and giving abundant space for military movements,
+while if driven back they could retire to
+one strong point after another, holding the enemy
+at disadvantage throughout. In front there was
+only one defile, and their wings were well protected,
+the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron
+of cavalry protected their right wing, and on a hill
+opposite the defile—through which ran the road to
+Valencia—was posted a small battery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This position seemed to give the royalists a
+decisive superiority over their patriot antagonists,
+and for twenty days they waited an attack, in full
+confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+attack, fearing that the destiny of his country
+might rest upon the result. He proposed an armistice,
+but this was unanimously rejected by his
+council of war. Then it was suggested to seek to
+turn the position of the enemy, but this was also
+rejected, and it was finally decided to take every
+risk and assail the enemy in his stronghold, trusting
+to courage and the fortune of war for success.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar
+and his staff, one of the guides of the army, who
+was thoroughly familiar with the country they
+occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation.
+At its end he drew near Bolivar, and in a
+whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path
+by which the right wing of the Spaniards
+might be turned.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation
+with his informant, Bolivar secretly detached
+three battalions of his best troops, including
+the British legion and a strong column of cavalry
+under General Paez, directing them to follow the
+guide and preserve as much silence and secrecy as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The path proved to be narrow and very difficult.
+They were obliged to traverse it in single file, and
+it was paved with sharp stones that cut their
+shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet.
+Many of them tore their shirts and made bandages
+for their feet to enable them to go on. Fortunately
+for the success of the movement, it was masked by
+the forest, and the expedition was able to concentrate<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in a position on the flank of the enemy without
+discovery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome
+force on their flank they hastily despatched
+against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving
+back the nearest troops and unmasking the British
+legion. This they fired upon and then charged
+with the bayonet. The British returned the fire
+and charged in their turn, and with such dash and
+vigor that the Spaniards soon gave way. In their
+retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron
+called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got
+back to their ranks. In return a squadron of the
+Spaniards charged the British, but with less success,
+being dispersed by a hot musketry fire.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt
+with, a fierce attack had been made upon the front.
+The unexpected flank and rear attack was so disconcerting
+that La Torre lost all presence of mind,
+and on every side his men were driven back and
+thrown into confusion. In front and on flank
+they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating
+to the succession of defensive points in the
+rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that invaded
+their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate
+retreat, their cavalry dispersed without making
+a charge, their infantry in the utmost disorder, their
+cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary
+dash and activity. He pursued the Spaniards at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the head of the cavalry, cutting them down vigorously,
+and few of them would have escaped but for
+the fatigued and weak condition of his horses,
+which rendered them unable to break the files of
+the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful
+charges General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black
+man called, from his courage, El Primero (the first),
+finding that they could not break the infantry lines,
+rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and
+were killed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The news of this defeat spread consternation
+among the Spaniards. Thousands of the royalists
+in the cities hastened to leave the country, fearing
+the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders
+lost all spirit, and three months later the
+strong fortress of Carthagena surrendered to the
+Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it
+surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated
+and the long contest was at an end.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This final surrender was due in great measure to
+General Paez, who thus sustained his military service
+to the end. Though not gaining the renown
+of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an
+army and conducting a campaign, as a cavalry
+leader he was indispensable, and to him and his
+gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of
+liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a>
+<a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili
+was at its lowest ebb. After four years of struggle
+the patriots had met with a crushing defeat in
+1814, and had been scattered to the four winds.
+Since then the viceroy of Spain had ruled the land
+with an iron hand, many of the leading citizens
+being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez,
+the imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe's
+career, while many others were severely punished
+and all the people were oppressed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero
+came across the mountains to strike a new blow for
+liberty. Don José de San Martin had fought valiantly
+for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the
+battle of San Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots
+sent him to the aid of their fellow-patriots in Chili
+and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in the
+latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the
+scattered bands of Chilian troops and adding them
+to men of his own command, got together a formidable
+array five thousand strong. The "Liberating
+Army of the Andes" these were called.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An able organizer was San Martin, and he put
+his men through a thorough course of discipline.
+Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+force made up of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gauchos</span></span>, or cattlemen of
+the Pampas, whose life was passed in the saddle,
+and who were genuine centaurs of the plains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">San Martin had the Andes to cross with his
+army, and this was a task like that which Hannibal
+and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps.
+He set out himself at the head of his cavalry on
+the 17th of January, 1817, the infantry and artillery
+advancing by a different route. The men
+of the army carried their own food, consisting of
+dried meat and parched corn, and depots of food
+were established at intervals along the route, the
+difficulty of transporting provision-trains being
+thus avoided. The field-pieces were slung between
+mules or dragged on sledges made of tough hide,
+and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when
+steep places were reached. Some two thousand
+cattle were driven along to add to their food supply.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus equipped, San Martin's army set out on its
+difficult passage of the snow-topped Andes. He
+had previously sent over guerilla bands whose
+active movements thoroughly deceived the royalist
+generals as to his intended place of crossing. Onward
+went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary
+exertion by the fact that provisions began to run
+short. The passes to be traversed, thirteen thousand
+feet high and white with perpetual snow,
+formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the
+plains, yet they pushed on over the rugged mountains,
+with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as
+to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+infantry advanced with equal fortitude and energy,
+and early in February the combined forces descended
+the mountains and struck the royalist army at the
+foot with such energy that it was soon fleeing in a
+total rout. So utterly defeated and demoralized
+were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was
+abandoned and was entered by San Martin at the
+head of his wild gauchos and host of refugees on the
+15th of February. His funds at this time consisted
+of the two doubloons remaining in his pocket,
+while he had no military chest, no surgeons nor
+medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply
+of the indispensable requisites of an army. About
+all he had to depend on was the patriotism of his
+men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing
+of the Andes and their easy victory over their
+foes.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the time being Chili was free. The royalists
+had vanished and the patriots were in full possession.
+Thirty or more years before, a bold Irishman,
+bearing the name of O'Higgins, had come to Chili,
+where he quickly rose in position until he was given
+the title of Don Ambrosio, and attained successively
+the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron,
+marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don
+Bernardo, was a man of his own type, able in peace
+and brilliant in war, and he was now made supreme
+dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had
+refused. The banished patriots were brought home
+from their desert island, the royalists severely punished,
+and a new army was organized to dislodge<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the fragment of the Spanish army which still held
+out in the south.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary
+of the decisive victory of the "Liberating Army
+of the Andes," O'Higgins declared the absolute
+independence of Chili. A vote of the people was
+taken in a peculiar manner. Two blank books were
+opened for signatures in every city, the first for
+independence, the second for those who preferred
+the rule of Spain. For fifteen days these remained,
+and then it was found that the first books were
+filled with names, while the second had not a single
+name. This vote O'Higgins declared settled the
+question of Chilian freedom.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the
+energetic viceroy of Peru, was taking vigorous
+steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three
+months before he had received a reinforcement of
+three thousand five hundred veterans from Spain,
+and these he sent to southern Chili to join the
+forces still in arms. United, they formed an army
+of about six thousand, under General Osorio, the
+able commander who had subdued Chili in 1814.
+It was evident that the newly declared independence
+of Chili was to be severely tried.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it
+seemed overthrown. On the 19th of March San
+Martin's army, while in camp near Talca, was unexpectedly
+and violently attacked by the royalist
+troops, the onslaught being so sudden and furious,
+and the storm of cannon and musket shot so rapid<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken
+with panic, their divisions firing at each other as
+well as at the enemy. Within fifteen minutes the
+whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely
+sought to stop the demoralized troops, but in vain,
+O'Higgins, though severely wounded, throwing
+himself before them without effect. Nothing could
+check them, and the defeat became in large measure
+a total rout.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter
+consternation prevailed. Patriots hastily gathered
+their valuables for flight; carriages of those seeking
+to leave the country thronged the streets; women
+wrung their hands in wild despair; the funds of the
+treasury were got ready to load on mules; the
+whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Several days passed before it was known what
+had become of San Martin. Then news arrived
+that he was at San Fernando at the head of the
+right wing, three thousand strong. These had
+escaped the panic on account of two divisions of
+Osorio's army mistaking each other for the enemy
+and firing into their own ranks. In the confusion
+that ensued the right wing was led unbroken from
+the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer
+named Rodriguez had done good work in checking
+the flight of the fugitives, and in a brief time
+had organized a regiment which he named the
+"Hussars of Death."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Six days after the defeat General O'Higgins
+made his appearance in Santiago. He was badly<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+wounded, but was at once named dictator of the
+republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of
+his officers, entered the city. Wearied and dusty
+with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La patria
+triunfa</span></span>" gave new heart to the people. For several
+days fragments of the routed army came pouring
+in, and ten days after the battle Colonel Las Heras
+arrived with the three thousand of the right wing.
+The patriot cause seemed far less hopeless than had
+been the case a week before.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet it was evident that liberty could come only
+from strenuous exertion, and the people of wealth
+freely subscribed of their money, plate, and jewels
+for the cause. It was not long before a new army
+five thousand five hundred strong, freshly clothed
+and in fair fighting condition, was gathered in a
+camp near the city. The artillery lost in the
+flight could not be replaced, but a few field-pieces
+were secured. San Martin and O'Higgins, with
+other able officers, were in command, and hope
+once more began to dawn upon despair.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The enemy was known to be approaching, and the
+army was moved to a point about nine miles from
+the capital, occupying a location known as the farm
+of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited.
+On the afternoon of April 3, Osorio crossed the
+Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank
+and rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army
+took up a position on the brow of a hill opposite
+that occupied by the patriot forces.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Passing out from Santiago there is a succession<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of white hills, known as the Lorna Blanca, on one
+crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords
+of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army
+was encamped. The royalists occupied the crest
+and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran
+the Maypo with its forests and hills.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San
+Martin saw with satisfaction the royalist force beginning
+to occupy the high ground in his front.
+With hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to
+witness that the day is ours." As he spoke, the
+golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest
+to crest. At ten o'clock when the movement of
+the armies began, he said, with assurance, "A half-hour
+will decide the fate of Chili."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few words will serve to describe the positions
+of the armies. Each was more than five thousand
+strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller.
+It had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat,
+the memory of which also hung about it like a
+cloud, while the royalists were filled with enthusiasm
+from their late victory. The royalist lines
+were about a mile in length, four squadrons of
+dragoons flanking their right wing and a body of
+lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill
+on the extreme left. Confronting them were the
+patriots, the left commanded by General Alverado,
+the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras,
+while Quintana headed the reserves.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The battle opened with a brisk fire from the
+patriot artillery, and in about an hour the infantry<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+forces joined in full action. As the royalists moved
+down the hill they were swept with the fire of the
+patriot battery, while shortly afterwards the royal
+battery on the left was captured by a dashing
+cavalry charge and the guns were turned against
+their own line.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the
+Espejo estate, which was charged furiously by both
+sides, being taken and retaken several times during
+the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage
+seemed to be on the side of Osorio, who held the
+field with the centre and one wing of his army.
+Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots.
+It came nearer when the regiment of negroes which
+had for some time withstood the Burgos regiment—the
+flower of Osorio's force—gave way and retreated,
+leaving four hundred of its number stretched
+upon the field.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The critical moment of the battle was now at
+hand. The Burgos regiment attempted to follow
+up its success by forming itself into a square for a
+decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines
+were broken and thrown into temporary disorder.
+Colonel O'Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish
+blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his
+troops with Quintana's reserves, he broke in a fierce
+charge upon the Burgos regiment while in the act
+of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio's army
+changed the whole aspect of affairs. The patriots,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed
+their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought
+refuge in the farm-house, and were followed by the
+left, which was similarly broken and dispersed.
+The centre kept up the action for a time, but with
+both wings in retreat it also was soon forced back,
+and the whole royalist army was demoralized.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The patriots did not fail to press their advantage
+to the utmost. On all sides the royalists were cut
+down or captured, until nearly half their force were
+killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken
+prisoners. A stand was made by those at the farm
+house, but they were soon driven out, and about
+five hundred of them killed and wounded in the
+court and vineyard adjoining. Of the total army
+less than three hundred escaped, General Osorio
+and some other officers among them. These fled to
+Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of
+the patriots more than a thousand had fallen in the
+hot engagement.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the
+battle of the Maypo, gave San Martin immense
+renown, and justly so, for it established the independence
+of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke
+the power which Abascal had long sustained in
+Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of that
+land from the rule of Spain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This feat also was the work of San Martin, who
+soon after invaded Peru, and, aided by a Chilian
+fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming
+its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of July, 1821. Later on, indeed, its freedom was
+seriously threatened, and it was not until 1824 that
+General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru,
+in the victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar
+became as the Liberator of South America,
+some generous portion of fame should rightly be
+accorded to San Martin, the Liberator of Chili.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a>
+<a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the Spanish colonies of South America
+were battling for their liberties, the great Portuguese
+colony of Brazil was going through a very
+different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots
+were seeking to drive Spain out of America. On
+the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of
+Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king
+and its throne, so that, for a time, the colony
+became the state, and the state became the dependency.
+It was a marked instance of the tail
+wagging the dog. Brazil became the one empire
+in America, and was destined not to become a republic
+until many years later. Such are the themes
+with which we here propose to deal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To begin this tale we must go back to those
+stirring times in Europe when Napoleon, the great
+conqueror, was in the height of his career, and
+was disposing of countries at his will, much as a
+chess-player moves the king, queen, and knights
+upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by
+Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the
+purpose of punishing Portugal for the crime of
+being a friend of the English realm.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a
+weak-minded, feeble specimen of royalty, who did<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+not keep of one mind two days together. Now he
+clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he
+claimed to be a friend of France; and thus he
+shifted back and forward until the French despot
+sent an army to his kingdom to help him make up
+his mind. The people were ready to fight for their
+country, but the prince still wobbled between two
+opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and
+was fast making his way to Lisbon.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed
+tears over the fate of his country, but, as for himself,
+he wanted badly to save his precious person. Across
+the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil,
+in whose vast forest area he might find a safe
+refuge. The terrible French were close at hand.
+He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste
+he and his court had their treasures carried on a
+man-of-war in the Lisbon harbor and prepared for
+flight. Most of the nobility of the country followed
+him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing
+fifteen thousand persons, who took with them valuables
+worth fifty millions of dollars. On November
+29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as
+the advance guard of the French came near enough
+to gaze on its swelling sails. It was a remarkable
+spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of the
+world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country
+with his nobility and treasures, to transfer his government
+to a distant colony of the realm.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil,
+where they were received with an enthusiastic show<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the loyal
+colonists by lifting their country into the condition
+of a separate nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved
+for Portuguese ships, were opened to the world's
+commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly
+was brought to a sudden end; manufactures were
+set free from their fetters; a national bank was
+established; Brazil was thrown open freely to
+foreigners; schools and a medical college were
+opened, and every colonial restriction was swept
+away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency
+to a kingdom at a word. John, while
+bearing the title of prince, was practically king,
+for his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly
+insane, and he ruled in her stead.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He became actual king, as John VI., on the
+death of his mother in 1816, and as such he soon
+found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians
+had been given so much that they wanted
+more. The opening of their country to commerce
+and travel had let in new ideas, and the people
+began to discover that they were the slaves of an
+absolute government. This feeling of unrest passed
+out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion
+at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put
+down, but a wider revolt came on in 1820, and
+spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro,
+the capital, whose people demanded of their ruler
+a liberal constitution.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened
+monarch taking refuge in his palace in the suburbs,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+where he lay trembling with fear. Fortunately,
+his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute
+character, and he quieted the people by swearing
+that his father and himself would accept the constitution
+they offered. Full of joy, the throng
+marched with enthusiasm to the palace of the king,
+who on seeing them approach was not sure whether
+he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to
+get into his carriage, he quite mistook their meaning,
+and fell into a paroxysm of terror when the
+people took out the horses that they might draw
+him to the city with their own hands. He actually
+fainted from fright, and when his senses came
+back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that
+he would agree to anything,—anything his dear
+people wanted.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">King John by this time had had quite enough of
+Brazil and the Brazilians. As soon as he could decide
+on anything, he determined to take his throne
+and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had
+brought them fourteen years before, leaving his son
+Pedro—young, ardent, and popular—to take care
+of Brazil in his stead.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the people were not satisfied to let him go
+until he had given his royal warrant to the new
+constitution, and just before he was ready to depart
+a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding
+that he should give his assent to the charter of the
+people's rights. He had never read it, and likely
+knew very little what it was about, but he signed
+what they asked for, all the same, and then made<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+haste on shipboard, leaving Prince Pedro as regent,
+and as glad to get away from his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">loyal</span></span> Brazilians as
+he had once before been to get away from Junot
+and his Frenchmen.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it
+was not long to remain so. The Cortes of Portugal
+grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and passed
+laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control.
+One of these required the young prince to leave
+Brazil. They were laying plans to throw the great
+colony back into its former state.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When news of these acts reached Rio the city
+broke into a tumult. Pedro was begged not to
+abandon his loving people, and he agreed—thus
+defying the Cortes and its orders. This was on
+January 9, 1822. The Cortes next, to carry out its
+work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron
+to bring back the prince. This forced him to take
+a decided stand. On May 13 he took the title of
+"Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;"
+and on the 7th of September, when word came that
+the Cortes had taken still more violent action, he
+drew his sword in the presence of a party of revolutionists,
+with the exclamation, "Independence or
+Death." On the 12th of the following month he
+was solemnly crowned as Pedro I., "Constitutional
+Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated.
+Within less than a year thereafter not
+a hostile Portuguese soldier remained in Brazil, and
+it had taken its place definitely among the nations
+of America.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is but half the story of Brazil's struggle for
+freedom. It seems advisable to tell the other half,
+which took place in 1889, sixty-seven years after
+the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent
+empire. The second made it a republic,
+and brought it into line with the republican nations
+of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar
+fate attended the establishment of monarchy
+in Brazil. We have seen how John, the first emperor,
+"left his country for the country's good."
+The same was the case with his two successors,
+Pedro I. and Pedro II.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed
+declarations of his aspirations for liberty. He was
+going to be a second Washington. But it was all
+empty talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere
+dramatic posing, to which he was given. His ardor
+for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before
+he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution
+promised was not given until it was fairly
+forced from him, and then it proved to be a worthless
+document, made only to be disregarded. A
+congress was called into being, but the emperor
+wished to confine its functions to the increase
+of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to
+worse until by 1831 the indignation of the people
+grew intense. The troops were in sympathy with
+the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he
+stood alone against the country, finally abdicated
+the throne in haste in favor of his infant son. He
+took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+left the country never to return. The remainder
+of his short life was spent as king of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from
+his father. Studious, liberal, high-minded, he did
+not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress
+and its powers. But for all his liberality,
+Brazil was not satisfied. All around it were republics,
+and the spirit of republicanism invaded the
+empire and grew apace. From the people it made
+its way into the army, and in time it began to look
+as if no other emperor would be permitted to succeed
+Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he
+was growing old and feeble and there was a general
+feeling that he ought to be left to end his reign
+undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his
+grave. Unfortunately for him, many began to believe
+that a plot was in the air to make him give up
+the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular,
+and her husband, the Count d'Eu, was
+hated, and when the ministry began to send the
+military away from the capital, as if to carry out
+such a plot, an outbreak came.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a
+professor in the military school, and Marshal
+Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of
+the army. There was one brigade they could
+count on,—the second,—and all the forces in Rio
+were republican in sentiment.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread
+about that Constant and Deodoro were to be arrested
+and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away. It was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+time to strike. Early the next morning Constant
+rode out to the quarters of the Second Brigade, called
+it out, and led it to the great square in front of the
+War Department building. Deodoro took command
+and sent an officer into the building to demand the
+surrender of the ministry. They yielded, and telegraphed
+their resignation to the emperor, who was
+at Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The revolution was phenomenally successful.
+When the other troops in the city heard of the
+revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets
+to join the Second Brigade, while the people, who
+did not dream of what was afoot, looked on in
+astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and
+when Dom Pedro reached the city at three o'clock
+in the afternoon, it was to find that he was no longer
+emperor. A provisional government had been organized,
+the chiefs of the revolution had named
+themselves ministers, and they had taken possession
+of the public buildings. A decree was issued
+that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become
+a federal republic.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So great a change has rarely been accomplished
+so easily. A few friends visited the emperor, but
+there was no one to strike a blow for him. And the
+feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to
+be kept on the throne by the shedding of blood.
+That night word was sent him that he had been
+deposed and would be compelled to leave the country
+with his family. During the next night the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+royal victims of the revolution were sent on shipboard
+and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus
+was the third emperor sent out of Brazil through a
+bloodless revolution.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic
+was organized, with a constitution closely like that
+of the United States. But the men at the head of
+government had the army at their back and were
+rather military dictators than presidents, and it
+was not long before rebellions broke out in some of
+the states. For three years there was war between
+the two factions of the people, with frightful destruction
+of life and property. Then, in September,
+1893, the navy rebelled.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The navy had always been officered by aristocrats,
+and looked with contempt upon the army.
+At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in the
+harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city.
+It soon became evident that it was the purpose of
+Mello and his fellows to re-establish the empire and
+bring back Dom Pedro to the throne.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult
+situation. He hesitated about bombarding the city,
+which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the president,
+filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval
+officers had much trouble to obtain supplies. Mello,
+finding himself in a dilemma, left the harbor with
+one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina.
+Saraiva, an able chief of his party, invaded this
+and the neighboring districts, but he was hotly pursued
+and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Rio without having gained any advantage. Here
+he found his position a very awkward one. The
+rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain
+by bombarding the city. The best they could do
+was to try and establish a commercial blockade, so
+as to force the government to terms, and in doing
+this Mello found himself running up against the
+power of the United States.</p>
+
+<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image15.png" width="640" height="438" alt="Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR." title="RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have given these incidents not so much for
+the interest they may have in themselves, but because
+they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems
+worth relating. There were warships of several
+nations in the harbor, the officers of most of which
+accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel navy,
+though it had not a foot of land under its control.
+Saldana da Gama, then in command of the ships,
+refused permission to any merchant vessel to go to
+the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire
+on any one that should venture. Thus the fleet
+of merchantmen was forced to lie out in the bay
+and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact
+that yellow fever was making havoc among the
+crews.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The captains of the American merchant ships
+applied for protection to the senior American officer
+present, but he refused to interfere, and the commercial
+blockade went on. Such was the state of
+affairs when the United States Admiral Andrew E.
+Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the
+situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Go in," he said to the American captains.
+"Trust to me to protect you from attack or to
+revenge you if injured."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This promise put new spirit into the captains.
+Captain Blackford, of the barque "Amy," and two
+other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29,
+1894, that they would take their ships in to the
+wharves the next morning. When Da Gama heard
+of this he announced that he would fire on any
+vessel that dared attempt it.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Monday morning dawned there was a
+state of excitement in Rio Janeiro harbor. Da
+Gama might keep his word, and what would the
+American admiral do in that event? The commanders
+of the other war-vessels looked on with
+interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham
+meant business. The dawn of day showed active
+movements in the small American squadron. The
+ships were clearing for action, and the cruiser
+"Detroit" took a position from which she could
+command two of Da Gama's vessels, the "Guanabara"
+and the "Trajano."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy"
+began to warp in towards the pier. A musket-shot
+came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara."
+Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past
+the bow of the Brazilian ship. A second followed
+that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian
+tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram
+his vessel, Captain Brownson of the "Detroit"
+took his ship in between the two Brazilian war-vessels,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in a position to rake them and their supporting
+tugs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama's
+guns remained silent, and the "Amy," followed by
+the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to
+the wharves. Others followed, and before night
+all the British and other merchantmen in the harbor
+were hastening in to discharge their cargoes. Benham
+had brought to a quick end the "intolerable
+situation" in Rio Janeiro harbor.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists
+to bring Peixoto to terms. Some of the ironclads
+escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa
+Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans.
+A few months sufficed to bring the
+revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length
+firmly established in Brazil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc64" id="toc64"></a>
+<a name="pdf65" id="pdf65"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the varied countries of South America the
+little republic of Paraguay, clipped closely in between
+Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil, presents the
+most singular history, this being due to the remarkable
+career of the dictator Francia, who ruled
+over it for a quarter of a century, and to the warlike
+energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny
+of Francia was one of the strangest which history
+records, no man ever ruling with more absolute
+authority and more capricious cruelty. For many
+years Paraguay was completely cut off by him
+from the rest of the world, much as Japan was
+until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry.
+Unlucky was the stranger who then dared set foot on
+Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass before
+he could see the outer world again. Such was the
+fate of Bonpland, the celebrated botanist and companion
+of Humboldt, who rashly entered this forbidden
+land and was forced to spend ten years
+within its locked confines. Such is the country,
+and such was the singular policy of its dictator,
+whose strange story we have here to tell.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries
+of South America in the general revolt against
+Spain. There was here no invasion and no blood-shed;<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the armies of Spain were kept too busy
+elsewhere, and the revolution was accomplished in
+peace. A governing committee was formed, with
+Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and José Gaspar
+Rodriguez de Francia for its secretary. The first
+was a man of little ability; the latter was a man
+whose powers will soon be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay.
+Two years later a new convention was held,
+which dissolved the committee and elected two
+consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country.
+Two chairs were made for them, resembling
+the curule chairs of Rome, and called Cæsar's and
+Pompey's chairs. On entering office Francia coolly
+seated himself in Cæsar's chair, leaving that of
+Pompey for his associate. This action showed the
+difference in force of character between the two
+men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all
+the powers of government. He was a true Cæsar.
+He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to
+reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived
+the Spaniards in the country of all civil rights.
+This was done to gain the support of the Indian
+population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He
+soon went farther. Yegros was in his way and he
+got rid of him, making the simple-minded and
+ignorant members of the congress believe that only
+a sovereign magistrate could save the country, which
+was then threatened by its neighbors. In consequence,
+on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+made dictator for three years. This was not
+enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he played
+his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816,
+a new congress proclaimed him supreme and perpetual
+dictator.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was no common man who could thus induce
+the congress of a republic to raise him to absolute
+power over its members and the people. Francia
+at that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and
+vigorous man, of medium stature, with piercing
+black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked.
+The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco
+manufacturer in Paraguay, he was at first intended
+for the church, but subsequently studied the law.
+In this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent,
+and honorable, and always ready to defend
+the poor and weak against the rich. It was the
+reputation thus gained which first made him prominent
+in political affairs.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia
+quickly began to show his innate qualities. Love
+of money was not one of his faults, and while
+strictly economical with the public funds, he was
+free-handed and generous with his own. Thus,
+of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned
+him, he would accept only three thousand,
+and made it a strict rule to receive no present,
+either returning or paying for any sent him. At
+first he went regularly every day to mass, but he
+soon gave up this show of religious faith and dismissed
+his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing
+the priests, saying that they talked about
+things and represented mysteries of which they
+knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he
+said, "serve more to make men believe in the devil
+than in God."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the leading principle of Francia's political
+system we have already spoken. It had been the
+policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the
+people and keep them in strict obedience to the
+priesthood, and Francia adopted a similar policy.
+Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might
+penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was
+seeking to absorb the country. With these excuses
+he forbade, under the severest penalties, intercourse
+of any character between the people of
+Paraguay and those of neighboring countries and
+the entry of any foreigner to the country under his
+rule.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling
+himself an envoy from Spain, should dare to enter
+Paraguay without authority from himself should
+be put to death and his body denied a burial. The
+same severe penalty was decreed against any native
+who received a letter speaking of political affairs
+and did not at once present it to the public tribunals.
+These rigid orders were probably caused
+by some mysterious movements of that period,
+which made him fear that Spain was laying plans
+to get possession of the country.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the same year the dictator made a new move<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the game of politics. He called into being a
+kind of national assembly, professed to submit to
+its authority, and ratified a declaration of independence.
+Just why this was done is not very
+clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the
+Spanish government, and these may have had something
+to do with it. At any rate, a timely military
+conspiracy was just then discovered or manufactured,
+a colonel was condemned to death, and
+Francia was pressed by the assembly to resume his
+power. He consented with a show of reluctance,
+and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini,
+his envoy to Spain, should return, when he would
+yield up his rule to the marquis. All this, however,
+was probably a mere dramatic move, and
+Francia had no idea of yielding his power to any
+one.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The dictator had a policy of his own—in fact, a
+double policy, one devoted to dealing with the land
+and its people; one to dealing with his enemies or
+those who questioned his authority. The one was
+as arbitrary, the other as cruel, as that of the
+tyrants of Rome.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil
+yields two harvests annually, were seized by the
+dictator and stored on account of the government.
+The latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the
+land, and a communal system was adopted under
+which Francia disposed at will of the country and
+its people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of
+the fields, and when hands were needed for the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet agriculture
+made little progress under the primitive methods
+employed, a broad board serving for a plough, while
+the wheat was ground in mortars, and a piece of
+wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The
+cotton, as soon as picked from the pods, was spun
+on the spinning-wheel, and then woven by a travelling
+weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on
+the back of an ox or a mule, and, when in use,
+was hung from the branch of a tree.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Commerce was dealt with in the same way as
+agriculture. The market was under Francia's control,
+and all exchange of goods was managed under
+rules laid down by him. He found that he must
+open the country in a measure to foreign goods, if
+he wanted to develop the resources of the country,
+and a channel of commerce was opened on the
+frontier of Brazil. But soldiers vigilantly watched
+all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant
+without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on
+imports, kept them in a bazaar under military
+guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the
+amount of goods which any of his subjects could
+purchase.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a result of all this Francia brought about a
+complete cessation of all private action, the state
+being all, and he being the state. All dealing for
+profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce
+alike made no progress. On the other hand, everything
+relating to war was developed. It was his
+purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+countries, and to be fully prepared to defend it
+against warlike invasion.</p>
+
+<a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image16.png" width="640" height="381" alt="Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING." title="INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted
+was a French dictionary of the arts and industries.
+From this he gained the idea of founding public
+workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated
+to activity alike by threats and money. At one
+time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor for
+awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a
+gallows, he proposed to try it on a shoemaker if he
+did not do his work properly, while promising to
+richly reward him if he did.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Military roads were laid out, the capital and
+other cities were fortified, and a new city was built
+in the north as a military post to keep the savage
+Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized
+Mission Indians, they were gradually brought under
+the yoke, made to work on the land, and enrolled
+in the army like other citizens. In this way a
+body of twenty thousand militia and five thousand
+regular troops was formed, all being well drilled
+and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry
+force. The body-guard of the dictator was made
+up of picked troops on whose fidelity he could
+rely.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish
+governors, tearing down adjoining houses to isolate
+it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he did
+not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but
+nightly slept in a different room, so that his sleeping
+apartment should not be known. In this he<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also
+imitated in his austerity and simplicity of manners,
+and the fact that his principal confidant was
+his barber,—a mulatto inclined to drink. His other
+associate was Patiños, his secretary, who made the
+public suffer for any ill-treatment from his master.
+The remainder of the despot's household consisted
+of four slaves, two men and two women. In
+dress he strove to imitate Napoleon, whom he
+greatly admired, and when drilling his troops was
+armed with a large sword and pistols.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of
+this Paraguayan Nero. With his suspicious nature
+and his absolute power, his subjects had no more
+security for their lives than those of old Rome.
+Plots against his person—which he identified with
+the state—served him as a pretext for seizing and
+shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was
+suspicious. One of his first victims was Yegros,
+his former associate in the consulate. Accused of
+favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty
+others were condemned to death in 1819.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More than three hundred others were imprisoned
+on the same charge, and were held captive for
+eighteen months, during which they were subjected
+by the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious
+dictator took special pleasure in the torment of
+these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own
+and making a diversion out of his revenge. From
+his actions it has been supposed that there were
+the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is certain<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria
+that he issued his decrees of proscription and carried
+out his excesses of cruelty.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless
+wretch who omitted to address him as "Your
+Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and
+Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the
+man who, wishing to speak with him, dared to
+approach too closely and did not keep his hands well
+in view, to show that he had no concealed weapons.
+Treason, daggers, and assassins seemed the perpetual
+tenants of Francia's thoughts. One country-woman
+was seized for coming too near his office
+window to present a petition; and he went so far,
+on one occasion, as to order his guard to fire on
+any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever
+he went abroad a numerous escort attended
+him, and the moment he put his foot outside the
+palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a
+warning to all the inhabitants to go into their
+houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head
+nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to
+the dictator's dreaded face.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth
+century, and in a little state of South America,
+there should have arisen a tyrant equal in cruelty,
+in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula
+of old or the Louis XI. of mediæval times. Death
+came to him in 1840, after twenty-six years of this
+absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came
+after a few days of illness, during which he attended<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to business, refused assistance, and forbade
+any one not called by him to enter his room. Only
+the quick coming of death prevented him from
+ending his life with a crime; for in a fit of anger at
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">curandero</span></span>, a sort of quack doctor who attended
+him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword,
+and rushed furiously upon the trembling wretch.
+Before he could reach his intended victim he fell
+down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard
+his orders and come to his aid, and death
+soon followed. His funeral was splendid, and a
+grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was
+thrown down by the hands of some enemies unknown.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage,
+one of the most remarkable characters of
+the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his
+nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as
+president of the republic for ten years, during
+which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued
+in power till his death in 1862, but put an
+end to the isolation of Paraguay, opening it to the
+world's commerce.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom
+we mention here simply from the fact that the war
+which Francia had so diligently prepared for came
+in his time. In 1864 the question of the true
+frontier of the state brought on a war in which
+Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay combined
+to crush the little country in their midst.
+We need only say here that Lopez displayed remarkable<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+powers as a soldier, appeared again and
+again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and
+fought off his powerful opponents for five years.
+Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was slain in a
+battle in which his small army was completely destroyed.
+Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic
+struggle, was at the mercy of the allies. It was
+restored to national life again, but under penalty of
+the great indemnity, for so small a state, of two
+hundred and thirty-six million pesos.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc67" id="toc67"></a>
+<a name="pdf68" id="pdf68"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most
+vigorous and tyrannical of the governor-generals
+of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled
+with a stern will and an iron hand. One of the
+purposes in which he was most earnest was that
+of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast,
+all the naval vessels under his command being
+ordered to patrol the coast night and day, and to
+have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it
+proved, all his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers
+continuing to ply their trade in spite of Tacon
+and his agents.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The despoilers of the revenue were too daring
+and adroit, and too familiar with the shoals and
+rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and
+the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation
+prevented any close approach to their haunts.
+In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient of offering
+a large and tempting reward to any one who
+would desert the fraternity and agree to pilot the
+government vessels through the perilous channels
+which they frequented. Double this reward, an
+almost princely prize, was offered for the person of
+one Marti, dead or alive.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+for the arrest of Marti, who was looked upon as
+the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A
+daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler
+and half pirate, his name was as well known in
+Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The
+admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him
+as the King of the Isle of Pines, this island being
+his principal rendezvous, from which he sent his
+fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on
+the neighboring coast. As for Tacon's rewards,
+they were long as ineffective as his revenue cutters
+and gunboats, and the government officials fell
+at length into a state of despair as to how they
+should deal with the nefarious and defiant band.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One dark, dull night, several months after the
+placards offering these rewards had been posted in
+conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two
+sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor's
+palace, which stood opposite the grand plaza of the
+capital city. Shortly before midnight a cloaked
+individual stealthily approached and slipped behind
+the statue of the Spanish king near the fountain in
+the plaza. From this lurking-place he watched the
+movements of the sentinels, as they walked until
+they met face to face, and then turned back to back
+for their brief walk in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a delicate movement to slip between the
+soldiers during the short interval when their eyes
+were turned from the entrance, but the stranger at
+length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently
+across the short space and hiding himself<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+behind one of the pillars of the palace before they
+turned again. During their next turn he entered
+the palace, now safe from their espionage, and
+sought the broad flight of stairs which led to the
+governor's rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly
+familiar with the place.</p>
+
+<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image17.png" width="640" height="911" alt="Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA." title="THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the head of the stairs there was another
+guard to be passed, but this the stranger did with a
+formal military salute and an air of authority as if
+his right to enter was beyond question. His manner
+quieted all suspicion in the mind of the sentinel,
+and the newcomer entered the governor's room
+unchallenged, closing the door behind him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before him sat the governor-general in a large
+easy-chair, quite alone and busily engaged in writing.
+On seeing him thus unattended the weather-beaten
+face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction.
+Evidently his secret plans had worked
+fully to his desire. Taking off his cloak, he tossed
+it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the
+governor's attention. Tacon looked up in surprise,
+fixing his eyes keenly upon his unlooked-for visitor.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Who is this that enters, at this late hour,
+without warning or announcement?" he sternly
+asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"One who brings information that the governor-general
+wants. You are he, I believe?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I am. What do you want? And how did
+you, a stranger, pass my guard without challenge?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I
+understand, has offered a handsome reward to any<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+one who will put you on the track of the rovers of
+the gulf?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon,
+with sudden interest. "What know you of them?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said
+the stranger. "I have my own safety to consider."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That you need not fear. My offer of reward
+also carries pardon to the informant. If you are
+even a member of the confederation itself you will
+be safe in speaking freely."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I understand you offer an additional reward, a
+rich one, for the discovery of Captain Marti, the
+chief of the smugglers?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to
+reward and protect any one who puts me on the
+track of that leader of the villains."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance
+of this. Do you give me your knightly word that
+you will grant me a free pardon for all offences
+against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know,
+even to the most secret hiding-places of the rovers?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I pledge you my full word of honor for that,"
+said the governor, now deeply interested.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You will grant me full pardon, under the
+king's seal, no matter how great my offences or
+crimes, if you call them so, may have been?"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said
+Tacon, wondering why his visitor was so unduly
+cautious.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Even if I were a leader among the rovers
+myself?"</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the
+stalwart stranger, while considering the purport of
+his words.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead
+our ships to the haunts of Marti and his followers,
+you can fully depend on the reward and the
+pardon."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust
+your word, or I should never have put myself in
+your power."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently.
+"Now come to the point; I have no time
+to waste."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have
+offered the largest reward, dead or alive, stands
+before you."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Ha! you are</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Captain Marti."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The governor started in surprise, and laid his
+hand hastily on a pistol that lay before him. But
+he regained his self-possession in a moment, and
+solemnly said,—</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours.
+You have offended deeply, but my word is my law.
+But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for
+the present under guard."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered,
+and soon after Marti was safely locked up,
+orders being given to make him comfortable until he
+was sent for. And so this strange interview ended.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the next day there was a commotion in
+the harbor of Havana. An armed revenue cutter,
+which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of
+Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity;
+food, ammunition, and other stores being taken on
+board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and
+she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was
+a man unknown to captain or crew, otherwise than
+as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping his
+word.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,—faithful
+to them, but faithless and treacherous to his late
+comrades and followers,—for he guided the ship
+with wonderful ease and assurance through all the
+shoals and perils of the coast waters, taking her to
+the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing their
+depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places.
+Many a craft of the smugglers was taken and destroyed
+and large quantities of their goods were
+captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued.
+The returns to the government were of
+great value and the business of the smugglers was
+effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned
+to the governor to claim the reward for his base
+treachery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You have kept your word faithfully," said
+Tacon. "It is now for me to keep mine. In this
+document you will find a free and unconditional
+pardon for all the offences you have committed
+against the laws. As for your reward, here's an
+order on the treasury for—"</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?"
+said Marti. "I am glad to have the
+pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to
+make you a proposition in place of the money you
+offer. What I ask is that you grant me the sole
+right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare
+the trade in fish contraband to any one except my
+agents. This will repay me quite well enough for
+my service to the government, and I shall build at
+my own expense a public market of stone, which
+shall be an ornament to the city. At the expiration
+of a certain term of years this market, with all
+right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the
+government."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition.
+He would save the large sum which he had promised
+Marti, and the city would gain a fine fish-market
+without expense. So, after weighing fully all the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pros</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cons</span></span>, Tacon assented to the proposition,
+granting Marti in full legal form the sole right to
+fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets.
+Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him
+of this concession. During his life as a rover he
+had become familiar with the best fishing-grounds,
+and for years furnished the city bountifully with
+fish, reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise.
+At the close of the period of his monopoly the
+market and privileges reverted to the government.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of
+large wealth. How he should invest it was the
+question that next concerned him. He finally decided<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical
+performances in Havana on condition of building
+there one of the largest and finest theatres in the
+world. This was done, paying the speculator a
+large interest on his wealth, and he died at length
+rich and honored, his money serving as a gravestone
+for his sins.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc70" id="toc70"></a>
+<a name="pdf71" id="pdf71"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have told the story of the remarkable expedition
+of Vasquez de Coronado from Mexico northward
+to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to
+tell the story of an expedition which took place
+three centuries later from this prairie land to the
+once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola."
+In 1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he
+found it inhabited by tribes of wandering savages,
+living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return
+expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful
+farms and populous cities. Yet it was to pass
+through a country as wild and uncultivated as that
+which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries
+before.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The invasion of Mexico by the United States
+armies in 1846 was made in several divisions, one
+being known as the Army of the West, led by
+Colonel Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march
+to Santa Fé, seize New Mexico, and then push on
+and occupy California, both of which were then
+provinces of Mexico. It was an expedition in which
+the soldiers would have to fight far more with
+nature than with man, and force their way through<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+desolate regions and over deserts rarely trodden by
+the human foot.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort
+Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, in the month
+of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen
+hundred men, all from Missouri, and all
+mounted except one battalion of infantry. Accompanying
+it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A
+march of two thousand miles in length lay before
+this small corps, much of it through the land of the
+enemy, where much larger forces were likely to
+be met. Before the adventurers, after the green
+prairies had been passed, lay hot and treeless plains
+and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry
+snow still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile
+Mexicans, whose numbers were unknown, might
+make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those
+who gathered to see them start looked upon them
+as heroes who might never see their homes again.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition
+began its march, taking the trail of a provision
+train of two hundred wagons and two companies
+of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three
+days later, by Kearney with the rear. For the first
+time in history an army under the American standard,
+and with all the bravery of glittering guns and
+floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains.
+For years the Santa Fé trail had been a synonym
+for deeds of horror, including famine, bloodshed,
+and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones
+of men and of beasts of burden paved the way, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+served as a gruesome pathway for the long line of
+marching troops.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The early route led, now through thick timber,
+now over plains carpeted with tall grasses, now
+across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground
+in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and
+tried the horses severely to pull them out. To draw
+the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of the table-lands
+the tugging strength of a hundred men was
+sometimes needed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Summer was now on the land, and for days together
+the heat was almost unbearable. There was
+trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals,
+unused to their new trappings and discipline, and
+which often broke loose and scampered away, only
+to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane
+ejaculations.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For six hundred miles the column traversed the
+great Santa Fé trail without sight of habitation and
+over a dreary expanse, no break to the monotony
+appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile
+and flowery prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the
+Arkansas. Here was a rich and well-watered level,
+with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming
+convenient halting-places for rest and bathing.
+As yet there had been no want of food, a large
+merchant train of food wagons having set out in
+advance of their own provision train, and for a
+few days life ceased to be a burden and became a
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to Fort Bent had been one of toil and hardships,
+of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless dreary
+miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance
+and food at times grew scanty, while the scarcity
+of fuel made it difficult to warm their sparse supplies.
+During part of the journey they were
+drenched by heavy rains. To these succeeded days
+of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst in its
+train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering
+souls. When at length the Arkansas River was
+reached, men and animals alike rushed madly into
+its waters to slake their torment of thirst.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At times their route led through great herds of
+grazing buffaloes which supplied the hungry men
+with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they
+were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores
+of the provision wagons. This was especially the
+case when they left the grassy and flowery prairie
+and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months
+of the year no drop of rain or dew fell, while the
+whitened bones of men and beasts told of former
+havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface
+was in places incrusted with alkaline earth worn
+into ash-like dust, or paved with pebbles blistering
+hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by
+variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow
+in hue.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent,
+but on the 2d of August the column was on the
+trail again, the sick and worn-out being left behind.
+As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Neither grass nor shrubs was to be found for the
+famishing animals; the water, what little there was,
+proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank
+deep in the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike
+were nearly suffocated by the clouds of dust that
+blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad
+were they when, after three days of this frightful
+passage, they halted on the welcome banks of the
+Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw rising
+before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron
+and Spanish peaks and knew that the desert
+was passed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sight of the rugged mountains infused new
+energy into their weary souls, and it was with fresh
+spirit that they climbed the rough hills leading upward
+towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length
+into a grand mountain amphitheatre closed in with
+steep walls of basalt and granite. They seemed to
+be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they
+enjoyed their first Sunday's rest since they had left
+Fort Leavenworth.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The food supply had now fallen so low that the
+rations of the men were reduced to one-third the
+usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts
+helped them to endure this severe privation, and
+they made their way rapidly through the mountain
+gorges and over the plains beyond, covering from
+seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition
+had diminished as well as food, and the men were
+forbidden to waste any on game, for news had been
+received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+their path and all their powder and shot might
+be needed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was
+reached on August 14, and their desert-weary eyes
+beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens
+surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while
+groves of cedar and pine diversified the scene.
+With new animation the troops marched on, elated
+with the tidings which now reached them from the
+north, that Colonel Kearney had been raised to the
+rank of brigadier-general, and a second item of
+news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held
+the cañon six miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared
+to dispute its passage.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was what they had come for, and it was a
+welcome diversion to learn that the weariness of
+marching was likely to be diversified by a season
+of fighting. They had made the longest march
+ever achieved by an American army, nearly all of
+it through a barren and inhospitable country, and
+it was with genuine elation that they pressed forward
+to the cañon, hopeful of having a brush with
+the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment
+when they found the pass empty of foes.
+The Mexicans had failed to await their coming.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kearney had already begun his prescribed work
+of annexing New Mexico to the United States, the
+Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas
+having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws
+and government of the United States. As they
+marched on, a similar oath was administered at San<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the
+soldiers fairly revelled in the fresh vegetables,
+milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the inhabitants
+were glad to exchange for the money of their
+new guests. Orders had been given that all food
+and forage obtained from the peaceable inhabitants
+should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was
+done.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Pecos they had their first experience of the
+antiquities of the land. Here was the traditional
+birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient temple
+still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled
+by that famous monarch, and kept burning for
+long years after his death, in the hope that he
+would come again to deliver his people from bondage.
+At length, as tradition held, the fire was
+extinguished by accident, and the temple and village
+were abandoned. The walls of the temple
+still stood, six feet thick, and covering with their
+rooms and passages a considerable space. The
+Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight
+for the Mexicans, for tradition told them that a
+people would come from the East to free them from
+Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about
+to be fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next hostile news that reached the small
+army was to the effect that seven thousand Mexicans
+awaited them in Gallisteo Cañon, fifteen miles
+from Santa Fé. This was far from agreeable
+tidings, since the Mexicans far outnumbered the
+Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+much smaller force might have easily defended it
+against a numerous foe. The pass had been fortified
+and the works there mounted with six pieces of
+cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders'
+ranks.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fortunately, once more the advancing troops
+found a strong pass undefended. The Mexican
+officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who felt no
+enmity towards the Americans, had left them to
+fight it out between themselves. Deserted by his
+soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with a few dragoons,
+and the Americans marched unmolested
+through the pass. On the same day they reached
+Santa Fé, taking peaceful possession of the capital
+of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country
+in the name of the United States.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the
+last of their wearisome march of nine hundred
+miles, which had been completed in about fifty days.
+So exhausting had this final day's march proved
+that many of the animals sank down to die, and
+the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side, without
+food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep.
+As the flag of the United States was hoisted in the
+public square, a national salute of twenty-eight
+guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry
+rode with waving banners and loud cheers through
+the streets. They had cause for great gratulation,
+for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had
+won a great province without the loss of a single
+man in battle.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff
+one hundred feet high was raised in the plaza for
+the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was
+taken by the officials of the town. They were
+willing enough to take it, since their new masters
+left them in office, while the people, who had been
+told that they would be robbed and mercilessly
+treated, hailed the Americans as deliverers rather
+than as enemies. The same was the case with all
+the surrounding people, who, when they found that
+they would be paid for their provisions and be left
+secure in their homes, settled down in seeming high
+good will under the new rule.</p>
+
+<a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image18.png" width="640" height="447" alt="Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE." title="OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Santa Fé at that time contained about six thousand
+inhabitants. After St. Augustine it was the
+oldest city within the limits of the United States.
+When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was
+built on the site of one of the old Indian pueblos,
+whose date went back to the earliest history of the
+country. The Spanish town—The Royal City of
+the Holy Faith, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Villa Real del Santa Fé</span></span>, as they
+called it—was also full of the flavor of antiquity,
+with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old
+churches, built nearly three centuries before.
+These were of rude architecture and hung with
+battered old bells, but they were ornamented with
+curiously carved beams of cedar and oak. The
+residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as the
+churches, and the abundant relies of the more
+ancient Indian inhabitants gave the charm of a
+double antiquity to the place.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From Santa Fé as a centre General Kearney sent
+out expeditions to put down all reported risings
+through the province, one of the most important
+of these being to the country of the warlike Navajo
+Indians, who had just made a raid on New Mexico,
+driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many
+captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs
+to the officers of the expedition is interesting.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Americans, you have a strange cause of war
+against the Navajos," he said. "We have waged
+war against the New Mexicans for several years.
+You now turn upon us for attempting to do what
+you have done yourselves. We cannot see why
+you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the
+New Mexicans in the West, while you do the same
+thing in the East. We have no more right to complain
+of you for interfering in our war than you
+have to quarrel with us for continuing a war we
+had begun long before you got here. If you will
+act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let
+the New Mexicans alone, as American citizens, and
+the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly
+conclude the story of Kearney's expedition, which
+was but half done when Santa Fé was reached.
+He was to continue his march to California, and set
+out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on
+a journey as long and difficult as that he had
+already made. He reached the Californian soil only
+to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the work set for him, and a little more fighting
+added the great province of California to the American
+conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied
+and conquered a vast section of northern
+Mexico and added some of its richest possessions to
+the United States.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc73" id="toc73"></a>
+<a name="pdf74" id="pdf74"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the
+Aztecs and their Spanish successors, has been the
+scene of two great military events, its siege and capture
+by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture
+by the American army under General Scott in
+1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of the
+remarkable career of Cortez we have given the
+most striking incident, the story of the thrilling
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noche triste</span></span> and the victory of Otumba. A series
+of interesting tales might have been told of the
+siege that followed, but we prefer to leave that
+period of mediæval cruelty and injustice and come
+down to the events of a more civilized age.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the most striking scenes in the campaign
+of 1847 was the taking of the fortified hill of Chapultepec,
+but before describing this we may briefly
+outline the events of which it formed the dramatic
+culmination. Vera Cruz, "the city of the True
+Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was the scene
+of the American landing, and was captured by the
+army under General Scott in March, 1847. Then,
+marching inland as Cortez had done more than
+three centuries before, the American army, about
+twelve thousand strong, soon began to ascend the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+mountain-slope leading from the torrid sea-level
+plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces
+came to the mountain-pass of Cerro Gordo, where
+Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the
+invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men.
+The heights overhanging the road bristled with
+guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was
+strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable
+to an attack from the direction of Vera
+Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the
+lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took
+the wiser plan of cutting a new road along the
+mountain-slopes and through ravines out of sight
+of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican
+rear. An uphill charge from this point gave the
+Americans command of all the minor hills, leaving
+to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo,
+with its intrenchments and the strong fortress on
+its summit.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred
+feet in rugged height, was assailed in front and
+rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep
+rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one
+barricade after another, and at length sweeping
+over the ramparts of the summit fortress and
+driving the defenders from their stronghold down
+the mountain-side. Santa Anna took with him
+only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving
+three thousand as prisoners in the American
+hands, with forty-three pieces of bronze artillery<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a
+month afterwards Scott's army marched into the
+city of Puebla, on the table-land, sixty-eight miles
+from the capital. Here they rested for several
+months, awaiting reinforcements.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On August 7 the army resumed its march, now
+less than eleven thousand strong, the term of
+several regiments having expired and their places
+been partly filled by untried men, none of whom
+had ever fired a gun in war. On they went, up-hill
+still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula
+with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through
+a mountain region till Rio Frio was reached, fifty
+miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand feet
+above the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of
+Mexico lay suddenly revealed before them like a
+vision of enchantment. It was a scene of verdant
+charm, the bright green of the fields and groves
+diversified with the white walls of villages and
+farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams, and the
+gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond
+and around a wall of wooded mountains ascended
+to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer charm
+that had not been gazed upon by an invading army
+since the days when Cortez and his men looked
+down upon it with warm delight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco,
+with the long, narrow lake of Xochimilco near it,
+and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near
+the western shore of which the city of Mexico was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+visible. Between Chalco and Tezcuco ran the
+national road, for much of its length a narrow
+causeway between borders of marsh-land. Near
+Lake Xochimilco was visible the Acapulco road.
+Strong works of defence commanded both these
+highways.</p>
+
+<a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image19.png" width="640" height="336" alt="Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO." title="ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of
+approach, the national road being commanded by
+the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Peñon,
+precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes
+and a deep ditch on the other. The Acapulco
+road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses
+at Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more
+available than the other route. Still farther north
+and west of the capital was a third approach to it
+over the road to Toluco, defended by works at
+Molino del Rey and by the fortified hill of Chapultepec.
+It was evident that the army under Scott
+would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting
+before the city could be reached.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements
+by which this work was accomplished.
+It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of
+Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached
+by a road leading to its rear during the
+night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen
+minutes sufficing for the important victory. The
+garrison fled in dismay, after losing heavily.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An advance was made the same day on the nearby
+Mexican works at San Antonio and Churubusco,
+and with the same result. The garrison at San<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American
+movement, evacuated the works and retired upon
+Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired
+by success, carried all before them, taking
+the works at the bridge of Churubusco by an impetuous
+charge and soon putting the enemy to
+flight. Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the
+Mexican reserve, consisting of four thousand infantry
+and three thousand cavalry, whose line was
+broken by a bayonet charge.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised
+movements, forced back in terrible confusion,
+and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives
+were cut down by the pursuing Americans,
+who followed to the immediate defences of the
+capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy
+fire of grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans,
+nine thousand strong, had captured three
+strong positions, held by three times their number,
+the Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners
+over six thousand men, while the American
+loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Negotiations for peace followed, but they came
+to nothing, the armistice that had been declared terminating
+on the 7th of September. The problem
+that now lay before General Scott was a very different
+one from that which Cortez had faced in his
+siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on
+an island in the centre of a large lake, which was
+crossed by a number of causeways, broken at intervals
+by canals whose bridges could be removed.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the centuries that succeeded this lake had
+disappeared, low, marshy lands occupying its site.
+The city, however, was still reached by causeways,
+eight in number, raised about six feet above the
+marsh level. In these ended the five main roads
+leading to the city. A large canal surrounded the
+capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all
+now filled with water, as this was the rainy season.
+The problem of bridging these under fire was one
+of the difficulties that confronted the Americans.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">General Scott decided to approach the city by the
+causeways of San Cosmé, Belen, and Tacubaya,
+which were defended by formidable works, the
+outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified
+position at the foot of a slope beyond which a grove
+of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec. It
+consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of
+which had been used as a foundry, but which were
+now converted into fortresses. This place was
+carried by storm in the early morning of September
+8, and the stronger position of Casa de Mata, a
+quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was captured
+by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec
+now lay between the Americans and the Mexican
+capital.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the
+places just taken were in the nature of outworks,
+remained to be captured before the city could be
+reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated
+rocky hill, about one hundred and fifty feet in
+height, and was surmounted by a large stone building<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+which had been used as the bishop's palace, but
+was now converted into a strong fortress. It was
+well prepared for defence in guns and garrison, and
+was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of
+the capital. The western side was the most accessible,
+but the face of this, above the grove of cypresses
+which covered its base, presented a steep,
+rocky, and difficult ascent.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon
+another section of the city was made on the 12th
+of September. The two divisions engaged in this
+returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec,
+though a force still threatened the southern causeways.
+Four batteries had been posted within easy
+range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night
+of the 11th, and all next day they kept up a steady
+fire upon it, driving its defenders back and partly
+wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th
+the batteries resumed their fire, while the forces
+chosen for the assault approached the hill from different
+directions through the fire of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty
+picked men each, from Worth's and Twigg's divisions,
+advanced with scaling ladders, while the
+batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to
+drive the defenders from the walls. Major-General
+Pillow led his division through the grove on the east
+side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound,
+and General Cadwalader succeeded him. Before
+him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a redoubt
+midway in its height. Up the steep rocks<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+climbed the gallant stormers, broke into the redoubt
+with a wild cheer, and put its defenders to
+flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing
+without injury the mines which the Mexicans
+had planted, but which they could not fire without
+killing their own men. In a few minutes more the
+storming party reached the summit and climbed
+over the castle wall with shouts of victory, driving
+back its defenders. Soon the United States flag
+was seen floating over the ramparts, a roar of
+cheers greeting the inspiring spectacle.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the southeast Quitman's column of assault
+was making like progress, while Smith's brigade
+captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on the
+right, and Shield's brigade crossed the meadows
+under a hot fire of musketry and artillery and
+swept up the hill to the support of the stormers.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and
+strongest citadel of the Mexicans, had fallen before
+an impetuous charge up a hill deemed inaccessible,
+in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at
+the mercy of the invaders. The causeway which
+it defended formed a double roadway on each side
+of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars.
+Shields charged impetuously along this causeway,
+towards the city, two miles distant, while Quitman
+pursued the fleeing enemy along the neighboring
+causeway of Belen.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields
+to bid him halt till Worth, who was following the
+San Cosmé causeway, could force its defences. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general
+and began, "General Scott presents his compliments</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I have no time for compliments just now,"
+roared out Shields, and spurred briskly onward to
+escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were
+coming. Soon he had led his men into the suburbs
+of the city, while Worth and Quitman charged inward
+over the neighboring causeways with equal
+impetuosity.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A strong force was quickly within the streets of
+the city, assailed by skirmishers firing from houses
+and gardens, who could be reached only by forcing
+a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were
+brought in by Worth's column and planted in
+position to batter down the San Cosmé gate, the
+barrier to the great square in the city's centre, and
+which fronted the cathedral and palace. Quitman
+and Shields had to fight their way through as hot
+a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves
+before the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this
+point a severe loss was sustained, but the assailants
+held their own, mounting guns to attack the citadel
+the next morning.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These guns were not used. Before daylight a
+deputation of the city council waited on General
+Scott and announced that the army had evacuated
+the city, and the government officials had fled. It
+was not long afterwards before the Stars and Stripes
+were floating over the National Palace and in the
+great plaza.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fighting continued for a day longer between the
+Americans and about four thousand soldiers and
+liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury
+for their country and were not put down without
+considerable loss. On the morning of September 16
+the army of the United States held undisputed possession
+of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting
+continued, however, elsewhere for some months
+later, and it was not till the 2d of February, 1848,
+that a treaty of peace was signed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc76" id="toc76"></a>
+<a name="pdf77" id="pdf77"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring
+band of reckless adventurers sailed from San Francisco,
+on an enterprise seemingly madder and wilder
+than that which Cortez had undertaken more than
+three centuries before. The purpose of this handful
+of men—filibusters they were called, as lawless in
+their way as the buccaneers of old—was the conquest
+of Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all
+Mexico and Central America. No one knows what
+wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their
+leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his
+admirers called him.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner
+of the Gulf of California, with his few companions,
+he captured a number of hamlets and then grandiloquently
+proclaimed Lower California an independent
+state and himself its president. His next
+proclamation "annexed" to his territory the large
+Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite
+the California Gulf, and for a brief period he posed
+among the sparse inhabitants as a ruler. Some
+reinforcements reached him by water, but another
+party that started overland was dispersed by starvation,
+their food giving out.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Walker now set out with his buccaneering band
+on a long march of six hundred miles through a
+barren and unpeopled country towards his "possessions"
+in the interior. The Mexicans did not
+need any forces to defeat him. Fatigue and famine
+did the work for them, desertion decimated the band
+of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula
+ended at San Diego, where he and his men surrendered
+to the United States authorities. Walker was
+tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the
+neutrality laws, but was acquitted.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted
+Walker's filibustering appetite. Looking about for
+"new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising field
+in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions.
+Invited by certain American speculators or adventurers
+to lend his aid to the democratic party of
+insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected
+a band of men of his own type and set sail
+for this new field of labor and ambition. On the
+11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force
+of sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan
+coast, and was joined there by about a hundred of
+the native rebels.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Making his way inland, his first encounter with
+the government forces took place at Rivas, where he
+met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His
+native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans
+fought with such valor and energy that the enemy
+were defeated with a loss of one-third their number,
+his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Virgin Bay he was equally successful, and on the
+15th of October he captured the important city of
+Granada.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These few successes gave him such prestige and
+brought such aid from the revolutionists that the
+opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on
+the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its
+leader, which made him fairly master of the country.
+He declined the office of president, which was offered
+him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic,
+an office better suited to maintain his position.
+His rapid success brought him not only the support
+of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits from the
+United States, who made their way into the country
+from the east and the west alike until he had a force
+of twelve hundred Americans under his command.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">General Corral, who had treated with him for
+peace, was soon to pay the penalty for his readiness
+to make terms with an invader. He was arrested
+for treason, on some charge brought by Walker,
+tried before a court-martial at which the new generalissimo
+presided, sentenced to death, and executed
+without delay.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism
+was a war with the neighboring republic of
+Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a
+hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March
+20, 1856, in which Walker was worsted. He kept
+the field, however, and met the foe again at Rivas,
+on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the
+two republics now made peace.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His military success seemed to have made the
+invader securely the lord and master of Nicaragua,
+and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty
+and had himself elected president on June 25.
+He had so fully established himself that he was
+recognized as head of the republic by President
+Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he
+immediately began to act the master and tyrant in
+a way that was likely to bring his government to a
+speedy end.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Money being scarce, he issued currency on a
+liberal scale, and by a decree he restored the system
+of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two
+years before. Not content with these radical measures
+within the republic itself, he was unwise
+enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in
+the United States by meddling with the privileges
+of the Vanderbilt Steamship Company, then engaged
+in transporting the stream of gold-hunters
+to California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker
+revoked their charter and confiscated their property,
+thus bringing against his new government a
+fire in the rear.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies
+on all sides, the Central American states bordering
+on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their ambitious
+neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company
+worked industriously to stir up a revolt against
+this soaring eagle of filibusterism.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result was a strong revolt against his rule,
+and he soon found himself confronted by a force of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+patriots in the field. For a short time there were
+busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being
+fought by the contending forces, the war ending
+with the burning of Granada by the president.
+Finding that the whole country was rising against
+him and that his case had grown desperate, Walker
+soon gave up the hopeless contest and surrendered,
+on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the
+United States sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took
+him to Panama, where he made his way back to the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus closed the conquering career of this minor
+Cortez of the nineteenth century. But while
+Walker the president was no more, Walker the
+filibuster was not squelched. The passion for adventure
+was as strong in his mind as ever, and his
+brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable
+thirst for rule. In consequence he made
+effort after effort to get back to the scene of his
+exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent
+thirst for invasion giving the United States authorities
+no small trouble and ending only with his death.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In fact, he was barely at home before he was
+hatching new schemes and devising fresh exploits.
+To check a new expedition which he was organizing
+in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had
+him arrested and put under bonds to keep the
+peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their
+jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile,
+yet making port first in Central America,
+where he landed on November 25, 1857.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the
+pan. No support awaited him and his deluded
+followers, and in two weeks' time he found it judicious
+to surrender once more to the naval authorities
+of the United States; this time to Commodore
+Paulding, who took him to New York with his
+followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the
+United States. President Buchanan had strongly
+condemned the invasion of friendly territory in his
+annual message, but he now sent a special message to
+Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore
+Paulding for landing an American force on foreign
+soil. He decided that under the circumstances,
+the government must decline to hold Walker as a
+prisoner, unless he was properly arrested under
+judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan
+strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of this was that Walker was again set
+free, and it was not long before he had a new following,
+there being many of the adventurous class
+who sympathized warmly with his enterprising
+efforts. This was especially the case in the South.
+Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old
+enthusiasm, he soon organized another company,
+which sought to leave the country in October, 1858.
+He was closely watched, however, and the whole company
+was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi
+on the steamer on which passage had been taken.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">President Buchanan had issued a proclamation
+forbidding all such expeditions, and Walker was now<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+put on trial before the United States Court at New
+Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack
+satisfactory evidence, and he was acquitted.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied
+himself in writing an account of his exploits,
+in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But
+this was far too tame work for one of his stirring
+disposition, and in June, 1860, he was off again,
+this time making Honduras the scene of his invading
+energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized
+that town and held it for eight weeks, at the end of
+which time he was ordered to leave the place by the
+captain of a British man-of-war. The president of
+Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive
+force. Walker marched south, but his force was
+too small to cope with the president's army, and he
+had not gone far before he found himself a captive
+in the hands of the Honduran government. Central
+America had by this time more than enough of
+William Walker and his methods, and five days
+after his capture he was condemned to death and
+shot at Truxillo.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of
+the chief of filibusters, the most persistent of
+modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless
+exploits were of the mediæval rather than of the
+modern type. A short, slender, not especially demonstrative
+man, Walker did not seem made for a
+hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking
+feature was his keen gray eyes, which brought him
+the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc78" id="toc78"></a>
+<a name="pdf79" id="pdf79"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and
+submission of the Indians in Mexico, that the final
+blow for freedom in that country should have been
+made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name
+was Benito Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was
+against the French invaders and Maximilian, the
+puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the
+Mexican throne. In the words of Shakespeare,
+"Thereby hangs a tale."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For many years after the Spanish colonies had
+won their independence the nations of Europe looked
+upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly
+have liked to snap up some of these weak countries,
+which Spain had been unable to hold, but the great
+republic of the United States stood as their protector,
+and none of them felt it quite safe to step
+over that threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe
+Doctrine." "Hands off," said Uncle Sam, and
+they obeyed, though much against their will.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1861 began a war in the United States which
+gave the people of that country all they wanted to
+do. Here was the chance for Europe, and Napoleon
+III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to
+send an army to Mexico and attempt the conquest
+of that country. It was the overweening ambition<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his
+scheme to found an empire in Mexico which, while
+having the name of being independent, would be
+under the control of France and would shed glory
+on his reign.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian
+we have named, was Benito Juarez, a descendant of
+the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood
+of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family
+was of the lowest class of the Indians, and when he
+was twelve years old he did not know how to read
+or write. After that he obtained a chance for education,
+and in time became a lawyer, was made
+governor of his native state, and kept on climbing
+upward till he became secretary of state, president
+of the Supreme Court, and finally president of
+Mexico.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was the man who had the invaders of his
+country to fight, and he fought them well and long.
+But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no
+match for the trained troops of France, and they
+were driven back step by step until the invaders
+were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet
+Juarez still had a capital and a government at San
+Luis Potosi, and all loyal Mexicans still looked on
+him as their president.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Napoleon III. found himself master of
+Mexico, he looked around for a man who would serve
+him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he
+found in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother
+of the emperor of Austria, a dreamer rather than a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine
+right of kings." This was the kind of man that
+the French usurper was in want of, and he offered
+him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian
+was taken by surprise. The proposition was
+a startling one. But in the end ambition overcame
+judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous
+position on the condition that France should sustain
+him on the throne.</p>
+
+<a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image20.png" width="640" height="908" alt="Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO." title="HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.</div></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was
+for the time at an end, and the French had almost
+everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor
+and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera
+Cruz and made their way to the city of Mexico.
+This they entered with great show and ceremony
+and amid the cheers of many of the lookers on,
+though the mass of the people, who had no love
+for emperors, kept away or held their peace.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new empire began with imperial display.
+All the higher society of Mexico were at the feet
+of the new monarchs. With French money to pay
+their way and a French army to protect them,
+there was nothing for Maximilian and Carlotta to
+do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their new
+dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec,
+two hundred feet above the valley, stood the old
+palace which had been ruined by the American guns
+when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by
+Maximilian on a grand scale, hanging gardens were
+constructed and walled in by galleries with marble
+columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and here the new emperor and empress held their
+court, with a brilliant succession of fêtes, dinners,
+dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and
+gayety, and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of
+proud and royal reign.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had
+reached Mexico in June, 1864. For a year longer
+the civil war in the great republic of the north
+continued; then it came to an end, and the government
+of the United States was free to take a hand
+in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near
+neighbor to the south.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of
+Napoleon, it was like the rumble of an earthquake
+under the throne of Maximilian, when from Washington
+came a diplomatic demand which, translated
+into plain English, meant, you had better make
+haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they
+stay there, you will have the United States to deal
+with. It hurt Louis Napoleon's pride. He shifted
+and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of the
+great republic was on the throat of his new empire,
+and there was nothing for him to do but obey.
+He knew very well that if he resisted, the armies
+of the civil war would make very short work of
+his forces in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his
+dream of an empire and leave the country with the
+French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times,
+but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could
+hold his throne with the aid of the loyal Mexicans.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe and
+appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very
+plainly what she thought of his actions; but it was
+all of no avail, and she left the palace almost broken-hearted.
+Soon after Maximilian received the distressing
+news that his wife had lost her reason
+through grief, and was quite insane. At once he
+made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out
+for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed
+his mind again and concluded to remain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of January, 1867, the French army,
+which had held on until then, with one excuse after
+another, left the capital city, which it had occupied
+for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore
+at Vera Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon
+were broken up as useless, horses sold for a song,
+and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian
+and Austrian troops which the new emperor had
+brought with him going with the French. Maximilian
+did not want them; he preferred to trust
+himself to the loyal arms of his Mexican subjects,
+hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the United
+States, it had no more to say; it was content to
+leave this shadow of an empire to its <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">loyal</span></span> Mexicans.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the
+right course to make himself beloved by the Mexicans.
+Full of his obsolete notion of the "divine
+right of kings," a year after he had reached
+Mexico he issued a decree saying that all who clung
+to the republic or resisted his authority should be
+shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+decrees, for a number of prisoners were shot under its
+cruel mandate, one of them being General Orteaga.
+It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to
+order that the whole laboring population of the
+country should be reduced to slavery.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While all this was going on President Juarez was
+not idle. During the whole French occupation he
+had kept in arms, and now began his advance from
+his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo,
+chief of his armies, soon conquered the northern
+part of the country, and occupied the various states
+and cities as soon as they were left by the French.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the
+Church party had finally induced him to remain,
+and this party now came to his aid. General Miramon,
+an able leader, commanded his army, which
+was recruited to the strength of eight thousand men,
+most of them trained soldiers, though nearly half
+of them were raw recruits.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this force Maximilian advanced to Querétaro
+and made it his head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile
+advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his residence
+there with his government about him. But the
+president and cabinet came very near being taken
+captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon suddenly
+advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez
+and his government barely escaping.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What would have been the result if the whole
+Mexican government had been taken prisoners it is
+not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General
+Escobedo would have done what he now did, which<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+was to advance on Querétaro and invest it with his
+army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was limited
+to this one town, where it was besieged by an army
+of Mexican patriots, while, with the exception of
+a few cities, the whole country outside was free
+from imperial rule.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon the emperor and his army found themselves
+closely confined within the walls of Querétaro.
+Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both
+sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions
+grew scarce and foraging parties were sent out, but
+after each attack the lines of the besiegers became
+closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of
+forces and funds, and General Marquez was sent to
+the city of Mexico to obtain them. He managed to
+get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to
+return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian
+of the promised aid. Such forces and funds as
+Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz,
+who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and
+took Pueblo, and then turned on Marquez, whom he
+defeated so completely that he made his way back
+to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night.
+It was the glory gained by this act that later raised
+Diaz to the presidency, which he held so brilliantly
+for so many years.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a
+shadow. For two months the siege of Querétaro
+continued, steadily growing closer. During this
+trying time Maximilian showed the best elements
+of his character. He was gentle and cheerful in demeanor,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and brave in action, not hesitating to expose
+himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made
+for his escape, that he might put himself at the head
+of his troops elsewhere, but he refused, through a
+sense of honor, to desert his brave companions.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian
+himself had only the coarse, tough food which was
+served to the common soldiers. Day after day
+Marquez was looked for with the promised aid, but
+night after night brought only disappointment. At
+length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in
+charge of the most important point in the city,
+turned traitor and admitted two battalions of the
+enemy. From this point the assailants swarmed
+into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere
+prevailed. Lopez had not intended that the
+emperor should be captured, and gave him warning
+in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and
+reached a little hill outside the town, but here he
+was surrounded by foes and forced to deliver up his
+sword.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full
+master of Mexico, and held its late emperor in his
+hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon his
+word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but
+always at the last moment he failed to avail himself
+of them. His friends sought to win for him the
+clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible.
+The traitors, as he called them, should be tried by
+court-martial, he said and abide the decision of the
+court.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tried they were, though the trial was little more
+than a farce, with the verdict fixed in advance.
+This verdict was death. The condemned, in addition
+to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command,
+Miramon and Medjia. The late emperor rose early
+on the fatal morning and heard mass. He embraced
+his fellow victims, and as he reached the street
+said, "What a beautiful day! On such a one I
+have always wished to die."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was greeted with respect by the people in
+the street, the women weeping. He responded
+with a brief address, closing with the words, "May
+my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the
+country, and if more should be shed, may it flow
+for its good, and not by treason. Viva Independencia!
+Viva Mexico!"</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired,
+and the empire of Maximilian was at an end.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc81" id="toc81"></a>
+<a name="pdf82" id="pdf82"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of
+Havana, the capital of Cuba, were startled by a
+report that rebels were in the field, a band of
+twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in
+the province of Matanzas. Other small bands
+were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A
+trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba
+was guarded by twenty thousand Spanish troops
+and had on its military rolls the names of sixty
+thousand volunteers. But the island was seething
+with discontent, and trifles grow fast under such
+circumstances. Twenty years before a great rebellion
+had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in
+1878, but Spain had ignored the promises of the
+treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new
+flame which had now burst out.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the days and weeks went on the movement
+grew, many of the plantation hands joining the
+insurgents until there were several thousand men
+in arms. For a time these had it all their own
+way, raiding and plundering the plantations of the
+loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and mountains
+when the troops appeared.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque
+old affairs of battles and banners, marches<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp
+and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes,
+sudden attacks, quick retreats, and brisk
+affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of
+the conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing
+over the armed and trained troops of Spain,
+but they hoped to wear them out and make the war
+so costly to Spain that she would in the end give
+up the island in despair.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work of the Cuban patriots was like the
+famous deeds of Marion and his men in the swampy
+region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba
+were uncultivated and half its area was covered
+with thickets and forests. In the wet season the
+low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps
+of sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests,
+so thick and dense as to be almost impassable. The
+high bushes and thick grasses of the plains formed
+a jungle which could be traversed only with the
+aid of the machete, the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like
+blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and
+sword, now cutting his way through bush and
+jungle, now slicing off the head of an enemy in
+war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Everywhere in the island there are woods, there
+are hills and mountains, there are growths of lofty
+grass, affording countless recesses and refuges for
+fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To
+retire to the "long grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning,
+to gain safety from pursuit, and a patriot
+force might lie unseen and unheard while an army<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+marched by. In brief, Cuba is a paradise for the
+bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain were none
+too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where
+the flame of death might suddenly burst forth from
+the most innocent-looking woodland retreat or
+grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for
+days for a foe who could not be found, and as for
+starving out the rebels, that was no easy thing to
+do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet
+potato, the wild fruits of the woodland, which the
+fertile soil bore abundantly, while the country-people
+were always ready to supply their brothers
+in the field.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion
+of 1895. For a time the rebels gathered in
+small bands with none but local leaders. But the
+outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives
+from the former war, and early in April
+twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica,
+landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of
+the island.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo,
+a mulatto, who had won a high reputation for his
+daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had
+unbounded influence over the negro element of the
+rebellion. Wherever Maceo was ready to lead, they
+were ready to follow to the death if he gave the
+word, and he soon proved himself the most daring
+and successful soldier in the war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He did not make his way inland with safety.
+Spanish cavalry were patrolling the coast to prevent<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a brisk
+fight with a party of these soon after landing, he
+getting away with a bullet-hole through his hat.
+For ten days they were in imminent danger, now
+fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland
+fruits for food, and so pestered by the Spanish
+patrols that the party was forced to break up, only
+two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end
+these fell in with a party of rebels, from whom they
+received a warm and enthusiastic welcome.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one
+of the leaders in the former war who had refused to
+sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the fight
+for two months longer, and finally escaped from the
+country, now to return without the load of a broken
+promise on his conscience.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large
+following of insurgents at his back, and in several
+sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he could
+more than hold his own. Other patriots soon
+arrived from exile,—José Marti, the fomenter of the
+insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier; and
+several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the
+rebels. The movement, which had as yet been a
+mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming the dimensions
+of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining
+the ranks of these able leaders, until more than six
+thousand men were in the field.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Almost everywhere that they met their enemy
+they were largely outnumbered, and they fought
+mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such
+hidden paths that pursuit was usually idle. Much
+of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks
+or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which
+art they were far superior to the Spanish cavalry.
+Many stories are told of women who rode in their
+ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully
+as the men, and in this there is doubtless much
+truth. Their horses were no show animals, but a
+sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there
+being no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain
+or shine, but as tough and tireless beasts as our own
+bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders in
+mad dashes on the foe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The favorite mode of fighting practised by the
+insurgents was to surprise the enemy by a sharp
+skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick
+off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity,
+they would dash from their covert in a wild
+cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling like
+so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the
+ranks of the foe. This was the kind of fighting in
+which Maceo excelled.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes
+and only one affair that could be called a
+battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader,
+while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba,
+a man looked upon as the ablest general of Spain,
+led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great
+annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the
+fortified town of Bayamo, and Campos determined<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to drive him from the field. Several columns of
+Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from
+different quarters, one of these, fifteen hundred
+strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of
+July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three
+thousand men, being posted on a stock-farm several
+miles from Bayamo.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards,
+intended to strike the division under Campos;
+but by an error it fell upon the advance guard, led
+by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a
+brisk fire from the wooded hill-sides. Santocildes
+fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from the governor-general's
+boot.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the
+Spanish ranks that some important officer had
+fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in
+a vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded
+in repelling them, he felt himself in a critical
+situation, and hastily drew up his whole force into
+a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead
+horses and mules for breastworks. Around this
+strong formation the Cubans raged for several hours,
+only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous
+rout. An assault was made on the rear
+guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to capture
+the ammunition train. But its defenders held their
+ground vigorously, and fought their way to the
+main column, where they aided to form the square.
+Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo,
+pursued by the Cubans and having lost<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+heavily in the fight. They were saved from utter
+destruction by Maceo's lack of artillery, and Campos
+was very careful afterwards not to venture near
+this daring leader without a powerful force.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in
+the earlier war, had now been appointed commander-in-chief
+of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo
+as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way
+westward into the province of Santa Clara, and in
+November Maceo left the eastern province of
+Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the
+trocha, the famous device of the Spaniards to prevent
+the free movement of the Cuban forces. It
+may be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare,
+devised by the Spaniards to check the free
+movement of their rebel foes.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish
+trochas were military lines cut through the woods
+and across the island from side to side, and defended
+by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees
+were piled along both sides of the roadway, making
+a difficult breastwork of jagged roots and branches.
+At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this
+well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison
+of about one hundred men, it needing about
+fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the
+trocha from sea to sea.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos,
+and by Weyler after him, to check the Cuban movements.
+We need only say here that, despite its
+cost and the number of men it tied up on guard<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+duty, the trocha failed to restrain the alert islanders.
+Gomez had crossed it in his movement westward,
+and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He
+made a feint of an attack in force on one part of
+the line, and when the Spaniards had concentrated
+to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected
+spot, without firing a shot or losing a man.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas
+and Spaniards. From Santa Clara they
+entered Matanzas province, and from this made
+their way into the province of Havana, bringing
+the war almost to the gates of the capital. Spain
+had now sent more than one hundred thousand
+troops across the ocean, though many of these
+were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans, the
+island had now risen almost from end to end, and
+their force was estimated at from thirty to fifty
+thousand men. It was no longer a rebel outbreak
+that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly
+fixed in Havana province, many negro field-hands
+and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They
+fought not only against the Spaniards, but against
+the bandits also, of whom there were many abroad
+plundering from both sides alike. These were
+hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo
+was the active fighter of the force, Gomez being
+occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and destroying
+railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of
+war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In January, 1896, a new movement westward<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+was made, Maceo leading his men into the province
+of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end
+of the island. Here was the great tobacco district,
+one into which insurrection had never before made
+its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the
+island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure
+nowhere but within the cities, while the insurgents
+moved wherever they chose in the country. The
+sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by
+day and lurid with the flames of burning fields at
+night, showing that Gomez was busy with his work
+of destruction, burning the crops of every planter
+who sought to grind his cane.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader
+through the remainder of his career. General
+Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his
+official life with the boast that he would soon clear
+the provinces near Havana of rebels in arms. But
+he was hardly in the governor's chair when Maceo
+was back from the west and swooping down on
+the city of Jaruco, which he looted and burned.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where
+they found no one to oppose them, and he was
+soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that
+this province was pacified. But the ink was barely
+dry upon it when Maceo, having burnt the port of
+Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the
+"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters
+in the mountains and defied all the power
+of Spain.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to confine him by building a new trocha,
+cutting off that end of the island. This took two
+months to complete, during which Maceo continued
+his work almost unopposed, destroying the tobacco
+of loyalists, defeating every force sent against him,
+and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the
+southern part of the province.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the
+field, marching into Pinar del Rio at the head of
+thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an
+end to the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt
+sure he had hemmed in with his trocha. Between
+the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province
+was sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting
+a large force that Maceo was obliged to
+dismiss the most of his men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving the slender remnant under the control
+of one of his lieutenants, he once more passed the
+trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat and
+landing in Havana province. He had sent orders
+in advance for a concentration of the Cuban forces
+in this region, that he might give Weyler a new
+employment.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The daring partisan leader was near the end of
+his career, brought to his death by the work of a
+traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for
+the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men
+with him, was fired on from a Spanish ambush, and
+fell, mortally wounded.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus died the most dashing soldier that the
+Cuban rebellion called into the field. Dr. Zertucha,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of his staff, was charged with treachery in leading
+him into this ambush, though that is by no means
+proved. Maceo was one of nine brothers, all soldiers,
+and all of whom had now died in the great
+struggle for Cuban independence. His body was
+recovered from the enemy after a desperate fight;
+his valiant spirit was lost to the cause. Yet his
+work had not been without avail, and the country
+for which he had fought so bravely was left by him
+on the highroad to liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc83" id="toc83"></a>
+<a name="pdf84" id="pdf84"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About three o'clock of a dark morning, whose
+deep gloom shrouded alike the shores and waters of
+Cuba's tropic isle, a large craft left the side of the
+"New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson's
+fleet off Santiago, and glided towards the throat of
+the narrow channel leading to its land-locked harbor.
+This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier
+named the "Merrimac." On board were Richmond
+P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor, and seven
+volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the
+old hulk in the channel and thus to seal up the
+Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact that
+there were ten chances to one that they would go to
+the bottom with their craft, or be riddled with
+Spanish bullets, did not trouble their daring souls.
+Their country called, and they obeyed.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks,
+was a series of torpedoes, prepared to blow the
+vessel into a hopeless wreck when the proper moment
+came. A heavy weight in coal had been left
+on board, to carry her rapidly to the bottom, and
+there was strong hope that she could be dropped in
+the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle,"
+and "bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers.
+That it was an errand of imminent risk did not<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+trouble the bold American tars. There were volunteers
+enough eager to undertake the perilous task
+to form a ship's crew, and to the six seamen chosen
+Coxswain Clausen added himself as a stowaway.
+The love of adventure was stronger than fear of
+death or captivity.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the
+night before an attempt to go in had been made,
+but the hour was so late that the admiral called the
+vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and
+there was no hinderance to the adventurous voyage.
+Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac"
+glided in towards the dark line of coast. Not a
+light was shown, and great skill was needed to strike
+the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From
+the "New York" eager eyes watched the collier until
+its outlines were lost beneath the shadow of the hills.
+Eyes continued to peer into the darkness and ears
+to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the
+nerves of the watching crew. Then came a booming
+roar from Morro Castle and the flash of a cannon
+lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and
+booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes
+there seemed a battle going on in the darkness. The
+"Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting her
+doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men?</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with
+a steam launch and four men, prepared to pick up
+any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went
+daringly under the batteries and hung about until
+daylight revealed his small craft, but not a man was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned disappointed
+at 6.15 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A.M.</span></span>, pestered by spiteful shots from
+the Spanish guns. He had followed the "Merrimac"
+until the low-lying smoke from the roaring guns hid
+her from view. Then came the explosion of the
+torpedoes. Hobson had done his work. Powell
+kept under the shelter of the cliffs until full day
+had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of
+the "Merrimac" rising out of the water of the
+channel. The sinking had been accomplished, but
+no one could say with what result to Hobson and
+his men.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us now leave the distant spectators and go
+on board the "Merrimac," seeking the company of
+her devoted crew. It was Hobson's purpose to sink
+her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping
+the anchor and handling the rudder so as to turn her
+across the stream. Her length was sufficient to
+close up completely the deeper channel. He would
+stop the engines, let fall the anchor, open the traps
+made for the sea-water to flow in, and explode the
+torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the
+ship, each containing eighty-two pounds of powder,
+and they were connected so that they could be fired
+in train. There were two men below, one to reverse
+the engines, the other to break open the sea-traps
+with a sledge hammer. Those on deck were to let
+fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson
+would touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes,
+and all would leap overboard and swim to
+the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it
+so often does, set them sadly astray.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On through the darkness they went, hitting the
+channel squarely, and steaming in under the frowning
+walls of the Morro through gloom and death-like
+silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A
+small picket-boat came gliding out under the collier's
+stern and fired several shots at the suspicious craft.
+One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled
+one important item of the plans. The dingy, which
+was trusted to for escape, disappeared, perhaps
+hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having
+done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and
+gave the alarm, and quickly the shore batteries were
+firing on the dark hull. The ships in the harbor
+echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards
+were alert. They thought that an American battle-ship
+was trying to force its way in, perhaps with
+the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give
+it a hard fight.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove
+on, unhurt by the bombardment, and even by a submarine
+mine which exploded near her stern. The
+darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to
+hit, and she reached the desired spot, in the narrowest
+spot of the channel, none the worse for the
+shower of iron hail.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment
+had arrived. Hobson gave the signal fixed
+upon, and the men below reversed the engine and
+opened the sea connections. They then dashed for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the deck. Those above dropped the anchor and set
+the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter
+disappointment, discover that the rudder had been
+lost. The ship refused to answer her helm, and the
+plan of setting her lengthwise across the channel
+failed. The final task remained. Touching the
+electric button, the torpedoes went off with a sullen
+roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath their feet.
+The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail.
+The others leaped into the sea. Down went the
+"Merrimac" with a surge at the bow, cheers from
+the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank.
+The gunners thought they had sent to the depths
+one of the hostile men-of-war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the last moment of leaving the "New York"
+an old catamaran had been thrown on the "Merrimac's"
+deck, as a possible aid to the crew in extremity.
+This float lay on the roof of the midship
+house, a rope fastening it to the taffrail, with enough
+slack to let it float loose after the ship had sunk. It
+was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it afforded
+them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself
+at this point in our narrative. He says, "I swam
+away from the ship as soon as I struck the water,
+but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward
+in spite of all I could do. This did not last very
+long, however, and as soon as I felt the tugging
+cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I
+could see dimly bobbing up and down over the
+sunken hull.</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The 'Merrimac's' masts were plainly visible, and
+I could see the heads of my seven men as they
+followed my example and made for the float also.
+We had expected, of course, that the Spaniards
+would investigate the wreck, but we had no idea
+that they would be at it as quickly as they were.
+Before we could get to the float several row-boats
+and launches came around the bluff from inside
+the harbor. They had officers on board and armed
+marines as well, and they searched that passage,
+rowing backward and forward, until the next
+morning. It was only by good luck that we got
+to the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly
+that we had barely concealed ourselves when a boat
+with quite a large party on board was right beside
+us."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An event which they thought unlucky now proved
+to be the salvation of the fugitives, who very likely
+would have been shot on the spot by the marines if
+they had then been seen from the boats. The rope
+which fastened the float to the ship was too short to
+let it swing free, and one of the pontoons that supported
+it was dragged partly under water, lifting
+the other above the surface. If the raft had lain
+flat on the water they would have had to climb on
+top and would have made an excellent mark for the
+marines. As it was they got under its lifted side,
+and by thrusting their hands through the slats that
+formed the deck they kept their heads above the
+water, and had a chance to breathe.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to the old, half-sunken raft that floated above
+the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the
+hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one
+seemed to suspect it. The fugitives spoke only in
+whispers and at times were almost afraid to breathe,
+lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place
+remained unsuspected.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours
+went on, and their fingers ached as they clung
+desperately to the slats. As the night passed their
+teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed
+to them as if the Spaniards must hear the sound,
+so distinctly to their ears came the noises on the
+water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became
+at last so trying that one of the men let go and
+began to swim ashore. Hobson called him back,
+and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men
+in the boats and created some commotion. They
+rowed up towards the float and looked sharply
+about, but no one thought of investigating the float
+itself, and soon they went off into the shadows
+again, letting the hidden men once more breathe
+freely.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question that most interested the Spaniards
+was to learn what ship it was they had sunk. Hobson
+heard them talking and guessing about it and
+understood many of their words. He soon perceived
+that the officers had taken in the situation
+and were astonished at the boldness and audacity
+of the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the
+fleet, a fact to the lieutenant's satisfaction, as he felt<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+more like trusting to the tender mercies of a Spanish
+sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him
+take up the narrative again.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"When daylight came a steam-launch full of
+officers and marines came out from behind the cliff
+that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards
+us. All the men on board were looking curiously
+in our direction. They did not see us. Knowing
+that some one of rank must be on board, I waited
+till the launch was quite close and hailed her.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"My voice produced the utmost consternation on
+board. Every one sprang up, the marines now
+crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were
+reversed. She not only stopped, but she backed off
+until nearly a quarter of a mile away, where she
+stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the
+word of command when we clambered out from
+under the float. There were ten of the marines,
+and they would have fired in a minute had they not
+been restrained.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I swam towards the launch, and then she started
+towards me. I called out in Spanish, 'Is there an
+officer on board?' An officer answered in the
+affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again,
+'I have seven men to surrender.' I continued
+swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the
+water.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"As I looked up when they were dragging me
+into the launch, I saw that it was Admiral Cervera
+himself who had hold of me. He looked at me
+rather dubiously at first, because I had been down<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the engine-room of the 'Merrimac,' where I
+got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and
+coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable.
+I had put on my officer's belt before sinking the
+'Merrimac,' as a means of identification, no matter
+what happened to me, and when I pointed
+to it in the launch the admiral understood and
+seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me
+when he understood who I was were, '<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bienvenida
+sea usted</span></span>,' which means 'You are welcome.' My
+treatment by the naval officers, and that of my
+men also, was courteous all the time I was a
+prisoner. They heard my story, as much of it as
+I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of
+them that night," was Hobson's reply to a question.
+"We saw a great many things, though, and
+went through a great many experiences. When
+we started out from the fleet I tied to my belt a
+flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my
+ship's surgeon. The frequency with which we all
+felt thirsty on the short run into the passage and
+the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe
+that I was frightened. The men felt the same, and
+all the way the flask went from hand to hand.
+Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened,
+but to my surprise I found it normal. Later we
+forgot all about it, and when we got into the water
+there was no need for the flask."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The remainder of this stirring adventure must
+be told more briefly. The prisoners were taken<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle.
+Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as
+to their fate, but this was relieved by the generous
+conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his chief-of-staff
+out the next morning under a flag of truce
+to report their safety and to make an offer for
+their exchange. Cervera's message was highly
+complimentary. It ran:</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish
+fleet, is most profoundly impressed with the
+brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the
+steamer 'Merrimac' in our harbor, and in admiration
+of their courage he has directed me to say to
+their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the
+exception of two of the men who were slightly
+hurt, they are uninjured. They are now prisoners
+of war and are being well cared for, and will be
+treated with every consideration."</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cervera kept his word, though the captives found
+themselves in different hands later, when they were
+turned over to General Linares, commander of the
+troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity
+about five weeks, being exchanged on July 7, when
+a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were
+offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant
+seven. The story of their return to the American
+ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave
+eight passed up the trail leading to the American
+lines through the avenue of palms that bordered
+the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence,
+baring their heads as the band struck up "The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Star-Spangled Banner." But as Hobson and his
+men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome
+broke the silence, while a cowboy yell came from
+the Rough Riders. Breaking from all restraint,
+the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of
+Hobson and his men. All the way to Siboney the
+cheers and excitement continued, and when Hobson
+set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew
+grew wild with enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson
+embraced him in the warmth of his greeting.
