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+  <head>
+    <title>
+      History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 1, Part A.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 1 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 1 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: September 28, 2006 [EBook #19400]
+Last Updated: October 22, 2012
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0001" id="linklinkimage-0001">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0002" id="linklinkimage-0002">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of
+      Queen's College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at
+      the College of France
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+      Exploration Fund
+    </h4>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Volume I.
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklinkimage-0003" id="linklinkimage-0003">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="frontispeice (156K)" src="images/frontispeice.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="frontis_title (9K)" src="images/frontis_title.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0004" id="linklinkimage-0004">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="titlepage1 (189K)" src="images/titlepage1.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklink2H_4_0001"> EDITOR'S PREFACE </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklink2H_4_0002"> TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkillust"> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklink2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I.&mdash;THE NILE AND EGYPT </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II.&mdash;THE GODS OF EGYPT </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III.&mdash;-THE LEGENDARY HISTORY
+        OF EGYPT </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklink2H_4_0001" id="linklink2H_4_0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      EDITOR'S PREFACE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      Professor Maspero does not need to be introduced to us. His name is well
+      known in England and America as that of one of the chief masters of
+      Egyptian science as well as of ancient Oriental history and archaeology.
+      Alike as a philologist, a historian, and an archaeologist, he occupies a
+      foremost place in the annals of modern knowledge and research. He
+      possesses that quick apprehension and fertility of resource without which
+      the decipherment of ancient texts is impossible, and he also possesses a
+      sympathy with the past and a power of realizing it which are indispensable
+      if we would picture it aright. His intimate acquaintance with Egypt and
+      its literature, and the opportunities of discovery afforded him by his
+      position for several years as director of the Bulaq Museum, give him an
+      unique claim to speak with authority on the history of the valley of the
+      Nile. In the present work he has been prodigal of his abundant stores of
+      learning and knowledge, and it may therefore be regarded as the most
+      complete account of ancient Egypt that has ever yet been published.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the case of Babylonia and Assyria he no longer, it is true, speaks at
+      first hand. But he has thoroughly studied the latest and best authorities
+      on the subject, and has weighed their statements with the judgment which
+      comes from an exhaustive acquaintance with a similar department of
+      knowledge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Naturally, in progressive studies like those of Egyptology and
+      Assyriology, a good many theories and conclusions must be tentative and
+      provisional only. Discovery crowds so quickly on discovery, that the truth
+      of to-day is often apt to be modified or amplified by the truth of
+      to-morrow. A single fresh fact may throw a wholly new and unexpected light
+      upon the results we have already gained, and cause them to assume a
+      somewhat changed aspect. But this is what must happen in all sciences in
+      which there is a healthy growth, and archaeological science is no
+      exception to the rule.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The spelling of ancient Egyptian proper names adopted by Professor Maspero
+      will perhaps seem strange to many. But it must be remembered that all our
+      attempts to represent the pronunciation of ancient Egyptian words can be
+      approximate only; we can never ascertain with certainty how they were
+      actually sounded. All that can be done is to determine what pronunciation
+      was assigned to them in the Greek period, and to work backwards from this,
+      so far as it is possible, to more remote ages. This is what Professor
+      Maspero has done, and it must be no slight satisfaction to him to find
+      that on the whole his system of transliteration is confirmed by the
+      cuneiform tablets of Tel el-Amarna.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The difficulties attaching to the spelling of Assyrian names are different
+      from those which beset our attempts to reproduce, even approximately, the
+      names of ancient Egypt. The cuneiform system of writing was syllabic, each
+      character denoting a syllable, so that we know what were the vowels in a
+      proper name as well as the consonants. Moreover, the pronunciation of the
+      consonants resembled that of the Hebrew consonants, the transliteration of
+      which has long since become conventional. When, therefore, an Assyrian or
+      Babylonian name is written phonetically, its correct transliteration is
+      not often a matter of question. But, unfortunately, the names are not
+      always written phonetically. The cuneiform script was an inheritance from
+      the non-Semitic predecessors of the Semites in Babylonia, and in this
+      script the characters represented words as well as sounds. Not
+      unfrequently the Semitic Assyrians continued to write a name in the old
+      Sumerian way instead of spelling it phonetically, the result being that we
+      do not know how it was pronounced in their own language. The name of the
+      Chald�an Noab, for instance, is written with two characters which
+      ideographically signify "the sun" or "day of life," and of the first of
+      which the Sumerian values were <i>ut, babar, khis, tarn,</i> and <i>par</i>,
+      while the second had the value of <i>zi</i>. Were it not that the Chald�an
+      historian B�r�ssos writes the name Xisuthros, we should have no clue to
+      its Semitic pronunciation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Professor Maspero's learning and indefatigable industry are well known to
+      me, but I confess I was not prepared for the exhaustive acquaintance he
+      shows with Assyriological literature. Nothing seems to have escaped his
+      notice. Papers and books just published, and half forgotten articles in
+      obscure periodicals which appeared years ago, have all alike been used and
+      quoted by him. Naturally, however, there are some points on which I should
+      be inclined to differ from the conclusions he draws, or to which he has
+      been led by other Assyriologists. Without being an Assyriologist himself,
+      it was impossible for him to be acquainted with that portion of the
+      evidence on certain disputed questions which is only to be found in still
+      unpublished or untranslated inscriptions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are two points which seem to me of sufficient importance to justify
+      my expression of dissent from his views. These are the geographical
+      situation of the land of Magan, and the historical character of the annals
+      of Sargon of Accad. The evidence about Magan is very clear. Magan is
+      usually associated with the country of Melukhkha, "the salt" desert, and
+      in <i>every</i> text in which its geographical position is indicated it is
+      placed in the immediate vicinity of Egypt. Thus Assur-bani-pal, after
+      stating that he had "gone to the lands of Magan and Melukhkha," goes on to
+      say that he "directed his road to Egypt and Kush," and then describes the
+      first of his Egyptian campaigns. Similar testimony is borne by
+      Esar-haddon. The latter king tells us that after quitting Egypt he
+      directed his road to the land of Melukhkha, a desert region in which there
+      were no rivers, and which extended "to the city of Rapikh" (the modern
+      Raphia) "at the edge of the wadi of Egypt" (the present Wadi El-Ar�sh).
+      After this he received camels from the king of the Arabs, and made his way
+      to the land and city of Magan. The Tel el-Amarna tablets enable us to
+      carry the record back to the fifteenth century b.c. In certain of the
+      tablets now as Berlin (Winckler and Abel, 42 and 45) the Phoenician
+      governor of the Pharaoh asks that help should be sent him from Melukhkha
+      and Egypt: "The king should hear the words of his servant, and send ten
+      men of the country of Melukhkha and twenty men of the country of Egypt to
+      defend the city [of Gebal] for the king." And again, "I have sent [to]
+      Pharaoh" (literally, "the great house") "for a garrison of men from the
+      country of Melukhkha, and... the king has just despatched a garrison
+      [from] the country of Melukhkha." At a still earlier date we have
+      indications that Melukhkha and Magan denoted the same region of the world.
+      In an old Babylonian geographical list which belongs to the early days of
+      Chaldsean history, Magan is described as "the country of bronze," and
+      Melukhkha as "the country of the <i>samdu</i>," or "malachite." It was
+      this list which originally led Oppert, Lenormant, and myself independently
+      to the conviction that Magan was to be looked for in the Sinaitic
+      Peninsula. Magan included, however, the Midian of Scripture, and the city
+      of Magan, called Makkan in Semitic Assyrian, is probably the Makna of
+      classical geography, now represented by the ruins of Mukna.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As I have always maintained the historical character of the annals of
+      Sargon of Accad, long before recent discoveries led Professor Hilprecht
+      and others to adopt the same view, it is as well to state why I consider
+      them worthy of credit. In themselves the annals contain nothing
+      improbable; indeed, what might seem the most unlikely portion of them&mdash;that
+      which describes the extension of Sargon's empire to the shores of the
+      Mediterranean&mdash;has been confirmed by the progress of research.
+      Ammi-satana, a king of the first dynasty of Babylon (about 2200 B.C.),
+      calls himself "king of the country of the Amorites," and the Tel el-Amarna
+      tablets have revealed to us how deep and long-lasting Babylonian influence
+      must have been throughout Western Asia. Moreover, the vase described by
+      Professor Maspero in the present work proves that the expedition of
+      Naram-Sin against Magan was an historical reality, and such an expedition
+      was only possible if "the land of the Amorites," the Syria and Palestine
+      of later days, had been secured in the rear. But what chiefly led me to
+      the belief that the annals are a document contemporaneous with the events
+      narrated in them, are two facts which do not seem to have been
+      sufficiently considered. On the one side, while the annals of Sargon are
+      given in full, those of his son Naram-Sin break off abruptly in the early
+      part of his reign. I see no explanation of this, except that they were
+      composed while Naram-Sin was still on the throne. On the other side, the
+      campaigns of the two monarchs are coupled with the astrological phenomena
+      on which the success of the campaigns was supposed to depend. We know that
+      the Babylonians were given to the practice and study of astrology from the
+      earliest days of their history; we know also that even in the time of the
+      later Assyrian monarchy it was still customary for the general in the
+      field to be accompanied by the <i>asipu</i>, or "prophet," the ashsh�ph of
+      Dan. ii. 10, on whose interpretation of the signs of heaven the movements
+      of the army depended; and in the infancy of Chald�n history we should
+      accordingly expect to find the astrological sign recorded along with the
+      event with which it was bound up. At a subsequent period the sign and the
+      event were separated from one another in literature, and had the annals of
+      Sargon been a later compilation, in their case also the separation would
+      assuredly have been made. That, on the contrary, the annals have the form
+      which they could have assumed and ought to have assumed only at the
+      beginning of contemporaneous Babylonian history, is to me a strong
+      testimony in favour of their genuineness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It may be added that Babylonian seal-cylinders have been found in Cyprus,
+      one of which is of the age of Sargon of Accad, its style and workmanship
+      being the same as that of the cylinder figured in vol. iii. p. 96, while
+      the other, though of later date, belonged to a person who describes
+      himself as "the servant of the deified Naram-Sin." Such cylinders may, of
+      course, have been brought to the island in later times; but when we
+      remember that a characteristic object of prehistoric Cypriote art is an
+      imitation of the seal-cylinder of Chaldsea, their discovery cannot be
+      wholly an accident.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Professor Maspero has brought his facts up to so recent a date that there
+      is very little to add to what he has written. Since his manuscript was in
+      type, however, a few additions have been made to our Assyriological
+      knowledge. A fresh examination of the Babylonian dynastic tablet has led
+      Professor Delitzsch to make some alterations in the published account of
+      what Professor Maspero calls the ninth dynasty. According to Professor
+      Delitzsch, the number of kings composing the dynasty is stated on the
+      tablet to be twenty-one, and not thirty-one as was formerly read, and the
+      number of lost lines exactly corresponds with this figure. The first of
+      the kings reigned thirty-six years, and he had a predecessor belonging to
+      the previous dynasty whose name has been lost. There would consequently
+      have been two Elamite usurpers instead of one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I would further draw attention to an interesting text, published by Mr.
+      Strong in the <i>Babylonian and Oriental Record</i>, which I believe to
+      contain the name of a king who belonged to the legendary dynasties of
+      Chald�a. This is Samas-natsir, who is coupled with Sargon of Accad and
+      other early monarchs in one of the lists. The legend, if I interpret it
+      rightly, states that "Elam shall be altogether given to Samas-natsir;" and
+      the same prince is further described as building Nippur and Dur-ilu, as
+      King of Babylon and as conqueror both of a certain Baldakha and of
+      Khumba-sitir, "the king of the cedar-forest." It will be remembered that
+      in the Epic of Gil-games, Khumbaba also is stated to have been the lord of
+      the "cedar-forest."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But of new discoveries and facts there is a constant supply, and it is
+      impossible for the historian to keep pace with them. Even while the sheets
+      of his work are passing through the press, the excavator, the explorer,
+      and the decipherer are adding to our previous stores of knowledge. In
+      Egypt, Mr. de Morgan's unwearied energy has raised as it were out of the
+      ground, at Kom Ombo, a vast and splendidly preserved temple, of whose
+      existence we had hardly dreamed; has discovered twelfth-dynasty jewellery
+      at Dahshur of the most exquisite workmanship, and at Meir and Assiut has
+      found in tombs of the sixth dynasty painted models of the trades and
+      professions of the day, as well as fighting battalions of soldiers, which,
+      for freshness and lifelike reality, contrast favourably with the models
+      which come from India to-day. In Babylonia, the American Expedition, under
+      Mr. Haines, has at Niffer unearthed monuments of older date than those of
+      Sargon of Accad. Nor must I forget to mention the lotiform column found by
+      Mr. de Morgan in a tomb of the Old Empire at Abusir, or the interesting
+      discovery made by Mr. Arthur Evans of seals and other objects from the
+      prehistoric sites of Krete and other parts of the AEgean, inscribed with
+      hieroglyphic characters which reveal a new system of writing that must at
+      one time have existed by the side of the Hittite hieroglyphs, and may have
+      had its origin in the influence exercised by Egypt on the peoples of the
+      Mediterranean in the age of the twelfth dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In volumes IV., V., and VI. we find ourselves in the full light of an
+      advanced culture. The nations of the ancient East are no longer each
+      pursuing an isolated existence, and separately developing the seeds of
+      civilization and culture on the banks of the Euphrates and the Nile. Asia
+      and Africa have met in mortal combat. Babylonia has carried its empire to
+      the frontiers of Egypt, and Egypt itself has been held in bondage by the
+      Hyks�s strangers from Asia. In return, Egypt has driven back the wave of
+      invasion to the borders of Mesopotamia, has substituted an empire of its
+      own in Syria for that of the Babylonians, and has forced the Babylonian
+      king to treat with its Pharaoh on equal terms. In the track of war and
+      diplomacy have come trade and commerce; Western Asia is covered with
+      roads, along which the merchant and the courier travel incessantly, and
+      the whole civilised world of the Orient is knit together in a common
+      literary culture and common commercial interests.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The age of isolation has thus been succeeded by an age of intercourse,
+      partly military and antagonistic, partly literary and peaceful. Professor
+      Maspero paints for us this age of intercourse, describes its rise and
+      character, its decline and fall. For the unity of Eastern civilization was
+      again shattered. The Hittites descended from the ranges of the Taurus upon
+      the Egyptian province of Northern Syria, and cut off the Semites of the
+      west from those of the east. The Israelites poured over the Jordan out of
+      Edom and Moab, and took possession of Canaan, while Babylonia itself, for
+      so many centuries the ruling power of the Oriental world, had to make way
+      for its upstart rival Assyria. The old imperial powers were exhausted and
+      played out, and it needed time before the new forces which were to take
+      their place could acquire sufficient strength for their work.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As usual, Professor Maspero has been careful to embody in his history the
+      very latest discoveries and information. Notice, it will be found, has
+      been taken even of the <i>stela</i> of Meneptah, recently disinterred by
+      Professor P�trie, on which the name of the Israelites is engraved. At
+      Elephantine, I found, a short time since, on a granite boulder, an
+      inscription of Khufu�nkh&mdash;whose sarcophagus of red granite is one of
+      the most beautiful objects in the Gizeh Museum&mdash;which carries back
+      the history of the island to the age of the pyramid-builders of the fourth
+      dynasty. The boulder was subsequently concealed under the southern side of
+      the city-wall, and as fragments of inscribed papyrus coeval with the sixth
+      dynasty have been discovered in the immediate neighbourhood, on one of
+      which mention is made of "this domain" of Pepi II., it would seem that the
+      town of Elephantine must have been founded between the period of the
+      fourth dynasty and that of the sixth. Manetho is therefore justified in
+      making the fifth and sixth dynasties of Elephantine origin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is in Babylonia, however, that the most startling discoveries have been
+      made. At Tello, M. de Sarzec has found a library of more than thirty
+      thousand tablets, all neatly arranged, piled in order one on the other,
+      and belonging to the age of Gudea (b.c. 2700). Many more tablets of an
+      early date have been unearthed at Abu-Habba (Sippara) and Jokha (Isin) by
+      Dr. Scheil, working for the Turkish government. But the most important
+      finds have been at Niffer, the ancient Nippur, in Northern Babylonia,
+      where the American expedition has brought to a close its long work of
+      systematic excavation. Here Mr. Haynes has dug down to the very
+      foundations of the great temple of El-lil, and the chief historical
+      results of his labours have been published by Professor Hilprecht (in <i>The
+      Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania</i>, vol. i. pl.
+      2, 1896).
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      About midway between the summit and the bottom of the mound, Mr. Haynes
+      laid bare a pavement constructed of huge bricks stamped with the names of
+      Sargon of Akkad and his son Naram-Sin. He found also the ancient wall of
+      the city, which had been built by Naram-Sin, 13.7 metres wide. The <i>d�bris</i>
+      of ruined buildings which lies below the pavement of Sargon is as much as
+      9.25 metres in depth, while that above it, the topmost stratum of which
+      brings us down to the Christian era, is only 11 metres in height. We may
+      form some idea from this of the enormous age to which the history of
+      Babylonian culture and writing reaches back. In fact, Professor Hilprecht
+      quotes with approval Mr. Haynes's words: "We must cease to apply the
+      adjective 'earliest' to the time of Sargon, or to any age or epoch within
+      a thousand years of his advanced civilization." "The golden age of
+      Babylonian history seems to include the reign of Sargon and of Ur-Gur."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Many of the inscriptions which belong to this remote age of human culture
+      have been published by Professor Hilprecht. Among them is a long
+      inscription, in 132 lines, engraved on multitudes of large stone vases
+      presented to the temple of El-lil by a certain Lugal-zaggisi.
+      Lugal-zaggisi was the son of Ukus, the <i>patesi</i> or high priest of the
+      "Land of the Bow," as Mesopotamia, with its Bedawin inhabitants, was
+      called. He not only conquered Babylonia, then known as Kengi, "the land of
+      canals and reeds," but founded an empire which extended from the Persian
+      Gulf to the Mediterranean. This was centuries before Sargon of Akkad
+      followed in his footsteps. Erech became the capital of Lugal-zaggisi's
+      empire, and doubtless received at this time its Sumerian title of "the
+      city" <i>par excellence</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For a long while previously there had been war between Babylonia and the
+      "Land of the Bow," whose rulers seem to have established themselves in the
+      city of Kis. At one time we find the Babylonian prince En-sag(sag)-ana
+      capturing Kis and its king; at another time it is a king of Kis who makes
+      offerings to the god of Nippur, in gratitude for his victories. To this
+      period belongs the famous "Stela of the Vultures" found at Tello, on which
+      is depicted the victory of E-dingir-ana-gin, the King of Lagas (Tello),
+      over the Semitic hordes of the Land of the Bow. It may be noted that the
+      recent discoveries have shown how correct Professor Maspero has been in
+      assigning the kings of Lagas to a period earlier than that of Sargon of
+      Akkad.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Professor Hilprecht would place E-dingir-ana-gin after Lugal-zaggisi, and
+      see in the Stela of the Vultures a monument of the revenge taken by the
+      Sumerian rulers of Lagas for the conquest of the country by the
+      inhabitants of the north. But it is equally possible that it marks the
+      successful reaction of Chaldsea against the power established by
+      Lugal-zaggisi. However this may be, the dynasty of Lagas (to which
+      Professor Hilprecht has added a new king, En-Khegal) reigned in peace for
+      some time, and belonged to the same age as the first dynasty of Ur. This
+      was founded by a certain Lugal-kigubnidudu, whose inscriptions have been
+      found at Niffer. The dynasty which arose at Ur in later days (cir. b.c.