+As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up
+in the delirious delight of the men. Thus ended
+one of the most gallant deeds of that short war.</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had
+been managed, the effort to close the port proved a
+failure. Though the sunken ship closed part of the
+channel, there was room enough to pass beside her,
+this being strikingly proved on the morning of July
+3, when the squadron which Hobson had sought
+to bottle up came steaming down the channel past
+the sunken "Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it
+started on a wild fight for freedom. The result of
+this venture does not need to be retold, and it must
+suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish
+ships were shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore,
+and Cervera and all who survived of his men were
+prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was
+as much of a hero as a captive, for his captors could
+not soon forget his generous treatment of Hobson
+and his men.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+by Charles Morris
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503]
+
+Language: English
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+    <change>
+      <date value="2006-10-09">October 9, 2006</date>
+      <respStmt>
+        <name>Joshua Hutchinson and<lb /></name>
+        <name>The Online Distributed Proofreading Team<lb /></name>
+      </respStmt>
+      <item>Posted to Project Gutenberg</item>
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+<text lang="en">
+  <front>
+    <div>
+      <divGen type="pgheader" />
+    </div>
+
+    <div>
+      <divGen type="encodingDesc" />
+    </div>
+
+    <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+      <divGen type="titlepage" />
+    </div>
+
+    <div>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Philadelphia and London<lb />
+      J. B. Lippincott Company</p>
+    </div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<p>Copyright, 1904, by <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">J. B. Lippincott Company</hi>.<lb />
+Copyright, 1908, by <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">J. B. Lippincott Company</hi>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<figure url="images/image01.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+<p></p>
+</div>
+
+    <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+      <head>Illustrations</head>
+      <divGen type="fig" />
+    </div>
+
+    <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+      <head>Contents</head>
+      <divGen type="toc" />
+    </div>
+</front>
+
+<body>
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<pb n="007" /><anchor id="Pg007" />
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<head>THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.</head>
+
+<p>The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high
+among the important dates in the history of the
+world. For on that day men from Europe, then
+the centre of civilization, first gazed on a rich new
+land beyond the seas, a great virgin continent, destined
+to become the seat of flourishing civilizations
+and to play a leading part in the later history of
+the world. Little did Columbus and his companions,
+when they saw before them on that
+famous morning a beautiful island, rising like a
+pearl of promise from the sparkling tropical sea,
+dream of what time held in store for that new-found
+land, foreordained to become the "New
+World" of the nations, the hope of the oppressed,
+and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and
+equality.</p>
+
+<p>But we are here concerned with only what they
+saw, and this was a green and populous island, so
+covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their
+eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was,
+for many of the trees were laden with new and
+strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form.
+Never had they breathed air more pure and
+fresh, and never had they beheld seas of such
+crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue;<pb n="008" /><anchor id="Pg008" />
+and it is not surprising that their eyes sparkled
+with joy and their souls were filled with wonder
+and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene
+after their long and dreaded journey over a vast
+and unknown ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Not less strange to the new-comers were the
+people who flocked in numbers from the woods and
+ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple
+wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had
+never met their eyes before. No clothing hid their
+dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to
+their visitors, and they looked like the unclad
+tenants of some new paradise. Their astonishment
+turned into fright when they saw boats leave these
+strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad
+in shining steel or raiment of varied color. Their
+white faces, their curling beards, their splendid
+clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of
+the forest, and especially the air of dignity of their
+leader, with his ample cloak of scarlet, added to
+their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as
+divine visitors, come to them from the skies.</p>
+
+<p>Not less was their surprise when they saw the
+wonderful strangers kneel and kiss the soil, and
+then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich
+colors and designs that seemed magical to their
+untaught eyes. And deep was their delight when
+these strange beings distributed among them wonderful
+gifts,&mdash;glass beads, hawk's bells, and other
+trifles,&mdash;which seemed precious gems to their untutored
+souls. They had nothing to offer in return,<pb n="009" /><anchor id="Pg009" />
+except tame parrots, of which they had many, and
+balls of cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards
+sparkled with hope when they saw small ornaments
+of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it
+been for all the natives of the New World if this
+yellow metal had not existed among them, for it
+was to bring them untold suffering and despair.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus
+named this first-seen land; but, leaving it, let
+us go with him in his voyage through that island-sprinkled
+sea, and use his eyes in taking in the
+marvels with which it was sown. Familiar as
+these islands have become to many of us, to him
+they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string
+of tropic pearls or rare emeralds spread out along
+those shining waters of the South.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their
+hearts elate with joy and pride in their discovery,
+hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn
+to the right and the left alike. They found themselves
+in an archipelago of beautiful islands, green
+and level, rising on all sides and seemingly numberless.
+To us they are the great green cluster of the
+Bahamas, but to Columbus, who fancied that he
+had reached the shores of Asia, they were that
+wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in
+which were seven thousand four hundred and fifty-eight
+islands, abounding with spices and rich in
+odoriferous trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright
+and placid waters scarce ruffled by the gentle<pb n="010" /><anchor id="Pg010" />
+breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of
+which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than
+the last. Besting under the shade of warm and
+verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their
+water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the
+admiral found the scene around him entrancing to
+his vision, "the country as fresh and green as the
+month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits,
+the herbs, the flowers, the very stones, for the most
+part, as different from those of Spain as night from
+day."</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image02.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One isle, which he honored with the name of
+Isabella, after his patron, the Spanish queen, surpassed
+in charm all he had yet seen. Like them
+all, it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate
+delightful, its air soft and balmy, its scenery so
+lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would
+never desire to depart. I know not where first to
+go, nor are my eyes ever weary of gazing on the
+beautiful verdure."</p>
+
+<p>Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all
+the casks of the ships to be filled. He could not
+say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here
+are large lakes, and the groves about them are
+marvellous, and in all the island everything is
+green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia.
+The singing of the birds is such that it seems as if
+one would never wish to leave this land. There are
+flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other
+birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so
+different from ours, that it is wonderful; and<pb n="011" /><anchor id="Pg011" />
+besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each
+having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous
+flavor, so that I am in the greatest trouble in the
+world not to know them, for I am very certain that
+they are each of great value."</p>
+
+<p>As he approached this island, he fancied that the
+winds bore to his senses the spicy odors said to be
+wafted from the islands of the East Indian seas.
+"As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came
+off a fragrance so good and soft of the flowers or
+trees of the land that it was the sweetest thing in
+the world."</p>
+
+<p>Not only were the islands the homes of birds of
+brilliant plumage and flowers of gorgeous hue, but
+the very seas seemed to their new visitors like
+tropical gardens, for the fish with which they
+abounded rivalled the birds and flowers in brilliancy
+of color. The scales of some of them glittered
+like precious stones, and gleams of gold and
+silver seemed to come from them as they swam
+around the ships, while the dolphins taken from
+the water changed color like the chameleon.</p>
+
+<p>The natives who had been taken on board the
+ships made signs which seemed to indicate that
+more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with
+cities and kings and queens, and abundance of gold
+and gems; or, at least, the Spaniards understood
+this from their signs, as they pointed to the south
+when gold was shown them and they were asked
+where it could be found. Far to the south was a
+great island which they named Cuba, and another<pb n="012" /><anchor id="Pg012" />
+which they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs
+appeared to show, was of vast extent and abounded
+with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined
+to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth
+which he and his companions so ardently craved.
+It cannot be said that the natives wished to deceive
+them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all
+they were asked, with the innocent desire of
+pleasing their wonderful new friends. Columbus,
+full of the idea that he was near the shores of India,
+hoped to reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco
+Polo had said was one of the most magnificent in
+the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns
+to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring
+back his reply to Spain. Inspired by this enticing
+hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows of
+his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>It was on the morning of October 28 that the
+shores of this noble island first met the eyes of the
+eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along its
+coast the admiral was struck with its size and
+grandeur; its high and airy mountains, like those
+of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and the
+fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching
+forests and many green headlands, which led them
+on and on into the remote distance. They anchored
+at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were
+transparent and deeply shaded with overhanging
+trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up the
+stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting
+with every mile, forests of lofty and spreading<pb n="013" /><anchor id="Pg013" />
+trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit,
+some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at
+once. These woods swarmed with birds of brilliant
+plumage,&mdash;the scarlet flamingo, the rich-hued parrots
+and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds,
+which flitted on rainbow wings from
+flower to flower, and which no European had ever
+before seen. Even the insects were beautiful,
+in their shining coats of mail. Though most of
+the birds were silent, the charms of song were not
+wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected
+among them notes like those of the nightingale.
+Ever open to the charms of nature, Cuba
+seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful
+island that eyes ever beheld."</p>
+
+<p>He was sure there must here be mines of gold,
+groves of spices, rivers and seas that bore pearls.
+The houses, though simple in structure, were
+well built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and
+shaded by spreading trees. Led on still by his excited
+fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and
+rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze.
+Assured that the capital of the Grand Khan could
+not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with
+presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out
+by the people. But after going many miles they
+found only a village of fifty houses, like those seen
+on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no
+spices, none of the things they so ardently sought.
+The only thing new to their eyes was a fashion seen
+among the people, who rolled up certain dried and<pb n="014" /><anchor id="Pg014" />
+aromatic leaves, and, lighting one end, put the
+other in their mouths, and exhaled the smoke.
+This was the first ever seen by white men of that
+remarkable American plant, called by the natives
+by a name like tobacco, which has since grown to
+be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and
+hovel alike.</p>
+
+<p>Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination
+of Columbus was continually aroused by the
+magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of the
+scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A
+warm love of nature is frequently displayed in the
+description of the country which he wrote out for
+Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place,
+named by him Puerto Santo, he said: "The
+amenity of this river, and the clearness of the
+water, through which the sand at the bottom may
+be seen; the multitude of palm-trees of various
+forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have
+met with, and an infinity of other great and green
+trees; the birds in rich plumage, and the verdure
+of the fields, render this country, most Serene
+Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses
+all others in graces and charm, as the day
+doth the night in lustre. For which reason I often
+say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to
+give a complete account of it to your Majesties,
+my tongue cannot express the whole truth or my
+tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed
+at the sight of so much beauty that I
+have not known how to relate it."</p>
+
+<pb n="015" /><anchor id="Pg015" />
+
+<p>One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous
+series of discoveries,&mdash;the one called by the
+natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as Hayti,
+one of the most beautiful islands in the world in
+the splendor of its tropical vegetation. Columbus
+and his men could describe it only by comparison
+with the most beautiful provinces of the country
+from which they came, and in consequence he
+named the island Hispaniola, or "Little Spain."</p>
+
+<p>Here he found the people as innocent and simple
+in their habits as those of San Salvador, living in
+huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no clothing,
+for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing
+life in a holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To
+the Spaniards their life seemed like a pleasant
+dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where
+it was "always afternoon." They had no wants
+nor cares, and spent life in easy idleness and innocent
+sports. They had their fields, but the food
+plants grew bountifully with little labor. The
+rivers and sea yielded abundance of fish, and
+luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their
+forests. Thus favored by nature, they spent much
+of the day in repose, while in the evenings they
+danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or
+the rude music of their drums. After the coming
+of the Spaniards the clear tinkle of the hawk's
+bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight,
+and for those musical toys they were ready to
+barter everything they possessed.</p>
+
+<p>In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than<pb n="016" /><anchor id="Pg016" />
+the Spaniards had yet seen, but they were still
+lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope
+that this precious metal might there be found in
+quantities. Yet Columbus felt forced to cease, for
+a time, the quest of the precious metal, and sail for
+home with the story of the new world he had
+found. One of his vessels had deserted him; another
+had been wrecked: if he should lose the third
+he would be left without means of return and his
+great discovery might remain unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493,
+he spread the sails of the one caravel left to him, and
+turned its prow towards Europe, to carry thither
+the news of the greatest maritime discovery the
+world had ever known. Thus ended in success and
+triumph the first voyage of Columbus to the "New
+World."</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<pb n="017" /><anchor id="Pg017" />
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<head>ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.</head>
+
+<p>Of the three ships with which Columbus made
+his first voyage, the "Pinta" deserted the others and
+went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and
+the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran
+ashore on the coast of Hispaniola and proved a
+hopeless wreck. Only the little "Niña" (the "girl,"
+as this word means in English) was left to carry the
+discoverer home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully
+taken to pieces, and from her timbers was constructed
+a small but strong fort, with a deep vault
+beneath and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians
+aided in this, and not a shred of the stranded vessel
+was left to the waves. As the "Niña" was too small
+to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided
+to leave a garrison to hold this fort and search for
+gold until he should return. That the island held
+plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was
+left, with a garrison of forty men, and the "Niña"
+spread her sails to the winds to carry to Spain the
+wonderful news of the great discovery.</p>
+
+<p>La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort,
+in remembrance of the day of the wreck, and when
+he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find
+its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in
+the precious yellow metal. He reached the spot to<pb n="018" /><anchor id="Pg018" />
+find the fort a ruin and the garrison a remembrance
+only. They had been attacked by the Indians and
+massacred during the absence of the admiral.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians
+whom Columbus had met with on his first voyage
+were not the only people of the islands. There
+were on some of the West Indies a warlike race
+called Caribs,&mdash;cannibals, the Spaniards said they
+were,&mdash;who gave the invaders no small trouble
+before they were overcome.</p>
+
+<p>It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had
+attacked La Navidad and destroyed the fort and its
+garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by some
+of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much
+too ready to commit. The leader of these warriors
+was a bold cacique named Caonabo, chief of a
+warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain
+that we are at present concerned, as he was the
+hero, or victim rather, of the first romantic story
+known to us in Indian life.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on
+the coast of Hispaniola, there was one built far in
+the interior, called Fort Santo Tomas. This stood
+in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed
+land of gold of the island. Its site lay within the
+territory of Caonabo, who ruled over a great district,
+his capital town or village being on the
+southern slope of the Cibao Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The first conflict between the Spaniards and the
+natives, after the massacre of the garrison of La
+Navidad, was in the district of the Vega, where a<pb n="019" /><anchor id="Pg019" />
+fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the
+natives suffering a severe defeat. The next was at
+Fort Santo Tomas, which was commanded by
+Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come
+out with Columbus in his second voyage. He was
+a man of great courage and unusual daring, one
+of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had
+to do with the conquest of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>A man of his spirit was needed to command this
+isolated fort in the mountains, for the cacique,
+Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of his
+territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a
+strong force of his warlike race. Santo Tomas was
+closely invested and fiercely attacked, Ojeda being
+reduced to such an extremity that he owed his
+escape only to a rescuing force sent by Columbus
+from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven off by the
+superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly
+to his stronghold in the mountains. But he
+was quickly back again, with a larger force than
+before. He had never met his equal among the
+Indians, but the fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards
+proved too much even for his courage, and he was
+a second time forced to withdraw.</p>
+
+<p>It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously
+situated, surrounded as he was by warlike
+enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In
+the face of this peril he adopted an expedient as
+daring as any of those shown by Cortez, Pizarro,
+or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age
+of conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its<pb n="020" /><anchor id="Pg020" />
+daring. It is this striking adventure which it is
+our purpose to describe.</p>
+
+<p>Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and
+most trusty, Ojeda set out on horseback over the
+mountains, following paths never before traversed
+by the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib
+town of Maguana, where he found Caonabo surrounded
+by a throng of armed warriors. The
+Spaniards had bearded the lion in his den, and
+were in a position of extreme peril should the
+cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master
+in craftiness, and by professions of friendship
+and other arts of duplicity he persuaded the chief
+to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest.</p>
+
+<p>He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs,
+bright and shining manacles of which the untutored
+Indian had no conception of the use, but whose
+brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they
+were bracelets, which the King of Spain had graciously
+sent him as a present, in recognition of his
+fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor
+Indian probably understood all this very imperfectly,
+but he was easily brought to view the manacles
+as <hi rend="font-style: italic">Turey</hi> or a gift from Heaven, and willingly
+held out his wrists that his guest might adorn them
+with those strange and splendid bracelets.</p>
+
+<p>In a moment his hands were secured, and before
+he could recover from his surprise Ojeda, whose
+small frame concealed much strength, reached from
+his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a
+great exertion of muscular force lifted him from<pb n="021" /><anchor id="Pg021" />
+the ground and swung him up on the horse. The
+warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion,
+had no time to use their weapons before the
+Spaniards had put spur to their horses and dashed
+off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side
+of Ojeda, to prevent the captive throwing himself
+from the horse. Threatened by their swords and
+with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets,
+Caonabo was forced to submit, and was carried by
+his captors for many miles through the heart of his
+own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which
+Columbus had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting
+a bay in which all his vessels could ride in
+safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination
+of his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to
+Columbus, and he was locked up in a secure cell.</p>
+
+<p>As the story goes, the brave cacique had a
+greater admiration for courage than anything else
+in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the
+crafty way in which he had been captured, he
+seemed to hold him in high esteem as the bravest
+of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his
+cell he would rise and courteously salute him,
+while he treated the visits of Columbus with
+haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique
+could make himself understood, the high rank of
+Columbus was nought to him. He had no proof
+that he was a man of courage, while the manner in
+which Ojeda had captured him showed him to be
+a brave man. To the bold Carib courage was the
+first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect.</p>
+
+<pb n="022" /><anchor id="Pg022" />
+
+<p>The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his
+countrymen who had to do with the Spanish invaders.
+Put on board ship and sent as a prize of
+valor to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the
+voyage, perhaps from a broken heart, or as a result
+of the change from his free forest life to the narrow
+confines of a fifteenth-century ship.</p>
+
+<p>The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of
+adventure, in which he distinguished himself as
+much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put
+in command of an exploring expedition and sent
+out from Spain, one of his companions being Amerigo
+Vespucci, he whose first name gained the immemorial
+honor of being given to the great western
+continent. In this voyage Ojeda discovered
+part of the continent of South America, which he
+called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested
+by an Indian village built on piles in the
+water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a
+colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there
+proved too bold and hostile for him, and he failed
+to subject them to his authority.</p>
+
+<p>Many were his adventures, all of them characterized
+by a rash daring like that he had shown in
+the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died,
+he was buried, in response to his own request, in the
+doorway of the Franciscan monastery in the city of
+Santo Domingo, so that all who entered that place
+of worship should walk over his grave.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<pb n="023" /><anchor id="Pg023" />
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<head>THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.</head>
+
+<p>The island elysium which Columbus had discovered,
+and of which he wrote and conversed in the
+most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of
+promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of
+adventurers soon crossed the seas, hopeful of winning
+gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring
+in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them
+were men of wealth, who were eager to add to
+their riches, but the most of them had little beyond
+their love of adventure and their thirst for gold to
+carry them across the seas, needy but bold soldiers
+and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise,
+however perilous, that might promise them reward.
+The stories of many of these men are full of romantic
+interest, and this is especially the case with one
+of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez.</p>
+
+<p>We propose here to deal with the interesting
+early history of this most famous of the New
+World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain,
+of good family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome
+humor led him into many wild escapades while
+still a boy. The mystery and romance of the
+strange land beyond the sea and the chance to
+win gold and glory which it offered were fascinating<pb n="024" /><anchor id="Pg024" />
+to a spirit like his, and he was prevented
+from taking part in an expedition when but seventeen
+years of age only by an unlucky accident.
+As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure
+like that of Romeo and Juliet, the stones gave way
+and he was thrown violently to the ground and
+buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed
+from his hurts the fleet had sailed.</p>
+
+<p>Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at
+home, engaged, perhaps, in similar pranks, but at
+length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set
+sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only
+nineteen years of age. He did not get across the
+sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of
+his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole
+away from the rest of the squadron, hoping to
+reach port and sell his cargo before the others
+arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for
+many days the vessel was tossed about, the sailors
+not knowing where they were, and furious at the
+treachery of their captain. At length, one morning,
+hope returned to them, in the form of a white
+dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the
+bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following
+its course the weary mariners finally came
+to the port they sought. But the captain was paid
+for his treachery by finding that the other vessels
+had arrived before him and sold their cargoes.</p>
+
+<p>The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope.
+When the governor's secretary told him that no
+doubt he would be given a good estate to settle on,<pb n="025" /><anchor id="Pg025" />
+he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the
+soil, like a peasant."</p>
+
+<p>As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough
+to accept the land, but his fondness for active deeds
+clung to him, and he took part in the military expeditions
+sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He
+had his quarrels, too, and his duels about the love
+of fair ladies, and received wounds whose scars he
+carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his
+valor came in 1511, when an expedition set out for
+the conquest of Cuba. Cortez enlisted under the
+leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by
+his courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition,
+and the good humor and ready wit which
+made him a favorite with all he met.</p>
+
+<p>After the island had been conquered, Velasquez
+was made its governor, Cortez still being his close
+friend. But for some reason this friendship did not
+last, and when at length a party of discontented
+men formed a plan to complain of the acts of the
+governor to the higher authorities in Hispaniola,
+Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen,
+from his fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it
+being necessary to perform the perilous exploit of
+crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in
+an open boat.</p>
+
+<p>In some way the plot got wind, and, before he
+could leave the island, Cortez was arrested by order
+of the governor and thrown into prison, his limbs
+being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended
+to hang him, as we are told, but was persuaded by<pb n="026" /><anchor id="Pg026" />
+his friends not to go so far. These Spanish governors
+had the power to do almost anything they pleased,
+their distance from home enabling them to act the
+despot at will, and their influence at court saving
+them from evil consequences.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image03.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In
+some way he managed to open one of the bolts of his
+fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then, turning
+his irons into tools, he used them to force open the
+window of his cell. As he was on the second floor
+of the building, it was easy for one so agile as he
+to reach the ground without injury, and he made
+his way to a church near by, where he claimed the
+right of sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p>When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner
+he was furious. He did not dare attempt to
+take him from the church by force, since the sacred
+walls protected all who sought their asylum. But
+a guard was stationed close by, with orders to seize
+the fugitive if he should leave the sanctuary. With
+one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done.
+A few days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning
+himself outside the walls of the building, one of
+the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his
+arms, and held him till his comrades came to his
+aid. This man was one of those who afterwards
+took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which
+he was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps
+took this opportunity for revenge.</p>
+
+<p>Once more the reckless young adventurer found
+himself a fettered captive, this time being put on<pb n="027" /><anchor id="Pg027" />
+board a vessel that was to sail the next morning for
+Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be
+tried for his offence. But he proved a very hard
+prisoner to hold. That night, with much pain
+and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of
+the irons that held them, and then stole cautiously
+to the deck, where he found a boat floating by
+the vessel's side. Slipping down into this, under
+cover of the darkness, he cut loose and paddled
+silently away.</p>
+
+<p>When near the shore he met with a rapid current
+and rough waters, to which he was afraid to trust
+the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought
+it safest to breast the water himself, and boldly
+plunged overboard. He found his task a hard,
+almost a fatal one; the current threatened to
+sweep him away, but after a long struggle with
+the waves he succeeded in reaching the shore, in
+a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now
+sought the church again, no doubt resolving this
+time to keep safely within its sacred shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The story goes on to state that the governor,
+worked upon by friends of the culprit, offered him
+forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier was
+too proud to accept. What followed is amusing.
+Velasquez was at a distance from the capital, on
+a military excursion, when one evening he was
+startled in his tent by the appearance of his
+enemy, completely armed and threatening in aspect.
+In dismay, the governor asked him what
+he wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was<pb n="028" /><anchor id="Pg028" />
+tired of being treated like a felon, and that he
+must have an explanation or he would know the
+reason why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and
+a hot altercation followed. But at length their
+talk became more friendly, and in the end their
+old amicable relations were resumed and they embraced
+like a pair of lovers. The amusing part
+of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to
+tell the governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary
+and disappeared, he found the governor and
+the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed.</p>
+
+<p>This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they
+became friends again, and Cortez was given a large
+estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and
+on which he found gold-mines, which were worked
+by Indian labor. He married a beautiful Spanish
+girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several years in
+happy content.</p>
+
+<p>This, with some, would have been the end of a
+career. It was only the beginning of that of
+Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history
+and a record of undying fame. All we can tell
+here is how this came about. It began in expeditions
+of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler,
+seeking Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was
+blown far westward by a storm, and reached an
+unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone
+buildings, cultivated the soil, and wore delicate
+cotton garments and ornaments of gold. In other
+ways they showed evidence of civilization. The
+land thus reached is that now known as Yucatan.</p>
+
+<pb n="029" /><anchor id="Pg029" />
+
+<p>Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova
+brought back, sent out a small fleet under his
+nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this
+new land. Grijalva found evidence that a great
+civilized nation dwelt inland, rich in gold and far
+superior in civilization to any Indians whom the
+Spaniards had yet met. He named the country
+New Spain, and sailed back to Cuba with an account
+of his important discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy.
+Here seemed to be the land of gold which the
+Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win
+vast wealth and the glory of adding a new and
+splendid province to Spain. He at once began to
+fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around
+for a man fit to command it. Several of the hidalgos,
+or gentlemen of Cuba, offered themselves, but
+none pleased the governor, and at length he settled
+upon Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By
+chance, rather than by intention, he had made a
+splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the
+New World, and perhaps the one man at that time
+in all Spain, fitted by nature for the difficult task
+which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as he
+had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a
+great occasion to prove himself a great man. He
+was to develop into one of the ablest military leaders
+in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was
+to display a genius and achieve a success worthy
+of Cæsar or Alexander or any of the famous soldiers
+of the world.</p>
+
+<pb n="030" /><anchor id="Pg030" />
+
+<p>But, from another point of view, Velasquez had
+made a bad choice. Cortez had disdained his fetters
+and his prisons, and would soon disdain his control.
+His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this
+young adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o'-the-wisp.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image04.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The very appointment seemed to change the
+whole character of the new admiral. He became
+a different man. His high spirits now changed to
+a tireless energy. He spent his money freely in
+fitting out the fleet, and even mortgaged his estate
+to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He
+worked incessantly, and inspired his companions
+and followers to active and enthusiastic toil. He
+was so popular in the island that several hundred
+recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships,
+some of them of large size, were rapidly got ready
+and stocked with provisions and military stores.</p>
+
+<p>Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the
+labor and cost of Cortez would go for naught.
+Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to
+rob him of his command and trust the fleet to
+safer hands. But he was not dealing with a man
+who could be played with in this fast and loose
+fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and
+he decided to sail at once, though he was still short
+of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That night he
+took on board all the meat in the town, weighed
+anchor, and got ready to set sail.</p>
+
+<p>At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that
+the fleet was about to depart. In a panic he sprang<pb n="031" /><anchor id="Pg031" />
+from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his
+horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez
+entered a boat and rowed near enough to the shore
+to speak with him.</p>
+
+<p>"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the
+angry governor; "a courteous leave-taking, truly."</p>
+
+<p>"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and
+there are some things that should be done before
+they are even thought of. Has your excellency
+any commands?"</p>
+
+<p>His excellency would have commanded him to
+come on shore, if it had been of any use. As it
+was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of
+the hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only
+their vanishing hulls were to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at
+Trinidad. At the last place many men, and several
+cavaliers who were to prove his ablest officers,
+joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez
+to the governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta
+arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet for a new admiral
+who was to command it. The governor looked at
+Cortez and his men and concluded that he had
+better let them alone. They were too strong for
+him to deal with.</p>
+
+<p>So once more the bold adventurers escaped from
+Velasquez and his schemes and sailed in triumph
+away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor
+of the place had received orders to arrest
+Cortez, and here, also, he did not dare attempt it.
+Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait<pb n="032" /><anchor id="Pg032" />
+till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly
+the fool to pay any heed to such a letter as that.
+The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to the
+fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer,
+saying that he would not lose sight of the interests
+of his excellency, and that he and the fleet, "God
+willing, would set sail the next morning."</p>
+
+<p>Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet
+lost sight of Cuba at Cape San Antonio, on the
+western end of the island. It consisted in all of
+eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on
+board six hundred and sixty-three soldiers and
+sailors. A few of these were armed with cross-bows
+and only thirteen with muskets, while the
+horses numbered only sixteen. In addition there
+were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with a
+good supply of ammunition.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the fleet and such the force with which
+Hernando Cortez set sail to conquer a powerful
+and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition
+had one of the world's great commanders at its
+head, or the enterprise would have ended in failure
+instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful success.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<pb n="033" /><anchor id="Pg033" />
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<head>BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.</head>
+
+<p>It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus
+opened to the adventurers of Spain, and hundreds
+of them soon took that promising path.
+Among these was one Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, a
+man poor in gold or land, but rich in courage and
+ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at
+home like a gentleman with the means of a peasant.
+In the year 1501 he crossed the seas to Hispaniola,
+where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till
+the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or
+good luck of Cortez, and after years of labor he
+found himself poorer than when he commenced.
+He began to see that nature had not meant him for
+a farmer, and that if he wanted a fortune he must
+seek it in other fields.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa was not alone in this. There were others,
+with better-filled pockets than he, who were ripe for
+adventure and eager for gold. A famous one of these
+was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus
+and the hero of the adventure with the Carib
+chief already described, who in 1509 sailed for South
+America and founded a settlement named by him
+San Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer
+of the town of San Domingo, to fit out two more<pb n="034" /><anchor id="Pg034" />
+vessels and follow him with provisions for his new
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with
+casks of bread and other food-stuffs. There was
+more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of, for
+when far from land there crept out of one of these
+casks a haggard, woe-begone, half-starved stowaway,
+who looked as if he had not many ounces of life
+left in him. It was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who
+had taken this way to join the expedition and
+escape from his creditors, since they would not have
+permitted him to go openly. The cask in which
+he snugly lay had been carried from his farm to
+the ship among others containing provisions.</p>
+
+<p>Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome
+addition to his crew. He threatened to throw him
+overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave
+him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow
+fell on his knees and tearfully begged for mercy.
+Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at
+length softened and spared him his life. He was to
+pay bitterly for his kindness before many days.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition had its adventures on the seas,
+ending in a wreck, and when San Sebastian was
+reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement
+was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what
+to do, but Balboa had been on that coast before, on
+his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an
+Indian village on the Darien River where they
+might find food and shelter. He advised Enciso to
+go thither, and a journey was made overland,<pb n="035" /><anchor id="Pg035" />
+among hostile Indians and with little food. The
+adventurers were half-starved when at length they
+reached their goal.</p>
+
+<p>Here they founded a new settlement named
+Santa Maria, no doubt first disposing of the Indians in
+the usual Spanish fashion,&mdash;killing some and making
+slaves of others. But it was not long before there
+were bitter quarrels among themselves. Enciso
+had forbidden them to have any private trade for
+gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly
+resented. The result was that a party rose against
+him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso was deprived
+of his authority, but when they tried to elect another
+in his place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa,
+who had made a settlement near there, was sent for
+by some of the settlers, but when he came, Balboa's
+party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen
+companions, was placed in a crazy old barque
+and left to find their way back to Hispaniola as best
+they could.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest
+and boldest man in Darien, and his influence and
+power grew steadily until the settlers voted him
+their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned,
+and finally was sent to Spain. With him went one
+of Balboa's chief supporters, in order to gain for
+him from the king the royal right to his new
+office.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa lost no time in showing that he was
+worthy of the dignity given him. He made many
+incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded<pb n="036" /><anchor id="Pg036" />
+in collecting much gold, the yellow metal
+being more plentiful there than in the West
+India islands. In those expeditions he showed a
+wise spirit of conciliation and won the friendship
+of several of the Indian chiefs. In one of their
+excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards
+about the division of the gold they had obtained.
+They were almost at sword's-point when a young
+Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about
+what seemed to him a useless substance, upset the
+gold out of the balance, and turned to Balboa,
+saying,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this?
+If you value it so highly, I could take you to a
+country where it is so common that it is used for
+the meanest utensils."</p>
+
+<p>These significant words filled the Spaniards with
+hope and desire, and they eagerly asked where that
+rich land lay, and how it might be reached.</p>
+
+<p>"At the distance of six suns [six days' journey]
+from here," said the cacique, "lies another ocean as
+great as the one before you. Near its shores is the
+kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and
+if you wish to attack it you will need far more
+men than you have here."</p>
+
+<p>This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the
+great southern ocean or of the rich land of Peru.
+This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which
+Columbus sought for without success, the waters
+which border the East Indies, and the great and
+rich nation on its shores must be one of the famous<pb n="037" /><anchor id="Pg037" />
+countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his
+mind to gaze on that unknown sea.</p>
+
+<p>Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking
+and do it quickly. He had received letters from
+Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which
+were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to
+King Ferdinand of the way in which he had been
+treated, and the king had not only refused to support
+Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions,
+but had condemned his course and ordered him to
+return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness
+were at an end unless he could win the favor
+of the king by some great enterprise. Such would
+be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he
+determined to attempt.</p>
+
+<p>The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to
+cross, is not over sixty miles wide. But many of
+these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests
+so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too,
+where it rains for more than half the year, the
+valleys are converted into marshes, and are so often
+overflowed that in many places the natives have to
+dwell in the trees, while from the high grounds
+rush swollen rivers, fierce and threatening. To
+march across an unknown and perilous country like
+this, led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold
+and desperate enterprise, surpassing any which the
+Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one
+of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to
+win the favor of his sovereign there was no danger
+he was not ready to face.</p>
+
+<pb n="038" /><anchor id="Pg038" />
+
+<p>For the perilous expedition he could muster only
+one hundred and ninety men. But these were
+veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus,
+and ready to follow him whatever the peril. They
+had good reason to trust his courage and readiness
+in emergencies, for they had found him always
+brave and alert. A thousand Indians were taken
+with them, to carry their provisions, and they added
+to their force a number of the fierce bloodhounds
+which were dreaded by the natives as much as the
+fire-arms of the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st
+of September, 1513, sailing along the coast to
+Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half
+the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes.
+With the remainder the terrible journey across
+the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was
+begun.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than
+troubles and perils thickened around them. The
+country was difficult to traverse, the people were
+bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they
+proved no feeble antagonists. As the adventurers
+left the plain and toiled up the mountains, a warlike
+cacique, with a large body of followers, met
+them in a narrow pass and boldly disputed the
+way. A fierce battle ensued, ending in favor of
+the Spaniards, who cut their way through the
+savages, leaving hundreds of them dead on the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they<pb n="039" /><anchor id="Pg039" />
+toiled onward and upward, until the six days fixed
+for their journey had stretched out to twenty-five.
+But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their
+guides assured them that from the top of the next
+mountain they could see the ocean they so ardently
+sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near
+the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and
+went on alone, that he might be the first to gaze
+on the wonderful spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there,
+to his infinite delight, sparkled and spread before
+his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth, stretching
+away to the north, south, and west as far as
+human eye could see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous
+vision, he fell prostrate on the ground,
+like a worshipper before the object of his adoration.
+Then, rising to his knees, he thanked God for the
+great boon vouchsafed to him.</p>
+
+<p>His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise
+and beckon them, while with his other hand he
+pointed wildly westward. With springing steps
+they rushed to his side, and joined in his delight
+and his thanks to God as the marvellous spectacle
+met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to
+show that they had taken possession of this spot
+for his sovereign, and as they went down the farther
+slope they carved on many trees the name
+of King Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this
+new land.</p>
+
+<p>Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats's
+famous sonnet to Homer, in which a great poet has<pb n="040" /><anchor id="Pg040" />
+admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange
+error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa:</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2">"Then felt I like some watcher of the skies</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4">  When a new planet swims into his ken;</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2">Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4">  He stared at the Pacific&mdash;and all his men</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2">Looked at each other with a wild surmise&mdash;</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4">  Silent, upon a peak in Darien."</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the
+easiest and shortest path to the sea, one of them
+a man destined to become still more famous than
+Balboa,&mdash;Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror
+of Peru. Reaching the shore, they found on it
+two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the
+men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling
+on their comrades to witness that they were the
+first to embark on that sea.</p>
+
+<p>For three days the remaining men waited advices
+from their pioneers, and then followed the
+guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with
+his sword and buckler, rushing into the water to
+his middle, and claiming possession of that vast sea
+and all its shores in the name of his king, for
+whom he pledged himself to defend it against all
+comers.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the discovery of the great South Sea,
+as Balboa named it, the Pacific Ocean, as Magellan
+soon after called it. The people of the coast told
+the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that
+lay to the south, and whose people had tame<pb n="041" /><anchor id="Pg041" />
+animals to carry their burdens. The form of these
+they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing
+Balboa that they were camels, and that the land
+indicated must be Asia. They really represented
+the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel
+in form.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining for some time on the coast,
+gathering all the information he could obtain, Balboa
+led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved
+to return with a stronger force next year and
+seek that distant land of gold. But this exploit
+was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest
+of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition.</p>
+
+<p>It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers
+reached their starting-point at Santa
+Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with
+the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to
+Spain, with an account of the remarkable exploit,
+which was received with an enthusiasm little less
+than had been the news of the discovery of the
+New World. If Columbus had discovered a new
+land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of
+a new ocean, added to which was the story of a
+land of gold, for whose conquest Balboa asked for
+a reinforcement of a thousand men.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery
+was destined to still greater ill-fortune, as
+we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached
+Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had
+been appointed and had set sail, with fifteen vessels<pb n="042" /><anchor id="Pg042" />
+and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly
+five hundred men under his command, but he at once
+submitted to the decision of his king and accepted
+Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred
+new men landed in that pestilential climate, in the
+unhealthy season, paid bitterly for their imprudence.
+A violent disease attacked them; scarcity
+of provisions made it worse; and within a month
+more than six hundred of them had died, while
+others hastened away from that noxious spot.</p>
+
+<p>At length news came that the king fully appreciated
+the splendid discovery of Balboa; letters of
+high praise were received, and he was appointed
+<hi rend="font-style: italic">Adelantado</hi>, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias
+being ordered to support him in all his operations.
+The rivals now became reconciled, their union being
+made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in
+marriage to Balboa.</p>
+
+<p>The adventurer now began active preparations
+for an exploration of the South Sea, materials for
+ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest
+labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed.
+There was no lack of volunteers for the
+expedition, and the vessels were launched and sailed
+to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone
+preventing them from going on to the coast of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Thus there seemed a great career opening before
+Balboa at the very moment when adverse fate was
+gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had
+grown jealous of his daring exploits and the fame
+that seemed his coming meed, and, cherishing<pb n="043" /><anchor id="Pg043" />
+treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced
+him to return to Acla, his new capital.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by
+order of the governor, thrown into prison, and put
+on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king and
+an intention to revolt against his superior. The
+judge was forced to condemn him to death, and the
+fatal sentence was at once carried into effect, the
+great discoverer being beheaded on the public
+square of Acla. Thus, in blood and treachery,
+ended the career of one of the ablest of the bold
+adventurers of Spain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="044" /><anchor id="Pg044" />
+<head>THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.</head>
+
+<p>About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest
+of the Aztecs, there reigned over the kingdom
+of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch
+whose history is as interesting and romantic as any
+that can be found in the annals of Europe. His
+story was preserved by his descendants, and its
+principal events are as follows:</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image05.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans,
+stood on the eastern borders of the lake on
+whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital.
+About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked
+by a kindred race, the Tepanecs, who, after a desperate
+struggle, captured their city, killed their
+monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir
+to the crown, the young Prince Nezahualcoyotl,
+concealed himself in the foliage of a tree when the
+triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his
+hiding-place saw his father killed before his eyes.
+This was the opening event in a history as full of
+deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the
+"Young Chevalier of English history."</p>
+
+<p>The young prince did not long remain at liberty.
+Soon after his flight from the city he fell into the
+hands of his foes, and was brought back and thrown
+into a dungeon.  This led to the first romantic<pb n="045" /><anchor id="Pg045" />
+incident in his career. The governor of the fortress
+prison was an old servant of the royal family of
+Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in
+disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid
+for his loyalty with his life, but he willingly gave it
+in exchange for the liberty of the heir to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital.
+He was, in fact, closely related to the Aztec monarch,
+and through his good offices he was at length permitted
+to reside in that city. Afterwards he was
+allowed to return to Tezcuco, where for eight years
+he dwelt in privacy, studying under the teachers of
+his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power.
+Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his
+soul ardent hopes of regaining the throne of his
+ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died
+and his son, Maxtla, succeeded to the throne.
+The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and
+when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render
+him homage on his accession, Maxtla treated with
+disdain the little gift of flowers which the young
+prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him
+in the presence of his chieftains. Evidently the
+palace was no place of safety for the Tezcucan
+prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers,
+he hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a
+refuge in his native city of Tezcuco. Here the
+tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His
+popular manners had won him many friends, and
+the ancient subjects of his family looked upon him<pb n="046" /><anchor id="Pg046" />
+as a coming leader who might win back for them
+their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence
+of the possession of talent and energy, and Maxtla,
+fearful of his growing popularity, resolved to
+make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly
+invited him to an evening's entertainment,
+where he had assassins ready to murder him. Fortunately,
+the tutor of the prince suspected the
+plot, and contrived to replace the youth by a person
+who strongly resembled him, and who became the
+victim of the fate intended for him.</p>
+
+<p>Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now
+resolved to kill him openly, and sent a party of
+soldiers to the city, who were instructed to enter
+the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the
+spot. Again the watchfulness of his old teacher
+saved him. Warned of his danger, and advised to
+flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited
+the assassins.</p>
+
+<p>When they reached the palace in which he resided,
+they found him playing at ball in the court-yard.
+He received them courteously, showing no
+suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to
+take some refreshment after their journey. While
+they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly into
+an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and
+the soldiers able to see through both apartments,
+his movements gave them no concern. It was the
+custom, however, when any one entered the presence
+of a great lord, for the servants to throw aromatics
+into a burning censer. This the prince's<pb n="047" /><anchor id="Pg047" />
+attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as
+to hide him from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus
+obscured, he entered a secret passage which led to
+a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring
+water to the palace. In this he concealed himself
+until nightfall, and then made his way into the
+suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one
+of his father's former vassals.</p>
+
+<p>Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim
+had twice escaped him, grew more determined on
+his death, and ordered immediate and thorough
+pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take
+him, dead or alive, with the hand of a noble lady
+and an ample domain. Troops of armed men
+scoured the country in every direction, searching
+all suspected places, and some of them entered the
+cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there
+was a heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture
+of cloth, and hid beneath this the fugitive
+escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot
+that he left this place for the wooded hill country
+between his state and the neighboring one of
+Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and
+caverns.</p>
+
+<p>The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering
+from place to place, exposed to all the inclemencies
+of the weather, remaining concealed by
+day, and stealing out at night in search of food.
+His pursuers, eager to win the enticing reward,
+kept up an active search, more than once coming
+dangerously near to his retreat.</p>
+
+<pb n="048" /><anchor id="Pg048" />
+
+<p>Very interesting stories are told of his adventures
+in this period of peril. The high rewards offered
+did not suffice to wean from him the attachment
+of the people, and more than once he owed his
+safety to their loyalty. Some of them submitted
+to torture, and even to loss of life, rather than
+betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even
+many of the soldiers were his friends, and once,
+when hotly pursued, he took refuge among a small
+party of these, who were dancing around a large
+drum. To conceal him from his enemies they
+placed him in the drum and continued their dance
+around it.</p>
+
+<p>At another time the pursuers were so close to him
+that he just succeeded in turning the crest of a hill
+when they began to climb it on the other side. Here
+he fortunately found a girl who was reaping <hi rend="font-style: italic">chia</hi>, a
+plant whose seeds were used in making palatable
+drinks. Telling her who he was and of his great
+danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of
+the plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came
+up and asked if she had seen him, the faithful girl
+coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a path
+which she said he had taken.</p>
+
+<p>None of the natives showed any inclination to
+betray him, despite the richness of the promised
+rewards.</p>
+
+<p>"Would you not deliver up the prince if he
+came in your way?" he asked of a peasant who did
+not recognize him.</p>
+
+<p>"Not I," was the reply.</p>
+
+<pb n="049" /><anchor id="Pg049" />
+
+<p>"What! not for a fair lady's hand, and a rich
+domain as dowry?"</p>
+
+<p>The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed
+in disdain.</p>
+
+<p>But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the
+prince was in constant danger, and his situation,
+in the rough fastnesses of the hills and forests,
+became very distressing.</p>
+
+<p>"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who
+kept with him in his wanderings and shared his sufferings.
+"Leave me to my fate. Why should you
+throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily
+persecutes?"</p>
+
+<p>But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their
+danger and the fact that most of the great nobles
+of the land had sought safety and reward by an
+adhesion to the usurper.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the
+fugitive. Maxtla had shown himself an oppressor,
+and his ambition and military successes had caused
+much alarm in the surrounding states, where his
+tyranny was contrasted with the mild rule of the
+former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the
+young prince took advantage of this feeling, and
+succeeded in forming a coalition against his enemy.
+A day was fixed for a general rising, and on the
+date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at
+the head of an army strong enough to face that of
+Maxtla and the Tepanecs.</p>
+
+<p>The two armies soon met and victory rested on
+the banner of the young prince, the forces of Maxtla<pb n="050" /><anchor id="Pg050" />
+being badly beaten. No longer a hunted fugitive,
+but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in
+triumph to the capital which he had left with a
+price on his head, his joyful subjects crowding to
+the route of march to render homage to their rightful
+sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at
+the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla, readily allied themselves
+with the young victor, and a series of bloody
+battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated
+under the walls of his own capital. He was dragged
+from the baths, to which he had fled for concealment,
+and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs;
+his royal city was razed to the ground, and its site
+was reserved as the great slave-market of the surrounding
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the
+throne of his ancestors, where he was to prove
+himself the greatest monarch of whom we have
+any record in the American annals. The story of
+his reign is far too full of detail for the space we
+can give to it, but is of such interest that we may
+venture on a concise account of it, as an example
+of the career of the most illustrious of the ancient
+American sovereigns.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim
+a general amnesty. He not only pardoned
+the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts
+of honor and confidence. This was not only politic
+but just, since their offences were mainly due to fear
+of the usurper. Under the circumstances he could
+safely treat them with magnanimity.</p>
+
+<pb n="051" /><anchor id="Pg051" />
+
+<p>He next remodelled the government of the kingdom,
+and framed a code of laws which seemed so
+wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs
+and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and
+of justice were established, and also a council of
+state, whose members acted as the immediate advisers
+of the king, and aided him in the despatch of
+business. But the most remarkable of these new
+departments was the "council of music," which was
+devoted to the encouragement of science and art,
+and served as a general board of education for the
+country. Historical compositions and poems were
+recited before it, and altogether it indicated a degree
+of civilization which we would scarcely look for in
+any part of ancient America. Its historians, orators,
+and poets became celebrated throughout the country,
+the allied monarchs presided over its deliberations,
+and among its chief bards was the king himself, who
+entered into impartial competition with his subjects
+for the prizes given for the best poems. Many of his
+odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still rest
+in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The far-seeing monarch did not content himself
+with writing poetry, or encouraging historians,&mdash;who
+wrote subject to the penalty that any one who
+wilfully lied should be punished with death,&mdash;but
+he sought to develop all the arts. Agriculture was
+greatly encouraged, the population rapidly increased,
+new towns and cities sprang up, and the
+borders of the nation were extended by successful
+wars. He made his capital the most stately city<pb n="052" /><anchor id="Pg052" />
+of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles,
+whom he wished to reside at the court. There
+were more than four hundred of these palatial mansions,
+but far exceeding them in magnificence was
+the grand palace he built for himself. This covered
+a space of three thousand seven hundred feet in
+length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A
+wall surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which
+formed the great market-place of the city, and an
+inner one surrounded by the council chambers and
+halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors
+from other states, and a spacious saloon in
+which the poets and men of science met to study
+and converse. Here also were kept the public
+archives.</p>
+
+<p>The royal apartments adjoined this inner court,
+and rivalled in beauty those of Oriental lands. Alabaster
+or stucco of rich tints covered some of the
+walls, while others were hung with tapestries of
+the gorgeous Indian feather-work. Long arcades
+and winding pathways bordered with verdure led to
+gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains
+shadowed by lofty trees. Fish of various kinds
+stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were birds
+of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and
+animals were reproduced in gold and silver with
+wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner apartments
+dwelt the wives and children of the monarch,
+who were as numerous as those of an Eastern
+sultan. Such was the famous palace, in which
+were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty<pb n="053" /><anchor id="Pg053" />
+yards square. It is said that two hundred thousand
+workmen were employed in building it. In
+this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his
+youthful days had been glad to share with wild animals
+a shelter in the thickets and caverns of the
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence
+to this palatial residence. Beautiful villas
+were built in various picturesque localities and
+adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and
+comfort. His favorite retreat from the cares of
+office was built on a rounded hill about six miles
+from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached
+by a stairway of five hundred and twenty steps,
+many of them hewn in the native rock. In the
+summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with
+water by an aqueduct carried on masonry buttresses
+for several miles over hill and valley. In its centre
+was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics
+the principal events of each year of the
+king's reign.</p>
+
+<p>Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with
+statuary, and yielding water to channels that ran
+through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled
+riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes
+and pavilions, and baths cut in the solid rock,
+which the natives still show to visitors under the
+title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the
+base of the hill, amid lofty groves of cedar, rose
+the royal villa, with its light arcades and airy halls,
+affording a delightful relief to the monarch from<pb n="054" /><anchor id="Pg054" />
+the duties of the court. Relics of this villa and
+garden still remain to attest their former beauty,
+and indicate that this Indian king lived in a magnificence
+resembling that of the far-famed court of
+the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid.</p>
+
+<p>He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian
+Nights" in another way, for it was his custom
+to wander about the streets, conversing with
+the humblest of his people and learning their condition
+and needs from their own words. Many anecdotes
+are told of this kind, in which it was his delight
+to reward merit and relieve distress. Some
+of these may be read with interest.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering
+sticks in a field for fuel, and asked him why he did
+not go into the neighboring forest, where he would
+find plenty of them.</p>
+
+<p>"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It's the
+king's wood, and he would punish me with death
+if I took sticks from there."</p>
+
+<p>"What kind of man is your king?"</p>
+
+<p>"He is a very hard man," answered the boy,
+"for he takes from his people what God has given
+them."</p>
+
+<p>The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco
+were as severe as those of Norman England. The
+king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws
+but to help himself in the forest, for there was no
+one who would betray him. But the lad sturdily
+refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor
+who wished to bring him into trouble.</p>
+
+<pb n="055" /><anchor id="Pg055" />
+
+<p>The next day the boy and his parents were sent
+for to come to the palace. They obeyed with wonder
+and dread, and the boy was filled with terror
+on seeing the king and recognizing him as the man
+with whom he had talked so freely. But the good-natured
+monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked
+him for the lesson he had given his king, praising
+his respect for the laws and commending his parents
+for bringing up their son so wisely. He dismissed
+them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave
+orders that any one might gather fallen wood in the
+forest, if they did not interfere with the standing
+timber.</p>
+
+<p>Another adventure was with a poor woodman
+and his wife. The man, as he stood in the marketplace
+with his little store, complained bitterly of his
+lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly
+amid luxuries in the palace. The wife bade him be
+careful, as he might be overheard in his complaints.
+The king, looking down on the market from a latticed
+window, and amusing himself with the chatter
+of the market people, heard the words of the couple,
+and ordered them to be brought into his presence.</p>
+
+<p>He asked the frightened pair what they had said,
+and was pleased to find that they answered him
+truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had
+great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he
+who had a nation to govern could not lead an idle
+life; and told them "to be more cautious in future,
+as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after
+giving them a quantity of cloth and a good supply<pb n="056" /><anchor id="Pg056" />
+of cacao,&mdash;the coin of the country. "Go," he said;
+"with the little you now have, you will be rich;
+while, with all my riches, I shall still be poor."</p>
+
+<p>Of all the stories told of this famous monarch,
+there is only one not to his credit, and of this we
+may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable
+resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and
+Uriah. He fell in love with a beautiful maiden,
+who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom,
+and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take
+command of a warlike expedition against the Tlascalans.
+Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him
+and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he
+might lose his life, which the king said he had forfeited
+by a great crime. The old man suspected
+what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment
+to his friends. He was correct in his
+prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in battle, and the
+royal lover's path was clear.</p>
+
+<p>The king now secretly offered his hand and heart
+to the maiden, who was by no means inconsolable
+for the loss of her old lover, and willingly accepted.
+To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he
+had the maiden brought to his villa to witness some
+ceremony there. Standing on a balcony of the
+palace, the king pretended to be struck with her
+beauty, and asked, "Who is the lovely young
+woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those
+present soon learned her name and rank, which was
+that of a princess of the royal house of Mexico.
+She was asked to enter the palace and receive the<pb n="057" /><anchor id="Pg057" />
+attention due to her station, and the king was not
+long in publicly declaring his love. The marriage
+soon after took place, in the presence of his brother
+monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great
+pomp and ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the one blot in the history of this
+famous monarch. Aside from this act of treachery,
+it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded
+a monarch in the early annals of the nations of
+Mexico, and one whose history is so full of romantic
+adventure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="058" /><anchor id="Pg058" />
+<head>THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.</head>
+
+<p>There is no chapter in all history more crowded
+with interesting and romantic events than the story
+of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under
+Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring
+and wonderful success, the most extraordinary is
+the tale of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Noche Triste</hi>, the terrible night-retreat
+of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital.
+No one can read this story, and that of the remarkable
+victory of Otumba which followed it, without
+feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors
+worthy of the most warlike age. This oft-told
+story we shall here again relate.</p>
+
+<p>In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set
+out from Cuba on his great expedition, with a few
+hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon, muskets,
+and horses. It may briefly be stated here that
+he sought to conquer a warlike and powerful nation
+with this insignificant force, less than a modern
+regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico;
+won, with the terror of his horses and guns
+and the valor of his men, victory in every battle;
+gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made
+his way into their capital; seized and held prisoner
+their emperor, Montezuma, and for a time seemed
+to be full master of the land. We might go on to<pb n="059" /><anchor id="Pg059" />
+tell how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked
+the Spaniards with the courage of desperation,
+mortally wounded their own emperor, and at
+length brought the invaders into such terrible straits
+that they were forced to fight their way out of the
+city as their last hope of life.</p>
+
+<p>To understand what followed, it must be stated
+that the city of Mexico lay, not in the open country,
+but on an island in the centre of a large lake, and
+that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow
+causeways of earth across this lake. Each of these
+causeways was broken at intervals by wide ditches,
+with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had
+removed these bridges, and thus added immensely
+to the difficulty of the night-march which the desperate
+Spaniards were obliged to make.</p>
+
+<p>It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that
+Cortez and his men threw open the gates of the
+palace fortress in which they had long defended
+themselves against the furious assaults of thousands
+of daring foes. The night was dark and cloudy,
+and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy
+was to be seen, and as they made their way with as
+little noise as possible along the great street of
+Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence, Hope rose in
+their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the
+rumble of the guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard,
+and they reached the head of the causeway
+without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior.</p>
+
+<p>Here was the first break in the causeway, and
+they had brought with them a bridge to lay across<pb n="060" /><anchor id="Pg060" />
+it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who
+fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city
+with their cries. The priests on the summit of the
+great temple pyramid were also on the watch, and
+when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from
+below, they sounded their shells and beat their huge
+drum, which was only heard in times of peril or
+calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber,
+and as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a
+distant sound was heard, which rapidly approached.
+Soon from every street and lane poured enemies,
+flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks
+of the Spaniards as they came. On the lake was
+heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the
+war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air.
+A brief interval had sufficed to change the silence
+into a frightful uproar of sound and the restful
+peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway,
+fighting only to drive back the assailants who
+landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon
+the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over
+them, riding them down; the men on foot cut them
+down with their swords, or hurled them backward
+with the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of
+the Spaniards attacked them fiercely, and the roar
+of war spread far through the gloom of the night.</p>
+
+<p>Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot;
+onward creaked and rumbled the artillery and the
+wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was
+reached while the rear files were not yet across the<pb n="061" /><anchor id="Pg061" />
+first. The Spaniards had made a fatal mistake in
+bringing with them only one bridge. When the
+last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous
+effort was made to raise it and carry it to
+the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of men,
+horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the
+earth and stones that it could not be moved. Every
+nerve was strained to lift the heavy mass, until,
+many of the workmen being killed and all wounded
+by the torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced
+to abandon it.</p>
+
+<p>When the dread tidings that the bridge could not
+be raised spread through the crowded host, a cry
+of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of
+conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before
+them lay a deep and yawning ditch. Behind them
+pressed an army of assailants. On each side hundreds
+of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding
+foes who rushed in fury upon their crowded ranks.
+All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at an end.
+Every one thought only of saving his own life,
+without regard to the weak or wounded. The
+leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf, were
+pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in
+front dashed into the water and swam across, but
+some of the horses failed to climb the steep and
+slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad
+riders headlong into the lake.</p>
+
+<p>After them pell mell came the infantry, some
+seeking to swim, others forced into the water to
+sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the<pb n="062" /><anchor id="Pg062" />
+arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded
+or stunned, dragged into the canoes and carried
+away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god of the
+pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway,
+from ditch to ditch, the contest raged fearfully.
+The Aztecs, satisfied that they had now got their
+detested foes in their power, fought like demons,
+grappling with the Christians and rolling with them
+down the sloping way together; seeking to take
+their enemies alive that they might be kept for the
+bloody sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the
+cries of vengeance and groans of agony, the prayers
+to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled the
+screams of women, of whom there were several,
+both Spaniard and Indian, in the Christian ranks.
+One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as valiantly
+as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword
+and target in the thickest of the fray, and
+proving herself as valiant a soldier as the best.</p>
+
+<p>During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at
+rest. He was everywhere, ordering, fighting, inspiring,
+seeking to restore the lost discipline to his
+ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal
+ditch could be crossed, and feeling that life must be
+considered before wealth, he hurried forward everything,
+heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans,
+and hurled them into the water along with
+the spoil of the Spaniards, bales of costly goods,
+chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve
+to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled<pb n="063" /><anchor id="Pg063" />
+bodies of men and horses, drowned in that deadly
+ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across
+which the survivors stumbled and clambered until
+they reached the other side.</p>
+
+<p>Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch
+that was fordable, and here, with the water up to
+his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out of confusion,
+and called his followers to this path to safety.
+But his voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a
+few cavaliers who kept with him, he pressed forward
+to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite
+page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his
+side.</p>
+
+<p>Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval,
+who, with about twenty other cavaliers, had led the
+van, composed of two hundred Spanish foot-soldiers.
+They were halted before the third and final breach
+in the causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those
+which had been passed. Fortunately it was not so
+closely beset by the enemy, who were still engaged
+with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers
+plunged without hesitation into the water, followed
+by the foot, some swimming, some clinging desperately
+to the manes and tails of the horses, some
+carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal
+gold with which they were heavily laden. On
+leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended
+themselves, much of the gold which they
+had gathered was necessarily abandoned. Cortez
+told the soldiers to take what they wished of it,
+but warned them not to overload themselves, saying,<pb n="064" /><anchor id="Pg064" />
+"He travels safest in the dark night who
+travels lightest." Many of those who failed to
+regard this wise counsel paid for their cupidity
+with their death.</p>
+
+<p>Those who safely passed this final ditch were at
+the end of their immediate peril. Soon they were
+off the causeway and on solid ground, where the roar
+of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But
+word came to them that the rear-guard was in
+imminent danger and would be overwhelmed unless
+relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return,
+but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not
+hesitate when this cry for aid was heard. Turning
+their horses, they galloped back, pushed through
+the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the
+thick of the fight on the opposite section of the
+causeway.</p>
+
+<p>The night was now passing, and the first gray
+light of day was visible in the east. By its dim
+illumination the frightful combat could be seen in
+all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead
+bodies of Christian or pagan; the dark masses of
+the warriors could be seen locked in deadly struggle
+crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the
+lake, far and near, was crowded with canoes, filled
+with armed and ardent Aztec warriors, yelling their
+triumphant war-cry.</p>
+
+<p>Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who
+led the rear, unhorsed and wounded, yet fighting
+like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him
+safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under<pb n="065" /><anchor id="Pg065" />
+him. With a handful of followers he was desperately
+striving to repel the overwhelming tide of
+the enemy which was pouring on him along the
+causeway, a dozen of the Indians falling for every
+Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work
+in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the
+assault had carried the Aztecs up to and over the
+guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict remained.
+The charge of the returning cavaliers created a
+temporary check, and a feeble rally was made, but
+the flood of foes soon came on again and drove
+them resistlessly back.</p>
+
+<p>Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to
+plunge once more into the canal, not all of them
+this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink
+for a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind
+him and deadly peril before. He was a man of
+great strength and agility, and despair now gave
+him courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the
+wreck that strewed the bottom, he sprang vigorously
+forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound,
+a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement,
+the natives exclaiming, as they beheld the seemingly
+impossible leap, "This is truly the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Tonatiuh</hi>,&mdash;the
+child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado
+from his fair features and flaxen hair. How
+great the leap was no one has told us, though the
+name of "Alvarado's leap" still clings to the spot.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the frightful <hi rend="font-style: italic">noche triste</hi>, or "doleful
+night." Cortez led the remnant of his men off
+the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling few,<pb n="066" /><anchor id="Pg066" />
+faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately,
+the Aztecs, attracted by the rich spoil that
+strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it is doubtful
+if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and
+wounded state, would have survived. How many
+perished in that night of dread no one knows. A
+probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards
+and four thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard
+having fallen. Of forty-six horses, half had been
+slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the
+muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone.
+The only arms left the warriors were their swords
+and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail was
+broken, their garments were tattered, their proud
+crests and banners gone, their bright arms soiled,
+and only a miserable and shattered fragment of
+their proud force was left, these dragging themselves
+along with pain and difficulty.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image06.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their
+allies, the Tlascalans,&mdash;inveterate enemies of the
+Aztecs,&mdash;slowly moved away from that blood-stained
+avenue of death, now little molested by
+their foes, and gradually recovering from their
+fatigue. On the seventh morning they reached the
+mountain height which overlooks the plain of
+Otumba, a point less than thirty miles from the
+capital. This plain they were obliged to traverse on
+their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat.</p>
+
+<p>As they looked down on the broad level below
+them they saw with shrinking hearts why they had
+not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the<pb n="067" /><anchor id="Pg067" />
+whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards
+glistening in the sun, their numbers so great
+that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards viewed
+them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful
+as he was, felt that his last hour had now surely
+come.</p>
+
+<p>But this stout leader was not the man to give way
+to despair. There was nothing to do but to cut
+their way through this vast array or perish in the
+attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure
+destruction. Fortunately, they had rested for two
+nights and a day, and men and horses had regained
+much of their old strength. Without hesitation,
+Cortez prepared for the onset, giving his force as
+broad a front as possible, and guarding its flanks
+with his little body of horse, now twenty in all.
+Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which
+he told them of the victories they had won, and
+with orders to his men to thrust, not strike, with
+their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to
+lose their lances, and to strike at the faces of the foe,
+he gave the word to advance.</p>
+
+<p>At first the natives recoiled from the stern and
+fierce onset, rolling back till they left a wide lane for
+the passage of their foes. But they quickly rallied
+and poured on the little band in their midst, until it
+seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible
+fray followed, the Christians, as one writer says,
+standing "like an islet against which the breakers,
+roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain."
+The struggle was one of man to man, the Tlascalans<pb n="068" /><anchor id="Pg068" />
+and Spaniards alike fighting with obstinate courage,
+while the little band of horsemen charged deep into
+the enemy's ranks, riding over them and cutting
+them down with thrust and blow, their onset giving
+fresh spirit to the infantry.</p>
+
+<p>But that so small a force could cut their way
+through that enormous multitude of armed and
+valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes
+lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and
+some of the Spaniards were slain, and not a man
+among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received
+a cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly
+that he was forced to dismount and exchange it for
+a strong animal from the baggage-train. The fight
+went on thus for several hours, the sun growing
+hotter as it rose in the sky, and the Christians, weak
+from their late wounds, gradually losing strength and
+spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers,
+forcing the horse back on the foot, and throwing
+the latter into some disorder. With every
+minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it
+seemed as if nothing were left but to sell their lives
+as dearly as possible.</p>
+
+<p>At this critical juncture a happy chance changed
+the whole fortune of the day. Cortez, gazing with
+eagle eye around the field in search of some vision
+of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great
+distance in the midst of the throng a splendidly
+dressed chief, who was borne in a rich litter and surrounded
+by a gayly attired body of young warriors.
+A head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and<pb n="069" /><anchor id="Pg069" />
+gems, rose above him, and over this again was a
+short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of the
+Aztecs.</p>
+
+<p>The instant Cortez beheld this person and his
+emblem his eye lighted with triumph. He knew
+him for the commander of the foe, and the golden
+net as its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers
+beside him, he pointed eagerly to the chief,
+exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!"
+Then, shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into
+the thick of the foe. Sandoval, Alvarado, and others
+spurred furiously after him, while the enemy fell
+back before this sudden and fierce assault.</p>
+
+<p>On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid
+ranks, strewing their path with the dead and dying,
+bearing down all who opposed them. A few minutes
+of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot
+on which were the Aztec chief and his body-guard.
+Thrusting and cutting with tiger-like strength and
+ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of
+young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian
+commander, piercing him with his lance and hurling
+him to the ground. A young cavalier beside him,
+Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and
+despatched the fallen chief. Then he tore away the
+banner and handed it to Cortez.</p>
+
+<p>All this was the work almost of a moment. Its
+effect was remarkable. The guard, overwhelmed
+by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was
+quickly communicated to their comrades. The
+tidings spread rapidly. The banner of the chief<pb n="070" /><anchor id="Pg070" />
+had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness
+of panic suddenly infected the whole host,
+which broke and fled in wild terror and confusion.
+The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in
+taking advantage of this new aspect of affairs.
+Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they dashed
+in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them
+down by hundreds as they fled. Not until they had
+amply repaid their losses on the bloody causeway
+did they return to gather up the booty which
+strewed the field. It was great, for, in accordance
+with Cortez's instructions, they had struck especially
+at the chiefs, and many of these were richly
+ornamented with gold and jewels.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the
+most remarkable victory, in view of the great disparity
+of forces, ever won in the New World.
+Chance gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a
+chance made useful only by the genius of a great
+commander. The following day the fugitive army
+reached the soil of Tlascala and were safe among
+their friends. History has not a more heroic story
+to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec capital,
+nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent
+return and conquest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="071" /><anchor id="Pg071" />
+<head>PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.</head>
+
+<p>The great expedition to the land of gold, which
+Vasco Nuñez de Balboa had planned to make, was
+left by his death to be carried out by one of his
+companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the
+renowned Francisco Pizarro. It was an expedition
+full of romantic adventure, replete with peril and
+suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring
+deeds. But we must pass over all the earlier of
+these and come at once to the climax of the whole
+striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the
+Inca of Peru in the midst of his army and the tale
+of his incredible ransom.</p>
+
+<p>Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro,
+from the time when, with one small vessel and
+about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed
+from Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great
+unknown Pacific, to the time when, in 1531, he
+sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and
+about thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru,
+which he designed to conquer as Cortez had conquered
+Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was
+this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military
+merits of courage, enterprise, daring and persistency,
+and these qualities carried him through sufferings
+and adversities that would have discouraged<pb n="072" /><anchor id="Pg072" />
+almost any man and brought him to magical success
+in the end. It was the beacon of gold that lured
+him on through desperate enterprises and deadly
+perils and led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish
+adventurers.</p>
+
+<p>Landing and capturing a point on the coast of
+Peru, he marched with his handful of bold followers,
+his horses and guns, eastward into the empire,
+crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the
+Andes, and reached the city of Caxamalca. Close
+by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped
+with an army, for a civil war between him and his
+brother Huascar had just ended in the defeat and
+imprisonment of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Desperate was the situation of the small body of
+Spanish soldiers, when, in the late afternoon of the
+15th of November, 1532, they marched into Caxamalca,
+which they found empty of inhabitants.
+About one hundred more men, with arms and horses,
+had joined them, but in a military sense they were
+but a handful still, and they had every reason to
+dread the consequences of their rash enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>All seemed threatening,&mdash;the desertion of the city
+by its people, the presence of the Inca, with a
+powerful army, within a league's distance, the
+probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the
+Spaniards had to rely on were their arms,&mdash;cannon,
+muskets and swords of steel,&mdash;new and terrible
+weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose
+evolutions had elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian
+with dismay. Yet what were these in the hands of<pb n="073" /><anchor id="Pg073" />
+less than three hundred men, in the presence of a
+strong and victorious army? Filled with anxiety,
+Pizarro at once despatched a body of horsemen, led
+by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier
+Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp.</p>
+
+<p>Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers
+as this strange cavalcade, with clang of arms and
+blast of trumpet, swept by, man and horse seeming
+like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes.
+De Soto, the best mounted of them all, showed his
+command of his steed in the Inca's presence, by
+riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful
+curves, and displaying all the vigor and beauty of
+skilled horsemanship, finally checking the noble
+animal in full career when so near the Inca that
+some of the foam from its lips was thrown on the
+royal garments. Yet, while many of those near
+drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an
+unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every
+show of dread, if any such inspired him.</p>
+
+<p>To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the
+Spaniards had brought, "Tell your captain that I
+am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow morning.
+I will then visit him with my chieftains.
+Meanwhile, let him occupy the public buildings on
+the square, and no other."</p>
+
+<p>Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards,
+but these they declined, as they did not wish to
+dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the
+sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of
+great size brought by beautiful maidens. Then they<pb n="074" /><anchor id="Pg074" />
+rode slowly back, despondent at what they had seen,&mdash;the
+haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength
+and discipline of his army.</p>
+
+<p>That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout
+the camp, which were increased as its occupants
+saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army, glittering
+on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars
+in heaven." Scarcely a man among them except
+Pizarro retained his courage; but he went round
+among his men, bidding them to keep up their
+spirits, and saying that Providence would not
+desert them if they trusted to their strength and
+their cause, as Christians against pagans. They
+were in Heaven's service and God would aid them.</p>
+
+<p>He then called a council of his officers and unfolded
+to them a desperate plan he had conceived.
+This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the
+Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding
+him as a hostage for the safety of the Christians.
+Nothing less decisive than this would avail them,
+he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first
+sign of such a movement the army of the Inca
+would be upon them, and they would all be destroyed,
+either there or in the intricacies of the
+mountain-passes. Nor could they remain inactive
+where they were. The Inca was crafty and hostile,
+and would soon surround them with a net-work of
+peril, from which they could not escape. To fight
+him in the open field was hazardous, if not hopeless.
+The only thing to do was to take him by surprise
+on his visit the next day, drive back his followers<pb n="075" /><anchor id="Pg075" />
+with death and terror, seize the monarch,
+and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their
+hands his followers would not dare attack them, and
+they would be practically masters of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that
+which Cortez had pursued in Mexico. He would
+take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by
+his own people, as Montezuma had been, and while
+the monarch remained alive they would have the
+strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan
+suited the daring character of Pizarro's officers.
+They agreed with him that in boldness lay their
+only hope of success or even of life, and they left
+the council with renewed confidence to prepare for
+the desperate enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared,
+his litter borne on the shoulders of his chief nobles
+and surrounded by others, so glittering with ornaments
+that, to quote from one of the Spaniards,
+"they blazed like the sun." A large number of
+workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish
+from the road. Behind, and through the fields that
+lined the road, marched a great body of armed men.
+But when within half a mile of the city the procession
+halted, and a messenger was sent to the
+Spaniards to say that the Inca would encamp there
+for that night and enter the city the following
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His
+men had been under arms since daybreak, the
+cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen<pb n="076" /><anchor id="Pg076" />
+at their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits
+of a long and trying suspense in such a critical situation,
+and sent word back to the Inca begging
+him to come on, as he had everything ready for his
+entertainment and expected to sup with him that
+night. This message turned the monarch from his
+purpose, and he resumed his march, though the
+bulk of his army was left behind, only a group of
+unarmed men accompanying him. He evidently
+had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little
+did he know them.</p>
+
+<p>It was near the hour of sunset when the procession
+reached the city, several thousand Indians
+marching into the great square, borne high above
+whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a
+kind of throne made of massive gold, while a collar
+of emeralds of great size and beauty encircled his
+neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He
+looked around him with surprise, as there was not
+a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in tones of annoyance,
+"Where are the strangers?"</p>
+
+<p>At this moment Pizarro' s chaplain, a Dominican
+friar, came forward, with Bible and crucifix in hand,
+and began to expound to him the Christian doctrines,
+ending by asking him to acknowledge himself
+a vassal of the king of Spain. The Inca, when
+by aid of the interpreter he had gained a glimpse
+of the priest's meaning, answered him with high
+indignation, and when the friar handed him the
+Bible as the authority for his words, he flung it
+angrily to the earth, exclaiming,&mdash;</p>
+
+<pb n="077" /><anchor id="Pg077" />
+
+<p>"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an
+account of their doings in my land. I will not go
+from here till they have made me full satisfaction
+for all the wrongs they have committed."</p>
+
+<p>Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened
+to Pizarro, told him what had been said, and cried
+out,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Do you not see that while we stand here
+wasting our breath in talking with this dog, full of
+pride as he is, the fields are filling with Indians?
+Set on, at once; I absolve you."</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal
+agreed upon. A gun was fired from the fortress.
+Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and at
+them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into
+the square. From every avenue of the great building
+they occupied poured armed men, horse and
+foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians.
+Taken utterly by surprise, the latter were hurled
+back in confusion. Their ranks rent by the balls
+from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled
+under foot by the fierce charges of the cavalry,
+pierced by lances or cut down by swords, they were
+driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as
+they wildly sought to escape.</p>
+
+<p>The massacre went on with especial intensity
+around the Inca, his nobles, none of them armed,
+struggling with what strength they could in his
+defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at
+the Inca!" shouted Pizarro, fearing his valued
+prize might be slain in the wild tumult. Fiercer<pb n="078" /><anchor id="Pg078" />
+still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter
+swayed back and forth, and, as some of its bearers
+were slain, it was overturned, the monarch being
+saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some
+others, who caught him in their arms. With all
+haste they bore him into the fortress and put him
+under close guard.</p>
+
+<p>With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at
+an end. The unarmed Peruvians fled in terror from
+the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the fields were
+seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and
+dispersed in all directions, pursued by the Spanish
+cavalry, who cut them down without mercy. Not
+till night had fallen did Pizarro's men cease the
+pursuit and return at the call of the trumpet to
+the bloody square of Caxamalca. In that frightful
+massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps
+many more, were slain, the most of them
+unarmed and helpless. That night Pizarro kept his
+word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it
+was a supper at which he might well have drunk
+blood. The banquet was served in one of the halls
+facing the great square, then thickly paved with
+the dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity,
+sitting beside his captor at the dread meal.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular
+scene in that strange drama, one which proved that
+the Spaniards had truly at length reached the
+"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner
+before he discovered the besetting passion of the
+Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was sent<pb n="079" /><anchor id="Pg079" />
+to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a
+rich booty in gold and silver, whose weight and
+value filled the conquerors with delight.</p>
+
+<p>Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping
+from his captivity, the Inca one day said to Pizarro
+that if he would agree to set him free, he would
+cover the floor of the room in which they stood
+with gold. Pizarro listened with a smile of doubt.
+As he made no answer, the Inca said, earnestly,
+that "he would not merely cover the floor, but
+would fill the room with gold as high as he could
+reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he put his uplifted
+hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer
+filled Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such
+a thing could be done seemed utterly incredible,
+despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru.
+The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent
+offer, hastened to accept it, drawing a red line
+along the wall at the height the Inca had touched.
+How remarkable the ransom was may be judged
+from the fact that the room was about seventeen
+feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the mark on
+the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca
+offered to fill an adjoining but smaller room twice
+full with silver, and to do all this in the short time
+of two months. It would seem that he would need
+Aladdin's wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and
+surprising a task.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the
+Inca sent messengers to Cuzco, his capital city, and
+to the other principal places in his kingdom, with<pb n="080" /><anchor id="Pg080" />
+orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils
+from his palaces and from the temples and other
+public buildings, and transport them in all haste to
+Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the
+monarch was treated with the fullest respect due to
+his rank, having his own private apartments and
+the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted
+to visit him freely. The only thing the
+Spaniards took good care of was that he should be
+kept under close guard.</p>
+
+<p>He took one advantage of his measure of liberty.
+His brother and rival, Huascar, though a captive,
+might escape and seize the control of the state, and
+he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message
+to Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a
+much larger ransom than that promised by Atahualpa.
+The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to
+remove this danger from his path, if we may accept
+the evidence of his captors. At any rate the royal
+captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his
+dying breath that his rival would not long survive
+him, but that the white men would avenge his
+murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of
+great sorrow and indignation, of his brother's death,
+and when the Spaniard threatened to hold him
+responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had
+been done without his knowledge or consent by
+Huascar's keepers, who feared that their captive
+might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon
+afterward learned that the news was true. It may
+be that he was well satisfied with the fact, as it<pb n="081" /><anchor id="Pg081" />
+removed a leading claimant for the throne from his
+path.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in&mdash;slowly,
+for the distances were great, and the treasure had
+to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of it
+consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate,
+some of them weighing from fifty to seventy-five
+pounds. The Spaniards beheld with gleaming eyes
+the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the
+shoulders of Indian porters, and carefully stored
+away under guard. On some days articles to the
+value of half a million dollars are said to have been
+brought in.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus
+brought before them did not satisfy the avaricious
+impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance
+for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect
+the Inca of delaying the ransom until he could
+prepare a rising of his subjects against the strangers.
+When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was
+filled with surprise and indignation. "Not a man
+of my subjects would dare raise a finger without
+my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at
+your disposal? What better security would you
+have of my good faith?" He ended by advising
+him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where
+they could see for themselves how his orders were
+being obeyed. He would give them a safe-conduct,
+and they could superintend the work themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The three envoys sent were carried the whole
+distance of more than six hundred miles in litters<pb n="082" /><anchor id="Pg082" />
+by relays of carriers, their route laying along the
+great military road of Peru and through many
+populous towns. Cuzco they found to be a large
+and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun
+was covered with plates of gold, which, by the
+Inca's orders, were being torn off. There were
+seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice
+of pure gold ran round the building. But this was
+so deeply set in the stone that it could not be removed.
+On their return, these messengers brought
+with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides
+great quantities of silver.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca,
+far surpassing any paid by any other captive in the
+world's history, was gathered in. The gold received
+came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought
+into goblets, ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms
+for ornament or use, utensils for temple or palace,
+tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices,
+and curious imitations of plants and animals. The
+most beautiful and artistic of these was the representation
+of Indian corn, the ear of gold being
+sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich
+tassels were made of the same precious metal.
+Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a
+sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the
+same metal playing in the waters at its base. Some
+of these objects were so beautifully wrought as to
+compare favorably with the work of skilled European
+artists.</p>
+
+<p>The treasure gathered was measured in the room<pb n="083" /><anchor id="Pg083" />
+in its original form, this being the compact, but
+even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum
+equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of
+dollars, with a large value in silver in addition. All
+this was melted down into ingots and divided among
+the conquerors, with the exception of the royal
+fifth, reserved for the King of Spain. The latter
+included many of the most curious works of art.
+The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less
+than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers
+received what was wealth to them.</p>
+
+<p>The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the
+Inca? Was he given his liberty, in accordance
+with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such
+men as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they
+have injured and have reason to fear. The total
+ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought
+in, but the impatient Spaniards had divided the
+spoil without waiting for the whole, and the Inca
+demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief
+friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his
+demand, but could get from him no direct reply.
+His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over
+some dark project.</p>
+
+<p>Soon rumors became current among the soldiers
+of a design of revolt entertained by the natives.
+These spread and grew until an immense army was
+conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the
+instigator of the supposed rising, and was charged
+with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had little
+effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence,<pb n="084" /><anchor id="Pg084" />
+while many of the soldiers began to demand the life
+of the Inca. To those demands Pizarro did not
+turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own
+instigation.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image07.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a
+strong friend of the captive, was absent. De Soto,
+another of his friends, was sent at the head of an
+expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles
+away, where it was said the natives were in arms.
+Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to
+yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to
+bring Atahualpa to trial on the charges against him.</p>
+
+<p>A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain
+Almagro as the judges, an attorney-general
+being appointed for the crown and counsel for the
+prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca
+were chiefly of a kind with which the Spaniards
+had nothing to do, among them the assassination
+of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were
+simply to bolster up the only real charge, that of
+exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards. The
+whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and
+was hurried through without waiting for the return
+of De Soto, who could have given useful evidence
+about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged
+guilty, and sentenced to be burnt alive that very
+night in the great square of Caxamalca!</p>
+
+<p>It was a sentence that might well have been expected
+as the termination of such a trial by such
+men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his captive
+at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the<pb n="085" /><anchor id="Pg085" />
+country, and the cruel sentence, which was common
+enough at that day, was carried out except in one
+particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the
+stake, with the fagots of his funeral pile heaped
+around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made
+a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized,
+promising him a less painful death if he would
+consent. The Inca, shrinking from the horror of
+the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under
+the name of Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put
+to death in the Spanish manner, by the <hi rend="font-style: italic">garrote</hi>, or
+strangulation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of
+Pizarro's treachery. Great was the indignation of
+De Soto, on his return a day or two later from
+an expedition in which he had found no rebels, at
+what had been done. Pizarro tried to exculpate
+himself and blame others for deceiving him, but
+these told him to his face that he alone was responsible
+for the deed. In all probability they told
+the truth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="086" /><anchor id="Pg086" />
+<head>GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.</head>
+
+<p>We have now to relate the most remarkable
+adventure in the story of the conquest of Peru,
+and one of the most remarkable in the history of
+the New World,&mdash;the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro
+to the upper waters of the Amazon and the pioneer
+voyage down that mighty river.</p>
+
+<p>Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers
+in his great work of conquest, three of them&mdash;Hernando,
+Juan, and Gonzalo&mdash;accompanying him to
+Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising,
+and able men. In 1540, eight years after the conquest,
+Gonzalo was appointed by his brother governor
+of the territory of Quito, in the north of the
+empire, with instructions to explore the unknown
+country lying to the east, where the cinnamon tree
+was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking
+his province, and made haste in starting on his
+journey of exploration to the fabled land of spices.</p>
+
+<p>It was early in the year that he set out on this
+famous expedition, with a force of three hundred
+and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one
+hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted.
+They were all thoroughly equipped and took with
+them a large supply of provisions and a great drove
+of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers<pb n="087" /><anchor id="Pg087" />
+say. Yet with all this food they were to suffer
+from the extremes of famine.</p>
+
+<p>We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary
+journey. At first it was easy enough.
+But when they left the land of the Incas and began
+to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found
+themselves involved in intricate and difficult passes,
+swept by chilling winds. In this cold wilderness
+many of the natives found an icy grave, and during
+their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains,
+the earth in one place being rent asunder.
+Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the cavity,
+into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred
+houses was precipitated.</p>
+
+<p>After the heights were passed and they descended
+to the lower levels, tropical heats succeeded the
+biting cold, and fierce storms of rain, accompanied
+by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost
+ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day.
+It was the rainy season of the tropics, and for more
+than six weeks the deluge continued, while the
+forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag
+themselves over the yielding and saturated soil.</p>
+
+<p>For several months this toilsome journey continued,
+many a mountain stream and dismal morass
+needing to be crossed. At length they reached the
+Land of Cinnamon, the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Canelas</hi> of the Spaniards,
+where were forests of the trees supposed by them
+to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the
+actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have
+been useless to them in that remote and mountain-walled<pb n="088" /><anchor id="Pg088" />
+wilderness. Here their journey, as originally
+laid out, should have ended, but they were
+lured on by the statements of the wild tribes they
+met, they being told of a rich and populous land at
+ten days' journey in advance, in which gold could
+be found in abundance.</p>
+
+<p>Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and
+they went eagerly onward, over a country of broad
+savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests,
+where grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large
+that the extended arms of sixteen men could barely
+reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and
+creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree
+to tree, beautiful to look at but very difficult to
+pass. The axe was necessary at every step of the
+way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant
+rains, were torn into rags by the bushes and brambles
+of the woodland. Their provisions had been long
+since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of
+swine had vanished, such of the animals as were not
+consumed having strayed into the woods and hills.
+They had brought with them nearly a thousand
+dogs, many of them of the ferocious bloodhound
+breed, and these they were now glad enough to kill
+and eat. When these were gone no food was to be
+had but such herbs and edible roots and small
+animals as the forest afforded.</p>
+
+<p>At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on
+the banks of a broad river, the Napo, one of the
+great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from the
+northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of<pb n="089" /><anchor id="Pg089" />
+that mighty stream. Gladdened by the sight, they
+followed its banks downward, hoping in this way to
+find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way,
+through which it needed all their strength to open
+a passage, and after going a considerable distance a
+loud and increasing noise met their ears. For miles
+they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and
+at length they reached a place where the stream
+rushed furiously down steep rapids, and at the end
+poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent
+cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth.</p>
+
+<p>This was the height of the fall as measured by
+the eyes of the wanderers, a guide not much to be
+relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it
+was at this point not more than twenty feet wide,
+and the hungry wanderers determined to cross it,
+with the hope of finding beyond it a country yielding
+more food. A bridge was constructed by felling
+great trees across the chasm, the water here running
+through vertical walls several hundred feet in depth.
+Over this rude bridge men and horses made their
+way, only one Spaniard being lost by tumbling
+down the giddy depth.</p>
+
+<p>The country beyond the stream proved no better
+than that they had left, and the only signs of inhabitants
+they met were savage and hostile tribes
+of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady
+skirmish. Some of the more friendly told them
+that the fruitful land they sought was but a few
+days' journey down the river, and they went wearily
+on, day by day, as the promised land still fled before<pb n="090" /><anchor id="Pg090" />
+their feet. Doubtless they were led by their own
+desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a
+vessel large enough to carry the baggage and the
+men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant.
+The shoes of horses that had died or had
+been killed for food were wrought into nails. Pitch
+was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of
+oakum the tattered garments of the soldiers were
+used. It took two months to complete the difficult
+task, at the end of which time a rude but strong
+brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an
+Indian canoe that ever floated on the mighty waters
+of Brazil. It was large enough to carry half the
+Spaniards that remained alive after their months
+of terrible travel.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco
+de Orellana, a man in whose courage and fidelity
+he put full trust. The company now resumed
+its march more hopefully, following the course of
+the Napo for weeks that lengthened into months,
+the brigantine keeping beside them and transporting
+the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country
+was reached. In this journey the last scraps of
+provisions were consumed, including their few remaining
+horses, and they were so pressed by hunger
+as to eat the leather of their saddles and belts.
+Little food was yielded by the forest, and such
+toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found
+were greedily devoured.</p>
+
+<p>Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by<pb n="091" /><anchor id="Pg091" />
+a populous nation, was told by the wandering
+Indians, but it was always several days ahead.
+Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was
+and feed on the scanty forest spoil, while Orellana
+went down the stream in his brigantine to
+where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into
+a greater river. Here the nation they sought was
+to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a supply
+of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved
+company. Taking fifty of the adventurers
+in the vessel, he pushed off into the swift channel
+of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage
+which quickly took him and his comrades out of
+sight.</p>
+
+<p>Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return
+of the voyagers appeared. In vain the waiting
+men strained their eyes down the stream and
+sent out detachments to look for the vessel farther
+down. Finally, deeming it useless to wait longer,
+they resumed their journey down the river, spending
+two months in advancing five or six hundred
+miles&mdash;those of them who did not die by the way.
+At length they reached the point they sought,
+where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream,
+that mighty river since known as the Amazon,
+which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through
+the vast Brazilian forest.</p>
+
+<p>Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and
+the rich and populous country promised them.
+They were still in a dense forest region, as unpromising
+as that they had left. As for Orellana<pb n="092" /><anchor id="Pg092" />
+and his companions, it was naturally supposed that
+they had perished by famine or by the hands of the
+ferocious natives. But they learned differently at
+length, when a half-starved and half-naked white
+man emerged from the forest, whom they recognized
+as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana's companions.</p>
+
+<p>The tale he told them was the following: The
+brigantine had shot so swiftly down the Napo as to
+reach in three days the point it had taken them two
+months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies
+with which to return, Orellana could obtain barely
+enough food for himself and his men. To attempt
+to ascend against the swift current of the river was
+impossible. To go back by land was a formidable
+task, and one that would add nothing to the comfort
+of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana
+came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon,
+visiting the populous nations which he was told
+dwelt on its banks, descending to its mouth, and
+sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory
+of a famous adventure and noble discovery.</p>
+
+<p>He found his reckless companions quite ready to
+accept his perilous scheme, with little heed of the
+fate of the comrades left behind them in the wilderness.
+De Vargas was the only one who earnestly
+opposed the desertion as inhuman and dishonorable,
+and Orellana punished him by abandoning
+him in the wilderness and sailing away without
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Orellana's adventure is not the least<pb n="093" /><anchor id="Pg093" />
+interesting part of the expedition we have set out
+to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we must deal
+with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and
+unknown river, in a rudely built barque, it is a
+marvel that the voyagers escaped shipwreck in the
+descent of that vast stream, the navigation being
+too difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine,
+who descended it in 1743, to be undertaken
+without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring
+Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their
+vessel narrowly escaped being dashed to pieces on
+the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still
+greater was the danger of the voyagers from the
+warlike forest tribes, who followed them for miles
+in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they
+landed in search of food.</p>
+
+<p>At length the extraordinary voyage was safely
+completed, and the brigantine, built on the Napo,
+several thousand miles in the interior, emerged on
+the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island
+of Cubagna, from which he made his way, with his
+companions, to Spain. He had a wonderful story
+to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks
+of the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in
+its vicinity, and other romances, gathered from the
+uncertain stories of the savages.</p>
+
+<p>He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and
+credulity, in gaining belief, and was sent out at the
+head of five hundred followers to conquer and colonize
+the realms he had seen. But he died on the
+outward voyage, and Spain got no profit from his<pb n="094" /><anchor id="Pg094" />
+discovery, the lands of the Amazon falling within
+the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest
+feats in the annals of travel and discovery, though
+his glory was won at the cost of the crime of deserting
+his companions in the depths of the untrodden
+wilderness. It was with horror and indignation
+that the deserted soldiers listened to the story of
+Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only
+apparent means of escape from that terrible situation.
+An effort was made to continue their journey
+along the banks of the Amazon, but after some
+days of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless
+task, and despair settled down upon their
+souls.</p>
+
+<p>Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able
+leader. He told his despairing followers that it was
+useless to advance farther, and that they could not
+stay where they were, their only hope lying in a
+return to Quito. This was more than a thousand
+miles away, and over a year had passed since they
+left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their
+only hope.</p>
+
+<p>Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits,
+speaking of the constancy they had shown, and
+bidding them to show themselves worthy of the
+name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when
+they should reach their native land. He would
+lead them back by another route, and somewhere
+on it they would surely reach that fruitful land of
+which so much had been told them. At any rate,<pb n="095" /><anchor id="Pg095" />
+every step would take them nearer home, and nothing
+else was left them to do.</p>
+
+<p>The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope.
+He had proved himself so far a true companion,
+sharing all their perils and privations, taking his
+lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick
+and cheering up the despondent. In this way he
+had won their fullest confidence and devotion, and
+in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his
+unselfish conduct.</p>
+
+<p>The journey back was more direct and less difficult
+than that they had already taken. Yet though
+this route proved an easier one, their distress was
+greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond
+such scanty fare as they could pick up in the forest
+or obtain by force or otherwise from the Indians.
+Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged
+to be left behind, and many a poor wretch was
+deserted to die alone in the wilderness, if not devoured
+by the wild beasts that roamed through it.</p>
+
+<p>The homeward march, like the outward one, took
+more than a year, and it was in June, 1542, that
+the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito.
+They were a very different looking party from the
+well-equipped and hope-inspired troop of cavaliers
+and men-at-arms who had left that upland city
+nearly two and a half years before. Their horses
+were gone, their bright arms were rusted and
+broken, their clothing was replaced by the skins of
+wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down
+their shoulders, their faces were blackened by the<pb n="096" /><anchor id="Pg096" />
+tropical sun, their bodies were wasted and scarred.
+A gallant troop they had set out; a body of meagre
+phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand
+Indians taken, less than half had survived. Of the
+Spaniards only eighty came back, and these so
+worn and broken that many of them never fully
+recovered from their sufferings. Thus in suffering
+and woe ended the famous expedition to the Land
+of Cinnamon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="097" /><anchor id="Pg097" />
+<head>CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.</head>
+
+<p>The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in
+Mexico and Peru went far to convince the Spaniards
+that in America they had found a veritable land of
+magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in
+gold and gems. Ponce de Leon sought in Florida
+for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de
+Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted
+to find a second Peru in the north, and became the
+discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other
+adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of
+empire and treasure. Some went south to the conquest
+of Central America, others north to California
+and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat
+of the fancied Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for
+which it is here proposed to describe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed
+governor of New Galicia, as the country
+lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a
+certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with
+Pizarro in Peru, on a journey of exploration to the
+north. With him were some Indian guides and a
+negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been
+one of the survivors of the Narvaez expedition to
+Florida and had travelled for years among the
+Indians of the north. He was expected to be of<pb n="098" /><anchor id="Pg098" />
+great assistance. As the worthy friar went on he
+was told of rich regions beyond, where the people
+wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the
+negro in advance to investigate and report. Stephen
+was to send back by the Indians a cross, the size of
+which would indicate the importance of what he
+had learned. Within four days messengers returned
+with a great cross the height of a man, significant
+of great and important discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days'
+journey from the point they had reached was a
+populous country called Cibola, in which were seven
+great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized
+nation that dwelt in large houses well built of stone
+and lime, some of them several stories in height.