+      2700), under Ur-Gur and Bungi, which has hitherto been known as "the first
+      dynasty of Ur," is thus dethroned from its position, and becomes the
+      second. The succeeding dynasty, which also made Ur its capital, and whose
+      kings, Ine-Sin, Pur-Sin IL, and Gimil-Sin, were the immediate predecessors
+      of the first dynasty of Babylon (to which Kharnmurabi belonged), must
+      henceforth be termed the third.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Among the latest acquisitions from Tello are the seals of the <i>patesi</i>,
+      Lugal-usumgal, which finally remove all doubt as to the identity of
+      "Sargani, king of the city," with the famous Sargon of Akkad. The
+      historical accuracy of Sargon's annals, moreover, have been fully
+      vindicated. Not only have the American excavators found the contemporary
+      monuments of him and his son Naram-Sin, but also tablets dated in the
+      years of his campaigns against "the land of the Amorites." In short,
+      Sargon of Akkad, so lately spoken of as "a half-mythical" personage, has
+      now emerged into the full glare of authentic history.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That the native chronologists had sufficient material for reconstructing
+      the past history of their country, is also now clear. The early Babylonian
+      contract-tablets are dated by events which officially distinguished the
+      several years of a king's reign, and tablets have been discovered compiled
+      at the close of a reign which give year by year the events which thus
+      characterised them. One of these tablets, for example, from the
+      excavations at Niffer, begins with the words: (1) "The year when Par-Sin
+      (II.) becomes king. (2) The year when Pur-Sin the king conquers Urbillum,"
+      and ends with "the year when Gimil-Sin becomes King of Ur, and conquers
+      the land of Zabsali" in the Lebanon.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of special interest to the biblical student are the discoveries made by
+      Mr. Pinches among some of the Babylonian tablets which have recently been
+      acquired by the British Museum. Four of them relate to no less a personage
+      than Kudur-Laghghamar or Chedor-laomer, "King of Elam," as well as to
+      Eri-Aku or Arioch, King of Larsa, and his son Dur-makh-ilani; to Tudghula
+      or Tidal, the son of Gazza[ni], and to their war against Babylon in the
+      time of Khamrnu[rabi]. In one of the texts the question is asked, "Who is
+      the son of a king's daughter who has sat on the throne of royalty?
+      Dur-makh-ilani, the son of Eri-�ku, the son of the lady Kur... has sat on
+      the throne of royalty," from which it may perhaps be inferred that Eri-�ku
+      was the son of Kudur-Laghghamar's daughter; and in another we read, "Who
+      is Kudur-Laghghamar, the doer of mischief? He has gathered together the
+      Umman Manda, has devastated the land of Bel (Babylonia), and [has marched]
+      at their side." The Umman Manda were the "Barbarian Hordes" of the Kurdish
+      mountains, on the northern frontier of Elam, and the name corresponds with
+      that of the Goyyim or "nations" in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis. We
+      here see Kudur-Laghghamar acting as their suzerain lord. Unfortunately,
+      all four tablets are in a shockingly broken condition, and it is therefore
+      difficult to discover in them a continuous sense, or to determine their
+      precise nature.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They have, however, been supplemented by further discoveries made by Dr.
+      Scheil at Constantinople. Among the tablets preserved there, he has found
+      letters from Kharnmurabi to his vassal Sin-idinnam of Larsa, from which we
+      learn that Sin-idinnam had been dethroned by the Elamites Kudur-Mabug and
+      Eri-�ku, and had fled for refuge to the court of Kharnmurabi at Babylon.
+      In the war which subsequently broke out between Kharnmurabi and
+      Kudur-Laghghamar, the King of Elam (who, it would seem, exercised
+      suzerainty over Babylonia for seven years), Sin-idinnam gave material
+      assistance to the Babylonian monarch, and Khammurabi accordingly bestowed
+      presents upon him as a "recompense for his valour on the day of the
+      overthrow of Kudur-Laghghamar."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I must also refer to a fine scarab&mdash;found in the rubbish-mounds of
+      the ancient city of Kom Ombos, in Upper Egypt&mdash;which bears upon it
+      the name of Sutkhu-Apopi. It shows us that the author of the story of the
+      Expulsion of the Hyks�s, in calling the king Ra-Apopi, merely, like an
+      orthodox Egyptian, substituted the name of the god of Heliopolis for that
+      of the foreign deity. Equally interesting are the scarabs brought to light
+      by Professor Flinders P�trie, on which a hitherto unknown Ya'aqob-hal or
+      Jacob-el receives the titles of a Pharaoh.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In volumes VII., VIII., and IX., Professor Maspero concludes his
+      monumental work on the history of the ancient East. The overthrow of the
+      Persian empire by the Greek soldiers of Alexander marks the beginning of a
+      new era. Europe at last enters upon the stage of history, and becomes the
+      heir of the culture and civilisation of the Orient. The culture which had
+      grown up and developed on the banks of the Euphrates and Nile passes to
+      the West, and there assumes new features and is inspired with a new
+      spirit. The East perishes of age and decrepitude; its strength is outworn,
+      its power to initiate is past. The long ages through which it had toiled
+      to build up the fabric of civilisation are at an end; fresh races are
+      needed to carry on the work which it had achieved. Greece appears upon the
+      scene, and behind Greece looms the colossal figure of the Roman Empire.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      During the past decade, excavation has gone on apace in Egypt and
+      Babylonia, and discoveries of a startling and unexpected nature have
+      followed in the wake of excavation. Ages that seemed prehistoric step
+      suddenly forth into the daydawn of history; personages whom a sceptical
+      criticism had consigned to the land of myth or fable are clothed once more
+      with flesh and blood, and events which had been long forgotten demand to
+      be recorded and described. In Babylonia, for example, the excavations at
+      Niffer and Tello have shown that Sargon of Akkad, so far from being a
+      creature of romance, was as much a historical monarch as Nebuchadrezzar
+      himself; monuments of his reign have been discovered, and we learn from
+      them that the empire he is said to have founded had a very real existence.
+      Contracts have been found dated in the years when he was occupied in
+      conquering Syria and Palestine, and a cadastral survey that was made for
+      the purposes of taxation mentions a Canaanite who had been appointed
+      "governor of the land of the Amorites." Even a postal service had already
+      been established along the high-roads which knit the several parts of the
+      empire together, and some of the clay seals which franked the letters are
+      now in the Museum of the Louvre.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At Susa, M. de Morgan, the late director of the Service of Antiquities in
+      Egypt, has been excavating below the remains of the Achremenian period,
+      among the ruins of the ancient Elamite capital. Here he has found
+      numberless historical inscriptions, besides a text in hieroglyphics which
+      may cast light on the origin of the cuneiform characters. But the most
+      interesting of his discoveries are two Babylonian monuments that were
+      carried off by Elamite conquerors from the cities of Babylonia. One of
+      them is a long inscription of about 1200 lines belonging to Manistusu, one
+      of the early Babylonian kings, whose name has been met with at Niffer; the
+      other is a monument of Naram-Sin, the Son of Sargon of Akkad, which it
+      seems was brought as booty to Susa by Simti-silkhak, the grandfather,
+      perhaps, of Eriaku or Arioch.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In Armenia, also, equally important inscriptions have been found by Belck
+      and Lehmann. More than two hundred new ones have been added to the list of
+      Vannic texts. It has been discovered from them that the kingdom of Biainas
+      or Van was founded by Ispuinis and Menuas, who rebuilt Yan itself and the
+      other cities which they had previously sacked and destroyed. The older
+      name of the country was Kumussu, and it may be that the language spoken in
+      it was allied to that of the Hittites, since a tablet in hieroglyphics of
+      the Hittite type has been unearthed at Toprak Kaleh. One of the
+      newly-found inscriptions of Sarduris III. shows that the name of the
+      Assyrian god, hitherto read Ramman or Rimmon, was really pronounced Hadad.
+      It describes a war of the Vannic king against Assur-nirari, son of
+      Hadad-nirari (<i>A-da-di-ni-ra-ri</i>) of Assyria, thus revealing not only
+      the true form of the Assyrian name, but also the parentage of the last
+      king of the older Assyrian dynasty. From another inscription, belonging to
+      Rusas II., the son of Argistis, we learn that campaigns were carried on
+      against the Hittites and the Moschi in the latter years of Sennacherib's
+      reign, and therefore only just before the irruption of the Kimmerians into
+      the northern regions of Western Asia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The two German explorers have also discovered the site and even the ruins
+      of Muzazir, called Ardinis by the people of Van. They lie on the hill of
+      Shkenna, near Topsan�, on the road between Kelishin and Sidek. In the
+      immediate neighbourhood the travellers succeeded in deciphering a monument
+      of Rusas I., partly in Vannic, partly in Assyrian, from which it appears
+      that the Vannic king did not, after all, commit suicide when the news of
+      the fall of Muzazir was brought to him, as is stated by Sargon, but that,
+      on the contrary, he "marched against the mountains of Assyria" and
+      restored the fallen city itself. Urzana, the King of Muzazir, had fled to
+      him for shelter, and after the departure of the Assyrian army he was sent
+      back by Rusas to his ancestral domains. The whole of the district in which
+      Muzazir was situated was termed Lulu, and was regarded as the southern
+      province of Ararat. In it was Mount Nizir, on whose summit the ark of the
+      Chaldsean Noah rested, and which is therefore rightly described in the
+      Book of Genesis as one of "the mountains of Ararat." It was probably the
+      Rowandiz of to-day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The discoveries made by Drs. Belck and Lehmann, however, have not been
+      confined to Vannic texts. At the sources of the Tigris Dr. Lehmann has
+      found two Assyrian inscriptions of the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser IL, one
+      dated in his fifteenth and the other in his thirty-first year, and
+      relating to his campaigns against Aram of Ararat. He has further found
+      that the two inscriptions previously known to exist at the same spot, and
+      believed to belong to Tiglath-Ninip and Assur-nazir-pal, are really those
+      of Shalmaneser II., and refer to the war of his seventh year.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But it is from Egypt that the most revolutionary revelations have come. At
+      Abydos and Kom el-Ahmar, opposite El-Kab, monuments have been disinterred
+      of the kings of the first and second dynasties, if not of even earlier
+      princes; while at Negada, north of Thebes, M. de Morgan has found a tomb
+      which seems to have been that of Men�s himself. A new world of art has
+      been opened out before us; even the hieroglyphic system of writing is as
+      yet immature and strange. But the art is already advanced in many
+      respects; hard stone was cut into vases and bowls, and even into statuary
+      of considerable artistic excellence; glazed porcelain was already made,
+      and bronze, or rather copper, was fashioned into weapons and tools. The
+      writing material, as in Babylonia, was often clay, over which
+      seal-cylinders of a Babylonian pattern were rolled. Equally Babylonian are
+      the strange and composite animals engraved on some of the objects of this
+      early age, as well as the structure of the tombs, which were built, not of
+      stone, but of crude brick, with their external walls panelled and
+      pilastered. Professor Hommel's theory, which brings Egyptian civilisation
+      from Babylonia along with the ancestors of the historical Egyptians, has
+      thus been largely verified.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But the historical Egyptians were not the first inhabitants of the valley
+      of the Nile. Not only have palaeolithic implements been found on the
+      plateau of the desert; the relics of neolithic man have turned up in
+      extraordinary abundance. When the historical Egyptians arrived with their
+      copper weapons and their system of writing, the land was already occupied
+      by a pastoral people, who had attained a high level of neolithic culture.
+      Their implements of flint are the most beautiful and delicately finished
+      that have ever been discovered; they were able to carve vases of great
+      artistic excellence out of the hardest of stone, and their pottery was of
+      no mean quality. Long after the country had come into the possession of
+      the historical dynasties, and had even been united into a single monarchy,
+      their settlements continued to exist on the outskirts of the desert, and
+      the neolithic culture that distinguished them passed only gradually away.
+      By degrees, however, they intermingled with their conquerors from Asia,
+      and thus formed the Egyptian race of a later day. But they had already
+      made Egypt what it has been throughout the historical period. Under the
+      direction of the Asiatic immigrants and of the eugineering science whose
+      first home had been in the alluvial plain of Babylonia, they accomplished
+      those great works of irrigation which confined the Nile to its present
+      channel, which cleared away the jungle and the swamp that had formerly
+      bordered the desert, and turned them into fertile fields. Theirs were the
+      hands which carried out the plans of their more intelligent masters, and
+      cultivated the valley when once it had been reclaimed. The Egypt of
+      history was the creation of a twofold race: the Egyptians of the monuments
+      supplied the controlling and directing power; the Egyptians of the
+      neolithic graves bestowed upon it their labour and their skill.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The period treated of by Professor Maspero in these volumes is one for
+      which there is an abundance of materials sucli as do not exist for the
+      earlier portions of his history. The evidence of the monuments is
+      supplemented by that of the Hebrew and classical writers. But on this very
+      account it is in some respects more difficult to deal with, and the
+      conclusions arrived at by the historian are more open to question and
+      dispute. In some cases conflicting accounts are given of an event which
+      seem to rest on equally good authority; in other cases, there is a sudden
+      failure of materials just where the thread of the story becomes most
+      complicated. Of this the decline and fall of the Assyrian empire is a
+      prominent example; for our knowledge of it, we have still to depend
+      chiefly on the untrustworthy legends of the Greeks. Our views must be
+      coloured more or less by our estimate of Herodotos; those who, like
+      myself, place little or no confidence in what he tells us about Oriental
+      affairs will naturally form a very different idea of the death-struggle,
+      of Assyria from that formed by writers who still see in him the Father of
+      Oriental History.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Even where the native monuments have come to our aid, they have not
+      unfrequently introduced difficulties and doubts where none seemed to exist
+      before, and have made the task of the critical historian harder than ever.
+      Cyrus and his forefathers, for instance, turn out to have been kings of
+      Anzan, and not of Persia, thus explaining why it is that the Neo-Susian
+      language appears by the side of the Persian and the Babylonian as one of
+      the three official languages of the Persian empire; but we still have to
+      learn what was the relation of Anzan to Persia on the one hand, and to
+      Susa on the other, and when it was that Cyrus of Anzan became also King of
+      Persia. In the Annalistic Tablet, he is called "King of Persia" for the
+      first time in the ninth year of Nabonidos.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Similar questions arise as to the position and nationality of Astyages. He
+      is called in the inscriptions, not a Mede, but a Manda&mdash;a name which,
+      as I showed many years ago, meant for the Babylonian a "barbarian" of
+      Kurdistan. I have myself little doubt that the Manda over whom Astyages
+      ruled were the Scythians of classical tradition, who, as may be gathered
+      from a text published by Mr. Strong, had occupied the ancient kingdom of
+      Ellipi. It is even possible that in the Madyes of Herodotos, we have a
+      reminiscence of the Manda of the cuneiform inscriptions. That the Greek
+      writers should have confounded the Mad� or Medes with the Manda or
+      Barbarians is not surprising; we find even Berossos describing one of the
+      early dynasties of Babylonia as "Median" where Manda, and not Mad�, must
+      plainly be meant.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These and similar problems, however, will doubtless be cleared up by the
+      progress of excavation and research. Perhaps M. de Morgan's excavations at
+      Susa may throw some light on them, but it is to the work of the German
+      expedition, which has recently begun the systematic exploration of the
+      site of Babylon, that we must chiefly look for help. The Babylon of
+      Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar rose on the ruins of Nineveh, and the
+      story of downfall of the Assyrian empire must still be lying buried under
+      its mounds.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A. H. SAYCE. <a name="linklink2H_4_0002" id="linklink2H_4_0002">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      In completing the translation of this great work, I have to thank
+      Professor Maspero for kindly permitting me to appeal to him on various
+      questions which arose while preparing the translation. His patience and
+      courtesy have alike been unfailing in every matter submitted for his
+      decision.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am indebted to Miss Bradbury for kindly supplying, in the midst of much
+      other literary work for the Egypt Exploration Fund, the translation of the
+      chapter on the gods, and also of the earlier parts of some of the first
+      chapters. She has, moreover, helped me in my own share of the work with
+      many suggestions and hints, which her intimate connection with the late
+      Miss Amelia B. Edwards fully qualified her to give.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As in the original there is a lack of uniformity in the transcription and
+      accentuation of Arabic names, I have ventured to alter them in several
+      cases to the form most familiar to English readers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The spelling of the ancient Egyptian words has, at Professor Maspero's
+      request, been retained throughout, with the exception that the French <i>ou</i>
+      has been invariably represented by �, e.g. Khnoumou by Khn�m�.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By an act of international courtesy, the director of the <i>Imprimerie
+      Nationale</i> has allowed the beautifully cut hieroglyphic and cuneiform
+      type used in the original to be employed in the English edition, and I
+      take advantage of this opportunity to express to him our thanks and
+      appreciation of his graceful act.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      M. L. McClure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkillust" id="linklinkillust"></a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0007"> 003.jpg Chapter One </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0008"> 006.jpg The Mouth of The Nile Previous to
+        The Formation Of the Delta. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0009"> 009.jpg A Line of Laden Camels Emerges
+        from A Hollow </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0010"> 010.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0011"> 011.jpg Part of Gebel Sh�kh Her�di </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0012"> 012.jpg The Hill of Kasr Es-sayyad </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0013"> 014.jpg Entrance to the First Cataract
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0014"> 015.jpg Entrance to Nubia </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0015"> 016.jpg League Beyond League, the Hills
+        Stretch on </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0016"> 018.jpg The Entrance to The First
+        Cataract </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0017"> 020.jpg Entrance to the Second Catakact
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0018"> 022.jpg An Attempt to Represent the
+        Egyptian Universe </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0019"> 023.jpg Footnotes With Graphics </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0020"> 027.jpg South Africa and the Sources of
+        The Nile </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0021"> 031.jpg During the Inundation </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0022"> 034.jpg Assiout </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0023"> 036.jpg Entrance of the Mud�riyeh Of
+        Asy�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0024"> 037.jpg Forest of Date Palms </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0025"> 040.jpg Acacias at the Entrance to a
+        Garden Outside Ekhm�m </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0026"> 041.jpg She-ass and Her Foal </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0027"> 042.jpg The Ur�us of Egypt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0028"> 044.jpg The Ibis of Egypt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0029"> 045.jpg The Mormyrus Oxyrhynchus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0030"> 046.jpg Ahaka </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0031"> 047.jpg Two Fishermen Carrying a Latus
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0032"> 048.jpg The Nile God </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0033"> 049.jpg The Shrine of The Nile at Biggeh
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0034"> 051.jpg Nile Gods from the Temple of Seti
+        I. At Abydos </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0035"> 055.jpg Libyan Mountains </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0036"> 059.jpg The Noble Type of Egyptian </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0037"> 060.jpg Head of a Tileban Mummy </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkwrappings"> 060b.jpg Wrappings from a Mummy (Oil
+        painting) </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0038"> 062.jpg A Fellah Woman With the Features
+        of an Ancient King </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0039"> 066.jpg Negro Prisoners Wearing the
+        Panther's Skin As A Loin-cloth. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0040"> 068.jpg Notable Wearing the Large Cloak;
+        Priest Wearing Panther's Skin </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0041"> 070.jpg A Dignitary Wrapped in his Large
+        Cloak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0042"> 072.jpg Costume of Egyptian Woman,
+        Spinning </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0043"> 073.jpg Man Wearing Wig and Necklaces
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0044"> 074.jpg The Boomerang and Fighting Bow
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0045"> 075.jpg Votive Axe </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0046"> 076.jpg King Holding the Baton </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0047"> 077.jpg Fishing in the Marshes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0048"> 078.jpg Hunting in the Marshes:
+        Encountering a Hippopotamus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0049"> 079.jpg Hunting in the Desert: Bull,
+        Lion, and Oryx </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0050"> 080.jpg Catching Animals With the Bola
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0051"> 082.jpg A Swineherd and his Pigs </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0052"> 084.jpg The Egyptian Lotus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0053"> 086.jpg The Egyptian Hoe </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0054"> 087.jpg Ploughing </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0055"> 089.jpg An Egyptian Saki� (well)
+        Procuring Water for Irrigation </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0056"> 091.jpg Boatmen Fighting on a Canal
+        Communicating With The Nile </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0057"> 092.jpg A Great Egyptian Lord, Ti, and
+        his Wife </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0058"> 094.jpg Nomes of Middle Egypt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0059"> 096.jpg Nomes of Upper Egypt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkimage-0060"> 099.jpg Nomes of Lower Egypt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0005"> 105.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0006"> 106.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0007"> 107.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0008"> 108.jpg the Goddess Napk�t, Stap�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0009"> 110.jpg Some Fabulous Beasts of the
+        Egyptian Desert </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0010"> 113.jpb Some Fabulous Beasts of the
+        Egyptian Desert </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0011"> 115.jpg N��t the Starry One </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0012"> 116.jpg Goose-god Facing The
+        Cat-goddess, The Lady Of Heaven </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0013"> 117.jpg the Cow H�thor, The Lady Of
+        Heaven </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0014"> 118.jpg Twelve Stages in The Life of The
+        Sun and Its Twelve Forms </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0015"> 123.jpg Conception of the Principal
+        Constellations of the Northern Sky </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0016"> 124.jpg Lunar Bark, Self-propelled,
+        Under The Protection of the Two Eyes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0017"> 125.jpg The Haunch, and The Female
+        Hippopotamus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0018"> 127.jpg Okion, Sothis, and Two
+        Hokus-planets </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0019"> 128.jpg Sahu-orion. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0020"> 129.jpg Orion and the Cow Sothis
+        Separated by The Sparrow-hawk </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0021"> 131.jpg Amon-r�, As M�n� of Coptos,