+The entrances to the principal houses were richly
+wrought with turquoise, which was there in great
+abundance. Farther on they had been told were
+other provinces, each of them much greater than
+that of the seven cities.</p>
+
+<p>Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out
+on the track of his pioneer, eager to reach the land
+of wonders and riches of which he had been told.
+Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second
+Mexico or Peru. The land through which lay his
+route was strange and picturesque. Here were
+fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by
+mountains; there were narrow cañons through
+which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls hundreds
+of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets
+and towers.</p>
+
+<pb n="099" /><anchor id="Pg099" />
+
+<p>As he went on he heard more of the seven cities
+and the distant kingdoms, and of the abundance of
+turquoises with which the natives adorned their
+persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen
+of Stephen, though shelter and provisions were
+found which he had left at points along the route.
+As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never
+to set eyes on him again.</p>
+
+<p>At length the good monk reached a fertile region,
+irrigated like a garden, where the men wore three
+or four strings of turquoises around their necks;
+and the women wore them in their ears and noses.
+But Cibola lay still beyond, the tales of the natives
+magnifying its houses till some of them were ten
+stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in
+place of stairways. Reaching at length the Gila
+River, a stream flowing through deep and rugged
+valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was
+crossing the wilderness to the northeast, escorted
+like a prince by some three hundred natives. Fifteen
+days journey still lay between Fray Marcos
+and Cibola, and he went on into the wilderness, escorted,
+like his pioneer, by a large train of natives,
+who volunteered their services.</p>
+
+<p>For twelve days the journey continued through a
+rough mountain region, abundantly supplied with
+game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and partridges,
+which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But
+now there came back startling news, for one of the
+negro's guides appeared, pallid with fright, telling
+how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had<pb n="100" /><anchor id="Pg100" />
+been seized, plundered, and imprisoned. Farther
+on two more Indians were met, covered with blood
+and wounds, who said that they had escaped from
+the slaughter of all their comrades by the warlike
+people of Cibola.</p>
+
+<p>The bold monk had now much trouble in getting
+his frightened followers to go on with him, but by
+means of abundant presents he induced two of the
+chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at
+least a sight of the land of wonders, and with the
+chiefs and his own followers he cautiously proceeded.
+At length, from a hill summit, he looked
+down on a broad plain on which he saw the first of
+the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy it
+was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of
+stone in many stories and with flat roofs. This was
+all he could tell from his distant view, in which the
+mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his
+power of vision.</p>
+
+<p>That was the end of Fray Marcos's journey. He
+did not dare to approach nearer to that terrible
+people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with
+more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort,
+which, moved by still greater fear, had not waited
+for him. Back to Coronado he went with his story,
+a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of
+either gold, silver, or precious stones, the nearest
+approach to treasure being the greenish turquoise.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards
+learned, was one that might have fitted the Orient.
+He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and<pb n="101" /><anchor id="Pg101" />
+feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he
+carried a gourd decorated with bells and with white
+and red feathers. This he knew to be a symbol of
+authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds
+followed him, and a number of handsome
+Indian women, whom he had taken up on the way,
+attended him. He was followed with a large escort
+of Indians, carrying his provisions and other effects,
+among them gifts received, or plunder taken, from
+the natives.</p>
+
+<p>When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the
+orders given him, sent messengers to the city bearing
+his gourd, and saying that he came to treat for
+peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the
+gourd was presented, on observing the bells, cast it
+angrily to the ground, exclaiming,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I know not those people; their bells are not of
+our fashion; tell them to return at once, or not a
+man of them will be left alive."</p>
+
+<p>In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious
+negro went on. He and his company were
+not permitted to enter the city, but were given a
+house outside of it, and here they were stripped of
+all their possessions and refused food and drink.
+The next morning they left the house, where they
+were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great
+number of the townspeople, all of them being killed
+except the two Indians who had brought the news
+to Fray Marcos.</p>
+
+<p>Why they were treated in this manner is not
+known. They seem to have been looked on as spies<pb n="102" /><anchor id="Pg102" />
+or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of
+the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a
+pueblo of the Zuñi Indians, though three centuries
+and a half have since then elapsed.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as
+told by the worthy Fray Marcos, when repeated in
+the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a new
+El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an
+expedition to explore and conquer Cibola. The city
+was then well filled with adventurers eager for fame
+and fortune, many of them men of good family,
+cavaliers of rank "floating about like corks on
+water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any promising
+service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a
+company of over three hundred were enlisted, a
+large proportion of them mounted. The Indians of
+the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some
+small field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and
+cows were to be driven to supply the army with
+fresh meat.</p>
+
+<p>Francisco de Coronado was given the command,
+and so distinguished was the cavalcade that the
+viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen
+a captain but for fear of making the command
+top-heavy with officers. It was early in 1540 that
+the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen
+arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with
+swords and lances, others wearing helmets of iron
+or tough bullhide, while the footmen carried cross-bows
+and muskets, and the Indians were armed
+with bows and clubs. Splendid they were&mdash;but woe-befallen<pb n="103" /><anchor id="Pg103" />
+were they to be on their return, such of
+them as came back. An accessory party was sent
+by sea, along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de
+Alarcon, to aid, as far as it could, in the success of
+the army. But in spite of all Alarcon's efforts, he
+failed to get in communication with Coronado and
+his men.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th of July, after following the monk's
+route through the mountain wilderness, the expedition
+came within two days' march of the first city
+of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on
+the hills and other signs of hostility that the Spaniards
+would have to fight; but for this the cavaliers
+of that day seem to have been always ready, and
+the next day Coronado moved forward towards the
+desired goal.</p>
+
+<p>At length the gallant little army was before
+Hawaikuh, the city on which Fray Marcos had
+gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now
+was seen to be a village of some two hundred houses.
+It lay about fifteen miles southwest of the present
+Zuñi. The natives were ready for war. All the
+old men, with the women and children, had been
+sent away, and the Spaniards were received with
+volleys of arrows.</p>
+
+<p>The houses were built in retreating terraces, each
+story being smaller than that below it, and from
+these points of vantage the arrows of the natives
+came in showers. Evidently the place was only to
+be taken by assault, and the infantry was posted so
+as to fire on the warriors, while a number of dismounted<pb n="104" /><anchor id="Pg104" />
+horsemen sought to scale the walls by a
+ladder which they had found. This proved no easy
+task. Coronado's glittering armor especially made
+him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with
+arrows and battered with stones as he sought to
+ascend that he was wounded and had to be carried
+from the field. Others were injured and three horses
+were killed, but in less than an hour the place was
+carried, the warriors retreating in dismay before
+the impetuous assault.</p>
+
+<p>Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted
+houses. Their food had given out and they
+were half starved, but in the store-rooms they found
+"that of which there was greater need than of gold
+or silver, which was much corn and beans and
+chickens, better than those of New Spain, and
+salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my
+life." The chickens seem to have been wild turkeys,
+kept by the natives for their plumage. But
+of the much-desired gold and silver there was not
+a trace.</p>
+
+<p>The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards
+in this country is too extended and not of enough
+interest to be given here. It must suffice to say
+that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded
+into phantoms, or rather contracted into villages of
+terraced houses like that they had captured. Food
+was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil,
+even the turquoises of which so much had been
+told proving to be of little value. Expeditions
+were sent out in different directions, some of them<pb n="105" /><anchor id="Pg105" />
+discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on
+their almost inaccessible summits, the only approach
+being by narrow steps cut in the rock.
+Others came upon deep cañons, one of them discovering
+the wonderful Grand Cañon of the Colorado
+River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve
+villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some
+on the lofty heights. The people here received the
+Spaniards peaceably and with much show of welcome.</p>
+
+<p>In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by
+the Spaniards El Turco, from his resemblance to
+the Turks, who said he had come from a rich country
+in the east, where were numbers of great animals
+with shaggy manes,&mdash;evidently the buffalo or
+bison, now first heard of. Some time later, being
+brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco
+had a more wonderful story to tell, to the effect
+that "In his land there was a river in the level
+country which was two leagues wide, in which were
+fishes as big as horses, and large numbers of very
+big canoes with more than twenty rowers on a side,
+and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop
+under awnings, and on the prow they had a great
+golden eagle. He said also that the lord of that
+country took his afternoon nap under a great tree
+on which were hung a large number of little gold
+bells, which put him to sleep as they swung in the
+air. He said also that every one had his ordinary
+dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates,
+and bowls were of gold."</p>
+
+<p>No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the<pb n="106" /><anchor id="Pg106" />
+yellow metal that inspired El Turco to these alluring
+stories, in the hope of getting rid of the
+unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the
+effect it had. After wintering in the villages of the
+Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed and taken,
+they set out in the following April in search of
+Quivira, the land of gold, which El Turco had
+painted in such enticing colors. Against the advice
+of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions,
+the imaginative Indian saying that this was useless,
+as the laden animals could not bring back the gold
+and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the romancing
+Indian was taken with them as a guide.</p>
+
+<p>On for many leagues they went until the Pecos
+River was crossed and the great northern plains
+were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless
+country, covered with high grasses and peopled by
+herds of the great maned animals which El Turco
+had described. These strange creatures were seen
+in extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one
+day, when a herd was put to flight, they fell in
+such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it up,
+so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the
+dead bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they
+told not at all agreeing with that of El Turco, who
+accordingly was now put in chains. Coronado, not
+wishing to subject all his companions to suffering,
+but eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length
+sent all his followers back except thirty horsemen
+and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued his<pb n="107" /><anchor id="Pg107" />
+journey to the north, the bisons supplying them
+with abundance of food.</p>
+
+<p>For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at
+the end of thirty days a wide stream, which is
+thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at
+last reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in
+the present State of Kansas. A pleasing land it
+was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in
+place of El Turco's many-storied stone houses, only
+rude wigwams were to be seen, and the civilized
+people proved to be naked savages. The only
+yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one
+of the chiefs and some bells of the same substance.
+The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a cross
+and claim this wide region in the name of his
+master; and his chief satisfaction was in strangling
+El Turco for his many embellished lies.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not describe the return journey, though
+it was not lacking in interesting incidents. Finally,
+having lost many of their horses, being harassed by
+the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions,
+the way-worn army reached known soil in the
+valley of Culiacan. Here all discipline was at an
+end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues
+down the valley, all Coronado's entreaties failing to
+restore any order to the ranks.</p>
+
+<p>At length the sorely disappointed commander
+presented himself before the viceroy Mendoza, with
+scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone remained
+with him of the splendid cavalcade with
+which he had set out.</p>
+
+<pb n="108" /><anchor id="Pg108" />
+
+<p>Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores,
+who had found only villages of barbarians
+and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned
+empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o'
+the-wisp of Quivira and its fleeting treasures. Little
+did he dream that Quivira would yet become the
+central region of one of the greatest civilized nations
+of the world, and rich in productions beyond his
+most avaricious vision.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="pdf" />
+<index index="toc" />
+<pb n="109" /><anchor id="Pg109" />
+<head>THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.</head>
+
+<p>The early history of America has few romantic
+tales of love and devotion, but there is one woven
+in with the history of the settlement of Buenos
+Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all
+the historians of the time, and which exists as the
+one striking love romance of the Spanish conquest.
+It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do
+to dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the
+plea that historical critics have questioned them.</p>
+
+<p>It may not be generally known to our readers
+that the man who explored and took possession of
+the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was
+Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had
+with his father discovered North America in the
+service of England. It was in the year 1526 that
+he sailed up the noble river which he named the
+Rio de la Plata, a name suggested by the bars of
+silver which he obtained from the Indians on its
+banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay
+River, he built at the mouth of the river Zarcaranna
+a stronghold which he named the Fort of
+the Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set
+sail for Spain, leaving Nuno de Lara as commander
+of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and
+twenty men.</p>
+
+<pb n="110" /><anchor id="Pg110" />
+
+<p>These historical details are important, as a necessary
+setting for the love-romance which followed
+the founding of this fort. Lara, being left with his
+handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory
+peopled with Indians, felt strongly that in his
+situation prudence was the better part of valor, and
+strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest
+and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez.
+His success in this brought about, in an unexpected
+manner, his death and the loss of the fort, with
+other evils in their train.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image08.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado,
+one of Lara's principal officers, had brought
+with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a Spanish lady
+of much beauty and purity of soul. During the
+frequent visits which Mangora, the cacique of the
+Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this lady and
+became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that
+he could not conceal the evidence of his love.</p>
+
+<p>Miranda was not long in observing the ardent
+looks of the Indian chief and in understanding their
+significance, and the discovery filled her with dread
+and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the
+commandant to keep on good terms with this powerful
+chief, and fearing that she might be sacrificed to
+this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his
+sight, and also to guard against any surprise or
+violence, not knowing to what extremes the passion
+of love might lead an Indian.</p>
+
+<p>Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the
+fair lady out of the fort, and with this in view<pb n="111" /><anchor id="Pg111" />
+pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring his
+wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do,
+for Miranda had told him of her fears, and he suspected
+the Indian's design. With a policy demanded
+by the situation, he declined the invitations of the
+chief, on the plea that a Castilian soldier could not
+leave his post of duty without permission from his
+commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that
+permission except to fight his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He
+saw that Hurtado suspected his purpose, and the
+removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary
+step for its accomplishment. While seeking to
+devise a plan for this, he learned, to his great satisfaction,
+that Hurtado and another officer, with fifty
+soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect
+provisions, of which a supply was needed.</p>
+
+<p>Here was the opportunity which the treacherous
+chief awaited. It not only removed the husband,
+but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the
+wife in his absence. Late one day the chief placed
+four thousand armed men in ambush in a marsh
+near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty
+others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates,
+he sent word to Lara that he had heard of his want
+of food, and had brought enough to serve him until
+the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of
+friendship greatly pleased Lara. He met the chief
+with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and insisted
+on entertaining him and his followers.</p>
+
+<p>So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had<pb n="112" /><anchor id="Pg112" />
+been successful. The men in the marsh had their
+instructions and patiently awaited the fixed signals,
+while the feast in the fort went on till the night
+was well advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards
+were given time to retire; then the food-bearing
+Indians set fire to the magazines, and the
+ambushed savages, responding to the signal, broke
+into the fort and ruthlessly cut down all the Spaniards
+they met. Those who had gone to bed were
+killed in their sleep or slain as they sprang up in
+alarm. The governor was severely wounded, but
+had strength enough to revenge himself on the
+faithless Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran
+through the body with his sword. In a moment
+more he was himself slain.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in
+the fort only the women and children remained
+alive&mdash;spared, no doubt, by order of the chief.
+These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent
+cause of this bloody catastrophe, four other women,
+and as many children. The weeping captives were
+bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of
+Mangora, and his successor as cacique of the tribe.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman
+whom his brother had loved, her beauty heightened
+in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like passion
+was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered
+his men to remove her bonds. He then told her
+that she must not consider herself a captive, and
+solicited her favor with the gentleness and address
+that love can implant in the breast of the savage as<pb n="113" /><anchor id="Pg113" />
+well as of the son of civilization. Her husband, he
+told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the forests of a
+hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful
+nation and could surround her with luxuries and
+wealth. Could she hesitate to accept his love in
+preference to that of a man who was lost to her.</p>
+
+<p>These persuasions excited only horror and anguish
+in the soul of the faithful wife. Her love for her
+husband was proof against all that Siripa could say,
+and also against the fear of slavery or death, which
+might follow her rejection of his suit. In fact,
+death seemed to her a smaller evil than life as the
+wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his offers
+with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she
+hoped would excite his rage and induce him to put
+her to instant death.</p>
+
+<p>Her flashing eyes and excited words, however,
+had a very different effect from that she intended.
+They served only to heighten her charms in the eyes
+of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever
+in his persuasions. Taking her to his village, he
+treated her with every mark of kindness and gentleness,
+and showed her the utmost respect and civility,
+doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and
+raise a feeling in her breast corresponding to his own.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with
+the provisions they had collected, and viewed with
+consternation the ruins of the fort which they had
+so lately left. Their position was a desperate one,
+alone and undefended as they were, in the midst of
+treacherous tribes; but the fears which troubled the<pb n="114" /><anchor id="Pg114" />
+minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado.
+He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands
+of the cacique of Timbuez, and love and indignation
+in his soul suppressed all other feelings. With a
+temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he
+sought alone the village of the chief and demanded
+the release of his wife.</p>
+
+<p>Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption
+and savage joy at having at his mercy the
+man who stood between him and the object of his
+affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to
+his suit, he at once ordered him to be seized, bound
+to a tree, and pierced with arrows.</p>
+
+<p>This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with
+anguish, she rushed out, cast herself at the Indian's
+feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her husband's
+life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado
+was unbound, but he was still kept in captivity.</p>
+
+<p>Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined
+passions of a savage, and the fate of husband and
+wife alike was at constant risk in his hands. Now,
+tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed
+bent on sacrificing the husband to his rage. Again,
+the desire of winning the esteem of Miranda softened
+his soul, and he permitted the husband and
+wife to meet.</p>
+
+<p>As the days of captivity passed the strictness of
+their detention was relaxed and they were permitted
+greater freedom of action. As a result they met each
+other more frequently and under less restraint.
+But this growing leniency in the cacique had its<pb n="115" /><anchor id="Pg115" />
+limits: they might converse, but they were warned
+against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love.
+Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda
+would not become his, he was resolved that no one
+else should enjoy the evidence of her affection.</p>
+
+<p>The situation was a painful one. Husband and
+wife, as Hurtado and Miranda were, they continued
+lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the
+feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them
+avoid any show of love, and they resolved to obey
+its dictates; but prudence is weak where love commands,
+and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised
+them clasped in each other's arms and indulging in
+the ardent kisses of love.</p>
+
+<p>Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried
+away by ungovernable fury at their contempt of his
+authority and their daring disregard of his feelings,
+he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado's
+old sentence was renewed: he was bound to
+a tree and his body pierced with arrows. As for
+Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and
+furious savage to a more painful death, that of the
+flames. Yet painful as it was, the loyal wife doubtless
+preferred it to yielding to the passion of the
+chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life
+her lover and husband.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story
+of love and faith that the early annals of America
+have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda
+has become a classic in the love-lore of the America
+of the south.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="116" /><anchor id="Pg116" />
+<head>LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.</head>
+
+<p>The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries
+the boundary between liberty and oppression
+in South America. South of it lay the land of the
+Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who
+preserved their independence against the whites,
+the only Indian nation in America of which this
+can be said. Valorous and daring as were the
+American Indians, their arms and their arts were
+those of the savage, and the great multitude of
+them were unable to stand before the weapons and
+the discipline of their white invaders. But such was
+not the case with the valiant Araucanians. From
+the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro
+and the first invader of Chili, down to our own
+days these bold Americans fought for and retained
+their independence, holding the Biobio as their
+national frontier, and driving army after army
+from their soil. Not until 1882 did they consent
+to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own
+free will, and they still retain their native habits
+and their pride in their pure blood.</p>
+
+<p>The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races,
+they defied the armies of the Incas long before the
+Spaniards came, and the armies of the Spaniards
+for centuries afterwards, and though they have now<pb n="117" /><anchor id="Pg117" />
+consented to become a part of the Chilian nation,
+this has not been through conquest, and they are
+as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike
+years of the past. Their hardy and daring character
+infects the whole of Chili, and has given that
+little republic, drawn out like a long string between
+the Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one
+of the most warlike and unyielding of countries,
+while to its people has been applied the suggestive
+title of "the Yankees of the South."</p>
+
+<p>It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the
+heroes who arose in succession to defend the land
+of Araucania from the arms of those who so easily
+overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall,
+therefore, confine ourselves to the exploits of one
+of the earliest of these, a youthful warrior with a
+genius for war that might have raised him to the
+rank of a great commander had not death early
+cut short his career. The second Spaniard who
+attempted the conquest of this valiant people was
+Pedro de Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an
+able soldier, but one of those who fancied that a
+handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the
+strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the
+spirit of the race with which he would have to
+deal.</p>
+
+<p>Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia
+with two hundred Spaniards at his back. With
+them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable
+force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he
+proposed to settle and hold the land as his own<pb n="118" /><anchor id="Pg118" />
+after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles southward
+he went, fighting the hostile natives at every
+step, and on the 14th of February, 1541, stopped
+and laid the foundations of a town which he named
+St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago,
+a city of three hundred thousand souls.</p>
+
+<p>We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia's
+wars with the many tribes of Chili. He was in that
+land nine years before his conquests brought him to
+the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with
+whom alone we are concerned. On the coast near
+the mouth of this river he founded a new town,
+which he named Concepcion, and made this the
+basis of an invasion of the land of the Araucanians,
+whom he proposed to subdue.</p>
+
+<p>As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this
+time was a man with the body of a giant and the
+soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of
+the Spaniards until they had overrun most of the
+country, built towns and forts, and had reason to
+believe that the whole of Chili was theirs. Valdivia
+went on founding cities until he had seven in
+all, and gave himself the proud title of the Marquis
+of Arauco, fancying that he was lord and master of
+the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was
+not yet his.</p>
+
+<p>A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians,
+disgusted with the timid policy of their
+leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as
+their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man,
+the new toqui soon taught the Spaniards a lesson.<pb n="119" /><anchor id="Pg119" />
+He began with an attack on their forts. At one of
+these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty
+Indians employed in bringing them forage for their
+horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these laborers
+by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their
+arms in the bundles of hay they carried. On reaching
+the fort they were to attack the guards and
+hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could
+come to their aid.</p>
+
+<p>This device failed, the garrison attacking and
+driving back the forage-bearers before Caupolican
+could reach the place. Foiled in this, he made a
+fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty
+cannons proved too much for Indian means of
+defence, and the assailants were forced to draw back
+and convert their assault into a siege. This did not
+continue long before the Spaniards found themselves
+in peril of starvation. Vainly they sallied out on
+their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and
+finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered
+garrison cut its way by a sudden night attack
+through the besieging lines and retired to the
+neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took
+place at another fort called Tucapel, its garrison
+also seeking a refuge at Puren.</p>
+
+<p>When news of these events reached Valdivia, he
+saw that his conquests were in peril, and at once
+set out for the seat of war with all his forces,
+amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four
+or five thousand Indians. A small party of cavalry
+were despatched in advance to reconnoitre the<pb n="120" /><anchor id="Pg120" />
+enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians
+and their heads were hung on roadside trees as a
+warning to their approaching comrades. This gruesome
+spectacle had much of the effect intended. On
+seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and
+clamored to return. But Valdivia insisted on advancing,
+and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two
+armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel.</p>
+
+<p>Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary
+Indians to deal with. These were not of the kind
+that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry.
+A fierce charge was made on his left wing, which
+was cut to pieces by the daring warriors of Caupolican.
+The right wing was also vigorously attacked.
+But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards
+were mowing down the ranks of the Araucanians,
+whose rude war-clubs and spears were ill-fitted to
+cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven
+back, and hundreds of them falling, they returned
+with heroic courage three times to the assault. But
+at length the slaughter became too great to bear and
+the warriors were ready to flee in dismay.</p>
+
+<p>At this critical moment the first great hero of the
+Araucanians appeared. He was a boy of only sixteen
+years of age, a mere lad, who some time before
+had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made
+his page. But young as he was, he loved his
+country ardently and hated the invaders with a
+bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved
+the day for his countrymen and snatched victory
+out of defeat.</p>
+
+<pb n="121" /><anchor id="Pg121" />
+
+<p>Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the
+Araucanians were shrinking in dismay, he rushed
+into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn,
+accused them of cowardice, and bade them to face
+their foes like men. Seizing a lance, he charged
+alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to
+follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries,
+the Araucanians charged with such fury that the
+ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were broken,
+and they were cut down until the whole force was
+annihilated. It is said that of the entire expedition
+only two Indians escaped.</p>
+
+<p>Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to
+pray, on seeing the fortune of war turning against
+him, was seized by a party of the victors and
+brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive
+begged the chief for his life, promising to leave
+Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his
+late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief,
+and this the generous boy did. But the Araucanians
+had little faith in Spanish promises, and an old
+warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising
+his war-club and dashing out the captive's brains.
+Thus tragically ended the career of one of the least
+cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty
+of his disdain of Indian courage.</p>
+
+<p>Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in
+his veins, and was endowed by nature with beauty
+of person, nobleness of character, and intrepidity of
+soul. His people honored him highly in the festival
+with which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican<pb n="122" /><anchor id="Pg122" />
+appointed him his special lieutenant, raising
+him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his own.</p>
+
+<p>There was fighting still to be done. The leader
+of the Spaniards was dead, but he had left many
+behind him, and there were still strongholds in the
+Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing
+of the terrible disaster to their cause, the Spaniards
+hastily evacuated their forts beyond the Biobio and
+retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia.
+Here they were besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro
+was given the difficult task of defending the
+border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful
+general at once fortified himself on the steep
+mount of Mariguenu, a fort made very strong by
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped
+from Tucapel brought the news of the disaster to
+Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with
+terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of
+fourteen horsemen, of whom seven were slain, added
+to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing
+with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost
+their terrors was not reassuring to the invaders of
+the land. Evidently their position was hazardous;
+they must fight to win or retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia,
+decided to fight. With a small army of Spaniards
+and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio
+and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending
+Mount Mariguenu to attack the stronghold on its
+top.</p>
+
+<pb n="123" /><anchor id="Pg123" />
+
+<p>Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an
+old soldier in dealing with his well-armed foe.
+While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass
+of the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell
+upon them, and for three hours gave them as sharp
+a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the
+Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind
+which Lantaro awaited the foe.</p>
+
+<p>Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party
+of Spanish horsemen, with the purpose of forcing a
+passage, but near the summit they were met with
+such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it
+became necessary to support them with infantry
+and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the defence,
+endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body
+of his warriors, but the success of this stratagem
+was prevented by the advance of Villagrau to their
+support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in
+particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he
+was a born captain. Calling to him one of his
+officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see those
+thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes.
+There is your work. Do not dare show your face
+to me until you have made them your own."</p>
+
+<p>Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company
+and fell in fury upon the battery, driving back
+the gunners and capturing their cannon. This successful
+charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce
+attack on the Spanish front, which broke their
+ranks, throwing them into confusion and putting<pb n="124" /><anchor id="Pg124" />
+them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three
+thousand of the Spaniards and their allies being
+slain, while Villagrau was saved with difficulty and
+at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who
+picked him up where he lay wounded and carried
+him off on his horse.</p>
+
+<p>In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again
+the defile by which they had ascended. Lantaro
+had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees, and the
+few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before
+they could escape. The Araucanians pursued them
+to the Biobio, fatigue preventing their following
+beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their
+flight until Concepcion was reached, and here the
+old men and women were speedily sent north in
+ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the
+city in a panic, and started for Santiago by land.
+All their property was left, and the victors found a
+rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro,
+after destroying the place, returned home, to be
+greeted with the acclamations of his people.</p>
+
+<p>We must deal more rapidly with the remaining
+events of the boy hero's career. Some time after this
+defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild Concepcion,
+but while thus employed they were attacked
+and defeated by Lantaro, who pursued them through
+the open gates of their fortress and took possession
+of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the
+woods and the ships in the harbor. Once more
+burning the city, Lantaro withdrew in triumph.</p>
+
+<p>The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been<pb n="125" /><anchor id="Pg125" />
+with much justice called, now advanced against
+Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid
+to Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia.
+Reaching the country of the Indian allies of the
+Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He
+then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio
+Claro and sent out spies into the country of the
+enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish
+horsemen were sent from the city to reconnoitre
+the position of their enemies, but they were met
+and driven back in dismay, being severely handled
+by the Araucanians. The news of their repulse
+filled the people of Santiago with consternation.</p>
+
+<p>Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro
+against Lantaro, and ordered the roads leading to
+the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved no
+match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent.
+When the Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro
+withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards following
+tumultuously into the fortifications. Once
+inside, the Indians turned on them and cut them
+down so furiously that none but the horsemen
+escaped.</p>
+
+<p>Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each
+time was repulsed. The young Spanish leader then
+withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped
+on a neighboring hill, with the design in mind of
+turning the waters of a mountain stream on Pedro's
+camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy informed
+him of the purpose to drown him out, and he
+hastily retired to Santiago.</p>
+
+<pb n="126" /><anchor id="Pg126" />
+
+<p>Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his
+son of the task which had proved too much for him.
+At the head of a strong force, he took a secret route
+by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the
+Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his
+sentinels aroused Lantaro to the impending danger,
+and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his
+works to observe the coming enemy. He had
+hardly reached there when an arrow from the bow
+of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a
+mortal wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead
+in the arms of his followers.</p>
+
+<p>A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed
+and the fight not ending till none of the Araucanians
+remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew
+to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated
+the death of their foe; while his countrymen,
+dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege
+of the invested cities and returned home.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable career was that of this young captain,
+begun at sixteen and ending at nineteen.
+History presents no rival to his precocious military
+genius, though in the centuries of war for independence
+in his country many older heroes of equal
+fame and daring arose for the defence of their native
+land against the Spanish foe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="127" /><anchor id="Pg127" />
+<head>DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.</head>
+
+<p>At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake,
+the Sea-King of Devon, as he was called, and the
+most daring and persistent of the enemies of the
+Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape
+Horn, at the southern extremity of the continent,
+and steered northward into the great Pacific, with
+the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year
+before he had left the harbor of Plymouth, England,
+with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But
+these had been lost or left behind until only the
+"Golden Hind," a ship of one hundred tons burden,
+was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron.
+Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom
+he started only about sixty remained.</p>
+
+<p>The bold Drake had previously made himself
+terrible to the Spaniards of Mexico and the West
+Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the
+walls of Panama. Now for the first time the foot
+of a white man trod the barren rocks of Cape
+Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific
+waves. Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons
+to take and rich Spanish cities to raid, and
+the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope
+of a golden harvest as they sailed north into that
+unknown sea.</p>
+
+<pb n="128" /><anchor id="Pg128" />
+
+<p>Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the
+famous adventures of Pizarro, and about the 1st of
+December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili.
+Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills
+on which sheep and cattle were grazing and corn
+and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the
+natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted
+with the presents which were given them. But
+soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his men,
+who had gone on shore to procure fresh water,
+were fiercely attacked by ambushed Indians, and
+every man on board was wounded before they could
+pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched
+from them by the Indians, and Drake was wounded
+by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone
+on the side of his face.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image09.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew
+wished to attack the hostile natives, but Drake
+refused to do so.</p>
+
+<p>"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards,"
+he said; "and we cannot blame them for
+attacking any man from Spain."</p>
+
+<p>Some days later a native fisherman was captured
+and brought on board the ship. He was in a terrible
+fright, but was reassured when he learned that
+his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a
+nation whose people did not love Spain. He was
+highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of
+linen cloth that were given him, and was sent
+ashore, promising to induce his people to sell some
+provisions to the ship's crew. He kept his word,<pb n="129" /><anchor id="Pg129" />
+and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog
+were obtained.</p>
+
+<p>With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to
+see any white men who hated the Spaniards as
+deeply as he did himself. He was well received
+and served to the best the ship could afford. Then
+he said to his entertainer in Spanish, a language he
+spoke fairly well,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be
+glad to go with you, and think I can be of much
+use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far
+south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon,
+nearly ready to sail with a rich treasure. We
+should all like much to have you capture that
+vessel."</p>
+
+<p>This was good news to Drake. The next day the
+"Golden Hind" turned its prow down the coast
+under full sail, with the friendly native on board.
+When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight
+that his dusky pilot had told the truth. There
+lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not
+dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards
+were unsuspicious until the "Golden Hind" had
+been laid alongside and its armed crew were clambering
+over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured
+almost without a blow.</p>
+
+<p>The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected
+treasure, and to his joy found that she was
+laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand
+dollars in gold coin, and with other costly goods,
+including about two thousand jars of Chili wine.<pb n="130" /><anchor id="Pg130" />
+This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the
+"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her
+disconsolate captain and crew.</p>
+
+<p>After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast,
+in which the rich viands obtained were washed
+down freely with the captured wine, an armed
+force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose
+people fled hurriedly to the fields when they saw
+the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted
+houses and the church a fair supply of gold and
+silver spoil was found, and what was equally welcome,
+an abundant addition to their scanty store of
+provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the
+"Golden Hind" set sail again up the coast, putting
+the native pilot ashore at the place where he wished
+to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from
+him eager protestations of joy and gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers
+in this voyage up the South American coast. One
+of the examples of good fortune came at a place
+called Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who
+had gone ashore, came upon a Spaniard lying fast
+asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side,
+to their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid
+silver. The sleepy treasure-bearer and his silver
+were speedily secured. Farther inland the party
+met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who
+were driving some sheep, with bulging bags upon
+their backs. On opening those they were found also
+to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that
+returned to the "Golden Hind" with the treasure<pb n="131" /><anchor id="Pg131" />
+thus unexpectedly obtained, and it began to look
+almost as if the country grew silver.</p>
+
+<p>The next raid of the adventurers was at a place
+called Arica, a small seaport town at the output of
+a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two or
+three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured
+and searched for goods of value. The town was
+not taken, for a native whom Drake met here told
+him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a
+valuable cargo, which had recently passed up the
+coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a
+small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was
+speedily under sail again.</p>
+
+<p>"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to
+his men. "I am told she is richly laden. The
+first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my
+hearty thanks and a heavy gold chain into the
+bargain."</p>
+
+<p>It may well be imagined that the eyes of the
+sailors were kept wide open in the days that followed.
+The man to win the golden chain was John
+Drake, the admiral's brother, who rushed to him
+one morning, as he came on deck, with the glad
+tidings,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Yonder is the galleon!"</p>
+
+<p>He pointed to the far northern horizon, where
+the sails of a great ship were just becoming visible
+through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was
+the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward
+before the fresh breeze towards the slow-moving
+Spanish ship.</p>
+
+<pb n="132" /><anchor id="Pg132" />
+
+<p>Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an
+English ship in those waters, as yet never broken
+except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon
+took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and
+shortened sail as the "Golden Hind" came up, signalling
+for its officers to come on board. Drake did
+so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when
+the Spanish captain learned his mistake it was too
+late to resist. The crew of the galleon were put
+under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be
+rich in gold and silver, was quickly transferred to
+the "Golden Hind." Then captain and crew of
+the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship
+was set adrift, to try her chances without pilot or
+helmsman in those perilous seas. The next storm
+probably made her a grave in the breakers.</p>
+
+<p>Great had been the spoil gathered by the English
+rovers, a rich wealth of treasure being within the
+coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was abundantly
+supplied with provisions. Drake now thought
+of returning home with the riches he had won for
+himself and his comrades. But the port of Lima,
+Pizarro's capital, lay not far up the coast, and here
+he hoped for a rich addition to his spoil. Though
+satisfied that a messenger had been sent from Valparaiso
+to warn the people of the presence of an
+armed English ship on the coast, he had no doubt
+of reaching Lima in advance of news brought
+overland.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish
+vessels were found, and, their captains being<pb n="133" /><anchor id="Pg133" />
+unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained
+no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay
+several miles inland from the port, and the governor,
+on hearing of these depredations, imagined
+that the stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had
+fallen into the hands of pirates and was on a freebooting
+cruise. While he was making preparations
+for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso
+arrived and told him the real character of the
+unwelcome visitor.</p>
+
+<p>This news spurred the governor to increased exertions.
+An armed English war-ship on their coast
+was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and the
+wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth
+recapture. With all haste the governor got together
+a force of two thousand men, horse and foot, and at
+their head hurried to the port. There in the offing
+was the dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm,
+and offering a promising chance for capture.</p>
+
+<p>Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and
+manning them heavily from his forces, he sent them
+out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached
+Drake's sails. But before they had gone far the
+"Golden Hind" felt the welcome wind and was
+soon gliding through the water. With his small
+force it was hopeless for the English captain to face
+the strongly armed Spaniards, and his only hope for
+safety lay in flight.</p>
+
+<p>The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards
+at times coming near enough to reach the
+"Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind<pb n="134" /><anchor id="Pg134" />
+varied in strength, now the chase, now the pursuers,
+gained in speed. The Spanish ships proved fair
+sailers and might in the end have overhauled the
+Englishman but for a precaution the governor had
+neglected in his haste. Expecting to capture the
+English ship in a short run, he had not thought of
+provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on
+their small food supply gave out and the soldiers
+were nearly famished. In the end the governor,
+who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order
+a return to port.</p>
+
+<p>Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the
+English rovers. On reaching Lima he sent out
+three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But
+Drake and his men had won too good a start to be
+overtaken, and the new pursuers never came within
+sight of him.</p>
+
+<p>Homeward bound with an abundant treasure,
+the rovers pressed merrily on. To return by the
+Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with
+the Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous
+Englishman decided to sail north, expecting
+to be able to find a passage through the seas north
+of the American continent. The icy and impassable
+character of these seas was at that early date
+quite unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Onward through the Spanish waters they went,
+taking new prizes and adding to their store of
+treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns
+were also visited and booty obtained from them.
+At length the South American continent was left<pb n="135" /><anchor id="Pg135" />
+behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast
+of Central America. About mid April they left the
+shore and stood out to sea, at last bound definitely
+for home.</p>
+
+<p>Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched
+due northward to the limit of the continent, where
+he hoped to find an easy passage back to the Atlantic,
+but after more than five weeks of a north-westward
+course, gradually verging to due north,
+he was surprised to see land again to his right. At
+first taking it for a large island, he soon learned
+that he had met the continent again and that America
+here stretched to the northwest.</p>
+
+<p>He was off the coast of the country now called
+California, in a new region which English eyes had
+never seen, though Spaniards had been there before.
+The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very
+different in character and degree of civilization
+from those of Peru. They were simple-minded
+savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since,
+as they lay in harbor, the ship sprang a leak, and
+it became necessary to take measures to repair the
+damage.</p>
+
+<p>The ship was anchored in shallow water near the
+shore, her cargo and provisions were landed and
+stored, and steps taken to make the necessary repairs.
+While this was going on the mariners were
+visited by the savages in large numbers, occasionally
+with what were thought to be signs of hostility.
+But their friendliness never ceased, and when at
+length their visitors, with whom they had established<pb n="136" /><anchor id="Pg136" />
+very amicable relations, were ready to depart
+they manifested the greatest grief, moaning,
+wringing their hands, and shedding tears.</p>
+
+<p>The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or
+near what is now called the Golden Gate, the entrance
+to the magnificent bay of San Francisco.
+On the 23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor
+and sailed out of the harbor. On the hill-side in
+the rear was gathered a large body of Indians,
+some of them fantastically attired in skins and
+adorned with feathers, others naked but for the
+painted designs which covered their bodies. They
+built bonfires in all directions in token of farewell,
+and Drake and his officers stood on deck, waving
+their hats to their new-made friends. Slowly the
+hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from
+view, and they were on the open ocean again.</p>
+
+<p>From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting
+the coast. But the farther they went the
+colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak
+that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope
+of reaching home by the northern route. Yet to
+return by the way they had come would be very
+dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards
+would probably be keenly on the lookout for them.
+Only one course remained, which was to follow the
+route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across
+the vast Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and
+around the Cape of Good Hope. Drake had with
+him the narratives and copies of the charts of the
+first circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck<pb n="137" /><anchor id="Pg137" />
+him that it would be a great and glorious thing to
+take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and
+win him the credit of being the first Englishman to
+accomplish this wonderful task.</p>
+
+<p>The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon
+turned to the west. Quick and prosperous was the
+voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and
+after sixty-eight days in which land had not been
+seen a green shore came in view. It was the last
+day of September, 1579.</p>
+
+<p>The voyagers had many interesting experiences
+in the eastern archipelago, but no mishaps except
+that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one
+of the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and
+after throwing overboard eight of their cannon,
+three tons of cloves they had gathered in their voyage
+through the isles of spices, and many bags of
+meal, the "Golden Hind" was got afloat again,
+none the worse for her dangerous misadventure.</p>
+
+<p>Stocking their vessel once more with spices and
+sago at the island of Booten, and meeting with a
+hospitable reception at the large island of Java,
+they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape
+of Good Hope without mishap and entering the
+Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of September,
+1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth
+harbor, from which she had sailed nearly
+three years before, and with wealth enough to make
+all on board rich.</p>
+
+<p>Never had England been more full of joy and
+pride than when the news of the wonderful voyage<pb n="138" /><anchor id="Pg138" />
+of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received
+and its strange adventures told. Queen
+Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of the bold
+sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis
+Drake to Sir Francis Drake, and the people looked
+on him as their greatest hero of the sea. In our
+days acts like his would have been called piracy, for
+England was not at war with Spain. But Drake
+was made a hero all the same, and in the war that
+soon after began he did noble work in the great sea
+fight with the Spanish Armada.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="139" /><anchor id="Pg139" />
+<head>SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.</head>
+
+<p>Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to
+America, and dazzling stories were told by them of
+the riches of the countries they explored, stories
+illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It
+was well known that Cortez had not obtained all
+the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro all those of
+Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures
+had been carried far away by the servants of those
+unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the northeastern section
+of South America, was looked upon by the
+Spanish adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous
+wealth. Others fancied that Guiana was the
+true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in
+gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro,
+in his expedition in 1540, had heard much from the
+Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana brought
+back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous
+stories of the riches in gold, silver, and precious
+stones of the land of the north.</p>
+
+<p>These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder
+and magnitude through pure love of the marvellous
+or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the Indians.
+Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran,
+was a mighty city, whose very street watering-troughs
+were made of solid gold and silver, while<pb n="140" /><anchor id="Pg140" />
+"billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were
+logs of wood marked out to burn."</p>
+
+<p>In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence
+a mighty king. The legend went that it was
+a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine and
+then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable
+golden image. Then, entering his barge of state,
+with a retinue of nobles whose dresses glittered with
+gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending
+their tour by a bath in the cooling waters.</p>
+
+<p>Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned
+king? Certainly none of those who
+went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish
+adventurers who sought for that land of treasure,
+the most persistent was a bold explorer named
+Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out
+thence with a large body of followers&mdash;seven hundred
+horsemen, the story goes. His route lay along
+the river Negro, and then down the broad Orinoco.
+Boats were built for the descent of this great stream.
+But the route was difficult and exhausting and the
+natives usually hostile, and as they went on many
+of the men and horses died or were slain.</p>
+
+<p>For more than a year these sturdy explorers
+pushed on, reaching a point from which, if they
+could believe the natives, the city they sought was
+not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near
+at hand. As evidence, the Indians had treasure of
+their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images
+of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as
+he had not seen the like in Italy, Spain, or the Low<pb n="141" /><anchor id="Pg141" />
+Countries." But as they went on the gallant seven
+hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and
+these so eager to return home that their leader was
+forced to give up the quest. He sought the island
+of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and
+there, as governor, he dwelt for years, keeping
+alive in his soul the dream of some day going again
+in search of El Dorado.</p>
+
+<p>While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in
+England a man of romantic and adventurous nature
+named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous
+as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years
+devoted himself to the attempt to plant an English
+colony on the coast of North America. On this
+project he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune
+haunted him and all his colonies failed.
+Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and
+restore his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish
+treasure-ships, after the fashion of the bold Sir
+Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end
+to this project by clapping him in prison, on a
+matter of royal jealousy. While one of the queen's
+lovers, he had dared to marry another woman.</p>
+
+<p>While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of
+the fleet he had fitted out came back with a Spanish
+galleon they had taken, so richly laden with costly
+goods that the whole court was filled with delight.
+Part of the spoils went to the queen and another
+part to Raleigh, and when at length he was released
+from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning
+more of the American gold. The stories of El<pb n="142" /><anchor id="Pg142" />
+Dorado and its marvellous city were then in great
+vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his
+expedition&mdash;with no gold, indeed, but with new
+tales of marvel he had gathered from the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but
+forty-two years of age, in the prime of life and
+full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of
+mind led him to a full belief in the stories that
+floated about, and he grew eager to attempt the
+brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had
+failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had
+failed, he had opened up what might prove the
+track to success. Raleigh had sent various expeditions
+to the New World, but had never crossed
+the ocean himself. He now decided to seek Guiana
+and its fairyland of gold.</p>
+
+<p>A small vessel was sent in advance, under command
+of Raleigh's friend, Jacob Whiddon, to feel
+the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco,
+which was deemed to be the gateway to the golden
+realm. Whiddon stopped at Trinidad, and found
+Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial.
+But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous
+Spaniard had the English sailors arrested and put
+in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small
+that he was obliged to go back to England without
+seeing the Orinoco.</p>
+
+<p>Whiddon's report made Raleigh more eager than
+ever. He believed that Berreo was getting ready
+to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to
+rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations<pb n="143" /><anchor id="Pg143" />
+accordingly, and in February, 1595, set sail from
+Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied vessels,
+taking with him about one hundred gentlemen
+adventurers in addition to the crews. A number
+of small and light boats were also taken for use on
+the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came
+to see the voyagers off, flags floated on all the
+vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh and his companions,
+dressed in their best array, stood on the
+decks, as, with set sails and flying pennons, the
+stout ships moved slowly away on their voyage of
+chance and hope.</p>
+
+<p>Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers
+of his day, committing what would now be called
+piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet
+left the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was
+seen and captured. It was quickly emptied of its
+cargo,&mdash;a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms.
+Very soon after a second ship was captured. This
+was a Flemish vessel, laden with wines. These
+were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About
+two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad
+were sighted, and Raleigh's eyes rested for the first
+time on the shores of that New World in which he
+had so long taken a warm interest.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had
+done his agent, forbidding any of the Indians to go
+on his ships on peril of death. But they went on
+board, for all that, and were delighted with the
+kind treatment they received. They told Raleigh
+that several of their chiefs had been seized and<pb n="144" /><anchor id="Pg144" />
+imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged
+him to rescue them. No Englishman of that day
+hesitated when the chance came to deal the Spaniards
+a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made
+on the town, it being captured, the chiefs set free,
+and the governor himself made a prisoner.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image10.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive
+on his flag-ship, treated him with every courtesy,
+and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo,
+who did not suspect the purpose of the English,
+talked freely about his former expedition and gave
+his captor a good deal of very useful information.
+One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could
+not be taken up the Orinoco, on account of the
+sand-banks at its mouth and its dangerous channels.
+He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at
+Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he
+had brought with him.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred men were chosen for the journey,
+the others being left to guard the fleet. An old
+galley, a barge, a ship's-boat, and two wherries
+carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who
+claimed to be familiar with the coast, was taken
+along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the
+mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers,
+and they were glad enough to enter one of the
+mouths of the river and escape the ocean billows.
+But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature
+of which Raleigh described later, in his account of
+the expedition. He wrote:</p>
+
+<p>"If God had not sent us help, we might have<pb n="145" /><anchor id="Pg145" />
+wandered a whole year in that labyrinth of rivers,
+ere we had found any way. I know all the earth
+does not yield the like confluence of streams and
+branches, the one crossing the other so many times,
+and all so fair and large, and so like one another
+as no man can tell which to take. And if we
+went by the sun or compass, hoping thereby to go
+directly one way or the other, yet that way also
+we were carried in a circle among multitudes of
+islands. Every island was so bordered with big
+trees as no man could see any farther than the
+breadth of the river or length of the branch."</p>
+
+<p>The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this
+medley of water-ways, and only chance extricated
+the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were
+involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing
+a canoe with three natives, who became friendly
+when they found they had nothing to fear from the
+strange white men. One of them was an old man
+who knew the river thoroughly, and whom presents
+and kind words induced to guide them past their
+difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded
+banks of the stream, they were off again early the
+next morning. The river was still swift and violent,
+broken here and there with rapids, where they
+had to land and pull the boats. There were shoals
+also, which they had much trouble in getting over.
+And the banks were so crowded with trees and high
+reeds that they could not land, and were almost
+stifled from the closeness of the air.</p>
+
+<pb n="146" /><anchor id="Pg146" />
+
+<p>After four hard and weary days of this kind
+they reached a smoother channel and could proceed
+more easily. But their work was still far from
+easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them
+and they had the swift current of the river to
+breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive
+day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen
+rovers in that tropical climate, where the dense forest
+growth cut off every breath of air and their
+diminishing bread forced them to be put on short
+allowance. They began to complain bitterly, and
+Raleigh had to use all his powers of persuasion to
+induce them to go on.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the country was in many ways beautiful.
+Here and there the woods ceased and broad plains
+spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid
+which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees.
+Graceful deer would come down to the water's
+edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with their
+big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers,"
+says Raleigh, "were divers sorts of fruits good to
+eat; flowers, too, and trees of such variety as were
+sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed
+ourselves many times with the fruits of the
+country, and sometimes with fowls and fish. We
+saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson,
+orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was
+unto us a great good passing time to behold them,
+besides the relief we found by killing some store of
+them with our fowling-pieces."</p>
+
+<p>The adventurers at length reached an Indian<pb n="147" /><anchor id="Pg147" />
+village of which their old guide had told them, and
+here, after the natives had got over their fright and
+learned that the strangers meant them no harm,
+they were very hospitably entertained. Thence
+they went onward, day after day, seeing many
+canoes on the river and landing at various villages.
+One of the canoes contained three Spaniards, who
+escaped from the effort to capture them, and Raleigh
+soon learned that the Spaniards had told the
+natives that the English were robbers and cannibals.
+To overcome the effect of this story, the
+greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with
+kindness and gentleness, and to punish in their
+presence any of the men who maltreated them.
+This quickly had its effect, for the news spread
+that the new-comers were the friends of the red
+men, and they were rewarded by every attention
+the natives could bestow on them. Provisions
+were brought them in profusion,&mdash;fish, fowl, and
+fruit, great roasted haunches of venison, and other
+viands. Among these were sweet and delicious
+pineapples of enormous size, "the prince of fruits,"
+as Raleigh called them.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and
+fifty miles up the Orinoco, they reached the point
+where another great river, the Caroni, empties into
+it. The country here was more beautiful than they
+had yet seen, and prosperous Indian villages were
+numerous on the bordering plains. The natives had
+heard of the amicable character of the new-comers,
+and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all<pb n="148" /><anchor id="Pg148" />
+they could to show how they trusted and admired
+them. With one old chief, named Topiawara, Raleigh
+held many interesting talks and learned from
+him much about the country and the people. In
+return he told him about his own country and its
+great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of
+Queen Elizabeth, before which the simple natives
+bowed themselves as if it were the figure of a
+goddess they saw.</p>
+
+<p>Many days were spent with these people, in
+hunting, fishing, and exploring, but, ask as they
+would, they could learn nothing about the land of
+gold and the marvellous city they had come so far
+to seek. The old chief told him that Guiana had
+many fertile plains and valleys and had mines of
+silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew
+nothing about. Finally, Raleigh decided to go up
+the Caroni, three parties being sent to explore its
+vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the
+stream. He had been told of a mighty cataract,
+which he was very anxious to see, and this was at
+length reached, after a long struggle with the strong
+current of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades,
+ten or twelve in number, in the words of
+Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a
+church tower, which fell with that fury that the
+rebound of waters made it seem as if it had been
+all covered over with a great shower of rain. And
+in some places we took it at first for a smoke that
+had risen over some great town.</p>
+
+<pb n="149" /><anchor id="Pg149" />
+
+<p>"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues,
+"or more lively prospects; hills so raised,
+here and there, over the valleys; the river winding
+into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green
+grass without bush or stubble; the ground of hard
+sand, easy to march on, either for horses or foot;
+the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree
+with a thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons
+of white, crimson, and carnation, perching on the
+river's side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly
+wind; and every stone we stooped to pick up promising
+either gold or silver by its complexion."</p>
+
+<p>On the return to the junction of the rivers, the
+land parties had similar stories to tell, and had
+pieces of golden ore to show, of which they claimed
+to have found plentiful indications. This story
+filled the whole party with dazzling hopes. Here,
+in the rocks at least, were the riches of which they
+had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist,
+here was the native wealth that might well bring it
+into existence.</p>
+
+<p>The prospectors had done all that lay in their
+power, and now felt it necessary to return to their
+ships, taking with them, at his request, the son of
+the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and
+perhaps to return at some time to succeed him,
+with the aid of the valiant English.</p>
+
+<p>We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and
+his quest. After various adventures, the party
+reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the<pb n="150" /><anchor id="Pg150" />
+narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere
+with the utmost interest.</p>
+
+<p>But many years passed before the explorer could
+return again. He became engaged in the wars
+against Spain, and after the death of the queen was
+arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned
+for thirteen years. In 1617, twenty-two
+years after his first expedition, he returned to the
+Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels.</p>
+
+<p>His release from prison had been gained by bribery
+and the promise to open a rich mine of gold in
+Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There
+was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St.
+Thomas, in which Raleigh's son was killed. As for
+the gold mine, it could not be found, and the expedition
+was forced to return with none of the hoped-for
+wealth to show.</p>
+
+<p>And now Raleigh's misfortunes culminated. He
+had been sentenced to death for treason in 1603, but
+had been reprieved. The king had him arrested
+again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded
+that he should be punished for the attack
+on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not
+like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain,
+so the famous explorer fell a victim to the royal
+policy and dislike and was beheaded under the old
+sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado
+has lain concealed in the mists of legend and romance,
+though mines of gold have been worked in
+the region which Raleigh explored.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="151" /><anchor id="Pg151" />
+<head>MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.</head>
+
+<p>During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main
+was beset with a horde of freebooters or buccaneers,
+as they called themselves, to whose fierce attacks
+the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly
+exposed, and who did not hesitate to assail the
+strongholds of the Spaniards in quest of plunder.
+They differed from pirates only in the fact that
+their operations were confined to Spain and her
+colonies, no war giving warrant to their atrocities.
+Most ferocious and most successful among these
+worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth,
+who made his name dreaded by his daring and cruelty
+throughout the New-World realms of Spain.
+The most famous among the deeds of this rover
+of the seas was his capture of the city of Panama,
+which we shall here describe.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from
+the island haunts of the freebooters the greatest
+fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got together.
+It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small
+and large, Morgan's flag-ship, of thirty-two guns,
+being the largest, and flying the English standard.
+The men had gathered from all the abiding-places
+of their fraternity, eager to serve under so famous
+a leader as Morgan, and looking for rich spoil under<pb n="152" /><anchor id="Pg152" />
+a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the
+Spaniards obstinately defend themselves there is
+something to take, and their best fortified places
+are those which contain the most treasure."</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image11.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>THE CITY OF PANAMA.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus
+did Morgan announce to his followers the plan
+he had conceived, which was to attack the important
+and opulent city of Panama, in which he
+expected to find a vast wealth of gold and silver.
+It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on
+the Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and
+could be reached only by a long and toilsome land
+journey, the route well defended by nature and
+doubtless by art, while not a man on board the fleet
+had ever trod the way thither. To supply themselves
+with a guide the island of St. Catharine,
+where the Spaniards confined their criminals, was
+attacked and taken, and three of the convicts were
+selected for guides, under promise of liberty and
+reward.</p>
+
+<p>Panama was at that time one of the largest and
+wealthiest cities in America. It contained some
+seven thousand houses, one-third the number being
+large and handsome dwellings, many of them
+strongly built of stone and richly furnished. Walls
+surrounded the city, which was well prepared for
+defence. It was the emporium for the precious
+metals of Peru and Mexico, two thousand mules
+being kept for the transportation of those rich ores.
+It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves,
+for the supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants<pb n="153" /><anchor id="Pg153" />
+of the place lived in great opulence and the churches
+were magnificently adorned, the chief among them
+being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings
+and other costly works of art ornamented the principal
+dwellings, and everything concurred to add
+to the importance and beauty of the place.</p>
+
+<p>A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his
+men near enough to Panama to behold the distant
+sea from the top of a high tree. But he had contented
+himself with waylaying and plundering a
+mule-train laden with treasure, and in 1670 it
+seemed the act of madness for a horde of freebooters
+to attack the city itself. Yet this was
+what the daring Morgan designed to do.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing to be done was to capture Fort
+St. Laurent, a strong place on an almost inaccessible
+hill, near the banks of the Chagres River.
+Four ships, with four hundred men, were sent
+against this fort, which was vigorously defended
+by its garrison, but was taken at length by the expedient
+of firing the palisades and buildings of the
+fort&mdash;composed of light wood&mdash;by means of burning
+arrows. The assailants suffered heavily, losing
+more than half their force, while of the garrison
+only twenty-four were taken, many of the others
+having leaped from the walls into the river, preferring
+death to capture by their ferocious foes.
+From the prisoners it was learned that the people
+of Panama were not ignorant of Morgan's purpose,
+and that the threatened city was defended by more
+than three thousand men.</p>
+
+<pb n="154" /><anchor id="Pg154" />
+
+<p>As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the
+freebooters, seeing the English flag flying on the
+fort, manifested their joy by the depths of their
+potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed
+to run four of the ships on the rocks at the
+mouth of the Chagres, among them the admiral's
+ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the
+vessels were total wrecks, much to Morgan's chagrin.</p>
+
+<p>At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the
+march on Panama actually began, with a force of
+thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being
+left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty
+to seize some Spanish vessels that were in the river.
+The means of conveyance being limited, and the
+need of marching light important, a very small
+supply of provisions was taken, it being expected
+to find an abundance on the route. But in this
+the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards
+fleeing with all their cattle and cutting all the growing
+grain, so that the buccaneers soon found themselves
+almost destitute of supplies.</p>
+
+<p>The journey was made in boats up the river as
+far as practicable, five small vessels carrying the
+artillery. At the end of the second day most of
+the men were forced to abandon the boats and
+prosecute their journey on foot. On the third day
+they found themselves in a marshy forest, which
+they traversed with difficulty and reached the town
+of Cedro Bueno. Here they had hoped to find food,
+but the place was deserted and not a scrap of provisions
+left.</p>
+
+<pb n="155" /><anchor id="Pg155" />
+
+<p>The affair was now growing very serious, all their
+food having been consumed and they left in imminent
+danger of starvation. Many of them were
+reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity.
+They found themselves also benumbed
+with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on
+the chilly river-bank. During the next day their
+route followed the stream, the canoes being dragged
+along, or rowed where the water was of sufficient
+depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food
+from the country before them, the only things they
+found being some large sacks of hides. These, in
+their extremity, were used as food, the leather being
+scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it
+was roasted. Even then it could not be swallowed
+without the aid of copious draughts of water.</p>
+
+<p>Only the courage and determination of the chiefs
+induced the men to go on under such severe privations.
+The fifth day's journey ended as badly as
+the previous ones, the only food found being a little
+flour, fruit, and wine, so small in quantity that
+Morgan had it distributed among the weaker members
+of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to
+seem on the point of death. For the rest of the
+men there was nothing to eat but leaves and the
+grass of the meadows.</p>
+
+<p>The feebler men were now put on board the
+boats, the stronger continuing to travel by land,
+but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account
+of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed,
+as if the expedition would have to be abandoned,
+<pb n="156" /><anchor id="Pg156" />when, to their delirious joy, they found a great
+supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some
+oversight had abandoned in a granary. Many of
+them, in their starving condition, devoured this
+grain raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana
+leaves. The supply was soon exhausted, but for a
+time it gave new vigor to the famished men.</p>
+
+<p>On the following day all the food they found was
+a sack of bread and some cats and dogs, all of which
+were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the
+town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the
+Chagres, a number of vessels of wine were discovered.
+This they hastily drank, with the result
+that all the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were
+poisoned. Their illness, however, was merely the
+natural effect of hasty drinking in their exhausted
+state, and soon left them.</p>
+
+<p>At this point a number of the men were sent
+back with the boats to where the ships had been
+left, the force that continued the march amounting
+to eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded,
+the principal adventure being an attack
+by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders
+with much valor, only retreating when their
+chief was killed.</p>
+
+<p>About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended,
+from whose summit, to their delight, the
+buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what
+gave them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley
+below them, a great herd of bulls, cows, horses,
+and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who
+<pb n="157" /><anchor id="Pg157" />took to flight the moment they saw the formidable
+force of invaders. Only an utter lack of judgment,
+or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could
+have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly
+starved foes. It was an oversight which was to
+prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack
+instead of to feed their ruthless enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue,
+gained new strength at the sight of the welcome
+herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down
+and killed a large number of them, devouring the
+raw flesh with such a fury of hunger that the
+blood ran in streams from their lips. What could
+not be eaten was taken away to serve for a future
+supply. As yet Panama had not been seen, but
+soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant
+towers. The vision was hailed with the blare of
+trumpets and shouts of "victory!" and the buccaneers
+encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the
+city the next day.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A
+troop of fifty horsemen was sent to reconnoitre,
+and a second detachment occupied the passes, to
+prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat.
+But the freebooters were not disturbed in their
+camp, and were allowed a quiet night's rest after
+their abundant meal of raw flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The next day Morgan led his men against the
+city, skilfully avoiding the main road, which was
+defended by batteries, and passing through a thick
+and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking
+<pb n="158" /><anchor id="Pg158" />march brought them in sight of the Spanish forces,
+which were very numerous, consisting of four regiments
+of the line and nearly three thousand other
+soldiers. They had with them also a great herd of
+wild bulls under the charge of Indians and negroes,
+from which much was hoped in the assault.</p>
+
+<p>Morgan and his men were much discouraged by
+the multitude and military array of their foes, but
+nothing remained for them but a desperate fight,
+and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in
+front, they descended to the broad plain on which
+the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner
+reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while
+the bulls were driven tumultuously upon them.</p>
+
+<p>This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous
+failure. The horsemen found themselves in marshy
+ground, where they were exposed to a hot and
+well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before
+they could effect a retreat. The charge of the
+bulls, on which so much reliance had been placed,
+proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the
+freebooters advanced, firing rapidly and with an
+accuracy of aim that soon strewed the ground with
+the dead.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous
+charge, now turned the bulls against the rear of
+their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers
+and knew well how to act against such a
+foe, driving them off with shouts and the waving
+of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In
+the end, after a battle of two hours' duration, the
+<pb n="159" /><anchor id="Pg159" />Spaniards, despite their great superiority of numbers,
+were utterly defeated, a great many being
+killed on the field and others in the panic of
+flight.</p>
+
+<p>But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama,
+a city defended by walls and forts, remained to be
+taken. Morgan knew that success depended on
+taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy,
+and he advanced without delay against the town.
+It was strongly defended with artillery, but the
+impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all
+before it, and after a three hours' fight the city was
+in their hands.</p>
+
+<p>The scenes that followed were marked by the
+most atrocious ferocity and vandalism. The city
+was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by
+outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on
+fire by Morgan's orders and burned to the ground,
+much of its great wealth being utterly consumed
+through the sheer instinct of destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority
+of them had sought safety in flight, taking
+their women and all their portable wealth. In
+pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan
+sent out a well-manned ship, which returned after a
+two days' cruise with three prizes. It also brought
+back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with
+treasure in gold and silver and carrying away the
+principal women of the town, with their jewels,
+had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended
+and for days Morgan made strenuous efforts to
+<pb n="160" /><anchor id="Pg160" />discover and capture it, but fortunately this rich
+prize eluded his grasp.</p>
+
+<p>For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site
+of the burned city, many of them engaged in
+searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some,
+who were discontented with the acts of their leader,
+conspired to seize the largest ship in the harbor
+and start on a piratical cruise of their own down
+the Pacific. This coming to Morgan's ears on the
+eve of its execution, he defeated it by causing the
+main-mast of the ship to be cut down, and afterwards
+by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor.</p>
+
+<p>The return of the freebooters had its items of
+interest. The booty, consisting of gold, silver, and
+jewels, was laden on a large number of animals,
+beside which disconsolately walked six hundred
+prisoners, men, women, and children, Morgan refusing
+them their liberty except on payment of a
+ransom which they could not procure. Some of
+them succeeded in obtaining the ransom on the
+march, but the majority were taken to Chagres.
+From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello,
+a neighboring coast town, Morgan threatening that
+place with destruction unless a heavy ransom was
+sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not
+a half-penny would be paid, and that he might do
+what he pleased. What he pleased to do was to
+carry out his threat of destroying the town.</p>
+
+<p>The final outcome of this frightful raid remains
+to be told. It demonstrated that Morgan was as
+faithless to his companions as he was ferocious to
+<pb n="161" /><anchor id="Pg161" />his victims. On their way back from Panama he
+ordered that every man should be searched and
+every article they had secreted be added to the
+general store. To induce them to consent he offered
+himself to be searched first. In the final division,
+however, of the spoil, which was valued at four hundred
+and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds
+weight of silver, he played the part of a traitor,
+many of the most precious articles disappearing
+from the store and the bulk of the precious stones
+especially being added by Morgan to his share.</p>
+
+<p>This and other acts of the leader created such a
+hostile feeling among the men that a mutiny was
+imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail
+with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders
+had shared with him in the unequal division
+of the spoil. The fury of the remaining freebooters,
+on finding that they had been abandoned,
+was extreme, and they determined to pursue and
+attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack of
+provisions prevented them from carrying this into
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to
+the comfort of the freebooting fraternity. An English
+ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica with orders
+to bring home the governor to answer for the protection
+he had given "these bloodthirsty and plundering
+rascals," while the governor who succeeded
+him issued the severest orders against any future
+operations of the freebooters.</p>
+
+<p>From this time Morgan withdrew from his career
+<pb n="162" /><anchor id="Pg162" />of robbery, content to enjoy the wealth which he
+had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He
+settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy
+in security his ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British
+government showed its real sentiment concerning
+his career by promoting him to high offices and
+giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result
+this faithless and cruel pirate bore during the remainder
+of his life the distinction of being addressed
+as Sir Henry Morgan.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="163" /><anchor id="Pg163" />
+<head>A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE</head>
+
+<p>A famous story of American history is that which
+tells of the massacre of the French settlers in Florida
+by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of the
+signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French
+chevalier Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel
+tale to tell about Brazil, not so full of the element
+of romance, yet for all that an interesting
+story and well worth the telling.</p>
+
+<p>The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many
+of the Spanish colonies, was open to the attacks of
+buccaneers and of free lances of the seas bearing
+the flags of various countries of Europe. There
+was not an important port of the country, except
+its capital, Rio Janeiro, that escaped attack by hostile
+fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth
+century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was
+made the victim of assault. A city of over twelve
+thousand people, and the gateway to a rich gold-mining
+country in the rear, its wealth invited a
+visit from the prize-seekers, though the strength
+of its population and garrison long kept these
+away. Its turn for assault came in 1710.</p>
+
+<p>In that year a squadron appeared in the waters
+outside the harbor on which the people looked with
+doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard<pb n="164" /><anchor id="Pg164" />
+had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In
+fact, it was commanded by a daring Frenchman
+named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But
+a look at the strong defences of the harbor entrance,
+and some exchange of shots, warned him of the perils
+that would attend an attempt to pass them by force,
+and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down
+the coast, where he landed a party of a thousand
+marines.</p>
+
+<p>His design to attack the city with this small
+party seemed folly. The governor, Francisco de
+Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese
+troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and
+several hundred Indian bowmen. But he lacked
+the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc's marines
+marched like so many buccaneers through the
+forest for seven days without meeting a foeman.
+Even when near the city the only enemies in sight
+were a handful of men led by a friar, who attacked
+them boldly in defence of his church. After capturing
+this, the daring French charged into the city
+in the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding
+hills, to which the governor's troops had
+been withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>The very boldness of the assault, and the failure
+of the governor to guard the streets with troops,
+nearly led to success. Little resistance was made
+by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed
+the narrow streets until the central square
+was reached. Here they met their first check
+from a party of fifty students, who had entered the<pb n="165" /><anchor id="Pg165" />
+palace of the governor and fired upon them from
+the windows. The first French assailants who
+forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied
+to the furniture. In the custom-house adjoining
+was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was
+hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a
+lighted match approached and carelessly set fire to
+the powder. In a moment the building was blown
+into the air, and the palace, which the French were
+still assailing, was set on fire.</p>
+
+<p>The people were now rising, and the several detachments
+into which the attacking force had divided
+found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc,
+at the head of the main body, after losing heavily,
+barricaded himself in a stone warehouse on the
+quay, round which his foes gathered thickly.
+While there the bells of the city rang out merrily,
+a sound which he fancied to be made by his own
+men, who he thought were thus celebrating their
+victory. In reality it signified the victory of the
+Portuguese, who had fallen upon, defeated, and
+slaughtered one of his detachments. A second
+detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder
+the magazine, was set upon by the rabble and
+completely butchered. Duclerc's defence soon grew
+hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion.
+The Portuguese sullied their victory by
+acts of cruel reprisal, many of the prisoners in
+their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven
+hundred of the French were killed and wounded.
+Six hundred, including the wounded, were taken<pb n="166" /><anchor id="Pg166" />
+prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment
+in the prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months
+after being taken. Soon after the fight the
+squadron appeared off the port, where its officers,
+learning of the loss of the assailants, squared their
+yards and sailed away for France. Thus ended the
+first act in our tragedy of plunder.</p>
+
+<p>The second act was one of revenge. In France
+was found a second Dominique de Gourgues to call
+to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen.
+France, indeed, was in a fury throughout
+when the news came of the inhuman slaughter of
+its citizens. The man who played the part of De
+Gourgues was a distinguished and able naval officer
+named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was moved by a
+double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope
+for plunder was an equally inspiring force. And
+the fame that might come to him with victory
+added still another motive. The path was made
+easy for him, for the government gave its approval
+to his enterprise, and certain wealthy citizens of
+St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to
+fit out the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>It was important to keep the affair secret, and
+the vessels were fitted out at different ports to
+avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual
+number of war-vessels were being got ready was
+soon afloat and reached Portugal, where its purpose
+was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and war-vessels
+was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements
+for Rio. The suspicion reached England, also,<pb n="167" /><anchor id="Pg167" />
+and that country, then on the side of Portugal,
+sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels
+of the expedition then lay, and prevent its
+sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not the man to be
+caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port
+before they were quite ready, leaving the British
+an empty harbor to seal up. The work of preparation
+was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet
+sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle
+ships, their number of guns varying from seventy-four
+to fifty-six, six frigates, and four smaller
+vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,&mdash;a
+formidable force to send against a colonial city.</p>
+
+<p>The powerful fleet made its way safely over the
+sea, and reached the vicinity of the northern Brazilian
+port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had
+some thought of beginning his work here, but his
+water-supply was getting low and he felt obliged to
+hasten on. On the 11th of September he found
+himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the
+city and its environing hills in full view.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet
+from Lisbon having arrived, giving warning of the
+danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts
+and eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed
+harbor, within which lay four ships-of-the-line and
+as many frigates. Had all this force been directed
+by a man of ability the French might have found
+entrance to the bay impossible. But Francisco de
+Castro, the hopeless governor of the year before,
+was still at the head of affairs, and no man could<pb n="168" /><anchor id="Pg168" />
+have played more thoroughly into the hands of the
+French.</p>
+
+<p>As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A
+heavy fog descended, under cover of which the fleet
+ran with little damage past the forts and entered
+the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese
+were dismayed to see their foes inside. Gaspar da
+Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known as an
+able commander, but he was old and in feeble health,
+and such a panic now assailed him that he ran his
+ships in haste ashore and set fire to them, leaving
+to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor.
+Admiral Trouin had won the first move in the game.</p>
+
+<p>Governor de Castro proved to be as completely
+demoralized as Admiral da Costa. He had twice
+as many troops as the French, but not half the
+courage and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon,
+one of the chief defences, was blown up
+by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during
+the state of panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed
+about four thousand men, erecting a battery on an
+island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying
+a range of hills to the left which gave him
+command of that section of the place. The governor
+with his troops looked on from a distance
+while the French pillaged the adjoining suburb,
+destitute of tactics that any one could discover
+unless he proposed to let the French enter the
+streets and then attack them from the houses.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this way they had been defeated the
+year before, but Trouin was too old a soldier to<pb n="169" /><anchor id="Pg169" />
+be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries
+on the surrounding hill-slopes till the town was
+commanded on three sides, while the governor kept
+the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no
+one knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with
+scarcely a blow in defence, to make himself master
+of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns
+in place to be able to batter the town to the dust.</p>
+
+<p>He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender,
+saying that he had been sent by the king
+of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc
+and the inhuman slaughter of his men. De
+Castro answered that his duty to his king would not
+permit him to surrender, and sought to show that
+the French had been honorably killed in battle and
+Duclerc murdered by an assassin beyond his control.</p>
+
+<p>A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved,
+and the French were permitted to go on with their
+works almost unmolested, the Portuguese occupying
+hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the
+enemy. Trouin had already begun the bombardment
+of the city, and on receiving the governor's
+answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the
+same time there raged a tropical storm of great
+violence, accompanied by thunders that drowned
+the roar of the guns, the frightful combination
+throwing the people into such a state that they all
+fled in blind terror, the troops in the town with
+them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to
+launch his storming parties, word was brought him
+that the city was deserted and lay at his mercy.<pb n="170" /><anchor id="Pg170" />
+Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire
+by the governor's order, but otherwise the rich city
+was abandoned, with all its wealth, to the French.</p>
+
+<p>Of the relics of Duclerc's force, about five hundred
+remained alive in the city. These do not
+seem to have been then in prison, but living at large,
+and they were already abroad and plundering the
+abandoned city when the French forces entered.
+They had met good treatment as well as bad.
+Some of the people had been kind and hospitable
+to them, and in the sack of the city that ensued
+the houses of these charitable citizens were marked
+and left untouched.</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise the sack was general, houses and
+warehouses being broken open, and quantities of
+valuable goods which could not be taken off being
+thrown into the mud of the streets. Now was the
+opportunity for the Portuguese to attack. Trouin
+was aware of the danger, but was unable to control
+his men, and a sudden assault by the garrison might
+have proved disastrous to the French. But the
+opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in
+fact, surrendering all his forts and marching his
+troops a league from the city, where he lay waiting
+reinforcements from the interior while the French
+plundered at their leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Trouin was wise enough to know that his position
+was perilous. He might be overwhelmed by numbers,
+and it was important to finish his work and
+get away with little delay. But the plunder of the
+city was not sufficient for his purpose, and he sent<pb n="171" /><anchor id="Pg171" />
+word to the governor that he must ransom it or it
+would be burned. To make his word good he began
+by setting fire to the environs.</p>
+
+<p>De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any
+price, offered six hundred thousand <hi rend="font-style: italic">cruzadoes</hi>. This
+was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the governor to
+a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through
+the city and showed him that he was spoiling everything
+that fire would not burn. Learning, however,
+that the expected reinforcements might soon
+arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to
+the front of the Portuguese camp, where he began
+to negotiate for better terms. The only addition
+De Castro would agree to was to promise the French
+a supply of cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed
+to collect the ransom.</p>
+
+<p>Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to
+waste, accepted the terms, and none too soon, for
+shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements,
+led by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp.
+They came too late, the treaty had been made, and
+the new general felt bound in honor to make it good.
+So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November
+the triumphant French set sail, their ships
+deep laden with the rich plunder of the Brazilian
+capital and the gold of the governor's ransom.</p>
+
+<p>The return home was not attended with the success
+of the earlier part of the expedition. Trouin
+had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his
+return, but when he came near it the weather was
+so stormy that he was obliged to abandon this part<pb n="172" /><anchor id="Pg172" />
+of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on its
+way across the seas, and rose to such a height that
+two of his ships went to the bottom, carrying down
+twelve hundred men. One of these was the finest
+ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been
+laden with the most valuable booty. Of gold and
+silver alone it took down with it a weight valued
+at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel
+went ashore and was wrecked at Cayenne. Yet
+with all these losses, so much wealth was brought
+home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of
+ninety-two per cent. on their investment.</p>
+
+<p>The French had won in large measure revenge
+and plunder, while Trouin had gained his meed of
+fame. It was now Portugal's time for vengeance,
+and it was visited principally on the worthless governor
+to whose cowardice the disaster was due. He
+had been praised and rewarded for the victory over
+Duclerc' s expedition&mdash;praise and reward which he
+certainly did not deserve. For very similar conduct
+he was now deposed and sentenced to degradation
+and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge
+of cowardice and lack of judgment. His nephew
+was banished for life for bad conduct, and a captain
+who had given up his fort and fled was hung in
+effigy. There were no others to punish, and Portugal
+was obliged to hold its hand, France being a foe
+beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible
+misfortune, from which it took many years to
+recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds of a
+murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="173" /><anchor id="Pg173" />
+<head>THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS</head>
+
+<p>The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon
+to the Black Sea, is one of the famous events of
+history. The march of the three hundred, from
+the Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to
+tell, is scarcely known to history at all, yet it was
+marked by a courage and command of resources
+as great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think
+our readers will agree with us when they read this
+story, taken from the records of the freebooters on
+the Spanish Main.</p>
+
+<p>After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the
+Atlantic coasts, various fleets of these piratical adventurers
+sought the Pacific waters in 1685, and
+there for several years made life scarce worth living
+to the inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities.
+Time and again these were plundered of their
+wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a
+veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went
+on, however, most of these freebooters withdrew,
+satisfied with their abundant gains, so that, by the
+end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and
+these were eager to return with their ill-gotten
+wealth to their native land.</p>
+
+<p>This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than
+three hundred in number, had their head-quarters<pb n="174" /><anchor id="Pg174" />
+on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the Central
+American coast. What vessels they had left were
+in a wretched condition, utterly unfit to attempt
+the vast sea voyage by way of the Straits of Magellan,
+and nothing seemed to remain for them but
+an attempt to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua
+and Honduras, fighting their way through a
+multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau
+de Lussan, one of the adventurers, we are indebted
+for the narrative of the singular and interesting
+adventure which follows.</p>
+
+<p>The daring band of French and English freebooters
+were very ill provided for the dangerous
+enterprise they had in view. They proposed to
+cross an unknown country without guides and with
+a meagre supply of provisions, fighting as they went
+and conveying their sick and wounded as best they
+could. They had also a number of prisoners whom
+they felt it necessary to take with them, since to
+set them free would be to divulge their weakness
+to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed
+to combine against them, yet if they ever wished
+to see their native lands again they must face every
+danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might
+escape to enjoy their spoils.</p>
+
+<p>After questioning their prisoners, they decided
+to take a route by way of the city of New Segovia,
+which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about
+one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and
+seventy-five miles from the waters of a river that
+flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic opposite<pb n="175" /><anchor id="Pg175" />
+Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further
+information about the route, sixty men were sent
+to explore the neighboring country. These advanced
+till they were near the small city of Chiloteca.
+Here, worn out by their journey and learning
+that they were in a thickly settled country,
+most of the pioneers decided to return. But
+eighteen of the bolder spirits had the audacity to
+advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and
+so terrific a fusillade of shots that the frightened
+inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled in mortal
+terror, leaving the place to its captors. These
+quickly seized a number of horses, and made haste
+to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued by the
+Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful
+of men they had surrendered their city.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters
+determined on the desperate venture. They
+had little to convey except their spoil, which, the
+result of numerous raids, was valued at about one
+million dollars. It chiefly consisted of gold and
+jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver, being left
+in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The
+spoil was very unequally owned, since the gambling
+which had gone on actively among them had greatly
+varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome
+the anger and jealousy which this created
+among the poorer, those with much to carry shared
+their portions among their companions, with the<pb n="176" /><anchor id="Pg176" />
+understanding that, if they reached the Antilles in
+safety, half of it should be returned. As for the
+prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and
+make use of them for carrying the utensils, provisions,
+and sick.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters,
+two hundred and eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight
+horses, crossed in boats from their island
+refuge to the main-land and began their march.
+Their ships had been first destroyed, their cannon
+cast into the sea, and their bulkier effects burned.
+Divided into four companies, with forty men in
+front as an advance guard, they moved forward
+into a land of adventure and peril.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon found that the people expected and
+had prepared for their coming. Trees had been
+felled across the roads and efforts made to obstruct
+all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried
+away, and the dry herbage of the fields was
+set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating
+them with the heat and smoke. This was done to
+hinder their march until the Spaniards had completed
+a strong intrenchment which was being built
+at a suitable place on the route.</p>
+
+<p>Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the
+eighth day of their march they fell into one of
+these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards
+lay concealed on the ground and fired into their
+ranks. Though these were dispersed by a fierce
+charge, they followed the freebooters closely, annoying
+them from the shelter of woods and thickets.<pb n="177" /><anchor id="Pg177" />
+The next day a still larger ambuscade was laid,
+which, fortunately for the freebooters, was discovered
+and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards
+leaving their horses behind.</p>
+
+<p>Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here
+the buccaneers expected a severe engagement, and
+hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both
+they were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped,
+carrying all food with them. Their prisoners, who
+had served them as guides to this point, knew
+nothing of the country beyond, but they succeeded
+in taking a new prisoner who was familiar with the
+further route.</p>
+
+<p>The country they were passing through was
+mountainous and very difficult. Steep acclivities
+had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the
+borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid
+slopes to be descended. The nights were bitterly
+cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs,
+and their whole route was attended with danger,
+discomfort, and fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all
+sides by mountains, one of which had to be ascended
+immediately on leaving the town. The
+next day's dawn found them on its summit, with a
+valley far below them, in which, to their joy, they
+beheld a large number of animals which they took
+to be oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however,
+when the scouts they sent out came back with the
+information that these animals were horses, saddled
+and bridled, and that a series of formidable<pb n="178" /><anchor id="Pg178" />
+intrenchments had been built in the valley, rising
+like terraces, one above another, and carried to the
+mountains on each side, so as completely to close
+the route.</p>
+
+<p>There seemed no way to avoid these defences.
+On one side of the mountain flowed a river. A
+small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded
+the only passage which the freebooters
+could follow. The whole country round was thick
+forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not
+the slightest indication of a path could be seen.
+Yet to attack those works in front promised quick
+and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction
+they must find some way to outwit their
+foes. It was decided that the forest presented less
+dangers and difficulties than the fortified road, and
+that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement
+which would lead them to the rear of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>During that day active preparations were made
+for the proposed movement. The three hundred
+Spaniards who had ambushed them some days
+before still hung upon their rear. Their horses,
+sick, and prisoners were therefore left in an enclosed
+camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and
+guarded by eighty of their number. As a means
+of impressing the enemy with their numbers and
+alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated
+at intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the
+sentinels with a great noise, and varied these signs
+of activity with cries and occasional discharges of
+musketry.</p>
+
+<pb n="179" /><anchor id="Pg179" />
+
+<p>Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended,
+the remainder of the freebooters, some two
+hundred in number, began their march, following
+the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine
+the forest. The difficulties of that night journey
+through the dense wood proved very great,
+there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend,
+and this needed to be done with as little noise
+as possible. Daybreak found the adventurers on a
+mountain elevation, from which they could see the
+Spanish intrenchments below them on the left. The
+greatest of their impediments had been surmounted,
+but there were difficulties still to be overcome.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the
+morning light, which, while it rendered their downward
+passage critical, served to conceal them from
+the enemy below. As they came near the works
+the heavy tread of a patrol guided them in their
+course, and the morning prayers of the Spaniards
+were of still more advantage in indicating their
+distance and position. The freebooting band had
+reached the rear of the hostile army, composed of
+five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise
+on seeing their ferocious enemy rushing upon them
+with shouts and volleys, from this unlooked-for
+quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence.</p>
+
+<p>The other Spaniards behaved more courageously,
+but the appearance of the buccaneers within the
+works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them
+of spirit, and after an hour's fight they, too, broke<pb n="180" /><anchor id="Pg180" />
+and fled. The trees they had felled to obstruct the
+road now contributed to their utter defeat, and
+they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an
+attempt at resistance. We can scarcely credit the
+testimony of the freebooters, however, that their
+sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The
+success of the advance party was equalled by that
+of the guard of armed men left in the camp, who,
+after some negotiations with the troop of Spaniards
+in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and
+dispersed all who were not cut down.</p>
+
+<p>That the freebooters were as much surprised as
+gratified by the signal success of their stratagem
+need scarcely be said. One of the panics which
+are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them
+from threatened annihilation. They learned, however,
+the disquieting fact that six miles farther on
+was another strong intrenchment which could not
+be avoided, the country permitting no choice of
+roads. In their situation there was nothing to do
+but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately
+for them their remarkable success spread such terror
+before it that, when they appeared before these
+new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but
+remained quietly behind their breastworks while
+their dreaded foes marched past.</p>
+
+<p>The seventeenth day of their march carried them
+to the banks of the river towards which their route
+had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream
+which rises in the mountains near New Segovia
+and flows through a difficult rock channel, with<pb n="181" /><anchor id="Pg181" />
+numerous cascades, three of them amounting to
+cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after
+a course of several hundred miles.</p>
+
+<p>How they were to descend this mountain torrent
+was the question which now offered itself to them.
+It presented a more attractive route of travel than
+the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was
+marked by difficulties of a formidable character.
+These were overcome by the freebooters in an extraordinary
+manner, one almost or quite without
+parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they
+adopted was certainly of curious interest.</p>
+
+<p>Before them was a large and rapid river, its current
+impeded by a multitude of rocks and broken
+by rapids and cascades. They were destitute of
+ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any
+ordinary kind of boats would have been of no use
+to them in such a stream. It occurred to them
+that what they needed to navigate a river of this
+character was something of the nature of large
+baskets or tuns, in which they might float enclosed
+to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact
+with the rocks by the aid of poles.</p>
+
+<p>They had no models for such floating contrivances,
+and were obliged to invent them. Near
+the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied
+them abundantly with young trees, of light wood.
+These they cut down, stripped off their bark, collected
+them by fives, and, lacking ropes, fastened
+them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of
+gum which the forest provided. A large number<pb n="182" /><anchor id="Pg182" />
+of small, frail, basket-like contrivances were thus
+made, each large enough to carry two men, with
+whom they would sink in the water as deep as the
+waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but his description
+does not make it clear just what they
+were like.</p>
+
+<p>While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part
+of their horses, and salted their flesh for food, all
+the work being done with the energy and activity
+necessary in their critical situation. During it
+they were not molested by the Spaniards, but no
+one could tell how soon they might be. When all
+was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty
+of which they had long been deprived, and
+entered upon one of the most perilous examples of
+navigation that can well be imagined.</p>
+
+<p>Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found
+themselves tossed about by the impetuous current,
+and speedily covered with spray. The lightness of
+their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but
+the energetic efforts they were obliged to make to
+keep from being thrown out or dashed on the rocks
+soon exhausted them. A short experience taught
+them the necessity of fastening themselves in the
+piperies, so that their hands might be free to keep
+them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally
+their frail crafts were overturned or buried under
+the waves in the swift rapids, and the inmates were
+either drowned or escaped by abandoning the treasures
+which weighed them down.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever else may be said of this method of<pb n="183" /><anchor id="Pg183" />
+navigation, it proved a rapid one, the frail barks
+being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of
+the cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water,
+and here it became necessary to swim to the shore
+and descend the rocks to the bottom of the fall.
+Some who remained behind threw the piperies into
+the stream to be carried over the liquid precipice,
+and recovered by swimming out to meet them, or
+replaced by new ones when lost.</p>
+
+<p>After three days of this singular navigation it
+was decided, in view of the fact that the piperies
+were often dashed together to their mutual injury,
+to separate and keep at a distance from each other,
+those who went first marking out by small flags
+where it was necessary to land. During their
+progress the question of food again became prominent,
+the salted horsemeat they had brought with
+them being spoiled by its frequent wetting. Game
+was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and
+the only food to be found was the fruit of the
+banana-tree, which grew abundantly on the banks.</p>
+
+<p>The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by
+the danger of their situation. They made the most
+earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil, and some
+of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to
+gain the wealth of their richer comrades. The
+dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and six conspiring
+Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked
+and killed five Englishmen who were known
+to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies, they
+took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses<pb n="184" /><anchor id="Pg184" />
+on the bank. Those who saw them had no time to
+think of avenging them.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and
+its course less impetuous. The cascades were all
+passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating
+or anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies
+were overturned and their occupants drowned.
+To avoid this danger the piperies were now abandoned
+and the freebooters divided themselves into
+detachments and began to build large canoes from
+the forest trees. Four of these, carrying one hundred
+and thirty men, were soon ready and their
+builders again took to the stream. Of the fate of
+the others, who remained behind, no further account
+is given by the historian of this adventure.</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure
+from the Pacific, the adventurers reached
+the river's mouth, having completed their remarkable
+feat of crossing the continent in the face of the
+most threatening perils from man and nature. But
+fortune only partly favored them, for many had
+lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their
+career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags
+about their limbs. Some, indeed, had been more
+fortunate or more adroit in their singular navigation,
+but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and
+miserable party when, a few days afterwards, they
+reached the isle of Perlas. Here were some friendly
+vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end
+of April they reached the West Indies, with the
+little that remained of their plunder.</p>
+
+<pb n="185" /><anchor id="Pg185" />
+
+<p>Such was the end of this remarkable achievement,
+one which for boldness, intrepidity, and
+skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals
+of history, and which, if performed by men of
+note, instead of by an obscure band of robbers,
+would have won for them a high meed of fame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="186" /><anchor id="Pg186" />
+<head>THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.</head>
+
+<p>Never were a people more terribly treated than
+the natives of America under the Spanish adventurers.
+The often told story that the Indians of
+Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after
+the settlement of that island is sufficient evidence
+of the frightfully inhuman treatment to which they
+were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for
+justice and humanity in the dealings with the Indians,
+but the settlers, thousands of miles away,
+paid no attention to these laws, and the red men
+were almost everywhere reduced to slavery, or
+where free and given political rights, were looked
+upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district
+Spain placed an official called the "Protector of the
+Indians," but it does not appear that they were
+much the better off for their "Protectors." It is
+our purpose here to say something about the cruel
+treatment of the natives in South America.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image12.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied
+to their dealings with the Indians, the <hi rend="font-style: italic">encomiendo</hi>,
+the <hi rend="font-style: italic">mitad</hi>, and the <hi rend="font-style: italic">repartimiento</hi>, each indicating
+a form of injustice. The conquerors divided
+the country between them, and the <hi rend="font-style: italic">encomiendos</hi> were
+rights granted them to hold the Indians for a number
+of years as workers in their fields or their<pb n="187" /><anchor id="Pg187" />
+mines. Under these grants, the natives were converted
+into beasts of burden, and forced to do the
+hardest work without the least compensation. They
+were obliged to labor all day long under the burning
+tropical sun, to dive into the sea in search of pearls
+for their masters, or to toil buried from the light
+of day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising
+that these miserable slaves, accustomed to a
+life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed to
+a killing plague.</p>
+
+<p>The <hi rend="font-style: italic">mitad</hi> was a law formed for their protection,
+but it soon became one of the worst of the abuses.
+Under it every man from the age of eighteen to
+fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives
+of each mining colony of South America being
+divided into seven sections, each of which had to
+work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner
+could demand the number of Indians he needed.
+In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were worked,
+and labor of this kind was in constant demand.</p>
+
+<p>As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need
+only say that when any man was called upon to
+work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence
+of death. Before going he gave all his possessions
+to his relatives, and they went through the funeral
+service, as if he were already dead. They well knew
+the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was
+said for him at the church, and he had to take an oath
+of fidelity to the king. Then he was sprinkled with
+holy water and sent away to his deadly service.
+Deadly we may well call it, for it is said that<pb n="188" /><anchor id="Pg188" />
+scarcely a fifth part of these miners lived through
+their term of labor.</p>
+
+<p>Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep
+underground shafts and galleries, and passing from
+the pure air of heaven to a pestilential atmosphere,
+excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of
+strength and often of life. If they survived this,
+a species of asthma usually carried them off during
+the year. We may judge of the results from the
+calculation that the <hi rend="font-style: italic">mitad</hi> in Peru alone had eight
+million victims.</p>
+
+<p>The law limited the <hi rend="font-style: italic">mitad</hi> to those living within
+thirty miles of a mine, but laborers were often
+brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As
+for the small wages paid them, the masters took
+part of it from them in payment for their food, and
+usually got the remainder by giving credit for
+clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by
+good fortune the Indian had not lost his life at the
+end of his term of service, he might be brought
+into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a
+slave for life.</p>
+
+<p>The <hi rend="font-style: italic">repartimiento</hi> was another protective law,
+which also became a means of oppression. Under
+it the district officials were required to supply all
+things needed by the Indians, there being, when the
+law was passed, no peddlers or travelling dealers.
+This privilege was quickly and shamelessly abused,
+the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain,
+sour wine, and other inferior supplies, often at three
+or four times their value when of good quality.<pb n="189" /><anchor id="Pg189" />
+They were even made to buy things at high prices
+which were of no possible use to them, such as
+silk stockings for men who went barefoot, and
+razors for those who had scarcely any beard to
+shave. One <hi rend="font-style: italic">corregidor</hi> bought a box of spectacles
+from a trader, and made the natives buy these at his
+own price, to wear when they went to mass, without
+regard to the fact that they were utterly useless
+to them.</p>
+
+<p>The oppression of the natives was not confined to
+the laity, but the clergy were often as unjust. They
+forced them to pay not only the tithes, but extravagant
+prices for every church service, forty
+reals being charged for a baptism, twenty for a
+marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial, etc.
+Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the
+poor Indians, enabled the clergy to build costly
+churches and mission houses and to keep up abundant
+revenues.</p>
+
+<p>These general statements very faintly picture the
+actual state to which the Indians were reduced.
+This may be better shown by some instances of
+their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example,
+of the province of Velez, New Grenada, were
+reduced to such extreme misery by the embezzlement
+of the funds, that whole families flung themselves
+from the top of a rock twelve hundred feet
+high into the river below. One night, in order to
+escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole
+tribes of the Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves,
+preferring death to the horrors of Spanish<pb n="190" /><anchor id="Pg190" />
+rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in
+peril of being enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that
+a quick death was better than a slow one under the
+torture of incessant toil.</p>
+
+<p>In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives
+had come together with the intention of killing
+themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope
+in his hand, and told them that if they did not
+give up their purpose he would hang himself with
+them. This threat filled them with such horror at
+the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit
+world, that they fled from the spot, preferring life
+with all its terrors to such a companion.</p>
+
+<p>As may well be imagined, the natives did not
+all yield resistlessly to their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation
+at the quantity of gold-dust which they
+were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm,
+in the province of Canas, seized the brutal
+Spanish collector one day, and gave him melted gold
+to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst
+for gold."</p>
+
+<p>In December, 1767, the descendants of the two
+tribes which had owned the mining valley of Caravaya
+descended on the white inhabitants in revenge
+for a usurpation of their lands which had
+taken place more than two centuries before. They
+settled the question of ownership by burning the
+city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and
+clubs. When news of this was received by the
+viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece
+of the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru.<pb n="191" /><anchor id="Pg191" />
+He was prevented from carrying out this threat
+only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita Gallegas,
+whom he loved, and who convinced him
+that it was his duty as a Christian to convert them
+to the religion of Christ rather than to massacre
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of
+the persecuted natives. It was especially notable
+as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca
+Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards
+in 1562. This noble Indian, the last of the
+Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in
+Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His
+virtues were such as to gain him the respect and
+esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated
+him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient
+emperors.</p>
+
+<p>One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity
+of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">corregidor</hi> of Tuita, who had laid three <hi rend="font-style: italic">repartimientos</hi>
+on the Indians in a single year, seized the
+tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own
+hands. Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru,
+he proclaimed himself the chief of all
+those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>His error seems to have been in not fraternizing
+with the creoles, or white natives of the country,
+who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the Indians
+themselves. On the contrary he treated these as
+enemies also, and thus greatly augmented the number
+of his foes. The Indians, their memories of
+their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his<pb n="192" /><anchor id="Pg192" />
+ranks in enthusiastic numbers and won several
+victories over the whites, the whole of Upper Peru
+breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as
+they did, they kept up the struggle for a year, the
+outbreak being brought to an end at last by treachery
+instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to
+whom the Spaniards promised a colonel's commission,&mdash;a
+promise they did not keep,&mdash;the Inca
+was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to
+Cuzco, the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here
+he was tried and condemned to death, and executed
+with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with
+horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale
+became known.</p>
+
+<p>Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and
+children, and his brother-in-law, Bastidas, were
+brought before him, their tongues cut out, and then
+put to death by the Spanish method of strangling
+before his eyes. His little son was left alive to
+witness his death. This was one in which the
+most brutal tortures of mediæval times seemed revived.
+His tongue being torn out, his limbs were
+tied to four horses, which were driven in different directions
+with the purpose of tearing him limb from
+limb. The horses proved unable to do this, and he
+remained suspended in agony, until one of the more
+merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by
+cutting off his head. During this revolting scene
+the little son of the victim gave vent to a terrible
+scream of agony, the memory of which haunted
+many of the executioners to their death.</p>
+
+<pb n="193" /><anchor id="Pg193" />
+
+<p>The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the
+rebellious towns, his body was burned to ashes, his
+house was razed, his property confiscated, and his
+family declared infamous forever. One of his
+brothers was sent to Spain and condemned to the
+galleys, in which he remained for thirty years.
+Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to
+overcome the love of liberty in the natives of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>As for the natives themselves, what few privileges
+they had retained were taken from them, their
+meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any
+one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal.
+These severe measures were thought sufficient
+to intimidate the Indians, but they only exasperated
+them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a
+cousin of Amaru, who had escaped capture, and
+another chief named Catari, led them in a campaign
+of revenge in which they fought with the
+fury of despair. The lives of five hundred Spaniards,
+it is said, paid the penalty for each of the
+victims of that dread execution in Cuzco.</p>
+
+<p>Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all
+the white families of the vicinity had taken refuge
+with their treasures. The artillery of the fortifications
+seemed an invulnerable defence against the
+poorly armed besiegers, but Andres succeeded in
+making a breach by turning the mountain streams
+against the walls. Once within, the exasperated
+Indians took a terrible revenge, a single priest
+being, as we are told, the sole survivor of the
+twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards<pb n="194" /><anchor id="Pg194" />
+put down the insurrection by treachery and
+cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres to Ceuta,
+in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820.</p>
+
+<p>We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese
+of Brazil treated the natives of that land with a
+cruelty little less than that shown by the Spaniards,
+sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians
+to serve as slaves. Those who opposed them were
+shot down without mercy, and it is said that, at
+the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants
+infected with the virus of smallpox were sent to the
+Botocudos, as a convenient means of getting rid of
+that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the
+greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared.
+The natives of South America obtained
+justice and honorable treatment only after the people
+of that country had won their liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="195" /><anchor id="Pg195" />
+<head>CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.</head>
+
+<p>When the English conquered the island of Jamaica
+and drove the Spaniards out of it, they failed
+to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had
+been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought
+for and maintained their freedom. Such were the
+Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica,
+whose story is well worth telling.</p>
+
+<p>First we must say something about the history
+of this island, and how it came into English hands.
+It was long held by the Spaniards, being discovered
+by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In
+his last voyage he had a dismal experience there.
+With his vessels battered and ready to sink, after
+running through a severe wind storm, he put into
+the harbor of Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica.
+He afterwards left this for a small bay, still known
+after him as Don Christopher's Cove, and here, attacked
+by the warlike natives, and unable to put to
+sea, he was kept captive in his shattered hulks for
+a whole year.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians refused him food, and the tradition
+goes that he got this at length by a skilful artifice.
+Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon would
+soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief<pb n="196" /><anchor id="Pg196" />
+that the lights in the sky were under his control,
+and if they did not give him supplies he would put
+out the light of the moon and never let it shine
+again on their island. The Indians laughed with
+scorn at this threat, but when they saw the moon
+gradually losing its light and fading into darkness,
+they fell into a panic, and begged him to let it shine
+again, promising to bring him all the food he wanted.
+At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after retiring
+for a time to his cabin, came forth and told
+them that he would consent to bring back the lost
+moonlight. After that the Indians saw that the
+crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his
+crew were finally rescued by an expedition sent from
+Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of
+keeping its old Indian name, signifying a land of
+springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land of
+mountains also; if it had not been we would have
+had no story to tell, for these mountains were the
+haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons. The
+island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after
+the detention of Columbus on its shores. Many
+years after that we find its Spanish settlers oppressing
+all the English that fell into their hands.
+This was the case, in fact, all through the West
+Indies, English seamen being put in the stocks, sent
+to the galleys, or murdered outright.</p>
+
+<p>It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell
+to put an end to these outrages. He sent word to
+the Spanish minister that there must be a stop put<pb n="197" /><anchor id="Pg197" />
+to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction
+of free navigation in the West Indies.
+The minister replied, that to ask for these two
+things was "to ask for his master's two eyes," and
+that no such thing could be allowed. Cromwell's
+reply was to the point:</p>
+
+<p>"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but
+by force, which by the same title may be repelled.
+And as to the first discovery&mdash;to me it seems as little
+reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon
+the coast of India should entitle the king of Spain
+to that country as the sailing of an Indian or English
+ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle
+either the Indians or the English to the dominion
+thereof. The Spaniards have contravented the
+Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable
+when peace is not allowable."</p>
+
+<p>This reply was certainly one marked by sound
+logic and good sense. It was the rule of force, not
+of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in
+America, and this rule could be set aside by superior
+force. So Cromwell sent out a great fleet under
+command of Admiral Penn,&mdash;father of William
+Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,&mdash;with a land
+force commanded by General Venables. The first
+attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here,
+the fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards
+surrendered on the 11th of May, 1655. They tried
+to take it back again shortly before Cromwell's
+death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained
+an English island from that day to this.</p>
+
+<pb n="198" /><anchor id="Pg198" />
+
+<p>This is about all we need say by way of preface,
+except to remark that many settlers were sent to
+Jamaica, and the island soon became well peopled
+and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor,
+coming to be the liveliest city in the West Indies.
+It was known as the wickedest city as well as the
+richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and
+Port Royal, with the sandy slope on which it was
+built, slipped into the sea with all its dwellings,
+warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people,
+the disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment
+from heaven. There is one thing more worth
+mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer,
+whose deeds of shameful cruelty at Panama we
+have described, became afterwards deputy governor
+of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was
+given him by King Charles II. It is not easy to
+know why this was done, unless it be true, as was
+then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his
+bloody deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan,
+as governor, turned hotly upon his former associates,
+and hunted down the buccaneers without
+mercy, hanging and shooting all he could lay hands
+on, until he fairly put an end to the trade which
+had made him rich.</p>
+
+<p>Let us come now to the story of the Maroons,
+that nest of fugitives who made things hot enough
+for the English in Jamaica for many years. When
+Cromwell's soldiers took possession of Jamaica few
+or none of those warlike Indians, who had given
+Columbus so much trouble, were left. In their<pb n="199" /><anchor id="Pg199" />
+place were about two thousand negro slaves, and
+these fled to the mountains, as the Indians had done
+before them. There they remained in freedom,
+though the English did their best to coax them to
+come down and enjoy the blessings of slavery again,
+and though they tried their utmost to drive them
+down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns.
+In spite of all the whites could do, the negroes,
+"Maroons," as they were called, long preserved
+their liberty.</p>
+
+<p>In 1663 the British, finding that they could not
+master the warlike fugitives by force, offered them
+a full pardon, with liberty and twenty acres of land
+apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who
+were masters of the whole mountainous interior,
+where thousands could live in plenty, chose to stay
+where they were and not to trust to the slippery
+faith of the white man. And so it went on until
+after 1730, when the depredations of the negroes
+upon the settlements became so annoying that two
+regiments of British regulars and all the militia of
+the island were sent into the mountains to put them
+down. As it proved, the negroes still held their
+own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and
+very few of them killed. They were decidedly
+masters of the situation.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by
+name, was a dusky dwarf, sable, ugly, and uncouth,
+but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of discounting
+all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian
+he, but a full Pagan, worshipping, with his<pb n="200" /><anchor id="Pg200" />
+followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the deities
+of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in
+the defiles of the John Crow Mountains, was named
+Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two mountain
+streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high
+into a romantic gorge, where their waters met in a
+seething caldron called "Nanny's Pot." Into this,
+as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny could,
+by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued
+them. As for old Cudjoe himself, the English declared
+that he must be in league with the devil,
+whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother.
+And they were not without warrant for this belief,
+for he held his own against them for nine long
+years, at the end of which the Maroons were more
+numerous than at the beginning, since those who
+were killed were more than made up by fresh accessions
+of runaway slaves.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that the British soldiers were no
+match for Cudjoe the dwarf. Retreating warily before
+them, he drew them into many an ambush in
+the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were
+cut down like sheep, the waters of the "Pot" being
+often reddened with their blood. From many of
+the expeditions sent against him only a few weary
+and wounded survivors returned, and it became
+difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into that
+den of death.</p>
+
+<p>At length a British officer succeeded in dragging
+two mountain howitzers up the cliffs to a position
+from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon<pb n="201" /><anchor id="Pg201" />
+stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells,
+hurled from the distant cannon, began to burst
+among them, the Maroons were at first so filled
+with terror that some of them threw themselves
+over the cliffs, but the bulk of them merely scattered
+and let the howitzers do their work among
+empty walls.</p>
+
+<p>Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but
+he was too old a bird to be frightened. "Dis a
+new way de buckra man got to fight," he said.
+"He fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire
+little ones arter you. Dat's berry cunnin', but ole
+Cudjoe know somethin' better un dat."</p>
+
+<p>Leading his men through the woods with the
+stealthy tread and noiseless skill of the American
+Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst
+upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they
+were busy about their guns, delivering a telling
+volley and then rushing upon them with blade and
+axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious
+onset, and the shell-delivering howitzers remained
+in Cudjoe's hands.</p>
+
+<p>Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons
+by the arts of civilized warfare, the British
+were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they
+brought from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians,
+who were fully the equal of the negroes in
+bush fighting. These were launched upon the
+track of the Maroons and soon ran them down in
+their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny Town the
+seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island,<pb n="202" /><anchor id="Pg202" />
+but at length the Maroons, finding their new foes
+fully their match in their own methods, consented
+to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though
+only on the terms that they should retain their full
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town,
+the Maroons being represented by Captains Cudjoe,
+Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and a
+number of their followers, "who have been in a
+state of war and hostility for several years past
+against our sovereign lord the king and the inhabitants
+of this island."</p>
+
+<p>By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to
+retain their liberty forever, to be granted a large
+tract of land in the mountains, and to enjoy full
+freedom of trade with the whites. On their part
+they agreed to keep peace with the whites, to
+return all runaway slaves who should come among
+them, and to aid the whites in putting down the
+rebellion and in fighting any foreign invader.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against
+local outbreaks was put to the test when the fierce
+Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and
+committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons
+joined the whites and seemed very zealous in their
+cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a large
+number of ears, which they said they had cut from
+the heads of rebels killed by them. It afterwards
+was found that the ears had been obtained from the
+negroes who had been slain by the troops and left
+where they fell.</p>
+
+<pb n="203" /><anchor id="Pg203" />
+
+<p>The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795,
+not without outbreaks on their part and depredations
+on the settlements. In the year named two of
+them were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to
+the workhouse and given thirty-nine lashes on the
+bare back. When set free they went home in a
+fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they
+had suffered, being whipped by the black driver of
+the workhouse in the presence of felon slaves.
+The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who
+felt that they had been outraged by this insult to
+two of their kindred, and a revolt broke out that
+spread rapidly throughout the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to
+put down the rebels by force of arms might lead to
+the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But
+it was remembered that in the former war the use
+of dogs had proved very advantageous, so agents
+were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of
+bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the
+Spaniards against the Indians two centuries before
+were once more brought into use. One hundred
+hounds were bought and with them came forty
+Cuban huntsmen, mostly mulattoes. As it proved,
+the very news of the coming of the hounds had
+the desired effect, the Maroons being apparently
+much more afraid of these ferocious dogs than of
+trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately
+sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us,
+"It is pleasing to observe that not a drop of blood
+was spilt after the dogs arrived in the island."<pb n="204" /><anchor id="Pg204" />
+Peace was made within a week, and in the next
+year the chief offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova
+Scotia, and put at work on the fortifications. They
+were afterwards sent to Liberia.</p>
+
+<p>From that time forward there was no trouble
+with the Maroons. Their descendants still dwell
+in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there
+was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery
+having been abolished thirty years before. The
+Maroons were called upon to help the troops put
+down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and
+rendered useful aid in the brief conflict. When
+it was over the black warriors were invited to
+Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city
+had their first sight of the redoubtable Maroons.
+Black and brawny, they had the dignified carriage
+of men who had always been free and independent,
+while some of them wore with pride silver medals
+which their ancestors had been given for former aid
+to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons
+are now among its most trusty inhabitants.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="205" /><anchor id="Pg205" />
+<head>TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.</head>
+
+<p>The people of Europe have not stood alone in
+settling and ruling America, for the blacks of
+Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have
+made themselves masters of one of the largest and
+most fertile islands of the West Indies, that attractive
+gem of the tropics which, under the name
+of Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish
+dominions on American soil.</p>
+
+<p>Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history.
+The Spaniards enslaved its original inhabitants and
+treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon annihilated.
+Then the island was filled with negro
+slaves. About 1630 the buccaneers, or hunters of
+wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these were
+mostly French, the western part of the island was
+ceded to France in 1697. During the century that
+followed Africans were brought over in multitudes,
+until there were nearly half a million blacks in
+Hayti,&mdash;the Indian name of the island,&mdash;while
+there were less than forty thousand whites and
+thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither
+citizens nor slaves. These facts are given as a
+necessary introduction to the story we are about to
+tell.</p>
+
+<p>It was the white revolution in France that brought<pb n="206" /><anchor id="Pg206" />
+about the black revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the
+States-General met in France and overturned the
+ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty
+for all was the tocsin of its members, and it was
+proclaimed that not only the whites of France and
+her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to
+freedom and a voice in the government. The news
+of this decree created a ferment of passion in
+Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had
+long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore
+all allegiance to France, and trampled the
+national flag under foot in their rage.</p>
+
+<p>But they had others than the French Assembly
+to deal with. The mulattoes, or free people of
+color, rose in arms for the rights of which they
+had been deprived. They were soon put down, but
+in the following year (1791) a much more terrible
+outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There
+followed a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as
+that of France. The revolt began on the night of August
+21, on the plantation of Noé, near Cape Haytien.
+The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly
+killed all the whites who fell into their
+hands. Down from the mountains they poured on
+every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation.
+Hills and plains were swept with fire and
+sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were
+committed, and nearly all the residents on the
+plantations, more than two thousand in number,
+were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar
+and coffee estates were swept by fire.</p>
+
+<pb n="207" /><anchor id="Pg207" />
+
+<p>In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the
+whites of the cities to repel the blacks, but later,
+believing themselves betrayed by the whites, they
+joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of
+extermination. It did not end until the negroes became
+masters of all the country districts, and gained
+a control of the mountainous interior of the island
+which, except for a brief interval, they have ever
+since retained.</p>
+
+<p>This success was in great part due to the famous
+leader of the blacks, the renowned Toussaint L'Ouverture,
+a man who proved himself one of the
+greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti,
+of negro parents, he was descended from an African
+prince, and, slave though he was in condition, had
+himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to
+read and write, and also something of mathematics
+and of Latin, and was taken from the fields to become
+coachman for the overseer of the estate of
+his master, the Count de Breda.</p>
+
+<p>When the negro revolt began, and the furious
+blacks were seeking victims on all sides, Toussaint
+concealed the overseer and his family in the forest,
+took them food at the risk of his own life, and
+finally led them to the coast, where they took ship
+for the United States.</p>
+
+<p>While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a
+gigantic black named Bouckman, and subsequently
+by three others, were continuing their course of
+butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them
+after the escape of the overseer, and quickly gained<pb n="208" /><anchor id="Pg208" />
+an influence over them, largely from his knowledge
+of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery.
+This influence enabled him to put himself at their
+head and to mitigate the ferocity of their actions.
+His ascendency was due not only to his knowledge,
+but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening
+a breach in the ranks of the enemy he became
+known as L'Ouverture, or the opener.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image13.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Under their new leader the revolted slaves held
+their own against their enemies, declaring in favor
+of the king, Louis XVI., and against the revolutionists.
+On the other hand, the English came to
+the aid of the whites, and the island was thrown
+into a state of horrible confusion, increased by the
+interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern
+section of the island.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued
+a decree demanding the liberation of the slaves,
+Toussaint and his followers joined the revolutionary
+cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to
+expel the British and Spanish invaders. In this
+campaign he won a number of victories, and
+showed such military skill and ability as to prove
+him a leader of the highest qualities. Beard says
+of him, "His energy and his prowess made him
+the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike
+achievements he equalled the great captains of
+ancient and modern times."</p>
+
+<p>One example of the risks which he ran in battle
+occurred in his efforts to put down an insurrection
+of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an<pb n="209" /><anchor id="Pg209" />
+ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a
+shower of bullets sweeping his ranks. His private
+physician fell dead by his side and a plume of
+feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained
+unharmed. The same was the case soon after
+when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot
+down. The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to
+bear a charmed life.</p>
+
+<p>Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony,
+he wrote to the Directory in Paris, guaranteeing
+to be responsible for the orderly behavior of
+the blacks and their good will to France. He sent
+at the same time his two elder sons to Paris to be
+educated, making them practically hostages for his
+honor and good faith.</p>
+
+<p>In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came
+to an end, the British being expelled from the island
+and the rebellious mulattoes put down. Peace prevailed,
+and the negro conqueror now devoted himself
+to the complete pacification of the people.
+Agriculture was encouraged, the churches were
+reopened, schools were established, and law and
+justice were made equal for all. At the same time
+the army was kept in excellent training and a rigid
+discipline exacted.</p>
+
+<p>As is usual in such cases, there were abundant
+applications among the negroes for official positions,
+and Toussaint was sorely put to it to dispose of
+these ignorant aspirers after high places without
+giving offence. He seems, however, to have been
+well versed in political management, and is said<pb n="210" /><anchor id="Pg210" />
+to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a
+judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you
+would make an excellent magistrate. Of course
+you understand Latin.&mdash;No?&mdash;Why, that is very
+unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely
+necessary."</p>
+
+<p>There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing
+with his people that is worth repeating. As
+has been said, when the revolution began Hayti
+had about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand
+whites and mulattoes. Toussaint adopted an
+original method of making the force of this fact
+evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with
+black grains of corn and throw upon them a few
+grains of white. "You are the black grains," he
+would say; "your enemies are the white." Then
+he would shake the glass. "Where are the white
+grains now? You see they have disappeared."</p>
+
+<p>The authorities in France could not but recognize
+the ability and the moderation of the black leader,
+and in 1796 he was appointed commander-in-chief
+in the island, a commission which was confirmed
+by Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes
+and colors regarded him as a general benefactor
+and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity
+were restored, and his government was conducted
+with moderation and humanity. It looked
+as though peace and good will might continue in
+Hayti as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily
+he had to deal with a man in whom ambition
+and pride of place overruled all conceptions<pb n="211" /><anchor id="Pg211" />
+of justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had
+now risen to the supreme power in France.</p>
+
+<p>Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two
+letters which Toussaint sent him, after having completely
+pacified the island. These were addressed,
+"The First of the Blacks to the First of the
+Whites." The assumed equality seems to have
+touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained
+to answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early
+in 1800 a republican constitution was drafted under
+the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti virtually
+independent, though under the guardianship
+of France. An election was held and the liberator
+chosen president for life.</p>
+
+<p>When the news of this action reached France in
+July, 1800, Napoleon was furious. He had just
+been made First Consul and would brook no equal.
+"He is a revolted slave, whom we must punish,"
+he exclaimed; "the honor of France is outraged."
+Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he
+sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of
+about thirty-five thousand men, under General Leclerc,
+the husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Pauline
+accompanied him, and also several officers who had
+been former opponents of Toussaint.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been
+idle. Having subdued the French portion of the
+island, he led his army into the Spanish portion,
+which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital,
+being taken on January 2, 1801. When the
+keys of this city were handed to him by its governor,<pb n="212" /><anchor id="Pg212" />
+the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept
+them in the name of the French Republic."
+Yet his conquests in the name of France did not
+soften the heart of the First Consul, who was bent
+on treating him as a daring rebel. The Peace of
+Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe,
+and the expedition under Leclerc reached the island
+about the end of 1801.</p>
+
+<p>To oppose the strong army of Napoleon's veterans,
+men who had been trained to victory under
+his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little
+more than half as strong. As he looked at the
+soldiers disembarking from the ships in the Bay of
+Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost!
+All France is coming to invade our poor island!"</p>
+
+<p>The French made landings at several of the ports
+of Hayti, driving back their defenders. The city
+of San Domingo, held by Toussaint's brother, Paul,
+was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was
+to figure high in the subsequent history of the
+island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when
+Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go
+tell your general that the French shall march here
+only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn
+beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for
+when he found further defence impossible, he set
+fire to the city and retreated to the mountains,
+taking with him two thousand white prisoners.
+Grief and despair filled the soul of Toussaint when,
+marching to the relief of Cristophe, he saw the
+roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes.</p>
+
+<pb n="213" /><anchor id="Pg213" />
+
+<p>But though the French became masters of the
+ports, the army of the blacks maintained itself in
+the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied
+all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost
+heavily, and began to despair of subduing his able
+opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to
+strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint's
+two sons. Napoleon had interviewed these boys
+before their departure from France, saying to them,
+"Your father is a great man, and has rendered
+good service to France. Tell him I say so, and bid
+him not to believe I have any hostile intention
+against the island. The troops I send are not designed
+to fight the natives, but to increase their
+strength, and the man I have appointed to command
+is my own brother-in-law."</p>
+
+<p>Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the
+demand that he should submit or send his children
+back as hostages. An affecting interview took
+place between the boys and their father, and when
+they repeated to him Napoleon's words, he was at
+first inclined to yield, but fuller consideration induced
+him to refuse.</p>
+
+<p>"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The
+First Consul offers me peace, but his general no
+sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No;
+my country demands my first consideration. Take
+back my sons."</p>
+
+<p>In the continuation of the war a French force of
+twenty thousand men under Rochambeau marched
+against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at<pb n="214" /><anchor id="Pg214" />
+Crête à Pierrot. In the contest that followed
+Toussaint at first outgeneralled Rochambeau and
+defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance
+he looked for from his subordinates failed to reach
+him, and at length he was forced to retreat.</p>
+
+<p>The French, however, despite their superior
+numbers and the military experience of their
+leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in
+the negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to
+negotiation, offering the blacks their freedom if
+they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was
+unable to hold his own against his powerful foe,
+and convinced that the terms offered would be advantageous
+to his country, now decided to accept
+them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable
+for the people and for the army; as for myself,
+I wish to live in retirement."</p>
+
+<p>The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much.
+The pride of Napoleon had not yet digested the
+affront of Toussaint's message, "From the First of
+the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent
+orders to Leclerc to arrest and send him to France.
+In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly at night to
+Toussaint's home, where he was dwelling in peace
+and quiet. The house was surrounded, two blacks
+that sought to defend him were killed on the spot,
+and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the
+coast. Here he was placed on board a man-of-war,
+which at once set sail for France.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon's treatment of Toussaint was one of
+the dark deeds in his career. Reaching France,<pb n="215" /><anchor id="Pg215" />
+the captive was separated from his wife and children
+and confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier
+castle. Here, one morning in April, 1803,
+Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator, was
+found dead. He had been starved to death, if we
+may accept the belief of some authors.</p>
+
+<p>The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he
+might easily have accumulated vast wealth. In
+his official position he had maintained a degree of
+magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had
+concealed great riches somewhere in the island.
+He sent spies to question him, but Toussaint's only
+reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not
+those I have lost." The lost ones were his wife,
+his children, and his liberty.</p>
+
+<p>Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was
+soon to find that he had made a fatal mistake in
+his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed
+at his seizure, and having no one to control them,
+the negroes flew to arms, and soon the revolt
+spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came
+to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc's army
+until thousands of soldiers and fifteen hundred
+officers found graves in the land they had invaded.
+In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was
+taken back to France. When Napoleon heard the
+story of the fate of his expedition, he exclaimed in
+dismay,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine
+army; the body of a brother-in-law, of a general,
+my right arm, a handful of dust! All has perished,<pb n="216" /><anchor id="Pg216" />
+all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land!
+Perfidious colonists! A wretched slave in revolt.
+These are the causes of so many evils." He might
+more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause
+of all those evils."</p>
+
+<p>A few words must conclude this tale. General
+Rochambeau was sent large reinforcements, and
+with an army of twenty thousand men attempted
+the reconquest of the island. After a campaign of
+ferocity on both sides, he found himself blockaded
+at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to
+the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom
+he yielded the eight thousand men he had left.
+As he sailed from the island he saw the mountain-tops
+blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled
+by the blacks. From that day to this the island
+of Hayti has remained in the hands of the negro
+race.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="217" /><anchor id="Pg217" />
+<head>BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.</head>
+
+<p>One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer
+crept stealthily into a house in Jamaica,
+where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing
+silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin
+plunged his knife into his breast, then turned and
+fled. Fortunately for American independence he
+had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had
+been hired to kill was Simon Bolivar, the great
+leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But
+on that night Bolivar's secretary occupied his hammock,
+and the "Liberator" escaped.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island,
+after the failure of his early attempt to win freedom
+for his native land of Venezuela. He was
+soon back there again, however, with recruited
+forces, and for years afterwards the war went on,
+with variations of failure and success, the Spanish
+general Morillo treating the people who fell into
+his hands with revolting cruelty.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the
+true road to success. This was by leaving Venezuela,
+from which he had sought in vain to dislodge
+the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more
+promising field of New Granada. So confident of<pb n="218" /><anchor id="Pg218" />
+victory did he feel in this new plan that he issued
+the following proclamation to the people of New
+Granada: "The day of America has come; no human
+power can stay the course of Nature guided
+by Providence. Before the sun has again run his
+annual course altars to Liberty will arise throughout
+your land."</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a
+British legion, recruited in London among the disbanded
+soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had
+also sent General Santander to the frontier of New
+Granada, and General Barreiro, the Spanish general,
+had been driven back. Encouraged by this success,
+he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in
+June, 1819, bringing with him a force of twenty-five
+hundred men, including his British auxiliaries.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to
+conquer in nature as in the human enemy. In
+order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an
+enormous plain which at that season of the year
+was covered with water, and to swim some deep
+rivers, his war materials needing to be transported
+over these streams. But this was child's play compared
+with what lay before him. To reach his goal
+the Andes had to be crossed at some of their most
+forbidding points, a region over which it seemed
+next to impossible for men to go, even without
+military supplies.</p>
+
+<p>When the invading army left the plains for the
+mountains the soldiers quickly found themselves
+amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose the<pb n="219" /><anchor id="Pg219" />
+snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera,
+and the waters of the plain through which they had
+waded were here replaced by the rapids and cataracts
+of mountain streams. The roads in many
+places followed the edge of steep precipices, and
+were bordered by gigantic trees, while the clouds
+above them poured down incessant rains.</p>
+
+<p>Four days of this march used up most of the
+horses, which were foundered by the difficulties of
+the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of
+Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were
+at home only on the plain, deserted on finding
+themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents
+there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed
+of tree-trunks, or the aërial <hi rend="font-style: italic">taravitas</hi>. These consisted
+of stout ropes made by twisting several thongs
+of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees
+on the two banks of the ravine, while from them
+was suspended a cradle or hammock of capacity
+for two persons, which was drawn backward and
+forward by long lines. Horses and mules were
+similarly drawn across, suspended by long girths
+around their bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Where the streams were fordable the current was
+usually so strong that the infantry had to pass two
+by two with their arms thrown round each other's
+shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their
+lives. Bolivar frequently passed these torrents
+back and forward on horseback, carrying the sick
+and weakly, or the women who accompanied the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<pb n="220" /><anchor id="Pg220" />
+
+<p>In the lower levels the climate was moist and
+warm, only a little firewood being needed for their
+nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached
+localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the
+stoutest clothing, while immense heaps of rocks and
+hills of snow bounded the view on every side and
+clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only
+sounds to be heard were those of the roaring torrents
+they had passed and the scream of the condor
+as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all
+vegetation disappeared except the clinging lichens
+and a tall plant which bore plumes instead of leaves
+and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a
+funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey
+the path was marked by crosses, erected in memory
+of travellers who had perished by the way.</p>
+
+<p>In this glacial region the provisions brought with
+them gave out. The cattle on which they had depended
+as their chief resource could go no farther.
+Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at
+length they reached the summit of the Paya pass,
+a natural stronghold where a battalion would have
+been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost
+of three hundred men occupied it, but these were
+easily dispersed by Santander, who led the van.</p>
+
+<p>At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties
+of the way, began to murmur. Bolivar called
+a council of war and told its members that there
+were greater difficulties still to surmount. He
+asked if they would keep on, or if they preferred
+to return. They all voted in favor of going onward,<pb n="221" /><anchor id="Pg221" />
+and the knowledge of their decision inspired
+the weary troops with new spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Before the terrible passage was completed one
+hundred men had died of cold, fifty of them being
+Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was
+necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even
+some of those borne by the soldiers. It was little
+more than the skeleton of an army that at length
+reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the
+heart of the province of Tunja, on the 6th of
+July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent
+back assistance to the stragglers who still lingered
+on the road, and despatched parties to collect horses
+and communicate with the few guerillas who roamed
+about that region.</p>
+
+<p>Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja
+province with two thousand infantry and four hundred
+horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand
+troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments
+elsewhere, while there was another royalist
+army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and
+to the support of the people to overcome these
+odds, and he succeeded in the first, for Barreiro was
+ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage
+of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the
+year.</p>
+
+<p>He was soon aware, however, that the patriots
+had achieved this impossible thing and were in his
+close vicinity, and with all haste collected his forces
+and took possession of the heights above the plain
+of Vargas. By this movement he interposed between<pb n="222" /><anchor id="Pg222" />
+the patriots and the town of Tunja, which,
+as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was
+anxious to occupy. It was not long, therefore,
+before the opposing armies met, and a battle took
+place that lasted five hours. The patriots won,
+chiefly by the aid of the English infantry, led by
+Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune to
+lose an arm in the engagement.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image14.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the
+road to Tunja remained in the hands of the royalists.
+Instead of again attacking his intrenched foe, Bolivar
+now employed strategy, retreating during the
+day, then making a rapid countermarch at night,
+thus passing Barreiro's forces in the dark over
+by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into
+his hands. He found there an abundance of war
+material, and by holding it he cut off Barreiro's
+communication with Bogota.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of Bolivar's generalship lay in rapid
+and unexpected movements like this. The Spanish
+leaders, bound in the shackles of military routine,
+were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches
+of their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for
+the passage of an army. While they were manœuvring,
+calculating, hesitating, guarding the
+customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would
+surprise them by concentrating a superior force
+upon a point which they imagined safe from attack,
+and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut
+up their forces in detail. As a result, the actions
+of the patriot commander in the field seemed less<pb n="223" /><anchor id="Pg223" />
+impressive than those of less notable generals, but
+the sum of effects was far superior.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar's occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards
+by surprise. Barreiro, finding himself unexpectedly
+cut off from his centre of supplies, fell back upon
+Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by
+his foe, anxious to deal a decisive blow before the
+royal forces could concentrate. Boyacá, the site
+now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded
+and mountainous country and one well suited to
+Bolivar's characteristic tactics. Placing a large
+part of his troops in ambush and manœuvring so as
+to get his cavalry in the enemy's rear, he advanced
+to the attack with a narrow front. On this Barreiro
+made a furious assault, forcing his opponents
+to recoil. But this retreat was only a stratagem,
+for, as they fell back, the Spaniards found themselves
+suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed
+troops, while the cavalry rode furiously
+upon their rear.</p>
+
+<p>In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the
+fierce attack threw them into utter confusion, in
+which the patriot army cut them down almost
+without resistance. General Barreiro was taken
+prisoner on the field of battle, throwing away his
+sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to
+save himself the mortification of surrendering it to
+General Bolivar. Colonel Ximenes, his second in
+command, was also taken, together with most of
+the officers and more than sixteen hundred men.
+All their artillery, ammunition, horses, etc., were<pb n="224" /><anchor id="Pg224" />
+captured, and a very small portion of the army
+escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was
+decided, but many of them were taken by the
+peasantry of the surrounding country and brought
+in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly
+small,&mdash;only thirteen killed and fifty-three
+wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Boyacá&mdash;after Maypo, by which Chili gained its
+freedom&mdash;was the great battle of South America.
+It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as
+Maypo had done in the south. New Granada was
+freed from the Spaniards, and on August 9, two
+days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily
+evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste
+that in thirty hours he reached Honda, usually a
+journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar triumphantly
+marched into the capital, and found in
+its coffers silver coin to the value of half a million
+dollars, which the viceroy had left behind in his
+haste.</p>
+
+<p>It must be said further that the English auxiliaries
+aided greatly in the results of these battles, their
+conduct giving Bolivar such gratification that he
+made them all members of the Order of the Liberator.</p>
+
+<p>It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of
+this implacable war, but simply to relate the dramatic
+invasion and conquest of New Granada. It
+must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on
+for two years longer, ending finally in 1821 with
+the victory of Carabobo, in which the Spaniards<pb n="225" /><anchor id="Pg225" />
+were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand
+men. After that they withdrew and a republic
+was organized, with Bolivar for its president.</p>
+
+<p>Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining
+their independence and was declared their liberator
+and made supreme dictator of the country. After
+ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned
+and gave the country a republican constitution.
+The congress of Lima elected him president for
+life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the
+northern section of Peru, to which the people gave
+the name of Bolivia, in honor of the winner of
+their liberties.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="226" /><anchor id="Pg226" />
+<head>HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.</head>
+
+<p>In the last quarter of the eighteenth century
+ideas of revolution were widely in the air. The
+people were rising against the tyranny of the kings.
+First in this struggle for liberty came the English
+colonies in America. Then the people of France
+sprang to arms and overthrew the moss-grown
+tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon
+spread the demand for freedom through Europe.
+In Spain the people began to fight for their freedom,
+and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to
+America, where the people of the Spanish colonies
+had long been oppressed by the tyranny of their
+rulers.</p>
+
+<p>The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected
+by the example of the great free republic of the
+north, and the seed of liberty grew for years in their
+minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer's
+son named Miguel Hidalgo, a true scion of the
+people and an ardent lover of liberty, who for
+years longed to make his native Mexico independent
+of the effete royalty of Spain. He did not
+conceal his views on this subject, though his deeper
+projects were confided only to a few trusty friends,
+chief among whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of
+wealth and of noble Spanish descent, and a captain<pb n="227" /><anchor id="Pg227" />
+of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few
+intimates, consulted often and matured their plans,
+confident that the desire for liberty was strong in
+the country and that the patriot people needed
+only a leader to break out into insurrection.</p>
+
+<p>Hidalgo's eager desire for liberty, long smouldering,
+burst into flame in 1810, when the Spanish
+authorities attempted to arrest in Querétaro some
+revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned
+of their danger, these men fled or concealed themselves.
+News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and
+taught him that with his reputation there was
+but one of two things to do, he must flee or strike.
+He decided to strike, and in this he was supported
+by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger.</p>
+
+<p>The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September,
+1810. That night Hidalgo was roused
+from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends,
+and told that the hour had come. Calling his
+brother to his aid and summoning a few of those
+in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists
+to the prison, broke it open, and set free certain
+men who had been seized for their liberal ideas.</p>
+
+<p>This took place in the early hours of a Sunday.
+When day broke and the countrymen of the neighboring
+parish came to early mass the news of the
+night's event spread among them rapidly and
+caused great excitement. To a man they took the
+side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he
+found himself at the head of a small band of ardent
+revolutionists. They at once set out for San Miguel<pb n="228" /><anchor id="Pg228" />
+le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched
+before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty
+men, the nucleus of the Mexican revolution. For
+standard they bore a picture of the Holy Virgin
+of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New
+adherents came to their ranks till they were three
+hundred strong. Such was the movement known in
+Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry,
+the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Grito</hi>, being, "Up with True Religion, and
+down with False Government."</p>
+
+<p>Never before had an insurrection among the
+submissive common people been known in Mexico.
+When news of it came to the authorities they were
+stupefied with amazement. That peasants and
+townspeople, the plain workers of the land, should
+have opinions of their own about government and
+the rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous
+to be endured, but for the time being they
+were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking
+any vigorous action.</p>
+
+<p>While the authorities digested the amazing news
+of the outbreak, the movement grew with surprising
+rapidity. Hidalgo's little band was joined
+by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a
+crowd of field laborers, armed with slings, sticks,
+and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks. So
+popular did the movement prove that in a brief
+period the band of eighty men had grown to a
+great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers.
+Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their
+numbers gave them strength. Hidalgo put himself<pb n="229" /><anchor id="Pg229" />
+at their head as commander-in-chief, with Allende
+as his second in command, and active exertions
+were made to organize an army out of this undigested
+material.</p>
+
+<p>The next thing we perceive in this promising
+movement for liberty is the spectacle of Hidalgo
+and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on
+the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital
+of a mining state, the second largest in Mexico.
+This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine, its
+houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the
+streets climb like stairways.</p>
+
+<p>The people of the city were terrified when they
+saw this great body of people marching upon them,
+with some of the organization of a regular army,
+though most of them bore only the arms of a mob.
+The authorities, who were advised of their approach,
+showed some energy. Resolving not to
+surrender and making hasty preparations for defence,
+they intrenched themselves in a strongly
+built grain warehouse, with the governor at their
+head.</p>
+
+<p>Much better armed than the mass of their assailants,
+and backed up by strong stone walls, the
+authorities defended themselves vigorously, and for
+a time the affair looked anything but promising for
+Hidalgo's improvised army. Success came at last
+through the courage of a little boy, called Pipita,
+who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the
+pavement, and holding a blazing torch in his hand,
+crept through a shower of bullets up to the gate<pb n="230" /><anchor id="Pg230" />
+of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames
+spread upward, the insurgents broke in upon the
+frightened defenders, killing some and making
+prisoners of the others.</p>
+
+<p>The common people of the city, in sympathy
+with the revolutionists, and inspired with the mob
+spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through
+the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and
+houses, until checked in their career of plunder by
+Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening condign
+punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to
+make the city a stronghold and centre for the
+collection of arms and money, his forces being
+increased by the defection from the Spaniards of
+three squadrons of regular troops, while the whole
+province declared for the cause of the revolution.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on, the governing powers
+in Mexico had recovered from their stupefaction
+and begun to take active measures to suppress the
+dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy
+had arrived in Mexico, Don Francisco Venegas, a
+Spanish general who had distinguished himself in
+the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a
+peaceful life before him in America, he began his
+work of government by calling a council of prominent
+persons and asking them to help him raise
+money from the loyal people for the support of
+their brethren in Spain who were fighting against
+Napoleon. Three days later the Grito de Dolores
+broke out and he saw that his dream of peace was
+at an end, and that he would need all the funds<pb n="231" /><anchor id="Pg231" />
+he could raise to suppress revolution in his new
+government.</p>
+
+<p>The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once
+ordered the troops in garrison at Mexico to Querétaro,
+strengthening them by rural detachments,
+and summoning garrisons from the north, west,
+and east. He issued at the same time a decree
+under which all Indians were released from taxation,
+and promised pardon to all rebels who should
+at once lay down their arms; a reward of ten thousand
+dollars being offered for the capture or death
+of the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and
+Aldama.</p>
+
+<p>The civil authorities were vigorously supported by
+the clergy in this action against the revolution. Hidalgo
+and his chief comrades were excommunicated
+by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them
+bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which
+had taken action against Hidalgo in 1800 for his
+dangerous opinions, now cited him to appear before
+its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops
+and inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the
+valiant insurgents, who maintained that it was not
+religion but tyranny that they were banded against.</p>
+
+<p>The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid
+on the 17th of October, without resistance, the
+bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach.
+As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced
+the canons he had left behind to remove the sentence
+of excommunication. The town was made a
+second stronghold of the revolution and a centre<pb n="232" /><anchor id="Pg232" />
+for new recruiting, the army increasing so rapidly
+that in ten days' time its leader took the bold step
+of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city.</p>
+
+<p>The approach of the insurgents, who had now
+grown greatly in numbers, filled the people of the
+capital with terror. They remembered the sack of
+Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables,
+while many of them fled for safety. As
+the insurgents drew near they were met by the
+army of the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place
+upon an elevation called the Monte de la Cruces,
+outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the
+ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm,
+and greatly outnumbering the royal troops, they
+swept resistlessly on, bearing down all before them,
+and sweeping the viceroy's soldiers from the field
+with heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo,
+the commanding general, from death or capture,
+and bore him in safety to the city.</p>
+
+<p>Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the
+news of the disastrous defeat of its defenders,
+could perhaps have been easily taken, and its capture
+might possibly have closed the struggle in
+favor of liberty. It certainly was a moment for
+that boldness on which success so often depends,
+but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from
+prudence instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival
+of reinforcements to the beaten army, withdrew
+his forces towards Querétaro&mdash;a weak and fatal
+retrograde movement, as it proved.</p>
+
+<p>The viceroy had another army advancing from<pb n="233" /><anchor id="Pg233" />
+the north, under the command of Calleja, a skilful
+general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march
+towards Querétaro, he attacked him with such
+vigor that, after a hot combat, the insurgents were
+utterly worsted, losing all their artillery and many
+men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to
+pieces at this severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed
+to Valladolid with an insignificant remnant
+of his mighty host.</p>
+
+<p>Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of
+Allende and a fierce attack on him at Guanajuato,
+forcing him to abandon the city and retreat to
+Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence.
+Calleja, who had much of the traditional Spanish
+cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous
+retaliation upon the people of the city he had
+taken, who were most savagely punished for their
+recent plundering outbreak.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of this story of revolution is a
+brief and unfortunate one. Hidalgo gathered another
+army and led them to Guadalajara, where he
+organized a government, appointed ministers, and
+styled himself generalissimo. He despatched a
+commissioner to the United States, but this personage
+soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were
+collected and the army organized as rapidly as
+possible, but his forces were still in the rough
+when, disregarding the advice of Allende and
+others, he resolved to attack Calleja. He advanced
+on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon,
+where he found himself in face of a well-equipped<pb n="234" /><anchor id="Pg234" />
+and disciplined army of ten thousand men, superior
+in everything but numbers to his undisciplined levies.
+They fought bravely enough in the battle of the
+next day, but they were no match for their opponents,
+and the contest ended in a complete rout,
+the insurgents scattering in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on
+his way Allende, Jiminez, and other leaders who had
+escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The cause
+of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously
+putting down the revolution on all sides. As
+a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the United
+States borders with such men and money as they
+had left, proposing there to recruit and discipline
+another army. But before reaching the frontier
+they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured
+in a desert region near the Rio Grande.</p>
+
+<p>The captives were now taken under a strong
+escort to Chihuahua, where they were tried and
+condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez
+were shot on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo
+paid the penalty of his life on the 27th of June,
+1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the
+first struggle for independence in Mexico. The
+heads of the four chiefs were taken to Guanajuato
+and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold
+which they had taken by storm in that city. There
+they remained till the freedom of Mexico was won,
+when they were given solemn burial beneath the
+altar of the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico.
+The Alhondiga de Grenaditas, the building to which<pb n="235" /><anchor id="Pg235" />
+their heads were attached, is now used as a prison,
+but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years
+held Hidalgo's head. Before it there stands a bronze
+statue of this earliest of the Mexican patriot leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later
+course of the struggle for independence? The
+death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and
+one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the
+war with varying fortunes until 1815, when he,
+too, was taken and shot.</p>
+
+<p>The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall
+was Augustin de Yturbide, a royalist leader, who
+pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet
+it was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its
+independence. After the death of Moreles a chief
+named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and
+against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it
+proved, the royalist had changed his views, and
+after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands
+with him and came out openly as a patriot leader.
+He had under him a well-disciplined army, and advanced
+from success to success till the final viceroy
+found himself forced to acknowledge the independence
+of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The events that followed&mdash;how Mexico was organized
+into an empire, with Yturbide as emperor
+under the title of Augustin I., and how a new
+revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was
+shot as a traitor&mdash;belong to that later history of the
+Spanish American republics in which revolution and
+counter-revolution continued almost annual events.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="236" /><anchor id="Pg236" />
+<head>PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.</head>
+
+<p>On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the
+commander of the Spanish forces in Venezuela,
+found himself threatened in his camp by a party of
+one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had
+swum the Orinoco and galloped like centaurs upon
+his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish cavalry,
+with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet
+their assailants, who slowly retired before their
+superior numbers. In this way the royalists were
+drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio,
+where a battalion of infantry had been placed in
+ambush near the river. Here, suddenly ceasing
+their retreat, and dividing up into groups of twenty,
+the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and
+assailed them on all sides, driving them back
+under the fire of the infantry, by whom they were
+fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river
+with two killed and a few wounded, while the plain
+was strewn with the bodies of their foes.</p>
+
+<p>This anecdote may serve to introduce to our
+readers Joseph Antonio Paez, the leader of the
+band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most
+daring and striking figures among the liberators of
+South America. Born of Indian parents of low
+extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself<pb n="237" /><anchor id="Pg237" />
+so daring as a soldier that he became in time
+general-in-chief of the armies of Venezuela and
+the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar's most
+trusted lieutenant during the war for independence.</p>
+
+<p>Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle
+belonging to his father, who was a landholder in
+the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled
+in the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at
+curing their disorders. He was accustomed to
+mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was
+noted for strength and agility and for power of enduring
+fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of
+Venezuela, he rose naturally to great influence
+among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the revolution
+began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of
+the cause of freedom, his reputation for courage was
+so great that they were very ready to enlist under
+him. He chose from among them one hundred and
+fifty picked horsemen, and this band, under the
+title of "Guides of the Apure," soon made itself
+the terror of the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>The following story well shows his intrepid
+character. After the death of his mother young
+Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided
+it with his sisters who were living in that town.
+The Spanish forces, which had been driven out of
+it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a
+general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all
+property-holders to return and promising to reinstate
+them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of<pb n="238" /><anchor id="Pg238" />
+this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself
+before the Spanish commandant, saying that
+he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and
+take possession of his property.</p>
+
+<p>He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who
+gathered in hundreds to welcome and shake hands
+with him, and the news quickly spread among the
+Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain
+Paez, who had done them so much mischief. Seizing
+their arms, they called loudly on their commander
+to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as
+a rebel and traitor. But this officer, who was well
+aware of the valor of Paez, and perceived his great
+influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it
+very imprudent to take a step that might lead to
+a general outbreak, and concluded to let his perilous
+visitor alone. He therefore appeased his soldiers,
+and Paez was left unmolested in the house of
+his sisters.</p>
+
+<p>The governor, however, only bided his time.
+Spies were set to watch the daring llanero, and
+after some days they informed their leaders that
+Paez had gone out unarmed, and that there was a
+good opportunity to seize his weapons as a preliminary
+to his arrest. When Paez returned home
+after his outing, he was told that armed men had
+visited the house and taken away his sword and
+pistols.</p>
+
+<p>Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought
+the governor's house and angrily charged him with
+breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he<pb n="239" /><anchor id="Pg239" />
+said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously
+demanded that his arms should be restored&mdash;not for
+use against the Spaniards, but for his personal security.
+His tone was so firm and indignant, and
+his request so reasonable under the circumstances,
+that the governor repented of his questionable act,
+and gave orders that the arms should be returned.</p>
+
+<p>On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas
+assailed the governor with reproaches, impetuously
+demanding that the guerilla chief should be arrested
+and confined in irons. The versatile governor again
+gave way, and that night the Paez mansion was
+entered and he taken from his bed, put in irons,
+and locked up in prison. It was no more than he
+might have expected, if he had known as much of
+the Spanish character then as he was afterwards to
+learn.</p>
+
+<p>But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In
+the prison he found about one hundred and fifty
+of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia,
+an officer noted for strength and courage. On
+Garcia complaining to him of the weight of his
+irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners,
+Paez accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange
+fetters with him. To keep his word he
+broke his own chains by main strength and handed
+them to his astonished friend.</p>
+
+<p>Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won
+their consent to a concerted break for liberty.
+Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give
+efficient service to the others, and before morning<pb n="240" /><anchor id="Pg240" />
+nearly the whole of them were free. When the
+jailor opened the door in the morning he was
+promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened
+with instant death if he made a sound. Breaking
+into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the
+guard, set free those whose irons were not yet
+broken, and marched from the prison, with Paez at
+their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred
+in number. Many of these were killed and the
+rest put to rout, and Barinas was once more in
+patriot hands.</p>
+
+<p>This anecdote will serve to show, better than
+pages of description, the kind of man that Paez
+was. When the act became known to the llaneros
+they proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready
+to follow him to the death. These cowboys of the
+Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like
+their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor
+their general knew anything about military art,
+and felt lost when taken from their native plains, a
+fact which was shown when they were called upon
+to follow Bolivar in his mountain expedition against
+New Granada. Neither persuasion nor force could
+induce them to leave the plains for the mountains.
+Bolivar and Paez entreated them in vain, and they
+declared that rather than go to the hill-country
+they would desert and return to their native plains,
+where alone they were willing to fight. This was
+their only act of insubordination under their favorite
+leader, who usually had complete control over
+them. He made himself one with his men, would<pb n="241" /><anchor id="Pg241" />
+divide his last cent with them, and was called by
+them uncle and father. His staff-officers were all
+llaneros and formed his regular society, they being
+alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics,
+but bold and dashing and ready to follow their
+leader to the cannon's mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The British Legion, about six hundred strong,
+was in the last year of the war attached to the
+llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed
+by Paez, who called them "my friends, the English."
+The soldiers of the legion, however, were
+bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel Bossuet,
+whom they held responsible for the miserable
+state of their rations and clothes and their want of
+pay. At the end of one day, which was so scorchingly
+hot that the soldiers were excused from their
+usual five o'clock parade, the legion rushed from
+their quarters at this hour and placed themselves
+in order of battle, crying that they would rather
+have a creole to lead them than their colonel.</p>
+
+<p>Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in
+vain, and the lieutenant-colonel, against whom they
+had taken offence, was attacked and mortally
+wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel
+Bossuet appeared and sought to speak to them they
+rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it needed
+the active efforts of the other officers to save him
+from their revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny
+were brought to General Paez in his quarters
+and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing
+his sword, he rushed upon the mutineers, killed<pb n="242" /><anchor id="Pg242" />
+three of them instantly, and would have continued
+this bloody work but that his sword broke on the
+body of a fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon,
+he seized some of the most rebellious, dragged them
+from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them
+to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his
+spirited conduct, hastily dispersed and sought their
+quarters. The next day three of the most seditious
+of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was
+accused of aiding in the mutiny,&mdash;though probably
+innocent of it,&mdash;were arrested and shot without
+trial.</p>
+
+<p>Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with
+Paez. After the battle of Ortiz, in which his
+daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction,
+he was seized with a fit, and lay on the
+ground, foaming at the mouth. Colonel English
+went to his aid, but his men warned him to let
+their general alone, saying, "He is often so, and
+will soon be all right. None of us dare touch him
+when he is in one of these spells."</p>
+
+<p>But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his
+face with water and forcing some down his throat.
+The general soon recovered and thanked him for
+his aid, saying that he was a little overcome with
+fatigue, as he had killed thirty-nine of the enemy
+with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth
+through the body he felt his illness coming on. By
+way of reward he presented Colonel English with
+the lance which had done this bloody work and
+gave him three fine horses from his own stud.</p>
+
+<pb n="243" /><anchor id="Pg243" />
+
+<p>These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the
+llaneros, who, like all Indians, viewed the Spaniards
+with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of
+more interest than the details of his services in the
+years of campaigning. In the field, it may be
+said, he was an invaluable aid to General Bolivar.
+In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish commander-in-chief,
+his daring activity and success were
+striking, and to him was largely due the winning
+the last great battle of the war, that of Carabobo.</p>
+
+<p>In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821,
+Bolivar had about sixteen hundred infantry, a
+thousand or more of them being British, and three
+thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The
+Spaniards, under La Torre, had fewer men, but
+occupied a very strong defensive position. This
+was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded
+hills, and giving abundant space for military movements,
+while if driven back they could retire to
+one strong point after another, holding the enemy
+at disadvantage throughout. In front there was
+only one defile, and their wings were well protected,
+the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron
+of cavalry protected their right wing, and on a hill
+opposite the defile&mdash;through which ran the road to
+Valencia&mdash;was posted a small battery.</p>
+
+<p>This position seemed to give the royalists a
+decisive superiority over their patriot antagonists,
+and for twenty days they waited an attack, in full
+confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an<pb n="244" /><anchor id="Pg244" />
+attack, fearing that the destiny of his country
+might rest upon the result. He proposed an armistice,
+but this was unanimously rejected by his
+council of war. Then it was suggested to seek to
+turn the position of the enemy, but this was also
+rejected, and it was finally decided to take every
+risk and assail the enemy in his stronghold, trusting
+to courage and the fortune of war for success.</p>
+
+<p>While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar
+and his staff, one of the guides of the army, who
+was thoroughly familiar with the country they
+occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation.
+At its end he drew near Bolivar, and in a
+whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path
+by which the right wing of the Spaniards
+might be turned.</p>
+
+<p>This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation
+with his informant, Bolivar secretly detached
+three battalions of his best troops, including
+the British legion and a strong column of cavalry
+under General Paez, directing them to follow the
+guide and preserve as much silence and secrecy as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>The path proved to be narrow and very difficult.
+They were obliged to traverse it in single file, and
+it was paved with sharp stones that cut their
+shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet.
+Many of them tore their shirts and made bandages
+for their feet to enable them to go on. Fortunately
+for the success of the movement, it was masked by
+the forest, and the expedition was able to concentrate<pb n="245" /><anchor id="Pg245" />
+in a position on the flank of the enemy without
+discovery.</p>
+
+<p>When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome
+force on their flank they hastily despatched
+against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving
+back the nearest troops and unmasking the British
+legion. This they fired upon and then charged
+with the bayonet. The British returned the fire
+and charged in their turn, and with such dash and
+vigor that the Spaniards soon gave way. In their
+retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron
+called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got
+back to their ranks. In return a squadron of the
+Spaniards charged the British, but with less success,
+being dispersed by a hot musketry fire.</p>
+
+<p>"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt
+with, a fierce attack had been made upon the front.
+The unexpected flank and rear attack was so disconcerting
+that La Torre lost all presence of mind,
+and on every side his men were driven back and
+thrown into confusion. In front and on flank
+they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating
+to the succession of defensive points in the
+rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that invaded
+their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate
+retreat, their cavalry dispersed without making
+a charge, their infantry in the utmost disorder, their
+cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary
+dash and activity. He pursued the Spaniards at<pb n="246" /><anchor id="Pg246" />
+the head of the cavalry, cutting them down vigorously,
+and few of them would have escaped but for
+the fatigued and weak condition of his horses,
+which rendered them unable to break the files of
+the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful
+charges General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black
+man called, from his courage, El Primero (the first),
+finding that they could not break the infantry lines,
+rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and
+were killed.</p>
+
+<p>The news of this defeat spread consternation
+among the Spaniards. Thousands of the royalists
+in the cities hastened to leave the country, fearing
+the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders
+lost all spirit, and three months later the
+strong fortress of Carthagena surrendered to the
+Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it
+surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated
+and the long contest was at an end.</p>
+
+<p>This final surrender was due in great measure to
+General Paez, who thus sustained his military service
+to the end. Though not gaining the renown
+of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an
+army and conducting a campaign, as a cavalry
+leader he was indispensable, and to him and his
+gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of
+liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="247" /><anchor id="Pg247" />
+<head>THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.</head>
+
+<p>At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili
+was at its lowest ebb. After four years of struggle
+the patriots had met with a crushing defeat in
+1814, and had been scattered to the four winds.
+Since then the viceroy of Spain had ruled the land
+with an iron hand, many of the leading citizens
+being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez,
+the imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe's
+career, while many others were severely punished
+and all the people were oppressed.</p>
+
+<p>In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero
+came across the mountains to strike a new blow for
+liberty. Don José de San Martin had fought valiantly
+for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the
+battle of San Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots
+sent him to the aid of their fellow-patriots in Chili
+and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in the
+latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the
+scattered bands of Chilian troops and adding them
+to men of his own command, got together a formidable
+array five thousand strong. The "Liberating
+Army of the Andes" these were called.</p>
+
+<p>An able organizer was San Martin, and he put
+his men through a thorough course of discipline.
+Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a<pb n="248" /><anchor id="Pg248" />
+force made up of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Gauchos</hi>, or cattlemen of
+the Pampas, whose life was passed in the saddle,
+and who were genuine centaurs of the plains.</p>
+
+<p>San Martin had the Andes to cross with his
+army, and this was a task like that which Hannibal
+and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps.
+He set out himself at the head of his cavalry on
+the 17th of January, 1817, the infantry and artillery
+advancing by a different route. The men
+of the army carried their own food, consisting of
+dried meat and parched corn, and depots of food
+were established at intervals along the route, the
+difficulty of transporting provision-trains being
+thus avoided. The field-pieces were slung between
+mules or dragged on sledges made of tough hide,
+and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when
+steep places were reached. Some two thousand
+cattle were driven along to add to their food supply.</p>
+
+<p>Thus equipped, San Martin's army set out on its
+difficult passage of the snow-topped Andes. He
+had previously sent over guerilla bands whose
+active movements thoroughly deceived the royalist
+generals as to his intended place of crossing. Onward
+went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary
+exertion by the fact that provisions began to run
+short. The passes to be traversed, thirteen thousand
+feet high and white with perpetual snow,
+formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the
+plains, yet they pushed on over the rugged mountains,
+with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as
+to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The<pb n="249" /><anchor id="Pg249" />
+infantry advanced with equal fortitude and energy,
+and early in February the combined forces descended
+the mountains and struck the royalist army at the
+foot with such energy that it was soon fleeing in a
+total rout. So utterly defeated and demoralized
+were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was
+abandoned and was entered by San Martin at the
+head of his wild gauchos and host of refugees on the
+15th of February. His funds at this time consisted
+of the two doubloons remaining in his pocket,
+while he had no military chest, no surgeons nor
+medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply
+of the indispensable requisites of an army. About
+all he had to depend on was the patriotism of his
+men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing
+of the Andes and their easy victory over their
+foes.</p>
+
+<p>For the time being Chili was free. The royalists
+had vanished and the patriots were in full possession.
+Thirty or more years before, a bold Irishman,
+bearing the name of O'Higgins, had come to Chili,
+where he quickly rose in position until he was given
+the title of Don Ambrosio, and attained successively
+the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron,
+marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don
+Bernardo, was a man of his own type, able in peace
+and brilliant in war, and he was now made supreme
+dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had
+refused. The banished patriots were brought home
+from their desert island, the royalists severely punished,
+and a new army was organized to dislodge<pb n="250" /><anchor id="Pg250" />
+the fragment of the Spanish army which still held
+out in the south.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary
+of the decisive victory of the "Liberating Army
+of the Andes," O'Higgins declared the absolute
+independence of Chili. A vote of the people was
+taken in a peculiar manner. Two blank books were
+opened for signatures in every city, the first for
+independence, the second for those who preferred
+the rule of Spain. For fifteen days these remained,
+and then it was found that the first books were
+filled with names, while the second had not a single
+name. This vote O'Higgins declared settled the
+question of Chilian freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the
+energetic viceroy of Peru, was taking vigorous
+steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three
+months before he had received a reinforcement of
+three thousand five hundred veterans from Spain,
+and these he sent to southern Chili to join the
+forces still in arms. United, they formed an army
+of about six thousand, under General Osorio, the
+able commander who had subdued Chili in 1814.
+It was evident that the newly declared independence
+of Chili was to be severely tried.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it
+seemed overthrown. On the 19th of March San
+Martin's army, while in camp near Talca, was unexpectedly
+and violently attacked by the royalist
+troops, the onslaught being so sudden and furious,
+and the storm of cannon and musket shot so rapid<pb n="251" /><anchor id="Pg251" />
+and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken
+with panic, their divisions firing at each other as
+well as at the enemy. Within fifteen minutes the
+whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely
+sought to stop the demoralized troops, but in vain,
+O'Higgins, though severely wounded, throwing
+himself before them without effect. Nothing could
+check them, and the defeat became in large measure
+a total rout.</p>
+
+<p>When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter
+consternation prevailed. Patriots hastily gathered
+their valuables for flight; carriages of those seeking
+to leave the country thronged the streets; women
+wrung their hands in wild despair; the funds of the
+treasury were got ready to load on mules; the
+whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety.</p>
+
+<p>Several days passed before it was known what
+had become of San Martin. Then news arrived
+that he was at San Fernando at the head of the
+right wing, three thousand strong. These had
+escaped the panic on account of two divisions of
+Osorio's army mistaking each other for the enemy
+and firing into their own ranks. In the confusion
+that ensued the right wing was led unbroken from
+the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer
+named Rodriguez had done good work in checking
+the flight of the fugitives, and in a brief time
+had organized a regiment which he named the
+"Hussars of Death."</p>
+
+<p>Six days after the defeat General O'Higgins
+made his appearance in Santiago. He was badly<pb n="252" /><anchor id="Pg252" />
+wounded, but was at once named dictator of the
+republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of
+his officers, entered the city. Wearied and dusty
+with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "<hi rend="font-style: italic">La patria
+triunfa</hi>" gave new heart to the people. For several
+days fragments of the routed army came pouring
+in, and ten days after the battle Colonel Las Heras
+arrived with the three thousand of the right wing.
+The patriot cause seemed far less hopeless than had
+been the case a week before.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it was evident that liberty could come only
+from strenuous exertion, and the people of wealth
+freely subscribed of their money, plate, and jewels
+for the cause. It was not long before a new army
+five thousand five hundred strong, freshly clothed
+and in fair fighting condition, was gathered in a
+camp near the city. The artillery lost in the
+flight could not be replaced, but a few field-pieces
+were secured. San Martin and O'Higgins, with
+other able officers, were in command, and hope
+once more began to dawn upon despair.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy was known to be approaching, and the
+army was moved to a point about nine miles from
+the capital, occupying a location known as the farm
+of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited.
+On the afternoon of April 3, Osorio crossed the
+Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank
+and rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army
+took up a position on the brow of a hill opposite
+that occupied by the patriot forces.</p>
+
+<p>Passing out from Santiago there is a succession<pb n="253" /><anchor id="Pg253" />
+of white hills, known as the Lorna Blanca, on one
+crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords
+of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army
+was encamped. The royalists occupied the crest
+and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran
+the Maypo with its forests and hills.</p>
+
+<p>As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San
+Martin saw with satisfaction the royalist force beginning
+to occupy the high ground in his front.
+With hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to
+witness that the day is ours." As he spoke, the
+golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest
+to crest. At ten o'clock when the movement of
+the armies began, he said, with assurance, "A half-hour
+will decide the fate of Chili."</p>
+
+<p>A few words will serve to describe the positions
+of the armies. Each was more than five thousand
+strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller.
+It had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat,
+the memory of which also hung about it like a
+cloud, while the royalists were filled with enthusiasm
+from their late victory. The royalist lines
+were about a mile in length, four squadrons of
+dragoons flanking their right wing and a body of
+lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill
+on the extreme left. Confronting them were the
+patriots, the left commanded by General Alverado,
+the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras,
+while Quintana headed the reserves.</p>
+
+<p>The battle opened with a brisk fire from the
+patriot artillery, and in about an hour the infantry<pb n="254" /><anchor id="Pg254" />
+forces joined in full action. As the royalists moved
+down the hill they were swept with the fire of the
+patriot battery, while shortly afterwards the royal
+battery on the left was captured by a dashing
+cavalry charge and the guns were turned against
+their own line.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the
+Espejo estate, which was charged furiously by both
+sides, being taken and retaken several times during
+the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage
+seemed to be on the side of Osorio, who held the
+field with the centre and one wing of his army.
+Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots.
+It came nearer when the regiment of negroes which
+had for some time withstood the Burgos regiment&mdash;the
+flower of Osorio's force&mdash;gave way and retreated,
+leaving four hundred of its number stretched
+upon the field.</p>
+
+<p>The critical moment of the battle was now at
+hand. The Burgos regiment attempted to follow
+up its success by forming itself into a square for a
+decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines
+were broken and thrown into temporary disorder.
+Colonel O'Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish
+blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his
+troops with Quintana's reserves, he broke in a fierce
+charge upon the Burgos regiment while in the act
+of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion.</p>
+
+<p>This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio's army
+changed the whole aspect of affairs. The patriots,<pb n="255" /><anchor id="Pg255" />
+inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed
+their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought
+refuge in the farm-house, and were followed by the
+left, which was similarly broken and dispersed.
+The centre kept up the action for a time, but with
+both wings in retreat it also was soon forced back,
+and the whole royalist army was demoralized.</p>
+
+<p>The patriots did not fail to press their advantage
+to the utmost. On all sides the royalists were cut
+down or captured, until nearly half their force were
+killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken
+prisoners. A stand was made by those at the farm
+house, but they were soon driven out, and about
+five hundred of them killed and wounded in the
+court and vineyard adjoining. Of the total army
+less than three hundred escaped, General Osorio
+and some other officers among them. These fled to
+Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of
+the patriots more than a thousand had fallen in the
+hot engagement.</p>
+
+<p>This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the
+battle of the Maypo, gave San Martin immense
+renown, and justly so, for it established the independence
+of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke
+the power which Abascal had long sustained in
+Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of that
+land from the rule of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>This feat also was the work of San Martin, who
+soon after invaded Peru, and, aided by a Chilian
+fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming
+its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th<pb n="256" /><anchor id="Pg256" />
+of July, 1821. Later on, indeed, its freedom was
+seriously threatened, and it was not until 1824 that
+General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru,
+in the victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar
+became as the Liberator of South America,
+some generous portion of fame should rightly be
+accorded to San Martin, the Liberator of Chili.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="257" /><anchor id="Pg257" />
+<head>COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.</head>
+
+<p>While the Spanish colonies of South America
+were battling for their liberties, the great Portuguese
+colony of Brazil was going through a very
+different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots
+were seeking to drive Spain out of America. On
+the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of
+Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king
+and its throne, so that, for a time, the colony
+became the state, and the state became the dependency.
+It was a marked instance of the tail
+wagging the dog. Brazil became the one empire
+in America, and was destined not to become a republic
+until many years later. Such are the themes
+with which we here propose to deal.</p>
+
+<p>To begin this tale we must go back to those
+stirring times in Europe when Napoleon, the great
+conqueror, was in the height of his career, and
+was disposing of countries at his will, much as a
+chess-player moves the king, queen, and knights
+upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by
+Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the
+purpose of punishing Portugal for the crime of
+being a friend of the English realm.</p>
+
+<p>John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a
+weak-minded, feeble specimen of royalty, who did<pb n="258" /><anchor id="Pg258" />
+not keep of one mind two days together. Now he
+clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he
+claimed to be a friend of France; and thus he
+shifted back and forward until the French despot
+sent an army to his kingdom to help him make up
+his mind. The people were ready to fight for their
+country, but the prince still wobbled between two
+opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and
+was fast making his way to Lisbon.</p>
+
+<p>Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed
+tears over the fate of his country, but, as for himself,
+he wanted badly to save his precious person. Across
+the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil,
+in whose vast forest area he might find a safe
+refuge. The terrible French were close at hand.
+He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste
+he and his court had their treasures carried on a
+man-of-war in the Lisbon harbor and prepared for
+flight. Most of the nobility of the country followed
+him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing
+fifteen thousand persons, who took with them valuables
+worth fifty millions of dollars. On November
+29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as
+the advance guard of the French came near enough
+to gaze on its swelling sails. It was a remarkable
+spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of the
+world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country
+with his nobility and treasures, to transfer his government
+to a distant colony of the realm.</p>
+
+<p>Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil,
+where they were received with an enthusiastic show<pb n="259" /><anchor id="Pg259" />
+of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the loyal
+colonists by lifting their country into the condition
+of a separate nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved
+for Portuguese ships, were opened to the world's
+commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly
+was brought to a sudden end; manufactures were
+set free from their fetters; a national bank was
+established; Brazil was thrown open freely to
+foreigners; schools and a medical college were
+opened, and every colonial restriction was swept
+away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency
+to a kingdom at a word. John, while
+bearing the title of prince, was practically king,
+for his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly
+insane, and he ruled in her stead.</p>
+
+<p>He became actual king, as John VI., on the
+death of his mother in 1816, and as such he soon
+found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians
+had been given so much that they wanted
+more. The opening of their country to commerce
+and travel had let in new ideas, and the people
+began to discover that they were the slaves of an
+absolute government. This feeling of unrest passed
+out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion
+at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put
+down, but a wider revolt came on in 1820, and
+spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro,
+the capital, whose people demanded of their ruler
+a liberal constitution.</p>
+
+<p>A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened
+monarch taking refuge in his palace in the suburbs,<pb n="260" /><anchor id="Pg260" />
+where he lay trembling with fear. Fortunately,
+his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute
+character, and he quieted the people by swearing
+that his father and himself would accept the constitution
+they offered. Full of joy, the throng
+marched with enthusiasm to the palace of the king,
+who on seeing them approach was not sure whether
+he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to
+get into his carriage, he quite mistook their meaning,
+and fell into a paroxysm of terror when the
+people took out the horses that they might draw
+him to the city with their own hands. He actually
+fainted from fright, and when his senses came
+back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that
+he would agree to anything,&mdash;anything his dear
+people wanted.</p>
+
+<p>King John by this time had had quite enough of
+Brazil and the Brazilians. As soon as he could decide
+on anything, he determined to take his throne
+and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had
+brought them fourteen years before, leaving his son
+Pedro&mdash;young, ardent, and popular&mdash;to take care
+of Brazil in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>But the people were not satisfied to let him go
+until he had given his royal warrant to the new
+constitution, and just before he was ready to depart
+a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding
+that he should give his assent to the charter of the
+people's rights. He had never read it, and likely
+knew very little what it was about, but he signed
+what they asked for, all the same, and then made<pb n="261" /><anchor id="Pg261" />
+haste on shipboard, leaving Prince Pedro as regent,
+and as glad to get away from his <hi rend="font-style: italic">loyal</hi> Brazilians as
+he had once before been to get away from Junot
+and his Frenchmen.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it
+was not long to remain so. The Cortes of Portugal
+grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and passed
+laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control.
+One of these required the young prince to leave
+Brazil. They were laying plans to throw the great
+colony back into its former state.</p>
+
+<p>When news of these acts reached Rio the city
+broke into a tumult. Pedro was begged not to
+abandon his loving people, and he agreed&mdash;thus
+defying the Cortes and its orders. This was on
+January 9, 1822. The Cortes next, to carry out its
+work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron
+to bring back the prince. This forced him to take
+a decided stand. On May 13 he took the title of
+"Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;"
+and on the 7th of September, when word came that
+the Cortes had taken still more violent action, he
+drew his sword in the presence of a party of revolutionists,
+with the exclamation, "Independence or
+Death." On the 12th of the following month he
+was solemnly crowned as Pedro I., "Constitutional
+Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated.
+Within less than a year thereafter not
+a hostile Portuguese soldier remained in Brazil, and
+it had taken its place definitely among the nations
+of America.</p>
+
+<pb n="262" /><anchor id="Pg262" />
+
+<p>This is but half the story of Brazil's struggle for
+freedom. It seems advisable to tell the other half,
+which took place in 1889, sixty-seven years after
+the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent
+empire. The second made it a republic,
+and brought it into line with the republican nations
+of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar
+fate attended the establishment of monarchy
+in Brazil. We have seen how John, the first emperor,
+"left his country for the country's good."
+The same was the case with his two successors,
+Pedro I. and Pedro II.</p>
+
+<p>Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed
+declarations of his aspirations for liberty. He was
+going to be a second Washington. But it was all
+empty talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere
+dramatic posing, to which he was given. His ardor
+for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before
+he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution
+promised was not given until it was fairly
+forced from him, and then it proved to be a worthless
+document, made only to be disregarded. A
+congress was called into being, but the emperor
+wished to confine its functions to the increase
+of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to
+worse until by 1831 the indignation of the people
+grew intense. The troops were in sympathy with
+the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he
+stood alone against the country, finally abdicated
+the throne in haste in favor of his infant son. He
+took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and<pb n="263" /><anchor id="Pg263" />
+left the country never to return. The remainder
+of his short life was spent as king of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from
+his father. Studious, liberal, high-minded, he did
+not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress
+and its powers. But for all his liberality,
+Brazil was not satisfied. All around it were republics,
+and the spirit of republicanism invaded the
+empire and grew apace. From the people it made
+its way into the army, and in time it began to look
+as if no other emperor would be permitted to succeed
+Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he
+was growing old and feeble and there was a general
+feeling that he ought to be left to end his reign
+undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his
+grave. Unfortunately for him, many began to believe
+that a plot was in the air to make him give up
+the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular,
+and her husband, the Count d'Eu, was
+hated, and when the ministry began to send the
+military away from the capital, as if to carry out
+such a plot, an outbreak came.</p>
+
+<p>Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a
+professor in the military school, and Marshal
+Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of
+the army. There was one brigade they could
+count on,&mdash;the second,&mdash;and all the forces in Rio
+were republican in sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread
+about that Constant and Deodoro were to be arrested
+and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away. It was<pb n="264" /><anchor id="Pg264" />
+time to strike. Early the next morning Constant
+rode out to the quarters of the Second Brigade, called
+it out, and led it to the great square in front of the
+War Department building. Deodoro took command
+and sent an officer into the building to demand the
+surrender of the ministry. They yielded, and telegraphed
+their resignation to the emperor, who was
+at Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution was phenomenally successful.
+When the other troops in the city heard of the
+revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets
+to join the Second Brigade, while the people, who
+did not dream of what was afoot, looked on in
+astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and
+when Dom Pedro reached the city at three o'clock
+in the afternoon, it was to find that he was no longer
+emperor. A provisional government had been organized,
+the chiefs of the revolution had named
+themselves ministers, and they had taken possession
+of the public buildings. A decree was issued
+that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become
+a federal republic.</p>
+
+<p>So great a change has rarely been accomplished
+so easily. A few friends visited the emperor, but
+there was no one to strike a blow for him. And the
+feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to
+be kept on the throne by the shedding of blood.
+That night word was sent him that he had been
+deposed and would be compelled to leave the country
+with his family. During the next night the<pb n="265" /><anchor id="Pg265" />
+royal victims of the revolution were sent on shipboard
+and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus
+was the third emperor sent out of Brazil through a
+bloodless revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic
+was organized, with a constitution closely like that
+of the United States. But the men at the head of
+government had the army at their back and were
+rather military dictators than presidents, and it
+was not long before rebellions broke out in some of
+the states. For three years there was war between
+the two factions of the people, with frightful destruction
+of life and property. Then, in September,
+1893, the navy rebelled.</p>
+
+<p>The navy had always been officered by aristocrats,
+and looked with contempt upon the army.
+At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in the
+harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city.
+It soon became evident that it was the purpose of
+Mello and his fellows to re-establish the empire and
+bring back Dom Pedro to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult
+situation. He hesitated about bombarding the city,
+which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the president,
+filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval
+officers had much trouble to obtain supplies. Mello,
+finding himself in a dilemma, left the harbor with
+one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina.
+Saraiva, an able chief of his party, invaded this
+and the neighboring districts, but he was hotly pursued
+and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to<pb n="266" /><anchor id="Pg266" />
+Rio without having gained any advantage. Here
+he found his position a very awkward one. The
+rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain
+by bombarding the city. The best they could do
+was to try and establish a commercial blockade, so
+as to force the government to terms, and in doing
+this Mello found himself running up against the
+power of the United States.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image15.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We have given these incidents not so much for
+the interest they may have in themselves, but because
+they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems
+worth relating. There were warships of several
+nations in the harbor, the officers of most of which
+accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel navy,
+though it had not a foot of land under its control.
+Saldana da Gama, then in command of the ships,
+refused permission to any merchant vessel to go to
+the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire
+on any one that should venture. Thus the fleet
+of merchantmen was forced to lie out in the bay
+and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact
+that yellow fever was making havoc among the
+crews.</p>
+
+<p>The captains of the American merchant ships
+applied for protection to the senior American officer
+present, but he refused to interfere, and the commercial
+blockade went on. Such was the state of
+affairs when the United States Admiral Andrew E.
+Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the
+situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities.</p>
+
+<pb n="267" /><anchor id="Pg267" />
+
+<p>"Go in," he said to the American captains.
+"Trust to me to protect you from attack or to
+revenge you if injured."</p>
+
+<p>This promise put new spirit into the captains.
+Captain Blackford, of the barque "Amy," and two
+other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29,
+1894, that they would take their ships in to the
+wharves the next morning. When Da Gama heard
+of this he announced that he would fire on any
+vessel that dared attempt it.</p>
+
+<p>When Monday morning dawned there was a
+state of excitement in Rio Janeiro harbor. Da
+Gama might keep his word, and what would the
+American admiral do in that event? The commanders
+of the other war-vessels looked on with
+interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham
+meant business. The dawn of day showed active
+movements in the small American squadron. The
+ships were clearing for action, and the cruiser
+"Detroit" took a position from which she could
+command two of Da Gama's vessels, the "Guanabara"
+and the "Trajano."</p>
+
+<p>When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy"
+began to warp in towards the pier. A musket-shot
+came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara."
+Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past
+the bow of the Brazilian ship. A second followed
+that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian
+tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram
+his vessel, Captain Brownson of the "Detroit"
+took his ship in between the two Brazilian war-vessels,<pb n="268" /><anchor id="Pg268" />
+in a position to rake them and their supporting
+tugs.</p>
+
+<p>This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama's
+guns remained silent, and the "Amy," followed by
+the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to
+the wharves. Others followed, and before night
+all the British and other merchantmen in the harbor
+were hastening in to discharge their cargoes. Benham
+had brought to a quick end the "intolerable
+situation" in Rio Janeiro harbor.</p>
+
+<p>This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists
+to bring Peixoto to terms. Some of the ironclads
+escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa
+Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans.
+A few months sufficed to bring the
+revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length
+firmly established in Brazil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="269" /><anchor id="Pg269" />
+<head>FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.</head>
+
+<p>Among the varied countries of South America the
+little republic of Paraguay, clipped closely in between
+Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil, presents the
+most singular history, this being due to the remarkable
+career of the dictator Francia, who ruled
+over it for a quarter of a century, and to the warlike
+energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny
+of Francia was one of the strangest which history
+records, no man ever ruling with more absolute
+authority and more capricious cruelty. For many
+years Paraguay was completely cut off by him
+from the rest of the world, much as Japan was
+until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry.
+Unlucky was the stranger who then dared set foot on
+Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass before
+he could see the outer world again. Such was the
+fate of Bonpland, the celebrated botanist and companion
+of Humboldt, who rashly entered this forbidden
+land and was forced to spend ten years
+within its locked confines. Such is the country,
+and such was the singular policy of its dictator,
+whose strange story we have here to tell.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries
+of South America in the general revolt against
+Spain. There was here no invasion and no blood-shed;<pb n="270" /><anchor id="Pg270" />
+the armies of Spain were kept too busy
+elsewhere, and the revolution was accomplished in
+peace. A governing committee was formed, with
+Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and José Gaspar
+Rodriguez de Francia for its secretary. The first
+was a man of little ability; the latter was a man
+whose powers will soon be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay.
+Two years later a new convention was held,
+which dissolved the committee and elected two
+consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country.
+Two chairs were made for them, resembling
+the curule chairs of Rome, and called Cæsar's and
+Pompey's chairs. On entering office Francia coolly
+seated himself in Cæsar's chair, leaving that of
+Pompey for his associate. This action showed the
+difference in force of character between the two
+men.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all
+the powers of government. He was a true Cæsar.
+He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to
+reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived
+the Spaniards in the country of all civil rights.
+This was done to gain the support of the Indian
+population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He
+soon went farther. Yegros was in his way and he
+got rid of him, making the simple-minded and
+ignorant members of the congress believe that only
+a sovereign magistrate could save the country, which
+was then threatened by its neighbors. In consequence,
+on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was<pb n="271" /><anchor id="Pg271" />
+made dictator for three years. This was not
+enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he played
+his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816,
+a new congress proclaimed him supreme and perpetual
+dictator.</p>
+
+<p>It was no common man who could thus induce
+the congress of a republic to raise him to absolute
+power over its members and the people. Francia
+at that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and
+vigorous man, of medium stature, with piercing
+black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked.
+The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco
+manufacturer in Paraguay, he was at first intended
+for the church, but subsequently studied the law.
+In this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent,
+and honorable, and always ready to defend
+the poor and weak against the rich. It was the
+reputation thus gained which first made him prominent
+in political affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia
+quickly began to show his innate qualities. Love
+of money was not one of his faults, and while
+strictly economical with the public funds, he was
+free-handed and generous with his own. Thus,
+of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned
+him, he would accept only three thousand,
+and made it a strict rule to receive no present,
+either returning or paying for any sent him. At
+first he went regularly every day to mass, but he
+soon gave up this show of religious faith and dismissed
+his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to<pb n="272" /><anchor id="Pg272" />
+despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing
+the priests, saying that they talked about
+things and represented mysteries of which they
+knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he
+said, "serve more to make men believe in the devil
+than in God."</p>
+
+<p>Of the leading principle of Francia's political
+system we have already spoken. It had been the
+policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the
+people and keep them in strict obedience to the
+priesthood, and Francia adopted a similar policy.
+Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might
+penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was
+seeking to absorb the country. With these excuses
+he forbade, under the severest penalties, intercourse
+of any character between the people of
+Paraguay and those of neighboring countries and
+the entry of any foreigner to the country under his
+rule.</p>
+
+<p>In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling
+himself an envoy from Spain, should dare to enter
+Paraguay without authority from himself should
+be put to death and his body denied a burial. The
+same severe penalty was decreed against any native
+who received a letter speaking of political affairs
+and did not at once present it to the public tribunals.
+These rigid orders were probably caused
+by some mysterious movements of that period,
+which made him fear that Spain was laying plans
+to get possession of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year the dictator made a new move<pb n="273" /><anchor id="Pg273" />
+in the game of politics. He called into being a
+kind of national assembly, professed to submit to
+its authority, and ratified a declaration of independence.
+Just why this was done is not very
+clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the
+Spanish government, and these may have had something
+to do with it. At any rate, a timely military
+conspiracy was just then discovered or manufactured,
+a colonel was condemned to death, and
+Francia was pressed by the assembly to resume his
+power. He consented with a show of reluctance,
+and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini,
+his envoy to Spain, should return, when he would
+yield up his rule to the marquis. All this, however,
+was probably a mere dramatic move, and
+Francia had no idea of yielding his power to any
+one.</p>
+
+<p>The dictator had a policy of his own&mdash;in fact, a
+double policy, one devoted to dealing with the land
+and its people; one to dealing with his enemies or
+those who questioned his authority. The one was
+as arbitrary, the other as cruel, as that of the
+tyrants of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil
+yields two harvests annually, were seized by the
+dictator and stored on account of the government.
+The latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the
+land, and a communal system was adopted under
+which Francia disposed at will of the country and
+its people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of
+the fields, and when hands were needed for the<pb n="274" /><anchor id="Pg274" />
+harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet agriculture
+made little progress under the primitive methods
+employed, a broad board serving for a plough, while
+the wheat was ground in mortars, and a piece of
+wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The
+cotton, as soon as picked from the pods, was spun
+on the spinning-wheel, and then woven by a travelling
+weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on
+the back of an ox or a mule, and, when in use,
+was hung from the branch of a tree.</p>
+
+<p>Commerce was dealt with in the same way as
+agriculture. The market was under Francia's control,
+and all exchange of goods was managed under
+rules laid down by him. He found that he must
+open the country in a measure to foreign goods, if
+he wanted to develop the resources of the country,
+and a channel of commerce was opened on the
+frontier of Brazil. But soldiers vigilantly watched
+all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant
+without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on
+imports, kept them in a bazaar under military
+guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the
+amount of goods which any of his subjects could
+purchase.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of all this Francia brought about a
+complete cessation of all private action, the state
+being all, and he being the state. All dealing for
+profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce
+alike made no progress. On the other hand, everything
+relating to war was developed. It was his
+purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign<pb n="275" /><anchor id="Pg275" />
+countries, and to be fully prepared to defend it
+against warlike invasion.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image16.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted
+was a French dictionary of the arts and industries.
+From this he gained the idea of founding public
+workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated
+to activity alike by threats and money. At one
+time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor for
+awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a
+gallows, he proposed to try it on a shoemaker if he
+did not do his work properly, while promising to
+richly reward him if he did.</p>
+
+<p>Military roads were laid out, the capital and
+other cities were fortified, and a new city was built
+in the north as a military post to keep the savage
+Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized
+Mission Indians, they were gradually brought under
+the yoke, made to work on the land, and enrolled
+in the army like other citizens. In this way a
+body of twenty thousand militia and five thousand
+regular troops was formed, all being well drilled
+and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry
+force. The body-guard of the dictator was made
+up of picked troops on whose fidelity he could
+rely.</p>
+
+<p>Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish
+governors, tearing down adjoining houses to isolate
+it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he did
+not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but
+nightly slept in a different room, so that his sleeping
+apartment should not be known. In this he<pb n="276" /><anchor id="Pg276" />
+resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also
+imitated in his austerity and simplicity of manners,
+and the fact that his principal confidant was
+his barber,&mdash;a mulatto inclined to drink. His other
+associate was Patiños, his secretary, who made the
+public suffer for any ill-treatment from his master.
+The remainder of the despot's household consisted
+of four slaves, two men and two women. In
+dress he strove to imitate Napoleon, whom he
+greatly admired, and when drilling his troops was
+armed with a large sword and pistols.</p>
+
+<p>There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of
+this Paraguayan Nero. With his suspicious nature
+and his absolute power, his subjects had no more
+security for their lives than those of old Rome.
+Plots against his person&mdash;which he identified with
+the state&mdash;served him as a pretext for seizing and
+shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was
+suspicious. One of his first victims was Yegros,
+his former associate in the consulate. Accused of
+favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty
+others were condemned to death in 1819.</p>
+
+<p>More than three hundred others were imprisoned
+on the same charge, and were held captive for
+eighteen months, during which they were subjected
+by the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious
+dictator took special pleasure in the torment of
+these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own
+and making a diversion out of his revenge. From
+his actions it has been supposed that there were
+the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is certain<pb n="277" /><anchor id="Pg277" />
+that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria
+that he issued his decrees of proscription and carried
+out his excesses of cruelty.</p>
+
+<p>When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless
+wretch who omitted to address him as "Your
+Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and
+Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the
+man who, wishing to speak with him, dared to
+approach too closely and did not keep his hands well
+in view, to show that he had no concealed weapons.
+Treason, daggers, and assassins seemed the perpetual
+tenants of Francia's thoughts. One country-woman
+was seized for coming too near his office
+window to present a petition; and he went so far,
+on one occasion, as to order his guard to fire on
+any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever
+he went abroad a numerous escort attended
+him, and the moment he put his foot outside the
+palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a
+warning to all the inhabitants to go into their
+houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head
+nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to
+the dictator's dreaded face.</p>
+
+<p>It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth
+century, and in a little state of South America,
+there should have arisen a tyrant equal in cruelty,
+in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula
+of old or the Louis XI. of mediæval times. Death
+came to him in 1840, after twenty-six years of this
+absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came
+after a few days of illness, during which he attended<pb n="278" /><anchor id="Pg278" />
+to business, refused assistance, and forbade
+any one not called by him to enter his room. Only
+the quick coming of death prevented him from
+ending his life with a crime; for in a fit of anger at
+the <hi rend="font-style: italic">curandero</hi>, a sort of quack doctor who attended
+him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword,
+and rushed furiously upon the trembling wretch.
+Before he could reach his intended victim he fell
+down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard
+his orders and come to his aid, and death
+soon followed. His funeral was splendid, and a
+grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was
+thrown down by the hands of some enemies unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage,
+one of the most remarkable characters of
+the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his
+nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as
+president of the republic for ten years, during
+which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued
+in power till his death in 1862, but put an
+end to the isolation of Paraguay, opening it to the
+world's commerce.</p>
+
+<p>He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom
+we mention here simply from the fact that the war
+which Francia had so diligently prepared for came
+in his time. In 1864 the question of the true
+frontier of the state brought on a war in which
+Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay combined
+to crush the little country in their midst.
+We need only say here that Lopez displayed remarkable<pb n="279" /><anchor id="Pg279" />
+powers as a soldier, appeared again and
+again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and
+fought off his powerful opponents for five years.
+Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was slain in a
+battle in which his small army was completely destroyed.
+Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic
+struggle, was at the mercy of the allies. It was
+restored to national life again, but under penalty of
+the great indemnity, for so small a state, of two
+hundred and thirty-six million pesos.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="280" /><anchor id="Pg280" />
+<head>TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.</head>
+
+<p>In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most
+vigorous and tyrannical of the governor-generals
+of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled
+with a stern will and an iron hand. One of the
+purposes in which he was most earnest was that
+of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast,
+all the naval vessels under his command being
+ordered to patrol the coast night and day, and to
+have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it
+proved, all his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers
+continuing to ply their trade in spite of Tacon
+and his agents.</p>
+
+<p>The despoilers of the revenue were too daring
+and adroit, and too familiar with the shoals and
+rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and
+the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation
+prevented any close approach to their haunts.