+        Invested With His Emblems </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0022"> 133.jpg Anh�ri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0023"> 134.jpg The Hawk-headed Hokus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0024"> 136.jpg The Hoeus of Hibon�, on The Back
+        Of The Gazelle </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0025"> 138.jpg The Cat-headed Bast </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0026"> 139.jpg Two Images </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0027"> 141.jpg Nit of Sa�s </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0028"> 142.jpg Imhotp� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0029"> 143.jpg Nofirt�m� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0030"> 145.jpg Horus </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0031"> 147.jp The Black Shadow Coming out Into
+        The Sunlight. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0032"> 148.jpg August Souls of Osiris and Horus
+        in Adoration </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0033"> 150.jpg The King After his Coronation
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0034"> 161.jpg Sacrificing to the Dead in The
+        Tomb Chapel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0035"> 164.jpg Phtah As a Mummy </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0036"> 167.jpg The Sacred Bull </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0037"> 169.jpg Open-air Offerings to the
+        Serpent </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0038"> 171.jpg The Peasant's Offering to The
+        Sycamore </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0039"> 173.jpg Sacrifice of The Bull.&mdash;Priest
+        Lassoing the Victim </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0040"> 180.jpg Shu Uplifting the Sky </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0041"> 182.jpg Sh� Forcibly Separating Sib� and
+        N��t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0042"> 183.jpg The Did� of Osiris </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0043"> 183b.jpg The Did� Dressed </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0044"> 185.jpg Osiris-onnophris, Whip and Crook
+        in Hand </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0045"> 187.jpg Isis, Wearing the Cow-horn
+        Head-dress </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0046"> 189.jpg Nephthys, As a Wailing Woman,
+        and the God S�t, Fighting </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0047"> 192.jpg Horus, the Avenger of his
+        Father, and Anubis �ap�a�t� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0048"> 191.jpg The Sun Springing from an
+        Opening Lotus-flower </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0049"> 194.jpg The Plain and Mounds of
+        Heliopolis Fifty Years Ago </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0050"> 196.jpg Hakmakh��ti-hakmakhis, the Great
+        God </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0051"> 198.jpg Khopri, in his Bark </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0052"> 201.jpg The Twin Lions, Sh� and Tafn��t
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0053"> 204.jpg The Four Funerary Genii,
+        Khabson�f, Ti�ma�tf, Hapi, and Ams�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0054"> 208.jpg The Ibis Thot, and The
+        Cynocephalous Thot </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0055"> 212.jpg The Hermopolitan Ogdoad </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0056"> 213.jpg Amon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0057"> 215.jpg The Theban Ennead </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkBimage-0058"> 218.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0005"> 219.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0006"> 220.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0007"> 221.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0008"> 224.jpg Khn�m� Modelling Man Upon a
+        Potter's Table. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0009"> 230.jpg At the First Hour of The Day The
+        Sun Embarks </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0010"> 236.jpg Sokh�t, the Lioness-headed. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0011"> 242.jpg Cow, Sustained Above the Earth
+        by Sh� and The Support </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0012"> 244.jpg Three of the Divine Amulets
+        Preserved </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0013"> 250.jpg the Osmian Triad Hokus. Osiris,
+        Isis. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0014"> 253.jpg Isis-hathor, Cow-headed. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0015"> 256.jpg The Osirian Mummy Prepared </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0016"> 257.jpg The Reception Op The Mummy by
+        Anubis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0017"> 259.jpg Osikis in Hades, Accompanied by
+        Isis, Ament�t, And Nephthys </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0018"> 260.jpg The Deceased Climbing The Slope
+        of The Mountain Of the West </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0019"> 261.jpg The Mummy of S�timos� Clasping
+        his Soul Into His Arms. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0020"> 262.jpg Cynocephali Drawing the Net in
+        Which Souls Are Caught. 1 </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0021"> 264.jpg Deceased and his Wife Seated in
+        Front of The Sycamore of N��t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0022"> 266.jpg Deceased Piercing a Serpent With
+        his Lance. 2 </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0023"> 267.jpg Good Cow H�thor Carrying The
+        Dead Man and His Soul. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0024"> 268.jpg Anubis and Thot Weighing the
+        Heart of The Deceased </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0025"> 269.jpg The Deceased is Brought Before
+        The Shrine Of Osiris the Judge </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkani"> 272B.jpg The Occupations of Ani in the Elysian
+        Fields </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0026"> 275.jpg The Manes Tilling The Ground and
+        Reaping in Fields </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0027"> 276.jpg Uashb�ti. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0028"> 277.jpg The Dead Man and his Wife
+        Playing at Draughts In The Pavilion. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0029"> 278.jpg The Dead Man Sailing in his Bark
+        Along The Canals </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0030"> 279.jpg Boat of a Funerary Fleet on Its
+        Way to Abydos. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0031"> 280.jpg The Solar Bark Into Which The
+        Dead Man is About To Enter. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0032"> 282.jpg The Solar Bark Passing Into The
+        Mountain of The West. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0033"> 284.jpg The Soul Descending The
+        Sepulchral Shaft </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0034"> 285.jpg The Soul on The Edge of The
+        Funeral Couch </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0035"> 287.jpg The Soul Going Forth Into Its
+        Garden by Day </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkwars"> 289.jpg An Incident in the Wars of Haratheus
+        and Sit </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0037"> 293.jpg One of the Astronomical Tables
+        Of The Tomb Of Ramses IV. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0038"> 304.jpg The Gods Fighting Foe The
+        Magician Who Has Invoked Them. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0039"> 306.jpg The Child Horus on The
+        Crocodiles. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0040"> 310.jpg A Dead Man Receiving the Breath
+        of Life. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0041"> 315.jpg Th0t Records the Years of The
+        Life Of Ramses. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0042"> 316.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0043"> 317.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0044"> 318.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0045"> 319.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0046"> 325.jpg Table of the Kings </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0047"> 332.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Abydos,
+        Made by Mariette In 1865 and 1875. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0048"> 343.jpg Necklace, Bearing Name of Menes.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0049"> 350.jpg Sat�t Presents the Pharaoh
+        Amen�thes III. To Khn�m�. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0050"> 351.jpg An�kit </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0051"> 353.jpg The Step Pyramid of Sauara. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0052"> 356. Jpg One of the Chambers Of The
+        Step-pyramid </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linklinkCimage-0053"> 357.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="001 (122K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="002 (81K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklink2HCH0001" id="linklink2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER I.&mdash;THE NILE AND EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i> THE RIVER AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON THE FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE
+      COUNTRY&mdash;THE OLDEST INHABITANTS OF THE LAND&mdash;THE FIRST POLITICAL
+      ORGANIZATION OF THE VALLEY. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The Delta: its gradual formation, its structure, its canals&mdash;The
+      valley of Egypt&mdash;The two arms of the river&mdash;The Eastern Nile&mdash;The
+      appearance of its hanks&mdash;The hills&mdash;The gorge of Gehel Silsileh&mdash;The
+      cataracts: the falls of Aswan&mdash;Nubia&mdash;The rapids of Wady Halfah&mdash;The
+      Takazze&mdash;The Blue Nile and the White Nile. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The sources of the Nile&mdash;The Egyptian cosmography&mdash;The four
+      pillars and the four upholding mountains&mdash;The celestial Nile the
+      source of the terrestial Nile&mdash;the Southern Sea and the islands of
+      Spirits&mdash;The tears of Isis&mdash;The rise of the Nile&mdash;The Green
+      Nile and the Bed Nile&mdash;The opening of the dykes&mdash;-The fall of
+      the Nile&mdash;The river at its lowest ebb. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The alluvial deposits and the effects of the inundation upon the soil
+      of Egypt&mdash;Paucity of the flora: aquatic plants, the papyrus and the
+      lotus; the sycamore and the date-palm, the acacias, the d�m-palms&mdash;The
+      fauna: the domestic and wild animals; serpents, the urstus; the
+      hippopotamus and the crocodile; birds; fish, the fahaka. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The Nile god: his form and its varieties&mdash;The goddess Mirit&mdash;The
+      supposed sources of the Nile at Elephantine&mdash;The festivals of Gebel
+      Silsileh-Hymn to the Nile from papyri m the British Museum. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The names of the Nile and Egypt: Bomitu and Qimit&mdash;Antiquity of
+      the Egyptianpeople&mdash;Their first horizon&mdash;The hypothesis of their
+      Asiatic origin&mdash;The probability of their African origin&mdash;The
+      language and its Semitic affinities&mdash;The race and its principal
+      types. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The primitive civilization of Egypt&mdash;Its survival into historic
+      times&mdash;The women of Amon&mdash;Marriage&mdash;Rights of women and
+      children&mdash;Houses&mdash;Furniture&mdash;Dress&mdash;Jewels&mdash;Wooden
+      and metal arms&mdash;Primitive life-Fishing and hunting&mdash;The lasso
+      and "bolas"&mdash;The domestication of animals&mdash;Plants used for food&mdash;The
+      lotus&mdash;Cereals&mdash;The hoe and the plough. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The conquest of the valley&mdash;Dykes&mdash;Basins&mdash;Irrigation&mdash;The
+      princes&mdash;The nomes&mdash;The first local principalities&mdash;Late
+      organization of the Delta&mdash;Character of its inhabitants&mdash;Gradual
+      division of the principalities and changes of then areas&mdash;The god of
+      the city. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0007" id="linklinkimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" alt="003.jpg Chapter One " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      THE NILE AND EGYPT
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <i>The river and its influence upon the formation of the country&mdash;The
+      oldest inhabitants of the valley and its first political organization.</i>
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The same expression has been attributed to Hecatseus of
+     Miletus. It has often been observed that this phrase seems
+     Egyptian   on  the face of it, and it certainly recalls such
+     forms of expression as the following, taken from a formula
+     frequently found on funerary "All things created by heaven,
+     given by earth, <i>brought by the Nile&mdash;from its mysterious
+     sources.</i>" Nevertheless, up to the present time, the
+     hieroglyphic texts have yielded nothing altogether
+     corresponding to the exact terms of the Greek historians&mdash;
+     <i>gift</i> of the Nile, or its natural <i>product</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A long low, level shore, scarcely rising above the sea, a chain of vaguely
+      defined and ever-shifting lakes and marshes, then the triangular plain
+      beyond, whose apex is thrust thirty leagues into the land&mdash;this, the
+      Delta of Egypt, has gradually been acquired from the sea, and is as it
+      were the gift of the Nile. The Mediterranean once reached to the foot of
+      the sandy plateau on which stand the Pyramids, and formed a wide gulf
+      where now stretches plain beyond plain of the Delta. The last undulations
+      of the Arabian hills, from Gebel Mokattam to Gebel Geneffeh, were its
+      boundaries on the east, while a sinuous and shallow channel running
+      between Africa and Asia united the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Westward,
+      the littoral followed closely the contour of the Libyan plateau; but a
+      long limestone spur broke away from it at about 31� N., and terminated in
+      Cape Ab�k�r. The alluvial deposits first tilled up the depths of the bay,
+      and then, under the influence of the currents which swept along its
+      eastern coasts, accumulated behind that rampart of sand-hills whose
+      remains are still to be seen near Benha. Thus was formed a miniature
+      Delta, whose structure pretty accurately corresponded with that of the
+      great Delta of to-day. Here the Nile divided into three divergent streams,
+      roughly coinciding with the southern courses of the Rosetta and Damietta
+      branches, and with the modern canal of Abu Meneggeh. The ceaseless
+      accumulation of mud brought down by the river soon overpassed the first
+      limits, and steadily encroached upon the sea until it was carried beyond
+      the shelter furnished by Cape Ab�k�r. Thence it was gathered into the
+      great littoral current flowing from Africa to Asia, and formed an
+      incurvated coast-line ending in the headland of Casios, on the Syrian
+      frontier. From that time Egypt made no further increase towards the north,
+      and her coast remains practically such as it was thousands of years
+      ago:[*] the interior alone has suffered change, having been dried up,
+      hardened, and gradually raised. Its inhabitants thought they could measure
+      the exact length of time in which this work of creation had been
+      accomplished. According to the Egyptians, Men�s, the first of their mortal
+      kings, had found, so they said, the valley under water. The sea came in
+      almost as far as the Fay�m, and, excepting the province of Thebes, the
+      whole country was a pestilential swamp. Hence, the necessary period for
+      the physical formation of Egypt would cover some centuries after Men�s.
+      This is no longer considered a sufficient length of time, and some modern
+      geologists declare that the Nile must have worked at the formation of its
+      own estuary for at least seventy-four thousand years.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * �lie de Beaumont, "The great distinction of the Nile Delta
+     lies in the almost uniform persistence of its coast-line....
+     The present sea-coast of Egypt is little altered from that
+     of three thousand years  ago."    The latest observations
+     prove it to be sinking and shrinking near Alexandria to rise
+     in the neighbourhood of Port Said.
+
+     ** Others, as for example Schweinfurth, are  more  moderate
+     in their views, and think "that it must have taken about
+     twenty thousand years for that alluvial deposit which now
+     forms  the   arable soil of Egypt to have attained to its
+     present depth and fertility."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This figure is certainly exaggerated, for the alluvium would gain on the
+      shallows of the ancient gulf far more rapidly than it gains upon the
+      depths of the Mediterranean. But even though we reduce the period, we must
+      still admit that the Egyptians little suspected the true age of their
+      country. Not only did the Delta long precede the coming of Men�s, but its
+      plan was entirely completed before the first arrival of the Egyptians. The
+      Greeks, full of the mysterious virtues which they attributed to numbers,
+      discovered that there were seven principal branches, and seven mouths of
+      the Nile, and that, as compared with these, the rest were but false
+      mouths.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0008" id="linklinkimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/006.jpg" width="100%"
+      title="The Mouth of The Nile Previous to The Formation Of the Delta."
+      alt="006.jpg the Mouth of The Nile Previous to The Formation Of the Delta. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As a matter of fact, there were only three chief outlets. The Canopic
+      branch flowed westward, and fell into the Mediterranean near Cape Ab�k�r,
+      at the western extremity of the arc described by the coast-line. The
+      Pelusiac branch followed the length of the Arabian chain, and flowed forth
+      at the other extremity; and the Sebennytic stream almost bisected the
+      triangle contained between the Canopic and Pelusiac channels. Two thousand
+      years ago, these branches separated from the main river at the city of
+      Cerkasoros, nearly four miles north of the site where Cairo now stands.
+      But after the Pelusiac branch had ceased to exist, the fork of the river
+      gradually wore away the land from age to age, and is now some nine miles
+      lower down.[*] These three great waterways are united by a network of
+      artificial rivers and canals, and by ditches&mdash;some natural, others
+      dug by the hand of man, but all ceaselessly shifting. They silt up, close,
+      open again, replace each other, and ramify in innumerable branches over
+      the surface of the soil, spreading life and fertility on all sides. As the
+      land rises towards the south, this web contracts and is less confused,
+      while black mould and cultivation alike dwindle, and the fawn-coloured
+      line of the desert comes into sight. The Libyan and Arabian hills appear
+      above the plain, draw nearer to each other, and gradually shut in the
+      horizon until it seems as though they would unite. And there the Delta
+      ends, and Egypt proper has begun.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is only a strip of vegetable mould stretching north and south between
+      regions of drought and desolation, a prolonged oasis on the banks of the
+      river, made by the Nile, and sustained by the Nile. The whole length of
+      the land is shut in between two ranges of hills, roughly parallel at a
+      mean distance of about twelve miles.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * By the end of the Byzantine period, the fork of the river
+     lay at some distance south of Shetn�fi, the present
+     Shatan�f, which is the spot where it now is. The Arab
+     geographers call the head of the Delta Batn-el-Bagaraji, the
+     Cow's Belly. Amp�re, in his Voyage en Egypte et en Nubie, p.
+     120, says,&mdash;"May it not be that this name, denoting the place
+     where the most fertile part of Egypt begins, is a
+     reminiscence of the Cow Goddess, of Isis, the symbol of
+     fecundity, and the personification of Egypt?"
+
+     **De Rozi�re estimated the mean breadth as being only a
+     little over nine miles.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      During the earlier ages, the river filled all this intermediate space, and
+      the sides of the hills, polished, worn, blackened to their very summits,
+      still bear unmistakable traces of its action. Wasted, and shrunken within
+      the deeps of its ancient bed, the stream now makes a way through its own
+      thick deposits of mud. The bulk of its waters keeps to the east, and
+      constitutes the true Nile, the "Great River" of the hieroglyphic
+      inscriptions. A second arm flows close to the Libyan desert, here and
+      there formed into canals, elsewhere left to follow its own course. From
+      the head of the Delta to the village of Demt it is called the Bahr-Y�suf;
+      beyond Der�t&mdash;up to Gebel Silsileh&mdash;it is the Ibr�him�yeh, the
+      Soh�g�yeh, the Rai�n. But the ancient names are unknown to us. This
+      Western Nile dries up in winter throughout all its upper courses: where it
+      continues to flow, it is by scanty accessions from the main Nile. It also
+      divides north of Henassieh, and by the gorge of Illah�n sends out a branch
+      which passes beyond the hills into the basin of the Fay�rn. The true Nile,
+      the Eastern Nile, is less a river than a sinuous lake encumbered with
+      islets and sandbanks, and its navigable channel winds capriciously between
+      them, flowing with a strong and steady current below the steep, black
+      banks cut sheer through the alluvial earth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0009" id="linklinkimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/009.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="009.jpg a Line of Laden Camels Emerges from A Hollow Of The Undulating Road. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  From a drawing by Boudier, after a photograph by
+     Insinger, taken in 1884.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There are light groves of the date-palm, groups of acacia trees and
+      sycamores, square patches of barley or of wheat, fields of beans or of
+      bers�m,[*] and here and there a long bank of sand which the least breeze
+      raises into whirling clouds. And over all there broods a great silence,
+      scarcely broken by the cry of birds, or the song of rowers in a passing
+      boat.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Bers�m is a kind of trefoil, the <i>Trifolium Alexandrinum</i>
+     of LINN�US. It is very common in Egypt, and the only plant
+     of the kind generally cultivated for fodder.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Something of human life may stir on the banks, but it is softened into
+      poetry by distance. A half-veiled woman, bearing a bundle of herbs upon
+      her head, is driving her goats before her. An irregular line of asses or
+      of laden camels emerges from one hollow of the undulating road only to
+      disappear within another. A group of peasants, crouched upon the shore, in
+      the ancient posture of knees to chin, patiently awaits the return of the
+      ferry-boat.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0010" id="linklinkimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/010.jpg" width="100%" alt="010.jpg " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  From a drawing by Boudier, after a photograph by
+     Insinger, taken in 1886.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A dainty village looks forth smiling from beneath its palm trees. Near at
+      hand it is all naked filth and ugliness: a cluster of low grey huts built
+      of mud and laths; two or three taller houses, whitewashed; an enclosed
+      square shaded by sycamores; a few old men, each seated peacefully at his
+      own door; a confusion of fowls, children, goats, and sheep; half a dozen
+      boats made fast ashore. But, as we pass on, the wretchedness all fades
+      away; meanness of detail is lost in light, and long before it disappears
+      at a bend of the river, the village is again clothed with gaiety and
+      serene beauty. Day by day, the landscape repeats itself. The same groups
+      of trees alternate with the same fields, growing green or dusty in the
+      sunlight according to the season of the year. With the same measured flow,
+      the Nile winds beneath its steep banks and about its scattered islands.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0011" id="linklinkimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/011.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="011.jpg Part of Gebel Sh�kh Her�di. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 From a drawing by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger,
+     taken in 1882.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One village succeeds another, each alike smiling and sordid under its
+      crown of foliage. The terraces of the Libyan hills, away beyond the
+      Western Nile, scarcely rise above the horizon, and lie like a white edging
+      between the green of the plain and the blue of the sky. The Arabian hills
+      do not form one unbroken line, but a series of mountain masses with their
+      spurs, now approaching the river, and now withdrawing to the desert at
+      almost regular intervals. At the entrance to the valley, rise Gebel
+      Mokattam and Gebel el-Ahmar. Gebel Hem�r-Shem�l and Gebel Sh�kh Emb�rak
+      next stretch in echelon from north to south, and are succeeded by Gebel
+      et-Ter, where, according to an old legend, all the birds of the world are
+      annually assembled.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In Makrizi's <i>Description of Egypt</i> we read: "Every year,
+     upon a certain day, all the herons (Bouk�r, <i>Ardea bubulcus</i>
+     of Cuvier) assemble at this mountain. One after another,
+     each puts his beak into a cleft of the hill until the cleft
+     closes upon one of them. And then forthwith all the others
+     fly away But the bird which has been caught struggles until
+     he dies, and there his body remains until it has fallen into
+     dust." The same tale is told by other Arab writers, of which
+     a list may be seen in Etienne Quatrem�re, <i>M�moires
+     historiques et g�ographiques sur l'Egypte et quelques
+     contr�es voisines</i>, vol. i. pp. 31-33. It faintly recalls
+     that ancient tradition of the Cleft at Abydos, whereby souls
+     must pass, as human-headed birds, in order to reach the
+     other world.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0012" id="linklinkimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/012.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="12.jpg the Hill of Kasr Es-sayyad. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  From a drawing by Boudier, after a photograph by
+     insinger, taken in 1882.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Then follows Gebel Ab�f�da, dreaded by the sailors for its sudden gusts.