+In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient of offering
+a large and tempting reward to any one who
+would desert the fraternity and agree to pilot the
+government vessels through the perilous channels
+which they frequented. Double this reward, an
+almost princely prize, was offered for the person of
+one Marti, dead or alive.</p>
+
+<p>Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward<pb n="281" /><anchor id="Pg281" />
+for the arrest of Marti, who was looked upon as
+the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A
+daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler
+and half pirate, his name was as well known in
+Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The
+admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him
+as the King of the Isle of Pines, this island being
+his principal rendezvous, from which he sent his
+fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on
+the neighboring coast. As for Tacon's rewards,
+they were long as ineffective as his revenue cutters
+and gunboats, and the government officials fell
+at length into a state of despair as to how they
+should deal with the nefarious and defiant band.</p>
+
+<p>One dark, dull night, several months after the
+placards offering these rewards had been posted in
+conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two
+sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor's
+palace, which stood opposite the grand plaza of the
+capital city. Shortly before midnight a cloaked
+individual stealthily approached and slipped behind
+the statue of the Spanish king near the fountain in
+the plaza. From this lurking-place he watched the
+movements of the sentinels, as they walked until
+they met face to face, and then turned back to back
+for their brief walk in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>It was a delicate movement to slip between the
+soldiers during the short interval when their eyes
+were turned from the entrance, but the stranger at
+length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently
+across the short space and hiding himself<pb n="282" /><anchor id="Pg282" />
+behind one of the pillars of the palace before they
+turned again. During their next turn he entered
+the palace, now safe from their espionage, and
+sought the broad flight of stairs which led to the
+governor's rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly
+familiar with the place.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image17.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the head of the stairs there was another
+guard to be passed, but this the stranger did with a
+formal military salute and an air of authority as if
+his right to enter was beyond question. His manner
+quieted all suspicion in the mind of the sentinel,
+and the newcomer entered the governor's room
+unchallenged, closing the door behind him.</p>
+
+<p>Before him sat the governor-general in a large
+easy-chair, quite alone and busily engaged in writing.
+On seeing him thus unattended the weather-beaten
+face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction.
+Evidently his secret plans had worked
+fully to his desire. Taking off his cloak, he tossed
+it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the
+governor's attention. Tacon looked up in surprise,
+fixing his eyes keenly upon his unlooked-for visitor.</p>
+
+<p>"Who is this that enters, at this late hour,
+without warning or announcement?" he sternly
+asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face.</p>
+
+<p>"One who brings information that the governor-general
+wants. You are he, I believe?"</p>
+
+<p>"I am. What do you want? And how did
+you, a stranger, pass my guard without challenge?"</p>
+
+<p>"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I
+understand, has offered a handsome reward to any<pb n="283" /><anchor id="Pg283" />
+one who will put you on the track of the rovers of
+the gulf?"</p>
+
+<p>"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon,
+with sudden interest. "What know you of them?"</p>
+
+<p>"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said
+the stranger. "I have my own safety to consider."</p>
+
+<p>"That you need not fear. My offer of reward
+also carries pardon to the informant. If you are
+even a member of the confederation itself you will
+be safe in speaking freely."</p>
+
+<p>"I understand you offer an additional reward, a
+rich one, for the discovery of Captain Marti, the
+chief of the smugglers?"</p>
+
+<p>"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to
+reward and protect any one who puts me on the
+track of that leader of the villains."</p>
+
+<p>"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance
+of this. Do you give me your knightly word that
+you will grant me a free pardon for all offences
+against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know,
+even to the most secret hiding-places of the rovers?"</p>
+
+<p>"I pledge you my full word of honor for that,"
+said the governor, now deeply interested.</p>
+
+<p>"You will grant me full pardon, under the
+king's seal, no matter how great my offences or
+crimes, if you call them so, may have been?"</p>
+
+<p>"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said
+Tacon, wondering why his visitor was so unduly
+cautious.</p>
+
+<p>"Even if I were a leader among the rovers
+myself?"</p>
+
+<pb n="284" /><anchor id="Pg284" />
+
+<p>Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the
+stalwart stranger, while considering the purport of
+his words.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead
+our ships to the haunts of Marti and his followers,
+you can fully depend on the reward and the
+pardon."</p>
+
+<p>"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust
+your word, or I should never have put myself in
+your power."</p>
+
+<p>"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently.
+"Now come to the point; I have no time
+to waste."</p>
+
+<p>"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have
+offered the largest reward, dead or alive, stands
+before you."</p>
+
+<p>"Ha! you are</p>
+
+<p>"Captain Marti."</p>
+
+<p>The governor started in surprise, and laid his
+hand hastily on a pistol that lay before him. But
+he regained his self-possession in a moment, and
+solemnly said,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours.
+You have offended deeply, but my word is my law.
+But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for
+the present under guard."</p>
+
+<p>"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti.</p>
+
+<p>Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered,
+and soon after Marti was safely locked up,
+orders being given to make him comfortable until he
+was sent for. And so this strange interview ended.</p>
+
+<pb n="285" /><anchor id="Pg285" />
+
+<p>During the next day there was a commotion in
+the harbor of Havana. An armed revenue cutter,
+which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of
+Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity;
+food, ammunition, and other stores being taken on
+board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and
+she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was
+a man unknown to captain or crew, otherwise than
+as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping his
+word.</p>
+
+<p>A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,&mdash;faithful
+to them, but faithless and treacherous to his late
+comrades and followers,&mdash;for he guided the ship
+with wonderful ease and assurance through all the
+shoals and perils of the coast waters, taking her to
+the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing their
+depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places.
+Many a craft of the smugglers was taken and destroyed
+and large quantities of their goods were
+captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued.
+The returns to the government were of
+great value and the business of the smugglers was
+effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned
+to the governor to claim the reward for his base
+treachery.</p>
+
+<p>"You have kept your word faithfully," said
+Tacon. "It is now for me to keep mine. In this
+document you will find a free and unconditional
+pardon for all the offences you have committed
+against the laws. As for your reward, here's an
+order on the treasury for&mdash;"</p>
+
+<pb n="286" /><anchor id="Pg286" />
+
+<p>"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?"
+said Marti. "I am glad to have the
+pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to
+make you a proposition in place of the money you
+offer. What I ask is that you grant me the sole
+right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare
+the trade in fish contraband to any one except my
+agents. This will repay me quite well enough for
+my service to the government, and I shall build at
+my own expense a public market of stone, which
+shall be an ornament to the city. At the expiration
+of a certain term of years this market, with all
+right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the
+government."</p>
+
+<p>Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition.
+He would save the large sum which he had promised
+Marti, and the city would gain a fine fish-market
+without expense. So, after weighing fully all the
+<hi rend="font-style: italic">pros</hi> and <hi rend="font-style: italic">cons</hi>, Tacon assented to the proposition,
+granting Marti in full legal form the sole right to
+fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets.
+Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him
+of this concession. During his life as a rover he
+had become familiar with the best fishing-grounds,
+and for years furnished the city bountifully with
+fish, reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise.
+At the close of the period of his monopoly the
+market and privileges reverted to the government.</p>
+
+<p>Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of
+large wealth. How he should invest it was the
+question that next concerned him. He finally decided<pb n="287" /><anchor id="Pg287" />
+to try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical
+performances in Havana on condition of building
+there one of the largest and finest theatres in the
+world. This was done, paying the speculator a
+large interest on his wealth, and he died at length
+rich and honored, his money serving as a gravestone
+for his sins.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="288" /><anchor id="Pg288" />
+<head>KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.</head>
+
+<p>We have told the story of the remarkable expedition
+of Vasquez de Coronado from Mexico northward
+to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to
+tell the story of an expedition which took place
+three centuries later from this prairie land to the
+once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola."
+In 1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he
+found it inhabited by tribes of wandering savages,
+living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return
+expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful
+farms and populous cities. Yet it was to pass
+through a country as wild and uncultivated as that
+which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries
+before.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of Mexico by the United States
+armies in 1846 was made in several divisions, one
+being known as the Army of the West, led by
+Colonel Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march
+to Santa Fé, seize New Mexico, and then push on
+and occupy California, both of which were then
+provinces of Mexico. It was an expedition in which
+the soldiers would have to fight far more with
+nature than with man, and force their way through<pb n="289" /><anchor id="Pg289" />
+desolate regions and over deserts rarely trodden by
+the human foot.</p>
+
+<p>The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort
+Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, in the month
+of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen
+hundred men, all from Missouri, and all
+mounted except one battalion of infantry. Accompanying
+it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A
+march of two thousand miles in length lay before
+this small corps, much of it through the land of the
+enemy, where much larger forces were likely to
+be met. Before the adventurers, after the green
+prairies had been passed, lay hot and treeless plains
+and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry
+snow still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile
+Mexicans, whose numbers were unknown, might
+make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those
+who gathered to see them start looked upon them
+as heroes who might never see their homes again.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition
+began its march, taking the trail of a provision
+train of two hundred wagons and two companies
+of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three
+days later, by Kearney with the rear. For the first
+time in history an army under the American standard,
+and with all the bravery of glittering guns and
+floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains.
+For years the Santa Fé trail had been a synonym
+for deeds of horror, including famine, bloodshed,
+and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones
+of men and of beasts of burden paved the way, and<pb n="290" /><anchor id="Pg290" />
+served as a gruesome pathway for the long line of
+marching troops.</p>
+
+<p>The early route led, now through thick timber,
+now over plains carpeted with tall grasses, now
+across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground
+in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and
+tried the horses severely to pull them out. To draw
+the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of the table-lands
+the tugging strength of a hundred men was
+sometimes needed.</p>
+
+<p>Summer was now on the land, and for days together
+the heat was almost unbearable. There was
+trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals,
+unused to their new trappings and discipline, and
+which often broke loose and scampered away, only
+to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane
+ejaculations.</p>
+
+<p>For six hundred miles the column traversed the
+great Santa Fé trail without sight of habitation and
+over a dreary expanse, no break to the monotony
+appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile
+and flowery prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the
+Arkansas. Here was a rich and well-watered level,
+with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming
+convenient halting-places for rest and bathing.
+As yet there had been no want of food, a large
+merchant train of food wagons having set out in
+advance of their own provision train, and for a
+few days life ceased to be a burden and became a
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey<pb n="291" /><anchor id="Pg291" />
+to Fort Bent had been one of toil and hardships,
+of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless dreary
+miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance
+and food at times grew scanty, while the scarcity
+of fuel made it difficult to warm their sparse supplies.
+During part of the journey they were
+drenched by heavy rains. To these succeeded days
+of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst in its
+train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering
+souls. When at length the Arkansas River was
+reached, men and animals alike rushed madly into
+its waters to slake their torment of thirst.</p>
+
+<p>At times their route led through great herds of
+grazing buffaloes which supplied the hungry men
+with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they
+were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores
+of the provision wagons. This was especially the
+case when they left the grassy and flowery prairie
+and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months
+of the year no drop of rain or dew fell, while the
+whitened bones of men and beasts told of former
+havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface
+was in places incrusted with alkaline earth worn
+into ash-like dust, or paved with pebbles blistering
+hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by
+variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow
+in hue.</p>
+
+<p>A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent,
+but on the 2d of August the column was on the
+trail again, the sick and worn-out being left behind.
+As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still.<pb n="292" /><anchor id="Pg292" />
+Neither grass nor shrubs was to be found for the
+famishing animals; the water, what little there was,
+proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank
+deep in the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike
+were nearly suffocated by the clouds of dust that
+blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad
+were they when, after three days of this frightful
+passage, they halted on the welcome banks of the
+Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw rising
+before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron
+and Spanish peaks and knew that the desert
+was passed.</p>
+
+<p>The sight of the rugged mountains infused new
+energy into their weary souls, and it was with fresh
+spirit that they climbed the rough hills leading upward
+towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length
+into a grand mountain amphitheatre closed in with
+steep walls of basalt and granite. They seemed to
+be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they
+enjoyed their first Sunday's rest since they had left
+Fort Leavenworth.</p>
+
+<p>The food supply had now fallen so low that the
+rations of the men were reduced to one-third the
+usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts
+helped them to endure this severe privation, and
+they made their way rapidly through the mountain
+gorges and over the plains beyond, covering from
+seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition
+had diminished as well as food, and the men were
+forbidden to waste any on game, for news had been
+received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute<pb n="293" /><anchor id="Pg293" />
+their path and all their powder and shot might
+be needed.</p>
+
+<p>The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was
+reached on August 14, and their desert-weary eyes
+beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens
+surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while
+groves of cedar and pine diversified the scene.
+With new animation the troops marched on, elated
+with the tidings which now reached them from the
+north, that Colonel Kearney had been raised to the
+rank of brigadier-general, and a second item of
+news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held
+the cañon six miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared
+to dispute its passage.</p>
+
+<p>This was what they had come for, and it was a
+welcome diversion to learn that the weariness of
+marching was likely to be diversified by a season
+of fighting. They had made the longest march
+ever achieved by an American army, nearly all of
+it through a barren and inhospitable country, and
+it was with genuine elation that they pressed forward
+to the cañon, hopeful of having a brush with
+the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment
+when they found the pass empty of foes.
+The Mexicans had failed to await their coming.</p>
+
+<p>Kearney had already begun his prescribed work
+of annexing New Mexico to the United States, the
+Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas
+having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws
+and government of the United States. As they
+marched on, a similar oath was administered at San<pb n="294" /><anchor id="Pg294" />
+Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the
+soldiers fairly revelled in the fresh vegetables,
+milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the inhabitants
+were glad to exchange for the money of their
+new guests. Orders had been given that all food
+and forage obtained from the peaceable inhabitants
+should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was
+done.</p>
+
+<p>At Pecos they had their first experience of the
+antiquities of the land. Here was the traditional
+birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient temple
+still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled
+by that famous monarch, and kept burning for
+long years after his death, in the hope that he
+would come again to deliver his people from bondage.
+At length, as tradition held, the fire was
+extinguished by accident, and the temple and village
+were abandoned. The walls of the temple
+still stood, six feet thick, and covering with their
+rooms and passages a considerable space. The
+Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight
+for the Mexicans, for tradition told them that a
+people would come from the East to free them from
+Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about
+to be fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>The next hostile news that reached the small
+army was to the effect that seven thousand Mexicans
+awaited them in Gallisteo Cañon, fifteen miles
+from Santa Fé. This was far from agreeable
+tidings, since the Mexicans far outnumbered the
+Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a<pb n="295" /><anchor id="Pg295" />
+much smaller force might have easily defended it
+against a numerous foe. The pass had been fortified
+and the works there mounted with six pieces of
+cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders'
+ranks.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, once more the advancing troops
+found a strong pass undefended. The Mexican
+officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who felt no
+enmity towards the Americans, had left them to
+fight it out between themselves. Deserted by his
+soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with a few dragoons,
+and the Americans marched unmolested
+through the pass. On the same day they reached
+Santa Fé, taking peaceful possession of the capital
+of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country
+in the name of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the
+last of their wearisome march of nine hundred
+miles, which had been completed in about fifty days.
+So exhausting had this final day's march proved
+that many of the animals sank down to die, and
+the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side, without
+food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep.
+As the flag of the United States was hoisted in the
+public square, a national salute of twenty-eight
+guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry
+rode with waving banners and loud cheers through
+the streets. They had cause for great gratulation,
+for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had
+won a great province without the loss of a single
+man in battle.</p>
+
+<pb n="296" /><anchor id="Pg296" />
+
+<p>By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff
+one hundred feet high was raised in the plaza for
+the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was
+taken by the officials of the town. They were
+willing enough to take it, since their new masters
+left them in office, while the people, who had been
+told that they would be robbed and mercilessly
+treated, hailed the Americans as deliverers rather
+than as enemies. The same was the case with all
+the surrounding people, who, when they found that
+they would be paid for their provisions and be left
+secure in their homes, settled down in seeming high
+good will under the new rule.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image18.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Santa Fé at that time contained about six thousand
+inhabitants. After St. Augustine it was the
+oldest city within the limits of the United States.
+When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was
+built on the site of one of the old Indian pueblos,
+whose date went back to the earliest history of the
+country. The Spanish town&mdash;The Royal City of
+the Holy Faith, <hi rend="font-style: italic">La Villa Real del Santa Fé</hi>, as they
+called it&mdash;was also full of the flavor of antiquity,
+with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old
+churches, built nearly three centuries before.
+These were of rude architecture and hung with
+battered old bells, but they were ornamented with
+curiously carved beams of cedar and oak. The
+residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as the
+churches, and the abundant relies of the more
+ancient Indian inhabitants gave the charm of a
+double antiquity to the place.</p>
+
+<pb n="297" /><anchor id="Pg297" />
+
+<p>From Santa Fé as a centre General Kearney sent
+out expeditions to put down all reported risings
+through the province, one of the most important
+of these being to the country of the warlike Navajo
+Indians, who had just made a raid on New Mexico,
+driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many
+captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs
+to the officers of the expedition is interesting.</p>
+
+<p>"Americans, you have a strange cause of war
+against the Navajos," he said. "We have waged
+war against the New Mexicans for several years.
+You now turn upon us for attempting to do what
+you have done yourselves. We cannot see why
+you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the
+New Mexicans in the West, while you do the same
+thing in the East. We have no more right to complain
+of you for interfering in our war than you
+have to quarrel with us for continuing a war we
+had begun long before you got here. If you will
+act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences."</p>
+
+<p>The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let
+the New Mexicans alone, as American citizens, and
+the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly
+conclude the story of Kearney's expedition, which
+was but half done when Santa Fé was reached.
+He was to continue his march to California, and set
+out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on
+a journey as long and difficult as that he had
+already made. He reached the Californian soil only
+to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished<pb n="298" /><anchor id="Pg298" />
+the work set for him, and a little more fighting
+added the great province of California to the American
+conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied
+and conquered a vast section of northern
+Mexico and added some of its richest possessions to
+the United States.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="299" /><anchor id="Pg299" />
+<head>THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.</head>
+
+<p>The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the
+Aztecs and their Spanish successors, has been the
+scene of two great military events, its siege and capture
+by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture
+by the American army under General Scott in
+1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of the
+remarkable career of Cortez we have given the
+most striking incident, the story of the thrilling
+<hi rend="font-style: italic">Noche triste</hi> and the victory of Otumba. A series
+of interesting tales might have been told of the
+siege that followed, but we prefer to leave that
+period of mediæval cruelty and injustice and come
+down to the events of a more civilized age.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most striking scenes in the campaign
+of 1847 was the taking of the fortified hill of Chapultepec,
+but before describing this we may briefly
+outline the events of which it formed the dramatic
+culmination. Vera Cruz, "the city of the True
+Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was the scene
+of the American landing, and was captured by the
+army under General Scott in March, 1847. Then,
+marching inland as Cortez had done more than
+three centuries before, the American army, about
+twelve thousand strong, soon began to ascend the<pb n="300" /><anchor id="Pg300" />
+mountain-slope leading from the torrid sea-level
+plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm.</p>
+
+<p>Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces
+came to the mountain-pass of Cerro Gordo, where
+Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the
+invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men.
+The heights overhanging the road bristled with
+guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was
+strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable
+to an attack from the direction of Vera
+Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the
+lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took
+the wiser plan of cutting a new road along the
+mountain-slopes and through ravines out of sight
+of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican
+rear. An uphill charge from this point gave the
+Americans command of all the minor hills, leaving
+to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo,
+with its intrenchments and the strong fortress on
+its summit.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred
+feet in rugged height, was assailed in front and
+rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep
+rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one
+barricade after another, and at length sweeping
+over the ramparts of the summit fortress and
+driving the defenders from their stronghold down
+the mountain-side. Santa Anna took with him
+only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving
+three thousand as prisoners in the American
+hands, with forty-three pieces of bronze artillery<pb n="301" /><anchor id="Pg301" />
+and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a
+month afterwards Scott's army marched into the
+city of Puebla, on the table-land, sixty-eight miles
+from the capital. Here they rested for several
+months, awaiting reinforcements.</p>
+
+<p>On August 7 the army resumed its march, now
+less than eleven thousand strong, the term of
+several regiments having expired and their places
+been partly filled by untried men, none of whom
+had ever fired a gun in war. On they went, up-hill
+still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula
+with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through
+a mountain region till Rio Frio was reached, fifty
+miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand feet
+above the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of
+Mexico lay suddenly revealed before them like a
+vision of enchantment. It was a scene of verdant
+charm, the bright green of the fields and groves
+diversified with the white walls of villages and
+farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams, and the
+gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond
+and around a wall of wooded mountains ascended
+to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer charm
+that had not been gazed upon by an invading army
+since the days when Cortez and his men looked
+down upon it with warm delight.</p>
+
+<p>The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco,
+with the long, narrow lake of Xochimilco near it,
+and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near
+the western shore of which the city of Mexico was<pb n="302" /><anchor id="Pg302" />
+visible. Between Chalco and Tezcuco ran the
+national road, for much of its length a narrow
+causeway between borders of marsh-land. Near
+Lake Xochimilco was visible the Acapulco road.
+Strong works of defence commanded both these
+highways.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image19.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of
+approach, the national road being commanded by
+the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Peñon,
+precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes
+and a deep ditch on the other. The Acapulco
+road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses
+at Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more
+available than the other route. Still farther north
+and west of the capital was a third approach to it
+over the road to Toluco, defended by works at
+Molino del Rey and by the fortified hill of Chapultepec.
+It was evident that the army under Scott
+would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting
+before the city could be reached.</p>
+
+<p>It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements
+by which this work was accomplished.
+It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of
+Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached
+by a road leading to its rear during the
+night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen
+minutes sufficing for the important victory. The
+garrison fled in dismay, after losing heavily.</p>
+
+<p>An advance was made the same day on the nearby
+Mexican works at San Antonio and Churubusco,
+and with the same result. The garrison at San<pb n="303" /><anchor id="Pg303" />
+Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American
+movement, evacuated the works and retired upon
+Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired
+by success, carried all before them, taking
+the works at the bridge of Churubusco by an impetuous
+charge and soon putting the enemy to
+flight. Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the
+Mexican reserve, consisting of four thousand infantry
+and three thousand cavalry, whose line was
+broken by a bayonet charge.</p>
+
+<p>The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised
+movements, forced back in terrible confusion,
+and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives
+were cut down by the pursuing Americans,
+who followed to the immediate defences of the
+capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy
+fire of grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans,
+nine thousand strong, had captured three
+strong positions, held by three times their number,
+the Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners
+over six thousand men, while the American
+loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand.</p>
+
+<p>Negotiations for peace followed, but they came
+to nothing, the armistice that had been declared terminating
+on the 7th of September. The problem
+that now lay before General Scott was a very different
+one from that which Cortez had faced in his
+siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on
+an island in the centre of a large lake, which was
+crossed by a number of causeways, broken at intervals
+by canals whose bridges could be removed.</p>
+
+<pb n="304" /><anchor id="Pg304" />
+
+<p>During the centuries that succeeded this lake had
+disappeared, low, marshy lands occupying its site.
+The city, however, was still reached by causeways,
+eight in number, raised about six feet above the
+marsh level. In these ended the five main roads
+leading to the city. A large canal surrounded the
+capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all
+now filled with water, as this was the rainy season.
+The problem of bridging these under fire was one
+of the difficulties that confronted the Americans.</p>
+
+<p>General Scott decided to approach the city by the
+causeways of San Cosmé, Belen, and Tacubaya,
+which were defended by formidable works, the
+outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified
+position at the foot of a slope beyond which a grove
+of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec. It
+consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of
+which had been used as a foundry, but which were
+now converted into fortresses. This place was
+carried by storm in the early morning of September
+8, and the stronger position of Casa de Mata, a
+quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was captured
+by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec
+now lay between the Americans and the Mexican
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the
+places just taken were in the nature of outworks,
+remained to be captured before the city could be
+reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated
+rocky hill, about one hundred and fifty feet in
+height, and was surmounted by a large stone building<pb n="305" /><anchor id="Pg305" />
+which had been used as the bishop's palace, but
+was now converted into a strong fortress. It was
+well prepared for defence in guns and garrison, and
+was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of
+the capital. The western side was the most accessible,
+but the face of this, above the grove of cypresses
+which covered its base, presented a steep,
+rocky, and difficult ascent.</p>
+
+<p>To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon
+another section of the city was made on the 12th
+of September. The two divisions engaged in this
+returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec,
+though a force still threatened the southern causeways.
+Four batteries had been posted within easy
+range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night
+of the 11th, and all next day they kept up a steady
+fire upon it, driving its defenders back and partly
+wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th
+the batteries resumed their fire, while the forces
+chosen for the assault approached the hill from different
+directions through the fire of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty
+picked men each, from Worth's and Twigg's divisions,
+advanced with scaling ladders, while the
+batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to
+drive the defenders from the walls. Major-General
+Pillow led his division through the grove on the east
+side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound,
+and General Cadwalader succeeded him. Before
+him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a redoubt
+midway in its height. Up the steep rocks<pb n="306" /><anchor id="Pg306" />
+climbed the gallant stormers, broke into the redoubt
+with a wild cheer, and put its defenders to
+flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing
+without injury the mines which the Mexicans
+had planted, but which they could not fire without
+killing their own men. In a few minutes more the
+storming party reached the summit and climbed
+over the castle wall with shouts of victory, driving
+back its defenders. Soon the United States flag
+was seen floating over the ramparts, a roar of
+cheers greeting the inspiring spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>On the southeast Quitman's column of assault
+was making like progress, while Smith's brigade
+captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on the
+right, and Shield's brigade crossed the meadows
+under a hot fire of musketry and artillery and
+swept up the hill to the support of the stormers.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and
+strongest citadel of the Mexicans, had fallen before
+an impetuous charge up a hill deemed inaccessible,
+in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at
+the mercy of the invaders. The causeway which
+it defended formed a double roadway on each side
+of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars.
+Shields charged impetuously along this causeway,
+towards the city, two miles distant, while Quitman
+pursued the fleeing enemy along the neighboring
+causeway of Belen.</p>
+
+<p>An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields
+to bid him halt till Worth, who was following the
+San Cosmé causeway, could force its defences. The<pb n="307" /><anchor id="Pg307" />
+aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general
+and began, "General Scott presents his compliments</p>
+
+<p>"I have no time for compliments just now,"
+roared out Shields, and spurred briskly onward to
+escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were
+coming. Soon he had led his men into the suburbs
+of the city, while Worth and Quitman charged inward
+over the neighboring causeways with equal
+impetuosity.</p>
+
+<p>A strong force was quickly within the streets of
+the city, assailed by skirmishers firing from houses
+and gardens, who could be reached only by forcing
+a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were
+brought in by Worth's column and planted in
+position to batter down the San Cosmé gate, the
+barrier to the great square in the city's centre, and
+which fronted the cathedral and palace. Quitman
+and Shields had to fight their way through as hot
+a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves
+before the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this
+point a severe loss was sustained, but the assailants
+held their own, mounting guns to attack the citadel
+the next morning.</p>
+
+<p>These guns were not used. Before daylight a
+deputation of the city council waited on General
+Scott and announced that the army had evacuated
+the city, and the government officials had fled. It
+was not long afterwards before the Stars and Stripes
+were floating over the National Palace and in the
+great plaza.</p>
+
+<pb n="308" /><anchor id="Pg308" />
+
+<p>Fighting continued for a day longer between the
+Americans and about four thousand soldiers and
+liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury
+for their country and were not put down without
+considerable loss. On the morning of September 16
+the army of the United States held undisputed possession
+of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting
+continued, however, elsewhere for some months
+later, and it was not till the 2d of February, 1848,
+that a treaty of peace was signed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="309" /><anchor id="Pg309" />
+<head>WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.</head>
+
+<p>On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring
+band of reckless adventurers sailed from San Francisco,
+on an enterprise seemingly madder and wilder
+than that which Cortez had undertaken more than
+three centuries before. The purpose of this handful
+of men&mdash;filibusters they were called, as lawless in
+their way as the buccaneers of old&mdash;was the conquest
+of Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all
+Mexico and Central America. No one knows what
+wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their
+leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his
+admirers called him.</p>
+
+<p>Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner
+of the Gulf of California, with his few companions,
+he captured a number of hamlets and then grandiloquently
+proclaimed Lower California an independent
+state and himself its president. His next
+proclamation "annexed" to his territory the large
+Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite
+the California Gulf, and for a brief period he posed
+among the sparse inhabitants as a ruler. Some
+reinforcements reached him by water, but another
+party that started overland was dispersed by starvation,
+their food giving out.</p>
+
+<pb n="310" /><anchor id="Pg310" />
+
+<p>Walker now set out with his buccaneering band
+on a long march of six hundred miles through a
+barren and unpeopled country towards his "possessions"
+in the interior. The Mexicans did not
+need any forces to defeat him. Fatigue and famine
+did the work for them, desertion decimated the band
+of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula
+ended at San Diego, where he and his men surrendered
+to the United States authorities. Walker was
+tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the
+neutrality laws, but was acquitted.</p>
+
+<p>This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted
+Walker's filibustering appetite. Looking about for
+"new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising field
+in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions.
+Invited by certain American speculators or adventurers
+to lend his aid to the democratic party of
+insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected
+a band of men of his own type and set sail
+for this new field of labor and ambition. On the
+11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force
+of sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan
+coast, and was joined there by about a hundred of
+the native rebels.</p>
+
+<p>Making his way inland, his first encounter with
+the government forces took place at Rivas, where he
+met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His
+native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans
+fought with such valor and energy that the enemy
+were defeated with a loss of one-third their number,
+his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at<pb n="311" /><anchor id="Pg311" />
+Virgin Bay he was equally successful, and on the
+15th of October he captured the important city of
+Granada.</p>
+
+<p>These few successes gave him such prestige and
+brought such aid from the revolutionists that the
+opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on
+the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its
+leader, which made him fairly master of the country.
+He declined the office of president, which was offered
+him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic,
+an office better suited to maintain his position.
+His rapid success brought him not only the support
+of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits from the
+United States, who made their way into the country
+from the east and the west alike until he had a force
+of twelve hundred Americans under his command.</p>
+
+<p>General Corral, who had treated with him for
+peace, was soon to pay the penalty for his readiness
+to make terms with an invader. He was arrested
+for treason, on some charge brought by Walker,
+tried before a court-martial at which the new generalissimo
+presided, sentenced to death, and executed
+without delay.</p>
+
+<p>The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism
+was a war with the neighboring republic of
+Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a
+hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March
+20, 1856, in which Walker was worsted. He kept
+the field, however, and met the foe again at Rivas,
+on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the
+two republics now made peace.</p>
+
+<pb n="312" /><anchor id="Pg312" />
+
+<p>His military success seemed to have made the
+invader securely the lord and master of Nicaragua,
+and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty
+and had himself elected president on June 25.
+He had so fully established himself that he was
+recognized as head of the republic by President
+Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he
+immediately began to act the master and tyrant in
+a way that was likely to bring his government to a
+speedy end.</p>
+
+<p>Money being scarce, he issued currency on a
+liberal scale, and by a decree he restored the system
+of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two
+years before. Not content with these radical measures
+within the republic itself, he was unwise
+enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in
+the United States by meddling with the privileges
+of the Vanderbilt Steamship Company, then engaged
+in transporting the stream of gold-hunters
+to California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker
+revoked their charter and confiscated their property,
+thus bringing against his new government a
+fire in the rear.</p>
+
+<p>His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies
+on all sides, the Central American states bordering
+on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their ambitious
+neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company
+worked industriously to stir up a revolt against
+this soaring eagle of filibusterism.</p>
+
+<p>The result was a strong revolt against his rule,
+and he soon found himself confronted by a force of<pb n="313" /><anchor id="Pg313" />
+patriots in the field. For a short time there were
+busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being
+fought by the contending forces, the war ending
+with the burning of Granada by the president.
+Finding that the whole country was rising against
+him and that his case had grown desperate, Walker
+soon gave up the hopeless contest and surrendered,
+on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the
+United States sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took
+him to Panama, where he made his way back to the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>Thus closed the conquering career of this minor
+Cortez of the nineteenth century. But while
+Walker the president was no more, Walker the
+filibuster was not squelched. The passion for adventure
+was as strong in his mind as ever, and his
+brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable
+thirst for rule. In consequence he made
+effort after effort to get back to the scene of his
+exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent
+thirst for invasion giving the United States authorities
+no small trouble and ending only with his death.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, he was barely at home before he was
+hatching new schemes and devising fresh exploits.
+To check a new expedition which he was organizing
+in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had
+him arrested and put under bonds to keep the
+peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their
+jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile,
+yet making port first in Central America,
+where he landed on November 25, 1857.</p>
+
+<pb n="314" /><anchor id="Pg314" />
+
+<p>This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the
+pan. No support awaited him and his deluded
+followers, and in two weeks' time he found it judicious
+to surrender once more to the naval authorities
+of the United States; this time to Commodore
+Paulding, who took him to New York with his
+followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number.</p>
+
+<p>His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the
+United States. President Buchanan had strongly
+condemned the invasion of friendly territory in his
+annual message, but he now sent a special message to
+Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore
+Paulding for landing an American force on foreign
+soil. He decided that under the circumstances,
+the government must decline to hold Walker as a
+prisoner, unless he was properly arrested under
+judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan
+strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this was that Walker was again set
+free, and it was not long before he had a new following,
+there being many of the adventurous class
+who sympathized warmly with his enterprising
+efforts. This was especially the case in the South.
+Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old
+enthusiasm, he soon organized another company,
+which sought to leave the country in October, 1858.
+He was closely watched, however, and the whole company
+was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi
+on the steamer on which passage had been taken.</p>
+
+<p>President Buchanan had issued a proclamation
+forbidding all such expeditions, and Walker was now<pb n="315" /><anchor id="Pg315" />
+put on trial before the United States Court at New
+Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack
+satisfactory evidence, and he was acquitted.</p>
+
+<p>Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied
+himself in writing an account of his exploits,
+in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But
+this was far too tame work for one of his stirring
+disposition, and in June, 1860, he was off again,
+this time making Honduras the scene of his invading
+energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized
+that town and held it for eight weeks, at the end of
+which time he was ordered to leave the place by the
+captain of a British man-of-war. The president of
+Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive
+force. Walker marched south, but his force was
+too small to cope with the president's army, and he
+had not gone far before he found himself a captive
+in the hands of the Honduran government. Central
+America had by this time more than enough of
+William Walker and his methods, and five days
+after his capture he was condemned to death and
+shot at Truxillo.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of
+the chief of filibusters, the most persistent of
+modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless
+exploits were of the mediæval rather than of the
+modern type. A short, slender, not especially demonstrative
+man, Walker did not seem made for a
+hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking
+feature was his keen gray eyes, which brought him
+the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny."</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="316" /><anchor id="Pg316" />
+<head>MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.</head>
+
+<p>It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and
+submission of the Indians in Mexico, that the final
+blow for freedom in that country should have been
+made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name
+was Benito Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was
+against the French invaders and Maximilian, the
+puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the
+Mexican throne. In the words of Shakespeare,
+"Thereby hangs a tale."</p>
+
+<p>For many years after the Spanish colonies had
+won their independence the nations of Europe looked
+upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly
+have liked to snap up some of these weak countries,
+which Spain had been unable to hold, but the great
+republic of the United States stood as their protector,
+and none of them felt it quite safe to step
+over that threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe
+Doctrine." "Hands off," said Uncle Sam, and
+they obeyed, though much against their will.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 began a war in the United States which
+gave the people of that country all they wanted to
+do. Here was the chance for Europe, and Napoleon
+III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to
+send an army to Mexico and attempt the conquest
+of that country. It was the overweening ambition<pb n="317" /><anchor id="Pg317" />
+of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his
+scheme to found an empire in Mexico which, while
+having the name of being independent, would be
+under the control of France and would shed glory
+on his reign.</p>
+
+<p>At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian
+we have named, was Benito Juarez, a descendant of
+the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood
+of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family
+was of the lowest class of the Indians, and when he
+was twelve years old he did not know how to read
+or write. After that he obtained a chance for education,
+and in time became a lawyer, was made
+governor of his native state, and kept on climbing
+upward till he became secretary of state, president
+of the Supreme Court, and finally president of
+Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>He was the man who had the invaders of his
+country to fight, and he fought them well and long.
+But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no
+match for the trained troops of France, and they
+were driven back step by step until the invaders
+were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet
+Juarez still had a capital and a government at San
+Luis Potosi, and all loyal Mexicans still looked on
+him as their president.</p>
+
+<p>When Napoleon III. found himself master of
+Mexico, he looked around for a man who would serve
+him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he
+found in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother
+of the emperor of Austria, a dreamer rather than a<pb n="318" /><anchor id="Pg318" />
+man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine
+right of kings." This was the kind of man that
+the French usurper was in want of, and he offered
+him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian
+was taken by surprise. The proposition was
+a startling one. But in the end ambition overcame
+judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous
+position on the condition that France should sustain
+him on the throne.</p>
+
+<figure url="images/image20.png" rend="w90">
+<index index="fig" />
+<head>HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.</head>
+<figDesc>Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.</figDesc>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was
+for the time at an end, and the French had almost
+everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor
+and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera
+Cruz and made their way to the city of Mexico.
+This they entered with great show and ceremony
+and amid the cheers of many of the lookers on,
+though the mass of the people, who had no love
+for emperors, kept away or held their peace.</p>
+
+<p>The new empire began with imperial display.
+All the higher society of Mexico were at the feet
+of the new monarchs. With French money to pay
+their way and a French army to protect them,
+there was nothing for Maximilian and Carlotta to
+do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their new
+dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec,
+two hundred feet above the valley, stood the old
+palace which had been ruined by the American guns
+when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by
+Maximilian on a grand scale, hanging gardens were
+constructed and walled in by galleries with marble
+columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe,<pb n="319" /><anchor id="Pg319" />
+and here the new emperor and empress held their
+court, with a brilliant succession of fêtes, dinners,
+dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and
+gayety, and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of
+proud and royal reign.</p>
+
+<p>But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had
+reached Mexico in June, 1864. For a year longer
+the civil war in the great republic of the north
+continued; then it came to an end, and the government
+of the United States was free to take a hand
+in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near
+neighbor to the south.</p>
+
+<p>It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of
+Napoleon, it was like the rumble of an earthquake
+under the throne of Maximilian, when from Washington
+came a diplomatic demand which, translated
+into plain English, meant, you had better make
+haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they
+stay there, you will have the United States to deal
+with. It hurt Louis Napoleon's pride. He shifted
+and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of the
+great republic was on the throat of his new empire,
+and there was nothing for him to do but obey.
+He knew very well that if he resisted, the armies
+of the civil war would make very short work of
+his forces in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his
+dream of an empire and leave the country with the
+French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times,
+but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could
+hold his throne with the aid of the loyal Mexicans.<pb n="320" /><anchor id="Pg320" />
+Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe and
+appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very
+plainly what she thought of his actions; but it was
+all of no avail, and she left the palace almost broken-hearted.
+Soon after Maximilian received the distressing
+news that his wife had lost her reason
+through grief, and was quite insane. At once he
+made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out
+for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed
+his mind again and concluded to remain.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of January, 1867, the French army,
+which had held on until then, with one excuse after
+another, left the capital city, which it had occupied
+for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore
+at Vera Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon
+were broken up as useless, horses sold for a song,
+and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian
+and Austrian troops which the new emperor had
+brought with him going with the French. Maximilian
+did not want them; he preferred to trust
+himself to the loyal arms of his Mexican subjects,
+hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the United
+States, it had no more to say; it was content to
+leave this shadow of an empire to its <hi rend="font-style: italic">loyal</hi> Mexicans.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the
+right course to make himself beloved by the Mexicans.
+Full of his obsolete notion of the "divine
+right of kings," a year after he had reached
+Mexico he issued a decree saying that all who clung
+to the republic or resisted his authority should be
+shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many<pb n="321" /><anchor id="Pg321" />
+decrees, for a number of prisoners were shot under its
+cruel mandate, one of them being General Orteaga.
+It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to
+order that the whole laboring population of the
+country should be reduced to slavery.</p>
+
+<p>While all this was going on President Juarez was
+not idle. During the whole French occupation he
+had kept in arms, and now began his advance from
+his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo,
+chief of his armies, soon conquered the northern
+part of the country, and occupied the various states
+and cities as soon as they were left by the French.</p>
+
+<p>But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the
+Church party had finally induced him to remain,
+and this party now came to his aid. General Miramon,
+an able leader, commanded his army, which
+was recruited to the strength of eight thousand men,
+most of them trained soldiers, though nearly half
+of them were raw recruits.</p>
+
+<p>With this force Maximilian advanced to Querétaro
+and made it his head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile
+advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his residence
+there with his government about him. But the
+president and cabinet came very near being taken
+captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon suddenly
+advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez
+and his government barely escaping.</p>
+
+<p>What would have been the result if the whole
+Mexican government had been taken prisoners it is
+not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General
+Escobedo would have done what he now did, which<pb n="322" /><anchor id="Pg322" />
+was to advance on Querétaro and invest it with his
+army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was limited
+to this one town, where it was besieged by an army
+of Mexican patriots, while, with the exception of
+a few cities, the whole country outside was free
+from imperial rule.</p>
+
+<p>Soon the emperor and his army found themselves
+closely confined within the walls of Querétaro.
+Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both
+sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions
+grew scarce and foraging parties were sent out, but
+after each attack the lines of the besiegers became
+closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of
+forces and funds, and General Marquez was sent to
+the city of Mexico to obtain them. He managed to
+get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to
+return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian
+of the promised aid. Such forces and funds as
+Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz,
+who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and
+took Pueblo, and then turned on Marquez, whom he
+defeated so completely that he made his way back
+to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night.
+It was the glory gained by this act that later raised
+Diaz to the presidency, which he held so brilliantly
+for so many years.</p>
+
+<p>The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a
+shadow. For two months the siege of Querétaro
+continued, steadily growing closer. During this
+trying time Maximilian showed the best elements
+of his character. He was gentle and cheerful in demeanor,<pb n="323" /><anchor id="Pg323" />
+and brave in action, not hesitating to expose
+himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made
+for his escape, that he might put himself at the head
+of his troops elsewhere, but he refused, through a
+sense of honor, to desert his brave companions.</p>
+
+<p>Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian
+himself had only the coarse, tough food which was
+served to the common soldiers. Day after day
+Marquez was looked for with the promised aid, but
+night after night brought only disappointment. At
+length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in
+charge of the most important point in the city,
+turned traitor and admitted two battalions of the
+enemy. From this point the assailants swarmed
+into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere
+prevailed. Lopez had not intended that the
+emperor should be captured, and gave him warning
+in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and
+reached a little hill outside the town, but here he
+was surrounded by foes and forced to deliver up his
+sword.</p>
+
+<p>Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full
+master of Mexico, and held its late emperor in his
+hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon his
+word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but
+always at the last moment he failed to avail himself
+of them. His friends sought to win for him the
+clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible.
+The traitors, as he called them, should be tried by
+court-martial, he said and abide the decision of the
+court.</p>
+
+<pb n="324" /><anchor id="Pg324" />
+
+<p>Tried they were, though the trial was little more
+than a farce, with the verdict fixed in advance.
+This verdict was death. The condemned, in addition
+to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command,
+Miramon and Medjia. The late emperor rose early
+on the fatal morning and heard mass. He embraced
+his fellow victims, and as he reached the street
+said, "What a beautiful day! On such a one I
+have always wished to die."</p>
+
+<p>He was greeted with respect by the people in
+the street, the women weeping. He responded
+with a brief address, closing with the words, "May
+my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the
+country, and if more should be shed, may it flow
+for its good, and not by treason. Viva Independencia!
+Viva Mexico!"</p>
+
+<p>In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired,
+and the empire of Maximilian was at an end.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="325" /><anchor id="Pg325" />
+<head>MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.</head>
+
+<p>On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of
+Havana, the capital of Cuba, were startled by a
+report that rebels were in the field, a band of
+twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in
+the province of Matanzas. Other small bands
+were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A
+trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba
+was guarded by twenty thousand Spanish troops
+and had on its military rolls the names of sixty
+thousand volunteers. But the island was seething
+with discontent, and trifles grow fast under such
+circumstances. Twenty years before a great rebellion
+had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in
+1878, but Spain had ignored the promises of the
+treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new
+flame which had now burst out.</p>
+
+<p>As the days and weeks went on the movement
+grew, many of the plantation hands joining the
+insurgents until there were several thousand men
+in arms. For a time these had it all their own
+way, raiding and plundering the plantations of the
+loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and mountains
+when the troops appeared.</p>
+
+<p>The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque
+old affairs of battles and banners, marches<pb n="326" /><anchor id="Pg326" />
+and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp
+and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes,
+sudden attacks, quick retreats, and brisk
+affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of
+the conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing
+over the armed and trained troops of Spain,
+but they hoped to wear them out and make the war
+so costly to Spain that she would in the end give
+up the island in despair.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the Cuban patriots was like the
+famous deeds of Marion and his men in the swampy
+region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba
+were uncultivated and half its area was covered
+with thickets and forests. In the wet season the
+low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps
+of sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests,
+so thick and dense as to be almost impassable. The
+high bushes and thick grasses of the plains formed
+a jungle which could be traversed only with the
+aid of the machete, the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like
+blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and
+sword, now cutting his way through bush and
+jungle, now slicing off the head of an enemy in
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Everywhere in the island there are woods, there
+are hills and mountains, there are growths of lofty
+grass, affording countless recesses and refuges for
+fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To
+retire to the "long grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning,
+to gain safety from pursuit, and a patriot
+force might lie unseen and unheard while an army<pb n="327" /><anchor id="Pg327" />
+marched by. In brief, Cuba is a paradise for the
+bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain were none
+too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where
+the flame of death might suddenly burst forth from
+the most innocent-looking woodland retreat or
+grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for
+days for a foe who could not be found, and as for
+starving out the rebels, that was no easy thing to
+do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet
+potato, the wild fruits of the woodland, which the
+fertile soil bore abundantly, while the country-people
+were always ready to supply their brothers
+in the field.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion
+of 1895. For a time the rebels gathered in
+small bands with none but local leaders. But the
+outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives
+from the former war, and early in April
+twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica,
+landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of
+the island.</p>
+
+<p>Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo,
+a mulatto, who had won a high reputation for his
+daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had
+unbounded influence over the negro element of the
+rebellion. Wherever Maceo was ready to lead, they
+were ready to follow to the death if he gave the
+word, and he soon proved himself the most daring
+and successful soldier in the war.</p>
+
+<p>He did not make his way inland with safety.
+Spanish cavalry were patrolling the coast to prevent<pb n="328" /><anchor id="Pg328" />
+landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a brisk
+fight with a party of these soon after landing, he
+getting away with a bullet-hole through his hat.
+For ten days they were in imminent danger, now
+fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland
+fruits for food, and so pestered by the Spanish
+patrols that the party was forced to break up, only
+two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end
+these fell in with a party of rebels, from whom they
+received a warm and enthusiastic welcome.</p>
+
+<p>Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one
+of the leaders in the former war who had refused to
+sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the fight
+for two months longer, and finally escaped from the
+country, now to return without the load of a broken
+promise on his conscience.</p>
+
+<p>The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large
+following of insurgents at his back, and in several
+sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he could
+more than hold his own. Other patriots soon
+arrived from exile,&mdash;José Marti, the fomenter of the
+insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier; and
+several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the
+rebels. The movement, which had as yet been a
+mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming the dimensions
+of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining
+the ranks of these able leaders, until more than six
+thousand men were in the field.</p>
+
+<p>Almost everywhere that they met their enemy
+they were largely outnumbered, and they fought
+mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least<pb n="329" /><anchor id="Pg329" />
+expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such
+hidden paths that pursuit was usually idle. Much
+of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks
+or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which
+art they were far superior to the Spanish cavalry.
+Many stories are told of women who rode in their
+ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully
+as the men, and in this there is doubtless much
+truth. Their horses were no show animals, but a
+sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there
+being no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain
+or shine, but as tough and tireless beasts as our own
+bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders in
+mad dashes on the foe.</p>
+
+<p>The favorite mode of fighting practised by the
+insurgents was to surprise the enemy by a sharp
+skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick
+off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity,
+they would dash from their covert in a wild
+cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling like
+so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the
+ranks of the foe. This was the kind of fighting in
+which Maceo excelled.</p>
+
+<p>Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes
+and only one affair that could be called a
+battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader,
+while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba,
+a man looked upon as the ablest general of Spain,
+led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great
+annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the
+fortified town of Bayamo, and Campos determined<pb n="330" /><anchor id="Pg330" />
+to drive him from the field. Several columns of
+Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from
+different quarters, one of these, fifteen hundred
+strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of
+July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three
+thousand men, being posted on a stock-farm several
+miles from Bayamo.</p>
+
+<p>The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards,
+intended to strike the division under Campos;
+but by an error it fell upon the advance guard, led
+by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a
+brisk fire from the wooded hill-sides. Santocildes
+fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from the governor-general's
+boot.</p>
+
+<p>Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the
+Spanish ranks that some important officer had
+fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in
+a vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded
+in repelling them, he felt himself in a critical
+situation, and hastily drew up his whole force into
+a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead
+horses and mules for breastworks. Around this
+strong formation the Cubans raged for several hours,
+only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous
+rout. An assault was made on the rear
+guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to capture
+the ammunition train. But its defenders held their
+ground vigorously, and fought their way to the
+main column, where they aided to form the square.
+Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo,
+pursued by the Cubans and having lost<pb n="331" /><anchor id="Pg331" />
+heavily in the fight. They were saved from utter
+destruction by Maceo's lack of artillery, and Campos
+was very careful afterwards not to venture near
+this daring leader without a powerful force.</p>
+
+<p>Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in
+the earlier war, had now been appointed commander-in-chief
+of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo
+as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way
+westward into the province of Santa Clara, and in
+November Maceo left the eastern province of
+Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the
+trocha, the famous device of the Spaniards to prevent
+the free movement of the Cuban forces. It
+may be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare,
+devised by the Spaniards to check the free
+movement of their rebel foes.</p>
+
+<p>The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish
+trochas were military lines cut through the woods
+and across the island from side to side, and defended
+by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees
+were piled along both sides of the roadway, making
+a difficult breastwork of jagged roots and branches.
+At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this
+well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison
+of about one hundred men, it needing about
+fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the
+trocha from sea to sea.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos,
+and by Weyler after him, to check the Cuban movements.
+We need only say here that, despite its
+cost and the number of men it tied up on guard<pb n="332" /><anchor id="Pg332" />
+duty, the trocha failed to restrain the alert islanders.
+Gomez had crossed it in his movement westward,
+and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He
+made a feint of an attack in force on one part of
+the line, and when the Spaniards had concentrated
+to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected
+spot, without firing a shot or losing a man.</p>
+
+<p>Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas
+and Spaniards. From Santa Clara they
+entered Matanzas province, and from this made
+their way into the province of Havana, bringing
+the war almost to the gates of the capital. Spain
+had now sent more than one hundred thousand
+troops across the ocean, though many of these
+were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans, the
+island had now risen almost from end to end, and
+their force was estimated at from thirty to fifty
+thousand men. It was no longer a rebel outbreak
+that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly
+fixed in Havana province, many negro field-hands
+and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They
+fought not only against the Spaniards, but against
+the bandits also, of whom there were many abroad
+plundering from both sides alike. These were
+hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo
+was the active fighter of the force, Gomez being
+occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and destroying
+railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of
+war.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1896, a new movement westward<pb n="333" /><anchor id="Pg333" />
+was made, Maceo leading his men into the province
+of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end
+of the island. Here was the great tobacco district,
+one into which insurrection had never before made
+its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the
+island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure
+nowhere but within the cities, while the insurgents
+moved wherever they chose in the country. The
+sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by
+day and lurid with the flames of burning fields at
+night, showing that Gomez was busy with his work
+of destruction, burning the crops of every planter
+who sought to grind his cane.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader
+through the remainder of his career. General
+Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his
+official life with the boast that he would soon clear
+the provinces near Havana of rebels in arms. But
+he was hardly in the governor's chair when Maceo
+was back from the west and swooping down on
+the city of Jaruco, which he looted and burned.</p>
+
+<p>Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where
+they found no one to oppose them, and he was
+soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that
+this province was pacified. But the ink was barely
+dry upon it when Maceo, having burnt the port of
+Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the
+"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters
+in the mountains and defied all the power
+of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted<pb n="334" /><anchor id="Pg334" />
+to confine him by building a new trocha,
+cutting off that end of the island. This took two
+months to complete, during which Maceo continued
+his work almost unopposed, destroying the tobacco
+of loyalists, defeating every force sent against him,
+and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the
+southern part of the province.</p>
+
+<p>Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the
+field, marching into Pinar del Rio at the head of
+thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an
+end to the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt
+sure he had hemmed in with his trocha. Between
+the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province
+was sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting
+a large force that Maceo was obliged to
+dismiss the most of his men.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the slender remnant under the control
+of one of his lieutenants, he once more passed the
+trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat and
+landing in Havana province. He had sent orders
+in advance for a concentration of the Cuban forces
+in this region, that he might give Weyler a new
+employment.</p>
+
+<p>The daring partisan leader was near the end of
+his career, brought to his death by the work of a
+traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for
+the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men
+with him, was fired on from a Spanish ambush, and
+fell, mortally wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Thus died the most dashing soldier that the
+Cuban rebellion called into the field. Dr. Zertucha,<pb n="335" /><anchor id="Pg335" />
+of his staff, was charged with treachery in leading
+him into this ambush, though that is by no means
+proved. Maceo was one of nine brothers, all soldiers,
+and all of whom had now died in the great
+struggle for Cuban independence. His body was
+recovered from the enemy after a desperate fight;
+his valiant spirit was lost to the cause. Yet his
+work had not been without avail, and the country
+for which he had fought so bravely was left by him
+on the highroad to liberty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" />
+<index index="pdf" />
+<pb n="336" /><anchor id="Pg336" />
+<head>LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."</head>
+
+<p>About three o'clock of a dark morning, whose
+deep gloom shrouded alike the shores and waters of
+Cuba's tropic isle, a large craft left the side of the
+"New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson's
+fleet off Santiago, and glided towards the throat of
+the narrow channel leading to its land-locked harbor.
+This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier
+named the "Merrimac." On board were Richmond
+P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor, and seven
+volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the
+old hulk in the channel and thus to seal up the
+Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact that
+there were ten chances to one that they would go to
+the bottom with their craft, or be riddled with
+Spanish bullets, did not trouble their daring souls.
+Their country called, and they obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks,
+was a series of torpedoes, prepared to blow the
+vessel into a hopeless wreck when the proper moment
+came. A heavy weight in coal had been left
+on board, to carry her rapidly to the bottom, and
+there was strong hope that she could be dropped in
+the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle,"
+and "bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers.
+That it was an errand of imminent risk did not<pb n="337" /><anchor id="Pg337" />
+trouble the bold American tars. There were volunteers
+enough eager to undertake the perilous task
+to form a ship's crew, and to the six seamen chosen
+Coxswain Clausen added himself as a stowaway.
+The love of adventure was stronger than fear of
+death or captivity.</p>
+
+<p>It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the
+night before an attempt to go in had been made,
+but the hour was so late that the admiral called the
+vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and
+there was no hinderance to the adventurous voyage.
+Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac"
+glided in towards the dark line of coast. Not a
+light was shown, and great skill was needed to strike
+the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From
+the "New York" eager eyes watched the collier until
+its outlines were lost beneath the shadow of the hills.
+Eyes continued to peer into the darkness and ears
+to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the
+nerves of the watching crew. Then came a booming
+roar from Morro Castle and the flash of a cannon
+lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and
+booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes
+there seemed a battle going on in the darkness. The
+"Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting her
+doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men?</p>
+
+<p>Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with
+a steam launch and four men, prepared to pick up
+any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went
+daringly under the batteries and hung about until
+daylight revealed his small craft, but not a man was<pb n="338" /><anchor id="Pg338" />
+seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned disappointed
+at 6.15 <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">A.M.</hi>, pestered by spiteful shots from
+the Spanish guns. He had followed the "Merrimac"
+until the low-lying smoke from the roaring guns hid
+her from view. Then came the explosion of the
+torpedoes. Hobson had done his work. Powell
+kept under the shelter of the cliffs until full day
+had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of
+the "Merrimac" rising out of the water of the
+channel. The sinking had been accomplished, but
+no one could say with what result to Hobson and
+his men.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now leave the distant spectators and go
+on board the "Merrimac," seeking the company of
+her devoted crew. It was Hobson's purpose to sink
+her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping
+the anchor and handling the rudder so as to turn her
+across the stream. Her length was sufficient to
+close up completely the deeper channel. He would
+stop the engines, let fall the anchor, open the traps
+made for the sea-water to flow in, and explode the
+torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the
+ship, each containing eighty-two pounds of powder,
+and they were connected so that they could be fired
+in train. There were two men below, one to reverse
+the engines, the other to break open the sea-traps
+with a sledge hammer. Those on deck were to let
+fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson
+would touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes,
+and all would leap overboard and swim to
+the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to<pb n="339" /><anchor id="Pg339" />
+escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it
+so often does, set them sadly astray.</p>
+
+<p>On through the darkness they went, hitting the
+channel squarely, and steaming in under the frowning
+walls of the Morro through gloom and death-like
+silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A
+small picket-boat came gliding out under the collier's
+stern and fired several shots at the suspicious craft.
+One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled
+one important item of the plans. The dingy, which
+was trusted to for escape, disappeared, perhaps
+hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having
+done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and
+gave the alarm, and quickly the shore batteries were
+firing on the dark hull. The ships in the harbor
+echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards
+were alert. They thought that an American battle-ship
+was trying to force its way in, perhaps with
+the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give
+it a hard fight.</p>
+
+<p>Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove
+on, unhurt by the bombardment, and even by a submarine
+mine which exploded near her stern. The
+darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to
+hit, and she reached the desired spot, in the narrowest
+spot of the channel, none the worse for the
+shower of iron hail.</p>
+
+<p>So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment
+had arrived. Hobson gave the signal fixed
+upon, and the men below reversed the engine and
+opened the sea connections. They then dashed for<pb n="340" /><anchor id="Pg340" />
+the deck. Those above dropped the anchor and set
+the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter
+disappointment, discover that the rudder had been
+lost. The ship refused to answer her helm, and the
+plan of setting her lengthwise across the channel
+failed. The final task remained. Touching the
+electric button, the torpedoes went off with a sullen
+roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath their feet.
+The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail.
+The others leaped into the sea. Down went the
+"Merrimac" with a surge at the bow, cheers from
+the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank.
+The gunners thought they had sent to the depths
+one of the hostile men-of-war.</p>
+
+<p>At the last moment of leaving the "New York"
+an old catamaran had been thrown on the "Merrimac's"
+deck, as a possible aid to the crew in extremity.
+This float lay on the roof of the midship
+house, a rope fastening it to the taffrail, with enough
+slack to let it float loose after the ship had sunk. It
+was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it afforded
+them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy.</p>
+
+<p>We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself
+at this point in our narrative. He says, "I swam
+away from the ship as soon as I struck the water,
+but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward
+in spite of all I could do. This did not last very
+long, however, and as soon as I felt the tugging
+cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I
+could see dimly bobbing up and down over the
+sunken hull.</p>
+
+<pb n="341" /><anchor id="Pg341" />
+
+<p>"The 'Merrimac's' masts were plainly visible, and
+I could see the heads of my seven men as they
+followed my example and made for the float also.
+We had expected, of course, that the Spaniards
+would investigate the wreck, but we had no idea
+that they would be at it as quickly as they were.
+Before we could get to the float several row-boats
+and launches came around the bluff from inside
+the harbor. They had officers on board and armed
+marines as well, and they searched that passage,
+rowing backward and forward, until the next
+morning. It was only by good luck that we got
+to the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly
+that we had barely concealed ourselves when a boat
+with quite a large party on board was right beside
+us."</p>
+
+<p>An event which they thought unlucky now proved
+to be the salvation of the fugitives, who very likely
+would have been shot on the spot by the marines if
+they had then been seen from the boats. The rope
+which fastened the float to the ship was too short to
+let it swing free, and one of the pontoons that supported
+it was dragged partly under water, lifting
+the other above the surface. If the raft had lain
+flat on the water they would have had to climb on
+top and would have made an excellent mark for the
+marines. As it was they got under its lifted side,
+and by thrusting their hands through the slats that
+formed the deck they kept their heads above the
+water, and had a chance to breathe.</p>
+
+<p>Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention<pb n="342" /><anchor id="Pg342" />
+to the old, half-sunken raft that floated above
+the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the
+hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one
+seemed to suspect it. The fugitives spoke only in
+whispers and at times were almost afraid to breathe,
+lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place
+remained unsuspected.</p>
+
+<p>The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours
+went on, and their fingers ached as they clung
+desperately to the slats. As the night passed their
+teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed
+to them as if the Spaniards must hear the sound,
+so distinctly to their ears came the noises on the
+water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became
+at last so trying that one of the men let go and
+began to swim ashore. Hobson called him back,
+and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men
+in the boats and created some commotion. They
+rowed up towards the float and looked sharply
+about, but no one thought of investigating the float
+itself, and soon they went off into the shadows
+again, letting the hidden men once more breathe
+freely.</p>
+
+<p>The question that most interested the Spaniards
+was to learn what ship it was they had sunk. Hobson
+heard them talking and guessing about it and
+understood many of their words. He soon perceived
+that the officers had taken in the situation
+and were astonished at the boldness and audacity
+of the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the
+fleet, a fact to the lieutenant's satisfaction, as he felt<pb n="343" /><anchor id="Pg343" />
+more like trusting to the tender mercies of a Spanish
+sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him
+take up the narrative again.</p>
+
+<p>"When daylight came a steam-launch full of
+officers and marines came out from behind the cliff
+that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards
+us. All the men on board were looking curiously
+in our direction. They did not see us. Knowing
+that some one of rank must be on board, I waited
+till the launch was quite close and hailed her.</p>
+
+<p>"My voice produced the utmost consternation on
+board. Every one sprang up, the marines now
+crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were
+reversed. She not only stopped, but she backed off
+until nearly a quarter of a mile away, where she
+stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the
+word of command when we clambered out from
+under the float. There were ten of the marines,
+and they would have fired in a minute had they not
+been restrained.</p>
+
+<p>"I swam towards the launch, and then she started
+towards me. I called out in Spanish, 'Is there an
+officer on board?' An officer answered in the
+affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again,
+'I have seven men to surrender.' I continued
+swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>"As I looked up when they were dragging me
+into the launch, I saw that it was Admiral Cervera
+himself who had hold of me. He looked at me
+rather dubiously at first, because I had been down<pb n="344" /><anchor id="Pg344" />
+in the engine-room of the 'Merrimac,' where I
+got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and
+coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable.
+I had put on my officer's belt before sinking the
+'Merrimac,' as a means of identification, no matter
+what happened to me, and when I pointed
+to it in the launch the admiral understood and
+seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me
+when he understood who I was were, '<hi rend="font-style: italic">Bienvenida
+sea usted</hi>,' which means 'You are welcome.' My
+treatment by the naval officers, and that of my
+men also, was courteous all the time I was a
+prisoner. They heard my story, as much of it as
+I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more.</p>
+
+<p>"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of
+them that night," was Hobson's reply to a question.
+"We saw a great many things, though, and
+went through a great many experiences. When
+we started out from the fleet I tied to my belt a
+flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my
+ship's surgeon. The frequency with which we all
+felt thirsty on the short run into the passage and
+the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe
+that I was frightened. The men felt the same, and
+all the way the flask went from hand to hand.
+Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened,
+but to my surprise I found it normal. Later we
+forgot all about it, and when we got into the water
+there was no need for the flask."</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of this stirring adventure must
+be told more briefly. The prisoners were taken<pb n="345" /><anchor id="Pg345" />
+ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle.
+Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as
+to their fate, but this was relieved by the generous
+conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his chief-of-staff
+out the next morning under a flag of truce
+to report their safety and to make an offer for
+their exchange. Cervera's message was highly
+complimentary. It ran:</p>
+
+<p>"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish
+fleet, is most profoundly impressed with the
+brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the
+steamer 'Merrimac' in our harbor, and in admiration
+of their courage he has directed me to say to
+their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the
+exception of two of the men who were slightly
+hurt, they are uninjured. They are now prisoners
+of war and are being well cared for, and will be
+treated with every consideration."</p>
+
+<p>Cervera kept his word, though the captives found
+themselves in different hands later, when they were
+turned over to General Linares, commander of the
+troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity
+about five weeks, being exchanged on July 7, when
+a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were
+offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant
+seven. The story of their return to the American
+ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave
+eight passed up the trail leading to the American
+lines through the avenue of palms that bordered
+the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence,
+baring their heads as the band struck up "The<pb n="346" /><anchor id="Pg346" />
+Star-Spangled Banner." But as Hobson and his
+men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome
+broke the silence, while a cowboy yell came from
+the Rough Riders. Breaking from all restraint,
+the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of
+Hobson and his men. All the way to Siboney the
+cheers and excitement continued, and when Hobson
+set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew
+grew wild with enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson
+embraced him in the warmth of his greeting.
+As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up
+in the delirious delight of the men. Thus ended
+one of the most gallant deeds of that short war.</p>
+
+<p>It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had
+been managed, the effort to close the port proved a
+failure. Though the sunken ship closed part of the
+channel, there was room enough to pass beside her,
+this being strikingly proved on the morning of July
+3, when the squadron which Hobson had sought
+to bottle up came steaming down the channel past
+the sunken "Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it
+started on a wild fight for freedom. The result of
+this venture does not need to be retold, and it must
+suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish
+ships were shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore,
+and Cervera and all who survived of his men were
+prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was
+as much of a hero as a captive, for his captors could
+not soon forget his generous treatment of Hobson
+and his men.</p>
+</div>
+</body>
+
+<back rend="page-break-before: right">
+<div>
+<divGen type="pgfooter" />
+</div>
+
+</back>
+
+    </text>
+</TEI.2>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,8705 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality -
+Volume III by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
+
+
+
+
+
+Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III
+
+
+by Charles Morris
+
+
+
+
+Edition 1, (October 9, 2006)
+
+
+
+
+
+                         Philadelphia and London
+                         J. B. Lippincott Company
+
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+Copyright, 1908, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+
+                  [Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.]
+
+                          DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.
+A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.
+OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS.
+
+
+The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high among the important dates in
+the history of the world. For on that day men from Europe, then the centre
+of civilization, first gazed on a rich new land beyond the seas, a great
+virgin continent, destined to become the seat of flourishing civilizations
+and to play a leading part in the later history of the world. Little did
+Columbus and his companions, when they saw before them on that famous
+morning a beautiful island, rising like a pearl of promise from the
+sparkling tropical sea, dream of what time held in store for that
+new-found land, foreordained to become the "New World" of the nations, the
+hope of the oppressed, and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and
+equality.
+
+But we are here concerned with only what they saw, and this was a green
+and populous island, so covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their
+eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was, for many of the trees
+were laden with new and strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form.
+Never had they breathed air more pure and fresh, and never had they beheld
+seas of such crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue; and it is
+not surprising that their eyes sparkled with joy and their souls were
+filled with wonder and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene
+after their long and dreaded journey over a vast and unknown ocean.
+
+Not less strange to the new-comers were the people who flocked in numbers
+from the woods and ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple
+wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had never met their eyes before.
+No clothing hid their dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to
+their visitors, and they looked like the unclad tenants of some new
+paradise. Their astonishment turned into fright when they saw boats leave
+these strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad in shining steel or
+raiment of varied color. Their white faces, their curling beards, their
+splendid clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of the forest,
+and especially the air of dignity of their leader, with his ample cloak of
+scarlet, added to their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as divine
+visitors, come to them from the skies.
+
+Not less was their surprise when they saw the wonderful strangers kneel
+and kiss the soil, and then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich
+colors and designs that seemed magical to their untaught eyes. And deep
+was their delight when these strange beings distributed among them
+wonderful gifts,--glass beads, hawk's bells, and other trifles,--which
+seemed precious gems to their untutored souls. They had nothing to offer
+in return, except tame parrots, of which they had many, and balls of
+cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards sparkled with hope when they
+saw small ornaments of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it been
+for all the natives of the New World if this yellow metal had not existed
+among them, for it was to bring them untold suffering and despair.
+
+Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus named this first-seen
+land; but, leaving it, let us go with him in his voyage through that
+island-sprinkled sea, and use his eyes in taking in the marvels with which
+it was sown. Familiar as these islands have become to many of us, to him
+they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string of tropic pearls or
+rare emeralds spread out along those shining waters of the South.
+
+On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their hearts elate with joy and
+pride in their discovery, hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn to
+the right and the left alike. They found themselves in an archipelago of
+beautiful islands, green and level, rising on all sides and seemingly
+numberless. To us they are the great green cluster of the Bahamas, but to
+Columbus, who fancied that he had reached the shores of Asia, they were
+that wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in which were seven
+thousand four hundred and fifty-eight islands, abounding with spices and
+rich in odoriferous trees and shrubs.
+
+On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright and placid waters scarce
+ruffled by the gentle breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of
+which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than the last. Besting under
+the shade of warm and verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their
+water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the admiral found the
+scene around him entrancing to his vision, "the country as fresh and green
+as the month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits, the herbs, the
+flowers, the very stones, for the most part, as different from those of
+Spain as night from day."
+
+                 [Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.]
+
+                         A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.
+
+
+One isle, which he honored with the name of Isabella, after his patron,
+the Spanish queen, surpassed in charm all he had yet seen. Like them all,
+it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate delightful, its air soft
+and balmy, its scenery so lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would
+never desire to depart. I know not where first to go, nor are my eyes ever
+weary of gazing on the beautiful verdure."
+
+Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all the casks of the ships to be
+filled. He could not say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here are large
+lakes, and the groves about them are marvellous, and in all the island
+everything is green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia. The singing
+of the birds is such that it seems as if one would never wish to leave
+this land. There are flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other
+birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so different from ours, that
+it is wonderful; and besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each
+having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous flavor, so that I am in
+the greatest trouble in the world not to know them, for I am very certain
+that they are each of great value."
+
+As he approached this island, he fancied that the winds bore to his senses
+the spicy odors said to be wafted from the islands of the East Indian
+seas. "As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came off a fragrance so
+good and soft of the flowers or trees of the land that it was the sweetest
+thing in the world."
+
+Not only were the islands the homes of birds of brilliant plumage and
+flowers of gorgeous hue, but the very seas seemed to their new visitors
+like tropical gardens, for the fish with which they abounded rivalled the
+birds and flowers in brilliancy of color. The scales of some of them
+glittered like precious stones, and gleams of gold and silver seemed to
+come from them as they swam around the ships, while the dolphins taken
+from the water changed color like the chameleon.
+
+The natives who had been taken on board the ships made signs which seemed
+to indicate that more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with cities
+and kings and queens, and abundance of gold and gems; or, at least, the
+Spaniards understood this from their signs, as they pointed to the south
+when gold was shown them and they were asked where it could be found. Far
+to the south was a great island which they named Cuba, and another which
+they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs appeared to show, was of vast
+extent and abounded with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined
+to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth which he and his
+companions so ardently craved. It cannot be said that the natives wished
+to deceive them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all they were
+asked, with the innocent desire of pleasing their wonderful new friends.
+Columbus, full of the idea that he was near the shores of India, hoped to
+reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco Polo had said was one of the most
+magnificent in the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns
+to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring back his reply to Spain.
+Inspired by this enticing hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows
+of his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba.
+
+It was on the morning of October 28 that the shores of this noble island
+first met the eyes of the eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along
+its coast the admiral was struck with its size and grandeur; its high and
+airy mountains, like those of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and
+the fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching forests and many
+green headlands, which led them on and on into the remote distance. They
+anchored at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were transparent and
+deeply shaded with overhanging trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up
+the stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting with every mile, forests
+of lofty and spreading trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit,
+some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at once. These woods
+swarmed with birds of brilliant plumage,--the scarlet flamingo, the
+rich-hued parrots and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds,
+which flitted on rainbow wings from flower to flower, and which no
+European had ever before seen. Even the insects were beautiful, in their
+shining coats of mail. Though most of the birds were silent, the charms of
+song were not wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected among
+them notes like those of the nightingale. Ever open to the charms of
+nature, Cuba seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful island that
+eyes ever beheld."
+
+He was sure there must here be mines of gold, groves of spices, rivers and
+seas that bore pearls. The houses, though simple in structure, were well
+built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and shaded by spreading trees.
+Led on still by his excited fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and
+rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze. Assured that the capital
+of the Grand Khan could not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with
+presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out by the people. But
+after going many miles they found only a village of fifty houses, like
+those seen on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no spices, none of
+the things they so ardently sought. The only thing new to their eyes was a
+fashion seen among the people, who rolled up certain dried and aromatic
+leaves, and, lighting one end, put the other in their mouths, and exhaled
+the smoke. This was the first ever seen by white men of that remarkable
+American plant, called by the natives by a name like tobacco, which has
+since grown to be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and hovel
+alike.
+
+Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination of Columbus was
+continually aroused by the magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of
+the scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A warm love of nature
+is frequently displayed in the description of the country which he wrote
+out for Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place, named by him
+Puerto Santo, he said: "The amenity of this river, and the clearness of
+the water, through which the sand at the bottom may be seen; the multitude
+of palm-trees of various forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have
+met with, and an infinity of other great and green trees; the birds in
+rich plumage, and the verdure of the fields, render this country, most
+Serene Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses all others
+in graces and charm, as the day doth the night in lustre. For which reason
+I often say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to give a complete
+account of it to your Majesties, my tongue cannot express the whole truth
+or my tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed at the sight of
+so much beauty that I have not known how to relate it."
+
+One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous series of
+discoveries,--the one called by the natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as
+Hayti, one of the most beautiful islands in the world in the splendor of
+its tropical vegetation. Columbus and his men could describe it only by
+comparison with the most beautiful provinces of the country from which
+they came, and in consequence he named the island Hispaniola, or "Little
+Spain."
+
+Here he found the people as innocent and simple in their habits as those
+of San Salvador, living in huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no
+clothing, for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing life in a
+holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To the Spaniards their life seemed
+like a pleasant dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where it was
+"always afternoon." They had no wants nor cares, and spent life in easy
+idleness and innocent sports. They had their fields, but the food plants
+grew bountifully with little labor. The rivers and sea yielded abundance
+of fish, and luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their forests.
+Thus favored by nature, they spent much of the day in repose, while in the
+evenings they danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or the rude
+music of their drums. After the coming of the Spaniards the clear tinkle
+of the hawk's bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight, and for
+those musical toys they were ready to barter everything they possessed.
+
+In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than the Spaniards had yet seen,
+but they were still lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope
+that this precious metal might there be found in quantities. Yet Columbus
+felt forced to cease, for a time, the quest of the precious metal, and
+sail for home with the story of the new world he had found. One of his
+vessels had deserted him; another had been wrecked: if he should lose the
+third he would be left without means of return and his great discovery
+might remain unknown.
+
+Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493, he spread the sails of
+the one caravel left to him, and turned its prow towards Europe, to carry
+thither the news of the greatest maritime discovery the world had ever
+known. Thus ended in success and triumph the first voyage of Columbus to
+the "New World."
+
+
+
+
+
+ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE.
+
+
+Of the three ships with which Columbus made his first voyage, the "Pinta"
+deserted the others and went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and
+the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran ashore on the coast
+of Hispaniola and proved a hopeless wreck. Only the little "Nina" (the
+"girl," as this word means in English) was left to carry the discoverer
+home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully taken to pieces, and from her
+timbers was constructed a small but strong fort, with a deep vault beneath
+and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians aided in this, and not a shred
+of the stranded vessel was left to the waves. As the "Nina" was too small
+to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided to leave a garrison
+to hold this fort and search for gold until he should return. That the
+island held plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was left, with a
+garrison of forty men, and the "Nina" spread her sails to the winds to
+carry to Spain the wonderful news of the great discovery.
+
+La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort, in remembrance of the day
+of the wreck, and when he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find
+its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in the precious yellow
+metal. He reached the spot to find the fort a ruin and the garrison a
+remembrance only. They had been attacked by the Indians and massacred
+during the absence of the admiral.
+
+In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians whom Columbus had met with
+on his first voyage were not the only people of the islands. There were on
+some of the West Indies a warlike race called Caribs,--cannibals, the
+Spaniards said they were,--who gave the invaders no small trouble before
+they were overcome.
+
+It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had attacked La Navidad and
+destroyed the fort and its garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by
+some of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much too ready to
+commit. The leader of these warriors was a bold cacique named Caonabo,
+chief of a warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain that we are
+at present concerned, as he was the hero, or victim rather, of the first
+romantic story known to us in Indian life.
+
+In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on the coast of
+Hispaniola, there was one built far in the interior, called Fort Santo
+Tomas. This stood in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed land of
+gold of the island. Its site lay within the territory of Caonabo, who
+ruled over a great district, his capital town or village being on the
+southern slope of the Cibao Mountains.
+
+The first conflict between the Spaniards and the natives, after the
+massacre of the garrison of La Navidad, was in the district of the Vega,
+where a fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the natives
+suffering a severe defeat. The next was at Fort Santo Tomas, which was
+commanded by Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come out with Columbus
+in his second voyage. He was a man of great courage and unusual daring,
+one of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had to do with the
+conquest of the New World.
+
+A man of his spirit was needed to command this isolated fort in the
+mountains, for the cacique, Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of
+his territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a strong force of his
+warlike race. Santo Tomas was closely invested and fiercely attacked,
+Ojeda being reduced to such an extremity that he owed his escape only to a
+rescuing force sent by Columbus from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven
+off by the superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly to his
+stronghold in the mountains. But he was quickly back again, with a larger
+force than before. He had never met his equal among the Indians, but the
+fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards proved too much even for his courage,
+and he was a second time forced to withdraw.
+
+It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously situated, surrounded as
+he was by warlike enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In the
+face of this peril he adopted an expedient as daring as any of those shown
+by Cortez, Pizarro, or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age of
+conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its daring. It is this striking
+adventure which it is our purpose to describe.
+
+Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and most trusty, Ojeda set out
+on horseback over the mountains, following paths never before traversed by
+the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib town of Maguana, where he
+found Caonabo surrounded by a throng of armed warriors. The Spaniards had
+bearded the lion in his den, and were in a position of extreme peril
+should the cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master in
+craftiness, and by professions of friendship and other arts of duplicity
+he persuaded the chief to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest.
+
+He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs, bright and shining
+manacles of which the untutored Indian had no conception of the use, but
+whose brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they were bracelets, which
+the King of Spain had graciously sent him as a present, in recognition of
+his fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor Indian probably
+understood all this very imperfectly, but he was easily brought to view
+the manacles as _Turey_ or a gift from Heaven, and willingly held out his
+wrists that his guest might adorn them with those strange and splendid
+bracelets.
+
+In a moment his hands were secured, and before he could recover from his
+surprise Ojeda, whose small frame concealed much strength, reached from
+his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a great exertion of
+muscular force lifted him from the ground and swung him up on the horse.
+The warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion, had no time to
+use their weapons before the Spaniards had put spur to their horses and
+dashed off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side of Ojeda, to
+prevent the captive throwing himself from the horse. Threatened by their
+swords and with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets, Caonabo was
+forced to submit, and was carried by his captors for many miles through
+the heart of his own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which Columbus
+had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting a bay in which all his
+vessels could ride in safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination of
+his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to Columbus, and he was
+locked up in a secure cell.
+
+As the story goes, the brave cacique had a greater admiration for courage
+than anything else in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the
+crafty way in which he had been captured, he seemed to hold him in high
+esteem as the bravest of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his
+cell he would rise and courteously salute him, while he treated the visits
+of Columbus with haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique could
+make himself understood, the high rank of Columbus was nought to him. He
+had no proof that he was a man of courage, while the manner in which Ojeda
+had captured him showed him to be a brave man. To the bold Carib courage
+was the first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect.
+
+The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his countrymen who had to do
+with the Spanish invaders. Put on board ship and sent as a prize of valor
+to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the voyage, perhaps from a broken
+heart, or as a result of the change from his free forest life to the
+narrow confines of a fifteenth-century ship.
+
+The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of adventure, in which he
+distinguished himself as much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put
+in command of an exploring expedition and sent out from Spain, one of his
+companions being Amerigo Vespucci, he whose first name gained the
+immemorial honor of being given to the great western continent. In this
+voyage Ojeda discovered part of the continent of South America, which he
+called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested by an Indian village
+built on piles in the water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a
+colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there proved too bold and hostile
+for him, and he failed to subject them to his authority.
+
+Many were his adventures, all of them characterized by a rash daring like
+that he had shown in the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died, he
+was buried, in response to his own request, in the doorway of the
+Franciscan monastery in the city of Santo Domingo, so that all who entered
+that place of worship should walk over his grave.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER.
+
+
+The island elysium which Columbus had discovered, and of which he wrote
+and conversed in the most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of
+promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of adventurers soon crossed
+the seas, hopeful of winning gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring
+in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them were men of wealth, who were
+eager to add to their riches, but the most of them had little beyond their
+love of adventure and their thirst for gold to carry them across the seas,
+needy but bold soldiers and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise,
+however perilous, that might promise them reward. The stories of many of
+these men are full of romantic interest, and this is especially the case
+with one of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez.
+
+We propose here to deal with the interesting early history of this most
+famous of the New World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain, of good
+family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome humor led him into many wild
+escapades while still a boy. The mystery and romance of the strange land
+beyond the sea and the chance to win gold and glory which it offered were
+fascinating to a spirit like his, and he was prevented from taking part in
+an expedition when but seventeen years of age only by an unlucky accident.
+As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure like that of Romeo and
+Juliet, the stones gave way and he was thrown violently to the ground and
+buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed from his hurts the fleet
+had sailed.
+
+Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at home, engaged, perhaps, in
+similar pranks, but at length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set
+sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only nineteen years of age.
+He did not get across the sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of
+his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole away from the rest of
+the squadron, hoping to reach port and sell his cargo before the others
+arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for many days the vessel was
+tossed about, the sailors not knowing where they were, and furious at the
+treachery of their captain. At length, one morning, hope returned to them,
+in the form of a white dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the
+bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following its course the
+weary mariners finally came to the port they sought. But the captain was
+paid for his treachery by finding that the other vessels had arrived
+before him and sold their cargoes.
+
+The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope. When the governor's
+secretary told him that no doubt he would be given a good estate to settle
+on, he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the soil, like a
+peasant."
+
+As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough to accept the land, but
+his fondness for active deeds clung to him, and he took part in the
+military expeditions sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He had his
+quarrels, too, and his duels about the love of fair ladies, and received
+wounds whose scars he carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his valor
+came in 1511, when an expedition set out for the conquest of Cuba. Cortez
+enlisted under the leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by his
+courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition, and the good
+humor and ready wit which made him a favorite with all he met.
+
+After the island had been conquered, Velasquez was made its governor,
+Cortez still being his close friend. But for some reason this friendship
+did not last, and when at length a party of discontented men formed a plan
+to complain of the acts of the governor to the higher authorities in
+Hispaniola, Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen, from his
+fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it being necessary to perform the
+perilous exploit of crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in an
+open boat.
+
+In some way the plot got wind, and, before he could leave the island,
+Cortez was arrested by order of the governor and thrown into prison, his
+limbs being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended to hang him, as
+we are told, but was persuaded by his friends not to go so far. These
+Spanish governors had the power to do almost anything they pleased, their
+distance from home enabling them to act the despot at will, and their
+influence at court saving them from evil consequences.
+
+                [Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.]
+
+                        CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.
+
+
+Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In some way he managed to
+open one of the bolts of his fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then,
+turning his irons into tools, he used them to force open the window of his
+cell. As he was on the second floor of the building, it was easy for one
+so agile as he to reach the ground without injury, and he made his way to
+a church near by, where he claimed the right of sanctuary.
+
+When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner he was furious. He did
+not dare attempt to take him from the church by force, since the sacred
+walls protected all who sought their asylum. But a guard was stationed
+close by, with orders to seize the fugitive if he should leave the
+sanctuary. With one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done. A few
+days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning himself outside the walls of
+the building, one of the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his
+arms, and held him till his comrades came to his aid. This man was one of
+those who afterwards took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which he
+was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps took this opportunity for
+revenge.
+
+Once more the reckless young adventurer found himself a fettered captive,
+this time being put on board a vessel that was to sail the next morning
+for Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be tried for his
+offence. But he proved a very hard prisoner to hold. That night, with much
+pain and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of the irons that
+held them, and then stole cautiously to the deck, where he found a boat
+floating by the vessel's side. Slipping down into this, under cover of the
+darkness, he cut loose and paddled silently away.
+
+When near the shore he met with a rapid current and rough waters, to which
+he was afraid to trust the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought it
+safest to breast the water himself, and boldly plunged overboard. He found
+his task a hard, almost a fatal one; the current threatened to sweep him
+away, but after a long struggle with the waves he succeeded in reaching
+the shore, in a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now sought the
+church again, no doubt resolving this time to keep safely within its
+sacred shelter.
+
+The story goes on to state that the governor, worked upon by friends of
+the culprit, offered him forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier
+was too proud to accept. What followed is amusing. Velasquez was at a
+distance from the capital, on a military excursion, when one evening he
+was startled in his tent by the appearance of his enemy, completely armed
+and threatening in aspect. In dismay, the governor asked him what he
+wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was tired of being treated like a
+felon, and that he must have an explanation or he would know the reason
+why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and a hot altercation followed. But at
+length their talk became more friendly, and in the end their old amicable
+relations were resumed and they embraced like a pair of lovers. The
+amusing part of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to tell the
+governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary and disappeared, he found the
+governor and the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed.
+
+This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they became friends again, and
+Cortez was given a large estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and
+on which he found gold-mines, which were worked by Indian labor. He
+married a beautiful Spanish girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several
+years in happy content.
+
+This, with some, would have been the end of a career. It was only the
+beginning of that of Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history and
+a record of undying fame. All we can tell here is how this came about. It
+began in expeditions of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler, seeking
+Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was blown far westward by a storm, and
+reached an unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone buildings,
+cultivated the soil, and wore delicate cotton garments and ornaments of
+gold. In other ways they showed evidence of civilization. The land thus
+reached is that now known as Yucatan.
+
+Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova brought back, sent out a small
+fleet under his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this new
+land. Grijalva found evidence that a great civilized nation dwelt inland,
+rich in gold and far superior in civilization to any Indians whom the
+Spaniards had yet met. He named the country New Spain, and sailed back to
+Cuba with an account of his important discoveries.
+
+The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy. Here seemed to be the land of
+gold which the Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win vast wealth
+and the glory of adding a new and splendid province to Spain. He at once
+began to fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around for a man fit
+to command it. Several of the hidalgos, or gentlemen of Cuba, offered
+themselves, but none pleased the governor, and at length he settled upon
+Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By chance, rather than by
+intention, he had made a splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the
+New World, and perhaps the one man at that time in all Spain, fitted by
+nature for the difficult task which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as
+he had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a great occasion to prove
+himself a great man. He was to develop into one of the ablest military
+leaders in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was to display a
+genius and achieve a success worthy of Caesar or Alexander or any of the
+famous soldiers of the world.
+
+But, from another point of view, Velasquez had made a bad choice. Cortez
+had disdained his fetters and his prisons, and would soon disdain his
+control. His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this young
+adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o'-the-wisp.
+
+           [Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.]
+
+                   LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.
+
+
+The very appointment seemed to change the whole character of the new
+admiral. He became a different man. His high spirits now changed to a
+tireless energy. He spent his money freely in fitting out the fleet, and
+even mortgaged his estate to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He
+worked incessantly, and inspired his companions and followers to active
+and enthusiastic toil. He was so popular in the island that several
+hundred recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships, some of them
+of large size, were rapidly got ready and stocked with provisions and
+military stores.
+
+Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the labor and cost of Cortez
+would go for naught. Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to rob
+him of his command and trust the fleet to safer hands. But he was not
+dealing with a man who could be played with in this fast and loose
+fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and he decided to sail at
+once, though he was still short of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That
+night he took on board all the meat in the town, weighed anchor, and got
+ready to set sail.
+
+At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that the fleet was about to depart.
+In a panic he sprang from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his
+horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez entered a boat and rowed
+near enough to the shore to speak with him.
+
+"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the angry governor; "a courteous
+leave-taking, truly."
+
+"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and there are some things that
+should be done before they are even thought of. Has your excellency any
+commands?"
+
+His excellency would have commanded him to come on shore, if it had been
+of any use. As it was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of the
+hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only their vanishing hulls were to
+be seen.
+
+The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at Trinidad. At the last
+place many men, and several cavaliers who were to prove his ablest
+officers, joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez to the
+governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet
+for a new admiral who was to command it. The governor looked at Cortez and
+his men and concluded that he had better let them alone. They were too
+strong for him to deal with.
+
+So once more the bold adventurers escaped from Velasquez and his schemes
+and sailed in triumph away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor
+of the place had received orders to arrest Cortez, and here, also, he did
+not dare attempt it. Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait
+till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly the fool to pay any heed
+to such a letter as that. The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to
+the fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer, saying that he would
+not lose sight of the interests of his excellency, and that he and the
+fleet, "God willing, would set sail the next morning."
+
+Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet lost sight of Cuba at
+Cape San Antonio, on the western end of the island. It consisted in all of
+eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on board six hundred and
+sixty-three soldiers and sailors. A few of these were armed with
+cross-bows and only thirteen with muskets, while the horses numbered only
+sixteen. In addition there were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with
+a good supply of ammunition.
+
+Such was the fleet and such the force with which Hernando Cortez set sail
+to conquer a powerful and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition had
+one of the world's great commanders at its head, or the enterprise would
+have ended in failure instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful
+success.
+
+
+
+
+
+BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC.
+
+
+It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus opened to the adventurers
+of Spain, and hundreds of them soon took that promising path. Among these
+was one Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a man poor in gold or land, but rich in
+courage and ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at home like a
+gentleman with the means of a peasant. In the year 1501 he crossed the
+seas to Hispaniola, where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till
+the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or good luck of Cortez,
+and after years of labor he found himself poorer than when he commenced.
+He began to see that nature had not meant him for a farmer, and that if he
+wanted a fortune he must seek it in other fields.
+
+Balboa was not alone in this. There were others, with better-filled
+pockets than he, who were ripe for adventure and eager for gold. A famous
+one of these was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus and
+the hero of the adventure with the Carib chief already described, who in
+1509 sailed for South America and founded a settlement named by him San
+Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer of the town of San
+Domingo, to fit out two more vessels and follow him with provisions for
+his new settlement.
+
+Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with casks of bread and
+other food-stuffs. There was more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of,
+for when far from land there crept out of one of these casks a haggard,
+woe-begone, half-starved stowaway, who looked as if he had not many ounces
+of life left in him. It was Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who had taken this way
+to join the expedition and escape from his creditors, since they would not
+have permitted him to go openly. The cask in which he snugly lay had been
+carried from his farm to the ship among others containing provisions.
+
+Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome addition to his crew. He
+threatened to throw him overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave
+him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow fell on his knees and
+tearfully begged for mercy. Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at
+length softened and spared him his life. He was to pay bitterly for his
+kindness before many days.
+
+The expedition had its adventures on the seas, ending in a wreck, and when
+San Sebastian was reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement
+was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what to do, but Balboa had been on
+that coast before, on his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an
+Indian village on the Darien River where they might find food and shelter.
+He advised Enciso to go thither, and a journey was made overland, among
+hostile Indians and with little food. The adventurers were half-starved
+when at length they reached their goal.
+
+Here they founded a new settlement named Santa Maria, no doubt first
+disposing of the Indians in the usual Spanish fashion,--killing some and
+making slaves of others. But it was not long before there were bitter
+quarrels among themselves. Enciso had forbidden them to have any private
+trade for gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly resented. The
+result was that a party rose against him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso
+was deprived of his authority, but when they tried to elect another in his
+place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa, who had made a settlement
+near there, was sent for by some of the settlers, but when he came,
+Balboa's party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen companions,
+was placed in a crazy old barque and left to find their way back to
+Hispaniola as best they could.
+
+Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest and boldest man in
+Darien, and his influence and power grew steadily until the settlers voted
+him their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned, and finally was sent
+to Spain. With him went one of Balboa's chief supporters, in order to gain
+for him from the king the royal right to his new office.