+      Limestone predominates throughout, white or yellowish, broken by veins of
+      alabaster, or of red and grey sandstones. Its horizontal strata are so
+      symmetrically laid one above another as to seem more like the walls of a
+      town than the side of a mountain. But time has often dismantled their
+      summits and loosened their foundations. Man has broken into their fa�ades
+      to cut his quarries and his tombs; while the current is secretly
+      undermining the base, wherein it has made many a breach. As soon as any
+      margin of mud has collected between cliffs and river, halfah and wild
+      plants take hold upon it, and date-palms grow there&mdash;whence their
+      seed, no one knows. Presently a hamlet rises at the mouth of the ravine,
+      among clusters of trees and fields in miniature. Beyond Si�t, the light
+      becomes more glowing, the air drier and more vibrating, and the green of
+      cultivation loses its brightness. The angular outline of the dom-palni
+      mingles more and more with that of the common palm and of the heavy
+      sycamore, and the castor-oil plant increasingly abounds. But all these
+      changes come about so gradually that they are effected before we notice
+      them. The plain continues to contract. At Thebes it is still ten miles
+      wide; at the gorge of Gebel�n it has almost disappeared, and at Gebel
+      Silsileh it has completely vanished. There, it was crossed by a natural
+      dyke of sandstone, through which the waters have with difficulty scooped
+      for themselves a passage. From this point, Egypt is nothing but the bed of
+      the Nile lying between two escarpments of naked rock.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Further on the cultivable land reappears, but narrowed, and changed almost
+      beyond recognition. Hills, hewn out of solid sandstone, succeed each other
+      at distances of about two miles, low, crushed, sombre, and formless.
+      Presently a forest of palm trees, the last on that side, announces Aswan
+      and Nubia. Five banks of granite, ranged in lines between latitude 24� and
+      18� N., cross Nubia from east to west, and from north-east to south-west,
+      like so many ramparts thrown up between the Mediterranean and the heart of
+      Africa. The Nile has attacked them from behind, and made its way over them
+      one after another in rapids which have been glorified by the name of
+      cataracts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0013" id="linklinkimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/014.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="014.jpg Entrance to the First Cataract. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 View taken from the hills opposite Elephantine, by
+     Insinger, in 1884.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Classic writers were pleased to describe the river as hurled into the
+      gulfs of Syne with so great a roar that the people of the neighbourhood
+      were deafened by it. Even a colony of Persians, sent thither by Cambyses,
+      could not bear the noise of the falls, and went forth to seek a quieter
+      situation. The first cataract is a kind of sloping and sinuous passage six
+      and a quarter miles in length, descending from the island of Philae to the
+      port of Aswan, the aspect of its approach relieved and brightened by the
+      ever green groves of Elephantine. Beyond Elephantine are cliffs and sandy
+      beaches, chains of blackened "roches moutonn�es" marking out the beds of
+      the currents, and fantastic reefs, sometimes bare and sometimes veiled by
+      long grasses and climbing plants, in which thousands of birds have made
+      their nests. There are islets too, occasionally large enough to have once
+      supported something of a population, such as Amerade, Sal�g, Seh�l. The
+      granite threshold of Nubia, is broken beyond Seh�l, but its d�bris, massed
+      m disorder against the right bank, still seem to dispute the passage of
+      the waters, dashing turbulently and roaring as they flow along through
+      tortuous channels, where every streamlet is broken up into small cascades,
+      ihe channel running by the left bank is always navigable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0014" id="linklinkimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%" alt="015.jpg Entrance to Nubia. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      During the inundation, the rocks and sandbanks of the right side are
+      completely under water, and their presence is only betrayed by eddies. But
+      on the river's reaching its lowest point a fall of some six feet is
+      established, and there big boats, hugging the shore, are hauled up by
+      means of ropes, or easily drift down with the current.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0015" id="linklinkimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/016.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="016.jpg League Beyond League, the Hills Stketch on in Low Ignoble Outline. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 From a drawing by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger,
+     taken in 1881.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      All kinds of granite are found together in this corner of Africa. There
+      are the pink and red Syenites, porphyritic granite, yellow granite, grey
+      granite, both black granite and white, and granites veined with black and
+      veined with white. As soon as these disappear behind us, various
+      sandstones begin to crop up, allied to the coarsest <i>calcaire grossier</i>.
+      The hill bristle with small split blocks, with peaks half overturned, with
+      rough and denuded mounds. League beyond league, they stretch in low
+      ignoble outline. Here and there a valley opens sharply into the desert,
+      revealing an infinite perspective of summits and escarpments in echelon
+      one behind another to the furthest plane of the horizon, like motionless
+      caravans. The now confined river rushes on with a low, deep murmur,
+      accompanied night and day by the croaking of frogs and the rhythmic creak
+      of the s�k�eh.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The s�k�eh is made of a notch-wheel fixed vertically on a
+     horizontal axle, and is actuated by various cog-wheels set
+     in continuous motion by oxen or asses.    A long chain of
+     earthenware vessels brings up the water either from the
+     river itself, or from some little branch  canal, and
+     empties it into a system of troughs and reservoirs.
+     Thence, it flows forth to be distributed over all the
+     neighbouring land.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Jetties of rough stone-work, made in unknown times by an unknown people,
+      run out like breakwaters into midstream.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0016" id="linklinkimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/017.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="018.jpg the Entrance to The First Cataract " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From time to time waves of sand are borne over, and drown the narrow
+      fields of durra and of barley. Scraps of close, aromatic pasturage,
+      acacias, date-palms, and d�m-palms, together with a few shrivelled
+      sycamores, are scattered along both banks. The ruins of a crumbling pylon
+      mark the site of some ancient city, and, overhanging the water, is a
+      vertical wall of rock honeycombed with tombs. Amid these relics of another
+      age, miserable huts, scattered hamlets, a town or two surrounded with
+      little gardens are the only evidence that there is yet life in Nubia.
+      South of W�dy Halfah, the second granite bank is broken through, and the
+      second cataract spreads its rapids over a length of four leagues: the
+      archipelago numbers more than 350 islets, of which some sixty have houses
+      upon them and yield harvests to their inhabitants. The main
+      characteristics of the first two cataracts are repeated with slight
+      variations in the cases of the three which follow,&mdash;at Hannek, at
+      Guerendid, and El-Hu-mar. It is Egypt still, but a joyless Egypt bereft of
+      its brightness: impoverished, disfigured, and almost desolate.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0017" id="linklinkimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/020.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="020.jpg Entrance to the Second Catakact. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 View taken from the top of the rocks of Abus�r, after a
+     photograph by Insinger, in 1881.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There is the same double wall of hills, now closely confining the valley,
+      and again withdrawing from each other as though to flee into the desert.
+      Everywhere are moving sheets of sand, steep black banks with their narrow
+      strips of cultivation, villages which are scarcely visible on account of
+      the lowness of their huts sycamore ceases at Gebel-Barkal, date-palms
+      become fewer and finally disappear. The Nile alone has not changed. And it
+      was at Philse, so it is at Berber. Here, however, on the right bank, 600
+      leagues from the sea, is its first affluent, the Takazze, which
+      intermittently brings to it the waters of Northern Ethiopia. At Khartum,
+      the single channel in which the river flowed divides; and two other
+      streams are opened up in a southerly direction, each of them apparently
+      equal in volume to the main stream. Which is the true Nile? Is it the Blue
+      Nile, which seems to come down from the distant mountains? Or is it the
+      White Nile, which has traversed the immense plains of equatorial Africa.
+      The old Egyptians never knew. The river kept the secret of its source from
+      them as obstinately as it withheld it from us until a few years ago.
+      Vainly did their victorious armies follow the Nile for months together as
+      they pursued the tribes who dwelt upon its banks, only to find it as wide,
+      as full, as irresistible in its progress as ever. It was a fresh-water
+      sea, and sea&mdash;<i>ia�m�, i�ma</i>&mdash;was the name by which they
+      called it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians therefore never sought its source. They imagined the whole
+      universe to be a large box, nearly rectangular in form, whose greatest
+      diameter was from south to north, and its least from east to west. The
+      earth, with its alternate continents and seas, formed the bottom of the
+      box; it was a narrow, oblong, and slightly concave floor, with Egypt in
+      its centre. The sky stretched over it like an iron ceiling, flat according
+      to some, vaulted according to others. Its earthward face was capriciously
+      sprinkled with lamps hung from strong cables, and which, extinguished or
+      unperceived by day, were lighted, or became visible to our eyes, at night.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0018" id="linklinkimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/022.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="022.jpg an Attempt to Represent the Egyptian Universe.2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2 Section taken at Hermopolis. To the left, is the bark of
+     the sun on the celestial river.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Since this ceiling could not remain in mid-air without support, four
+      columns, or rather four forked trunks of trees, similar to those which
+      maintained the primitive house, were supposed to uphold it. But it was
+      doubtless feared lest some tempest should overturn them, for they were
+      superseded by four lofty peaks, rising at the four cardinal points, and
+      connected by a continuous chain of mountains. The Egyptians knew little of
+      the northern peak: the Mediterranean, the "Very Green," interposed between
+      it and Egypt, and prevented their coming near enough to see it. The
+      southern peak was named Apit the Horn of the Earth; that on the east was
+      called B�kh�, the Mountain of Birth; and the western peak was known as
+      Manu, sometimes as Onkhit, the Region of Life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0019" id="linklinkimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/023.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="023.jpg Footnotes With Graphics " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      B�kh� was not a fictitious mountain, but the highest of those distant
+      summits seen from the Nile in looking towards the red Sea. In the same
+      way, Manu answered to some hill of the Libyan desert, whose summit closed
+      the horizon. When it was discovered that neither B�kh� nor Manu were the
+      limits of the world, the notion of upholding the celestial roof was not on
+      that account given up. It was only necessary to withdraw the pillars from
+      sight, and imagine fabulous peaks, invested with familiar names. These
+      were not supposed to form the actual boundary of the universe; a great
+      river&mdash;analogous to the Ocean-stream of the Greeks&mdash;lay between
+      them and its utmost limits. This river circulated upon a kind of ledge
+      projecting along the sides of the box a little below the continuous
+      mountain chain upon which the starry heavens were sustained. On the north
+      of the ellipse, the river was bordered by a steep and abrupt bank, which
+      took its rise at the peak of Manu on the west, and soon rose high enough
+      to form a screen between the river and the earth. The narrow valley which
+      it hid from view was known as Da'it from remotest times. Eternal night
+      enfolded that valley in thick darkness, and filled it with dense air such
+      as no living thing could breathe. Towards the east the steep bank rapidly
+      declined, and ceased altogether a little beyond B�kh�, while the river
+      flowed on between low and almost level shores from east to south, and then
+      from south to west. The sun was a disc of fire placed upon a boat. At the
+      same equable rate, the river carried it round the ramparts of the world.
+      Erom evening until morning it disappeared within the gorges of Da�t; its
+      light did not then reach us, and it was night. From morning until evening
+      its rays, being no longer intercepted by any obstacle, were freely shed
+      abroad from one end of the box to the other, and it was day. The Nile
+      branched off from the celestial river at its southern bend;[*] hence the
+      south was the chief cardinal point to the Egyptians, and by that they
+      oriented themselves, placing sunrise to their left, and sunset to their
+      right.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The classic writers themselves knew that, according to
+     Egyptian belief, the Nile flowed down from heaven. The
+     legend of the Nile having its source in the ocean stream was
+     but a Greek transposition of the Egyptian doctrine, which
+     represented it as an arm of the celestial river whereon the
+     sun sailed round the earth.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Before they passed beyond the defiles of Gebel Silsileh, they thought that
+      the spot whence the celestial waters left the sky was situate between
+      Elephantine and Philae, and that they descended in an immense waterfall
+      whose last leaps were at Syene. It may be that the tales about the first
+      cataract told by classic writers are but a far-off echo of this tradition
+      of a barbarous age. Conquests carried into the heart of Africa forced the
+      Egyptians to recognize their error, but did not weaken their faith in the
+      supernatural origin of the river. They only placed its source further
+      south, and surrounded it with greater marvels. They told how, by going up
+      the stream, sailors at length reached an undetermined country, a kind of
+      borderland between this world and the next, a "Land of Shades," whose
+      inhabitants were dwarfs, monsters, or spirits. Thence they passed into a
+      sea sprinkled with mysterious islands, like those enchanted archipelagoes
+      which Portuguese and Breton mariners were wont to see at times when on
+      their voyages, and which vanished at their approach. These islands were
+      inhabited by serpents with human voices, sometimes friendly and sometimes
+      cruel to the shipwrecked. He who went forth from the islands could never
+      more re-enter them: they were resolved into the waters and lost within the
+      bosom of the waves. A modern geographer can hardly comprehend such
+      fancies; those of Greek and Roman times were perfectly familiar with them.
+      They believed that the Nile communicated with the Red Sea near Suakin, by
+      means of the Astaboras, and this was certainly the route which the
+      Egyptians of old had imagined for their navigators. The supposed
+      communication was gradually transferred farther and farther south; and we
+      have only to glance over certain maps of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+      centuries, to see clearly drawn what the Egyptians had imagined&mdash;the
+      centre of Africa as a great lake, whence issued the Congo, the Zambesi,
+      and the Nile. Arab merchants of the Middle Ages believed that a resolute
+      man could pass from Alexandria or Cairo to the land of the Zindjes and the
+      Indian Ocean by rising from river to river.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Joinville has given a special chapter to the description
+     of the sources and wonders of the Nile, in which he believed
+     as firmly as in an article of his creed. As late as the
+     beginning of the seventeenth century, Wendelinus devoted
+     part of his <i>Admiranda Nili</i> to proving that the river did
+     not rise in the earthly Paradise. At G�rnah, forty years
+     ago, Rhind picked up a legend which stated that the Nile
+     flows down from the sky.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0020" id="linklinkimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/027.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="027.jpg South Africa and the Sources of The Nile, By Odoakdo Lopez. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Facsimile of the map published by Kircher in <i>OEdipus
+     �gyptiacus</i>, vol. i. (<i>Iconismus II</i>), p. 53.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Many of the legends relating to this subject are lost, while others have
+      been collected and embellished with fresh features by Jewish and Christian
+      theologians. The Nile was said to have its source in Paradise, to traverse
+      burning regions inaccessible to man, and afterwards to fall into a sea
+      whence it made its way to Egypt. Sometimes it carried down from its
+      celestial sources branches and fruits unlike any to be found on earth. The
+      sea mentioned in all these tales is perhaps a less extravagant invention
+      than we are at first inclined to think. A lake, nearly as large as the
+      Victoria Nyanza, once covered the marshy plain where the Bahr el-Abiad
+      unites with the Sobat, and with the Bahr el-Ghazal. Alluvial deposits have
+      filled up all but its deepest depression, which is known as Birket N�;
+      but, in ages preceding our era, it must still have been vast enough to
+      suggest to Egyptian soldiers and boatmen the idea of an actual sea,
+      opening into the Indian Ocean. The mountains, whose outline was vaguely
+      seen far to southward on the further shores, doubtless contained within
+      them its mysterious source. There the inundation was made ready, and there
+      it began upon a fixed day. The celestial Nile had its periodic rise and
+      fall, on which those of the earthly Nile depended. Every year, towards the
+      middle of June, Isis, mourning for Osiris, let fall into it one of the
+      tears which she shed over her brother, and thereupon the river swelled and
+      descended upon earth. Isis has had no devotees for centuries, and her very
+      name is unknown to the descendants of her worshippers; but the tradition
+      of her fertilizing tears has survived her memory. Even to this day, every
+      one in Egypt, Mussulman or Christian, knows that a divine drop falls from
+      heaven during the night between the 17th and 18th of June, and forthwith
+      brings about the rise of the Nile. Swollen by the rains which fall in
+      February over the region of the Great Lakes, the White Nile rushes
+      northward, sweeping before it the stagnant sheets of water left by the
+      inundation of the previous year. On the left, the Bahr el-Ghaz�l brings it
+      the overflow of the ill-defined basin stretching between Darf�r and the
+      Congo; and the Sobat pours in on the right a tribute from the rivers which
+      furrow the southern slopes of the Abyssinian mountains. The first swell
+      passes Khartum by the end of April, and raises the water-level there by
+      about a foot, then it slowly makes its way through Nubia, and dies away in
+      Egypt at the beginning of June. Its waters, infected by half-putrid
+      organic matter from the equatorial swamps, are not completely freed from
+      it even in the course of this long journey, but keep a greenish tint as
+      far as the Delta. They are said to be poisonous, and to give severe pains
+      in the bladder to any who may drink them. I am bound to say that every
+      June, for five years, I drank this green water from the Nile itself,
+      without taking any other precaution than the usual one of filtering it
+      through a porous jar. Neither I, nor the many people living with me, ever
+      felt the slightest inconvenience from it. Happily, this <i>Green Nile</i>
+      does not last long, but generally flows away in three or four days, and is
+      only the forerunner of the real flood. The melting of the snows and the
+      excessive spring rains having suddenly swollen the torrents which rise in
+      the central plateau of Abyssinia, the Blue Nile, into which they flow,
+      rolls so impetuously towards the plain that, when its waters reach Khartum
+      in the middle of May, they refuse to mingle with those of the White Nile,
+      and do not lose their peculiar colour before reaching the neighbourhood of
+      Abu Hamed, three hundred miles below. From that time the height of the
+      Nile increases rapidly day by day. The river, constantly reinforced by
+      floods following one upon another from the Great Lakes and from Abyssinia,
+      rises in furious bounds, and would become a devastating torrent were its
+      rage not checked by the Nubian cataracts. Here six basins, one above
+      another, in which the water collects, check its course, and permit it to
+      flow thence only as a partially filtered and moderated stream. It is
+      signalled at Syene towards the 8th of June, at Cairo by the 17th to the
+      20th, and there its birth is officially celebrated during the "Night of
+      the Drop." Two days later it reaches the Delta, just in time to save the
+      country from drought and sterility. Egypt, burnt up by the Khamsin, a west
+      wind blowing continuously for fifty days, seems nothing more than an
+      extension of the desert. The trees are covered and choked by a layer of
+      grey dust. About the villages, meagre and laboriously watered patches of
+      vegetables struggle for life, while some show of green still lingers along
+      the canals and in hollows whence all moisture has not yet evaporated. The
+      plain lies panting in the sun&mdash;naked, dusty, and ashen&mdash;scored
+      with intersecting cracks as far as eye can see. The Nile is only half its
+      usual width, and holds not more than a twentieth of the volume of water
+      which is borne down in October. It has at first hard work to recover its
+      former bed, and attains it by such subtle gradations that the rise is
+      scarcely noted. It is, however, continually gaining ground; here a
+      sandbank is covered, there an empty channel is filled, islets are outlined
+      where there was a continuous beach, a new stream detaches itself and gains
+      the old shore. The first contact is disastrous to the banks; their steep
+      sides, disintegrated and cracked by the heat, no longer offer any
+      resistance to the current, and fall with a crash, in lengths of a hundred
+      yards and more.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0021" id="linklinkimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%" alt="30.jpg During the Inundation " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the successive floods grow stronger and are more heavily charged with
+      mud, the whole mass of water becomes turbid and changes colour. In eight
+      or ten days it has turned from greyish blue to dark red, occasionally of
+      so intense a colour as to look like newly shed blood. The "Red Nile" is
+      not unwholesome like the "Green Nile," and the suspended mud to which it
+      owes its suspicious appearance deprives the water of none of its freshness
+      and lightness. It reaches its full height towards the 15th of July; but
+      the dykes which confine it, and the barriers constructed across the mouths
+      of canals, still prevent it from overflowing. The Nile must be considered
+      high enough to submerge the land adequately before it is set free. The
+      ancient Egyptians measured its height by cubits of twenty-one and a
+      quarter inches. At fourteen cubits, they pronounced it an excellent Nile;
+      below thirteen, or above fifteen, it was accounted insufficient or
+      excessive, and in either case meant famine, and perhaps pestilence at
+      hand. To this day the natives watch its advance with the same anxious
+      eagerness; and from the 3rd of July, public criers, walking the streets of
+      Cairo, announce each morning what progress it has made since evening. More
+      or less authentic traditions assert that the prelude to the opening of the
+      canals, in the time of the Pharaohs, was the solemn casting to the waters
+      of a young girl decked as for her bridal&mdash;the "Bride of the Nile."
+      Even after the Arab conquest, the irruption of the river into the bosom of
+      the land was still considered as an actual marriage; the contract was
+      drawn up by a cadi, and witnesses confirmed its consummation with the most
+      fantastic formalities of Oriental ceremonial. It is generally between the
+      1st and 16th of July that it is decided to break through the dykes. When
+      that proceeding has been solemnly accomplished in state, the flood still
+      takes several days to fill the canals, and afterwards spreads over the low
+      lands, advancing little by little to the very edge of the desert. Egypt is
+      then one sheet of turbid water spreading between two lines of rock and
+      sand, flecked with green and black spots where there are towns or where
+      the ground rises, and divided into irregular compartments by raised roads
+      connecting the villages. In Nubia the river attains its greatest height
+      towards the end of August; at Cairo and in the Delta not until three weeks
+      or a month later. For about eight days it remains stationary, and then
+      begins to fall imperceptibly. Sometimes there is a new freshet in October,
+      and the river again increases in height. But the rise is unsustained; once
+      more it falls as rapidly as it rose, and by December the river has
+      completely retired to the limits of its bed. One after another, the
+      streams which fed it fail or dwindle. The Tacazze is lost among the sands
+      before rejoining it, and the Blue Nile, well-nigh deprived of tributaries,
+      is but scantily maintained by Abyssinian snows. The White Nile is indebted
+      to the Great Lakes for the greater persistence of its waters, which feed
+      the river as far as the Mediterranean, and save the valley from utter
+      drought in winter. But, even with this resource, the level of the water
+      falls daily, and its volume is diminished. Long-hidden sandbanks reappear,
+      and are again linked into continuous line. Islands expand by the rise of
+      shingly beaches, which gradually reconnect them with each other and with
+      the shore. Smaller branches of the river cease to flow, and form a mere
+      network of stagnant pools and muddy ponds, which fast dry up. The main
+      channel itself is only intermittently navigable; after March boats run
+      aground in it, and are forced to await the return of the inundation for
+      their release. From the middle of April to the middle of June, Egypt is
+      only half alive, awaiting the new Nile.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0022" id="linklinkimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/031.jpg" width="100%" alt="031.jpg Assiout " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Those ruddy and heavily charged waters, rising and retiring with almost
+      mathematical regularity, bring and leave the spoils of the countries they
+      have traversed: sand from Nubia, whitish clay from the regions of the
+      Lakes, ferruginous mud, and the various rock-formations of Abyssinia.
+      These materials are not uniformly disseminated in the deposits; their
+      precipitation being regulated both by their specific gravity and the
+      velocity of the current. Flattened stones and rounded pebbles are left
+      behind at the cataract between Syene and Keneh, while coarser particles of
+      sand are suspended in the undercurrents and serve to raise the bed of the
+      river, or are carried out to sea and form the sandbanks which are slowly
+      rising at the Damietta and Rosetta mouths of the Nile. The mud and finer
+      particles rise towards the surface, and are deposited upon the land after
+      the opening of the dykes. Soil which is entirely dependent on the deposit
+      of a river, and periodically invaded by it, necessarily maintains but a
+      scanty flora; and though it is well known that, as a general rule, a flora
+      is rich in proportion to its distance from the poles and its approach to
+      the equator, it is also admitted that Egypt offers an exception to this
+      rule. At the most, she has not more than a thousand species, while, with
+      equal area, England, for instance, possesses more than fifteen hundred;
+      and of this thousand, the greater number are not indigenous. Many of them
+      have been brought From Central Africa by the river: birds and winds have
+      continued the work, and man himself has contributed his part in making it
+      more complete. From Asia he has at different times brought wheat barley
+      the olive, the apple, the white or pink almond, and some twenty other
+      species now acclimatized on the banks of the Nile. Marsh plants
+      predominate in the Delta; but the papyrus, and the three varieties of
+      blue, white, and pink lotus which once flourished there, being no longer
+      cultivated, have now almost entirely disappeared, and reverted to their
+      original habitats.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0023" id="linklinkimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/036.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="036.jpg Entrance of the Mud�riyeh Of Asy�t. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The sycamore and the date-palm, both importations from Central Africa,
+      have better adapted themselves to their exile, and are now fully
+      naturalized on Egyptian soil.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0024" id="linklinkimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/037.jpg" width="100%" alt="037.jpg Forest of Date Palms " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The sycamore grows in sand on the edge of the desert as vigorously as in
+      the midst of a well-watered country. Its roots go deep in search of water,
+      which infiltrates as far as the gorges of the hills, and they absorb it
+      freely, even where drought seems to reign supreme. The heavy, squat,
+      gnarled trunk occasionally attains to colossal dimensions, without ever
+      growing very high. Its rounded masses of compact foliage are so
+      wide-spreading that a single tree in the distance may give the impression
+      of several grouped together; and its shade is dense, and impenetrable to
+      the sun. A striking contrast to the sycamore is presented by the
+      date-palm. Its round and slender stem rises uninterruptedly to a height of
+      thirteen to sixteen yards; its head is crowned with a cluster of flexible
+      leaves arranged in two or three tiers, but so scanty, so pitilessly slit,
+      that they fail to keep off the light, and cast but a slight and
+      unrefreshing shadow. Few trees have so elegant an appearance, yet few are
+      so monotonously elegant. There are palm trees to be seen on every hand;
+      isolated, clustered by twos and threes at the mouths of ravines and about
+      the villages, planted in regular file along the banks of the river like
+      rows of columns, symmetrically arranged in plantations,&mdash;these are
+      the invariable background against which other trees are grouped,
+      diversifying the landscape. The feathery tamarisk[*] and the nabk, the
+      moringa, the carob, or locust tree several varieties of acacia and
+      mimosa-the sont, the mimosa habbas, the white acacia, the Acacia
+      Parnesxana&mdash;and the pomegranate tree, increase in number with the
+      distance from the Mediterranean.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Egyptian name for the tamarisk, <i>asari, asri</i>, is
+     identical with that given to it in Semitic languages, both
+     ancient and modern.    This would suggest the question
+     whether the tamarisk did not originally come from Asia. In
+     that case it must have been brought to Egypt from remote
+     antiquity, for it figures in the  Pyramid texts.   Bricks of
+     Nile mud, and Memphite and Theban tombs have yielded us
+     leaves, twigs, and even whole branches of the tamarisk.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0025" id="linklinkimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/040.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="40.jpg Acacias at the Entrance to a Garden Outside Ekhm�m. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 From a drawing by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger,
+     taken in 1884.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The dry air of the valley is marvellously suited to them, but makes the
+      tissue of their foliage hard and fibrous, imparting an aerial aspect, and
+      such faded tints as are unknown to their growth in other climates. The
+      greater number of these trees do not reproduce themselves spontaneously,
+      and tend to disappear when neglected. The Acacia Seyal, formerly abundant
+      by the banks of the river, is now almost entirely confined to certain
+      valleys of the Theban desert, along with a variety of the kernelled
+      d�m-palm, of which a poetical description has come down to us from the
+      Ancient Egyptians. The common d�m-palm bifurcates at eight or ten yards
+      from the ground; these branches are subdivided, and terminate in bunches
+      of twenty to thirty palmate and fibrous leaves, six to eight feet long. At
+      the beginning of this century the tree was common in Upper Egypt, but it
+      is now becoming scarce, and we are within measurable distance of the time
+      when its presence will be an exception north of the first cataract.
+      Willows are decreasing in number, and the persea, one of the sacred trees
+      of Ancient Egypt, is now only to be found in gardens. None of the
+      remaining tree species are common enough to grow in large clusters; and
+      Egypt, reduced to her lofty groves of date-palms, presents the singular
+      spectacle of a country where there is no lack of trees, but an almost
+      entire absence of shade.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0026" id="linklinkimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/041.jpg" width="100%" alt="41.jpg She-ass and Her Foal. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If Egypt is a land of imported flora, it is also a land of imported fauna,
+      and all its animal species have been brought from neighbouring countries.
+      Some of these&mdash;as, for example, the horse and the camel&mdash;were
+      only introduced at a comparatively recent period, two thousand to eighteen
+      hundred years before our era; the camel still later. The animals&mdash;such
+      as the long and short-horned oxen, together with varieties of goats and
+      dogs&mdash;are, like the plants, generally of African origin, and the ass
+      of Egypt preserves an original purity of form and a vigour to which the
+      European donkey has long been a stranger. The pig and the wild boar, the
+      long-eared hare, the hedgehog, the ichneumon, the moufflon, or maned
+      sheep, innumerable gazelles, including the Egyptian gazelles, and
+      antelopes with lyre-shaped horns, are as much West Asian as African, like
+      the carnivors of all sizes, whose prey they are&mdash;the wild cat, the
+      wolf, the jackal, the striped and spotted hyenas, the leopard, the
+      panther, the hunting leopard, and the lion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0027" id="linklinkimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/042.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="042.jpg the Ur�us of Egypt. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from pl. iii. of the Reptiles-
+     Supplement to the <i>Description de �gypte</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, most of the serpents, large and small, are indigenous.
+      Some are harmless, like the colubers; others are venomous, such as the soy
+      tale, the cerastes, the haje viper, and the asp. The asp was worshipped by
+      the Egyptians under the name of ur�us. It occasionally attains to a length
+      of six and a half feet, and when approached will erect its head and
+      inflate its throat in readiness for darting forward. The bite is fatal,
+      like that of the cerastes; birds are literally struck down by the strength
+      of the poison, while the great mammals, and man himself, almost invariably
+      succumb to it after a longer or shorter death-struggle. The ur�us is
+      rarely found except in the desert or in the fields; the scorpion crawls
+      everywhere, in desert and city alike, and if its sting is not always
+      followed by death, it invariably causes terrible pain. Probably there were
+      once several kinds of gigantic serpent in Egypt, analogous to the pythons
+      of equatorial Africa. They are still to be seen in representations of
+      funerary scenes, but not elsewhere; for, like the elephant, the giraffe,
+      and other animals which now only thrive far south, they had disappeared at
+      the beginning of historic times. The hippopotamus long maintained its
+      ground before returning to those equatorial regions whence it had been
+      brought by the Nile. Common under the first dynasties, but afterwards
+      withdrawing to the marshes of the Delta, it there continued to flourish up
+      to the thirteenth century of our era. The crocodile, which came with it,
+      has, like it also, been compelled to beat a retreat. Lord of the river
+      throughout all ancient times, worshipped and protected in some provinces,
+      execrated and proscribed in others, it might still be seen in the
+      neighbourhood of Cairo towards the beginning of our century. In 1840, it
+      no longer passed beyond the neighbourhood of Gebel et-T�r, nor beyond that
+      of Manfal�t in Thirty years later, Mariette asserted that it was steadily
+      retreating before the guns of tourists, and the disturbance which the
+      regular passing of steamboats produced in the deep waters. To-day, no one
+      knows of a single crocodile existing below Aswan, but it continues to
+      infest Nubia, and the rocks of the first cataract: one of them is
+      occasionally carried down by the current into Egypt where it is speedily
+      despatched by the fell�hin, or by some traveller in quest of adventure.
+      The fertility of the soil, and the vastness of the lakes and marshes,
+      attract many migratory birds; passerin� and palmipedes flock thither from
+      all parts of the Mediterranean. Our European swallows, our quails, our
+      geese and wild ducks, our herons&mdash;to mention only the most familiar&mdash;come
+      here to winter, sheltered from cold and inclement weather.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0028" id="linklinkimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/044.jpg" width="100%" alt="044.jpg the Ibis of Egypt. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Even the non-migratory birds are really, for the most part, strangers
+      acclimatized by long sojourn. Some of them&mdash;the turtledove, the
+      magpie, the kingfisher, the partridge, and the sparrow-may be classed with
+      our European species, while others betray their equatorial origin in the
+      brightness of their colours. White and black ibises, red flamingoes,
+      pelicans, and cormorants enliven the waters of the river, and animate the
+      reedy swamps of the Delta in infinite variety. They are to be seen ranged
+      in long files upon the sand-banks, fishing and basking in the sun;
+      suddenly the flock is seized with panic, rises heavily, and settles away
+      further off. In hollows of the hills, eagle and falcon, the merlin, the
+      bald-headed vulture, the kestrel, the golden sparrow-hawk, find
+      inaccessible retreats, whence they descend upon the plains like so many
+      pillaging and well-armed barons. A thousand little chattering birds come
+      at eventide to perch in flocks upon the frail boughs of tamarisk and
+      acacia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0029" id="linklinkimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/045.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="045.jpg the Mormyrus Oxyrhynchus. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many sea-fish make their way upstream to swim in fresh waters-shad,
+      mullet, perch, and labrus&mdash;and carry their excursions far into the
+      Sa�d. Those species which are not Mediterranean came originally, still
+      come annually, from the heart of Ethiopia with the of the Nile, including
+      two kinds of Alestes, the elled turtle, the Bagrus docmac, and the
+      mormyrus. Some attain to a gigantic size, the Bagrus bayad and the turtle
+      to about one yard, the latus to three and a half yards in length, while
+      others, such as the sihlrus (catfish), are noted for their electric
+      properties. Nature seems to have made the fah�ka (the globe-fish) in a fit
+      of playfulness. It is a long fish from beyond the cataracts, and it is
+      carried by the Nile the more easily on account of the faculty it has of
+      filling itself with air, and inflating its body at will.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0030" id="linklinkimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/046.jpg" width="100%" alt="046.jpg Ahaka " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When swelled out immoderately, the fah�ka overbalances, and drifts along
+      upside down, its belly to the wind, covered with spikes so that it looks
+      like a hedgehog. During the inundation, it floats with the current from
+      one canal to another, and is cast by the retreating waters upon the muddy
+      fields, where it becomes the prey of birds or of jackals, or serves as a
+      plaything for children.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0031" id="linklinkimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/047.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="47.jpg Two Fishermen Carrying a Latus. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a Med�m painting.    P�trie,
+     <i>Med�m</i>, pl. xii.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Everything is dependent upon the river:&mdash;the soil, the produce of the
+      soil, the species of animals it bears, the birds which it feeds: and hence
+      it was the Egyptians placed the river among their gods. They personified
+      it as a man with regular features, and a vigorous and portly body, such as
+      befits the rich of high lineage. His breasts, fully developed like those
+      of a woman, though less firm, hang heavily upon a wide bosom where the fat
+      lies in folds. A narrow girdle, whose ends fall free about the thighs,
+      supports his spacious abdomen, and his attire is completed by sandals, and
+      a close-fitting head-dress, generally surmounted with a crown of
+      water-plants. Sometimes water springs from his breast; sometimes he
+      presents a frog, or libation vases; or holds a bundle of the cruces
+      ansato, as symbols of life; or bears a flat tray, full of offerings&mdash;bunches
+      of flowers, ears of corn, heaps of fish, and geese tied together by the
+      feet. The inscriptions call him, "H�pi, father of the gods, lord of
+      sustenance, who maketh food to be, and covereth the two lands of Egypt
+      with his products; who giveth life, banisheth want, and filleth the
+      granaries to overflowing." He is evolved into two personages, one being
+      sometimes coloured red, and the other blue. The former, who wears a
+      cluster of lotus-flowers upon his head, presides over the Egypt of the
+      south; the latter has a bunch of papyrus for his head-dress, and watches
+      over the Delta.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     [**]  Wilkinson was the first who suggested that this god,
+     when painted red was the Red (that is High) Nile and when
+     painted blue, was to be identified with the Low Nile.
+     This opinion has since been generally adopted; but to me it
+     does not appear so incontrovertible as it has been
+     considered. Here, as in other cases, the difference in
+     colour is only a means of making the distinction between two
+     personages obvious to sight.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two goddesses, corresponding to the two H�pis&mdash;Mirit Qim�it for
+      Upper, and Mirit M�hit for Lower Egypt&mdash;personified the banks of the
+      river. They are often represented as standing with outstretched arms, as
+      though begging for the water which should make them fertile. The Nile-god
+      had his chapel in every province, and priests whose right it was to bury
+      all bodies of men or beasts cast up by the river; for the god had claimed
+      them, and to his servants they belonged.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0032" id="linklinkimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/048.jpg" width="100%" alt="048.jpg the Nile God. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 THE NILE GOD: Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a statue in
+     the British Museum. The dedication of this statue took place
+     about 880 B.c. The giver was Sheshonqu, high-priest of Amon
+     in Thebes, afterwards King of Egypt under the name of
+     Sheshhonq� II., and he is represented as standing behind the
+     leg of the god.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0033" id="linklinkimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/049.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="049.jpg the Shrine of The Nile at Biggeh.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Reproduced from a bas-relief in the small temple of
+     Philae, built by Rajan and his successors.    The window or
+     door of this temple opened upon gen, and by comparing the
+     drawing of the Egyptian artist with the view i the end of
+     the chamber, it is easy to recognize the original of this
+     cliff bouette in the piled-up rocks of the island.    By a
+     mistake of the modern copyist's, his drawing faces the wrong
+     way.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Several towns were dedicated to him: H�th�pi, N�it-H�pi, Nilo-polis. It
+      was told in the Theba�d how the god dwelt within a grotto, or shrine
+      (tophit), in the island of Biggeh, whence he issued at the inundation.