+
+Balboa lost no time in showing that he was worthy of the dignity given
+him. He made many incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded
+in collecting much gold, the yellow metal being more plentiful there than
+in the West India islands. In those expeditions he showed a wise spirit of
+conciliation and won the friendship of several of the Indian chiefs. In
+one of their excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards about the
+division of the gold they had obtained. They were almost at sword's-point
+when a young Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about what seemed
+to him a useless substance, upset the gold out of the balance, and turned
+to Balboa, saying,--
+
+"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this? If you value it so highly, I
+could take you to a country where it is so common that it is used for the
+meanest utensils."
+
+These significant words filled the Spaniards with hope and desire, and
+they eagerly asked where that rich land lay, and how it might be reached.
+
+"At the distance of six suns [six days' journey] from here," said the
+cacique, "lies another ocean as great as the one before you. Near its
+shores is the kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and if you wish
+to attack it you will need far more men than you have here."
+
+This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the great southern ocean or
+of the rich land of Peru. This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which
+Columbus sought for without success, the waters which border the East
+Indies, and the great and rich nation on its shores must be one of the
+famous countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his mind to gaze on
+that unknown sea.
+
+Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking and do it quickly. He
+had received letters from Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which
+were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to King Ferdinand of the way
+in which he had been treated, and the king had not only refused to support
+Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions, but had condemned his course
+and ordered him to return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness
+were at an end unless he could win the favor of the king by some great
+enterprise. Such would be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he
+determined to attempt.
+
+The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to cross, is not over sixty
+miles wide. But many of these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests
+so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too, where it rains for more
+than half the year, the valleys are converted into marshes, and are so
+often overflowed that in many places the natives have to dwell in the
+trees, while from the high grounds rush swollen rivers, fierce and
+threatening. To march across an unknown and perilous country like this,
+led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold and desperate enterprise,
+surpassing any which the Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one
+of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to win the favor of his
+sovereign there was no danger he was not ready to face.
+
+For the perilous expedition he could muster only one hundred and ninety
+men. But these were veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus, and
+ready to follow him whatever the peril. They had good reason to trust his
+courage and readiness in emergencies, for they had found him always brave
+and alert. A thousand Indians were taken with them, to carry their
+provisions, and they added to their force a number of the fierce
+bloodhounds which were dreaded by the natives as much as the fire-arms of
+the Spaniards.
+
+Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st of September, 1513,
+sailing along the coast to Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half
+the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes. With the remainder
+the terrible journey across the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was
+begun.
+
+No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than troubles and perils
+thickened around them. The country was difficult to traverse, the people
+were bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they proved no feeble
+antagonists. As the adventurers left the plain and toiled up the
+mountains, a warlike cacique, with a large body of followers, met them in
+a narrow pass and boldly disputed the way. A fierce battle ensued, ending
+in favor of the Spaniards, who cut their way through the savages, leaving
+hundreds of them dead on the ground.
+
+Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they toiled onward and upward,
+until the six days fixed for their journey had stretched out to
+twenty-five. But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their guides
+assured them that from the top of the next mountain they could see the
+ocean they so ardently sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near
+the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and went on alone, that he
+might be the first to gaze on the wonderful spectacle.
+
+Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there, to his infinite delight,
+sparkled and spread before his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth,
+stretching away to the north, south, and west as far as human eye could
+see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous vision, he fell prostrate on the
+ground, like a worshipper before the object of his adoration. Then, rising
+to his knees, he thanked God for the great boon vouchsafed to him.
+
+His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise and beckon them, while with
+his other hand he pointed wildly westward. With springing steps they
+rushed to his side, and joined in his delight and his thanks to God as the
+marvellous spectacle met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to show
+that they had taken possession of this spot for his sovereign, and as they
+went down the farther slope they carved on many trees the name of King
+Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this new land.
+
+Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats's famous sonnet to Homer, in
+which a great poet has admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange
+error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa:
+
+  "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
+    When a new planet swims into his ken;
+  Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
+    He stared at the Pacific--and all his men
+  Looked at each other with a wild surmise--
+    Silent, upon a peak in Darien."
+
+Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the easiest and shortest path
+to the sea, one of them a man destined to become still more famous than
+Balboa,--Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Reaching the
+shore, they found on it two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the
+men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling on their comrades to
+witness that they were the first to embark on that sea.
+
+For three days the remaining men waited advices from their pioneers, and
+then followed the guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with his
+sword and buckler, rushing into the water to his middle, and claiming
+possession of that vast sea and all its shores in the name of his king,
+for whom he pledged himself to defend it against all comers.
+
+Such was the discovery of the great South Sea, as Balboa named it, the
+Pacific Ocean, as Magellan soon after called it. The people of the coast
+told the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that lay to the south, and
+whose people had tame animals to carry their burdens. The form of these
+they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing Balboa that they were
+camels, and that the land indicated must be Asia. They really represented
+the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel in form.
+
+After remaining for some time on the coast, gathering all the information
+he could obtain, Balboa led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved
+to return with a stronger force next year and seek that distant land of
+gold. But this exploit was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest
+of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition.
+
+It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers reached their
+starting-point at Santa Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with
+the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to Spain, with an account of
+the remarkable exploit, which was received with an enthusiasm little less
+than had been the news of the discovery of the New World. If Columbus had
+discovered a new land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of a new
+ocean, added to which was the story of a land of gold, for whose conquest
+Balboa asked for a reinforcement of a thousand men.
+
+Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery was destined to still
+greater ill-fortune, as we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached
+Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had been appointed and had set
+sail, with fifteen vessels and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly five
+hundred men under his command, but he at once submitted to the decision of
+his king and accepted Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred new
+men landed in that pestilential climate, in the unhealthy season, paid
+bitterly for their imprudence. A violent disease attacked them; scarcity
+of provisions made it worse; and within a month more than six hundred of
+them had died, while others hastened away from that noxious spot.
+
+At length news came that the king fully appreciated the splendid discovery
+of Balboa; letters of high praise were received, and he was appointed
+_Adelantado_, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias being ordered to
+support him in all his operations. The rivals now became reconciled, their
+union being made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in marriage to
+Balboa.
+
+The adventurer now began active preparations for an exploration of the
+South Sea, materials for ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest
+labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed. There was no
+lack of volunteers for the expedition, and the vessels were launched and
+sailed to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone preventing them
+from going on to the coast of Peru.
+
+Thus there seemed a great career opening before Balboa at the very moment
+when adverse fate was gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had grown
+jealous of his daring exploits and the fame that seemed his coming meed,
+and, cherishing treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced him to
+return to Acla, his new capital.
+
+On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by order of the governor,
+thrown into prison, and put on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king
+and an intention to revolt against his superior. The judge was forced to
+condemn him to death, and the fatal sentence was at once carried into
+effect, the great discoverer being beheaded on the public square of Acla.
+Thus, in blood and treachery, ended the career of one of the ablest of the
+bold adventurers of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO.
+
+
+About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, there
+reigned over the kingdom of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch
+whose history is as interesting and romantic as any that can be found in
+the annals of Europe. His story was preserved by his descendants, and its
+principal events are as follows:
+
+            [Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.]
+
+                    FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.
+
+
+The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans, stood on the eastern
+borders of the lake on whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital.
+About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked by a kindred race, the
+Tepanecs, who, after a desperate struggle, captured their city, killed
+their monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir to the crown, the
+young Prince Nezahualcoyotl, concealed himself in the foliage of a tree
+when the triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his hiding-place
+saw his father killed before his eyes. This was the opening event in a
+history as full of deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the
+"Young Chevalier of English history."
+
+The young prince did not long remain at liberty. Soon after his flight
+from the city he fell into the hands of his foes, and was brought back and
+thrown into a dungeon.  This led to the first romantic incident in his
+career. The governor of the fortress prison was an old servant of the
+royal family of Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in
+disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid for his loyalty with
+his life, but he willingly gave it in exchange for the liberty of the heir
+to the throne.
+
+The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital. He was, in fact, closely
+related to the Aztec monarch, and through his good offices he was at
+length permitted to reside in that city. Afterwards he was allowed to
+return to Tezcuco, where for eight years he dwelt in privacy, studying
+under the teachers of his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power.
+Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his soul ardent hopes of
+regaining the throne of his ancestors.
+
+A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died and his son, Maxtla,
+succeeded to the throne. The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and
+when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render him homage on his
+accession, Maxtla treated with disdain the little gift of flowers which
+the young prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him in the
+presence of his chieftains. Evidently the palace was no place of safety
+for the Tezcucan prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers, he
+hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a refuge in his native city
+of Tezcuco. Here the tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His
+popular manners had won him many friends, and the ancient subjects of his
+family looked upon him as a coming leader who might win back for them
+their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence of the possession of
+talent and energy, and Maxtla, fearful of his growing popularity, resolved
+to make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly invited him to an
+evening's entertainment, where he had assassins ready to murder him.
+Fortunately, the tutor of the prince suspected the plot, and contrived to
+replace the youth by a person who strongly resembled him, and who became
+the victim of the fate intended for him.
+
+Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now resolved to kill him
+openly, and sent a party of soldiers to the city, who were instructed to
+enter the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the spot. Again the
+watchfulness of his old teacher saved him. Warned of his danger, and
+advised to flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited the
+assassins.
+
+When they reached the palace in which he resided, they found him playing
+at ball in the court-yard. He received them courteously, showing no
+suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to take some refreshment
+after their journey. While they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly
+into an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and the soldiers able
+to see through both apartments, his movements gave them no concern. It was
+the custom, however, when any one entered the presence of a great lord,
+for the servants to throw aromatics into a burning censer. This the
+prince's attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as to hide him
+from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus obscured, he entered a secret passage
+which led to a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring water to the
+palace. In this he concealed himself until nightfall, and then made his
+way into the suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one of his
+father's former vassals.
+
+Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim had twice escaped him,
+grew more determined on his death, and ordered immediate and thorough
+pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take him, dead or alive, with
+the hand of a noble lady and an ample domain. Troops of armed men scoured
+the country in every direction, searching all suspected places, and some
+of them entered the cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there was a
+heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture of cloth, and hid
+beneath this the fugitive escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot
+that he left this place for the wooded hill country between his state and
+the neighboring one of Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and
+caverns.
+
+The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering from place to place,
+exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather, remaining concealed by
+day, and stealing out at night in search of food. His pursuers, eager to
+win the enticing reward, kept up an active search, more than once coming
+dangerously near to his retreat.
+
+Very interesting stories are told of his adventures in this period of
+peril. The high rewards offered did not suffice to wean from him the
+attachment of the people, and more than once he owed his safety to their
+loyalty. Some of them submitted to torture, and even to loss of life,
+rather than betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even many of the
+soldiers were his friends, and once, when hotly pursued, he took refuge
+among a small party of these, who were dancing around a large drum. To
+conceal him from his enemies they placed him in the drum and continued
+their dance around it.
+
+At another time the pursuers were so close to him that he just succeeded
+in turning the crest of a hill when they began to climb it on the other
+side. Here he fortunately found a girl who was reaping _chia_, a plant
+whose seeds were used in making palatable drinks. Telling her who he was
+and of his great danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of the
+plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came up and asked if she had
+seen him, the faithful girl coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a
+path which she said he had taken.
+
+None of the natives showed any inclination to betray him, despite the
+richness of the promised rewards.
+
+"Would you not deliver up the prince if he came in your way?" he asked of
+a peasant who did not recognize him.
+
+"Not I," was the reply.
+
+"What! not for a fair lady's hand, and a rich domain as dowry?"
+
+The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed in disdain.
+
+But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the prince was in constant
+danger, and his situation, in the rough fastnesses of the hills and
+forests, became very distressing.
+
+"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who kept with him in his
+wanderings and shared his sufferings. "Leave me to my fate. Why should you
+throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily persecutes?"
+
+But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their danger and the fact
+that most of the great nobles of the land had sought safety and reward by
+an adhesion to the usurper.
+
+Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the fugitive. Maxtla had shown
+himself an oppressor, and his ambition and military successes had caused
+much alarm in the surrounding states, where his tyranny was contrasted
+with the mild rule of the former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the
+young prince took advantage of this feeling, and succeeded in forming a
+coalition against his enemy. A day was fixed for a general rising, and on
+the date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at the head of an army
+strong enough to face that of Maxtla and the Tepanecs.
+
+The two armies soon met and victory rested on the banner of the young
+prince, the forces of Maxtla being badly beaten. No longer a hunted
+fugitive, but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in triumph to
+the capital which he had left with a price on his head, his joyful
+subjects crowding to the route of march to render homage to their rightful
+sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla,
+readily allied themselves with the young victor, and a series of bloody
+battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated under the walls of
+his own capital. He was dragged from the baths, to which he had fled for
+concealment, and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs; his royal
+city was razed to the ground, and its site was reserved as the great
+slave-market of the surrounding nations.
+
+Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the throne of his ancestors, where
+he was to prove himself the greatest monarch of whom we have any record in
+the American annals. The story of his reign is far too full of detail for
+the space we can give to it, but is of such interest that we may venture
+on a concise account of it, as an example of the career of the most
+illustrious of the ancient American sovereigns.
+
+The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim a general amnesty. He
+not only pardoned the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts of
+honor and confidence. This was not only politic but just, since their
+offences were mainly due to fear of the usurper. Under the circumstances
+he could safely treat them with magnanimity.
+
+He next remodelled the government of the kingdom, and framed a code of
+laws which seemed so wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs
+and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and of justice were
+established, and also a council of state, whose members acted as the
+immediate advisers of the king, and aided him in the despatch of business.
+But the most remarkable of these new departments was the "council of
+music," which was devoted to the encouragement of science and art, and
+served as a general board of education for the country. Historical
+compositions and poems were recited before it, and altogether it indicated
+a degree of civilization which we would scarcely look for in any part of
+ancient America. Its historians, orators, and poets became celebrated
+throughout the country, the allied monarchs presided over its
+deliberations, and among its chief bards was the king himself, who entered
+into impartial competition with his subjects for the prizes given for the
+best poems. Many of his odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still
+rest in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain.
+
+The far-seeing monarch did not content himself with writing poetry, or
+encouraging historians,--who wrote subject to the penalty that any one who
+wilfully lied should be punished with death,--but he sought to develop all
+the arts. Agriculture was greatly encouraged, the population rapidly
+increased, new towns and cities sprang up, and the borders of the nation
+were extended by successful wars. He made his capital the most stately
+city of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles, whom he
+wished to reside at the court. There were more than four hundred of these
+palatial mansions, but far exceeding them in magnificence was the grand
+palace he built for himself. This covered a space of three thousand seven
+hundred feet in length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A wall
+surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which formed the great
+market-place of the city, and an inner one surrounded by the council
+chambers and halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors from
+other states, and a spacious saloon in which the poets and men of science
+met to study and converse. Here also were kept the public archives.
+
+The royal apartments adjoined this inner court, and rivalled in beauty
+those of Oriental lands. Alabaster or stucco of rich tints covered some of
+the walls, while others were hung with tapestries of the gorgeous Indian
+feather-work. Long arcades and winding pathways bordered with verdure led
+to gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains shadowed by lofty
+trees. Fish of various kinds stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were
+birds of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and animals were reproduced
+in gold and silver with wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner
+apartments dwelt the wives and children of the monarch, who were as
+numerous as those of an Eastern sultan. Such was the famous palace, in
+which were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty yards square. It
+is said that two hundred thousand workmen were employed in building it. In
+this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his youthful days had been
+glad to share with wild animals a shelter in the thickets and caverns of
+the mountains.
+
+Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence to this palatial
+residence. Beautiful villas were built in various picturesque localities
+and adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and comfort. His favorite
+retreat from the cares of office was built on a rounded hill about six
+miles from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached by a stairway of
+five hundred and twenty steps, many of them hewn in the native rock. In
+the summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with water by an aqueduct
+carried on masonry buttresses for several miles over hill and valley. In
+its centre was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics the
+principal events of each year of the king's reign.
+
+Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with statuary, and yielding
+water to channels that ran through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled
+riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes and pavilions, and
+baths cut in the solid rock, which the natives still show to visitors
+under the title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the base of the hill,
+amid lofty groves of cedar, rose the royal villa, with its light arcades
+and airy halls, affording a delightful relief to the monarch from the
+duties of the court. Relics of this villa and garden still remain to
+attest their former beauty, and indicate that this Indian king lived in a
+magnificence resembling that of the far-famed court of the caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid.
+
+He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian Nights" in another way,
+for it was his custom to wander about the streets, conversing with the
+humblest of his people and learning their condition and needs from their
+own words. Many anecdotes are told of this kind, in which it was his
+delight to reward merit and relieve distress. Some of these may be read
+with interest.
+
+On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering sticks in a field for fuel,
+and asked him why he did not go into the neighboring forest, where he
+would find plenty of them.
+
+"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It's the king's wood, and he would
+punish me with death if I took sticks from there."
+
+"What kind of man is your king?"
+
+"He is a very hard man," answered the boy, "for he takes from his people
+what God has given them."
+
+The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco were as severe as those of
+Norman England. The king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws but
+to help himself in the forest, for there was no one who would betray him.
+But the lad sturdily refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor
+who wished to bring him into trouble.
+
+The next day the boy and his parents were sent for to come to the palace.
+They obeyed with wonder and dread, and the boy was filled with terror on
+seeing the king and recognizing him as the man with whom he had talked so
+freely. But the good-natured monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked him
+for the lesson he had given his king, praising his respect for the laws
+and commending his parents for bringing up their son so wisely. He
+dismissed them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave orders that any
+one might gather fallen wood in the forest, if they did not interfere with
+the standing timber.
+
+Another adventure was with a poor woodman and his wife. The man, as he
+stood in the marketplace with his little store, complained bitterly of his
+lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly amid luxuries in the
+palace. The wife bade him be careful, as he might be overheard in his
+complaints. The king, looking down on the market from a latticed window,
+and amusing himself with the chatter of the market people, heard the words
+of the couple, and ordered them to be brought into his presence.
+
+He asked the frightened pair what they had said, and was pleased to find
+that they answered him truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had
+great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he who had a nation to
+govern could not lead an idle life; and told them "to be more cautious in
+future, as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after giving them a
+quantity of cloth and a good supply of cacao,--the coin of the country.
+"Go," he said; "with the little you now have, you will be rich; while,
+with all my riches, I shall still be poor."
+
+Of all the stories told of this famous monarch, there is only one not to
+his credit, and of this we may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable
+resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and Uriah. He fell in love
+with a beautiful maiden, who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom,
+and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take command of a warlike
+expedition against the Tlascalans. Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him
+and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he might lose his life,
+which the king said he had forfeited by a great crime. The old man
+suspected what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment to his
+friends. He was correct in his prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in
+battle, and the royal lover's path was clear.
+
+The king now secretly offered his hand and heart to the maiden, who was by
+no means inconsolable for the loss of her old lover, and willingly
+accepted. To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he had the maiden
+brought to his villa to witness some ceremony there. Standing on a balcony
+of the palace, the king pretended to be struck with her beauty, and asked,
+"Who is the lovely young woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those
+present soon learned her name and rank, which was that of a princess of
+the royal house of Mexico. She was asked to enter the palace and receive
+the attention due to her station, and the king was not long in publicly
+declaring his love. The marriage soon after took place, in the presence of
+his brother monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great pomp and
+ceremony.
+
+Such was the one blot in the history of this famous monarch. Aside from
+this act of treachery, it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded a
+monarch in the early annals of the nations of Mexico, and one whose
+history is so full of romantic adventure.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS.
+
+
+There is no chapter in all history more crowded with interesting and
+romantic events than the story of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards
+under Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring and wonderful
+success, the most extraordinary is the tale of the _Noche Triste_, the
+terrible night-retreat of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital. No one can
+read this story, and that of the remarkable victory of Otumba which
+followed it, without feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors worthy
+of the most warlike age. This oft-told story we shall here again relate.
+
+In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set out from Cuba on his great
+expedition, with a few hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon,
+muskets, and horses. It may briefly be stated here that he sought to
+conquer a warlike and powerful nation with this insignificant force, less
+than a modern regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico; won, with
+the terror of his horses and guns and the valor of his men, victory in
+every battle; gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made his way
+into their capital; seized and held prisoner their emperor, Montezuma, and
+for a time seemed to be full master of the land. We might go on to tell
+how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked the Spaniards with the
+courage of desperation, mortally wounded their own emperor, and at length
+brought the invaders into such terrible straits that they were forced to
+fight their way out of the city as their last hope of life.
+
+To understand what followed, it must be stated that the city of Mexico
+lay, not in the open country, but on an island in the centre of a large
+lake, and that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow causeways of
+earth across this lake. Each of these causeways was broken at intervals by
+wide ditches, with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had removed these
+bridges, and thus added immensely to the difficulty of the night-march
+which the desperate Spaniards were obliged to make.
+
+It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that Cortez and his men threw
+open the gates of the palace fortress in which they had long defended
+themselves against the furious assaults of thousands of daring foes. The
+night was dark and cloudy, and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy
+was to be seen, and as they made their way with as little noise as
+possible along the great street of Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence,
+Hope rose in their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the rumble of the
+guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard, and they reached the head of the
+causeway without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior.
+
+Here was the first break in the causeway, and they had brought with them a
+bridge to lay across it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who
+fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city with their cries.
+The priests on the summit of the great temple pyramid were also on the
+watch, and when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from below, they
+sounded their shells and beat their huge drum, which was only heard in
+times of peril or calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber, and
+as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a distant sound was heard,
+which rapidly approached. Soon from every street and lane poured enemies,
+flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks of the Spaniards as they
+came. On the lake was heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the
+war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air. A brief interval had
+sufficed to change the silence into a frightful uproar of sound and the
+restful peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle.
+
+The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway, fighting only to drive
+back the assailants who landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon
+the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over them, riding them down; the
+men on foot cut them down with their swords, or hurled them backward with
+the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of the Spaniards attacked them
+fiercely, and the roar of war spread far through the gloom of the night.
+
+Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot; onward creaked and rumbled
+the artillery and the wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was
+reached while the rear files were not yet across the first. The Spaniards
+had made a fatal mistake in bringing with them only one bridge. When the
+last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous effort was made
+to raise it and carry it to the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of
+men, horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the earth and stones
+that it could not be moved. Every nerve was strained to lift the heavy
+mass, until, many of the workmen being killed and all wounded by the
+torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced to abandon it.
+
+When the dread tidings that the bridge could not be raised spread through
+the crowded host, a cry of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of
+conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before them lay a deep and
+yawning ditch. Behind them pressed an army of assailants. On each side
+hundreds of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding foes who rushed in
+fury upon their crowded ranks. All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at
+an end. Every one thought only of saving his own life, without regard to
+the weak or wounded. The leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf,
+were pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in front dashed into the
+water and swam across, but some of the horses failed to climb the steep
+and slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad riders headlong
+into the lake.
+
+After them pell mell came the infantry, some seeking to swim, others
+forced into the water to sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the
+arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded or stunned, dragged
+into the canoes and carried away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god
+of the pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway, from ditch to
+ditch, the contest raged fearfully. The Aztecs, satisfied that they had
+now got their detested foes in their power, fought like demons, grappling
+with the Christians and rolling with them down the sloping way together;
+seeking to take their enemies alive that they might be kept for the bloody
+sacrifice.
+
+With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the cries of vengeance and
+groans of agony, the prayers to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled
+the screams of women, of whom there were several, both Spaniard and
+Indian, in the Christian ranks. One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as
+valiantly as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword and
+target in the thickest of the fray, and proving herself as valiant a
+soldier as the best.
+
+During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at rest. He was everywhere,
+ordering, fighting, inspiring, seeking to restore the lost discipline to
+his ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal ditch could be
+crossed, and feeling that life must be considered before wealth, he
+hurried forward everything, heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans,
+and hurled them into the water along with the spoil of the Spaniards,
+bales of costly goods, chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve
+to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled bodies of men and horses,
+drowned in that deadly ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across
+which the survivors stumbled and clambered until they reached the other
+side.
+
+Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch that was fordable, and
+here, with the water up to his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out
+of confusion, and called his followers to this path to safety. But his
+voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a few cavaliers who kept with him,
+he pressed forward to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite
+page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his side.
+
+Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval, who, with about twenty
+other cavaliers, had led the van, composed of two hundred Spanish
+foot-soldiers. They were halted before the third and final breach in the
+causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those which had been passed.
+Fortunately it was not so closely beset by the enemy, who were still
+engaged with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers plunged
+without hesitation into the water, followed by the foot, some swimming,
+some clinging desperately to the manes and tails of the horses, some
+carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal gold with which they were
+heavily laden. On leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended
+themselves, much of the gold which they had gathered was necessarily
+abandoned. Cortez told the soldiers to take what they wished of it, but
+warned them not to overload themselves, saying, "He travels safest in the
+dark night who travels lightest." Many of those who failed to regard this
+wise counsel paid for their cupidity with their death.
+
+Those who safely passed this final ditch were at the end of their
+immediate peril. Soon they were off the causeway and on solid ground,
+where the roar of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But word
+came to them that the rear-guard was in imminent danger and would be
+overwhelmed unless relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return,
+but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not hesitate when this cry
+for aid was heard. Turning their horses, they galloped back, pushed
+through the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the thick of the
+fight on the opposite section of the causeway.
+
+The night was now passing, and the first gray light of day was visible in
+the east. By its dim illumination the frightful combat could be seen in
+all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead bodies of Christian or
+pagan; the dark masses of the warriors could be seen locked in deadly
+struggle crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the lake, far and
+near, was crowded with canoes, filled with armed and ardent Aztec
+warriors, yelling their triumphant war-cry.
+
+Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who led the rear, unhorsed and
+wounded, yet fighting like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him
+safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under him. With a handful of
+followers he was desperately striving to repel the overwhelming tide of
+the enemy which was pouring on him along the causeway, a dozen of the
+Indians falling for every Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work
+in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the assault had carried
+the Aztecs up to and over the guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict
+remained. The charge of the returning cavaliers created a temporary check,
+and a feeble rally was made, but the flood of foes soon came on again and
+drove them resistlessly back.
+
+Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to plunge once more into the
+canal, not all of them this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink for
+a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind him and deadly peril before.
+He was a man of great strength and agility, and despair now gave him
+courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the wreck that strewed the
+bottom, he sprang vigorously forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound,
+a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement, the natives exclaiming,
+as they beheld the seemingly impossible leap, "This is truly the
+_Tonatiuh_,--the child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado from
+his fair features and flaxen hair. How great the leap was no one has told
+us, though the name of "Alvarado's leap" still clings to the spot.
+
+Thus ended the frightful _noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez led
+the remnant of his men off the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling
+few, faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately, the Aztecs,
+attracted by the rich spoil that strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it
+is doubtful if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and wounded state,
+would have survived. How many perished in that night of dread no one
+knows. A probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards and four
+thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard having fallen. Of forty-six
+horses, half had been slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the
+muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone. The only arms left the
+warriors were their swords and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail
+was broken, their garments were tattered, their proud crests and banners
+gone, their bright arms soiled, and only a miserable and shattered
+fragment of their proud force was left, these dragging themselves along
+with pain and difficulty.
+
+               [Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.]
+
+                       AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.
+
+
+Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their allies, the
+Tlascalans,--inveterate enemies of the Aztecs,--slowly moved away from that
+blood-stained avenue of death, now little molested by their foes, and
+gradually recovering from their fatigue. On the seventh morning they
+reached the mountain height which overlooks the plain of Otumba, a point
+less than thirty miles from the capital. This plain they were obliged to
+traverse on their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat.
+
+As they looked down on the broad level below them they saw with shrinking
+hearts why they had not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the
+whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards glistening in the
+sun, their numbers so great that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards
+viewed them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful as he was, felt
+that his last hour had now surely come.
+
+But this stout leader was not the man to give way to despair. There was
+nothing to do but to cut their way through this vast array or perish in
+the attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure destruction.
+Fortunately, they had rested for two nights and a day, and men and horses
+had regained much of their old strength. Without hesitation, Cortez
+prepared for the onset, giving his force as broad a front as possible, and
+guarding its flanks with his little body of horse, now twenty in all.
+Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which he told them of the
+victories they had won, and with orders to his men to thrust, not strike,
+with their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to lose their lances,
+and to strike at the faces of the foe, he gave the word to advance.
+
+At first the natives recoiled from the stern and fierce onset, rolling
+back till they left a wide lane for the passage of their foes. But they
+quickly rallied and poured on the little band in their midst, until it
+seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible fray followed, the
+Christians, as one writer says, standing "like an islet against which the
+breakers, roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain." The struggle was
+one of man to man, the Tlascalans and Spaniards alike fighting with
+obstinate courage, while the little band of horsemen charged deep into the
+enemy's ranks, riding over them and cutting them down with thrust and
+blow, their onset giving fresh spirit to the infantry.
+
+But that so small a force could cut their way through that enormous
+multitude of armed and valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes
+lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and some of the Spaniards
+were slain, and not a man among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received a
+cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly that he was forced to
+dismount and exchange it for a strong animal from the baggage-train. The
+fight went on thus for several hours, the sun growing hotter as it rose in
+the sky, and the Christians, weak from their late wounds, gradually losing
+strength and spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers, forcing
+the horse back on the foot, and throwing the latter into some disorder.
+With every minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it seemed as if
+nothing were left but to sell their lives as dearly as possible.
+
+At this critical juncture a happy chance changed the whole fortune of the
+day. Cortez, gazing with eagle eye around the field in search of some
+vision of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great distance in the
+midst of the throng a splendidly dressed chief, who was borne in a rich
+litter and surrounded by a gayly attired body of young warriors. A
+head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and gems, rose above him, and
+over this again was a short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of
+the Aztecs.
+
+The instant Cortez beheld this person and his emblem his eye lighted with
+triumph. He knew him for the commander of the foe, and the golden net as
+its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers beside him, he pointed
+eagerly to the chief, exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!" Then,
+shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into the thick of the foe.
+Sandoval, Alvarado, and others spurred furiously after him, while the
+enemy fell back before this sudden and fierce assault.
+
+On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid ranks, strewing their
+path with the dead and dying, bearing down all who opposed them. A few
+minutes of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot on which
+were the Aztec chief and his body-guard. Thrusting and cutting with
+tiger-like strength and ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of
+young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian commander, piercing
+him with his lance and hurling him to the ground. A young cavalier beside
+him, Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and despatched the fallen
+chief. Then he tore away the banner and handed it to Cortez.
+
+All this was the work almost of a moment. Its effect was remarkable. The
+guard, overwhelmed by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was quickly
+communicated to their comrades. The tidings spread rapidly. The banner of
+the chief had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness of panic
+suddenly infected the whole host, which broke and fled in wild terror and
+confusion. The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in taking advantage
+of this new aspect of affairs. Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they
+dashed in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them down by hundreds
+as they fled. Not until they had amply repaid their losses on the bloody
+causeway did they return to gather up the booty which strewed the field.
+It was great, for, in accordance with Cortez's instructions, they had
+struck especially at the chiefs, and many of these were richly ornamented
+with gold and jewels.
+
+Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the most remarkable victory, in
+view of the great disparity of forces, ever won in the New World. Chance
+gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a chance made useful only by the
+genius of a great commander. The following day the fugitive army reached
+the soil of Tlascala and were safe among their friends. History has not a
+more heroic story to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec
+capital, nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent return and
+conquest.
+
+
+
+
+
+PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM.
+
+
+The great expedition to the land of gold, which Vasco Nunez de Balboa had
+planned to make, was left by his death to be carried out by one of his
+companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the renowned Francisco
+Pizarro. It was an expedition full of romantic adventure, replete with
+peril and suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring deeds. But we
+must pass over all the earlier of these and come at once to the climax of
+the whole striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the Inca of
+Peru in the midst of his army and the tale of his incredible ransom.
+
+Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro, from the time when, with
+one small vessel and about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed from
+Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great unknown Pacific, to the time
+when, in 1531, he sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and about
+thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru, which he designed to
+conquer as Cortez had conquered Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was
+this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military merits of courage,
+enterprise, daring and persistency, and these qualities carried him
+through sufferings and adversities that would have discouraged almost any
+man and brought him to magical success in the end. It was the beacon of
+gold that lured him on through desperate enterprises and deadly perils and
+led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish adventurers.
+
+Landing and capturing a point on the coast of Peru, he marched with his
+handful of bold followers, his horses and guns, eastward into the empire,
+crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the Andes, and reached the
+city of Caxamalca. Close by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped
+with an army, for a civil war between him and his brother Huascar had just
+ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the latter.
+
+Desperate was the situation of the small body of Spanish soldiers, when,
+in the late afternoon of the 15th of November, 1532, they marched into
+Caxamalca, which they found empty of inhabitants. About one hundred more
+men, with arms and horses, had joined them, but in a military sense they
+were but a handful still, and they had every reason to dread the
+consequences of their rash enterprise.
+
+All seemed threatening,--the desertion of the city by its people, the
+presence of the Inca, with a powerful army, within a league's distance,
+the probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the Spaniards had to
+rely on were their arms,--cannon, muskets and swords of steel,--new and
+terrible weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose evolutions had
+elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian with dismay. Yet what were these
+in the hands of less than three hundred men, in the presence of a strong
+and victorious army? Filled with anxiety, Pizarro at once despatched a
+body of horsemen, led by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier
+Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp.
+
+Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers as this strange
+cavalcade, with clang of arms and blast of trumpet, swept by, man and
+horse seeming like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes. De Soto, the
+best mounted of them all, showed his command of his steed in the Inca's
+presence, by riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful curves,
+and displaying all the vigor and beauty of skilled horsemanship, finally
+checking the noble animal in full career when so near the Inca that some
+of the foam from its lips was thrown on the royal garments. Yet, while
+many of those near drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an
+unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every show of dread, if any such
+inspired him.
+
+To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the Spaniards had brought,
+"Tell your captain that I am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow
+morning. I will then visit him with my chieftains. Meanwhile, let him
+occupy the public buildings on the square, and no other."
+
+Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards, but these they declined, as
+they did not wish to dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the
+sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of great size brought by
+beautiful maidens. Then they rode slowly back, despondent at what they had
+seen,--the haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength and discipline of
+his army.
+
+That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout the camp, which were
+increased as its occupants saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army,
+glittering on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars in
+heaven." Scarcely a man among them except Pizarro retained his courage;
+but he went round among his men, bidding them to keep up their spirits,
+and saying that Providence would not desert them if they trusted to their
+strength and their cause, as Christians against pagans. They were in
+Heaven's service and God would aid them.
+
+He then called a council of his officers and unfolded to them a desperate
+plan he had conceived. This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the
+Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding him as a hostage for
+the safety of the Christians. Nothing less decisive than this would avail
+them, he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first sign of such a
+movement the army of the Inca would be upon them, and they would all be
+destroyed, either there or in the intricacies of the mountain-passes. Nor
+could they remain inactive where they were. The Inca was crafty and
+hostile, and would soon surround them with a net-work of peril, from which
+they could not escape. To fight him in the open field was hazardous, if
+not hopeless. The only thing to do was to take him by surprise on his
+visit the next day, drive back his followers with death and terror, seize
+the monarch, and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their hands his
+followers would not dare attack them, and they would be practically
+masters of the empire.
+
+No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that which Cortez had pursued in
+Mexico. He would take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by his own
+people, as Montezuma had been, and while the monarch remained alive they
+would have the strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan suited the
+daring character of Pizarro's officers. They agreed with him that in
+boldness lay their only hope of success or even of life, and they left the
+council with renewed confidence to prepare for the desperate enterprise.
+
+It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared, his litter borne on the
+shoulders of his chief nobles and surrounded by others, so glittering with
+ornaments that, to quote from one of the Spaniards, "they blazed like the
+sun." A large number of workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish
+from the road. Behind, and through the fields that lined the road, marched
+a great body of armed men. But when within half a mile of the city the
+procession halted, and a messenger was sent to the Spaniards to say that
+the Inca would encamp there for that night and enter the city the
+following morning.
+
+These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His men had been under arms
+since daybreak, the cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen at
+their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits of a long and trying
+suspense in such a critical situation, and sent word back to the Inca
+begging him to come on, as he had everything ready for his entertainment
+and expected to sup with him that night. This message turned the monarch
+from his purpose, and he resumed his march, though the bulk of his army
+was left behind, only a group of unarmed men accompanying him. He
+evidently had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little did he know
+them.
+
+It was near the hour of sunset when the procession reached the city,
+several thousand Indians marching into the great square, borne high above
+whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a kind of throne made of
+massive gold, while a collar of emeralds of great size and beauty
+encircled his neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He looked around
+him with surprise, as there was not a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in
+tones of annoyance, "Where are the strangers?"
+
+At this moment Pizarro' s chaplain, a Dominican friar, came forward, with
+Bible and crucifix in hand, and began to expound to him the Christian
+doctrines, ending by asking him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the
+king of Spain. The Inca, when by aid of the interpreter he had gained a
+glimpse of the priest's meaning, answered him with high indignation, and
+when the friar handed him the Bible as the authority for his words, he
+flung it angrily to the earth, exclaiming,--
+
+"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an account of their doings in
+my land. I will not go from here till they have made me full satisfaction
+for all the wrongs they have committed."
+
+Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened to Pizarro, told him what
+had been said, and cried out,--
+
+"Do you not see that while we stand here wasting our breath in talking
+with this dog, full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with
+Indians? Set on, at once; I absolve you."
+
+Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal agreed upon. A gun was
+fired from the fortress. Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and
+at them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into the square. From every
+avenue of the great building they occupied poured armed men, horse and
+foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians. Taken utterly by
+surprise, the latter were hurled back in confusion. Their ranks rent by
+the balls from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled under foot
+by the fierce charges of the cavalry, pierced by lances or cut down by
+swords, they were driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as they
+wildly sought to escape.
+
+The massacre went on with especial intensity around the Inca, his nobles,
+none of them armed, struggling with what strength they could in his
+defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at the Inca!" shouted
+Pizarro, fearing his valued prize might be slain in the wild tumult.
+Fiercer still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter swayed back
+and forth, and, as some of its bearers were slain, it was overturned, the
+monarch being saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some others,
+who caught him in their arms. With all haste they bore him into the
+fortress and put him under close guard.
+
+With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at an end. The unarmed
+Peruvians fled in terror from the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the
+fields were seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and dispersed in
+all directions, pursued by the Spanish cavalry, who cut them down without
+mercy. Not till night had fallen did Pizarro's men cease the pursuit and
+return at the call of the trumpet to the bloody square of Caxamalca. In
+that frightful massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps many
+more, were slain, the most of them unarmed and helpless. That night
+Pizarro kept his word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it was a
+supper at which he might well have drunk blood. The banquet was served in
+one of the halls facing the great square, then thickly paved with the
+dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity, sitting beside his captor at
+the dread meal.
+
+Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular scene in that strange
+drama, one which proved that the Spaniards had truly at length reached the
+"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner before he discovered the
+besetting passion of the Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was
+sent to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a rich booty in gold
+and silver, whose weight and value filled the conquerors with delight.
+
+Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping from his captivity, the
+Inca one day said to Pizarro that if he would agree to set him free, he
+would cover the floor of the room in which they stood with gold. Pizarro
+listened with a smile of doubt. As he made no answer, the Inca said,
+earnestly, that "he would not merely cover the floor, but would fill the
+room with gold as high as he could reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he
+put his uplifted hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer filled
+Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such a thing could be done seemed
+utterly incredible, despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru.
+The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent offer, hastened to
+accept it, drawing a red line along the wall at the height the Inca had
+touched. How remarkable the ransom was may be judged from the fact that
+the room was about seventeen feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the
+mark on the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca offered to
+fill an adjoining but smaller room twice full with silver, and to do all
+this in the short time of two months. It would seem that he would need
+Aladdin's wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and surprising a task.
+
+As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the Inca sent messengers to
+Cuzco, his capital city, and to the other principal places in his kingdom,
+with orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils from his palaces
+and from the temples and other public buildings, and transport them in all
+haste to Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the monarch was
+treated with the fullest respect due to his rank, having his own private
+apartments and the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted
+to visit him freely. The only thing the Spaniards took good care of was
+that he should be kept under close guard.
+
+He took one advantage of his measure of liberty. His brother and rival,
+Huascar, though a captive, might escape and seize the control of the
+state, and he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message to
+Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a much larger ransom than that
+promised by Atahualpa. The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to remove this
+danger from his path, if we may accept the evidence of his captors. At any
+rate the royal captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his dying
+breath that his rival would not long survive him, but that the white men
+would avenge his murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of great
+sorrow and indignation, of his brother's death, and when the Spaniard
+threatened to hold him responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had
+been done without his knowledge or consent by Huascar's keepers, who
+feared that their captive might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon
+afterward learned that the news was true. It may be that he was well
+satisfied with the fact, as it removed a leading claimant for the throne
+from his path.
+
+Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in--slowly, for the distances were
+great, and the treasure had to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of
+it consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate, some of them
+weighing from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The Spaniards beheld with
+gleaming eyes the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the shoulders
+of Indian porters, and carefully stored away under guard. On some days
+articles to the value of half a million dollars are said to have been
+brought in.
+
+Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus brought before them did not
+satisfy the avaricious impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance
+for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect the Inca of delaying the
+ransom until he could prepare a rising of his subjects against the
+strangers. When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was filled with
+surprise and indignation. "Not a man of my subjects would dare raise a
+finger without my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at your
+disposal? What better security would you have of my good faith?" He ended
+by advising him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where they could see
+for themselves how his orders were being obeyed. He would give them a
+safe-conduct, and they could superintend the work themselves.
+
+The three envoys sent were carried the whole distance of more than six
+hundred miles in litters by relays of carriers, their route laying along
+the great military road of Peru and through many populous towns. Cuzco
+they found to be a large and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun
+was covered with plates of gold, which, by the Inca's orders, were being
+torn off. There were seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice
+of pure gold ran round the building. But this was so deeply set in the
+stone that it could not be removed. On their return, these messengers
+brought with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides great quantities
+of silver.
+
+Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca, far surpassing any paid by
+any other captive in the world's history, was gathered in. The gold
+received came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought into goblets,
+ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms for ornament or use, utensils for
+temple or palace, tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices,
+and curious imitations of plants and animals. The most beautiful and
+artistic of these was the representation of Indian corn, the ear of gold
+being sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich tassels were made
+of the same precious metal. Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a
+sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the same metal playing in
+the waters at its base. Some of these objects were so beautifully wrought
+as to compare favorably with the work of skilled European artists.
+
+The treasure gathered was measured in the room in its original form, this
+being the compact, but even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum
+equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of dollars, with a large
+value in silver in addition. All this was melted down into ingots and
+divided among the conquerors, with the exception of the royal fifth,
+reserved for the King of Spain. The latter included many of the most
+curious works of art. The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less
+than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers received what was
+wealth to them.
+
+The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the Inca? Was he given his
+liberty, in accordance with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such men
+as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they have injured and have reason
+to fear. The total ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought in,
+but the impatient Spaniards had divided the spoil without waiting for the
+whole, and the Inca demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief
+friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his demand, but could get from
+him no direct reply. His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over some
+dark project.
+
+Soon rumors became current among the soldiers of a design of revolt
+entertained by the natives. These spread and grew until an immense army
+was conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the instigator of the
+supposed rising, and was charged with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had
+little effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence, while many
+of the soldiers began to demand the life of the Inca. To those demands
+Pizarro did not turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own
+instigation.
+
+  [Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT
+                                 CALLAO.]
+
+     DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO.
+
+
+Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a strong friend of the captive,
+was absent. De Soto, another of his friends, was sent at the head of an
+expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles away, where it was said
+the natives were in arms. Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to
+yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to bring Atahualpa to trial
+on the charges against him.
+
+A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain Almagro as the
+judges, an attorney-general being appointed for the crown and counsel for
+the prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca were chiefly of a kind
+with which the Spaniards had nothing to do, among them the assassination
+of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were simply to bolster up the
+only real charge, that of exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards.
+The whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and was hurried through
+without waiting for the return of De Soto, who could have given useful
+evidence about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged guilty, and
+sentenced to be burnt alive that very night in the great square of
+Caxamalca!
+
+It was a sentence that might well have been expected as the termination of
+such a trial by such men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his
+captive at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the country, and the cruel
+sentence, which was common enough at that day, was carried out except in
+one particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the stake, with the fagots
+of his funeral pile heaped around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made
+a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized, promising him a
+less painful death if he would consent. The Inca, shrinking from the
+horror of the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under the name of
+Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put to death in the Spanish manner, by the
+_garrote_, or strangulation.
+
+Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of Pizarro's treachery. Great was
+the indignation of De Soto, on his return a day or two later from an
+expedition in which he had found no rebels, at what had been done. Pizarro
+tried to exculpate himself and blame others for deceiving him, but these
+told him to his face that he alone was responsible for the deed. In all
+probability they told the truth.
+
+
+
+
+
+GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON.
+
+
+We have now to relate the most remarkable adventure in the story of the
+conquest of Peru, and one of the most remarkable in the history of the New
+World,--the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro to the upper waters of the Amazon
+and the pioneer voyage down that mighty river.
+
+Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers in his great work of
+conquest, three of them--Hernando, Juan, and Gonzalo--accompanying him to
+Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising, and able men. In 1540,
+eight years after the conquest, Gonzalo was appointed by his brother
+governor of the territory of Quito, in the north of the empire, with
+instructions to explore the unknown country lying to the east, where the
+cinnamon tree was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking his
+province, and made haste in starting on his journey of exploration to the
+fabled land of spices.
+
+It was early in the year that he set out on this famous expedition, with a
+force of three hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one
+hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted. They were all thoroughly
+equipped and took with them a large supply of provisions and a great drove
+of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers say. Yet with all this
+food they were to suffer from the extremes of famine.
+
+We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary journey. At
+first it was easy enough. But when they left the land of the Incas and
+began to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found themselves
+involved in intricate and difficult passes, swept by chilling winds. In
+this cold wilderness many of the natives found an icy grave, and during
+their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains, the earth in one
+place being rent asunder. Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the
+cavity, into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred houses was
+precipitated.
+
+After the heights were passed and they descended to the lower levels,
+tropical heats succeeded the biting cold, and fierce storms of rain,
+accompanied by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost
+ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day. It was the rainy
+season of the tropics, and for more than six weeks the deluge continued,
+while the forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag themselves
+over the yielding and saturated soil.
+
+For several months this toilsome journey continued, many a mountain stream
+and dismal morass needing to be crossed. At length they reached the Land
+of Cinnamon, the _Canelas_ of the Spaniards, where were forests of the
+trees supposed by them to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the
+actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have been useless to them in
+that remote and mountain-walled wilderness. Here their journey, as
+originally laid out, should have ended, but they were lured on by the
+statements of the wild tribes they met, they being told of a rich and
+populous land at ten days' journey in advance, in which gold could be
+found in abundance.
+
+Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and they went eagerly onward, over
+a country of broad savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests, where
+grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large that the extended arms of
+sixteen men could barely reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and
+creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree to tree, beautiful to
+look at but very difficult to pass. The axe was necessary at every step of
+the way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant rains, were torn
+into rags by the bushes and brambles of the woodland. Their provisions had
+been long since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of swine had
+vanished, such of the animals as were not consumed having strayed into the
+woods and hills. They had brought with them nearly a thousand dogs, many
+of them of the ferocious bloodhound breed, and these they were now glad
+enough to kill and eat. When these were gone no food was to be had but
+such herbs and edible roots and small animals as the forest afforded.
+
+At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on the banks of a broad
+river, the Napo, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from
+the northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of that mighty stream.
+Gladdened by the sight, they followed its banks downward, hoping in this
+way to find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way, through which
+it needed all their strength to open a passage, and after going a
+considerable distance a loud and increasing noise met their ears. For
+miles they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and at length
+they reached a place where the stream rushed furiously down steep rapids,
+and at the end poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent
+cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth.
+
+This was the height of the fall as measured by the eyes of the wanderers,
+a guide not much to be relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it
+was at this point not more than twenty feet wide, and the hungry wanderers
+determined to cross it, with the hope of finding beyond it a country
+yielding more food. A bridge was constructed by felling great trees across
+the chasm, the water here running through vertical walls several hundred
+feet in depth. Over this rude bridge men and horses made their way, only
+one Spaniard being lost by tumbling down the giddy depth.
+
+The country beyond the stream proved no better than that they had left,
+and the only signs of inhabitants they met were savage and hostile tribes
+of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady skirmish. Some of the more
+friendly told them that the fruitful land they sought was but a few days'
+journey down the river, and they went wearily on, day by day, as the
+promised land still fled before their feet. Doubtless they were led by
+their own desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians.
+
+In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a vessel large enough to
+carry the baggage and the men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant.
+The shoes of horses that had died or had been killed for food were wrought
+into nails. Pitch was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of oakum
+the tattered garments of the soldiers were used. It took two months to
+complete the difficult task, at the end of which time a rude but strong
+brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an Indian canoe that
+ever floated on the mighty waters of Brazil. It was large enough to carry
+half the Spaniards that remained alive after their months of terrible
+travel.
+
+Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco de Orellana, a man in
+whose courage and fidelity he put full trust. The company now resumed its
+march more hopefully, following the course of the Napo for weeks that
+lengthened into months, the brigantine keeping beside them and
+transporting the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country was reached.
+In this journey the last scraps of provisions were consumed, including
+their few remaining horses, and they were so pressed by hunger as to eat
+the leather of their saddles and belts. Little food was yielded by the
+forest, and such toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found were
+greedily devoured.
+
+Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by a populous nation, was
+told by the wandering Indians, but it was always several days ahead.
+Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was and feed on the scanty
+forest spoil, while Orellana went down the stream in his brigantine to
+where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into a greater river. Here the
+nation they sought was to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a
+supply of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved company.
+Taking fifty of the adventurers in the vessel, he pushed off into the
+swift channel of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage which
+quickly took him and his comrades out of sight.
+
+Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return of the voyagers appeared.
+In vain the waiting men strained their eyes down the stream and sent out
+detachments to look for the vessel farther down. Finally, deeming it
+useless to wait longer, they resumed their journey down the river,
+spending two months in advancing five or six hundred miles--those of them
+who did not die by the way. At length they reached the point they sought,
+where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream, that mighty river since
+known as the Amazon, which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through
+the vast Brazilian forest.
+
+Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and the rich and populous
+country promised them. They were still in a dense forest region, as
+unpromising as that they had left. As for Orellana and his companions, it
+was naturally supposed that they had perished by famine or by the hands of
+the ferocious natives. But they learned differently at length, when a
+half-starved and half-naked white man emerged from the forest, whom they
+recognized as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana's companions.
+
+The tale he told them was the following: The brigantine had shot so
+swiftly down the Napo as to reach in three days the point it had taken
+them two months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies with which to
+return, Orellana could obtain barely enough food for himself and his men.
+To attempt to ascend against the swift current of the river was
+impossible. To go back by land was a formidable task, and one that would
+add nothing to the comfort of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana
+came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon, visiting the
+populous nations which he was told dwelt on its banks, descending to its
+mouth, and sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory of a
+famous adventure and noble discovery.
+
+He found his reckless companions quite ready to accept his perilous
+scheme, with little heed of the fate of the comrades left behind them in
+the wilderness. De Vargas was the only one who earnestly opposed the
+desertion as inhuman and dishonorable, and Orellana punished him by
+abandoning him in the wilderness and sailing away without him.
+
+The story of Orellana's adventure is not the least interesting part of the
+expedition we have set out to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we
+must deal with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and unknown river,
+in a rudely built barque, it is a marvel that the voyagers escaped
+shipwreck in the descent of that vast stream, the navigation being too
+difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine, who descended it in
+1743, to be undertaken without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring
+Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their vessel narrowly escaped
+being dashed to pieces on the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still
+greater was the danger of the voyagers from the warlike forest tribes, who
+followed them for miles in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they
+landed in search of food.
+
+At length the extraordinary voyage was safely completed, and the
+brigantine, built on the Napo, several thousand miles in the interior,
+emerged on the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island of Cubagna,
+from which he made his way, with his companions, to Spain. He had a
+wonderful story to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks of
+the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in its vicinity, and other
+romances, gathered from the uncertain stories of the savages.
+
+He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and credulity, in gaining
+belief, and was sent out at the head of five hundred followers to conquer
+and colonize the realms he had seen. But he died on the outward voyage,
+and Spain got no profit from his discovery, the lands of the Amazon
+falling within the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal.
+
+Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest feats in the annals of
+travel and discovery, though his glory was won at the cost of the crime of
+deserting his companions in the depths of the untrodden wilderness. It was
+with horror and indignation that the deserted soldiers listened to the
+story of Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only apparent
+means of escape from that terrible situation. An effort was made to
+continue their journey along the banks of the Amazon, but after some days
+of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless task, and despair
+settled down upon their souls.
+
+Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able leader. He told his despairing
+followers that it was useless to advance farther, and that they could not
+stay where they were, their only hope lying in a return to Quito. This was
+more than a thousand miles away, and over a year had passed since they
+left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their only hope.
+
+Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits, speaking of the
+constancy they had shown, and bidding them to show themselves worthy of
+the name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when they should reach their
+native land. He would lead them back by another route, and somewhere on it
+they would surely reach that fruitful land of which so much had been told
+them. At any rate, every step would take them nearer home, and nothing
+else was left them to do.
+
+The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope. He had proved himself so
+far a true companion, sharing all their perils and privations, taking his
+lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick and cheering up the
+despondent. In this way he had won their fullest confidence and devotion,
+and in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his unselfish conduct.
+
+The journey back was more direct and less difficult than that they had
+already taken. Yet though this route proved an easier one, their distress
+was greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond such scanty fare as
+they could pick up in the forest or obtain by force or otherwise from the
+Indians. Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged to be left
+behind, and many a poor wretch was deserted to die alone in the
+wilderness, if not devoured by the wild beasts that roamed through it.
+
+The homeward march, like the outward one, took more than a year, and it
+was in June, 1542, that the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito.
+They were a very different looking party from the well-equipped and
+hope-inspired troop of cavaliers and men-at-arms who had left that upland
+city nearly two and a half years before. Their horses were gone, their
+bright arms were rusted and broken, their clothing was replaced by the
+skins of wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down their
+shoulders, their faces were blackened by the tropical sun, their bodies
+were wasted and scarred. A gallant troop they had set out; a body of
+meagre phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand Indians taken, less
+than half had survived. Of the Spaniards only eighty came back, and these
+so worn and broken that many of them never fully recovered from their
+sufferings. Thus in suffering and woe ended the famous expedition to the
+Land of Cinnamon.
+
+
+
+
+
+CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.
+
+
+The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in Mexico and Peru went far
+to convince the Spaniards that in America they had found a veritable land
+of magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in gold and gems. Ponce
+de Leon sought in Florida for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de
+Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted to find a second Peru in
+the north, and became the discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other
+adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of empire and treasure.
+Some went south to the conquest of Central America, others north to
+California and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat of the fancied
+Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for which it is here proposed to
+describe.
+
+In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed governor of New
+Galicia, as the country lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a
+certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with Pizarro in Peru, on a
+journey of exploration to the north. With him were some Indian guides and
+a negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been one of the survivors of
+the Narvaez expedition to Florida and had travelled for years among the
+Indians of the north. He was expected to be of great assistance. As the
+worthy friar went on he was told of rich regions beyond, where the people
+wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the negro in advance to
+investigate and report. Stephen was to send back by the Indians a cross,
+the size of which would indicate the importance of what he had learned.
+Within four days messengers returned with a great cross the height of a
+man, significant of great and important discoveries.
+
+One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days' journey from the point
+they had reached was a populous country called Cibola, in which were seven
+great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized nation that dwelt in
+large houses well built of stone and lime, some of them several stories in
+height. The entrances to the principal houses were richly wrought with
+turquoise, which was there in great abundance. Farther on they had been
+told were other provinces, each of them much greater than that of the
+seven cities.
+
+Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out on the track of his
+pioneer, eager to reach the land of wonders and riches of which he had
+been told. Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second Mexico or
+Peru. The land through which lay his route was strange and picturesque.
+Here were fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by mountains;
+there were narrow canons through which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls
+hundreds of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets and towers.
+
+As he went on he heard more of the seven cities and the distant kingdoms,
+and of the abundance of turquoises with which the natives adorned their
+persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen of Stephen, though
+shelter and provisions were found which he had left at points along the
+route. As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never to set eyes on him
+again.
+
+At length the good monk reached a fertile region, irrigated like a garden,
+where the men wore three or four strings of turquoises around their necks;
+and the women wore them in their ears and noses. But Cibola lay still
+beyond, the tales of the natives magnifying its houses till some of them
+were ten stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in place of
+stairways. Reaching at length the Gila River, a stream flowing through
+deep and rugged valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was crossing the
+wilderness to the northeast, escorted like a prince by some three hundred
+natives. Fifteen days journey still lay between Fray Marcos and Cibola,
+and he went on into the wilderness, escorted, like his pioneer, by a large
+train of natives, who volunteered their services.
+
+For twelve days the journey continued through a rough mountain region,
+abundantly supplied with game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and
+partridges, which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But now there came
+back startling news, for one of the negro's guides appeared, pallid with
+fright, telling how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had been seized,
+plundered, and imprisoned. Farther on two more Indians were met, covered
+with blood and wounds, who said that they had escaped from the slaughter
+of all their comrades by the warlike people of Cibola.
+
+The bold monk had now much trouble in getting his frightened followers to
+go on with him, but by means of abundant presents he induced two of the
+chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at least a sight of the land
+of wonders, and with the chiefs and his own followers he cautiously
+proceeded. At length, from a hill summit, he looked down on a broad plain
+on which he saw the first of the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy
+it was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of stone in many
+stories and with flat roofs. This was all he could tell from his distant
+view, in which the mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his power
+of vision.
+
+That was the end of Fray Marcos's journey. He did not dare to approach
+nearer to that terrible people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with
+more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort, which, moved by still
+greater fear, had not waited for him. Back to Coronado he went with his
+story, a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of either gold,
+silver, or precious stones, the nearest approach to treasure being the
+greenish turquoise.
+
+The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards learned, was one that might
+have fitted the Orient. He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and
+feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he carried a gourd
+decorated with bells and with white and red feathers. This he knew to be a
+symbol of authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds followed
+him, and a number of handsome Indian women, whom he had taken up on the
+way, attended him. He was followed with a large escort of Indians,
+carrying his provisions and other effects, among them gifts received, or
+plunder taken, from the natives.
+
+When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the orders given him, sent
+messengers to the city bearing his gourd, and saying that he came to treat
+for peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the gourd was presented,
+on observing the bells, cast it angrily to the ground, exclaiming,--
+
+"I know not those people; their bells are not of our fashion; tell them to
+return at once, or not a man of them will be left alive."
+
+In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious negro went on. He
+and his company were not permitted to enter the city, but were given a
+house outside of it, and here they were stripped of all their possessions
+and refused food and drink. The next morning they left the house, where
+they were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great number of the
+townspeople, all of them being killed except the two Indians who had
+brought the news to Fray Marcos.
+
+Why they were treated in this manner is not known. They seem to have been
+looked on as spies or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of
+the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a pueblo of the Zuni
+Indians, though three centuries and a half have since then elapsed.
+
+The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as told by the worthy Fray
+Marcos, when repeated in the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a
+new El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an expedition to explore
+and conquer Cibola. The city was then well filled with adventurers eager
+for fame and fortune, many of them men of good family, cavaliers of rank
+"floating about like corks on water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any
+promising service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a company of over
+three hundred were enlisted, a large proportion of them mounted. The
+Indians of the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some small
+field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and cows were to be driven to
+supply the army with fresh meat.
+
+Francisco de Coronado was given the command, and so distinguished was the
+cavalcade that the viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen a
+captain but for fear of making the command top-heavy with officers. It was
+early in 1540 that the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen
+arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with swords and lances,
+others wearing helmets of iron or tough bullhide, while the footmen
+carried cross-bows and muskets, and the Indians were armed with bows and
+clubs. Splendid they were--but woe-befallen were they to be on their
+return, such of them as came back. An accessory party was sent by sea,
+along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de Alarcon, to aid, as far as it
+could, in the success of the army. But in spite of all Alarcon's efforts,
+he failed to get in communication with Coronado and his men.
+
+On the 7th of July, after following the monk's route through the mountain
+wilderness, the expedition came within two days' march of the first city
+of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on the hills and other
+signs of hostility that the Spaniards would have to fight; but for this
+the cavaliers of that day seem to have been always ready, and the next day
+Coronado moved forward towards the desired goal.
+
+At length the gallant little army was before Hawaikuh, the city on which
+Fray Marcos had gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now was seen to
+be a village of some two hundred houses. It lay about fifteen miles
+southwest of the present Zuni. The natives were ready for war. All the old
+men, with the women and children, had been sent away, and the Spaniards
+were received with volleys of arrows.
+
+The houses were built in retreating terraces, each story being smaller
+than that below it, and from these points of vantage the arrows of the
+natives came in showers. Evidently the place was only to be taken by
+assault, and the infantry was posted so as to fire on the warriors, while
+a number of dismounted horsemen sought to scale the walls by a ladder
+which they had found. This proved no easy task. Coronado's glittering
+armor especially made him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with
+arrows and battered with stones as he sought to ascend that he was wounded
+and had to be carried from the field. Others were injured and three horses
+were killed, but in less than an hour the place was carried, the warriors
+retreating in dismay before the impetuous assault.
+
+Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted houses. Their food
+had given out and they were half starved, but in the store-rooms they
+found "that of which there was greater need than of gold or silver, which
+was much corn and beans and chickens, better than those of New Spain, and
+salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my life." The chickens seem
+to have been wild turkeys, kept by the natives for their plumage. But of
+the much-desired gold and silver there was not a trace.
+
+The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards in this country is too
+extended and not of enough interest to be given here. It must suffice to
+say that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded into phantoms,
+or rather contracted into villages of terraced houses like that they had
+captured. Food was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil, even the
+turquoises of which so much had been told proving to be of little value.
+Expeditions were sent out in different directions, some of them
+discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on their almost
+inaccessible summits, the only approach being by narrow steps cut in the
+rock. Others came upon deep canons, one of them discovering the wonderful
+Grand Canon of the Colorado River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve
+villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some on the lofty heights.
+The people here received the Spaniards peaceably and with much show of
+welcome.
+
+In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by the Spaniards El Turco,
+from his resemblance to the Turks, who said he had come from a rich
+country in the east, where were numbers of great animals with shaggy
+manes,--evidently the buffalo or bison, now first heard of. Some time
+later, being brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco had a more
+wonderful story to tell, to the effect that "In his land there was a river
+in the level country which was two leagues wide, in which were fishes as
+big as horses, and large numbers of very big canoes with more than twenty
+rowers on a side, and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop
+under awnings, and on the prow they had a great golden eagle. He said also
+that the lord of that country took his afternoon nap under a great tree on
+which were hung a large number of little gold bells, which put him to
+sleep as they swung in the air. He said also that every one had his
+ordinary dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates, and bowls
+were of gold."
+
+No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the yellow metal that
+inspired El Turco to these alluring stories, in the hope of getting rid of
+the unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the effect it had. After
+wintering in the villages of the Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed
+and taken, they set out in the following April in search of Quivira, the
+land of gold, which El Turco had painted in such enticing colors. Against
+the advice of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions, the
+imaginative Indian saying that this was useless, as the laden animals
+could not bring back the gold and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the
+romancing Indian was taken with them as a guide.
+
+On for many leagues they went until the Pecos River was crossed and the
+great northern plains were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless
+country, covered with high grasses and peopled by herds of the great maned
+animals which El Turco had described. These strange creatures were seen in
+extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one day, when a herd was put to
+flight, they fell in such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it
+up, so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the dead bodies.
+
+Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they told not at all
+agreeing with that of El Turco, who accordingly was now put in chains.
+Coronado, not wishing to subject all his companions to suffering, but
+eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length sent all his followers
+back except thirty horsemen and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued
+his journey to the north, the bisons supplying them with abundance of
+food.
+
+For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at the end of thirty days a
+wide stream, which is thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at last
+reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in the present State of Kansas.
+A pleasing land it was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in
+place of El Turco's many-storied stone houses, only rude wigwams were to
+be seen, and the civilized people proved to be naked savages. The only
+yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one of the chiefs and some
+bells of the same substance. The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a
+cross and claim this wide region in the name of his master; and his chief
+satisfaction was in strangling El Turco for his many embellished lies.
+
+We shall not describe the return journey, though it was not lacking in
+interesting incidents. Finally, having lost many of their horses, being
+harassed by the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions, the
+way-worn army reached known soil in the valley of Culiacan. Here all
+discipline was at an end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues
+down the valley, all Coronado's entreaties failing to restore any order to
+the ranks.
+
+At length the sorely disappointed commander presented himself before the
+viceroy Mendoza, with scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone
+remained with him of the splendid cavalcade with which he had set out.
+
+Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores, who had found only
+villages of barbarians and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned
+empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o' the-wisp of Quivira and
+its fleeting treasures. Little did he dream that Quivira would yet become
+the central region of one of the greatest civilized nations of the world,
+and rich in productions beyond his most avaricious vision.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA.
+
+
+The early history of America has few romantic tales of love and devotion,
+but there is one woven in with the history of the settlement of Buenos
+Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all the historians of the
+time, and which exists as the one striking love romance of the Spanish
+conquest. It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do to
+dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the plea that historical
+critics have questioned them.
+
+It may not be generally known to our readers that the man who explored and
+took possession of the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was
+Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had with his father discovered
+North America in the service of England. It was in the year 1526 that he
+sailed up the noble river which he named the Rio de la Plata, a name
+suggested by the bars of silver which he obtained from the Indians on its
+banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay River, he built at the
+mouth of the river Zarcaranna a stronghold which he named the Fort of the
+Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set sail for Spain, leaving Nuno
+de Lara as commander of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and
+twenty men.
+
+These historical details are important, as a necessary setting for the
+love-romance which followed the founding of this fort. Lara, being left
+with his handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory peopled
+with Indians, felt strongly that in his situation prudence was the better
+part of valor, and strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest
+and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez. His success in this
+brought about, in an unexpected manner, his death and the loss of the
+fort, with other evils in their train.
+
+                 [Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.]
+
+                         COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.
+
+
+The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado, one of Lara's
+principal officers, had brought with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a
+Spanish lady of much beauty and purity of soul. During the frequent visits
+which Mangora, the cacique of the Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this
+lady and became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that he could not
+conceal the evidence of his love.
+
+Miranda was not long in observing the ardent looks of the Indian chief and
+in understanding their significance, and the discovery filled her with
+dread and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the commandant to keep
+on good terms with this powerful chief, and fearing that she might be
+sacrificed to this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his sight,
+and also to guard against any surprise or violence, not knowing to what
+extremes the passion of love might lead an Indian.
+
+Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the fair lady out of the
+fort, and with this in view pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring
+his wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do, for Miranda had told
+him of her fears, and he suspected the Indian's design. With a policy
+demanded by the situation, he declined the invitations of the chief, on
+the plea that a Castilian soldier could not leave his post of duty without
+permission from his commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that
+permission except to fight his enemies.
+
+The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He saw that Hurtado suspected
+his purpose, and the removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary step
+for its accomplishment. While seeking to devise a plan for this, he
+learned, to his great satisfaction, that Hurtado and another officer, with
+fifty soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect provisions,
+of which a supply was needed.
+
+Here was the opportunity which the treacherous chief awaited. It not only
+removed the husband, but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the wife
+in his absence. Late one day the chief placed four thousand armed men in
+ambush in a marsh near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty
+others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates, he sent word to Lara
+that he had heard of his want of food, and had brought enough to serve him
+until the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of friendship greatly
+pleased Lara. He met the chief with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and
+insisted on entertaining him and his followers.
+
+So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had been successful. The men
+in the marsh had their instructions and patiently awaited the fixed
+signals, while the feast in the fort went on till the night was well
+advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards were given time to retire; then
+the food-bearing Indians set fire to the magazines, and the ambushed
+savages, responding to the signal, broke into the fort and ruthlessly cut
+down all the Spaniards they met. Those who had gone to bed were killed in
+their sleep or slain as they sprang up in alarm. The governor was severely
+wounded, but had strength enough to revenge himself on the faithless
+Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran through the body with his sword. In a
+moment more he was himself slain.
+
+At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in the fort only the
+women and children remained alive--spared, no doubt, by order of the chief.
+These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent cause of this bloody
+catastrophe, four other women, and as many children. The weeping captives
+were bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of Mangora, and his
+successor as cacique of the tribe.
+
+No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman whom his brother had loved,
+her beauty heightened in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like
+passion was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered his men to
+remove her bonds. He then told her that she must not consider herself a
+captive, and solicited her favor with the gentleness and address that love
+can implant in the breast of the savage as well as of the son of
+civilization. Her husband, he told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the
+forests of a hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful nation and
+could surround her with luxuries and wealth. Could she hesitate to accept
+his love in preference to that of a man who was lost to her.
+
+These persuasions excited only horror and anguish in the soul of the
+faithful wife. Her love for her husband was proof against all that Siripa
+could say, and also against the fear of slavery or death, which might
+follow her rejection of his suit. In fact, death seemed to her a smaller
+evil than life as the wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his
+offers with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she hoped would excite
+his rage and induce him to put her to instant death.
+
+Her flashing eyes and excited words, however, had a very different effect
+from that she intended. They served only to heighten her charms in the
+eyes of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever in his
+persuasions. Taking her to his village, he treated her with every mark of
+kindness and gentleness, and showed her the utmost respect and civility,
+doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and raise a feeling in her
+breast corresponding to his own.
+
+Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with the provisions they had
+collected, and viewed with consternation the ruins of the fort which they
+had so lately left. Their position was a desperate one, alone and
+undefended as they were, in the midst of treacherous tribes; but the fears
+which troubled the minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado.
+He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands of the cacique of
+Timbuez, and love and indignation in his soul suppressed all other
+feelings. With a temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he sought
+alone the village of the chief and demanded the release of his wife.
+
+Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption and savage joy at
+having at his mercy the man who stood between him and the object of his
+affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to his suit, he at once
+ordered him to be seized, bound to a tree, and pierced with arrows.
+
+This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with anguish, she rushed out,
+cast herself at the Indian's feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her
+husband's life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado was
+unbound, but he was still kept in captivity.
+
+Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined passions of a savage,
+and the fate of husband and wife alike was at constant risk in his hands.
+Now, tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed bent on sacrificing
+the husband to his rage. Again, the desire of winning the esteem of
+Miranda softened his soul, and he permitted the husband and wife to meet.
+
+As the days of captivity passed the strictness of their detention was
+relaxed and they were permitted greater freedom of action. As a result
+they met each other more frequently and under less restraint. But this
+growing leniency in the cacique had its limits: they might converse, but
+they were warned against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love.
+Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda would not become his, he
+was resolved that no one else should enjoy the evidence of her affection.
+
+The situation was a painful one. Husband and wife, as Hurtado and Miranda
+were, they continued lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the
+feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them avoid any show of love, and
+they resolved to obey its dictates; but prudence is weak where love
+commands, and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised them clasped in each
+other's arms and indulging in the ardent kisses of love.
+
+Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried away by ungovernable
+fury at their contempt of his authority and their daring disregard of his
+feelings, he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado's old
+sentence was renewed: he was bound to a tree and his body pierced with
+arrows. As for Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and furious
+savage to a more painful death, that of the flames. Yet painful as it was,
+the loyal wife doubtless preferred it to yielding to the passion of the
+chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life her lover and
+husband.
+
+Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story of love and faith that the
+early annals of America have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda
+has become a classic in the love-lore of the America of the south.
+
+
+
+
+
+LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS.
+
+
+The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries the boundary
+between liberty and oppression in South America. South of it lay the land
+of the Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who preserved their
+independence against the whites, the only Indian nation in America of
+which this can be said. Valorous and daring as were the American Indians,
+their arms and their arts were those of the savage, and the great
+multitude of them were unable to stand before the weapons and the
+discipline of their white invaders. But such was not the case with the
+valiant Araucanians. From the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro
+and the first invader of Chili, down to our own days these bold Americans
+fought for and retained their independence, holding the Biobio as their
+national frontier, and driving army after army from their soil. Not until
+1882 did they consent to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own
+free will, and they still retain their native habits and their pride in
+their pure blood.
+
+The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races, they defied the armies
+of the Incas long before the Spaniards came, and the armies of the
+Spaniards for centuries afterwards, and though they have now consented to
+become a part of the Chilian nation, this has not been through conquest,
+and they are as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike years of
+the past. Their hardy and daring character infects the whole of Chili, and
+has given that little republic, drawn out like a long string between the
+Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one of the most warlike and
+unyielding of countries, while to its people has been applied the
+suggestive title of "the Yankees of the South."
+
+It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the heroes who arose in
+succession to defend the land of Araucania from the arms of those who so
+easily overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall, therefore, confine
+ourselves to the exploits of one of the earliest of these, a youthful
+warrior with a genius for war that might have raised him to the rank of a
+great commander had not death early cut short his career. The second
+Spaniard who attempted the conquest of this valiant people was Pedro de
+Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an able soldier, but one of those
+who fancied that a handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the
+strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the spirit of the race with
+which he would have to deal.
+
+Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia with two hundred Spaniards
+at his back. With them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable
+force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he proposed to settle and
+hold the land as his own after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles
+southward he went, fighting the hostile natives at every step, and on the
+14th of February, 1541, stopped and laid the foundations of a town which
+he named St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago, a city of
+three hundred thousand souls.
+
+We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia's wars with the many
+tribes of Chili. He was in that land nine years before his conquests
+brought him to the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with whom alone
+we are concerned. On the coast near the mouth of this river he founded a
+new town, which he named Concepcion, and made this the basis of an
+invasion of the land of the Araucanians, whom he proposed to subdue.
+
+As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this time was a man with the body
+of a giant and the soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of the
+Spaniards until they had overrun most of the country, built towns and
+forts, and had reason to believe that the whole of Chili was theirs.
+Valdivia went on founding cities until he had seven in all, and gave
+himself the proud title of the Marquis of Arauco, fancying that he was
+lord and master of the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was not yet
+his.
+
+A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians, disgusted with the
+timid policy of their leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as
+their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man, the new toqui soon
+taught the Spaniards a lesson. He began with an attack on their forts. At
+one of these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty Indians employed in
+bringing them forage for their horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these
+laborers by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their arms in the bundles
+of hay they carried. On reaching the fort they were to attack the guards
+and hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could come to their aid.
+
+This device failed, the garrison attacking and driving back the
+forage-bearers before Caupolican could reach the place. Foiled in this, he
+made a fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty cannons proved
+too much for Indian means of defence, and the assailants were forced to
+draw back and convert their assault into a siege. This did not continue
+long before the Spaniards found themselves in peril of starvation. Vainly
+they sallied out on their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and
+finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered garrison cut its
+way by a sudden night attack through the besieging lines and retired to
+the neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took place at another fort
+called Tucapel, its garrison also seeking a refuge at Puren.
+
+When news of these events reached Valdivia, he saw that his conquests were
+in peril, and at once set out for the seat of war with all his forces,
+amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four or five thousand
+Indians. A small party of cavalry were despatched in advance to
+reconnoitre the enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians and
+their heads were hung on roadside trees as a warning to their approaching
+comrades. This gruesome spectacle had much of the effect intended. On
+seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and clamored to return. But
+Valdivia insisted on advancing, and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two
+armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel.
+
+Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary Indians to deal with. These
+were not of the kind that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry. A
+fierce charge was made on his left wing, which was cut to pieces by the
+daring warriors of Caupolican. The right wing was also vigorously
+attacked. But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards were mowing down
+the ranks of the Araucanians, whose rude war-clubs and spears were
+ill-fitted to cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven back, and
+hundreds of them falling, they returned with heroic courage three times to
+the assault. But at length the slaughter became too great to bear and the
+warriors were ready to flee in dismay.
+
+At this critical moment the first great hero of the Araucanians appeared.
+He was a boy of only sixteen years of age, a mere lad, who some time
+before had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made his page. But
+young as he was, he loved his country ardently and hated the invaders with
+a bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved the day for his
+countrymen and snatched victory out of defeat.
+
+Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the Araucanians were shrinking in
+dismay, he rushed into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn, accused
+them of cowardice, and bade them to face their foes like men. Seizing a
+lance, he charged alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to
+follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries, the Araucanians charged
+with such fury that the ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were
+broken, and they were cut down until the whole force was annihilated. It
+is said that of the entire expedition only two Indians escaped.
+
+Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to pray, on seeing the fortune
+of war turning against him, was seized by a party of the victors and
+brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive begged the chief for his
+life, promising to leave Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his
+late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief, and this the generous
+boy did. But the Araucanians had little faith in Spanish promises, and an
+old warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising his war-club and
+dashing out the captive's brains. Thus tragically ended the career of one
+of the least cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty of his
+disdain of Indian courage.
+
+Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in his veins, and was
+endowed by nature with beauty of person, nobleness of character, and
+intrepidity of soul. His people honored him highly in the festival with
+which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican appointed him his
+special lieutenant, raising him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his
+own.
+
+There was fighting still to be done. The leader of the Spaniards was dead,
+but he had left many behind him, and there were still strongholds in the
+Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing of the terrible disaster
+to their cause, the Spaniards hastily evacuated their forts beyond the
+Biobio and retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia. Here they were
+besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro was given the difficult task of
+defending the border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful general
+at once fortified himself on the steep mount of Mariguenu, a fort made
+very strong by nature.
+
+Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped from Tucapel brought the news
+of the disaster to Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with
+terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of fourteen horsemen, of whom
+seven were slain, added to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing
+with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost their terrors was not
+reassuring to the invaders of the land. Evidently their position was
+hazardous; they must fight to win or retreat.
+
+Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia, decided to fight. With a
+small army of Spaniards and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio
+and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending Mount Mariguenu to attack
+the stronghold on its top.
+
+Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an old soldier in dealing with
+his well-armed foe. While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass of
+the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell upon them, and for three
+hours gave them as sharp a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the
+Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind which Lantaro awaited the
+foe.
+
+Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party of Spanish horsemen, with
+the purpose of forcing a passage, but near the summit they were met with
+such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it became necessary to
+support them with infantry and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the
+defence, endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body of his warriors,
+but the success of this stratagem was prevented by the advance of
+Villagrau to their support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in
+particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians.
+
+At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he was a born captain.
+Calling to him one of his officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see
+those thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes. There is your
+work. Do not dare show your face to me until you have made them your own."
+
+Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company and fell in fury upon the
+battery, driving back the gunners and capturing their cannon. This
+successful charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce attack on the
+Spanish front, which broke their ranks, throwing them into confusion and
+putting them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three thousand of the
+Spaniards and their allies being slain, while Villagrau was saved with
+difficulty and at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who picked
+him up where he lay wounded and carried him off on his horse.
+
+In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again the defile by which
+they had ascended. Lantaro had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees,
+and the few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before they could
+escape. The Araucanians pursued them to the Biobio, fatigue preventing
+their following beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their flight
+until Concepcion was reached, and here the old men and women were speedily
+sent north in ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the city in a
+panic, and started for Santiago by land. All their property was left, and
+the victors found a rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro, after
+destroying the place, returned home, to be greeted with the acclamations
+of his people.
+
+We must deal more rapidly with the remaining events of the boy hero's
+career. Some time after this defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild
+Concepcion, but while thus employed they were attacked and defeated by
+Lantaro, who pursued them through the open gates of their fortress and
+took possession of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the woods
+and the ships in the harbor. Once more burning the city, Lantaro withdrew
+in triumph.
+
+The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been with much justice called, now
+advanced against Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid to
+Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia. Reaching the country of
+the Indian allies of the Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He
+then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio Claro and sent out spies
+into the country of the enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish horsemen
+were sent from the city to reconnoitre the position of their enemies, but
+they were met and driven back in dismay, being severely handled by the
+Araucanians. The news of their repulse filled the people of Santiago with
+consternation.
+
+Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro against Lantaro, and
+ordered the roads leading to the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved
+no match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent. When the
+Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards
+following tumultuously into the fortifications. Once inside, the Indians
+turned on them and cut them down so furiously that none but the horsemen
+escaped.
+
+Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each time was repulsed. The young
+Spanish leader then withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped on a
+neighboring hill, with the design in mind of turning the waters of a
+mountain stream on Pedro's camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy
+informed him of the purpose to drown him out, and he hastily retired to
+Santiago.
+
+Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his son of the task which
+had proved too much for him. At the head of a strong force, he took a
+secret route by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the
+Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his sentinels aroused Lantaro to
+the impending danger, and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his
+works to observe the coming enemy. He had hardly reached there when an
+arrow from the bow of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a mortal
+wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead in the arms of his followers.
+
+A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed and the fight not ending
+till none of the Araucanians remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew
+to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated the death of their foe;
+while his countrymen, dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege of
+the invested cities and returned home.
+
+A remarkable career was that of this young captain, begun at sixteen and
+ending at nineteen. History presents no rival to his precocious military
+genius, though in the centuries of war for independence in his country
+many older heroes of equal fame and daring arose for the defence of their
+native land against the Spanish foe.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS.
+
+
+At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake, the Sea-King of Devon, as
+he was called, and the most daring and persistent of the enemies of the
+Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape Horn, at the southern
+extremity of the continent, and steered northward into the great Pacific,
+with the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year before he had left the
+harbor of Plymouth, England, with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But
+these had been lost or left behind until only the "Golden Hind," a ship of
+one hundred tons burden, was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron.
+Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom he started only about sixty
+remained.
+
+The bold Drake had previously made himself terrible to the Spaniards of
+Mexico and the West Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the walls
+of Panama. Now for the first time the foot of a white man trod the barren
+rocks of Cape Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific waves.
+Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons to take and rich Spanish cities
+to raid, and the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope of a golden
+harvest as they sailed north into that unknown sea.
+
+Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the famous adventures of Pizarro,
+and about the 1st of December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili.
+Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills on which sheep and
+cattle were grazing and corn and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the
+natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted with the presents
+which were given them. But soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his
+men, who had gone on shore to procure fresh water, were fiercely attacked
+by ambushed Indians, and every man on board was wounded before they could
+pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched from them by the Indians,
+and Drake was wounded by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone on
+the side of his face.
+
+                [Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+                        THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.
+
+
+Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew wished to attack the hostile
+natives, but Drake refused to do so.
+
+"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards," he said; "and we cannot
+blame them for attacking any man from Spain."
+
+Some days later a native fisherman was captured and brought on board the
+ship. He was in a terrible fright, but was reassured when he learned that
+his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a nation whose people did
+not love Spain. He was highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of
+linen cloth that were given him, and was sent ashore, promising to induce
+his people to sell some provisions to the ship's crew. He kept his word,
+and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog were obtained.
+
+With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to see any white men who
+hated the Spaniards as deeply as he did himself. He was well received and
+served to the best the ship could afford. Then he said to his entertainer
+in Spanish, a language he spoke fairly well,--
+
+"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be glad to go with you, and
+think I can be of much use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far
+south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon, nearly ready to sail
+with a rich treasure. We should all like much to have you capture that
+vessel."
+
+This was good news to Drake. The next day the "Golden Hind" turned its
+prow down the coast under full sail, with the friendly native on board.
+When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight that his dusky pilot
+had told the truth. There lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not
+dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards were unsuspicious
+until the "Golden Hind" had been laid alongside and its armed crew were
+clambering over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured almost without a
+blow.
+
+The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected treasure, and to his joy
+found that she was laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand dollars
+in gold coin, and with other costly goods, including about two thousand
+jars of Chili wine. This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the
+"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her disconsolate captain and
+crew.
+
+After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast, in which the rich
+viands obtained were washed down freely with the captured wine, an armed
+force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose people fled hurriedly to the
+fields when they saw the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted
+houses and the church a fair supply of gold and silver spoil was found,
+and what was equally welcome, an abundant addition to their scanty store
+of provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the "Golden Hind" set sail
+again up the coast, putting the native pilot ashore at the place where he
+wished to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from him eager
+protestations of joy and gratitude.
+
+Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers in this voyage up the South
+American coast. One of the examples of good fortune came at a place called
+Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who had gone ashore, came upon a
+Spaniard lying fast asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side, to
+their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid silver. The sleepy
+treasure-bearer and his silver were speedily secured. Farther inland the
+party met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who were driving some
+sheep, with bulging bags upon their backs. On opening those they were
+found also to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that returned to
+the "Golden Hind" with the treasure thus unexpectedly obtained, and it
+began to look almost as if the country grew silver.
+
+The next raid of the adventurers was at a place called Arica, a small
+seaport town at the output of a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two
+or three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured and searched for
+goods of value. The town was not taken, for a native whom Drake met here
+told him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a valuable cargo, which
+had recently passed up the coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a
+small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was speedily under sail again.
+
+"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to his men. "I am told she is
+richly laden. The first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my hearty
+thanks and a heavy gold chain into the bargain."
+
+It may well be imagined that the eyes of the sailors were kept wide open
+in the days that followed. The man to win the golden chain was John Drake,
+the admiral's brother, who rushed to him one morning, as he came on deck,
+with the glad tidings,--
+
+"Yonder is the galleon!"
+
+He pointed to the far northern horizon, where the sails of a great ship
+were just becoming visible through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was
+the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward before the fresh
+breeze towards the slow-moving Spanish ship.
+
+Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an English ship in those waters,
+as yet never broken except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon
+took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and shortened sail as the
+"Golden Hind" came up, signalling for its officers to come on board. Drake
+did so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when the Spanish captain
+learned his mistake it was too late to resist. The crew of the galleon
+were put under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be rich in gold and
+silver, was quickly transferred to the "Golden Hind." Then captain and
+crew of the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship was set adrift,
+to try her chances without pilot or helmsman in those perilous seas. The
+next storm probably made her a grave in the breakers.
+
+Great had been the spoil gathered by the English rovers, a rich wealth of
+treasure being within the coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was
+abundantly supplied with provisions. Drake now thought of returning home
+with the riches he had won for himself and his comrades. But the port of
+Lima, Pizarro's capital, lay not far up the coast, and here he hoped for a
+rich addition to his spoil. Though satisfied that a messenger had been
+sent from Valparaiso to warn the people of the presence of an armed
+English ship on the coast, he had no doubt of reaching Lima in advance of
+news brought overland.
+
+On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish vessels were found, and,
+their captains being unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained
+no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay several miles inland from the port,
+and the governor, on hearing of these depredations, imagined that the
+stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had fallen into the hands of
+pirates and was on a freebooting cruise. While he was making preparations
+for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso arrived and told him the
+real character of the unwelcome visitor.
+
+This news spurred the governor to increased exertions. An armed English
+war-ship on their coast was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and
+the wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth recapture. With all
+haste the governor got together a force of two thousand men, horse and
+foot, and at their head hurried to the port. There in the offing was the
+dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm, and offering a promising
+chance for capture.
+
+Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and manning them heavily from his
+forces, he sent them out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached
+Drake's sails. But before they had gone far the "Golden Hind" felt the
+welcome wind and was soon gliding through the water. With his small force
+it was hopeless for the English captain to face the strongly armed
+Spaniards, and his only hope for safety lay in flight.
+
+The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards at times coming near
+enough to reach the "Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind varied in
+strength, now the chase, now the pursuers, gained in speed. The Spanish
+ships proved fair sailers and might in the end have overhauled the
+Englishman but for a precaution the governor had neglected in his haste.
+Expecting to capture the English ship in a short run, he had not thought
+of provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on their small food
+supply gave out and the soldiers were nearly famished. In the end the
+governor, who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order a return to
+port.
+
+Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the English rovers. On reaching
+Lima he sent out three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But Drake
+and his men had won too good a start to be overtaken, and the new pursuers
+never came within sight of him.
+
+Homeward bound with an abundant treasure, the rovers pressed merrily on.
+To return by the Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with the
+Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous Englishman decided to
+sail north, expecting to be able to find a passage through the seas north
+of the American continent. The icy and impassable character of these seas
+was at that early date quite unknown.
+
+Onward through the Spanish waters they went, taking new prizes and adding
+to their store of treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns were also
+visited and booty obtained from them. At length the South American
+continent was left behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast of
+Central America. About mid April they left the shore and stood out to sea,
+at last bound definitely for home.
+
+Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched due northward to the limit
+of the continent, where he hoped to find an easy passage back to the
+Atlantic, but after more than five weeks of a north-westward course,
+gradually verging to due north, he was surprised to see land again to his
+right. At first taking it for a large island, he soon learned that he had
+met the continent again and that America here stretched to the northwest.
+
+He was off the coast of the country now called California, in a new region
+which English eyes had never seen, though Spaniards had been there before.
+The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very different in character and
+degree of civilization from those of Peru. They were simple-minded
+savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since, as they lay in harbor,
+the ship sprang a leak, and it became necessary to take measures to repair
+the damage.
+
+The ship was anchored in shallow water near the shore, her cargo and
+provisions were landed and stored, and steps taken to make the necessary
+repairs. While this was going on the mariners were visited by the savages
+in large numbers, occasionally with what were thought to be signs of
+hostility. But their friendliness never ceased, and when at length their
+visitors, with whom they had established very amicable relations, were
+ready to depart they manifested the greatest grief, moaning, wringing
+their hands, and shedding tears.
+
+The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or near what is now called the
+Golden Gate, the entrance to the magnificent bay of San Francisco. On the
+23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor and sailed out of the harbor.
+On the hill-side in the rear was gathered a large body of Indians, some of
+them fantastically attired in skins and adorned with feathers, others
+naked but for the painted designs which covered their bodies. They built
+bonfires in all directions in token of farewell, and Drake and his
+officers stood on deck, waving their hats to their new-made friends.
+Slowly the hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from view, and
+they were on the open ocean again.
+
+From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting the coast. But the
+farther they went the colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak
+that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope of reaching home by the
+northern route. Yet to return by the way they had come would be very
+dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards would probably be
+keenly on the lookout for them. Only one course remained, which was to
+follow the route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across the vast
+Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and around the Cape of Good Hope.
+Drake had with him the narratives and copies of the charts of the first
+circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck him that it would be a great
+and glorious thing to take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and win him
+the credit of being the first Englishman to accomplish this wonderful
+task.
+
+The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon turned to the west. Quick and
+prosperous was the voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and
+after sixty-eight days in which land had not been seen a green shore came
+in view. It was the last day of September, 1579.
+
+The voyagers had many interesting experiences in the eastern archipelago,
+but no mishaps except that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one of
+the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and after throwing overboard
+eight of their cannon, three tons of cloves they had gathered in their
+voyage through the isles of spices, and many bags of meal, the "Golden
+Hind" was got afloat again, none the worse for her dangerous misadventure.
+
+Stocking their vessel once more with spices and sago at the island of
+Booten, and meeting with a hospitable reception at the large island of
+Java, they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape of Good Hope
+without mishap and entering the Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of
+September, 1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth harbor, from
+which she had sailed nearly three years before, and with wealth enough to
+make all on board rich.
+
+Never had England been more full of joy and pride than when the news of
+the wonderful voyage of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received and
+its strange adventures told. Queen Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of
+the bold sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis Drake to Sir
+Francis Drake, and the people looked on him as their greatest hero of the
+sea. In our days acts like his would have been called piracy, for England
+was not at war with Spain. But Drake was made a hero all the same, and in
+the war that soon after began he did noble work in the great sea fight
+with the Spanish Armada.
+
+
+
+
+
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO.
+
+
+Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to America, and dazzling
+stories were told by them of the riches of the countries they explored,
+stories illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It was well known
+that Cortez had not obtained all the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro
+all those of Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures had been
+carried far away by the servants of those unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the
+northeastern section of South America, was looked upon by the Spanish
+adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous wealth. Others fancied
+that Guiana was the true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in
+gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro, in his expedition in
+1540, had heard much from the Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana
+brought back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous stories of
+the riches in gold, silver, and precious stones of the land of the north.
+
+These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder and magnitude through pure
+love of the marvellous or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the
+Indians. Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran, was a mighty
+city, whose very street watering-troughs were made of solid gold and
+silver, while "billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were logs of
+wood marked out to burn."
+
+In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence a mighty king. The
+legend went that it was a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine
+and then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable golden image.
+Then, entering his barge of state, with a retinue of nobles whose dresses
+glittered with gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending their
+tour by a bath in the cooling waters.
+
+Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned king? Certainly none
+of those who went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish
+adventurers who sought for that land of treasure, the most persistent was
+a bold explorer named Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out
+thence with a large body of followers--seven hundred horsemen, the story
+goes. His route lay along the river Negro, and then down the broad
+Orinoco. Boats were built for the descent of this great stream. But the
+route was difficult and exhausting and the natives usually hostile, and as
+they went on many of the men and horses died or were slain.