+      This tradition dates from a time when the cataract was believed to be at
+      the end of the world, and to bring down the heavenly river upon earth. Two
+      yawning gulfs (<i>qor�ti</i>), at the foot of the two granite cliffs (<i>mon�ti</i>)
+      between which it ran, gave access to this mysterious retreat. A bas-relief
+      from Philae represents blocks of stone piled one above another, the
+      vulture of the south and the hawk of the north, each perched on a summit,
+      wearing a panther skin, with both arms upheld in adoration. The statue is
+      mutilated: the end of the nose, the beard, and part of the tray have
+      disappeared, but are restored in the illustration. The two little birds
+      hanging alongside the geese, together with a bunch of ears of corn, are
+      fat quails, and the circular chamber wherein H�pi crouches concealed,
+      clasping a libation vase in either hand. A single coil of a serpent
+      outlines the contour of this chamber, and leaves a narrow passage between
+      its overlapping head and tail through which the rising waters may overflow
+      at the time appointed, bringing to Egypt "all things good, and sweet, and
+      pure," whereby gods and men are fed. Towards the summer solstice, at the
+      very moment when the sacred water from the gulfs of Syene reached
+      Silsileh, the priests of the place, sometimes the reigning sovereign, or
+      one of his sons, sacrificed a bull and geese, and then cast into the
+      waters a sealed roll of papyrus. This was a written order to do all that
+      might insure to Egypt the benefits of a normal inundation. When Pharaoh
+      himself deigned to officiate, the memory of the event was preserved by a
+      stela engraved upon the rocks. Even in his absence, the festivals of the
+      Nile were among the most solemn and joyous of the land. According to a
+      tradition transmitted from age to age, the prosperity or adversity of the
+      year was dependent upon the splendour and fervour with which they were
+      celebrated. Had the faithful shown the slightest lukewarmness, the Nile
+      might have refused to obey the command and failed to spread freely over
+      the surface of the country. Peasants from a distance, each bringing his
+      own provisions, ate their meals together for days, and lived in a state of
+      brutal intoxication as long as this kind of fair lasted. On the great day
+      itself, the priests came forth in procession from the sanctuary, bearing
+      the statue of the god along the banks, to the sound of instruments and the
+      chanting of hymns.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0034" id="linklinkimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/051.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="051.jpg Nile Gods from the Temple of Seti I. At Abydos Bringing Food to Every Nome of Egypt. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 From a drawing by Faucher-Gudin, after a photograph by
+     B�ato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      "I.&mdash;Hail to thee, H�pi!&mdash;who appearest in the land and comest&mdash;to
+      give life to Egypt;&mdash;thou who dost hide thy coming in darkness&mdash;in
+      this very day whereon thy coming is sung,&mdash;wave, which spreadest over
+      the orchards created by Ra&mdash;to give life to all them that are athirst&mdash;who
+      refusest to give drink unto the desert&mdash;of the overflow of the waters
+      of heaven; as soon as thou descendest,&mdash;Sib�, the earth-god, is
+      enamoured of bread,&mdash;Napri, the god of grain, presents his offering,&mdash;Phtah
+      maketh every workshop to prosper.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "II.&mdash;Lord of the fish! as soon as he passeth the cataract&mdash;the
+      birds no longer descend upon the fields;&mdash;creator of corn, maker of
+      barley,&mdash;he prolongeth the existence of temples.&mdash;Do his fingers
+      cease from their labours, or doth he suffer?&mdash;then are all the
+      millions of beings in misery;&mdash;doth he wane in heaven? then the gods&mdash;themselves,
+      and all men perish.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "III.&mdash;The cattle are driven mad, and all the world&mdash;both great
+      and small, are in torment!&mdash;But if, on the contrary, the prayers of
+      men are heard at his rising&mdash;and (for them) he maketh himself Khn�m�,&mdash;when
+      he ariseth, then the earth shouts for joy,&mdash;then are all bellies
+      joyful,&mdash;each back is shaken with laughter,&mdash;and every tooth
+      grindeth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "IV.&mdash;Bringing food, rich in sustenance,&mdash;creator of all good
+      things,&mdash;lord of all seeds of life, pleasant unto his elect,&mdash;if
+      his friendship is secured&mdash;he produceth fodder for the cattle,&mdash;and
+      he provideth for the sacrifices of all the gods,&mdash;finer than any
+      other is the incense which cometh from him;&mdash;he taketh possession of
+      the two lands&mdash;and the granaries are filled, the storehouses are
+      prosperous,&mdash;and the goods of the poor are multiplied.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "V.&mdash;He is at the service of all prayers to answer them,&mdash;withholding
+      nothing. To make boats to be that is his strength.&mdash;Stones are not
+      sculptured for him&mdash;nor statues whereon the double crown is placed;&mdash;he
+      is unseen;&mdash;no tribute is paid unto him and no offerings are brought
+      unto him,&mdash;he is not charmed by words of mystery;&mdash;the place of
+      his dwelling is unknown, nor can his shrine be found by virtue of magic
+      writings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "VI.&mdash;There is no house large enough for thee,&mdash;nor any who may
+      penetrate within thy heart!&mdash;Nevertheless, the generations of thy
+      children rejoice in thee&mdash;for thou dost rule as a king&mdash;whose
+      decrees are established for the whole earth,&mdash;who is manifest in
+      presence of the people of the South and of the North,&mdash;by whom the
+      tears are washed from every eye,&mdash;and who is lavish of his bounties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "VII.&mdash;Where sorrow was, there doth break forth joy&mdash;and every
+      heart rejoiceth. Sovk�, the crocodile, the child of Nit, leaps for
+      gladness;[*]&mdash;for the Nine gods who accompany thee have ordered all
+      things,&mdash;the overflow giveth drink unto the fields&mdash;and maketh
+      all men valiant; one man taketh to drink of the labour of another,&mdash;without
+      charge being brought against him.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The goddess N�t, the heifer born from the midst of the
+     primordial waters, had two crocodiles as her children, which
+     are sometimes represented on the monuments as hanging from
+     her bosom. Both the part played by these animals, and the
+     reason for connecting them with the goddess, are still
+     imperfectly understood.
+
+     ** This is an allusion to the quarrels and lawsuits
+     resulting from the distribution of the water in years when
+     the Nile was poor or bad.    If the inundation is abundant,
+     disputes are at an end.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      "IX.&mdash;If thou dost enter in the midst of songs to go forth in the
+      midst of gladness,&mdash;if they dance with joy when thou comest forth out
+      of the unknown,&mdash;it is that thy heaviness is death and corruption.&mdash;And
+      when thou art implored to give the water of the year,&mdash;the people of
+      the Thebai'd and of the North are seen side by side,&mdash;each man with
+      the tools of his trade,&mdash;none tarrieth behind his neighbour;&mdash;of
+      all those who clothed themselves, no man clotheth himself (with festive
+      garments)&mdash;the children of Thot, the god of riches, no longer adorn
+      themselves with jewels,&mdash;nor the Nine gods, but they are in the
+      night!&mdash;As soon as thou hast answered by the rising,&mdash;each one
+      anointeth himself with perfumes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "X.&mdash;Establisher of true riches, desire of men,&mdash;here are
+      seductive words in order that thou mayest reply;&mdash;if thou dost answer
+      mankind by waves of the heavenly Ocean,&mdash;Napri, the grain-god,
+      presents his offering,&mdash;all the gods adore (thee),&mdash;the birds no
+      longer descend upon the hills;&mdash;though that which thy hand formeth
+      were of gold&mdash;or in the shape of a brick of silver,&mdash;it is not
+      lapis-lazuli that we eat,&mdash;but wheat is of more worth than precious
+      stones.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "XI.&mdash;They have begun to sing unto thee upon the harp,&mdash;they
+      sing unto thee keeping time with their hands,&mdash;and the generations of
+      thy children rejoice in thee, and they have filled thee with salutations
+      of praise;&mdash;for it is the god of Riches who adorneth the earth,&mdash;who
+      maketh barks to prosper in the sight of man&mdash;who rejoiceth the heart
+      of women with child&mdash;who loveth the increase of the flocks.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "XII.&mdash;When thou art risen in the city of the Prince,&mdash;then is
+      the rich man filled&mdash;the small man (the poor) disdaineth the lotus,&mdash;all
+      is solid and of good quality,&mdash;all herbage is for his children.&mdash;Doth
+      he forget to give food?&mdash;prosperity forsaketh the dwellings,&mdash;and
+      earth falleth into a wasting sickness."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0035" id="linklinkimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/053.jpg" width="100%" alt="055.jpg Libyan Mountains " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The word Nile is of uncertain origin. We have it from the Greeks, and they
+      took it from a people foreign to Egypt, either from the Phoenicians, the
+      Kh�ti, the Libyans, or from people of Asia Minor. When the Egyptians
+      themselves did not care to treat their river as the god H�pi, they called
+      it the sea, or the great river. They had twenty terms or more by which to
+      designate the different phases which it assumed according to the seasons,
+      but they would not have understood what was meant had one spoken to them
+      of the Nile. The name Egypt also is part of the Hellenic tradition;
+      perhaps it was taken from the temple-name of Memphis, H�ik�phtah, which
+      barbarian coast tribes of the Mediterranean must long have had ringing in
+      their ears as that of the most important and wealthiest town to be found
+      upon the shores of their sea. The Egyptians called themselves Bomit�,
+      Bot�, and their country Q�mit, the black land. Whence came they? How far
+      off in time are we to carry back the date of their arrival? The oldest
+      monuments hitherto known scarcely transport us further than six thousand
+      years, yet they are of an art so fine, so well determined in its main
+      outlines, and reveal so ingeniously combined a system of administration,
+      government, and religion, that we infer a long past of accumulated
+      centuries behind them. It must always be difficult to estimate exactly the
+      length of time needful for a race as gifted as were the Ancient Egyptians
+      to rise from barbarism into a high degree of culture. Nevertheless, I do
+      not think that we shall be misled in granting them forty or fifty
+      centuries wherein to bring so complicated an achievement to a successful
+      issue, and in placing their first appearance at eight or ten thousand
+      years before our era. Their earliest horizon was a very limited one. Their
+      gaze might wander westward over the ravine-furrowed plains of the Libyan
+      desert without reaching that fabled land of Manu where the sun set every
+      evening; but looking eastward from the valley, they could see the peak of
+      B�kh�, which marked the limit of regions accessible to man.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Beyond these regions lay the beginnings of To-n�tri, the land of the gods,
+      and the breezes passing over it were laden with its perfumes, and
+      sometimes wafted them to mortals lost in the desert.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The  perfumes  and the  odoriferous woods of the Divine
+     Land were celebrated in Egypt. A traveller or hunter,
+     crossing the desert, "could not but be vividly impressed by
+     suddenly becoming aware, in the very midst of the desert, of
+     the penetrating scent of the <i>robul (Puliciaria undulata</i>,
+     Schwbine.), which once followed us throughout a day and two
+     nights, in some places without our being able to distinguish
+     whence it came; as, for instance, when we were crossing
+     tracts of country without any traces of vegetation whatever."
+     (Golenischeff).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Northward, the world came to an end towards the lagoons of the Delta,
+      whose inaccessible islands were believed to be the sojourning-place of
+      souls after death. As regards the south, precise knowledge of it scarcely
+      went beyond the defiles of Gebel Sil-sileh, where the last remains of the
+      granite threshold had perhaps not altogether disappeared. The district
+      beyond Gebel Silsileh, the province of Kon�sit, was still a foreign and
+      almost mythic country, directly connected with heaven by means of the
+      cataract. Long after the Egyptians had broken through this restricted
+      circle, the names of those places which had as it were marked out their
+      frontiers, continued to be associated in their minds with the idea of the
+      four cardinal points. B�kh� and Manu were still the most frequent
+      expressions for the extreme East and West. Nekhabit and B�to, the most
+      populous towns in the neighbourhoods of Gebel Silsileh and the ponds of
+      the Delta, were set over against each other to designate South and North.
+      It was within these narrow limits that Egyptian civilization struck root
+      and ripened, as in a closed vessel. What were the people by whom it was
+      developed, the country whence they came, the races to which they belonged,
+      is to-day unknown. The majority would place their cradle-land in Asia,[*]
+      but cannot agree in determining the route which was followed in the
+      emigration to Africa.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The greater number of contemporary Egyptologists, Brugsch,
+     Ebers,&mdash;Lauth, Lieblein, have rallied to this opinion, in
+     the train of E. de Roug�; but the most extreme position has
+     been taken up by Hommel, the Assyriologist, who is inclined
+     to derive Egyptian civilization entirely from the
+     Babylonian. After having summarily announced this thesis in
+     his <i>Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens</i>, p. 12, et seq.,
+     he has set it forth at length in a special treatise, <i>Der
+     Babylonische Ursprung der �gyptischen Kultur</i>, 1892, wherein
+     he endeavours to prove that the Heliopolitan myths, and
+     hence the whole Egyptian religion, are derived from the
+     cults of Erid�, and would make the name of the Egyptian city
+     On�, or An�, identical with that of <i>N�n-H, N�n</i>, which is
+     borne by the Chaldean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some think that the people took the shortest road across the Isthmus of
+      Suez, others give them longer peregrinations and a more complicated
+      itinerary. They would have them cross the Straits of Bab el-Mandeb, and
+      then the Abyssinian mountains, and, spreading northward and keeping along
+      the Nile, finally settle in the Egypt of to-day. A more minute examination
+      compels us to recognize that the hypothesis of an Asiatic origin, however
+      attractive it may seem, is somewhat difficult to maintain. The bulk of the
+      Egyptian population presents the characteristics of those white races
+      which have been found established from all antiquity on the Mediterranean
+      slope of the Libyan continent; this population is of African origin, and
+      came to Egypt from the West or South-West. In the valley, perhaps, it may
+      have met with a black race which it drove back or destroyed; and there,
+      perhaps, too, it afterwards received an accretion of Asiatic elements,
+      introduced by way of the isthmus and the marshes of the Delta. But
+      whatever may be the origin of the ancestors of the Egyptians, they were
+      scarcely settled upon the banks of the Nile before the country conquered,
+      and assimilated them to itself, as it has never ceased to do in the case
+      of strangers who have occupied it. At the time when their history begins
+      for us, all the inhabitants had long formed but one people, with but one
+      language.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This language seems to be connected with the Semitic tongues by many of
+      its roots. It forms its personal pronouns, whether isolated or suffixed,
+      in a similar way. One of the tenses of the conjugation, and that the
+      simplest and most archaic, is formed with identical affixes. Without
+      insisting upon resemblances which are open to doubt, it may be almost
+      affirmed that most of the grammatical processes used in Semitic languages
+      are to be found in a rudimentary condition in Egyptian. One would say that
+      the language of the people of Egypt and the languages of the Semitic
+      races, having once belonged to the same group, had separated very early,
+      at a time when the vocabulary and the grammatical system of the group had
+      not as yet taken definite shape. Subject to different influences, the two
+      families would treat in diverse fashion the elements common to both. The
+      Semitic dialects continued to develop for centuries, while the Egyptian
+      language, although earlier cultivated, stopped short in its growth. "If it
+      is obvious that there was an original connexion between the language of
+      Egypt and that of Asia, this connexion is nevertheless sufficiently remote
+      to leave to the Egyptian race a distinct physiognomy." We recognize it in
+      sculptured and painted portraits, as well as in thousands of mummied
+      bodies out of subterranean tombs. The highest type of Egyptian was tall
+      and slender, with a proud and imperious air in the carriage of his head
+      and in his whole bearing. He had wide and full shoulders, well-marked and
+      vigorous pectoral muscles, muscular arms, a long, fine hand, slightly
+      developed hips, and sinewy legs. The detail of the knee-joint and the
+      muscles of the calf are strongly marked beneath the skin; the long, thin,
+      and low-arched feet are flattened out at the extremities owing to the
+      custom of going barefoot. The head is rather short, the face oval, the
+      forehead somewhat retreating. The eyes are wide and fully opened, the
+      cheekbones not too marked, the nose fairly prominent, and either straight
+      or aquiline. The mouth is long, the lips full, and lightly ridged along
+      their outline; the teeth small, even, well-set, and remarkably sound; the
+      ears are set high on the head. At birth the skin is white, but darkens in
+      proportion to its exposure to the sun. Men are generally painted red in
+      the pictures, though, as a matter of fact, there must already have been
+      all the shades which we see among the present population^ from a most
+      delicate, rose-tinted complexion to that of a smoke-coloured bronze.
+      Women, who were less exposed to the sun, are generally painted yellow, the
+      tint paler in proportion as they rise in the social scale. The hair was
+      inclined to be wavy, and even to curl into little ringlets, but without
+      ever turning into the wool of the negro.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0036" id="linklinkimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="059.jpg the Noble Type of Egyptian. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Statue of R�nofir in the G�zeh Museum (Vth dynasty), after
+     a photograph by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0037" id="linklinkimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/060.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="060.jpg Head of a Tileban Mummy. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The beard was scanty, thick only upon the chin. Such was the highest type;
+      the commoner was squat, dumpy, and heavy. Chest and shoulders seem to be
+      enlarged at the expense of the pelvis and the hips, to such an extent as
+      to make the want of proportion between the upper and lower parts of the
+      body startling and ungraceful. The skull is long, somewhat retreating, and
+      slightly flattened on the top; the features are coarse, and as though
+      carved in flesh by great strokes of the blocking-out chisel. Small
+      frseuated eyes, a short nose, flanked by widely distended nostrils, round
+      cheeks, a square chin, thick, but not curling lips&mdash;this unattractive
+      and ludicrous physiognomy, sometimes animated by an expression of cunning
+      which recalls the shrewd face of an old French peasant, is often lighted
+      up by gleams of gentleness and of melancholy good-nature. The external
+      characteristics of these two principal types in the ancient monuments, in
+      all varieties of modifications, may still be seen among the living. The
+      profile copied from a Theban mummy taken at hazard from a necropolis of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty, and compared with the likeness of a modern Luxor
+      peasant, would almost pass for a family portrait. Wandering Bishar�n have
+      inherited the type of face of a great noble, the contemporary of Kheops;
+      and any peasant woman of the Delta may bear upon her shoulders che head of
+      a twelfth-dynasty king. A citizen of Cairo, gazing with wonder at the
+      statues of Khafra or of Seti I. in the G�zeh Museum, is himself, feature
+      for feature, the very image of those ancient Pharaohs, though removed from
+      them by fifty centuries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="linklinkwrappings" id="linklinkwrappings"></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="060b (172K)" src="images/060b.jpg" width="100%"
+      title="DECORATED WRAPPINGS FROM A MUMMY (THEBES TOMBS)" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklinkimage-0038" id="linklinkimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/062.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="062.jpg a Fellah Woman With the Features of an Ancient King. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  The face of the woman here given was taken separately,
+     and was subsequently attached to the figure of an Egyptian
+     woman whom Naville had photographed sitting beside a
+     colossal head. The nose of the statue has been restored.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Until quite recently nothing, or all but nothing, had been discovered
+      which could be attributed to the primitive races of Egypt: even the flint
+      weapons and implements which had been found in various places could not be
+      ascribed to them with any degree of certainty, for the Egyptians continued
+      to use stone long after metal was known to them. They made stone
+      arrowheads, hammers, and knives, not only in the time of the Pharaohs, but
+      under the Romans, and during the whole period of the Middle Ages, and the
+      manufacture of them has not yet entirely died out.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  An entire collection of flint tools&mdash;axes, adzes,
+     knives, and sickles&mdash;mostly with wooden handles, were found
+     by Prof. P�trie in the ruins of Kahun, at the entrance to
+     the Fay�m: these go back to the time of the twelfth dynasty,
+     more than three thousand years before our era. Mariette had
+     previously pointed out to the learned world the fact that a
+     Coptic <i>Reis</i>, Sal�b of Abydos, in charge of the
+     excavations, shaved his head with a flint knife, according
+     to the custom of his youth (1820-35). I knew the man, who
+     died at over eighty years of age in 1887; he was still
+     faithful to his flint implement, while his sons and the
+     whole population of El Kharbeh were using nothing but steel
+     razors. As his scalp was scraped nearly raw by the
+     operation, he used to cover his head with fresh leaves to
+     cool the inflamed skin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These objects, and the workshops where they were made, might therefore be
+      less ancient than the greater part of the inscribed monuments. But if so
+      far we had found no examples of any work belonging to the first ages, we
+      met in historic times with certain customs which were out of harmony with
+      the general civilization of the period. A comparison of these customs with
+      analogous practices of barbarous nations threw light upon the former,
+      completed their meaning, and showed us at the same time the successive
+      stages through which the Egyptian people had to pass before reaching their
+      highest civilization. We knew, for example, that even as late as the
+      C�sars, girls belonging to noble families at Thebes were consecrated to
+      the service of Amon, and were thus licensed to a life of immorality,
+      which, however, did not prevent them from making rich marriages when age
+      obliged them to retire from office. Theban women were not the only people
+      in the world to whom such licence was granted or imposed upon them by law;
+      wherever in a civilized country we see a similar practice, we may
+      recognize in it an ancient custom which in the course of centuries has
+      degenerated into a religious observance. The institution of the women of
+      Amon is a legacy from a time when the practice of polyandry obtained, and
+      marriage did not yet exist. Age and maternity relieved them from this
+      obligation, and preserved them from those incestuous connections of which
+      we find examples in other races. A union of father and daughter, however,
+      was perhaps not wholly forbidden,[*] and that of brother and sister seems
+      to have been regarded as perfectly right and natural; the words brother
+      and sister possessing in Egyptian love-songs the same significance as
+      lover and mistress with us.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Rouge held that Rameses II. married at least two of
+     his daughters, Bint Anati and Honittui; Wiedemann admits
+     that Psammetichus I. had in the same way taken to wife
+     Nitocris, who had been born to him by the Theban princess
+     Shapenuapit. The Ach�menidan kings did the same: Artaxerxes
+     married two of his own daughters.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Paternity was necessarily doubtful in a community of this kind, and hence
+      the tie between fathers and children was slight; there being no family, in
+      the sense in which we understand the word, except as it centred around the
+      mother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Maternal descent was, therefore, the only one openly acknowledged, and the
+      affiliation of the child was indicated by the name of the mother alone.