+
+For more than a year these sturdy explorers pushed on, reaching a point
+from which, if they could believe the natives, the city they sought was
+not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near at hand. As evidence,
+the Indians had treasure of their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images
+of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as he had not seen the like
+in Italy, Spain, or the Low Countries." But as they went on the gallant
+seven hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and these so eager to
+return home that their leader was forced to give up the quest. He sought
+the island of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and there, as
+governor, he dwelt for years, keeping alive in his soul the dream of some
+day going again in search of El Dorado.
+
+While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in England a man of romantic
+and adventurous nature named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous
+as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years devoted himself to the attempt
+to plant an English colony on the coast of North America. On this project
+he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune haunted him and all his
+colonies failed. Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and restore
+his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish treasure-ships, after the
+fashion of the bold Sir Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end to
+this project by clapping him in prison, on a matter of royal jealousy.
+While one of the queen's lovers, he had dared to marry another woman.
+
+While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of the fleet he had fitted
+out came back with a Spanish galleon they had taken, so richly laden with
+costly goods that the whole court was filled with delight. Part of the
+spoils went to the queen and another part to Raleigh, and when at length
+he was released from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning more of
+the American gold. The stories of El Dorado and its marvellous city were
+then in great vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his
+expedition--with no gold, indeed, but with new tales of marvel he had
+gathered from the Indians.
+
+It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but forty-two years of age, in the
+prime of life and full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of mind
+led him to a full belief in the stories that floated about, and he grew
+eager to attempt the brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had
+failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had failed, he had opened up
+what might prove the track to success. Raleigh had sent various
+expeditions to the New World, but had never crossed the ocean himself. He
+now decided to seek Guiana and its fairyland of gold.
+
+A small vessel was sent in advance, under command of Raleigh's friend,
+Jacob Whiddon, to feel the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco, which
+was deemed to be the gateway to the golden realm. Whiddon stopped at
+Trinidad, and found Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial.
+But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous Spaniard had the English
+sailors arrested and put in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small
+that he was obliged to go back to England without seeing the Orinoco.
+
+Whiddon's report made Raleigh more eager than ever. He believed that
+Berreo was getting ready to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to
+rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations accordingly, and in
+February, 1595, set sail from Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied
+vessels, taking with him about one hundred gentlemen adventurers in
+addition to the crews. A number of small and light boats were also taken
+for use on the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came to see the
+voyagers off, flags floated on all the vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh
+and his companions, dressed in their best array, stood on the decks, as,
+with set sails and flying pennons, the stout ships moved slowly away on
+their voyage of chance and hope.
+
+Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers of his day, committing what
+would now be called piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet left
+the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was seen and captured. It was
+quickly emptied of its cargo,--a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms.
+Very soon after a second ship was captured. This was a Flemish vessel,
+laden with wines. These were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About
+two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad were sighted, and
+Raleigh's eyes rested for the first time on the shores of that New World
+in which he had so long taken a warm interest.
+
+Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had done his agent,
+forbidding any of the Indians to go on his ships on peril of death. But
+they went on board, for all that, and were delighted with the kind
+treatment they received. They told Raleigh that several of their chiefs
+had been seized and imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged him
+to rescue them. No Englishman of that day hesitated when the chance came
+to deal the Spaniards a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made on the
+town, it being captured, the chiefs set free, and the governor himself
+made a prisoner.
+
+              [Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.]
+
+                      A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.
+
+
+Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive on his flag-ship, treated
+him with every courtesy, and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo,
+who did not suspect the purpose of the English, talked freely about his
+former expedition and gave his captor a good deal of very useful
+information. One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could not be
+taken up the Orinoco, on account of the sand-banks at its mouth and its
+dangerous channels. He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at
+Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he had brought with him.
+
+One hundred men were chosen for the journey, the others being left to
+guard the fleet. An old galley, a barge, a ship's-boat, and two wherries
+carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who claimed to be familiar with
+the coast, was taken along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the
+mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers, and they were glad
+enough to enter one of the mouths of the river and escape the ocean
+billows. But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature of which
+Raleigh described later, in his account of the expedition. He wrote:
+
+"If God had not sent us help, we might have wandered a whole year in that
+labyrinth of rivers, ere we had found any way. I know all the earth does
+not yield the like confluence of streams and branches, the one crossing
+the other so many times, and all so fair and large, and so like one
+another as no man can tell which to take. And if we went by the sun or
+compass, hoping thereby to go directly one way or the other, yet that way
+also we were carried in a circle among multitudes of islands. Every island
+was so bordered with big trees as no man could see any farther than the
+breadth of the river or length of the branch."
+
+The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this medley of water-ways, and
+only chance extricated the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were
+involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing a canoe with three
+natives, who became friendly when they found they had nothing to fear from
+the strange white men. One of them was an old man who knew the river
+thoroughly, and whom presents and kind words induced to guide them past
+their difficulties.
+
+Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded banks of the stream,
+they were off again early the next morning. The river was still swift and
+violent, broken here and there with rapids, where they had to land and
+pull the boats. There were shoals also, which they had much trouble in
+getting over. And the banks were so crowded with trees and high reeds that
+they could not land, and were almost stifled from the closeness of the
+air.
+
+After four hard and weary days of this kind they reached a smoother
+channel and could proceed more easily. But their work was still far from
+easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them and they had the swift
+current of the river to breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive
+day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen rovers in that tropical
+climate, where the dense forest growth cut off every breath of air and
+their diminishing bread forced them to be put on short allowance. They
+began to complain bitterly, and Raleigh had to use all his powers of
+persuasion to induce them to go on.
+
+Yet the country was in many ways beautiful. Here and there the woods
+ceased and broad plains spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid
+which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees. Graceful deer would
+come down to the water's edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with
+their big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers," says Raleigh, "were
+divers sorts of fruits good to eat; flowers, too, and trees of such
+variety as were sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed
+ourselves many times with the fruits of the country, and sometimes with
+fowls and fish. We saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson,
+orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was unto us a great good passing
+time to behold them, besides the relief we found by killing some store of
+them with our fowling-pieces."
+
+The adventurers at length reached an Indian village of which their old
+guide had told them, and here, after the natives had got over their fright
+and learned that the strangers meant them no harm, they were very
+hospitably entertained. Thence they went onward, day after day, seeing
+many canoes on the river and landing at various villages. One of the
+canoes contained three Spaniards, who escaped from the effort to capture
+them, and Raleigh soon learned that the Spaniards had told the natives
+that the English were robbers and cannibals. To overcome the effect of
+this story, the greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with kindness
+and gentleness, and to punish in their presence any of the men who
+maltreated them. This quickly had its effect, for the news spread that the
+new-comers were the friends of the red men, and they were rewarded by
+every attention the natives could bestow on them. Provisions were brought
+them in profusion,--fish, fowl, and fruit, great roasted haunches of
+venison, and other viands. Among these were sweet and delicious pineapples
+of enormous size, "the prince of fruits," as Raleigh called them.
+
+Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and fifty miles up the
+Orinoco, they reached the point where another great river, the Caroni,
+empties into it. The country here was more beautiful than they had yet
+seen, and prosperous Indian villages were numerous on the bordering
+plains. The natives had heard of the amicable character of the new-comers,
+and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all they could to show how
+they trusted and admired them. With one old chief, named Topiawara,
+Raleigh held many interesting talks and learned from him much about the
+country and the people. In return he told him about his own country and
+its great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of Queen Elizabeth,
+before which the simple natives bowed themselves as if it were the figure
+of a goddess they saw.
+
+Many days were spent with these people, in hunting, fishing, and
+exploring, but, ask as they would, they could learn nothing about the land
+of gold and the marvellous city they had come so far to seek. The old
+chief told him that Guiana had many fertile plains and valleys and had
+mines of silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew nothing about.
+Finally, Raleigh decided to go up the Caroni, three parties being sent to
+explore its vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the stream. He had
+been told of a mighty cataract, which he was very anxious to see, and this
+was at length reached, after a long struggle with the strong current of
+the river.
+
+The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades, ten or twelve in
+number, in the words of Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a
+church tower, which fell with that fury that the rebound of waters made it
+seem as if it had been all covered over with a great shower of rain. And
+in some places we took it at first for a smoke that had risen over some
+great town.
+
+"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues, "or more lively
+prospects; hills so raised, here and there, over the valleys; the river
+winding into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green grass without
+bush or stubble; the ground of hard sand, easy to march on, either for
+horses or foot; the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree with a
+thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons of white, crimson, and carnation,
+perching on the river's side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly wind;
+and every stone we stooped to pick up promising either gold or silver by
+its complexion."
+
+On the return to the junction of the rivers, the land parties had similar
+stories to tell, and had pieces of golden ore to show, of which they
+claimed to have found plentiful indications. This story filled the whole
+party with dazzling hopes. Here, in the rocks at least, were the riches of
+which they had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist, here was the
+native wealth that might well bring it into existence.
+
+The prospectors had done all that lay in their power, and now felt it
+necessary to return to their ships, taking with them, at his request, the
+son of the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and perhaps to
+return at some time to succeed him, with the aid of the valiant English.
+
+We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and his quest. After various
+adventures, the party reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the
+narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere with the utmost
+interest.
+
+But many years passed before the explorer could return again. He became
+engaged in the wars against Spain, and after the death of the queen was
+arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned for thirteen
+years. In 1617, twenty-two years after his first expedition, he returned
+to the Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels.
+
+His release from prison had been gained by bribery and the promise to open
+a rich mine of gold in Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There
+was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St. Thomas, in which
+Raleigh's son was killed. As for the gold mine, it could not be found, and
+the expedition was forced to return with none of the hoped-for wealth to
+show.
+
+And now Raleigh's misfortunes culminated. He had been sentenced to death
+for treason in 1603, but had been reprieved. The king had him arrested
+again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded that he should be
+punished for the attack on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not
+like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain, so the famous explorer
+fell a victim to the royal policy and dislike and was beheaded under the
+old sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado has lain concealed in
+the mists of legend and romance, though mines of gold have been worked in
+the region which Raleigh explored.
+
+
+
+
+
+MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA.
+
+
+During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main was beset with a horde of
+freebooters or buccaneers, as they called themselves, to whose fierce
+attacks the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly exposed, and
+who did not hesitate to assail the strongholds of the Spaniards in quest
+of plunder. They differed from pirates only in the fact that their
+operations were confined to Spain and her colonies, no war giving warrant
+to their atrocities. Most ferocious and most successful among these
+worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth, who made his name dreaded
+by his daring and cruelty throughout the New-World realms of Spain. The
+most famous among the deeds of this rover of the seas was his capture of
+the city of Panama, which we shall here describe.
+
+On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from the island haunts of the
+freebooters the greatest fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got
+together. It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small and large, Morgan's
+flag-ship, of thirty-two guns, being the largest, and flying the English
+standard. The men had gathered from all the abiding-places of their
+fraternity, eager to serve under so famous a leader as Morgan, and looking
+for rich spoil under a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the Spaniards
+obstinately defend themselves there is something to take, and their best
+fortified places are those which contain the most treasure."
+
+                   [Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA.]
+
+                           THE CITY OF PANAMA.
+
+
+Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus did Morgan announce to
+his followers the plan he had conceived, which was to attack the important
+and opulent city of Panama, in which he expected to find a vast wealth of
+gold and silver. It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on the
+Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and could be reached only by a long
+and toilsome land journey, the route well defended by nature and doubtless
+by art, while not a man on board the fleet had ever trod the way thither.
+To supply themselves with a guide the island of St. Catharine, where the
+Spaniards confined their criminals, was attacked and taken, and three of
+the convicts were selected for guides, under promise of liberty and
+reward.
+
+Panama was at that time one of the largest and wealthiest cities in
+America. It contained some seven thousand houses, one-third the number
+being large and handsome dwellings, many of them strongly built of stone
+and richly furnished. Walls surrounded the city, which was well prepared
+for defence. It was the emporium for the precious metals of Peru and
+Mexico, two thousand mules being kept for the transportation of those rich
+ores. It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves, for the
+supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants of the place lived in great
+opulence and the churches were magnificently adorned, the chief among them
+being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings and other costly works of
+art ornamented the principal dwellings, and everything concurred to add to
+the importance and beauty of the place.
+
+A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his men near enough to Panama
+to behold the distant sea from the top of a high tree. But he had
+contented himself with waylaying and plundering a mule-train laden with
+treasure, and in 1670 it seemed the act of madness for a horde of
+freebooters to attack the city itself. Yet this was what the daring Morgan
+designed to do.
+
+The first thing to be done was to capture Fort St. Laurent, a strong place
+on an almost inaccessible hill, near the banks of the Chagres River. Four
+ships, with four hundred men, were sent against this fort, which was
+vigorously defended by its garrison, but was taken at length by the
+expedient of firing the palisades and buildings of the fort--composed of
+light wood--by means of burning arrows. The assailants suffered heavily,
+losing more than half their force, while of the garrison only twenty-four
+were taken, many of the others having leaped from the walls into the
+river, preferring death to capture by their ferocious foes. From the
+prisoners it was learned that the people of Panama were not ignorant of
+Morgan's purpose, and that the threatened city was defended by more than
+three thousand men.
+
+As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the freebooters, seeing the
+English flag flying on the fort, manifested their joy by the depths of
+their potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed to run four
+of the ships on the rocks at the mouth of the Chagres, among them the
+admiral's ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the vessels were
+total wrecks, much to Morgan's chagrin.
+
+At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the march on Panama actually
+began, with a force of thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being
+left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty to seize some Spanish
+vessels that were in the river. The means of conveyance being limited, and
+the need of marching light important, a very small supply of provisions
+was taken, it being expected to find an abundance on the route. But in
+this the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards fleeing with all
+their cattle and cutting all the growing grain, so that the buccaneers
+soon found themselves almost destitute of supplies.
+
+The journey was made in boats up the river as far as practicable, five
+small vessels carrying the artillery. At the end of the second day most of
+the men were forced to abandon the boats and prosecute their journey on
+foot. On the third day they found themselves in a marshy forest, which
+they traversed with difficulty and reached the town of Cedro Bueno. Here
+they had hoped to find food, but the place was deserted and not a scrap of
+provisions left.
+
+The affair was now growing very serious, all their food having been
+consumed and they left in imminent danger of starvation. Many of them were
+reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity. They found
+themselves also benumbed with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on
+the chilly river-bank. During the next day their route followed the
+stream, the canoes being dragged along, or rowed where the water was of
+sufficient depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food from the
+country before them, the only things they found being some large sacks of
+hides. These, in their extremity, were used as food, the leather being
+scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it was roasted. Even
+then it could not be swallowed without the aid of copious draughts of
+water.
+
+Only the courage and determination of the chiefs induced the men to go on
+under such severe privations. The fifth day's journey ended as badly as
+the previous ones, the only food found being a little flour, fruit, and
+wine, so small in quantity that Morgan had it distributed among the weaker
+members of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to seem on the point
+of death. For the rest of the men there was nothing to eat but leaves and
+the grass of the meadows.
+
+The feebler men were now put on board the boats, the stronger continuing
+to travel by land, but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account
+of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed, as if the expedition would
+have to be abandoned, when, to their delirious joy, they found a great
+supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some oversight had abandoned in a
+granary. Many of them, in their starving condition, devoured this grain
+raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana leaves. The supply was soon
+exhausted, but for a time it gave new vigor to the famished men.
+
+On the following day all the food they found was a sack of bread and some
+cats and dogs, all of which were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the
+town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the Chagres, a number of vessels
+of wine were discovered. This they hastily drank, with the result that all
+the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were poisoned. Their illness,
+however, was merely the natural effect of hasty drinking in their
+exhausted state, and soon left them.
+
+At this point a number of the men were sent back with the boats to where
+the ships had been left, the force that continued the march amounting to
+eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded, the principal adventure
+being an attack by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders with
+much valor, only retreating when their chief was killed.
+
+About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended, from whose summit,
+to their delight, the buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what gave
+them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley below them, a great herd of
+bulls, cows, horses, and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who took
+to flight the moment they saw the formidable force of invaders. Only an
+utter lack of judgment, or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could
+have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly starved foes. It was
+an oversight which was to prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack
+instead of to feed their ruthless enemies.
+
+The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue, gained new strength at the
+sight of the welcome herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down and
+killed a large number of them, devouring the raw flesh with such a fury of
+hunger that the blood ran in streams from their lips. What could not be
+eaten was taken away to serve for a future supply. As yet Panama had not
+been seen, but soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant towers.
+The vision was hailed with the blare of trumpets and shouts of "victory!"
+and the buccaneers encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the city the
+next day.
+
+The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A troop of fifty horsemen was
+sent to reconnoitre, and a second detachment occupied the passes, to
+prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat. But the freebooters
+were not disturbed in their camp, and were allowed a quiet night's rest
+after their abundant meal of raw flesh.
+
+The next day Morgan led his men against the city, skilfully avoiding the
+main road, which was defended by batteries, and passing through a thick
+and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking march brought them in sight
+of the Spanish forces, which were very numerous, consisting of four
+regiments of the line and nearly three thousand other soldiers. They had
+with them also a great herd of wild bulls under the charge of Indians and
+negroes, from which much was hoped in the assault.
+
+Morgan and his men were much discouraged by the multitude and military
+array of their foes, but nothing remained for them but a desperate fight,
+and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in front, they descended to
+the broad plain on which the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner
+reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while the bulls were driven
+tumultuously upon them.
+
+This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous failure. The horsemen
+found themselves in marshy ground, where they were exposed to a hot and
+well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before they could effect a
+retreat. The charge of the bulls, on which so much reliance had been
+placed, proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the freebooters
+advanced, firing rapidly and with an accuracy of aim that soon strewed the
+ground with the dead.
+
+The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous charge, now turned the bulls
+against the rear of their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers
+and knew well how to act against such a foe, driving them off with shouts
+and the waving of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In the end,
+after a battle of two hours' duration, the Spaniards, despite their great
+superiority of numbers, were utterly defeated, a great many being killed
+on the field and others in the panic of flight.
+
+But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama, a city defended by walls
+and forts, remained to be taken. Morgan knew that success depended on
+taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy, and he advanced
+without delay against the town. It was strongly defended with artillery,
+but the impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all before it, and
+after a three hours' fight the city was in their hands.
+
+The scenes that followed were marked by the most atrocious ferocity and
+vandalism. The city was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by
+outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on fire by Morgan's orders
+and burned to the ground, much of its great wealth being utterly consumed
+through the sheer instinct of destruction.
+
+Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority of them had sought
+safety in flight, taking their women and all their portable wealth. In
+pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan sent out a well-manned
+ship, which returned after a two days' cruise with three prizes. It also
+brought back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with treasure in gold
+and silver and carrying away the principal women of the town, with their
+jewels, had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended and for days Morgan
+made strenuous efforts to discover and capture it, but fortunately this
+rich prize eluded his grasp.
+
+For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site of the burned city, many
+of them engaged in searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some,
+who were discontented with the acts of their leader, conspired to seize
+the largest ship in the harbor and start on a piratical cruise of their
+own down the Pacific. This coming to Morgan's ears on the eve of its
+execution, he defeated it by causing the main-mast of the ship to be cut
+down, and afterwards by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor.
+
+The return of the freebooters had its items of interest. The booty,
+consisting of gold, silver, and jewels, was laden on a large number of
+animals, beside which disconsolately walked six hundred prisoners, men,
+women, and children, Morgan refusing them their liberty except on payment
+of a ransom which they could not procure. Some of them succeeded in
+obtaining the ransom on the march, but the majority were taken to Chagres.
+From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello, a neighboring coast
+town, Morgan threatening that place with destruction unless a heavy ransom
+was sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not a half-penny would
+be paid, and that he might do what he pleased. What he pleased to do was
+to carry out his threat of destroying the town.
+
+The final outcome of this frightful raid remains to be told. It
+demonstrated that Morgan was as faithless to his companions as he was
+ferocious to his victims. On their way back from Panama he ordered that
+every man should be searched and every article they had secreted be added
+to the general store. To induce them to consent he offered himself to be
+searched first. In the final division, however, of the spoil, which was
+valued at four hundred and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds weight
+of silver, he played the part of a traitor, many of the most precious
+articles disappearing from the store and the bulk of the precious stones
+especially being added by Morgan to his share.
+
+This and other acts of the leader created such a hostile feeling among the
+men that a mutiny was imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail
+with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders had shared with him
+in the unequal division of the spoil. The fury of the remaining
+freebooters, on finding that they had been abandoned, was extreme, and
+they determined to pursue and attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack
+of provisions prevented them from carrying this into effect.
+
+Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to the comfort of the
+freebooting fraternity. An English ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica
+with orders to bring home the governor to answer for the protection he had
+given "these bloodthirsty and plundering rascals," while the governor who
+succeeded him issued the severest orders against any future operations of
+the freebooters.
+
+From this time Morgan withdrew from his career of robbery, content to
+enjoy the wealth which he had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He
+settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy in security his
+ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British government showed its real
+sentiment concerning his career by promoting him to high offices and
+giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result this faithless and cruel
+pirate bore during the remainder of his life the distinction of being
+addressed as Sir Henry Morgan.
+
+
+
+
+
+A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE
+
+
+A famous story of American history is that which tells of the massacre of
+the French settlers in Florida by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of
+the signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French chevalier
+Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel tale to tell about Brazil, not
+so full of the element of romance, yet for all that an interesting story
+and well worth the telling.
+
+The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many of the Spanish colonies,
+was open to the attacks of buccaneers and of free lances of the seas
+bearing the flags of various countries of Europe. There was not an
+important port of the country, except its capital, Rio Janeiro, that
+escaped attack by hostile fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth
+century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was made the victim of
+assault. A city of over twelve thousand people, and the gateway to a rich
+gold-mining country in the rear, its wealth invited a visit from the
+prize-seekers, though the strength of its population and garrison long
+kept these away. Its turn for assault came in 1710.
+
+In that year a squadron appeared in the waters outside the harbor on which
+the people looked with doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard
+had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In fact, it was commanded by a
+daring Frenchman named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But a look
+at the strong defences of the harbor entrance, and some exchange of shots,
+warned him of the perils that would attend an attempt to pass them by
+force, and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down the coast, where
+he landed a party of a thousand marines.
+
+His design to attack the city with this small party seemed folly. The
+governor, Francisco de Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese
+troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and several hundred Indian
+bowmen. But he lacked the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc's marines
+marched like so many buccaneers through the forest for seven days without
+meeting a foeman. Even when near the city the only enemies in sight were a
+handful of men led by a friar, who attacked them boldly in defence of his
+church. After capturing this, the daring French charged into the city in
+the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding hills, to which the
+governor's troops had been withdrawn.
+
+The very boldness of the assault, and the failure of the governor to guard
+the streets with troops, nearly led to success. Little resistance was made
+by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed the narrow
+streets until the central square was reached. Here they met their first
+check from a party of fifty students, who had entered the palace of the
+governor and fired upon them from the windows. The first French assailants
+who forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied to the furniture. In
+the custom-house adjoining was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was
+hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a lighted match approached
+and carelessly set fire to the powder. In a moment the building was blown
+into the air, and the palace, which the French were still assailing, was
+set on fire.
+
+The people were now rising, and the several detachments into which the
+attacking force had divided found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc,
+at the head of the main body, after losing heavily, barricaded himself in
+a stone warehouse on the quay, round which his foes gathered thickly.
+While there the bells of the city rang out merrily, a sound which he
+fancied to be made by his own men, who he thought were thus celebrating
+their victory. In reality it signified the victory of the Portuguese, who
+had fallen upon, defeated, and slaughtered one of his detachments. A
+second detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder the magazine,
+was set upon by the rabble and completely butchered. Duclerc's defence
+soon grew hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion. The
+Portuguese sullied their victory by acts of cruel reprisal, many of the
+prisoners in their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven hundred of
+the French were killed and wounded. Six hundred, including the wounded,
+were taken prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment in the
+prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months after being taken. Soon after
+the fight the squadron appeared off the port, where its officers, learning
+of the loss of the assailants, squared their yards and sailed away for
+France. Thus ended the first act in our tragedy of plunder.
+
+The second act was one of revenge. In France was found a second Dominique
+de Gourgues to call to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen.
+France, indeed, was in a fury throughout when the news came of the inhuman
+slaughter of its citizens. The man who played the part of De Gourgues was
+a distinguished and able naval officer named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was
+moved by a double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope for plunder was
+an equally inspiring force. And the fame that might come to him with
+victory added still another motive. The path was made easy for him, for
+the government gave its approval to his enterprise, and certain wealthy
+citizens of St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to fit out the
+expedition.
+
+It was important to keep the affair secret, and the vessels were fitted
+out at different ports to avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual
+number of war-vessels were being got ready was soon afloat and reached
+Portugal, where its purpose was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and
+war-vessels was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements for Rio.
+The suspicion reached England, also, and that country, then on the side of
+Portugal, sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels of the
+expedition then lay, and prevent its sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not
+the man to be caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port
+before they were quite ready, leaving the British an empty harbor to seal
+up. The work of preparation was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet
+sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle ships, their
+number of guns varying from seventy-four to fifty-six, six frigates, and
+four smaller vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,--a
+formidable force to send against a colonial city.
+
+The powerful fleet made its way safely over the sea, and reached the
+vicinity of the northern Brazilian port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had
+some thought of beginning his work here, but his water-supply was getting
+low and he felt obliged to hasten on. On the 11th of September he found
+himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the city and its environing
+hills in full view.
+
+The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet from Lisbon having arrived,
+giving warning of the danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts and
+eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed harbor, within which lay four
+ships-of-the-line and as many frigates. Had all this force been directed
+by a man of ability the French might have found entrance to the bay
+impossible. But Francisco de Castro, the hopeless governor of the year
+before, was still at the head of affairs, and no man could have played
+more thoroughly into the hands of the French.
+
+As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A heavy fog descended,
+under cover of which the fleet ran with little damage past the forts and
+entered the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese were dismayed to see
+their foes inside. Gaspar da Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known
+as an able commander, but he was old and in feeble health, and such a
+panic now assailed him that he ran his ships in haste ashore and set fire
+to them, leaving to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor. Admiral
+Trouin had won the first move in the game.
+
+Governor de Castro proved to be as completely demoralized as Admiral da
+Costa. He had twice as many troops as the French, but not half the courage
+and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon, one of the chief defences,
+was blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during the state of
+panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed about four thousand men, erecting a
+battery on an island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying a
+range of hills to the left which gave him command of that section of the
+place. The governor with his troops looked on from a distance while the
+French pillaged the adjoining suburb, destitute of tactics that any one
+could discover unless he proposed to let the French enter the streets and
+then attack them from the houses.
+
+It was in this way they had been defeated the year before, but Trouin was
+too old a soldier to be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries on the
+surrounding hill-slopes till the town was commanded on three sides, while
+the governor kept the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no one
+knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with scarcely a blow in defence, to
+make himself master of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns
+in place to be able to batter the town to the dust.
+
+He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender, saying that he had been
+sent by the king of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc and
+the inhuman slaughter of his men. De Castro answered that his duty to his
+king would not permit him to surrender, and sought to show that the French
+had been honorably killed in battle and Duclerc murdered by an assassin
+beyond his control.
+
+A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved, and the French were
+permitted to go on with their works almost unmolested, the Portuguese
+occupying hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the enemy.
+Trouin had already begun the bombardment of the city, and on receiving the
+governor's answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the same time
+there raged a tropical storm of great violence, accompanied by thunders
+that drowned the roar of the guns, the frightful combination throwing the
+people into such a state that they all fled in blind terror, the troops in
+the town with them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to launch his
+storming parties, word was brought him that the city was deserted and lay
+at his mercy. Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire by the
+governor's order, but otherwise the rich city was abandoned, with all its
+wealth, to the French.
+
+Of the relics of Duclerc's force, about five hundred remained alive in the
+city. These do not seem to have been then in prison, but living at large,
+and they were already abroad and plundering the abandoned city when the
+French forces entered. They had met good treatment as well as bad. Some of
+the people had been kind and hospitable to them, and in the sack of the
+city that ensued the houses of these charitable citizens were marked and
+left untouched.
+
+Otherwise the sack was general, houses and warehouses being broken open,
+and quantities of valuable goods which could not be taken off being thrown
+into the mud of the streets. Now was the opportunity for the Portuguese to
+attack. Trouin was aware of the danger, but was unable to control his men,
+and a sudden assault by the garrison might have proved disastrous to the
+French. But the opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in fact,
+surrendering all his forts and marching his troops a league from the city,
+where he lay waiting reinforcements from the interior while the French
+plundered at their leisure.
+
+Trouin was wise enough to know that his position was perilous. He might be
+overwhelmed by numbers, and it was important to finish his work and get
+away with little delay. But the plunder of the city was not sufficient for
+his purpose, and he sent word to the governor that he must ransom it or it
+would be burned. To make his word good he began by setting fire to the
+environs.
+
+De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any price, offered six hundred
+thousand _cruzadoes_. This was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the
+governor to a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through the
+city and showed him that he was spoiling everything that fire would not
+burn. Learning, however, that the expected reinforcements might soon
+arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to the front of the
+Portuguese camp, where he began to negotiate for better terms. The only
+addition De Castro would agree to was to promise the French a supply of
+cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed to collect the ransom.
+
+Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to waste, accepted the terms, and
+none too soon, for shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements, led
+by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp. They came too late, the
+treaty had been made, and the new general felt bound in honor to make it
+good. So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November the triumphant
+French set sail, their ships deep laden with the rich plunder of the
+Brazilian capital and the gold of the governor's ransom.
+
+The return home was not attended with the success of the earlier part of
+the expedition. Trouin had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his
+return, but when he came near it the weather was so stormy that he was
+obliged to abandon this part of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on
+its way across the seas, and rose to such a height that two of his ships
+went to the bottom, carrying down twelve hundred men. One of these was the
+finest ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been laden with the most
+valuable booty. Of gold and silver alone it took down with it a weight
+valued at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel went ashore and was
+wrecked at Cayenne. Yet with all these losses, so much wealth was brought
+home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of ninety-two per cent.
+on their investment.
+
+The French had won in large measure revenge and plunder, while Trouin had
+gained his meed of fame. It was now Portugal's time for vengeance, and it
+was visited principally on the worthless governor to whose cowardice the
+disaster was due. He had been praised and rewarded for the victory over
+Duclerc' s expedition--praise and reward which he certainly did not
+deserve. For very similar conduct he was now deposed and sentenced to
+degradation and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge of cowardice and
+lack of judgment. His nephew was banished for life for bad conduct, and a
+captain who had given up his fort and fled was hung in effigy. There were
+no others to punish, and Portugal was obliged to hold its hand, France
+being a foe beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible misfortune, from
+which it took many years to recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds
+of a murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS
+
+
+The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon to the Black Sea, is one of
+the famous events of history. The march of the three hundred, from the
+Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to tell, is scarcely known to
+history at all, yet it was marked by a courage and command of resources as
+great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think our readers will agree with
+us when they read this story, taken from the records of the freebooters on
+the Spanish Main.
+
+After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the Atlantic coasts, various
+fleets of these piratical adventurers sought the Pacific waters in 1685,
+and there for several years made life scarce worth living to the
+inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities. Time and again these were
+plundered of their wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a
+veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went on, however, most of
+these freebooters withdrew, satisfied with their abundant gains, so that,
+by the end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and these were eager to
+return with their ill-gotten wealth to their native land.
+
+This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than three hundred in
+number, had their head-quarters on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the
+Central American coast. What vessels they had left were in a wretched
+condition, utterly unfit to attempt the vast sea voyage by way of the
+Straits of Magellan, and nothing seemed to remain for them but an attempt
+to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua and Honduras, fighting their
+way through a multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau de Lussan, one
+of the adventurers, we are indebted for the narrative of the singular and
+interesting adventure which follows.
+
+The daring band of French and English freebooters were very ill provided
+for the dangerous enterprise they had in view. They proposed to cross an
+unknown country without guides and with a meagre supply of provisions,
+fighting as they went and conveying their sick and wounded as best they
+could. They had also a number of prisoners whom they felt it necessary to
+take with them, since to set them free would be to divulge their weakness
+to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed to combine against them,
+yet if they ever wished to see their native lands again they must face
+every danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might escape to enjoy
+their spoils.
+
+After questioning their prisoners, they decided to take a route by way of
+the city of New Segovia, which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about
+one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and seventy-five miles from
+the waters of a river that flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic
+opposite Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further information about
+the route, sixty men were sent to explore the neighboring country. These
+advanced till they were near the small city of Chiloteca. Here, worn out
+by their journey and learning that they were in a thickly settled country,
+most of the pioneers decided to return. But eighteen of the bolder spirits
+had the audacity to advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand
+inhabitants.
+
+Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and so terrific a fusillade
+of shots that the frightened inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled
+in mortal terror, leaving the place to its captors. These quickly seized a
+number of horses, and made haste to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued
+by the Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful of men they had
+surrendered their city.
+
+On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters determined on the
+desperate venture. They had little to convey except their spoil, which,
+the result of numerous raids, was valued at about one million dollars. It
+chiefly consisted of gold and jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver,
+being left in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The spoil was very
+unequally owned, since the gambling which had gone on actively among them
+had greatly varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome the anger
+and jealousy which this created among the poorer, those with much to carry
+shared their portions among their companions, with the understanding that,
+if they reached the Antilles in safety, half of it should be returned. As
+for the prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and make use of them
+for carrying the utensils, provisions, and sick.
+
+On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters, two hundred and
+eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight horses, crossed in boats from
+their island refuge to the main-land and began their march. Their ships
+had been first destroyed, their cannon cast into the sea, and their
+bulkier effects burned. Divided into four companies, with forty men in
+front as an advance guard, they moved forward into a land of adventure and
+peril.
+
+It was soon found that the people expected and had prepared for their
+coming. Trees had been felled across the roads and efforts made to
+obstruct all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried away, and the dry
+herbage of the fields was set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating
+them with the heat and smoke. This was done to hinder their march until
+the Spaniards had completed a strong intrenchment which was being built at
+a suitable place on the route.
+
+Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the eighth day of their march they
+fell into one of these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards lay
+concealed on the ground and fired into their ranks. Though these were
+dispersed by a fierce charge, they followed the freebooters closely,
+annoying them from the shelter of woods and thickets. The next day a still
+larger ambuscade was laid, which, fortunately for the freebooters, was
+discovered and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards leaving their
+horses behind.
+
+Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here the buccaneers expected a
+severe engagement, and hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both they
+were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped, carrying all food with them.
+Their prisoners, who had served them as guides to this point, knew nothing
+of the country beyond, but they succeeded in taking a new prisoner who was
+familiar with the further route.
+
+The country they were passing through was mountainous and very difficult.
+Steep acclivities had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the
+borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid slopes to be descended.
+The nights were bitterly cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs,
+and their whole route was attended with danger, discomfort, and fatigue.
+
+New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all sides by mountains, one of
+which had to be ascended immediately on leaving the town. The next day's
+dawn found them on its summit, with a valley far below them, in which, to
+their joy, they beheld a large number of animals which they took to be
+oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however, when the scouts they sent out
+came back with the information that these animals were horses, saddled and
+bridled, and that a series of formidable intrenchments had been built in
+the valley, rising like terraces, one above another, and carried to the
+mountains on each side, so as completely to close the route.
+
+There seemed no way to avoid these defences. On one side of the mountain
+flowed a river. A small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded the
+only passage which the freebooters could follow. The whole country round
+was thick forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not the slightest
+indication of a path could be seen. Yet to attack those works in front
+promised quick and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction
+they must find some way to outwit their foes. It was decided that the
+forest presented less dangers and difficulties than the fortified road,
+and that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement which would lead
+them to the rear of the enemy.
+
+During that day active preparations were made for the proposed movement.
+The three hundred Spaniards who had ambushed them some days before still
+hung upon their rear. Their horses, sick, and prisoners were therefore
+left in an enclosed camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and guarded
+by eighty of their number. As a means of impressing the enemy with their
+numbers and alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated at
+intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the sentinels with a great
+noise, and varied these signs of activity with cries and occasional
+discharges of musketry.
+
+Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended, the remainder of
+the freebooters, some two hundred in number, began their march, following
+the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine the forest. The
+difficulties of that night journey through the dense wood proved very
+great, there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend, and this
+needed to be done with as little noise as possible. Daybreak found the
+adventurers on a mountain elevation, from which they could see the Spanish
+intrenchments below them on the left. The greatest of their impediments
+had been surmounted, but there were difficulties still to be overcome.
+
+Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the morning light, which,
+while it rendered their downward passage critical, served to conceal them
+from the enemy below. As they came near the works the heavy tread of a
+patrol guided them in their course, and the morning prayers of the
+Spaniards were of still more advantage in indicating their distance and
+position. The freebooting band had reached the rear of the hostile army,
+composed of five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise on seeing
+their ferocious enemy rushing upon them with shouts and volleys, from this
+unlooked-for quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence.
+
+The other Spaniards behaved more courageously, but the appearance of the
+buccaneers within the works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them of
+spirit, and after an hour's fight they, too, broke and fled. The trees
+they had felled to obstruct the road now contributed to their utter
+defeat, and they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an attempt at
+resistance. We can scarcely credit the testimony of the freebooters,
+however, that their sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The
+success of the advance party was equalled by that of the guard of armed
+men left in the camp, who, after some negotiations with the troop of
+Spaniards in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and dispersed all
+who were not cut down.
+
+That the freebooters were as much surprised as gratified by the signal
+success of their stratagem need scarcely be said. One of the panics which
+are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them from threatened
+annihilation. They learned, however, the disquieting fact that six miles
+farther on was another strong intrenchment which could not be avoided, the
+country permitting no choice of roads. In their situation there was
+nothing to do but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately for them
+their remarkable success spread such terror before it that, when they
+appeared before these new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but
+remained quietly behind their breastworks while their dreaded foes marched
+past.
+
+The seventeenth day of their march carried them to the banks of the river
+towards which their route had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream
+which rises in the mountains near New Segovia and flows through a
+difficult rock channel, with numerous cascades, three of them amounting to
+cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after a course of several
+hundred miles.
+
+How they were to descend this mountain torrent was the question which now
+offered itself to them. It presented a more attractive route of travel
+than the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was marked by
+difficulties of a formidable character. These were overcome by the
+freebooters in an extraordinary manner, one almost or quite without
+parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they adopted was certainly
+of curious interest.
+
+Before them was a large and rapid river, its current impeded by a
+multitude of rocks and broken by rapids and cascades. They were destitute
+of ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any ordinary kind of
+boats would have been of no use to them in such a stream. It occurred to
+them that what they needed to navigate a river of this character was
+something of the nature of large baskets or tuns, in which they might
+float enclosed to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact with
+the rocks by the aid of poles.
+
+They had no models for such floating contrivances, and were obliged to
+invent them. Near the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied
+them abundantly with young trees, of light wood. These they cut down,
+stripped off their bark, collected them by fives, and, lacking ropes,
+fastened them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of gum which the
+forest provided. A large number of small, frail, basket-like contrivances
+were thus made, each large enough to carry two men, with whom they would
+sink in the water as deep as the waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but
+his description does not make it clear just what they were like.
+
+While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part of their horses, and
+salted their flesh for food, all the work being done with the energy and
+activity necessary in their critical situation. During it they were not
+molested by the Spaniards, but no one could tell how soon they might be.
+When all was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty of which
+they had long been deprived, and entered upon one of the most perilous
+examples of navigation that can well be imagined.
+
+Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found themselves tossed about
+by the impetuous current, and speedily covered with spray. The lightness
+of their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but the energetic
+efforts they were obliged to make to keep from being thrown out or dashed
+on the rocks soon exhausted them. A short experience taught them the
+necessity of fastening themselves in the piperies, so that their hands
+might be free to keep them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally
+their frail crafts were overturned or buried under the waves in the swift
+rapids, and the inmates were either drowned or escaped by abandoning the
+treasures which weighed them down.
+
+Whatever else may be said of this method of navigation, it proved a rapid
+one, the frail barks being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of the
+cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water, and here it became
+necessary to swim to the shore and descend the rocks to the bottom of the
+fall. Some who remained behind threw the piperies into the stream to be
+carried over the liquid precipice, and recovered by swimming out to meet
+them, or replaced by new ones when lost.
+
+After three days of this singular navigation it was decided, in view of
+the fact that the piperies were often dashed together to their mutual
+injury, to separate and keep at a distance from each other, those who went
+first marking out by small flags where it was necessary to land. During
+their progress the question of food again became prominent, the salted
+horsemeat they had brought with them being spoiled by its frequent
+wetting. Game was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and the
+only food to be found was the fruit of the banana-tree, which grew
+abundantly on the banks.
+
+The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by the danger of their
+situation. They made the most earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil,
+and some of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to gain the wealth of
+their richer comrades. The dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and
+six conspiring Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked and killed five
+Englishmen who were known to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies,
+they took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses on the bank.
+Those who saw them had no time to think of avenging them.
+
+Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and its course less impetuous.
+The cascades were all passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating or
+anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies were overturned and
+their occupants drowned. To avoid this danger the piperies were now
+abandoned and the freebooters divided themselves into detachments and
+began to build large canoes from the forest trees. Four of these, carrying
+one hundred and thirty men, were soon ready and their builders again took
+to the stream. Of the fate of the others, who remained behind, no further
+account is given by the historian of this adventure.
+
+On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure from the Pacific,
+the adventurers reached the river's mouth, having completed their
+remarkable feat of crossing the continent in the face of the most
+threatening perils from man and nature. But fortune only partly favored
+them, for many had lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their
+career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags about their limbs.
+Some, indeed, had been more fortunate or more adroit in their singular
+navigation, but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and miserable party
+when, a few days afterwards, they reached the isle of Perlas. Here were
+some friendly vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end of April
+they reached the West Indies, with the little that remained of their
+plunder.
+
+Such was the end of this remarkable achievement, one which for boldness,
+intrepidity, and skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals of
+history, and which, if performed by men of note, instead of by an obscure
+band of robbers, would have won for them a high meed of fame.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS.
+
+
+Never were a people more terribly treated than the natives of America
+under the Spanish adventurers. The often told story that the Indians of
+Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after the settlement of that
+island is sufficient evidence of the frightfully inhuman treatment to
+which they were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for justice and
+humanity in the dealings with the Indians, but the settlers, thousands of
+miles away, paid no attention to these laws, and the red men were almost
+everywhere reduced to slavery, or where free and given political rights,
+were looked upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district Spain
+placed an official called the "Protector of the Indians," but it does not
+appear that they were much the better off for their "Protectors." It is
+our purpose here to say something about the cruel treatment of the natives
+in South America.
+
+                 [Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.]
+
+                         INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.
+
+
+The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied to their dealings with
+the Indians, the _encomiendo_, the _mitad_, and the _repartimiento_, each
+indicating a form of injustice. The conquerors divided the country between
+them, and the _encomiendos_ were rights granted them to hold the Indians
+for a number of years as workers in their fields or their mines. Under
+these grants, the natives were converted into beasts of burden, and forced
+to do the hardest work without the least compensation. They were obliged
+to labor all day long under the burning tropical sun, to dive into the sea
+in search of pearls for their masters, or to toil buried from the light of
+day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising that these miserable
+slaves, accustomed to a life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed
+to a killing plague.
+
+The _mitad_ was a law formed for their protection, but it soon became one
+of the worst of the abuses. Under it every man from the age of eighteen to
+fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives of each mining
+colony of South America being divided into seven sections, each of which
+had to work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner could demand the
+number of Indians he needed. In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were
+worked, and labor of this kind was in constant demand.
+
+As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need only say that when any man
+was called upon to work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence of
+death. Before going he gave all his possessions to his relatives, and they
+went through the funeral service, as if he were already dead. They well
+knew the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was said for him at the
+church, and he had to take an oath of fidelity to the king. Then he was
+sprinkled with holy water and sent away to his deadly service. Deadly we
+may well call it, for it is said that scarcely a fifth part of these
+miners lived through their term of labor.
+
+Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep underground shafts and
+galleries, and passing from the pure air of heaven to a pestilential
+atmosphere, excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of strength and
+often of life. If they survived this, a species of asthma usually carried
+them off during the year. We may judge of the results from the calculation
+that the _mitad_ in Peru alone had eight million victims.
+
+The law limited the _mitad_ to those living within thirty miles of a mine,
+but laborers were often brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As
+for the small wages paid them, the masters took part of it from them in
+payment for their food, and usually got the remainder by giving credit for
+clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by good fortune the Indian
+had not lost his life at the end of his term of service, he might be
+brought into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a slave for life.
+
+The _repartimiento_ was another protective law, which also became a means
+of oppression. Under it the district officials were required to supply all
+things needed by the Indians, there being, when the law was passed, no
+peddlers or travelling dealers. This privilege was quickly and shamelessly
+abused, the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain, sour wine,
+and other inferior supplies, often at three or four times their value when
+of good quality. They were even made to buy things at high prices which
+were of no possible use to them, such as silk stockings for men who went
+barefoot, and razors for those who had scarcely any beard to shave. One
+_corregidor_ bought a box of spectacles from a trader, and made the
+natives buy these at his own price, to wear when they went to mass,
+without regard to the fact that they were utterly useless to them.
+
+The oppression of the natives was not confined to the laity, but the
+clergy were often as unjust. They forced them to pay not only the tithes,
+but extravagant prices for every church service, forty reals being charged
+for a baptism, twenty for a marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial,
+etc. Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the poor Indians, enabled
+the clergy to build costly churches and mission houses and to keep up
+abundant revenues.
+
+These general statements very faintly picture the actual state to which
+the Indians were reduced. This may be better shown by some instances of
+their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example, of the province of
+Velez, New Grenada, were reduced to such extreme misery by the
+embezzlement of the funds, that whole families flung themselves from the
+top of a rock twelve hundred feet high into the river below. One night, in
+order to escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole tribes of the
+Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves, preferring death to the horrors of
+Spanish rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in peril of being
+enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that a quick death was better than a
+slow one under the torture of incessant toil.
+
+In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives had come together with
+the intention of killing themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope
+in his hand, and told them that if they did not give up their purpose he
+would hang himself with them. This threat filled them with such horror at
+the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit world, that they fled
+from the spot, preferring life with all its terrors to such a companion.
+
+As may well be imagined, the natives did not all yield resistlessly to
+their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation at the quantity of gold-dust which
+they were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm, in the
+province of Canas, seized the brutal Spanish collector one day, and gave
+him melted gold to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst
+for gold."
+
+In December, 1767, the descendants of the two tribes which had owned the
+mining valley of Caravaya descended on the white inhabitants in revenge
+for a usurpation of their lands which had taken place more than two
+centuries before. They settled the question of ownership by burning the
+city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and clubs. When news of
+this was received by the viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece of
+the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru. He was prevented from
+carrying out this threat only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita
+Gallegas, whom he loved, and who convinced him that it was his duty as a
+Christian to convert them to the religion of Christ rather than to
+massacre them.
+
+In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of the persecuted natives. It
+was especially notable as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca
+Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards in 1562. This noble
+Indian, the last of the Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in
+Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His virtues were such as to
+gain him the respect and esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated
+him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient emperors.
+
+One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity of the _corregidor_ of
+Tuita, who had laid three _repartimientos_ on the Indians in a single
+year, seized the tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own hands.
+Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru, he proclaimed himself
+the chief of all those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards.
+
+His error seems to have been in not fraternizing with the creoles, or
+white natives of the country, who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the
+Indians themselves. On the contrary he treated these as enemies also, and
+thus greatly augmented the number of his foes. The Indians, their memories
+of their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his ranks in
+enthusiastic numbers and won several victories over the whites, the whole
+of Upper Peru breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as they did,
+they kept up the struggle for a year, the outbreak being brought to an end
+at last by treachery instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to whom the
+Spaniards promised a colonel's commission,--a promise they did not
+keep,--the Inca was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to Cuzco,
+the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here he was tried and condemned to
+death, and executed with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with
+horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale became known.
+
+Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and children, and his
+brother-in-law, Bastidas, were brought before him, their tongues cut out,
+and then put to death by the Spanish method of strangling before his eyes.
+His little son was left alive to witness his death. This was one in which
+the most brutal tortures of mediaeval times seemed revived. His tongue
+being torn out, his limbs were tied to four horses, which were driven in
+different directions with the purpose of tearing him limb from limb. The
+horses proved unable to do this, and he remained suspended in agony, until
+one of the more merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by cutting off
+his head. During this revolting scene the little son of the victim gave
+vent to a terrible scream of agony, the memory of which haunted many of
+the executioners to their death.
+
+The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the rebellious towns, his
+body was burned to ashes, his house was razed, his property confiscated,
+and his family declared infamous forever. One of his brothers was sent to
+Spain and condemned to the galleys, in which he remained for thirty years.
+Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to overcome the love of liberty
+in the natives of Peru.
+
+As for the natives themselves, what few privileges they had retained were
+taken from them, their meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any
+one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal. These severe
+measures were thought sufficient to intimidate the Indians, but they only
+exasperated them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a cousin of
+Amaru, who had escaped capture, and another chief named Catari, led them
+in a campaign of revenge in which they fought with the fury of despair.
+The lives of five hundred Spaniards, it is said, paid the penalty for each
+of the victims of that dread execution in Cuzco.
+
+Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all the white families of the
+vicinity had taken refuge with their treasures. The artillery of the
+fortifications seemed an invulnerable defence against the poorly armed
+besiegers, but Andres succeeded in making a breach by turning the mountain
+streams against the walls. Once within, the exasperated Indians took a
+terrible revenge, a single priest being, as we are told, the sole survivor
+of the twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards put down the
+insurrection by treachery and cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres
+to Ceuta, in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820.
+
+We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese of Brazil treated the
+natives of that land with a cruelty little less than that shown by the
+Spaniards, sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians to serve as
+slaves. Those who opposed them were shot down without mercy, and it is
+said that, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants infected
+with the virus of smallpox were sent to the Botocudos, as a convenient
+means of getting rid of that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the
+greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared. The natives
+of South America obtained justice and honorable treatment only after the
+people of that country had won their liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+When the English conquered the island of Jamaica and drove the Spaniards
+out of it, they failed to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had
+been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought for and maintained their
+freedom. Such were the Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica,
+whose story is well worth telling.
+
+First we must say something about the history of this island, and how it
+came into English hands. It was long held by the Spaniards, being
+discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In his last voyage
+he had a dismal experience there. With his vessels battered and ready to
+sink, after running through a severe wind storm, he put into the harbor of
+Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica. He afterwards left this for a small bay,
+still known after him as Don Christopher's Cove, and here, attacked by the
+warlike natives, and unable to put to sea, he was kept captive in his
+shattered hulks for a whole year.
+
+The Indians refused him food, and the tradition goes that he got this at
+length by a skilful artifice. Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon
+would soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief that the lights in
+the sky were under his control, and if they did not give him supplies he
+would put out the light of the moon and never let it shine again on their
+island. The Indians laughed with scorn at this threat, but when they saw
+the moon gradually losing its light and fading into darkness, they fell
+into a panic, and begged him to let it shine again, promising to bring him
+all the food he wanted. At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after
+retiring for a time to his cabin, came forth and told them that he would
+consent to bring back the lost moonlight. After that the Indians saw that
+the crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his crew were finally
+rescued by an expedition sent from Hispaniola.
+
+Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of keeping its old Indian
+name, signifying a land of springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land
+of mountains also; if it had not been we would have had no story to tell,
+for these mountains were the haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons.
+The island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after the detention of
+Columbus on its shores. Many years after that we find its Spanish settlers
+oppressing all the English that fell into their hands. This was the case,
+in fact, all through the West Indies, English seamen being put in the
+stocks, sent to the galleys, or murdered outright.
+
+It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell to put an end to these
+outrages. He sent word to the Spanish minister that there must be a stop
+put to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction of free
+navigation in the West Indies. The minister replied, that to ask for these
+two things was "to ask for his master's two eyes," and that no such thing
+could be allowed. Cromwell's reply was to the point:
+
+"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but by force, which by the
+same title may be repelled. And as to the first discovery--to me it seems
+as little reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon the coast of
+India should entitle the king of Spain to that country as the sailing of
+an Indian or English ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle either
+the Indians or the English to the dominion thereof. The Spaniards have
+contravented the Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable when peace
+is not allowable."
+
+This reply was certainly one marked by sound logic and good sense. It was
+the rule of force, not of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in
+America, and this rule could be set aside by superior force. So Cromwell
+sent out a great fleet under command of Admiral Penn,--father of William
+Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,--with a land force commanded by General
+Venables. The first attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here, the
+fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards surrendered on the 11th of
+May, 1655. They tried to take it back again shortly before Cromwell's
+death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained an English island
+from that day to this.
+
+This is about all we need say by way of preface, except to remark that
+many settlers were sent to Jamaica, and the island soon became well
+peopled and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor, coming to be the
+liveliest city in the West Indies. It was known as the wickedest city as
+well as the richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and Port Royal,
+with the sandy slope on which it was built, slipped into the sea with all
+its dwellings, warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people, the
+disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment from heaven. There is one
+thing more worth mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer, whose deeds
+of shameful cruelty at Panama we have described, became afterwards deputy
+governor of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was given him by
+King Charles II. It is not easy to know why this was done, unless it be
+true, as was then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his bloody
+deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan, as governor, turned hotly upon
+his former associates, and hunted down the buccaneers without mercy,
+hanging and shooting all he could lay hands on, until he fairly put an end
+to the trade which had made him rich.
+
+Let us come now to the story of the Maroons, that nest of fugitives who
+made things hot enough for the English in Jamaica for many years. When
+Cromwell's soldiers took possession of Jamaica few or none of those
+warlike Indians, who had given Columbus so much trouble, were left. In
+their place were about two thousand negro slaves, and these fled to the
+mountains, as the Indians had done before them. There they remained in
+freedom, though the English did their best to coax them to come down and
+enjoy the blessings of slavery again, and though they tried their utmost
+to drive them down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns. In spite
+of all the whites could do, the negroes, "Maroons," as they were called,
+long preserved their liberty.
+
+In 1663 the British, finding that they could not master the warlike
+fugitives by force, offered them a full pardon, with liberty and twenty
+acres of land apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who were
+masters of the whole mountainous interior, where thousands could live in
+plenty, chose to stay where they were and not to trust to the slippery
+faith of the white man. And so it went on until after 1730, when the
+depredations of the negroes upon the settlements became so annoying that
+two regiments of British regulars and all the militia of the island were
+sent into the mountains to put them down. As it proved, the negroes still
+held their own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and very few of them
+killed. They were decidedly masters of the situation.
+
+At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by name, was a dusky dwarf,
+sable, ugly, and uncouth, but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of
+discounting all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian he, but a full
+Pagan, worshipping, with his followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the
+deities of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in the defiles of
+the John Crow Mountains, was named Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two
+mountain streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high into a
+romantic gorge, where their waters met in a seething caldron called
+"Nanny's Pot." Into this, as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny
+could, by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued them. As for
+old Cudjoe himself, the English declared that he must be in league with
+the devil, whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother. And they
+were not without warrant for this belief, for he held his own against them
+for nine long years, at the end of which the Maroons were more numerous
+than at the beginning, since those who were killed were more than made up
+by fresh accessions of runaway slaves.
+
+It is certain that the British soldiers were no match for Cudjoe the
+dwarf. Retreating warily before them, he drew them into many an ambush in
+the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were cut down like sheep,
+the waters of the "Pot" being often reddened with their blood. From many
+of the expeditions sent against him only a few weary and wounded survivors
+returned, and it became difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into
+that den of death.
+
+At length a British officer succeeded in dragging two mountain howitzers
+up the cliffs to a position from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon
+stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells, hurled from the distant
+cannon, began to burst among them, the Maroons were at first so filled
+with terror that some of them threw themselves over the cliffs, but the
+bulk of them merely scattered and let the howitzers do their work among
+empty walls.
+
+Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but he was too old a bird to
+be frightened. "Dis a new way de buckra man got to fight," he said. "He
+fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire little ones arter you.
+Dat's berry cunnin', but ole Cudjoe know somethin' better un dat."
+
+Leading his men through the woods with the stealthy tread and noiseless
+skill of the American Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst
+upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they were busy about their
+guns, delivering a telling volley and then rushing upon them with blade
+and axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious onset, and the
+shell-delivering howitzers remained in Cudjoe's hands.
+
+Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons by the arts of civilized
+warfare, the British were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they brought
+from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians, who were fully the equal of
+the negroes in bush fighting. These were launched upon the track of the
+Maroons and soon ran them down in their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny
+Town the seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island, but at
+length the Maroons, finding their new foes fully their match in their own
+methods, consented to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though only
+on the terms that they should retain their full freedom.
+
+The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town, the Maroons being
+represented by Captains Cudjoe, Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and
+a number of their followers, "who have been in a state of war and
+hostility for several years past against our sovereign lord the king and
+the inhabitants of this island."
+
+By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to retain their liberty
+forever, to be granted a large tract of land in the mountains, and to
+enjoy full freedom of trade with the whites. On their part they agreed to
+keep peace with the whites, to return all runaway slaves who should come
+among them, and to aid the whites in putting down the rebellion and in
+fighting any foreign invader.
+
+In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against local outbreaks was put to
+the test when the fierce Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and
+committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons joined the whites and
+seemed very zealous in their cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a
+large number of ears, which they said they had cut from the heads of
+rebels killed by them. It afterwards was found that the ears had been
+obtained from the negroes who had been slain by the troops and left where
+they fell.
+
+The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795, not without outbreaks on their
+part and depredations on the settlements. In the year named two of them
+were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to the workhouse and given
+thirty-nine lashes on the bare back. When set free they went home in a
+fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they had suffered, being
+whipped by the black driver of the workhouse in the presence of felon
+slaves. The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who felt that
+they had been outraged by this insult to two of their kindred, and a
+revolt broke out that spread rapidly throughout the mountains.
+
+The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to put down the rebels by force
+of arms might lead to the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But it
+was remembered that in the former war the use of dogs had proved very
+advantageous, so agents were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of
+bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the Spaniards against the
+Indians two centuries before were once more brought into use. One hundred
+hounds were bought and with them came forty Cuban huntsmen, mostly
+mulattoes. As it proved, the very news of the coming of the hounds had the
+desired effect, the Maroons being apparently much more afraid of these
+ferocious dogs than of trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately
+sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us, "It is pleasing to
+observe that not a drop of blood was spilt after the dogs arrived in the
+island." Peace was made within a week, and in the next year the chief
+offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and put at work on the
+fortifications. They were afterwards sent to Liberia.
+
+From that time forward there was no trouble with the Maroons. Their
+descendants still dwell in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there
+was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery having been abolished
+thirty years before. The Maroons were called upon to help the troops put
+down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and rendered useful aid in the
+brief conflict. When it was over the black warriors were invited to
+Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city had their first sight
+of the redoubtable Maroons. Black and brawny, they had the dignified
+carriage of men who had always been free and independent, while some of
+them wore with pride silver medals which their ancestors had been given
+for former aid to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons are
+now among its most trusty inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+
+TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI.
+
+
+The people of Europe have not stood alone in settling and ruling America,
+for the blacks of Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have made
+themselves masters of one of the largest and most fertile islands of the
+West Indies, that attractive gem of the tropics which, under the name of
+Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish dominions on American soil.
+
+Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history. The Spaniards enslaved its
+original inhabitants and treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon
+annihilated. Then the island was filled with negro slaves. About 1630 the
+buccaneers, or hunters of wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these
+were mostly French, the western part of the island was ceded to France in
+1697. During the century that followed Africans were brought over in
+multitudes, until there were nearly half a million blacks in Hayti,--the
+Indian name of the island,--while there were less than forty thousand
+whites and thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither citizens
+nor slaves. These facts are given as a necessary introduction to the story
+we are about to tell.
+
+It was the white revolution in France that brought about the black
+revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the States-General met in France and
+overturned the ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty for all
+was the tocsin of its members, and it was proclaimed that not only the
+whites of France and her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to
+freedom and a voice in the government. The news of this decree created a
+ferment of passion in Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had
+long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore all allegiance to
+France, and trampled the national flag under foot in their rage.
+
+But they had others than the French Assembly to deal with. The mulattoes,
+or free people of color, rose in arms for the rights of which they had
+been deprived. They were soon put down, but in the following year (1791) a
+much more terrible outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There followed
+a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as that of France. The revolt
+began on the night of August 21, on the plantation of Noe, near Cape
+Haytien. The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly killed all the
+whites who fell into their hands. Down from the mountains they poured on
+every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation. Hills and plains
+were swept with fire and sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were
+committed, and nearly all the residents on the plantations, more than two
+thousand in number, were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar and
+coffee estates were swept by fire.
+
+In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the whites of the cities to
+repel the blacks, but later, believing themselves betrayed by the whites,
+they joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of extermination. It
+did not end until the negroes became masters of all the country districts,
+and gained a control of the mountainous interior of the island which,
+except for a brief interval, they have ever since retained.
+
+This success was in great part due to the famous leader of the blacks, the
+renowned Toussaint L'Ouverture, a man who proved himself one of the
+greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti, of negro parents, he was
+descended from an African prince, and, slave though he was in condition,
+had himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to read and write, and
+also something of mathematics and of Latin, and was taken from the fields
+to become coachman for the overseer of the estate of his master, the Count
+de Breda.
+
+When the negro revolt began, and the furious blacks were seeking victims
+on all sides, Toussaint concealed the overseer and his family in the
+forest, took them food at the risk of his own life, and finally led them
+to the coast, where they took ship for the United States.
+
+While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a gigantic black named
+Bouckman, and subsequently by three others, were continuing their course
+of butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them after the escape of the
+overseer, and quickly gained an influence over them, largely from his
+knowledge of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery. This
+influence enabled him to put himself at their head and to mitigate the
+ferocity of their actions. His ascendency was due not only to his
+knowledge, but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening a breach
+in the ranks of the enemy he became known as L'Ouverture, or the opener.
+
+                [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.]
+
+                        SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.
+
+
+Under their new leader the revolted slaves held their own against their
+enemies, declaring in favor of the king, Louis XVI., and against the
+revolutionists. On the other hand, the English came to the aid of the
+whites, and the island was thrown into a state of horrible confusion,
+increased by the interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern
+section of the island.
+
+In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued a decree demanding the
+liberation of the slaves, Toussaint and his followers joined the
+revolutionary cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to expel the
+British and Spanish invaders. In this campaign he won a number of
+victories, and showed such military skill and ability as to prove him a
+leader of the highest qualities. Beard says of him, "His energy and his
+prowess made him the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike
+achievements he equalled the great captains of ancient and modern times."
+
+One example of the risks which he ran in battle occurred in his efforts to
+put down an insurrection of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an
+ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a shower of bullets sweeping
+his ranks. His private physician fell dead by his side and a plume of
+feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained unharmed. The same was
+the case soon after when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot down.
+The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to bear a charmed life.
+
+Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony, he wrote to the
+Directory in Paris, guaranteeing to be responsible for the orderly
+behavior of the blacks and their good will to France. He sent at the same
+time his two elder sons to Paris to be educated, making them practically
+hostages for his honor and good faith.
+
+In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came to an end, the British
+being expelled from the island and the rebellious mulattoes put down.
+Peace prevailed, and the negro conqueror now devoted himself to the
+complete pacification of the people. Agriculture was encouraged, the
+churches were reopened, schools were established, and law and justice were
+made equal for all. At the same time the army was kept in excellent
+training and a rigid discipline exacted.
+
+As is usual in such cases, there were abundant applications among the
+negroes for official positions, and Toussaint was sorely put to it to
+dispose of these ignorant aspirers after high places without giving
+offence. He seems, however, to have been well versed in political
+management, and is said to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a
+judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you would make an excellent
+magistrate. Of course you understand Latin.--No?--Why, that is very
+unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely necessary."
+
+There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing with his people that is
+worth repeating. As has been said, when the revolution began Hayti had
+about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand whites and mulattoes.
+Toussaint adopted an original method of making the force of this fact
+evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with black grains of corn
+and throw upon them a few grains of white. "You are the black grains," he
+would say; "your enemies are the white." Then he would shake the glass.
+"Where are the white grains now? You see they have disappeared."
+
+The authorities in France could not but recognize the ability and the
+moderation of the black leader, and in 1796 he was appointed
+commander-in-chief in the island, a commission which was confirmed by
+Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes and colors regarded him as a
+general benefactor and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity
+were restored, and his government was conducted with moderation and
+humanity. It looked as though peace and good will might continue in Hayti
+as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily he had to deal with a
+man in whom ambition and pride of place overruled all conceptions of
+justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had now risen to the supreme
+power in France.
+
+Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two letters which Toussaint sent
+him, after having completely pacified the island. These were addressed,
+"The First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites." The assumed equality
+seems to have touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained to
+answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early in 1800 a republican
+constitution was drafted under the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti
+virtually independent, though under the guardianship of France. An
+election was held and the liberator chosen president for life.
+
+When the news of this action reached France in July, 1800, Napoleon was
+furious. He had just been made First Consul and would brook no equal. "He
+is a revolted slave, whom we must punish," he exclaimed; "the honor of
+France is outraged." Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he
+sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of about thirty-five
+thousand men, under General Leclerc, the husband of Pauline Bonaparte.
+Pauline accompanied him, and also several officers who had been former
+opponents of Toussaint.
+
+Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been idle. Having subdued the
+French portion of the island, he led his army into the Spanish portion,
+which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital, being taken on January
+2, 1801. When the keys of this city were handed to him by its governor,
+the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept them in the name of the
+French Republic." Yet his conquests in the name of France did not soften
+the heart of the First Consul, who was bent on treating him as a daring
+rebel. The Peace of Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe, and
+the expedition under Leclerc reached the island about the end of 1801.
+
+To oppose the strong army of Napoleon's veterans, men who had been trained
+to victory under his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little more
+than half as strong. As he looked at the soldiers disembarking from the
+ships in the Bay of Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost! All
+France is coming to invade our poor island!"
+
+The French made landings at several of the ports of Hayti, driving back
+their defenders. The city of San Domingo, held by Toussaint's brother,
+Paul, was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was to figure high in the
+subsequent history of the island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when
+Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go tell your general that the
+French shall march here only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn
+beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for when he found further
+defence impossible, he set fire to the city and retreated to the
+mountains, taking with him two thousand white prisoners. Grief and despair
+filled the soul of Toussaint when, marching to the relief of Cristophe, he
+saw the roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes.
+
+But though the French became masters of the ports, the army of the blacks
+maintained itself in the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied
+all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost heavily, and began to
+despair of subduing his able opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to
+strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint's two sons. Napoleon had
+interviewed these boys before their departure from France, saying to them,
+"Your father is a great man, and has rendered good service to France. Tell
+him I say so, and bid him not to believe I have any hostile intention
+against the island. The troops I send are not designed to fight the
+natives, but to increase their strength, and the man I have appointed to
+command is my own brother-in-law."
+
+Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the demand that he should
+submit or send his children back as hostages. An affecting interview took
+place between the boys and their father, and when they repeated to him
+Napoleon's words, he was at first inclined to yield, but fuller
+consideration induced him to refuse.
+
+"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The First Consul offers me peace,
+but his general no sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No; my
+country demands my first consideration. Take back my sons."
+
+In the continuation of the war a French force of twenty thousand men under
+Rochambeau marched against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at Crete
+a Pierrot. In the contest that followed Toussaint at first outgeneralled
+Rochambeau and defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance he looked
+for from his subordinates failed to reach him, and at length he was forced
+to retreat.
+
+The French, however, despite their superior numbers and the military
+experience of their leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in the
+negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to negotiation, offering the
+blacks their freedom if they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was
+unable to hold his own against his powerful foe, and convinced that the
+terms offered would be advantageous to his country, now decided to accept
+them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable for the people and
+for the army; as for myself, I wish to live in retirement."
+
+The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much. The pride of Napoleon
+had not yet digested the affront of Toussaint's message, "From the First
+of the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent orders to Leclerc
+to arrest and send him to France. In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly
+at night to Toussaint's home, where he was dwelling in peace and quiet.
+The house was surrounded, two blacks that sought to defend him were killed
+on the spot, and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the coast. Here
+he was placed on board a man-of-war, which at once set sail for France.
+
+Napoleon's treatment of Toussaint was one of the dark deeds in his career.
+Reaching France, the captive was separated from his wife and children and
+confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier castle. Here, one morning in
+April, 1803, Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator, was found dead.
+He had been starved to death, if we may accept the belief of some authors.
+
+The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he might easily have
+accumulated vast wealth. In his official position he had maintained a
+degree of magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had concealed great
+riches somewhere in the island. He sent spies to question him, but
+Toussaint's only reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not those I
+have lost." The lost ones were his wife, his children, and his liberty.
+
+Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was soon to find that he had
+made a fatal mistake in his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed
+at his seizure, and having no one to control them, the negroes flew to
+arms, and soon the revolt spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came
+to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc's army until thousands of
+soldiers and fifteen hundred officers found graves in the land they had
+invaded. In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was taken back to
+France. When Napoleon heard the story of the fate of his expedition, he
+exclaimed in dismay,--
+
+"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine army; the body of a
+brother-in-law, of a general, my right arm, a handful of dust! All has
+perished, all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land! Perfidious
+colonists! A wretched slave in revolt. These are the causes of so many
+evils." He might more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause of all
+those evils."
+
+A few words must conclude this tale. General Rochambeau was sent large
+reinforcements, and with an army of twenty thousand men attempted the
+reconquest of the island. After a campaign of ferocity on both sides, he
+found himself blockaded at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to
+the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom he yielded the eight
+thousand men he had left. As he sailed from the island he saw the
+mountain-tops blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled by the blacks.
+From that day to this the island of Hayti has remained in the hands of the
+negro race.
+
+
+
+
+
+BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA.
+
+
+One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer crept stealthily into a
+house in Jamaica, where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing
+silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin plunged his knife into
+his breast, then turned and fled. Fortunately for American independence he
+had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had been hired to kill was Simon
+Bolivar, the great leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But on that
+night Bolivar's secretary occupied his hammock, and the "Liberator"
+escaped.
+
+Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island, after the failure of his
+early attempt to win freedom for his native land of Venezuela. He was soon
+back there again, however, with recruited forces, and for years afterwards
+the war went on, with variations of failure and success, the Spanish
+general Morillo treating the people who fell into his hands with revolting
+cruelty.
+
+It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the true road to success.
+This was by leaving Venezuela, from which he had sought in vain to
+dislodge the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more promising field
+of New Granada. So confident of victory did he feel in this new plan that
+he issued the following proclamation to the people of New Granada: "The
+day of America has come; no human power can stay the course of Nature
+guided by Providence. Before the sun has again run his annual course
+altars to Liberty will arise throughout your land."
+
+Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a British legion, recruited in
+London among the disbanded soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had also
+sent General Santander to the frontier of New Granada, and General
+Barreiro, the Spanish general, had been driven back. Encouraged by this
+success, he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in June, 1819,
+bringing with him a force of twenty-five hundred men, including his
+British auxiliaries.
+
+Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to conquer in nature as in
+the human enemy. In order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an
+enormous plain which at that season of the year was covered with water,
+and to swim some deep rivers, his war materials needing to be transported
+over these streams. But this was child's play compared with what lay
+before him. To reach his goal the Andes had to be crossed at some of their
+most forbidding points, a region over which it seemed next to impossible
+for men to go, even without military supplies.
+
+When the invading army left the plains for the mountains the soldiers
+quickly found themselves amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose
+the snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera, and the waters of
+the plain through which they had waded were here replaced by the rapids
+and cataracts of mountain streams. The roads in many places followed the
+edge of steep precipices, and were bordered by gigantic trees, while the
+clouds above them poured down incessant rains.
+
+Four days of this march used up most of the horses, which were foundered
+by the difficulties of the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of
+Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were at home only on the plain,
+deserted on finding themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents
+there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed of tree-trunks, or the
+aerial _taravitas_. These consisted of stout ropes made by twisting
+several thongs of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees on the
+two banks of the ravine, while from them was suspended a cradle or hammock
+of capacity for two persons, which was drawn backward and forward by long
+lines. Horses and mules were similarly drawn across, suspended by long
+girths around their bodies.
+
+Where the streams were fordable the current was usually so strong that the
+infantry had to pass two by two with their arms thrown round each other's
+shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their lives. Bolivar
+frequently passed these torrents back and forward on horseback, carrying
+the sick and weakly, or the women who accompanied the expedition.
+
+In the lower levels the climate was moist and warm, only a little firewood
+being needed for their nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached
+localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the stoutest clothing,
+while immense heaps of rocks and hills of snow bounded the view on every
+side and clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only sounds to be
+heard were those of the roaring torrents they had passed and the scream of
+the condor as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all vegetation
+disappeared except the clinging lichens and a tall plant which bore plumes
+instead of leaves and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a
+funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey the path was marked by
+crosses, erected in memory of travellers who had perished by the way.
+
+In this glacial region the provisions brought with them gave out. The
+cattle on which they had depended as their chief resource could go no
+farther. Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at length they
+reached the summit of the Paya pass, a natural stronghold where a
+battalion would have been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost of
+three hundred men occupied it, but these were easily dispersed by
+Santander, who led the van.
+
+At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties of the way, began to
+murmur. Bolivar called a council of war and told its members that there
+were greater difficulties still to surmount. He asked if they would keep
+on, or if they preferred to return. They all voted in favor of going
+onward, and the knowledge of their decision inspired the weary troops with
+new spirit.
+
+Before the terrible passage was completed one hundred men had died of
+cold, fifty of them being Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was
+necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even some of those borne by the
+soldiers. It was little more than the skeleton of an army that at length
+reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the heart of the province of
+Tunja, on the 6th of July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent back
+assistance to the stragglers who still lingered on the road, and
+despatched parties to collect horses and communicate with the few
+guerillas who roamed about that region.
+
+Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja province with two thousand
+infantry and four hundred horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand
+troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments elsewhere, while there was
+another royalist army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and to the
+support of the people to overcome these odds, and he succeeded in the
+first, for Barreiro was ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage
+of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the year.
+
+He was soon aware, however, that the patriots had achieved this impossible
+thing and were in his close vicinity, and with all haste collected his
+forces and took possession of the heights above the plain of Vargas. By
+this movement he interposed between the patriots and the town of Tunja,
+which, as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was anxious to occupy.
+It was not long, therefore, before the opposing armies met, and a battle
+took place that lasted five hours. The patriots won, chiefly by the aid of
+the English infantry, led by Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune
+to lose an arm in the engagement.
+
+                  [Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.]
+
+                          BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.
+
+
+The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the road to Tunja remained
+in the hands of the royalists. Instead of again attacking his intrenched
+foe, Bolivar now employed strategy, retreating during the day, then making
+a rapid countermarch at night, thus passing Barreiro's forces in the dark
+over by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into his hands. He found
+there an abundance of war material, and by holding it he cut off
+Barreiro's communication with Bogota.
+
+The strength of Bolivar's generalship lay in rapid and unexpected
+movements like this. The Spanish leaders, bound in the shackles of
+military routine, were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches of
+their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for the passage of an army.
+While they were manoeuvring, calculating, hesitating, guarding the
+customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would surprise them by
+concentrating a superior force upon a point which they imagined safe from
+attack, and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut up their forces in
+detail. As a result, the actions of the patriot commander in the field
+seemed less impressive than those of less notable generals, but the sum of
+effects was far superior.
+
+Bolivar's occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards by surprise. Barreiro,
+finding himself unexpectedly cut off from his centre of supplies, fell
+back upon Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by his foe, anxious to
+deal a decisive blow before the royal forces could concentrate. Boyaca,
+the site now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded and mountainous
+country and one well suited to Bolivar's characteristic tactics. Placing a
+large part of his troops in ambush and manoeuvring so as to get his cavalry
+in the enemy's rear, he advanced to the attack with a narrow front. On
+this Barreiro made a furious assault, forcing his opponents to recoil. But
+this retreat was only a stratagem, for, as they fell back, the Spaniards
+found themselves suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed troops,
+while the cavalry rode furiously upon their rear.
+
+In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the fierce attack threw them
+into utter confusion, in which the patriot army cut them down almost
+without resistance. General Barreiro was taken prisoner on the field of
+battle, throwing away his sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to
+save himself the mortification of surrendering it to General Bolivar.
+Colonel Ximenes, his second in command, was also taken, together with most
+of the officers and more than sixteen hundred men. All their artillery,
+ammunition, horses, etc., were captured, and a very small portion of the
+army escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was decided, but many
+of them were taken by the peasantry of the surrounding country and brought
+in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly small,--only
+thirteen killed and fifty-three wounded.
+
+Boyaca--after Maypo, by which Chili gained its freedom--was the great battle
+of South America. It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as Maypo
+had done in the south. New Granada was freed from the Spaniards, and on
+August 9, two days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily
+evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste that in thirty hours
+he reached Honda, usually a journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar
+triumphantly marched into the capital, and found in its coffers silver
+coin to the value of half a million dollars, which the viceroy had left
+behind in his haste.
+
+It must be said further that the English auxiliaries aided greatly in the
+results of these battles, their conduct giving Bolivar such gratification
+that he made them all members of the Order of the Liberator.
+
+It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of this implacable war, but
+simply to relate the dramatic invasion and conquest of New Granada. It
+must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on for two years longer,
+ending finally in 1821 with the victory of Carabobo, in which the
+Spaniards were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand men. After
+that they withdrew and a republic was organized, with Bolivar for its
+president.
+
+Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining their independence and
+was declared their liberator and made supreme dictator of the country.
+After ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned and gave the
+country a republican constitution. The congress of Lima elected him
+president for life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the northern
+section of Peru, to which the people gave the name of Bolivia, in honor of
+the winner of their liberties.
+
+
+
+
+
+HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES.
+
+
+In the last quarter of the eighteenth century ideas of revolution were
+widely in the air. The people were rising against the tyranny of the
+kings. First in this struggle for liberty came the English colonies in
+America. Then the people of France sprang to arms and overthrew the
+moss-grown tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon spread the
+demand for freedom through Europe. In Spain the people began to fight for
+their freedom, and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to
+America, where the people of the Spanish colonies had long been oppressed
+by the tyranny of their rulers.
+
+The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected by the example of the
+great free republic of the north, and the seed of liberty grew for years
+in their minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer's son named Miguel
+Hidalgo, a true scion of the people and an ardent lover of liberty, who
+for years longed to make his native Mexico independent of the effete
+royalty of Spain. He did not conceal his views on this subject, though his
+deeper projects were confided only to a few trusty friends, chief among
+whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of wealth and of noble Spanish descent,
+and a captain of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few intimates,
+consulted often and matured their plans, confident that the desire for
+liberty was strong in the country and that the patriot people needed only
+a leader to break out into insurrection.
+
+Hidalgo's eager desire for liberty, long smouldering, burst into flame in
+1810, when the Spanish authorities attempted to arrest in Queretaro some
+revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned of their danger, these
+men fled or concealed themselves. News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and
+taught him that with his reputation there was but one of two things to do,
+he must flee or strike. He decided to strike, and in this he was supported
+by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger.
+
+The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September, 1810. That night
+Hidalgo was roused from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends, and
+told that the hour had come. Calling his brother to his aid and summoning
+a few of those in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists to
+the prison, broke it open, and set free certain men who had been seized
+for their liberal ideas.
+
+This took place in the early hours of a Sunday. When day broke and the
+countrymen of the neighboring parish came to early mass the news of the
+night's event spread among them rapidly and caused great excitement. To a
+man they took the side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he found
+himself at the head of a small band of ardent revolutionists. They at once
+set out for San Miguel le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched
+before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty men, the nucleus of
+the Mexican revolution. For standard they bore a picture of the Holy
+Virgin of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New adherents came to
+their ranks till they were three hundred strong. Such was the movement
+known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry, the _Grito_,
+being, "Up with True Religion, and down with False Government."
+
+Never before had an insurrection among the submissive common people been
+known in Mexico. When news of it came to the authorities they were
+stupefied with amazement. That peasants and townspeople, the plain workers
+of the land, should have opinions of their own about government and the
+rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous to be endured, but for the
+time being they were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking any
+vigorous action.
+
+While the authorities digested the amazing news of the outbreak, the
+movement grew with surprising rapidity. Hidalgo's little band was joined
+by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a crowd of field laborers,
+armed with slings, sticks, and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks.
+So popular did the movement prove that in a brief period the band of
+eighty men had grown to a great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers.
+Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their numbers gave them
+strength. Hidalgo put himself at their head as commander-in-chief, with
+Allende as his second in command, and active exertions were made to
+organize an army out of this undigested material.
+
+The next thing we perceive in this promising movement for liberty is the
+spectacle of Hidalgo and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on
+the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital of a mining state,
+the second largest in Mexico. This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine,
+its houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the streets climb like
+stairways.
+
+The people of the city were terrified when they saw this great body of
+people marching upon them, with some of the organization of a regular
+army, though most of them bore only the arms of a mob. The authorities,
+who were advised of their approach, showed some energy. Resolving not to
+surrender and making hasty preparations for defence, they intrenched
+themselves in a strongly built grain warehouse, with the governor at their
+head.
+
+Much better armed than the mass of their assailants, and backed up by
+strong stone walls, the authorities defended themselves vigorously, and
+for a time the affair looked anything but promising for Hidalgo's
+improvised army. Success came at last through the courage of a little boy,
+called Pipita, who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the pavement,
+and holding a blazing torch in his hand, crept through a shower of bullets
+up to the gate of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames spread
+upward, the insurgents broke in upon the frightened defenders, killing
+some and making prisoners of the others.
+
+The common people of the city, in sympathy with the revolutionists, and
+inspired with the mob spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through
+the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and houses, until checked in
+their career of plunder by Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening
+condign punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to make the city a
+stronghold and centre for the collection of arms and money, his forces
+being increased by the defection from the Spaniards of three squadrons of
+regular troops, while the whole province declared for the cause of the
+revolution.
+
+While this was going on, the governing powers in Mexico had recovered from
+their stupefaction and begun to take active measures to suppress the
+dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy had arrived in Mexico,
+Don Francisco Venegas, a Spanish general who had distinguished himself in
+the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a peaceful life before him in
+America, he began his work of government by calling a council of prominent
+persons and asking them to help him raise money from the loyal people for
+the support of their brethren in Spain who were fighting against Napoleon.
+Three days later the Grito de Dolores broke out and he saw that his dream
+of peace was at an end, and that he would need all the funds he could
+raise to suppress revolution in his new government.
+
+The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once ordered the troops in
+garrison at Mexico to Queretaro, strengthening them by rural detachments,
+and summoning garrisons from the north, west, and east. He issued at the
+same time a decree under which all Indians were released from taxation,
+and promised pardon to all rebels who should at once lay down their arms;
+a reward of ten thousand dollars being offered for the capture or death of
+the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and Aldama.
+
+The civil authorities were vigorously supported by the clergy in this
+action against the revolution. Hidalgo and his chief comrades were
+excommunicated by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them
+bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which had taken action
+against Hidalgo in 1800 for his dangerous opinions, now cited him to
+appear before its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops and
+inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the valiant insurgents, who
+maintained that it was not religion but tyranny that they were banded
+against.
+
+The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid on the 17th of October,
+without resistance, the bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach.
+As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced the canons he had left
+behind to remove the sentence of excommunication. The town was made a
+second stronghold of the revolution and a centre for new recruiting, the
+army increasing so rapidly that in ten days' time its leader took the bold
+step of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city.
+
+The approach of the insurgents, who had now grown greatly in numbers,
+filled the people of the capital with terror. They remembered the sack of
+Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables, while many of them
+fled for safety. As the insurgents drew near they were met by the army of
+the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place upon an elevation called the
+Monte de la Cruces, outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the
+ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm, and greatly
+outnumbering the royal troops, they swept resistlessly on, bearing down
+all before them, and sweeping the viceroy's soldiers from the field with
+heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo, the commanding general,
+from death or capture, and bore him in safety to the city.
+
+Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the news of the disastrous
+defeat of its defenders, could perhaps have been easily taken, and its
+capture might possibly have closed the struggle in favor of liberty. It
+certainly was a moment for that boldness on which success so often
+depends, but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from prudence
+instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival of reinforcements to the
+beaten army, withdrew his forces towards Queretaro--a weak and fatal
+retrograde movement, as it proved.
+
+The viceroy had another army advancing from the north, under the command
+of Calleja, a skilful general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march
+towards Queretaro, he attacked him with such vigor that, after a hot
+combat, the insurgents were utterly worsted, losing all their artillery
+and many men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to pieces at this
+severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed to Valladolid with an
+insignificant remnant of his mighty host.
+
+Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of Allende and a fierce
+attack on him at Guanajuato, forcing him to abandon the city and retreat
+to Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence. Calleja, who had much of
+the traditional Spanish cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous
+retaliation upon the people of the city he had taken, who were most
+savagely punished for their recent plundering outbreak.
+
+The remainder of this story of revolution is a brief and unfortunate one.
+Hidalgo gathered another army and led them to Guadalajara, where he
+organized a government, appointed ministers, and styled himself
+generalissimo. He despatched a commissioner to the United States, but this
+personage soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were collected and the army
+organized as rapidly as possible, but his forces were still in the rough
+when, disregarding the advice of Allende and others, he resolved to attack
+Calleja. He advanced on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon,
+where he found himself in face of a well-equipped and disciplined army of
+ten thousand men, superior in everything but numbers to his undisciplined
+levies. They fought bravely enough in the battle of the next day, but they
+were no match for their opponents, and the contest ended in a complete
+rout, the insurgents scattering in all directions.
+
+Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on his way Allende, Jiminez,
+and other leaders who had escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The
+cause of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously putting down the
+revolution on all sides. As a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the
+United States borders with such men and money as they had left, proposing
+there to recruit and discipline another army. But before reaching the
+frontier they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured in a desert
+region near the Rio Grande.
+
+The captives were now taken under a strong escort to Chihuahua, where they
+were tried and condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez were shot
+on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo paid the penalty of his life on the 27th
+of June, 1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the first struggle
+for independence in Mexico. The heads of the four chiefs were taken to
+Guanajuato and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold which they had
+taken by storm in that city. There they remained till the freedom of
+Mexico was won, when they were given solemn burial beneath the altar of
+the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico. The Alhondiga de Grenaditas,
+the building to which their heads were attached, is now used as a prison,
+but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years held Hidalgo's
+head. Before it there stands a bronze statue of this earliest of the
+Mexican patriot leaders.
+
+Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later course of the struggle
+for independence? The death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and
+one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the war with varying fortunes
+until 1815, when he, too, was taken and shot.
+
+The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall was Augustin de Yturbide, a
+royalist leader, who pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet it
+was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its independence. After the
+death of Moreles a chief named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and
+against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it proved, the royalist had
+changed his views, and after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands
+with him and came out openly as a patriot leader. He had under him a
+well-disciplined army, and advanced from success to success till the final
+viceroy found himself forced to acknowledge the independence of Mexico.
+
+The events that followed--how Mexico was organized into an empire, with
+Yturbide as emperor under the title of Augustin I., and how a new
+revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was shot as a traitor--belong to
+that later history of the Spanish American republics in which revolution
+and counter-revolution continued almost annual events.
+
+
+
+
+
+PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM.
+
+
+On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the commander of the Spanish
+forces in Venezuela, found himself threatened in his camp by a party of
+one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had swum the Orinoco and
+galloped like centaurs upon his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish
+cavalry, with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet their
+assailants, who slowly retired before their superior numbers. In this way
+the royalists were drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio,
+where a battalion of infantry had been placed in ambush near the river.
+Here, suddenly ceasing their retreat, and dividing up into groups of
+twenty, the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and assailed them on
+all sides, driving them back under the fire of the infantry, by whom they
+were fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river with two killed and
+a few wounded, while the plain was strewn with the bodies of their foes.
+
+This anecdote may serve to introduce to our readers Joseph Antonio Paez,
+the leader of the band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most daring and
+striking figures among the liberators of South America. Born of Indian
+parents of low extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself so
+daring as a soldier that he became in time general-in-chief of the armies
+of Venezuela and the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar's most trusted
+lieutenant during the war for independence.
+
+Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle belonging to his father, who
+was a landholder in the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled in
+the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at curing their disorders. He
+was accustomed to mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was noted for
+strength and agility and for power of enduring fatigue.
+
+A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of Venezuela, he rose
+naturally to great influence among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the
+revolution began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of the cause of
+freedom, his reputation for courage was so great that they were very ready
+to enlist under him. He chose from among them one hundred and fifty picked
+horsemen, and this band, under the title of "Guides of the Apure," soon
+made itself the terror of the Spaniards.
+
+The following story well shows his intrepid character. After the death of
+his mother young Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided it
+with his sisters who were living in that town. The Spanish forces, which
+had been driven out of it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a
+general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all property-holders to
+return and promising to reinstate them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of
+this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself before the Spanish
+commandant, saying that he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and
+take possession of his property.
+
+He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who gathered in hundreds to
+welcome and shake hands with him, and the news quickly spread among the
+Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain Paez, who had done them
+so much mischief. Seizing their arms, they called loudly on their
+commander to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as a rebel and
+traitor. But this officer, who was well aware of the valor of Paez, and
+perceived his great influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it very
+imprudent to take a step that might lead to a general outbreak, and
+concluded to let his perilous visitor alone. He therefore appeased his
+soldiers, and Paez was left unmolested in the house of his sisters.
+
+The governor, however, only bided his time. Spies were set to watch the
+daring llanero, and after some days they informed their leaders that Paez
+had gone out unarmed, and that there was a good opportunity to seize his
+weapons as a preliminary to his arrest. When Paez returned home after his
+outing, he was told that armed men had visited the house and taken away
+his sword and pistols.
+
+Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought the governor's house
+and angrily charged him with breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he
+said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously demanded that his
+arms should be restored--not for use against the Spaniards, but for his
+personal security. His tone was so firm and indignant, and his request so
+reasonable under the circumstances, that the governor repented of his
+questionable act, and gave orders that the arms should be returned.
+
+On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas assailed the governor with
+reproaches, impetuously demanding that the guerilla chief should be
+arrested and confined in irons. The versatile governor again gave way, and
+that night the Paez mansion was entered and he taken from his bed, put in
+irons, and locked up in prison. It was no more than he might have
+expected, if he had known as much of the Spanish character then as he was
+afterwards to learn.
+
+But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In the prison he found about one
+hundred and fifty of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia, an
+officer noted for strength and courage. On Garcia complaining to him of
+the weight of his irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners, Paez
+accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange fetters with him. To
+keep his word he broke his own chains by main strength and handed them to
+his astonished friend.
+
+Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won their consent to a concerted
+break for liberty. Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give
+efficient service to the others, and before morning nearly the whole of
+them were free. When the jailor opened the door in the morning he was
+promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened with instant death if he made
+a sound. Breaking into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the guard,
+set free those whose irons were not yet broken, and marched from the
+prison, with Paez at their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred in
+number. Many of these were killed and the rest put to rout, and Barinas
+was once more in patriot hands.
+
+This anecdote will serve to show, better than pages of description, the
+kind of man that Paez was. When the act became known to the llaneros they
+proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready to follow him to the death.
+These cowboys of the Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like
+their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor their general knew
+anything about military art, and felt lost when taken from their native
+plains, a fact which was shown when they were called upon to follow
+Bolivar in his mountain expedition against New Granada. Neither persuasion
+nor force could induce them to leave the plains for the mountains. Bolivar
+and Paez entreated them in vain, and they declared that rather than go to
+the hill-country they would desert and return to their native plains,
+where alone they were willing to fight. This was their only act of
+insubordination under their favorite leader, who usually had complete
+control over them. He made himself one with his men, would divide his last
+cent with them, and was called by them uncle and father. His
+staff-officers were all llaneros and formed his regular society, they
+being alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics, but bold and
+dashing and ready to follow their leader to the cannon's mouth.
+
+The British Legion, about six hundred strong, was in the last year of the
+war attached to the llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed by
+Paez, who called them "my friends, the English." The soldiers of the
+legion, however, were bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel
+Bossuet, whom they held responsible for the miserable state of their
+rations and clothes and their want of pay. At the end of one day, which
+was so scorchingly hot that the soldiers were excused from their usual
+five o'clock parade, the legion rushed from their quarters at this hour
+and placed themselves in order of battle, crying that they would rather
+have a creole to lead them than their colonel.
+
+Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in vain, and the
+lieutenant-colonel, against whom they had taken offence, was attacked and
+mortally wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel Bossuet appeared and
+sought to speak to them they rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it
+needed the active efforts of the other officers to save him from their
+revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny were brought to General Paez in
+his quarters and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing his sword, he
+rushed upon the mutineers, killed three of them instantly, and would have
+continued this bloody work but that his sword broke on the body of a
+fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon, he seized some of the most
+rebellious, dragged them from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them
+to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his spirited conduct,
+hastily dispersed and sought their quarters. The next day three of the
+most seditious of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was accused of
+aiding in the mutiny,--though probably innocent of it,--were arrested and
+shot without trial.