+      When the woman ceased to belong to all, and confined herself to one
+      husband, the man reserved to himself the privilege of taking as many wives
+      as he wished, or as he was able to keep, beginning with his own sisters.
+      All wives did not enjoy identical rights: those born of the same parents
+      as the man, or those of equal rank with himself, preserved their
+      independence. If the law pronounced him the master, <i>nib�</i>, to whom
+      they owed obedience and fidelity, they were mistresses of the house, <i>n�b�t
+      pir�</i>, as well as wives, <i>himit�</i>, and the two words of the title
+      express their condition. Each of them occupied, in fact, her own house, <i>pir�</i>,
+      which she had from her parents or her husband, and of which she was
+      absolute mistress, <i>n�b�t</i>. She lived in it and performed in it
+      without constraint all a woman's duties; feeding the fire, grinding the
+      corn, occupying herself in cooking and weaving, making clothing and
+      perfumes, nursing and teaching her children. When her husband visited her,
+      he was a guest whom she received on an equal footing. It appears that at
+      the outset these various wives were placed under the authority of an older
+      woman, whom they looked on as their mother, and who defended their rights
+      and interests against the master; but this custom gradually disappeared,
+      and in historic times we read of it as existing only in the families of
+      the gods. The female singers consecrated to Amon and other deities, owed
+      obedience to several superiors, of whom the principal (generally the widow
+      of a king or high priest) was called <i>chief-superior of the ladies of
+      the harem of Amon</i>. Besides these wives, there were concubines, slaves
+      purchased or born in the house, prisoners of war, Egyptians of inferior
+      class, who were the chattels of the man and of whom he could dispose as he
+      wished. All the children of one father were legitimate, whether their
+      mother were a wife or merely a concubine, but they did not all enjoy the
+      same advantages; those among them who were born of a brother or sister
+      united in legitimate marriage, took precedence of those whose mother was a
+      wife of inferior rank or a slave. In the family thus constituted, the
+      woman, to all appearances, played the principal part. Children recognized
+      the parental relationship in the mother alone. The husband appears to have
+      entered the house of his wives, rather than the wives to have entered his,
+      and this appearance of inferiority was so marked that the Greeks were
+      deceived by it. They affirmed that the woman was supreme in Egypt; the man
+      at the time of marriage promised obedience to her and entered into a
+      contract not to raise any objection to her commands.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We had, therefore, good grounds for supposing that the first Egyptians
+      were semi-savages, like those still living in Africa and America, having
+      an analogous organization, and similar weapons and tools. A few lived in
+      the desert, in the oasis of Libya, or in the deep valleys of the Red Land&mdash;Doshirit,
+      To Doshiru&mdash;between the Nile and the sea; the poverty of the country
+      fostering their native savagery. Others, settled on the Black Land,
+      gradually became civilized, and we have found of late considerable remains
+      of those of their generations who, if not anterior to the times of written
+      records, were at least contemporary with the earliest kings of the first
+      historical dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0039" id="linklinkimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/066.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="066.jpg Negro Prisoners Wearing the Panther's Skist As A Loin-cloth. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Their houses were like those of the fellahs of to-day, low huts of wattle
+      daubed with puddled clay, or of bricks dried in the sun. They contained
+      one room, either oblong or square, the door being the only aperture. Those
+      of the richer class only were large enough to make it needful to support
+      the roof by means of one or more trunks of trees, which did duty for
+      columns. Earthen pots, turned by hand, flint knives and other implements,
+      mats of reeds or plaited straw, two flat stones for grinding corn, a few
+      pieces of wooden furniture, stools, and head-rests for use at night,
+      comprised all the contents. Their ordinary pottery is heavy and almost
+      devoid of ornament, but some of the finer kinds have been moulded and
+      baked in wickerwork baskets, which have left a quaint trellis-like
+      impression on the surface of the clay. In many cases the vases are
+      bicolour, the body being of a fine smooth red, polished with a stone,
+      while the neck and base are of an intense black, the surface of which is
+      even more shining than that of the red part. Sometimes they are ornamented
+      with patterns in white of flowers, palms, ostriches, gazelles, boats with
+      undulated or broken lines, or geometrical figures of a very simple nature.
+      More often the ground is coloured a fine yellow, and the decoration has
+      been traced in red lines. Jars, saucers, double vases, flat plates, large
+      cups, supports for amphorae, trays raised on a foot&mdash;in short, every
+      kind of form is found in use at that remote period. The men went about
+      nearly naked, except the nobles, who wore a panther's skin, sometimes
+      thrown over the shoulders, sometimes drawn round the waist, and covering
+      the lower part of the body, the animal's tail touching the heels behind,
+      as we see later in several representations of the negroes of the Upper
+      Nile. They smeared their limbs with grease or oil, and they tattooed their
+      faces and bodies, at least in part; but in later times this practice was
+      retained by the lower classes only. On the other hand, the custom of
+      painting the face was never given up. To complete their toilet, it was
+      necessary to accentuate the arch of the eyebrow with a line of kohl
+      (antimony powder). A similar black line surrounded and prolonged the oval
+      of the eye to the middle of the temple, a layer of green coloured the
+      under lid, and ochre and carmine enlivened the tints of the cheeks and
+      lips. The hair, plaited, curled, oiled, and plastered with grease, formed
+      an erection which was as complicated in the case of the man as in that of
+      the woman.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0040" id="linklinkimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/068.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="068.jpg Notable Wearing the Large Cloak over The Left Shoulder. 1; and Priest Wearing the Panther's Skin Across The Breast. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Wooden statue in the G�zeh Museum (IVth dynasty), drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by B�chard.
+
+     2 Statue of the second prophet of Amon, Aa-nen, in the Turin
+     Museum (XVIIIth dynasty).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Should the hair be too short, a black or blue wig, dressed with much
+      skill, was substituted for it; ostrich feathers waved on the heads of
+      warriors, and a large lock, flattened behind the right ear, distinguished
+      the military or religious chiefs from their subordinates. When the art of
+      weaving became common, a belt and loin-cloth of white linen replaced the
+      leathern garment. Fastened round the waist, but so low as to leave the
+      navel uncovered, the loin-cloth frequently reached to the knee; the hinder
+      part was frequently drawn between the legs and attached in front to the
+      belt, thus forming a kind of drawers. Tails of animals and wild beast's
+      skin were henceforth only the insignia of authority with which priests and
+      princes adorned themselves on great days and at religious ceremonies. The
+      skin was sometimes carelessly thrown over the left shoulder and swayed
+      with the movement of the body; sometimes it was carefully adjusted over
+      one shoulder and under the other, so as to bring the curve of the chest
+      into prominence. The head of the animal, skilfully prepared and enlivened
+      by large eyes of enamel, rested on the shoulder or fell just below the
+      waist of the wearer; the paws, with the claws attached, hung down over the
+      thighs; the spots of the skin were manipulated so as to form five-pointed
+      stars. On going out-of-doors, a large wrap was thrown over all; this
+      covering was either smooth or hairy, similar to that in which the Nubians
+      and Abyssinians of the present day envelop themselves. It could be draped
+      in various ways; transversely over the left shoulder like the fringed
+      shawl of the Chaldeans, or hanging straight from both shoulders like a
+      mantle.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     ** This costume, to which Egyptologists have not given
+     sufficient attention, is frequently represented on the
+     monuments. Besides the two statues reproduced above, I may
+     cite those of Uahibri and of Thoth-nofir in the Louvre, and
+     the Lady Nofrit in the G�zeh Museum. Thothotp� in his tomb
+     wears this mantle. Khnumhotp� and several of his workmen are
+     represented in it at Beni-Hasan, as also one of the princes
+     of Elephantine in the recently discovered tombs, besides
+     many Egyptians of all classes in the tombs  of  Thebes  (a
+     good  example  is  in  the tomb  of Harmhabi).    The reason
+     why it does not figure more often is, in the first place,
+     that the Egyptian artists experienced actual difficulty in
+     representing the folds of its drapery, although these were
+     simple compared with the complicated arrangement of the
+     Roman toga; finally, the wall-paintings mostly portray
+     either interior scenes, or agricultural labour, or the work
+     of various trades, or episodes of war, or religious
+     ceremonies, in all of which the mantle plays no part. Every
+     Egyptian peasant, however, possessed his own, and it was in
+     constant use in his daily life.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In fact, it did duty as a cloak, sheltering the wearer from the sun or
+      from the rain, from the heat or from the cold. They never sought to
+      transform it into a luxurious garment of state, as was the case in later
+      times with the Roman toga, whose amplitude secured a certain dignity of
+      carriage, and whose folds, carefully adjusted beforehand, fell around the
+      body with studied grace. The Egyptian mantle when not required was thrown
+      aside and folded up. The material being fine and soft it occupied but a
+      small space and was reduced to a long thin roll; the ends being then
+      fastened together, it was slung over the shoulder and round the body like
+      a cavalry cloak.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Many draughtsmen, ignorant of what they had to represent,
+     have made incorrect copies of the manner in which this cloak
+     was worn; but examples of it are numerous, although until
+     now attention has not been called to them. The following are
+     a few instances taken at random of the way in which it was
+     used: Pepi I., fighting against the nomads of Sinai, has the
+     cloak, but with the two ends passed through the belt of his
+     loin-cloth; at Zawyet el-Maiyit�n, Khunas, killing birds
+     with the boomerang from his boat, wears it, but simply
+     thrown over the left shoulder, with the two extremities
+     hanging free. Khnumhotp� at Beni-Hasan, the Khrihdbi, the
+     overseers, or the peasants, all have it rolled and slung
+     round them; the Prince of el-Bersheh wears it like a mantle
+     in folds over the two shoulders. If it is objected that the
+     material could not be reduced to such small dimensions as
+     those represented in these drawings of what I believe to be
+     the Egyptian cloak, I way cite our cavalry capes, when
+     rolled and slung, as an instance of what good packing will
+     do in reducing volume.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0041" id="linklinkimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/070.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="070.jpg a Dignitary Wrapped in his Large Cloak. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Statue of Khiti in the G�zeh Museum (XIIth and XIIIth
+     dynasties), drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Travellers, shepherds, all those whose occupations called them to the
+      fields, carried it as a bundle at the ends of their sticks; once arrived
+      at the scene of their work, they deposited it in a corner with their
+      provisions until they required it. The women were at first contented with
+      a loin-cloth like that of the men; it was enlarged and lengthened till it
+      reached the ankle below and the bosom above, and became a tightly fitting
+      garment, with two bands over the shoulders, like braces, to keep it in
+      place. The feet were not always covered; on certain occasions, however,
+      sandals of coarse leather, plaited straw, split reed, or even painted
+      wood, adorned those shapely Egyptian feet, which, to suit our taste,
+      should be a little shorter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0042" id="linklinkimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/072.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="072.jpg Costume of Egyptian Woman, Spinning. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the spinning-women at
+     the Paris Exhibition of 1889. It was restored from the
+     paintings in the tomb of Khnumhotp� at Beni-Hasan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Both men and women loved ornaments, and covered their necks, breasts,
+      arms, wrists, and ankles with many rows of necklaces and bracelets. The
+      bracelets were made of elephant ivory, mother-of-pearl, or even flint,
+      very cleverly perforated. The necklaces were composed of strings of
+      pierced shells,[**] interspersed with seeds and little pebbles, either
+      sparkling or of unusual shapes.[***] Subsequently imitations in
+      terra-cotta replaced the natural shells, and precious stones were
+      substituted for pebbles, as were also beads of enamel, either round,
+      pear-shaped, or cylindrical: the necklaces were terminated and a uniform
+      distance maintained between the rows of beads, by several slips of wood,
+      bone, ivory, porcelain, or terra-cotta, pierced with holes, through which
+      ran the threads.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  The burying-places of Abydos, especially the most
+     ancient, have furnished us with millions of shells, pierced
+     and threaded as necklaces; they all belong to the species of
+     cowries used as money in Africa at the present day.
+
+     ***  Necklaces of seeds have been found in the tombs of
+     Abydos, Thebes, and Gebel�n.    Of  these  Schweinfurth
+     has  identified,   among others,   the <i>Cassia absus</i>,  "a
+     weed of the Soudan whose seeds are sold in the drug bazaar
+     at Cairo and Alexandria under the name of <i>shishn</i>, as a
+     remedy, which is in great request among the natives, for
+     ophthalmia." For the necklaces of pebbles, cf. Maspeeo,
+     Guide du visiteur, pp. 270, 271, No. 4129. A considerable
+     number of these pebbles, particularly those of strange
+     shape, or presenting a curious combination of colours, must
+     have been regarded as amulets or fetishes by their Egyptian
+     owners; analogous cases, among other peoples, have been
+     pointed out by E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. ii. p.
+     189.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0043" id="linklinkimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/073.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="073.jpg Man Wearing Wig and Necklaces.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a portrait of Pharaoh Seti I.
+     of the XIXth dynasty: the lower part of the necklace has
+     been completed.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Weapons, at least among the nobility, were an indispensable part of
+      costume. Most of them were for hand-to-hand fighting: sticks, clubs,
+      lances furnished with a sharpened bone or stone point, axes and daggers of
+      flint,[*] sabres and clubs of bone or wood variously shaped, pointed or
+      rounded at the end, with blunt or sharp blades,&mdash;inoffensive enough
+      to look at, but, wielded by a vigorous hand, sufficient to break an arm,
+      crush in the ribs, or smash a skull with all desirable precision.[**] The
+      plain or triple curved bow was the favourite weapon for attack at a
+      distance,[***] but in addition to this there were the sling, the javelin,
+      and a missile almost forgotten nowadays, the boomerang, we have no proof
+      however, that the Egyptians handled the boomerang[****] with the skill of
+      the Australians, or that they knew how to throw it so as to bring it back
+      to its point of departure.[v]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In several museums, notably at Leyden, we find Egyptian
+     axes of stone, particularly of serpentine, both rough and
+     polished.
+
+     **  In primitive times the bone of an animal served as a
+     club.    This is proved by the shape of the object held in
+     the hand in the sign and the hieroglyph which is the
+     determinative in writing for all ideas   of violence or
+     brute force, comes down to us from a time when the principal
+     weapon was the club, or a bone serving as a club.
+
+     ***  For the two principal shapes of the bow, see Lepsius,
+     Der Bogen in der Hieroglypliik (Zeitschrift, 1872, pp. 79-
+     88). From the earliest times the sign m� portrays the
+     soldier equipped with the bow and bundle of arrows; the
+     quiver was of Asiatic origin, and was not adopted until much
+     later. In the contemporary texts of the first dynasties, the
+     idea of weapons is conveyed by the bow, arrow, and club or
+     axe.
+
+     ****  The boomerang is still used by certain tribes of the
+     Nile valley.    It is portrayed in the most ancient tombs,
+     and every museum possesses examples, varying in shape.
+     Besides the ordinary boomerang, the Egyptians used one which
+     ended in a knob, and another of semicircular shape: this
+     latter, reproduced in miniature in cornelian or in red
+     jasper, served as an amulet, and was placed on the mummy to
+     furnish the deceased in the other world with a fighting or
+     hunting weapon.
+
+     v  The Australian boomerang is much larger than the Egyptian
+     one; it is about a yard in length, two inches in width, and
+     three sixteenths of an inch in thickness. For the manner of
+     handling it, and what can be done with it, see Lubbock,
+     Prehistoric Man, pp. 402, 403.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0044" id="linklinkimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/074.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="074.jpg the Boomerang and Fighting Bow. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting in the tomb of
+     Khnumhotp� at Beni-Hasan.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0045" id="linklinkimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/075.jpg" width="100%" alt="075.jpg Votive Axe. 3 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     3  The blade is of bronze, and is attached to the wooden
+     handle by interlacing thongs of leather (Gizeh Museum).
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Such was approximately the most ancient equipment as far as we can
+      ascertain; but at a very early date copper and iron were known in
+      Egypt.[**] Long before historic times, the majority of the weapons in wood
+      were replaced by those of metal,&mdash;daggers, sabres, hatchets, which
+      preserved, however, the shape of the old wooden instruments.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  Metals were introduced into Egypt in very ancient times,
+     since the class of blacksmiths is associated with the
+     worship of Horus of Edf�, and appears in the account of the
+     mythical wars of that God. The earliest tools we possess, in
+     copper or bronze, date from the IVth dynasty: pieces of iron
+     have been found from time to time in the masonry of the
+     Great Pyramid. Mons Mont�lius has again and again contested
+     the authenticity of these discoveries, and he thinks that
+     iron was not known in Egypt till a much later period.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Those wooden weapons which were retained, were used for hunting, or were
+      only brought out on solemn occasions when tradition had to be respected.
+      The war-baton became the commander's wand of authority, and at last
+      degenerated into the walking-stick of the rich or noble.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0046" id="linklinkimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/076.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="076.jpg King Holding the Baton. 3 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     3  Bas-relief in the temple of Luxor, from a photograph
+     taken by Insinger in 1886.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The club at length represented merely the rank of a chieftain,[*] while
+      the crook and the wooden-handled mace, with its head of ivory, diorite,
+      granite, or white stone, the favourite weapons of princes, continued to
+      the last the most revered insignia of royalty.[**]
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Life was passed in comparative ease and pleasure. Of the ponds left in the
+      open country by the river at its fall, some dried up more or less quickly
+      during the winter, leaving on the soil an immense quantity of fish, the
+      possession of which birds and wild beasts disputed with man.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The wooden club most commonly represented is the usual
+     insignia of a nobleman. Several kinds of clubs, somewhat
+     difficult for us moderns to distinguish, yet bearing
+     different names, formed a part of funereal furniture.
+
+     **  The crook is the sceptre of a prince, a Pharaoh, or a
+     god; the white mace has still the value apparently of a
+     weapon in the hands of the king who brandishes it over a
+     group of prisoners or over an ox which he is sacrificing to
+     a divinity. Most museums possess specimens of the stone
+     heads of these maces, but until lately their use was not
+     known. I had several placed in the Boulak Museum. It already
+     possessed a model of one entirely of wood.
+
+     ***  Cf. the description of these pools given by Geoffroy-
+     Saint-Hilaire in speaking of the fahaka. Even at the present
+     day the jackals come down from the mountains in the night,
+     and regale themselves with the fish left on the ground by
+     the gradual drying up of these ponds.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0047" id="linklinkimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/077.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="077.jpg Fishing in the Marshes " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Other pools, however, remained till the returning inundation, as so many
+      <i>vivaria</i> in which the fish were preserved for dwellers on the banks.