+
+Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with Paez. After the battle of Ortiz,
+in which his daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction, he
+was seized with a fit, and lay on the ground, foaming at the mouth.
+Colonel English went to his aid, but his men warned him to let their
+general alone, saying, "He is often so, and will soon be all right. None
+of us dare touch him when he is in one of these spells."
+
+But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his face with water and forcing
+some down his throat. The general soon recovered and thanked him for his
+aid, saying that he was a little overcome with fatigue, as he had killed
+thirty-nine of the enemy with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth
+through the body he felt his illness coming on. By way of reward he
+presented Colonel English with the lance which had done this bloody work
+and gave him three fine horses from his own stud.
+
+These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the llaneros, who, like all
+Indians, viewed the Spaniards with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of
+more interest than the details of his services in the years of
+campaigning. In the field, it may be said, he was an invaluable aid to
+General Bolivar. In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish
+commander-in-chief, his daring activity and success were striking, and to
+him was largely due the winning the last great battle of the war, that of
+Carabobo.
+
+In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821, Bolivar had about
+sixteen hundred infantry, a thousand or more of them being British, and
+three thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The Spaniards, under La
+Torre, had fewer men, but occupied a very strong defensive position. This
+was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded hills, and giving abundant
+space for military movements, while if driven back they could retire to
+one strong point after another, holding the enemy at disadvantage
+throughout. In front there was only one defile, and their wings were well
+protected, the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron of cavalry
+protected their right wing, and on a hill opposite the defile--through
+which ran the road to Valencia--was posted a small battery.
+
+This position seemed to give the royalists a decisive superiority over
+their patriot antagonists, and for twenty days they waited an attack, in
+full confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an attack, fearing
+that the destiny of his country might rest upon the result. He proposed an
+armistice, but this was unanimously rejected by his council of war. Then
+it was suggested to seek to turn the position of the enemy, but this was
+also rejected, and it was finally decided to take every risk and assail
+the enemy in his stronghold, trusting to courage and the fortune of war
+for success.
+
+While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar and his staff, one of the
+guides of the army, who was thoroughly familiar with the country they
+occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation. At its end he drew
+near Bolivar, and in a whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path
+by which the right wing of the Spaniards might be turned.
+
+This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation with his
+informant, Bolivar secretly detached three battalions of his best troops,
+including the British legion and a strong column of cavalry under General
+Paez, directing them to follow the guide and preserve as much silence and
+secrecy as possible.
+
+The path proved to be narrow and very difficult. They were obliged to
+traverse it in single file, and it was paved with sharp stones that cut
+their shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet. Many of them tore
+their shirts and made bandages for their feet to enable them to go on.
+Fortunately for the success of the movement, it was masked by the forest,
+and the expedition was able to concentrate in a position on the flank of
+the enemy without discovery.
+
+When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome force on their flank
+they hastily despatched against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving
+back the nearest troops and unmasking the British legion. This they fired
+upon and then charged with the bayonet. The British returned the fire and
+charged in their turn, and with such dash and vigor that the Spaniards
+soon gave way. In their retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron
+called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got back to their ranks. In
+return a squadron of the Spaniards charged the British, but with less
+success, being dispersed by a hot musketry fire.
+
+"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt with, a fierce attack
+had been made upon the front. The unexpected flank and rear attack was so
+disconcerting that La Torre lost all presence of mind, and on every side
+his men were driven back and thrown into confusion. In front and on flank
+they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating to the succession
+of defensive points in the rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that
+invaded their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate retreat, their
+cavalry dispersed without making a charge, their infantry in the utmost
+disorder, their cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the enemy.
+
+In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary dash and activity. He
+pursued the Spaniards at the head of the cavalry, cutting them down
+vigorously, and few of them would have escaped but for the fatigued and
+weak condition of his horses, which rendered them unable to break the
+files of the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful charges
+General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black man called, from his courage,
+El Primero (the first), finding that they could not break the infantry
+lines, rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and were killed.
+
+The news of this defeat spread consternation among the Spaniards.
+Thousands of the royalists in the cities hastened to leave the country,
+fearing the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders lost all
+spirit, and three months later the strong fortress of Carthagena
+surrendered to the Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it
+surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated and the long
+contest was at an end.
+
+This final surrender was due in great measure to General Paez, who thus
+sustained his military service to the end. Though not gaining the renown
+of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an army and conducting a
+campaign, as a cavalry leader he was indispensable, and to him and his
+gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI.
+
+
+At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili was at its lowest ebb.
+After four years of struggle the patriots had met with a crushing defeat
+in 1814, and had been scattered to the four winds. Since then the viceroy
+of Spain had ruled the land with an iron hand, many of the leading
+citizens being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez, the
+imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe's career, while many others were
+severely punished and all the people were oppressed.
+
+In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero came across the
+mountains to strike a new blow for liberty. Don Jose de San Martin had
+fought valiantly for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the battle of San
+Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots sent him to the aid of their
+fellow-patriots in Chili and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in
+the latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the scattered bands
+of Chilian troops and adding them to men of his own command, got together
+a formidable array five thousand strong. The "Liberating Army of the
+Andes" these were called.
+
+An able organizer was San Martin, and he put his men through a thorough
+course of discipline. Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a force
+made up of the _Gauchos_, or cattlemen of the Pampas, whose life was
+passed in the saddle, and who were genuine centaurs of the plains.
+
+San Martin had the Andes to cross with his army, and this was a task like
+that which Hannibal and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps. He set out
+himself at the head of his cavalry on the 17th of January, 1817, the
+infantry and artillery advancing by a different route. The men of the army
+carried their own food, consisting of dried meat and parched corn, and
+depots of food were established at intervals along the route, the
+difficulty of transporting provision-trains being thus avoided. The
+field-pieces were slung between mules or dragged on sledges made of tough
+hide, and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when steep places were
+reached. Some two thousand cattle were driven along to add to their food
+supply.
+
+Thus equipped, San Martin's army set out on its difficult passage of the
+snow-topped Andes. He had previously sent over guerilla bands whose active
+movements thoroughly deceived the royalist generals as to his intended
+place of crossing. Onward went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary
+exertion by the fact that provisions began to run short. The passes to be
+traversed, thirteen thousand feet high and white with perpetual snow,
+formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the plains, yet they pushed
+on over the rugged mountains, with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as
+to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The infantry advanced with
+equal fortitude and energy, and early in February the combined forces
+descended the mountains and struck the royalist army at the foot with such
+energy that it was soon fleeing in a total rout. So utterly defeated and
+demoralized were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was abandoned
+and was entered by San Martin at the head of his wild gauchos and host of
+refugees on the 15th of February. His funds at this time consisted of the
+two doubloons remaining in his pocket, while he had no military chest, no
+surgeons nor medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply of the
+indispensable requisites of an army. About all he had to depend on was the
+patriotism of his men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing
+of the Andes and their easy victory over their foes.
+
+For the time being Chili was free. The royalists had vanished and the
+patriots were in full possession. Thirty or more years before, a bold
+Irishman, bearing the name of O'Higgins, had come to Chili, where he
+quickly rose in position until he was given the title of Don Ambrosio, and
+attained successively the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron,
+marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don Bernardo, was a man of
+his own type, able in peace and brilliant in war, and he was now made
+supreme dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had refused. The
+banished patriots were brought home from their desert island, the
+royalists severely punished, and a new army was organized to dislodge the
+fragment of the Spanish army which still held out in the south.
+
+On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary of the decisive victory of
+the "Liberating Army of the Andes," O'Higgins declared the absolute
+independence of Chili. A vote of the people was taken in a peculiar
+manner. Two blank books were opened for signatures in every city, the
+first for independence, the second for those who preferred the rule of
+Spain. For fifteen days these remained, and then it was found that the
+first books were filled with names, while the second had not a single
+name. This vote O'Higgins declared settled the question of Chilian
+freedom.
+
+The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the energetic viceroy of
+Peru, was taking vigorous steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three
+months before he had received a reinforcement of three thousand five
+hundred veterans from Spain, and these he sent to southern Chili to join
+the forces still in arms. United, they formed an army of about six
+thousand, under General Osorio, the able commander who had subdued Chili
+in 1814. It was evident that the newly declared independence of Chili was
+to be severely tried.
+
+In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it seemed overthrown. On the
+19th of March San Martin's army, while in camp near Talca, was
+unexpectedly and violently attacked by the royalist troops, the onslaught
+being so sudden and furious, and the storm of cannon and musket shot so
+rapid and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken with panic, their
+divisions firing at each other as well as at the enemy. Within fifteen
+minutes the whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely sought to
+stop the demoralized troops, but in vain, O'Higgins, though severely
+wounded, throwing himself before them without effect. Nothing could check
+them, and the defeat became in large measure a total rout.
+
+When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter consternation prevailed.
+Patriots hastily gathered their valuables for flight; carriages of those
+seeking to leave the country thronged the streets; women wrung their hands
+in wild despair; the funds of the treasury were got ready to load on
+mules; the whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety.
+
+Several days passed before it was known what had become of San Martin.
+Then news arrived that he was at San Fernando at the head of the right
+wing, three thousand strong. These had escaped the panic on account of two
+divisions of Osorio's army mistaking each other for the enemy and firing
+into their own ranks. In the confusion that ensued the right wing was led
+unbroken from the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer named
+Rodriguez had done good work in checking the flight of the fugitives, and
+in a brief time had organized a regiment which he named the "Hussars of
+Death."
+
+Six days after the defeat General O'Higgins made his appearance in
+Santiago. He was badly wounded, but was at once named dictator of the
+republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of his officers, entered the
+city. Wearied and dusty with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "_La
+patria triunfa_" gave new heart to the people. For several days fragments
+of the routed army came pouring in, and ten days after the battle Colonel
+Las Heras arrived with the three thousand of the right wing. The patriot
+cause seemed far less hopeless than had been the case a week before.
+
+Yet it was evident that liberty could come only from strenuous exertion,
+and the people of wealth freely subscribed of their money, plate, and
+jewels for the cause. It was not long before a new army five thousand five
+hundred strong, freshly clothed and in fair fighting condition, was
+gathered in a camp near the city. The artillery lost in the flight could
+not be replaced, but a few field-pieces were secured. San Martin and
+O'Higgins, with other able officers, were in command, and hope once more
+began to dawn upon despair.
+
+The enemy was known to be approaching, and the army was moved to a point
+about nine miles from the capital, occupying a location known as the farm
+of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited. On the afternoon of April
+3, Osorio crossed the Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank and
+rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army took up a position on the brow of
+a hill opposite that occupied by the patriot forces.
+
+Passing out from Santiago there is a succession of white hills, known as
+the Lorna Blanca, on one crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords
+of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army was encamped. The royalists
+occupied the crest and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran the
+Maypo with its forests and hills.
+
+As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San Martin saw with satisfaction
+the royalist force beginning to occupy the high ground in his front. With
+hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to witness that the day is ours."
+As he spoke, the golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest to
+crest. At ten o'clock when the movement of the armies began, he said, with
+assurance, "A half-hour will decide the fate of Chili."
+
+A few words will serve to describe the positions of the armies. Each was
+more than five thousand strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller. It
+had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat, the memory of which also
+hung about it like a cloud, while the royalists were filled with
+enthusiasm from their late victory. The royalist lines were about a mile
+in length, four squadrons of dragoons flanking their right wing and a body
+of lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill on the extreme
+left. Confronting them were the patriots, the left commanded by General
+Alverado, the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras, while Quintana
+headed the reserves.
+
+The battle opened with a brisk fire from the patriot artillery, and in
+about an hour the infantry forces joined in full action. As the royalists
+moved down the hill they were swept with the fire of the patriot battery,
+while shortly afterwards the royal battery on the left was captured by a
+dashing cavalry charge and the guns were turned against their own line.
+
+The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the Espejo estate, which was
+charged furiously by both sides, being taken and retaken several times
+during the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage seemed to be on the
+side of Osorio, who held the field with the centre and one wing of his
+army. Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots. It came nearer
+when the regiment of negroes which had for some time withstood the Burgos
+regiment--the flower of Osorio's force--gave way and retreated, leaving four
+hundred of its number stretched upon the field.
+
+The critical moment of the battle was now at hand. The Burgos regiment
+attempted to follow up its success by forming itself into a square for a
+decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines were broken and thrown into
+temporary disorder. Colonel O'Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish
+blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his troops with Quintana's
+reserves, he broke in a fierce charge upon the Burgos regiment while in
+the act of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion.
+
+This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio's army changed the whole aspect
+of affairs. The patriots, inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed
+their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought refuge in the
+farm-house, and were followed by the left, which was similarly broken and
+dispersed. The centre kept up the action for a time, but with both wings
+in retreat it also was soon forced back, and the whole royalist army was
+demoralized.
+
+The patriots did not fail to press their advantage to the utmost. On all
+sides the royalists were cut down or captured, until nearly half their
+force were killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken prisoners. A
+stand was made by those at the farm house, but they were soon driven out,
+and about five hundred of them killed and wounded in the court and
+vineyard adjoining. Of the total army less than three hundred escaped,
+General Osorio and some other officers among them. These fled to
+Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of the patriots more than a
+thousand had fallen in the hot engagement.
+
+This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the battle of the Maypo,
+gave San Martin immense renown, and justly so, for it established the
+independence of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke the power which
+Abascal had long sustained in Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of
+that land from the rule of Spain.
+
+This feat also was the work of San Martin, who soon after invaded Peru,
+and, aided by a Chilian fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming
+its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th of July, 1821. Later
+on, indeed, its freedom was seriously threatened, and it was not until
+1824 that General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru, in the
+victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar became as the Liberator of
+South America, some generous portion of fame should rightly be accorded to
+San Martin, the Liberator of Chili.
+
+
+
+
+
+COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL.
+
+
+While the Spanish colonies of South America were battling for their
+liberties, the great Portuguese colony of Brazil was going through a very
+different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots were seeking to drive
+Spain out of America. On the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of
+Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king and its throne, so that,
+for a time, the colony became the state, and the state became the
+dependency. It was a marked instance of the tail wagging the dog. Brazil
+became the one empire in America, and was destined not to become a
+republic until many years later. Such are the themes with which we here
+propose to deal.
+
+To begin this tale we must go back to those stirring times in Europe when
+Napoleon, the great conqueror, was in the height of his career, and was
+disposing of countries at his will, much as a chess-player moves the king,
+queen, and knights upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by
+Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the purpose of punishing
+Portugal for the crime of being a friend of the English realm.
+
+John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a weak-minded, feeble
+specimen of royalty, who did not keep of one mind two days together. Now
+he clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he claimed to be a friend of
+France; and thus he shifted back and forward until the French despot sent
+an army to his kingdom to help him make up his mind. The people were ready
+to fight for their country, but the prince still wobbled between two
+opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and was fast making his way
+to Lisbon.
+
+Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed tears over the fate of
+his country, but, as for himself, he wanted badly to save his precious
+person. Across the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil, in
+whose vast forest area he might find a safe refuge. The terrible French
+were close at hand. He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste he
+and his court had their treasures carried on a man-of-war in the Lisbon
+harbor and prepared for flight. Most of the nobility of the country
+followed him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing fifteen thousand
+persons, who took with them valuables worth fifty millions of dollars. On
+November 29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as the
+advance guard of the French came near enough to gaze on its swelling
+sails. It was a remarkable spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of
+the world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country with his nobility
+and treasures, to transfer his government to a distant colony of the
+realm.
+
+Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil, where they were received
+with an enthusiastic show of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the
+loyal colonists by lifting their country into the condition of a separate
+nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved for Portuguese ships, were opened to
+the world's commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly was brought to
+a sudden end; manufactures were set free from their fetters; a national
+bank was established; Brazil was thrown open freely to foreigners; schools
+and a medical college were opened, and every colonial restriction was
+swept away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency to a kingdom at
+a word. John, while bearing the title of prince, was practically king, for
+his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly insane, and he ruled in
+her stead.
+
+He became actual king, as John VI., on the death of his mother in 1816,
+and as such he soon found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians
+had been given so much that they wanted more. The opening of their country
+to commerce and travel had let in new ideas, and the people began to
+discover that they were the slaves of an absolute government. This feeling
+of unrest passed out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion
+at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put down, but a wider revolt came on in
+1820, and spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro, the capital,
+whose people demanded of their ruler a liberal constitution.
+
+A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened monarch taking
+refuge in his palace in the suburbs, where he lay trembling with fear.
+Fortunately, his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute character,
+and he quieted the people by swearing that his father and himself would
+accept the constitution they offered. Full of joy, the throng marched with
+enthusiasm to the palace of the king, who on seeing them approach was not
+sure whether he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to get into his
+carriage, he quite mistook their meaning, and fell into a paroxysm of
+terror when the people took out the horses that they might draw him to the
+city with their own hands. He actually fainted from fright, and when his
+senses came back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that he would
+agree to anything,--anything his dear people wanted.
+
+King John by this time had had quite enough of Brazil and the Brazilians.
+As soon as he could decide on anything, he determined to take his throne
+and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had brought them fourteen years
+before, leaving his son Pedro--young, ardent, and popular--to take care of
+Brazil in his stead.
+
+But the people were not satisfied to let him go until he had given his
+royal warrant to the new constitution, and just before he was ready to
+depart a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding that he should give
+his assent to the charter of the people's rights. He had never read it,
+and likely knew very little what it was about, but he signed what they
+asked for, all the same, and then made haste on shipboard, leaving Prince
+Pedro as regent, and as glad to get away from his _loyal_ Brazilians as he
+had once before been to get away from Junot and his Frenchmen.
+
+Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it was not long to remain
+so. The Cortes of Portugal grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and
+passed laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control. One of these
+required the young prince to leave Brazil. They were laying plans to throw
+the great colony back into its former state.
+
+When news of these acts reached Rio the city broke into a tumult. Pedro
+was begged not to abandon his loving people, and he agreed--thus defying
+the Cortes and its orders. This was on January 9, 1822. The Cortes next,
+to carry out its work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron to
+bring back the prince. This forced him to take a decided stand. On May 13
+he took the title of "Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;" and on
+the 7th of September, when word came that the Cortes had taken still more
+violent action, he drew his sword in the presence of a party of
+revolutionists, with the exclamation, "Independence or Death." On the 12th
+of the following month he was solemnly crowned as Pedro I.,
+"Constitutional Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated.
+Within less than a year thereafter not a hostile Portuguese soldier
+remained in Brazil, and it had taken its place definitely among the
+nations of America.
+
+This is but half the story of Brazil's struggle for freedom. It seems
+advisable to tell the other half, which took place in 1889, sixty-seven
+years after the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent
+empire. The second made it a republic, and brought it into line with the
+republican nations of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar fate
+attended the establishment of monarchy in Brazil. We have seen how John,
+the first emperor, "left his country for the country's good." The same was
+the case with his two successors, Pedro I. and Pedro II.
+
+Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed declarations of his aspirations
+for liberty. He was going to be a second Washington. But it was all empty
+talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere dramatic posing, to which he
+was given. His ardor for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before
+he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution promised was
+not given until it was fairly forced from him, and then it proved to be a
+worthless document, made only to be disregarded. A congress was called
+into being, but the emperor wished to confine its functions to the
+increase of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to worse until by 1831
+the indignation of the people grew intense. The troops were in sympathy
+with the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he stood alone against
+the country, finally abdicated the throne in haste in favor of his infant
+son. He took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and left the
+country never to return. The remainder of his short life was spent as king
+of Portugal.
+
+Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from his father. Studious, liberal,
+high-minded, he did not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress
+and its powers. But for all his liberality, Brazil was not satisfied. All
+around it were republics, and the spirit of republicanism invaded the
+empire and grew apace. From the people it made its way into the army, and
+in time it began to look as if no other emperor would be permitted to
+succeed Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he was growing old and
+feeble and there was a general feeling that he ought to be left to end his
+reign undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his grave. Unfortunately
+for him, many began to believe that a plot was in the air to make him give
+up the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular, and her husband,
+the Count d'Eu, was hated, and when the ministry began to send the
+military away from the capital, as if to carry out such a plot, an
+outbreak came.
+
+Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a professor in the military
+school, and Marshal Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of the
+army. There was one brigade they could count on,--the second,--and all the
+forces in Rio were republican in sentiment.
+
+On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread about that Constant and
+Deodoro were to be arrested and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away.
+It was time to strike. Early the next morning Constant rode out to the
+quarters of the Second Brigade, called it out, and led it to the great
+square in front of the War Department building. Deodoro took command and
+sent an officer into the building to demand the surrender of the ministry.
+They yielded, and telegraphed their resignation to the emperor, who was at
+Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.
+
+The revolution was phenomenally successful. When the other troops in the
+city heard of the revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets to
+join the Second Brigade, while the people, who did not dream of what was
+afoot, looked on in astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and when
+Dom Pedro reached the city at three o'clock in the afternoon, it was to
+find that he was no longer emperor. A provisional government had been
+organized, the chiefs of the revolution had named themselves ministers,
+and they had taken possession of the public buildings. A decree was issued
+that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become a federal republic.
+
+So great a change has rarely been accomplished so easily. A few friends
+visited the emperor, but there was no one to strike a blow for him. And
+the feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to be kept on the
+throne by the shedding of blood. That night word was sent him that he had
+been deposed and would be compelled to leave the country with his family.
+During the next night the royal victims of the revolution were sent on
+shipboard and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus was the third emperor
+sent out of Brazil through a bloodless revolution.
+
+Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic was organized, with a
+constitution closely like that of the United States. But the men at the
+head of government had the army at their back and were rather military
+dictators than presidents, and it was not long before rebellions broke out
+in some of the states. For three years there was war between the two
+factions of the people, with frightful destruction of life and property.
+Then, in September, 1893, the navy rebelled.
+
+The navy had always been officered by aristocrats, and looked with
+contempt upon the army. At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in
+the harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city. It soon became
+evident that it was the purpose of Mello and his fellows to re-establish
+the empire and bring back Dom Pedro to the throne.
+
+But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult situation. He hesitated
+about bombarding the city, which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the
+president, filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval officers had much
+trouble to obtain supplies. Mello, finding himself in a dilemma, left the
+harbor with one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina. Saraiva, an
+able chief of his party, invaded this and the neighboring districts, but
+he was hotly pursued and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to Rio
+without having gained any advantage. Here he found his position a very
+awkward one. The rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain by
+bombarding the city. The best they could do was to try and establish a
+commercial blockade, so as to force the government to terms, and in doing
+this Mello found himself running up against the power of the United
+States.
+
+                 [Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.]
+
+                         RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.
+
+
+We have given these incidents not so much for the interest they may have
+in themselves, but because they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems
+worth relating. There were warships of several nations in the harbor, the
+officers of most of which accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel
+navy, though it had not a foot of land under its control. Saldana da Gama,
+then in command of the ships, refused permission to any merchant vessel to
+go to the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire on any one
+that should venture. Thus the fleet of merchantmen was forced to lie out
+in the bay and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact that yellow
+fever was making havoc among the crews.
+
+The captains of the American merchant ships applied for protection to the
+senior American officer present, but he refused to interfere, and the
+commercial blockade went on. Such was the state of affairs when the United
+States Admiral Andrew E. Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the
+situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities.
+
+"Go in," he said to the American captains. "Trust to me to protect you
+from attack or to revenge you if injured."
+
+This promise put new spirit into the captains. Captain Blackford, of the
+barque "Amy," and two other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29,
+1894, that they would take their ships in to the wharves the next morning.
+When Da Gama heard of this he announced that he would fire on any vessel
+that dared attempt it.
+
+When Monday morning dawned there was a state of excitement in Rio Janeiro
+harbor. Da Gama might keep his word, and what would the American admiral
+do in that event? The commanders of the other war-vessels looked on with
+interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham meant business. The dawn
+of day showed active movements in the small American squadron. The ships
+were clearing for action, and the cruiser "Detroit" took a position from
+which she could command two of Da Gama's vessels, the "Guanabara" and the
+"Trajano."
+
+When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy" began to warp in towards the
+pier. A musket-shot came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara."
+Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past the bow of the Brazilian
+ship. A second followed that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian
+tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram his vessel, Captain
+Brownson of the "Detroit" took his ship in between the two Brazilian
+war-vessels, in a position to rake them and their supporting tugs.
+
+This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama's guns remained silent, and
+the "Amy," followed by the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to the
+wharves. Others followed, and before night all the British and other
+merchantmen in the harbor were hastening in to discharge their cargoes.
+Benham had brought to a quick end the "intolerable situation" in Rio
+Janeiro harbor.
+
+This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists to bring Peixoto to
+terms. Some of the ironclads escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa
+Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans. A few months
+sufficed to bring the revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length
+firmly established in Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+
+FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY.
+
+
+Among the varied countries of South America the little republic of
+Paraguay, clipped closely in between Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil,
+presents the most singular history, this being due to the remarkable
+career of the dictator Francia, who ruled over it for a quarter of a
+century, and to the warlike energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny of
+Francia was one of the strangest which history records, no man ever ruling
+with more absolute authority and more capricious cruelty. For many years
+Paraguay was completely cut off by him from the rest of the world, much as
+Japan was until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry. Unlucky was the
+stranger who then dared set foot on Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass
+before he could see the outer world again. Such was the fate of Bonpland,
+the celebrated botanist and companion of Humboldt, who rashly entered this
+forbidden land and was forced to spend ten years within its locked
+confines. Such is the country, and such was the singular policy of its
+dictator, whose strange story we have here to tell.
+
+In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries of South America in the
+general revolt against Spain. There was here no invasion and no
+blood-shed; the armies of Spain were kept too busy elsewhere, and the
+revolution was accomplished in peace. A governing committee was formed,
+with Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de
+Francia for its secretary. The first was a man of little ability; the
+latter was a man whose powers will soon be seen.
+
+The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay. Two years later a new
+convention was held, which dissolved the committee and elected two
+consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country. Two chairs were made
+for them, resembling the curule chairs of Rome, and called Caesar's and
+Pompey's chairs. On entering office Francia coolly seated himself in
+Caesar's chair, leaving that of Pompey for his associate. This action
+showed the difference in force of character between the two men.
+
+In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all the powers of government.
+He was a true Caesar. He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to
+reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived the Spaniards in the
+country of all civil rights. This was done to gain the support of the
+Indian population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He soon went farther.
+Yegros was in his way and he got rid of him, making the simple-minded and
+ignorant members of the congress believe that only a sovereign magistrate
+could save the country, which was then threatened by its neighbors. In
+consequence, on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was made dictator for
+three years. This was not enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he
+played his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816, a new congress
+proclaimed him supreme and perpetual dictator.
+
+It was no common man who could thus induce the congress of a republic to
+raise him to absolute power over its members and the people. Francia at
+that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and vigorous man, of medium
+stature, with piercing black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked.
+The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco manufacturer in Paraguay, he
+was at first intended for the church, but subsequently studied the law. In
+this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent, and honorable, and
+always ready to defend the poor and weak against the rich. It was the
+reputation thus gained which first made him prominent in political
+affairs.
+
+Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia quickly began to show his
+innate qualities. Love of money was not one of his faults, and while
+strictly economical with the public funds, he was free-handed and generous
+with his own. Thus, of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned
+him, he would accept only three thousand, and made it a strict rule to
+receive no present, either returning or paying for any sent him. At first
+he went regularly every day to mass, but he soon gave up this show of
+religious faith and dismissed his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to
+despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing the priests,
+saying that they talked about things and represented mysteries of which
+they knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he said, "serve more to
+make men believe in the devil than in God."
+
+Of the leading principle of Francia's political system we have already
+spoken. It had been the policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the
+people and keep them in strict obedience to the priesthood, and Francia
+adopted a similar policy. Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might
+penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was seeking to absorb the
+country. With these excuses he forbade, under the severest penalties,
+intercourse of any character between the people of Paraguay and those of
+neighboring countries and the entry of any foreigner to the country under
+his rule.
+
+In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling himself an envoy from Spain,
+should dare to enter Paraguay without authority from himself should be put
+to death and his body denied a burial. The same severe penalty was decreed
+against any native who received a letter speaking of political affairs and
+did not at once present it to the public tribunals. These rigid orders
+were probably caused by some mysterious movements of that period, which
+made him fear that Spain was laying plans to get possession of the
+country.
+
+In the same year the dictator made a new move in the game of politics. He
+called into being a kind of national assembly, professed to submit to its
+authority, and ratified a declaration of independence. Just why this was
+done is not very clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the
+Spanish government, and these may have had something to do with it. At any
+rate, a timely military conspiracy was just then discovered or
+manufactured, a colonel was condemned to death, and Francia was pressed by
+the assembly to resume his power. He consented with a show of reluctance,
+and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini, his envoy to Spain,
+should return, when he would yield up his rule to the marquis. All this,
+however, was probably a mere dramatic move, and Francia had no idea of
+yielding his power to any one.
+
+The dictator had a policy of his own--in fact, a double policy, one devoted
+to dealing with the land and its people; one to dealing with his enemies
+or those who questioned his authority. The one was as arbitrary, the other
+as cruel, as that of the tyrants of Rome.
+
+The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil yields two harvests annually,
+were seized by the dictator and stored on account of the government. The
+latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the land, and a communal system
+was adopted under which Francia disposed at will of the country and its
+people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of the fields, and when
+hands were needed for the harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet
+agriculture made little progress under the primitive methods employed, a
+broad board serving for a plough, while the wheat was ground in mortars,
+and a piece of wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The cotton, as
+soon as picked from the pods, was spun on the spinning-wheel, and then
+woven by a travelling weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on the back
+of an ox or a mule, and, when in use, was hung from the branch of a tree.
+
+Commerce was dealt with in the same way as agriculture. The market was
+under Francia's control, and all exchange of goods was managed under rules
+laid down by him. He found that he must open the country in a measure to
+foreign goods, if he wanted to develop the resources of the country, and a
+channel of commerce was opened on the frontier of Brazil. But soldiers
+vigilantly watched all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant
+without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on imports, kept them in a
+bazaar under military guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the
+amount of goods which any of his subjects could purchase.
+
+As a result of all this Francia brought about a complete cessation of all
+private action, the state being all, and he being the state. All dealing
+for profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce alike made no
+progress. On the other hand, everything relating to war was developed. It
+was his purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign countries, and
+to be fully prepared to defend it against warlike invasion.
+
+               [Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.]
+
+                       INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.
+
+
+Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted was a French dictionary
+of the arts and industries. From this he gained the idea of founding
+public workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated to activity alike
+by threats and money. At one time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor
+for awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a gallows, he proposed to
+try it on a shoemaker if he did not do his work properly, while promising
+to richly reward him if he did.
+
+Military roads were laid out, the capital and other cities were fortified,
+and a new city was built in the north as a military post to keep the
+savage Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized Mission Indians,
+they were gradually brought under the yoke, made to work on the land, and
+enrolled in the army like other citizens. In this way a body of twenty
+thousand militia and five thousand regular troops was formed, all being
+well drilled and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry force. The
+body-guard of the dictator was made up of picked troops on whose fidelity
+he could rely.
+
+Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish governors, tearing down
+adjoining houses to isolate it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he
+did not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but nightly slept in a
+different room, so that his sleeping apartment should not be known. In
+this he resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also imitated in his
+austerity and simplicity of manners, and the fact that his principal
+confidant was his barber,--a mulatto inclined to drink. His other associate
+was Patinos, his secretary, who made the public suffer for any
+ill-treatment from his master. The remainder of the despot's household
+consisted of four slaves, two men and two women. In dress he strove to
+imitate Napoleon, whom he greatly admired, and when drilling his troops
+was armed with a large sword and pistols.
+
+There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of this Paraguayan Nero.
+With his suspicious nature and his absolute power, his subjects had no
+more security for their lives than those of old Rome. Plots against his
+person--which he identified with the state--served him as a pretext for
+seizing and shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was suspicious. One
+of his first victims was Yegros, his former associate in the consulate.
+Accused of favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty others were
+condemned to death in 1819.
+
+More than three hundred others were imprisoned on the same charge, and
+were held captive for eighteen months, during which they were subjected by
+the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious dictator took special pleasure
+in the torment of these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own and
+making a diversion out of his revenge. From his actions it has been
+supposed that there were the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is
+certain that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria that he issued
+his decrees of proscription and carried out his excesses of cruelty.
+
+When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless wretch who omitted to
+address him as "Your Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and
+Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the man who, wishing to speak
+with him, dared to approach too closely and did not keep his hands well in
+view, to show that he had no concealed weapons. Treason, daggers, and
+assassins seemed the perpetual tenants of Francia's thoughts. One
+country-woman was seized for coming too near his office window to present
+a petition; and he went so far, on one occasion, as to order his guard to
+fire on any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever he went abroad a
+numerous escort attended him, and the moment he put his foot outside the
+palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a warning to all the
+inhabitants to go into their houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head
+nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to the dictator's
+dreaded face.
+
+It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth century, and in a
+little state of South America, there should have arisen a tyrant equal in
+cruelty, in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula of old or the
+Louis XI. of mediaeval times. Death came to him in 1840, after twenty-six
+years of this absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came after a
+few days of illness, during which he attended to business, refused
+assistance, and forbade any one not called by him to enter his room. Only
+the quick coming of death prevented him from ending his life with a crime;
+for in a fit of anger at the _curandero_, a sort of quack doctor who
+attended him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword, and rushed
+furiously upon the trembling wretch. Before he could reach his intended
+victim he fell down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard his
+orders and come to his aid, and death soon followed. His funeral was
+splendid, and a grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was thrown
+down by the hands of some enemies unknown.
+
+Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage, one of the most
+remarkable characters of the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his
+nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as president of the republic
+for ten years, during which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued
+in power till his death in 1862, but put an end to the isolation of
+Paraguay, opening it to the world's commerce.
+
+He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom we mention here simply
+from the fact that the war which Francia had so diligently prepared for
+came in his time. In 1864 the question of the true frontier of the state
+brought on a war in which Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay
+combined to crush the little country in their midst. We need only say here
+that Lopez displayed remarkable powers as a soldier, appeared again and
+again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and fought off his
+powerful opponents for five years. Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was
+slain in a battle in which his small army was completely destroyed.
+Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic struggle, was at the mercy of the
+allies. It was restored to national life again, but under penalty of the
+great indemnity, for so small a state, of two hundred and thirty-six
+million pesos.
+
+
+
+
+
+TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER.
+
+
+In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most vigorous and tyrannical of the
+governor-generals of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled with
+a stern will and an iron hand. One of the purposes in which he was most
+earnest was that of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast, all the
+naval vessels under his command being ordered to patrol the coast night
+and day, and to have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it proved, all
+his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers continuing to ply their trade
+in spite of Tacon and his agents.
+
+The despoilers of the revenue were too daring and adroit, and too familiar
+with the shoals and rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and
+the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation prevented any
+close approach to their haunts. In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient
+of offering a large and tempting reward to any one who would desert the
+fraternity and agree to pilot the government vessels through the perilous
+channels which they frequented. Double this reward, an almost princely
+prize, was offered for the person of one Marti, dead or alive.
+
+Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward for the arrest of Marti,
+who was looked upon as the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A
+daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler and half pirate, his name
+was as well known in Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The
+admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him as the King of the Isle
+of Pines, this island being his principal rendezvous, from which he sent
+his fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on the neighboring
+coast. As for Tacon's rewards, they were long as ineffective as his
+revenue cutters and gunboats, and the government officials fell at length
+into a state of despair as to how they should deal with the nefarious and
+defiant band.
+
+One dark, dull night, several months after the placards offering these
+rewards had been posted in conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two
+sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor's palace, which stood
+opposite the grand plaza of the capital city. Shortly before midnight a
+cloaked individual stealthily approached and slipped behind the statue of
+the Spanish king near the fountain in the plaza. From this lurking-place
+he watched the movements of the sentinels, as they walked until they met
+face to face, and then turned back to back for their brief walk in the
+opposite direction.
+
+It was a delicate movement to slip between the soldiers during the short
+interval when their eyes were turned from the entrance, but the stranger
+at length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently across the
+short space and hiding himself behind one of the pillars of the palace
+before they turned again. During their next turn he entered the palace,
+now safe from their espionage, and sought the broad flight of stairs which
+led to the governor's rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly familiar
+with the place.
+
+          [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.]
+
+                  THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.
+
+
+At the head of the stairs there was another guard to be passed, but this
+the stranger did with a formal military salute and an air of authority as
+if his right to enter was beyond question. His manner quieted all
+suspicion in the mind of the sentinel, and the newcomer entered the
+governor's room unchallenged, closing the door behind him.
+
+Before him sat the governor-general in a large easy-chair, quite alone and
+busily engaged in writing. On seeing him thus unattended the
+weather-beaten face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction.
+Evidently his secret plans had worked fully to his desire. Taking off his
+cloak, he tossed it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the
+governor's attention. Tacon looked up in surprise, fixing his eyes keenly
+upon his unlooked-for visitor.
+
+"Who is this that enters, at this late hour, without warning or
+announcement?" he sternly asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face.
+
+"One who brings information that the governor-general wants. You are he, I
+believe?"
+
+"I am. What do you want? And how did you, a stranger, pass my guard
+without challenge?"
+
+"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I understand, has offered a
+handsome reward to any one who will put you on the track of the rovers of
+the gulf?"
+
+"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon, with sudden interest. "What
+know you of them?"
+
+"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said the stranger. "I have my own
+safety to consider."
+
+"That you need not fear. My offer of reward also carries pardon to the
+informant. If you are even a member of the confederation itself you will
+be safe in speaking freely."
+
+"I understand you offer an additional reward, a rich one, for the
+discovery of Captain Marti, the chief of the smugglers?"
+
+"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to reward and protect any one who
+puts me on the track of that leader of the villains."
+
+"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance of this. Do you give me
+your knightly word that you will grant me a free pardon for all offences
+against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know, even to the most
+secret hiding-places of the rovers?"
+
+"I pledge you my full word of honor for that," said the governor, now
+deeply interested.
+
+"You will grant me full pardon, under the king's seal, no matter how great
+my offences or crimes, if you call them so, may have been?"
+
+"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said Tacon, wondering why his
+visitor was so unduly cautious.
+
+"Even if I were a leader among the rovers myself?"
+
+Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the stalwart stranger, while
+considering the purport of his words.
+
+"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead our ships to the haunts of
+Marti and his followers, you can fully depend on the reward and the
+pardon."
+
+"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust your word, or I should never
+have put myself in your power."
+
+"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently. "Now come to the point;
+I have no time to waste."
+
+"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have offered the largest reward,
+dead or alive, stands before you."
+
+"Ha! you are
+
+"Captain Marti."
+
+The governor started in surprise, and laid his hand hastily on a pistol
+that lay before him. But he regained his self-possession in a moment, and
+solemnly said,--
+
+"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours. You have offended deeply, but
+my word is my law. But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for the
+present under guard."
+
+"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti.
+
+Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered, and soon after Marti
+was safely locked up, orders being given to make him comfortable until he
+was sent for. And so this strange interview ended.
+
+During the next day there was a commotion in the harbor of Havana. An
+armed revenue cutter, which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of
+Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity; food, ammunition, and
+other stores being taken on board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and
+she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was a man unknown to captain
+or crew, otherwise than as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping
+his word.
+
+A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,--faithful to them, but faithless
+and treacherous to his late comrades and followers,--for he guided the ship
+with wonderful ease and assurance through all the shoals and perils of the
+coast waters, taking her to the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing
+their depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places. Many a craft of
+the smugglers was taken and destroyed and large quantities of their goods
+were captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued. The returns to
+the government were of great value and the business of the smugglers was
+effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned to the governor to claim
+the reward for his base treachery.
+
+"You have kept your word faithfully," said Tacon. "It is now for me to
+keep mine. In this document you will find a free and unconditional pardon
+for all the offences you have committed against the laws. As for your
+reward, here's an order on the treasury for--"
+
+"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?" said Marti. "I am glad
+to have the pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to make you a
+proposition in place of the money you offer. What I ask is that you grant
+me the sole right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare the
+trade in fish contraband to any one except my agents. This will repay me
+quite well enough for my service to the government, and I shall build at
+my own expense a public market of stone, which shall be an ornament to the
+city. At the expiration of a certain term of years this market, with all
+right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the government."
+
+Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition. He would save the large
+sum which he had promised Marti, and the city would gain a fine
+fish-market without expense. So, after weighing fully all the _pros_ and
+_cons_, Tacon assented to the proposition, granting Marti in full legal
+form the sole right to fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets.
+Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him of this concession.
+During his life as a rover he had become familiar with the best
+fishing-grounds, and for years furnished the city bountifully with fish,
+reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise. At the close of the
+period of his monopoly the market and privileges reverted to the
+government.
+
+Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of large wealth. How he should
+invest it was the question that next concerned him. He finally decided to
+try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical performances in Havana on
+condition of building there one of the largest and finest theatres in the
+world. This was done, paying the speculator a large interest on his
+wealth, and he died at length rich and honored, his money serving as a
+gravestone for his sins.
+
+
+
+
+
+KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.
+
+
+We have told the story of the remarkable expedition of Vasquez de Coronado
+from Mexico northward to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to tell the
+story of an expedition which took place three centuries later from this
+prairie land to the once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." In
+1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he found it inhabited by tribes
+of wandering savages, living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return
+expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful farms and populous
+cities. Yet it was to pass through a country as wild and uncultivated as
+that which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries before.
+
+The invasion of Mexico by the United States armies in 1846 was made in
+several divisions, one being known as the Army of the West, led by Colonel
+Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march to Santa Fe, seize New Mexico, and
+then push on and occupy California, both of which were then provinces of
+Mexico. It was an expedition in which the soldiers would have to fight far
+more with nature than with man, and force their way through desolate
+regions and over deserts rarely trodden by the human foot.
+
+The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri
+River, in the month of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen
+hundred men, all from Missouri, and all mounted except one battalion of
+infantry. Accompanying it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A march of two
+thousand miles in length lay before this small corps, much of it through
+the land of the enemy, where much larger forces were likely to be met.
+Before the adventurers, after the green prairies had been passed, lay hot
+and treeless plains and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry snow
+still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile Mexicans, whose numbers
+were unknown, might make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those who
+gathered to see them start looked upon them as heroes who might never see
+their homes again.
+
+On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition began its march,
+taking the trail of a provision train of two hundred wagons and two
+companies of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three days later, by
+Kearney with the rear. For the first time in history an army under the
+American standard, and with all the bravery of glittering guns and
+floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains. For years the Santa
+Fe trail had been a synonym for deeds of horror, including famine,
+bloodshed, and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones of men and of
+beasts of burden paved the way, and served as a gruesome pathway for the
+long line of marching troops.
+
+The early route led, now through thick timber, now over plains carpeted
+with tall grasses, now across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground
+in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and tried the horses
+severely to pull them out. To draw the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of
+the table-lands the tugging strength of a hundred men was sometimes
+needed.
+
+Summer was now on the land, and for days together the heat was almost
+unbearable. There was trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals,
+unused to their new trappings and discipline, and which often broke loose
+and scampered away, only to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane
+ejaculations.
+
+For six hundred miles the column traversed the great Santa Fe trail
+without sight of habitation and over a dreary expanse, no break to the
+monotony appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile and flowery
+prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the Arkansas. Here was a rich and
+well-watered level, with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming
+convenient halting-places for rest and bathing. As yet there had been no
+want of food, a large merchant train of food wagons having set out in
+advance of their own provision train, and for a few days life ceased to be
+a burden and became a pleasure.
+
+They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey to Fort Bent had been
+one of toil and hardships, of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless
+dreary miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance and food at times
+grew scanty, while the scarcity of fuel made it difficult to warm their
+sparse supplies. During part of the journey they were drenched by heavy
+rains. To these succeeded days of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst
+in its train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering souls. When
+at length the Arkansas River was reached, men and animals alike rushed
+madly into its waters to slake their torment of thirst.
+
+At times their route led through great herds of grazing buffaloes which
+supplied the hungry men with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they
+were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores of the provision
+wagons. This was especially the case when they left the grassy and flowery
+prairie and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months of the year no
+drop of rain or dew fell, while the whitened bones of men and beasts told
+of former havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface was in places
+incrusted with alkaline earth worn into ash-like dust, or paved with
+pebbles blistering hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by
+variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow in hue.
+
+A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent, but on the 2d of August
+the column was on the trail again, the sick and worn-out being left
+behind. As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still. Neither grass
+nor shrubs was to be found for the famishing animals; the water, what
+little there was, proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank deep in
+the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike were nearly suffocated by
+the clouds of dust that blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad
+were they when, after three days of this frightful passage, they halted on
+the welcome banks of the Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw
+rising before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron and Spanish
+peaks and knew that the desert was passed.
+
+The sight of the rugged mountains infused new energy into their weary
+souls, and it was with fresh spirit that they climbed the rough hills
+leading upward towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length into a grand
+mountain amphitheatre closed in with steep walls of basalt and granite.
+They seemed to be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they enjoyed
+their first Sunday's rest since they had left Fort Leavenworth.
+
+The food supply had now fallen so low that the rations of the men were
+reduced to one-third the usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts
+helped them to endure this severe privation, and they made their way
+rapidly through the mountain gorges and over the plains beyond, covering
+from seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition had diminished as
+well as food, and the men were forbidden to waste any on game, for news
+had been received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute their path
+and all their powder and shot might be needed.
+
+The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was reached on August 14, and
+their desert-weary eyes beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens
+surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while groves of cedar and pine
+diversified the scene. With new animation the troops marched on, elated
+with the tidings which now reached them from the north, that Colonel
+Kearney had been raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and a second
+item of news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held the canon six
+miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared to dispute its passage.
+
+This was what they had come for, and it was a welcome diversion to learn
+that the weariness of marching was likely to be diversified by a season of
+fighting. They had made the longest march ever achieved by an American
+army, nearly all of it through a barren and inhospitable country, and it
+was with genuine elation that they pressed forward to the canon, hopeful
+of having a brush with the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment
+when they found the pass empty of foes. The Mexicans had failed to await
+their coming.
+
+Kearney had already begun his prescribed work of annexing New Mexico to
+the United States, the Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas
+having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws and government of the
+United States. As they marched on, a similar oath was administered at San
+Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the soldiers fairly revelled
+in the fresh vegetables, milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the
+inhabitants were glad to exchange for the money of their new guests.
+Orders had been given that all food and forage obtained from the peaceable
+inhabitants should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was done.
+
+At Pecos they had their first experience of the antiquities of the land.
+Here was the traditional birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient
+temple still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled by that famous
+monarch, and kept burning for long years after his death, in the hope that
+he would come again to deliver his people from bondage. At length, as
+tradition held, the fire was extinguished by accident, and the temple and
+village were abandoned. The walls of the temple still stood, six feet
+thick, and covering with their rooms and passages a considerable space.
+The Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight for the Mexicans,
+for tradition told them that a people would come from the East to free
+them from Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about to be fulfilled.
+
+The next hostile news that reached the small army was to the effect that
+seven thousand Mexicans awaited them in Gallisteo Canon, fifteen miles
+from Santa Fe. This was far from agreeable tidings, since the Mexicans far
+outnumbered the Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a much
+smaller force might have easily defended it against a numerous foe. The
+pass had been fortified and the works there mounted with six pieces of
+cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders' ranks.
+
+Fortunately, once more the advancing troops found a strong pass
+undefended. The Mexican officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who
+felt no enmity towards the Americans, had left them to fight it out
+between themselves. Deserted by his soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with
+a few dragoons, and the Americans marched unmolested through the pass. On
+the same day they reached Santa Fe, taking peaceful possession of the
+capital of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country in the name of the
+United States.
+
+Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the last of their wearisome
+march of nine hundred miles, which had been completed in about fifty days.
+So exhausting had this final day's march proved that many of the animals
+sank down to die, and the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side,
+without food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep. As the flag of
+the United States was hoisted in the public square, a national salute of
+twenty-eight guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry rode with
+waving banners and loud cheers through the streets. They had cause for
+great gratulation, for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had won a
+great province without the loss of a single man in battle.
+
+By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff one hundred feet high was
+raised in the plaza for the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was
+taken by the officials of the town. They were willing enough to take it,
+since their new masters left them in office, while the people, who had
+been told that they would be robbed and mercilessly treated, hailed the
+Americans as deliverers rather than as enemies. The same was the case with
+all the surrounding people, who, when they found that they would be paid
+for their provisions and be left secure in their homes, settled down in
+seeming high good will under the new rule.
+
+       [Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.]
+
+               OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.
+
+
+Santa Fe at that time contained about six thousand inhabitants. After St.
+Augustine it was the oldest city within the limits of the United States.
+When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was built on the site of one of
+the old Indian pueblos, whose date went back to the earliest history of
+the country. The Spanish town--The Royal City of the Holy Faith, _La Villa
+Real del Santa Fe_, as they called it--was also full of the flavor of
+antiquity, with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old churches, built
+nearly three centuries before. These were of rude architecture and hung
+with battered old bells, but they were ornamented with curiously carved
+beams of cedar and oak. The residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as
+the churches, and the abundant relies of the more ancient Indian
+inhabitants gave the charm of a double antiquity to the place.
+
+From Santa Fe as a centre General Kearney sent out expeditions to put down
+all reported risings through the province, one of the most important of
+these being to the country of the warlike Navajo Indians, who had just
+made a raid on New Mexico, driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many
+captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs to the officers of the
+expedition is interesting.
+
+"Americans, you have a strange cause of war against the Navajos," he said.
+"We have waged war against the New Mexicans for several years. You now
+turn upon us for attempting to do what you have done yourselves. We cannot
+see why you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the New Mexicans in
+the West, while you do the same thing in the East. We have no more right
+to complain of you for interfering in our war than you have to quarrel
+with us for continuing a war we had begun long before you got here. If you
+will act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences."
+
+The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let the New Mexicans alone, as
+American citizens, and the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly
+conclude the story of Kearney's expedition, which was but half done when
+Santa Fe was reached. He was to continue his march to California, and set
+out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on a journey as long and
+difficult as that he had already made. He reached the Californian soil
+only to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished the work set for
+him, and a little more fighting added the great province of California to
+the American conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied and
+conquered a vast section of northern Mexico and added some of its richest
+possessions to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO.
+
+
+The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the Aztecs and their Spanish
+successors, has been the scene of two great military events, its siege and
+capture by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture by the American
+army under General Scott in 1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of
+the remarkable career of Cortez we have given the most striking incident,
+the story of the thrilling _Noche triste_ and the victory of Otumba. A
+series of interesting tales might have been told of the siege that
+followed, but we prefer to leave that period of mediaeval cruelty and
+injustice and come down to the events of a more civilized age.
+
+One of the most striking scenes in the campaign of 1847 was the taking of
+the fortified hill of Chapultepec, but before describing this we may
+briefly outline the events of which it formed the dramatic culmination.
+Vera Cruz, "the city of the True Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was
+the scene of the American landing, and was captured by the army under
+General Scott in March, 1847. Then, marching inland as Cortez had done
+more than three centuries before, the American army, about twelve thousand
+strong, soon began to ascend the mountain-slope leading from the torrid
+sea-level plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm.
+
+Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces came to the mountain-pass
+of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the
+invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men. The heights overhanging
+the road bristled with guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was
+strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable to an attack
+from the direction of Vera Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the
+lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took the wiser plan of
+cutting a new road along the mountain-slopes and through ravines out of
+sight of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican rear. An uphill
+charge from this point gave the Americans command of all the minor hills,
+leaving to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo, with its
+intrenchments and the strong fortress on its summit.
+
+On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred feet in rugged height, was
+assailed in front and rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep
+rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one barricade after another,
+and at length sweeping over the ramparts of the summit fortress and
+driving the defenders from their stronghold down the mountain-side. Santa
+Anna took with him only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving
+three thousand as prisoners in the American hands, with forty-three pieces
+of bronze artillery and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a month
+afterwards Scott's army marched into the city of Puebla, on the
+table-land, sixty-eight miles from the capital. Here they rested for
+several months, awaiting reinforcements.
+
+On August 7 the army resumed its march, now less than eleven thousand
+strong, the term of several regiments having expired and their places been
+partly filled by untried men, none of whom had ever fired a gun in war. On
+they went, up-hill still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula
+with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through a mountain region till
+Rio Frio was reached, fifty miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand
+feet above the level of the sea.
+
+A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of Mexico lay suddenly
+revealed before them like a vision of enchantment. It was a scene of
+verdant charm, the bright green of the fields and groves diversified with
+the white walls of villages and farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams,
+and the gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond and around a wall
+of wooded mountains ascended to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer
+charm that had not been gazed upon by an invading army since the days when
+Cortez and his men looked down upon it with warm delight.
+
+The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco, with the long, narrow lake
+of Xochimilco near it, and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near the
+western shore of which the city of Mexico was visible. Between Chalco and
+Tezcuco ran the national road, for much of its length a narrow causeway
+between borders of marsh-land. Near Lake Xochimilco was visible the
+Acapulco road. Strong works of defence commanded both these highways.
+
+              [Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.]
+
+                      ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.
+
+
+Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of approach, the national road
+being commanded by the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Penon,
+precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes and a deep ditch on the
+other. The Acapulco road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses at
+Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more available than the other route.
+Still farther north and west of the capital was a third approach to it
+over the road to Toluco, defended by works at Molino del Rey and by the
+fortified hill of Chapultepec. It was evident that the army under Scott
+would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting before the city could
+be reached.
+
+It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements by which this
+work was accomplished. It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of
+Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached by a road leading to
+its rear during the night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen minutes
+sufficing for the important victory. The garrison fled in dismay, after
+losing heavily.
+
+An advance was made the same day on the nearby Mexican works at San
+Antonio and Churubusco, and with the same result. The garrison at San
+Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American movement, evacuated the
+works and retired upon Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired
+by success, carried all before them, taking the works at the bridge of
+Churubusco by an impetuous charge and soon putting the enemy to flight.
+Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the Mexican reserve, consisting of
+four thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry, whose line was broken
+by a bayonet charge.
+
+The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised movements, forced back
+in terrible confusion, and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives
+were cut down by the pursuing Americans, who followed to the immediate
+defences of the capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy fire of
+grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans, nine thousand strong, had
+captured three strong positions, held by three times their number, the
+Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners over six thousand men,
+while the American loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand.
+
+Negotiations for peace followed, but they came to nothing, the armistice
+that had been declared terminating on the 7th of September. The problem
+that now lay before General Scott was a very different one from that which
+Cortez had faced in his siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on
+an island in the centre of a large lake, which was crossed by a number of
+causeways, broken at intervals by canals whose bridges could be removed.
+
+During the centuries that succeeded this lake had disappeared, low, marshy
+lands occupying its site. The city, however, was still reached by
+causeways, eight in number, raised about six feet above the marsh level.
+In these ended the five main roads leading to the city. A large canal
+surrounded the capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all now
+filled with water, as this was the rainy season. The problem of bridging
+these under fire was one of the difficulties that confronted the
+Americans.
+
+General Scott decided to approach the city by the causeways of San Cosme,
+Belen, and Tacubaya, which were defended by formidable works, the
+outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified position at the foot of
+a slope beyond which a grove of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec.
+It consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of which had been used
+as a foundry, but which were now converted into fortresses. This place was
+carried by storm in the early morning of September 8, and the stronger
+position of Casa de Mata, a quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was
+captured by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec now lay
+between the Americans and the Mexican capital.
+
+The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the places just taken were in the
+nature of outworks, remained to be captured before the city could be
+reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated rocky hill, about
+one hundred and fifty feet in height, and was surmounted by a large stone
+building which had been used as the bishop's palace, but was now converted
+into a strong fortress. It was well prepared for defence in guns and
+garrison, and was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of the
+capital. The western side was the most accessible, but the face of this,
+above the grove of cypresses which covered its base, presented a steep,
+rocky, and difficult ascent.
+
+To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon another section of the city
+was made on the 12th of September. The two divisions engaged in this
+returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec, though a force still
+threatened the southern causeways. Four batteries had been posted within
+easy range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night of the 11th, and
+all next day they kept up a steady fire upon it, driving its defenders
+back and partly wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th the
+batteries resumed their fire, while the forces chosen for the assault
+approached the hill from different directions through the fire of the
+enemy.
+
+Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty picked men each, from
+Worth's and Twigg's divisions, advanced with scaling ladders, while the
+batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to drive the defenders
+from the walls. Major-General Pillow led his division through the grove on
+the east side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound, and General
+Cadwalader succeeded him. Before him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a
+redoubt midway in its height. Up the steep rocks climbed the gallant
+stormers, broke into the redoubt with a wild cheer, and put its defenders
+to flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing without injury the
+mines which the Mexicans had planted, but which they could not fire
+without killing their own men. In a few minutes more the storming party
+reached the summit and climbed over the castle wall with shouts of
+victory, driving back its defenders. Soon the United States flag was seen
+floating over the ramparts, a roar of cheers greeting the inspiring
+spectacle.
+
+On the southeast Quitman's column of assault was making like progress,
+while Smith's brigade captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on
+the right, and Shield's brigade crossed the meadows under a hot fire of
+musketry and artillery and swept up the hill to the support of the
+stormers.
+
+Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and strongest citadel of the
+Mexicans, had fallen before an impetuous charge up a hill deemed
+inaccessible, in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at the
+mercy of the invaders. The causeway which it defended formed a double
+roadway on each side of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars.
+Shields charged impetuously along this causeway, towards the city, two
+miles distant, while Quitman pursued the fleeing enemy along the
+neighboring causeway of Belen.
+
+An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields to bid him halt till
+Worth, who was following the San Cosme causeway, could force its defences.
+The aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general and began,
+"General Scott presents his compliments
+
+"I have no time for compliments just now," roared out Shields, and spurred
+briskly onward to escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were coming.
+Soon he had led his men into the suburbs of the city, while Worth and
+Quitman charged inward over the neighboring causeways with equal
+impetuosity.
+
+A strong force was quickly within the streets of the city, assailed by
+skirmishers firing from houses and gardens, who could be reached only by
+forcing a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were brought in by
+Worth's column and planted in position to batter down the San Cosme gate,
+the barrier to the great square in the city's centre, and which fronted
+the cathedral and palace. Quitman and Shields had to fight their way
+through as hot a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves before
+the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this point a severe loss was
+sustained, but the assailants held their own, mounting guns to attack the
+citadel the next morning.
+
+These guns were not used. Before daylight a deputation of the city council
+waited on General Scott and announced that the army had evacuated the
+city, and the government officials had fled. It was not long afterwards
+before the Stars and Stripes were floating over the National Palace and in
+the great plaza.
+
+Fighting continued for a day longer between the Americans and about four
+thousand soldiers and liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury
+for their country and were not put down without considerable loss. On the
+morning of September 16 the army of the United States held undisputed
+possession of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting continued,
+however, elsewhere for some months later, and it was not till the 2d of
+February, 1848, that a treaty of peace was signed.
+
+
+
+
+
+WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA.
+
+
+On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring band of reckless
+adventurers sailed from San Francisco, on an enterprise seemingly madder
+and wilder than that which Cortez had undertaken more than three centuries
+before. The purpose of this handful of men--filibusters they were called,
+as lawless in their way as the buccaneers of old--was the conquest of
+Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all Mexico and Central America.
+No one knows what wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their
+leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his admirers called him.
+
+Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner of the Gulf of California,
+with his few companions, he captured a number of hamlets and then
+grandiloquently proclaimed Lower California an independent state and
+himself its president. His next proclamation "annexed" to his territory
+the large Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite the California
+Gulf, and for a brief period he posed among the sparse inhabitants as a
+ruler. Some reinforcements reached him by water, but another party that
+started overland was dispersed by starvation, their food giving out.
+
+Walker now set out with his buccaneering band on a long march of six
+hundred miles through a barren and unpeopled country towards his
+"possessions" in the interior. The Mexicans did not need any forces to
+defeat him. Fatigue and famine did the work for them, desertion decimated
+the band of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula ended at San
+Diego, where he and his men surrendered to the United States authorities.
+Walker was tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the neutrality
+laws, but was acquitted.
+
+This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted Walker's filibustering
+appetite. Looking about for "new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising
+field in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions. Invited by certain
+American speculators or adventurers to lend his aid to the democratic
+party of insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected a
+band of men of his own type and set sail for this new field of labor and
+ambition. On the 11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force of
+sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan coast, and was joined there by
+about a hundred of the native rebels.
+
+Making his way inland, his first encounter with the government forces took
+place at Rivas, where he met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His
+native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans fought with such
+valor and energy that the enemy were defeated with a loss of one-third
+their number, his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at Virgin Bay
+he was equally successful, and on the 15th of October he captured the
+important city of Granada.
+
+These few successes gave him such prestige and brought such aid from the
+revolutionists that the opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on
+the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its leader, which made him
+fairly master of the country. He declined the office of president, which
+was offered him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic, an
+office better suited to maintain his position. His rapid success brought
+him not only the support of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits
+from the United States, who made their way into the country from the east
+and the west alike until he had a force of twelve hundred Americans under
+his command.
+
+General Corral, who had treated with him for peace, was soon to pay the
+penalty for his readiness to make terms with an invader. He was arrested
+for treason, on some charge brought by Walker, tried before a
+court-martial at which the new generalissimo presided, sentenced to death,
+and executed without delay.
+
+The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism was a war with the
+neighboring republic of Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a
+hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March 20, 1856, in which
+Walker was worsted. He kept the field, however, and met the foe again at
+Rivas, on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the two republics now
+made peace.
+
+His military success seemed to have made the invader securely the lord and
+master of Nicaragua, and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty
+and had himself elected president on June 25. He had so fully established
+himself that he was recognized as head of the republic by President
+Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he immediately began to act
+the master and tyrant in a way that was likely to bring his government to
+a speedy end.
+
+Money being scarce, he issued currency on a liberal scale, and by a decree
+he restored the system of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two
+years before. Not content with these radical measures within the republic
+itself, he was unwise enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in the
+United States by meddling with the privileges of the Vanderbilt Steamship
+Company, then engaged in transporting the stream of gold-hunters to
+California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker revoked their charter and
+confiscated their property, thus bringing against his new government a
+fire in the rear.
+
+His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies on all sides, the Central
+American states bordering on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their
+ambitious neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company worked
+industriously to stir up a revolt against this soaring eagle of
+filibusterism.
+
+The result was a strong revolt against his rule, and he soon found himself
+confronted by a force of patriots in the field. For a short time there
+were busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being fought by the
+contending forces, the war ending with the burning of Granada by the
+president. Finding that the whole country was rising against him and that
+his case had grown desperate, Walker soon gave up the hopeless contest and
+surrendered, on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the United States
+sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took him to Panama, where he made his way
+back to the United States.
+
+Thus closed the conquering career of this minor Cortez of the nineteenth
+century. But while Walker the president was no more, Walker the filibuster
+was not squelched. The passion for adventure was as strong in his mind as
+ever, and his brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable
+thirst for rule. In consequence he made effort after effort to get back to
+the scene of his exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent thirst
+for invasion giving the United States authorities no small trouble and
+ending only with his death.
+
+In fact, he was barely at home before he was hatching new schemes and
+devising fresh exploits. To check a new expedition which he was organizing
+in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had him arrested and put
+under bonds to keep the peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their
+jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile, yet making port
+first in Central America, where he landed on November 25, 1857.
+
+This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the pan. No support awaited
+him and his deluded followers, and in two weeks' time he found it
+judicious to surrender once more to the naval authorities of the United
+States; this time to Commodore Paulding, who took him to New York with his
+followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number.
+
+His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the United States.
+President Buchanan had strongly condemned the invasion of friendly
+territory in his annual message, but he now sent a special message to
+Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore Paulding for landing an
+American force on foreign soil. He decided that under the circumstances,
+the government must decline to hold Walker as a prisoner, unless he was
+properly arrested under judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan
+strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions.
+
+The result of this was that Walker was again set free, and it was not long
+before he had a new following, there being many of the adventurous class
+who sympathized warmly with his enterprising efforts. This was especially
+the case in the South. Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old
+enthusiasm, he soon organized another company, which sought to leave the
+country in October, 1858. He was closely watched, however, and the whole
+company was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi on the steamer on
+which passage had been taken.
+
+President Buchanan had issued a proclamation forbidding all such
+expeditions, and Walker was now put on trial before the United States
+Court at New Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack satisfactory
+evidence, and he was acquitted.
+
+Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied himself in writing
+an account of his exploits, in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But
+this was far too tame work for one of his stirring disposition, and in
+June, 1860, he was off again, this time making Honduras the scene of his
+invading energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized that town and
+held it for eight weeks, at the end of which time he was ordered to leave
+the place by the captain of a British man-of-war. The president of
+Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive force. Walker marched
+south, but his force was too small to cope with the president's army, and
+he had not gone far before he found himself a captive in the hands of the
+Honduran government. Central America had by this time more than enough of
+William Walker and his methods, and five days after his capture he was
+condemned to death and shot at Truxillo.
+
+Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of the chief of filibusters, the
+most persistent of modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless
+exploits were of the mediaeval rather than of the modern type. A short,
+slender, not especially demonstrative man, Walker did not seem made for a
+hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking feature was his keen
+gray eyes, which brought him the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny."
+
+
+
+
+
+MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO.
+
+
+It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and submission of the
+Indians in Mexico, that the final blow for freedom in that country should
+have been made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name was Benito
+Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was against the French invaders and
+Maximilian, the puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the Mexican
+throne. In the words of Shakespeare, "Thereby hangs a tale."
+
+For many years after the Spanish colonies had won their independence the
+nations of Europe looked upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly
+have liked to snap up some of these weak countries, which Spain had been
+unable to hold, but the great republic of the United States stood as their
+protector, and none of them felt it quite safe to step over that
+threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe Doctrine." "Hands off," said
+Uncle Sam, and they obeyed, though much against their will.
+
+In 1861 began a war in the United States which gave the people of that
+country all they wanted to do. Here was the chance for Europe, and
+Napoleon III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to send an army
+to Mexico and attempt the conquest of that country. It was the overweening
+ambition of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his scheme to found an
+empire in Mexico which, while having the name of being independent, would
+be under the control of France and would shed glory on his reign.
+
+At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian we have named, was Benito
+Juarez, a descendant of the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood
+of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family was of the lowest class of
+the Indians, and when he was twelve years old he did not know how to read
+or write. After that he obtained a chance for education, and in time
+became a lawyer, was made governor of his native state, and kept on
+climbing upward till he became secretary of state, president of the
+Supreme Court, and finally president of Mexico.
+
+He was the man who had the invaders of his country to fight, and he fought
+them well and long. But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no match
+for the trained troops of France, and they were driven back step by step
+until the invaders were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet Juarez
+still had a capital and a government at San Luis Potosi, and all loyal
+Mexicans still looked on him as their president.
+
+When Napoleon III. found himself master of Mexico, he looked around for a
+man who would serve him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he found
+in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother of the emperor of Austria, a
+dreamer rather than a man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine
+right of kings." This was the kind of man that the French usurper was in
+want of, and he offered him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian
+was taken by surprise. The proposition was a startling one. But in the end
+ambition overcame judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous
+position on the condition that France should sustain him on the throne.
+
+            [Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.]
+
+                    HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.
+
+
+The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was for the time at an end, and
+the French had almost everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor
+and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera Cruz and made their way to the
+city of Mexico. This they entered with great show and ceremony and amid
+the cheers of many of the lookers on, though the mass of the people, who
+had no love for emperors, kept away or held their peace.
+
+The new empire began with imperial display. All the higher society of
+Mexico were at the feet of the new monarchs. With French money to pay
+their way and a French army to protect them, there was nothing for
+Maximilian and Carlotta to do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their
+new dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec, two hundred feet
+above the valley, stood the old palace which had been ruined by the
+American guns when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by Maximilian on
+a grand scale, hanging gardens were constructed and walled in by galleries
+with marble columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe, and here
+the new emperor and empress held their court, with a brilliant succession
+of fetes, dinners, dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and gayety,
+and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of proud and royal reign.
+
+But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had reached Mexico in June, 1864.
+For a year longer the civil war in the great republic of the north
+continued; then it came to an end, and the government of the United States
+was free to take a hand in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near
+neighbor to the south.
+
+It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon, it was like the
+rumble of an earthquake under the throne of Maximilian, when from
+Washington came a diplomatic demand which, translated into plain English,
+meant, you had better make haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they
+stay there, you will have the United States to deal with. It hurt Louis
+Napoleon's pride. He shifted and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of
+the great republic was on the throat of his new empire, and there was
+nothing for him to do but obey. He knew very well that if he resisted, the
+armies of the civil war would make very short work of his forces in
+Mexico.
+
+Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his dream of an empire and
+leave the country with the French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times,
+but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could hold his throne with
+the aid of the loyal Mexicans. Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe
+and appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very plainly what she
+thought of his actions; but it was all of no avail, and she left the
+palace almost broken-hearted. Soon after Maximilian received the
+distressing news that his wife had lost her reason through grief, and was
+quite insane. At once he made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out
+for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed his mind again and
+concluded to remain.
+
+At the end of January, 1867, the French army, which had held on until
+then, with one excuse after another, left the capital city, which it had
+occupied for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore at Vera
+Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon were broken up as useless, horses sold
+for a song, and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian and Austrian
+troops which the new emperor had brought with him going with the French.
+Maximilian did not want them; he preferred to trust himself to the loyal
+arms of his Mexican subjects, hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the
+United States, it had no more to say; it was content to leave this shadow
+of an empire to its _loyal_ Mexicans.
+
+It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the right course to make
+himself beloved by the Mexicans. Full of his obsolete notion of the
+"divine right of kings," a year after he had reached Mexico he issued a
+decree saying that all who clung to the republic or resisted his authority
+should be shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many decrees, for a
+number of prisoners were shot under its cruel mandate, one of them being
+General Orteaga. It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to order
+that the whole laboring population of the country should be reduced to
+slavery.
+
+While all this was going on President Juarez was not idle. During the
+whole French occupation he had kept in arms, and now began his advance
+from his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo, chief of his
+armies, soon conquered the northern part of the country, and occupied the
+various states and cities as soon as they were left by the French.
+
+But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the Church party had finally
+induced him to remain, and this party now came to his aid. General
+Miramon, an able leader, commanded his army, which was recruited to the
+strength of eight thousand men, most of them trained soldiers, though
+nearly half of them were raw recruits.
+
+With this force Maximilian advanced to Queretaro and made it his
+head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his
+residence there with his government about him. But the president and
+cabinet came very near being taken captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon
+suddenly advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez and his
+government barely escaping.
+
+What would have been the result if the whole Mexican government had been
+taken prisoners it is not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General
+Escobedo would have done what he now did, which was to advance on
+Queretaro and invest it with his army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was
+limited to this one town, where it was besieged by an army of Mexican
+patriots, while, with the exception of a few cities, the whole country
+outside was free from imperial rule.
+
+Soon the emperor and his army found themselves closely confined within the
+walls of Queretaro. Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both
+sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions grew scarce and
+foraging parties were sent out, but after each attack the lines of the
+besiegers became closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of forces
+and funds, and General Marquez was sent to the city of Mexico to obtain
+them. He managed to get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to
+return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian of the promised aid. Such
+forces and funds as Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz,
+who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and took Pueblo, and then
+turned on Marquez, whom he defeated so completely that he made his way
+back to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night. It was the glory
+gained by this act that later raised Diaz to the presidency, which he held
+so brilliantly for so many years.
+
+The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a shadow. For two months the
+siege of Queretaro continued, steadily growing closer. During this trying
+time Maximilian showed the best elements of his character. He was gentle
+and cheerful in demeanor, and brave in action, not hesitating to expose
+himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made for his escape, that he
+might put himself at the head of his troops elsewhere, but he refused,
+through a sense of honor, to desert his brave companions.
+
+Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian himself had only the coarse,
+tough food which was served to the common soldiers. Day after day Marquez
+was looked for with the promised aid, but night after night brought only
+disappointment. At length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in
+charge of the most important point in the city, turned traitor and
+admitted two battalions of the enemy. From this point the assailants
+swarmed into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere prevailed.
+Lopez had not intended that the emperor should be captured, and gave him
+warning in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and reached a little
+hill outside the town, but here he was surrounded by foes and forced to
+deliver up his sword.
+
+Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full master of Mexico, and
+held its late emperor in his hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon
+his word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but always at the last
+moment he failed to avail himself of them. His friends sought to win for
+him the clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible. The traitors,
+as he called them, should be tried by court-martial, he said and abide the
+decision of the court.
+
+Tried they were, though the trial was little more than a farce, with the
+verdict fixed in advance. This verdict was death. The condemned, in
+addition to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command, Miramon and Medjia.
+The late emperor rose early on the fatal morning and heard mass. He
+embraced his fellow victims, and as he reached the street said, "What a
+beautiful day! On such a one I have always wished to die."
+
+He was greeted with respect by the people in the street, the women
+weeping. He responded with a brief address, closing with the words, "May
+my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country, and if more
+should be shed, may it flow for its good, and not by treason. Viva
+Independencia! Viva Mexico!"
+
+In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired, and the empire of
+Maximilian was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+
+MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE.
+
+
+On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of Havana, the capital of Cuba,
+were startled by a report that rebels were in the field, a band of
+twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in the province of
+Matanzas. Other small bands were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A
+trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba was guarded by twenty
+thousand Spanish troops and had on its military rolls the names of sixty
+thousand volunteers. But the island was seething with discontent, and
+trifles grow fast under such circumstances. Twenty years before a great
+rebellion had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in 1878, but Spain had
+ignored the promises of the treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new
+flame which had now burst out.
+
+As the days and weeks went on the movement grew, many of the plantation
+hands joining the insurgents until there were several thousand men in
+arms. For a time these had it all their own way, raiding and plundering
+the plantations of the loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and
+mountains when the troops appeared.
+
+The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque old affairs of
+battles and banners, marches and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp
+and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes, sudden attacks, quick
+retreats, and brisk affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of the
+conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing over the armed and
+trained troops of Spain, but they hoped to wear them out and make the war
+so costly to Spain that she would in the end give up the island in
+despair.
+
+The work of the Cuban patriots was like the famous deeds of Marion and his
+men in the swampy region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba were
+uncultivated and half its area was covered with thickets and forests. In
+the wet season the low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps of
+sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests, so thick and dense as to
+be almost impassable. The high bushes and thick grasses of the plains
+formed a jungle which could be traversed only with the aid of the machete,
+the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and
+sword, now cutting his way through bush and jungle, now slicing off the
+head of an enemy in war.
+
+Everywhere in the island there are woods, there are hills and mountains,
+there are growths of lofty grass, affording countless recesses and refuges
+for fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To retire to the "long
+grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning, to gain safety from pursuit, and a
+patriot force might lie unseen and unheard while an army marched by. In
+brief, Cuba is a paradise for the bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain
+were none too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where the flame of
+death might suddenly burst forth from the most innocent-looking woodland
+retreat or grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for days for a foe
+who could not be found, and as for starving out the rebels, that was no
+easy thing to do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet potato, the
+wild fruits of the woodland, which the fertile soil bore abundantly, while
+the country-people were always ready to supply their brothers in the
+field.
+
+Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion of 1895. For a time
+the rebels gathered in small bands with none but local leaders. But the
+outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives from the former war,
+and early in April twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica,
+landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of the island.
+
+Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo, a mulatto, who had won a
+high reputation for his daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had
+unbounded influence over the negro element of the rebellion. Wherever
+Maceo was ready to lead, they were ready to follow to the death if he gave
+the word, and he soon proved himself the most daring and successful
+soldier in the war.
+
+He did not make his way inland with safety. Spanish cavalry were
+patrolling the coast to prevent landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a
+brisk fight with a party of these soon after landing, he getting away with
+a bullet-hole through his hat. For ten days they were in imminent danger,
+now fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland fruits for food,
+and so pestered by the Spanish patrols that the party was forced to break
+up, only two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end these fell in with
+a party of rebels, from whom they received a warm and enthusiastic
+welcome.
+
+Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one of the leaders in the
+former war who had refused to sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the
+fight for two months longer, and finally escaped from the country, now to
+return without the load of a broken promise on his conscience.
+
+The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large following of insurgents
+at his back, and in several sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he
+could more than hold his own. Other patriots soon arrived from exile,--Jose
+Marti, the fomenter of the insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier;
+and several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the rebels. The
+movement, which had as yet been a mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming
+the dimensions of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining the ranks of
+these able leaders, until more than six thousand men were in the field.
+
+Almost everywhere that they met their enemy they were largely outnumbered,
+and they fought mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least
+expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such hidden paths that pursuit
+was usually idle. Much of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks
+or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which art they were far
+superior to the Spanish cavalry. Many stories are told of women who rode
+in their ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully as the
+men, and in this there is doubtless much truth. Their horses were no show
+animals, but a sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there being
+no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain or shine, but as tough and
+tireless beasts as our own bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders
+in mad dashes on the foe.
+
+The favorite mode of fighting practised by the insurgents was to surprise
+the enemy by a sharp skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick
+off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity, they would dash
+from their covert in a wild cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling
+like so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the ranks of the foe. This
+was the kind of fighting in which Maceo excelled.
+
+Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes and only one affair
+that could be called a battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader,
+while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba, a man looked upon as the
+ablest general of Spain, led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great
+annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the fortified town of
+Bayamo, and Campos determined to drive him from the field. Several columns
+of Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from different quarters, one
+of these, fifteen hundred strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of
+July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three thousand men, being
+posted on a stock-farm several miles from Bayamo.
+
+The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards, intended to strike
+the division under Campos; but by an error it fell upon the advance guard,
+led by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a brisk fire from the
+wooded hill-sides. Santocildes fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from
+the governor-general's boot.
+
+Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the Spanish ranks that some
+important officer had fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in a
+vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded in repelling them, he
+felt himself in a critical situation, and hastily drew up his whole force
+into a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead horses and mules for
+breastworks. Around this strong formation the Cubans raged for several
+hours, only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous rout. An
+assault was made on the rear guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to
+capture the ammunition train. But its defenders held their ground
+vigorously, and fought their way to the main column, where they aided to
+form the square. Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo,
+pursued by the Cubans and having lost heavily in the fight. They were
+saved from utter destruction by Maceo's lack of artillery, and Campos was
+very careful afterwards not to venture near this daring leader without a
+powerful force.
+
+Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in the earlier war, had now
+been appointed commander-in-chief of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo
+as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way westward into the province
+of Santa Clara, and in November Maceo left the eastern province of
+Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the trocha, the famous device
+of the Spaniards to prevent the free movement of the Cuban forces. It may
+be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare, devised by the
+Spaniards to check the free movement of their rebel foes.
+
+The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish trochas were military lines
+cut through the woods and across the island from side to side, and
+defended by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees were piled along
+both sides of the roadway, making a difficult breastwork of jagged roots
+and branches. At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this
+well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison of about one hundred
+men, it needing about fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the
+trocha from sea to sea.
+
+Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos, and by Weyler after him,
+to check the Cuban movements. We need only say here that, despite its cost
+and the number of men it tied up on guard duty, the trocha failed to
+restrain the alert islanders. Gomez had crossed it in his movement
+westward, and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He made a feint of
+an attack in force on one part of the line, and when the Spaniards had
+concentrated to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected spot,
+without firing a shot or losing a man.
+
+Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas and Spaniards. From
+Santa Clara they entered Matanzas province, and from this made their way
+into the province of Havana, bringing the war almost to the gates of the
+capital. Spain had now sent more than one hundred thousand troops across
+the ocean, though many of these were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans,
+the island had now risen almost from end to end, and their force was
+estimated at from thirty to fifty thousand men. It was no longer a rebel
+outbreak that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war.
+
+By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly fixed in Havana province,
+many negro field-hands and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They
+fought not only against the Spaniards, but against the bandits also, of
+whom there were many abroad plundering from both sides alike. These were
+hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo was the active fighter of
+the force, Gomez being occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and
+destroying railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of war.
+
+In January, 1896, a new movement westward was made, Maceo leading his men
+into the province of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end of the
+island. Here was the great tobacco district, one into which insurrection
+had never before made its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the
+island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure nowhere but within the
+cities, while the insurgents moved wherever they chose in the country. The
+sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by day and lurid with the
+flames of burning fields at night, showing that Gomez was busy with his
+work of destruction, burning the crops of every planter who sought to
+grind his cane.
+
+Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader through the remainder of his
+career. General Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his official
+life with the boast that he would soon clear the provinces near Havana of
+rebels in arms. But he was hardly in the governor's chair when Maceo was
+back from the west and swooping down on the city of Jaruco, which he
+looted and burned.
+
+Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where they found no one to oppose
+them, and he was soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that this
+province was pacified. But the ink was barely dry upon it when Maceo,
+having burnt the port of Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the
+"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters in the mountains and
+defied all the power of Spain.
+
+Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted to confine him by
+building a new trocha, cutting off that end of the island. This took two
+months to complete, during which Maceo continued his work almost
+unopposed, destroying the tobacco of loyalists, defeating every force sent
+against him, and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the
+southern part of the province.
+
+Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the field, marching into Pinar del
+Rio at the head of thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an end to
+the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt sure he had hemmed in with
+his trocha. Between the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province was
+sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting a large force that
+Maceo was obliged to dismiss the most of his men.
+
+Leaving the slender remnant under the control of one of his lieutenants,
+he once more passed the trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat
+and landing in Havana province. He had sent orders in advance for a
+concentration of the Cuban forces in this region, that he might give
+Weyler a new employment.
+
+The daring partisan leader was near the end of his career, brought to his
+death by the work of a traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for
+the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men with him, was fired on
+from a Spanish ambush, and fell, mortally wounded.
+
+Thus died the most dashing soldier that the Cuban rebellion called into
+the field. Dr. Zertucha, of his staff, was charged with treachery in
+leading him into this ambush, though that is by no means proved. Maceo was
+one of nine brothers, all soldiers, and all of whom had now died in the
+great struggle for Cuban independence. His body was recovered from the
+enemy after a desperate fight; his valiant spirit was lost to the cause.
+Yet his work had not been without avail, and the country for which he had
+fought so bravely was left by him on the highroad to liberty.
+
+
+
+
+
+LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC."
+
+
+About three o'clock of a dark morning, whose deep gloom shrouded alike the
+shores and waters of Cuba's tropic isle, a large craft left the side of
+the "New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson's fleet off Santiago, and
+glided towards the throat of the narrow channel leading to its land-locked
+harbor. This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier named the
+"Merrimac." On board were Richmond P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor,
+and seven volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the old hulk in the
+channel and thus to seal up the Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact
+that there were ten chances to one that they would go to the bottom with
+their craft, or be riddled with Spanish bullets, did not trouble their
+daring souls. Their country called, and they obeyed.
+
+Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks, was a series of
+torpedoes, prepared to blow the vessel into a hopeless wreck when the
+proper moment came. A heavy weight in coal had been left on board, to
+carry her rapidly to the bottom, and there was strong hope that she could
+be dropped in the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle," and
+"bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers. That it was an errand of
+imminent risk did not trouble the bold American tars. There were
+volunteers enough eager to undertake the perilous task to form a ship's
+crew, and to the six seamen chosen Coxswain Clausen added himself as a
+stowaway. The love of adventure was stronger than fear of death or
+captivity.
+
+It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the night before an attempt to
+go in had been made, but the hour was so late that the admiral called the
+vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and there was no hinderance to
+the adventurous voyage. Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac" glided
+in towards the dark line of coast. Not a light was shown, and great skill
+was needed to strike the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From the
+"New York" eager eyes watched the collier until its outlines were lost
+beneath the shadow of the hills. Eyes continued to peer into the darkness
+and ears to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the nerves of
+the watching crew. Then came a booming roar from Morro Castle and the
+flash of a cannon lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and
+booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes there seemed a battle
+going on in the darkness. The "Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting
+her doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men?
+
+Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with a steam launch and four
+men, prepared to pick up any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went
+daringly under the batteries and hung about until daylight revealed his
+small craft, but not a man was seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned
+disappointed at 6.15 A.M., pestered by spiteful shots from the Spanish
+guns. He had followed the "Merrimac" until the low-lying smoke from the
+roaring guns hid her from view. Then came the explosion of the torpedoes.
+Hobson had done his work. Powell kept under the shelter of the cliffs
+until full day had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of the
+"Merrimac" rising out of the water of the channel. The sinking had been
+accomplished, but no one could say with what result to Hobson and his men.
+
+Let us now leave the distant spectators and go on board the "Merrimac,"
+seeking the company of her devoted crew. It was Hobson's purpose to sink
+her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping the anchor and handling
+the rudder so as to turn her across the stream. Her length was sufficient
+to close up completely the deeper channel. He would stop the engines, let
+fall the anchor, open the traps made for the sea-water to flow in, and
+explode the torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the ship, each
+containing eighty-two pounds of powder, and they were connected so that
+they could be fired in train. There were two men below, one to reverse the
+engines, the other to break open the sea-traps with a sledge hammer. Those
+on deck were to let fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson would
+touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes, and all would leap
+overboard and swim to the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to
+escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it so often does, set them
+sadly astray.
+
+On through the darkness they went, hitting the channel squarely, and
+steaming in under the frowning walls of the Morro through gloom and
+death-like silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A small picket-boat
+came gliding out under the collier's stern and fired several shots at the
+suspicious craft. One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled one
+important item of the plans. The dingy, which was trusted to for escape,
+disappeared, perhaps hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having
+done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and gave the alarm, and
+quickly the shore batteries were firing on the dark hull. The ships in the
+harbor echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards were alert. They
+thought that an American battle-ship was trying to force its way in,
+perhaps with the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give it a hard
+fight.
+
+Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove on, unhurt by the
+bombardment, and even by a submarine mine which exploded near her stern.
+The darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to hit, and she
+reached the desired spot, in the narrowest spot of the channel, none the
+worse for the shower of iron hail.
+
+So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment had arrived. Hobson gave
+the signal fixed upon, and the men below reversed the engine and opened
+the sea connections. They then dashed for the deck. Those above dropped
+the anchor and set the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter
+disappointment, discover that the rudder had been lost. The ship refused
+to answer her helm, and the plan of setting her lengthwise across the
+channel failed. The final task remained. Touching the electric button, the
+torpedoes went off with a sullen roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath
+their feet. The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail. The others
+leaped into the sea. Down went the "Merrimac" with a surge at the bow,
+cheers from the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank. The gunners
+thought they had sent to the depths one of the hostile men-of-war.
+
+At the last moment of leaving the "New York" an old catamaran had been
+thrown on the "Merrimac's" deck, as a possible aid to the crew in
+extremity. This float lay on the roof of the midship house, a rope
+fastening it to the taffrail, with enough slack to let it float loose
+after the ship had sunk. It was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it
+afforded them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy.
+
+We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself at this point in our
+narrative. He says, "I swam away from the ship as soon as I struck the
+water, but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward in spite of all I
+could do. This did not last very long, however, and as soon as I felt the
+tugging cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I could see
+dimly bobbing up and down over the sunken hull.
+
+"The 'Merrimac's' masts were plainly visible, and I could see the heads of
+my seven men as they followed my example and made for the float also. We
+had expected, of course, that the Spaniards would investigate the wreck,
+but we had no idea that they would be at it as quickly as they were.
+Before we could get to the float several row-boats and launches came
+around the bluff from inside the harbor. They had officers on board and
+armed marines as well, and they searched that passage, rowing backward and
+forward, until the next morning. It was only by good luck that we got to
+the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly that we had barely
+concealed ourselves when a boat with quite a large party on board was
+right beside us."
+
+An event which they thought unlucky now proved to be the salvation of the
+fugitives, who very likely would have been shot on the spot by the marines
+if they had then been seen from the boats. The rope which fastened the
+float to the ship was too short to let it swing free, and one of the
+pontoons that supported it was dragged partly under water, lifting the
+other above the surface. If the raft had lain flat on the water they would
+have had to climb on top and would have made an excellent mark for the
+marines. As it was they got under its lifted side, and by thrusting their
+hands through the slats that formed the deck they kept their heads above
+the water, and had a chance to breathe.
+
+Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention to the old, half-sunken
+raft that floated above the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the
+hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one seemed to suspect it.
+The fugitives spoke only in whispers and at times were almost afraid to
+breathe, lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place remained
+unsuspected.
+
+The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours went on, and their
+fingers ached as they clung desperately to the slats. As the night passed
+their teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed to them as if
+the Spaniards must hear the sound, so distinctly to their ears came the
+noises on the water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became at last
+so trying that one of the men let go and began to swim ashore. Hobson
+called him back, and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men in the
+boats and created some commotion. They rowed up towards the float and
+looked sharply about, but no one thought of investigating the float
+itself, and soon they went off into the shadows again, letting the hidden
+men once more breathe freely.
+
+The question that most interested the Spaniards was to learn what ship it
+was they had sunk. Hobson heard them talking and guessing about it and
+understood many of their words. He soon perceived that the officers had
+taken in the situation and were astonished at the boldness and audacity of
+the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the fleet, a fact to the
+lieutenant's satisfaction, as he felt more like trusting to the tender
+mercies of a Spanish sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him
+take up the narrative again.
+
+"When daylight came a steam-launch full of officers and marines came out
+from behind the cliff that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards
+us. All the men on board were looking curiously in our direction. They did
+not see us. Knowing that some one of rank must be on board, I waited till
+the launch was quite close and hailed her.
+
+"My voice produced the utmost consternation on board. Every one sprang up,
+the marines now crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were reversed.
+She not only stopped, but she backed off until nearly a quarter of a mile
+away, where she stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the word of
+command when we clambered out from under the float. There were ten of the
+marines, and they would have fired in a minute had they not been
+restrained.
+
+"I swam towards the launch, and then she started towards me. I called out
+in Spanish, 'Is there an officer on board?' An officer answered in the
+affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again, 'I have seven men to
+surrender.' I continued swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the
+water.
+
+"As I looked up when they were dragging me into the launch, I saw that it
+was Admiral Cervera himself who had hold of me. He looked at me rather
+dubiously at first, because I had been down in the engine-room of the
+'Merrimac,' where I got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and
+coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable. I had put on my officer's
+belt before sinking the 'Merrimac,' as a means of identification, no
+matter what happened to me, and when I pointed to it in the launch the
+admiral understood and seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me
+when he understood who I was were, '_Bienvenida sea usted_,' which means
+'You are welcome.' My treatment by the naval officers, and that of my men
+also, was courteous all the time I was a prisoner. They heard my story, as
+much of it as I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more.
+
+"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of them that night," was
+Hobson's reply to a question. "We saw a great many things, though, and
+went through a great many experiences. When we started out from the fleet
+I tied to my belt a flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my ship's
+surgeon. The frequency with which we all felt thirsty on the short run
+into the passage and the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe that
+I was frightened. The men felt the same, and all the way the flask went
+from hand to hand. Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened, but to
+my surprise I found it normal. Later we forgot all about it, and when we
+got into the water there was no need for the flask."
+
+The remainder of this stirring adventure must be told more briefly. The
+prisoners were taken ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle.
+Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as to their fate, but this
+was relieved by the generous conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his
+chief-of-staff out the next morning under a flag of truce to report their
+safety and to make an offer for their exchange. Cervera's message was
+highly complimentary. It ran:
+
+"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish fleet, is most profoundly
+impressed with the brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the steamer
+'Merrimac' in our harbor, and in admiration of their courage he has
+directed me to say to their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the
+exception of two of the men who were slightly hurt, they are uninjured.
+They are now prisoners of war and are being well cared for, and will be
+treated with every consideration."
+
+Cervera kept his word, though the captives found themselves in different
+hands later, when they were turned over to General Linares, commander of
+the troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity about five weeks, being
+exchanged on July 7, when a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were
+offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant seven. The story of their
+return to the American ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave eight
+passed up the trail leading to the American lines through the avenue of
+palms that bordered the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence,
+baring their heads as the band struck up "The Star-Spangled Banner." But
+as Hobson and his men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome broke the
+silence, while a cowboy yell came from the Rough Riders. Breaking from all
+restraint, the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of Hobson and his
+men. All the way to Siboney the cheers and excitement continued, and when
+Hobson set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew grew wild with
+enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson embraced him in the warmth of his
+greeting. As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up in the
+delirious delight of the men. Thus ended one of the most gallant deeds of
+that short war.
+
+It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had been managed, the
+effort to close the port proved a failure. Though the sunken ship closed
+part of the channel, there was room enough to pass beside her, this being
+strikingly proved on the morning of July 3, when the squadron which Hobson
+had sought to bottle up came steaming down the channel past the sunken
+"Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it started on a wild fight for
+freedom. The result of this venture does not need to be retold, and it
+must suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish ships were
+shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore, and Cervera and all who survived
+of his men were prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was as much
+of a hero as a captive, for his captors could not soon forget his generous
+treatment of Hobson and his men.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III***
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