+      Fishing with the harpoon, made either of stone or of metal, with the line,
+      with a net or with traps, were all methods of fishing known and used by
+      the Egyptians from early times. Where the ponds failed, the neighbouring
+      Nile furnished them with inexhaustible supplies. Standing in light canoes,
+      or rather supported by a plank on bundles of reeds bound together, they
+      ventured into mid-stream, in spite of the danger arising from the
+      ever-present hippopotamus; or they penetrated up the canals amid a thicket
+      of aquatic plants, to bring down with the boomerang the birds which found
+      covert there.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0048" id="linklinkimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/078.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="078.jpg Hunting in the Marshes: Encountering and Spearing A Hippopotamus. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Tomb of Ti. Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from D�michen,
+     Besultate, vol. ii. pl. x.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fowl and fish which could not be eaten fresh, were dried, salted, or
+      smoked, and kept for a rainy day. Like the river, the desert had its
+      perils and its resources. Only too frequently, the lion, the leopard, the
+      panther, and other large felidse were met with there.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0049" id="linklinkimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/079.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="079.jpg Hunting in the Desert: Bull, Lion, and Oryx Pierced With Arrows. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting by Beni-Hasan,
+     Lepsius, Denhm., ii. 136.
+
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief of Ptahhotp�.
+     The dogs on the upper level are of hyenoid type, those on
+     the lower are Abyssinian greyhounds.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The nobles, like the Pharaohs of later times, deemed it as their privilege
+      or duty to stalk and destroy these animals, pursuing them even to their
+      dens. The common people preferred attacking the gazelle, the oryx, the
+      mouflon sheep, the ibex, the wild ox, and the ostrich, but did not disdain
+      more humble game, such as the porcupine and long-eared hare: nondescript
+      packs, in which the jackal and the hyena ran side by side with the
+      wolf-dog and the lithe Abyssinian greyhound, scented and retrieved for
+      their master the prey which he had pierced with his arrows. At times a
+      hunter, returning with the dead body of the mother, would be followed by
+      one of her young; or a gazelle, but slightly wounded, would be taken to
+      the village and healed of its hurt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0050" id="linklinkimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/080.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="080.jpg Catching Animals With the Bola. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief of Ptahhotp�.
+     Above are seen two porcupines, the foremost of which,
+     emerging from his hole, has seized a grasshopper.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Such animals by daily contact with man, were gradually tamed, and formed
+      about his dwelling a motley flock, kept partly for his pleasure and mostly
+      for his profit, and becoming in case of necessity a ready stock of
+      provisions.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  In the same way, before the advent of Europeans, the
+     half-civilized tribes of North America used to keep about
+     their huts whole flocks of different animals, which were
+     tame, but not domesticated.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Efforts were therefore made to enlarge this flock, and the wish to procure
+      animals without seriously injuring them, caused the Egyptians to use the
+      net for birds and the lasso and the <i>bola</i> for quadrupeds,[*]&mdash;weapons
+      less brutal than the arrow and the javelin. The <i>bola</i> was made by
+      them of a single rounded stone, attached to a strap about five yards in
+      length. The stone once thrown, the cord twisted round the legs, muzzle, or
+      neck of the animal pursued, and by the attachment thus made the pursuer,
+      using all his strength, was enabled to bring the beast down half
+      strangled. The lasso has no stone attached to it, but a noose prepared
+      beforehand, and the skill of the hunter consists in throwing it round the
+      neck of his victim while running. They caught indifferently, without
+      distinction of size or kind, all that chance brought within their reach.
+      The daily chase kept up these half-tamed flocks of gazelles, wild goats,
+      water-bucks, stocks, and ostriches, and their numbers are reckoned by
+      hundreds on the monuments of the ancient empire.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Hunting with the bola is constantly represented in the
+     paintings both of the Memphite and Theban periods. Wilkinson
+     has confounded it with lasso-hunting, and his mistake has
+     been reproduced by other Egyptologists. Lasso-hunting is
+     seen in Lepsius, Denhn., ii. 96, in D�michen, <i>resultate</i>,
+     vol. i. pl. viii., and particularly in the numerous
+     sacrificial scenes where the king is supposed to be
+     capturing the bull of the north or south, previous to
+     offering it to the god.
+
+     **  As the tombs of the ancient empire show us numerous
+     flocks of gazelles, antelopes, and storks, feeding under the
+     care of shepherds, Fr. Lenormant concluded that the
+     Egyptians of early times had succeeded in domesticating some
+     species, nowadays rebels to restraint. It is my belief that
+     the animals represented were tamed, but not domesticated,
+     and were the result of great hunting expeditions in the
+     desert. The facts which Lenormant brought forward to support
+     his theory may be used against him. For instance, the fawn
+     of the gazelle nourished by its mother does not prove that
+     it was bred in captivity; the gazelle may have been caught
+     before calving, or just after the birth of its young. The
+     fashion of keeping flocks of animals taken from the desert
+     died out between the XIIth and XVIIIth dynasties.    At the
+     time of the new empire, they had only one or two solitary
+     animals as pets for women or children, the mummies of which
+     were sometimes buried by the side of their mistresses.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Experience alone taught the hunter to distinguish between those species
+      from which he could draw profit, and others whose wildness made them
+      impossible to domesticate. The subjection of the most useful kinds had not
+      been finished when the historic period opened.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0051" id="linklinkimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/082.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="082.jpg a Swineherd and his Pigs. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting in a Theban tomb
+     of the XVIIIth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The ass, the sheep, and the goat were already domesticated, but the pig
+      was still out in the marshes in a semi-wild state, under the care of
+      special herdsmen,[*] and the religious rites preserved the remembrance of
+      the times in which the ox was so little tamed, that in order to capture
+      while grazing the animals needed for sacrifice or for slaughter, it was
+      necessary to use the lasso.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The hatred of the Egyptians for the pig (Herodotus, ii.
+     47) is attributed to mythological motives. Lippert thinks
+     this antipathy did not exist in Egypt in primitive times. At
+     the outset the pig would have been the principal food of the
+     people; then, like the dog in other regions, it must have
+     been replaced at the table by animals of a higher order&mdash;
+     gazelles, sheep, goats, oxen&mdash;and would have thus fallen
+     into contempt. To the excellent reasons given by Lippert
+     could be added others drawn from the study of the Egyptian
+     myths, to prove that the pig has often been highly esteemed.
+     Thus, Isis is represented, down to late times, under the
+     form of a sow, and a sow, whether followed or not by her
+     young is one of the amulets placed in the tomb with the
+     deceased, to secure for him the protection of the goddess.
+
+     ***  Mariette, Abydos (vol. i. pl. 48 b, 53).    To prevent
+     the animal from evading the lasso and escaping during the
+     sacrifice, its right hind foot was fastened to its left
+     horn.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Europeans are astonished to meet nowadays whole peoples who make use of
+      herbs and plants whose flavour and properties are nauseating to us: these
+      are mostly so many legacies from a remote past; for example, castor-oil,
+      with which the Berbers rub their limbs, and with which the fellah�n of the
+      Sa�d flavour their bread and vegetables, was preferred before all others
+      by the Egyptians of the Pharaonic age for anointing the body and for
+      culinary use.[*] They had begun by eating indiscriminately every kind of
+      fruit which the country produced. Many of these, when their therapeutic
+      virtues had been learned by experience, were gradually banished as
+      articles of food, and their use restricted to medicine; others fell into
+      disuse, and only reappeared at sacrifices, or at funeral feasts; several
+      varieties continue to be eaten to the present time&mdash;the acid fruits
+      of the nabeca and of the carob tree, the astringent figs of the sycamore,
+      the insipid pulp of the dam-palm, besides those which are pleasant to our
+      Western palates, such as the common fig and the date. The vine flourished,
+      at least in Middle and Lower Egypt; from time immemorial the art of making
+      wine from it was known, and even the most ancient monuments enumerate half
+      a dozen famous brands, red or white.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  I have often been obliged, from politeness, when dining
+     with the native agents appointed by the European powers at
+     Port Sa�d, to eat salads and mayonnaise sauces flavoured
+     with castor-oil; the taste was not so disagreeable as might
+     be at first imagined.
+
+     **  The four kinds of canonical wine, brought respectively
+     from the north, south, east, and west of the country, formed
+     part of the official repast and of the wine-cellar of the
+     deceased from remote antiquity.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Vetches, lupins, beans, chick-peas, lentils, onions, fenugreek,[*] the
+      bami�,[**] the meloukhia,[***] the arum colocasia, all grew wild in the
+      fields, and the river itself supplied its quota of nourishing plants.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  All these species have been found in the tombs and
+     identified by savants in archaeological botany&mdash;Kunth,
+     Unger, Schweinfurth (Loret, <i>La Flore Pharaonique</i>, pp. 17,
+     40, 42, 43, Nos. 33, 97, 102, 104, 105, 106).
+
+     **  The bami�, <i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>, L., is a plant of the
+     family of the Malvaceae, having a fruit of five divisions,
+     covered with prickly hairs, and pontaining round, white,
+     soft seeds, slightly sweet, but astringent in taste, and
+     very mucilaginous.    It figures on the monuments of
+     Pharaonic times.
+
+     ***  The meloukhia, <i>Corchorus Olitorius</i>, L., is a plant
+     belonging to the Tilliacese, which is chopped up and cooked
+     much the same as endive is with us, but which few Europeans
+     can eat with pleasure, owing to the mucilage it contains.
+     Theophrastus says it was celebrated for its bitterness; it
+     was used as food, however, in the Greek town of Alexandria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0052" id="linklinkimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/084.jpg" width="100%" alt="084.jpg the Egyptian Lotus. 4 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     4  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from the <i>Description de
+     l'Egypte</i>, Histoire Naturelle, pl. 61.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two of the species of lotus which grew in the Nile, the white and the
+      blue, have seed-vessels similar to those of the poppy: the capsules
+      contain small grains of the size of millet-seed. The fruit of the pink
+      lotus "grows on a different stalk from that of the flower, and springs
+      directly from the root; it resembles a honeycomb in form," or, to take a
+      more prosaic simile, the rose of a watering-pot. The upper part has twenty
+      or thirty cavities, "each containing a seed as big as an olive stone, and
+      pleasant to eat either fresh or dried." This is what the ancients called
+      the bean of Egypt. "The yearly shoots of the papyrus are also gathered.
+      After pulling them up in the marshes, the points are cut off and rejected,
+      the part remaining being about a cubit in length. It is eaten as a
+      delicacy and is sold in the markets, but those who are fastidious partake
+      of it only after baking." Twenty different kinds of grain and fruits,
+      prepared by crushing between two stones, are kneaded and baked to furnish
+      cakes or bread; these are often mentioned in the texts as cakes of nabeca,
+      date cakes, and cakes of figs. Lily loaves, made from the roots and seeds
+      of the lotus, were the delight of the gourmand, and appear on the tables
+      of the kings of the XIXth dynasty.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Ti�</i>, which is the most ancient word for bread, appears
+     in early times to have been used for every kind of paste,
+     whether made with fruits or grain; the more modern word �q�
+     applies specially to bread made from cereals. The lily
+     loaves are mentioned in the Papyrus Anastasi, No. 4, p. 14.
+     1. 1.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Bread and cakes made of cereals formed the habitual food of the people.
+      Durrah is of African origin; it is the "grain of the South" of the
+      inscriptions. On the other hand, it is supposed that wheat and six-rowed
+      barley came from the region of the Euphrates. Egypt was among the first to
+      procure and cultivate them.[*] The soil there is so kind to man, that in
+      many places no agricultural toil is required.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The position which wheat and barley occupy in the lists
+     of offerings, proves the antiquity of their existence in
+     Egypt. Mariette found specimens of barley in the tombs of
+     the Ancient Empire at Saqqarah.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0053" id="linklinkimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/086.jpg" width="100%" alt="086.jpg the Egyptian Hoe.2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Bas-relief from the tomb of Ti; drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+     from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as the water of the Nile retires, the ground is sown without
+      previous preparation, and the grain, falling straight into the mud, grows
+      as vigorously as in the best-ploughed furrows. Where the earth is hard it
+      is necessary to break it up, but the extreme simplicity of the instruments
+      with which this was done shows what a feeble resistance it offered. For a
+      long time the hoe sufficed. It was composed either of a large stone tied
+      to a wooden handle, or was made of two pieces of wood of unequal length,
+      united at one of their extremities, and held together towards the middle
+      by a slack cord: the plough, when first invented was but a slightly
+      enlarged hoe, drawn by oxen. The cultivation of cereals, once established
+      on the banks of the Nile, developed, from earliest times, to such a degree
+      as to supplant all else: hunting, fishing, the rearing of cattle, occupied
+      but a secondary place compared with agriculture, and Egypt became, that
+      which she still remains, a vast granary of wheat. The part of the valley
+      first cultivated was from Gebel Silsileh to the apex of the Delta.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This was the tradition of all the ancients. Herodotus
+     related that, according to the Egyptians, the whole of
+     Egypt, with the exception of the Theban nome, was a vast
+     swamp previous to the time of Men�s. Aristotle adds that the
+     Red Sea, the Mediterranean, and the area now occupied by the
+     Delta, formed one sea. Cf. pp. 3-5 of this volume, on the
+     formation of the Delta.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0054" id="linklinkimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/087.jpg" width="100%" alt="087.jpg Ploughing. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Bas-relief from the tomb of Ti; drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+     from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Between the Libyan and Arabian ranges it presents a slightly convex
+      surface, furrowed lengthways by a depression, in the bottom of which the
+      Nile is gathered and enclosed when the inundation is over. In the summer,
+      as soon as the river had risen higher than the top of its banks, the water
+      rushed by the force of gravity towards the lower lands, hollowing in its
+      course long channels, some of which never completely dried up, even when
+      the Nile reached its lowest level.[*] Cultivation was easy in the
+      neighbourhood of these natural reservoirs, but everywhere else the
+      movements of the river were rather injurious than advantageous to man. The
+      inundation scarcely ever covered the higher ground in the valley, which
+      therefore remained unproductive; it flowed rapidly over the lands of
+      medium elevation, and moved so sluggishly in the hollows that they became
+      weedy and stagnant pools.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The whole description of the damage which can be done by
+     the Nile in places where the inundation is not regulated, is
+     borrowed from Linant de Bellefonds, <i>M�moire sur les
+     principaux travaux d'utilit� publique</i>, p. 3.
+
+     ** This physical configuration of the country explains the
+     existence at a very early date of those gigantic serpents
+     which I have already mentioned.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0055" id="linklinkimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/089.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="089.jpg an Egyptian Saki� (well) Showing Method Of Procuring Water for Irrigation. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In any year the portion not watered by the river was invaded by the sand:
+      from the lush vegetation of a hot country, there was but one step to
+      absolute aridity. At the present day an ingeniously established system of
+      irrigation allows the agriculturist to direct and distribute the overflow
+      according to his needs. From Gebel Ain to the sea, the Nile and its
+      principal branches are bordered by long dykes, which closely follow the
+      windings of the river and furnish sufficiently stable embankments.
+      Numerous canals lead off to right and left, directed more or less
+      obliquely towards the confines of the valley; they are divided at
+      intervals by fresh dykes, starting at the one side from the river, and
+      ending on the other either at the Bahr Yusuf or at the rising of the
+      desert. Some of these dykes protect one district only, and consist merely
+      of a bank of earth; others command a large extent of territory, and a
+      breach in them would entail the ruin of an entire province. These latter
+      are sometimes like real ramparts, made of crude brick carefully cemented;
+      a few, as at Qosheish, have a core of hewn stones, which later generations
+      have covered with masses of brickwork, and strengthened with constantly
+      renewed buttresses of earth. They wind across the plain with many
+      unexpected and apparently aimless turns; on closer examination, however,
+      it may be seen that this irregularity is not to be attributed to ignorance
+      or caprice. Experience had taught the Egyptians the art of picking out,
+      upon the almost imperceptible relief of the soil, the easiest lines to use
+      against the inundation: of these they have followed carefully the
+      sinuosities, and if the course of the dykes appears singular, it is to be
+      ascribed to the natural configuration of the ground. Subsidiary
+      embankments thrown up between the principal ones, and parallel to the
+      Nile, separate the higher ground bordering the river from the low lands on
+      the confines of the valley; they divide the larger basins into smaller
+      divisions of varying area, in which the irrigation is regulated by means
+      of special trenches. As long as the Nile is falling, the dwellers on its
+      banks leave their canals in free communication with it; but they dam them
+      up towards the end of the winter, just before the return of the
+      inundation, and do not reopen them till early in August, when the new
+      flood is at its height. The waters then flowing in by the trenches are
+      arrested by the nearest transverse dyke and spread over the fields. When
+      they have stood there long enough to saturate the ground, the dyke is
+      pierced, and they pour into the next basin until they are stopped by a
+      second dyke, which in its turn forces them again to spread out on either
+      side. This operation is renewed from dyke to dyke, till the valley soon
+      becomes a series of artificial ponds, ranged one above another, and
+      flowing one into another from Grebel Silsileh to the apex of the Delta. In
+      autumn, the mouth of each ditch is dammed up anew, in order to prevent the
+      mass of water from flowing back into the stream. The transverse dykes,
+      which have been cut in various places, are also repaired, and the basins
+      become completely landlocked, separated by narrow causeways. In some
+      places, the water thus imprisoned is so shallow that it is soon absorbed
+      by the soil; in others, it is so deep, that after it has been kept in for
+      several weeks, it is necessary to let it run off into a neighbouring
+      depression, or straight into the river itself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0056" id="linklinkimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/091.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="091.jpg Boatmen Fighting on a Canal Communicating With The Nile. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Bas-relief from the tomb of Ti;   drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+     from  a photograph by E. Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      History has left us no account of the vicissitudes of the struggle in
+      which the Egyptians were engaged with the Nile, nor of the time expended
+      in bringing it to a successful issue. Legend attributes the idea of the
+      system and its partial working out to the god Osiris: then Men�s, the
+      first mortal king, is said to have made the dyke of Qosheish, on which
+      depends the prosperity of the Delta and Middle Egypt, and the fabulous
+      Mceris is supposed to have extended the blessings of the irrigation to the
+      Fay�m. In reality, the regulation of the inundation and the making of
+      cultivable land are the work of unrecorded generations who peopled the
+      valley. The kings of the historic period had only to maintain and develop
+      certain points of what had already been done, and Upper Egypt is to this
+      day chequered by the network of waterways with which its earliest
+      inhabitants covered it. The work must have begun simultaneously at several
+      points, without previous agreement, and, as it were, instinctively. A dyke
+      protecting a village, a canal draining or watering some small province,
+      demanded the efforts of but few individuals; then the dykes would join one
+      another, the canals would be prolonged till they met others, and the work
+      undertaken by chance would be improved, and would spread with the
+      concurrence of an ever-increasing population. What happened at the end of
+      last century, shows us that the system grew and was developed at the
+      expense of considerable quarrels and bloodshed. The inhabitants of each
+      district carried out the part of the work most conducive to their own
+      interest, seizing the supply of water, keeping it and discharging it at
+      pleasure, without considering whether they were injuring their neighbours
+      by depriving them of their supply or by flooding them; hence arose
+      perpetual strife and fighting. It became imperative that the rights of the
+      weaker should be respected, and that the system of distribution should be
+      co-ordinated, for the country to accept a beginning at least of social
+      organization analogous to that which it acquired later: the Nile thus
+      determined the political as well as the physical constitution of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0057" id="linklinkimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/092.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="092.jpg a Great Egyptian Lord, Ti, and his Wife. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by D�michen,
+     <i>Resultate</i>, vol. ii. pl. vit
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The country was divided among communities, whose members were supposed to
+      be descended from the same seed (<i>pa�t</i>) and to belong to the same
+      family (<i>p��t�</i>): the chiefs of them were called <i>rop��t�</i>, the
+      guardians, or pastors of the family, and in later times their name became
+      a title applicable to the nobility in general. Families combined and
+      formed groups of various importance under the authority of a head chief&mdash;<i>rop��t�-h�</i>.
+      They were, in fact, hereditary lords, dispensing justice, levying taxes in
+      kind on their subordinates, reserving to themselves the redistribution of
+      land, leading their men to, battle, and sacrificing to the gods.[*] The
+      territories over which they exercised authority formed small states, whose
+      boundaries even now, in some places, can be pointed out with certainty.
+      The principality of the Terebinth[**] occupied the very heart of Egypt,
+      where the valley is widest, and the course of the Nile most advantageously
+      disposed by nature&mdash;a country well suited to be the cradle of an
+      infant civilization. Sia�t (Si�t), the capital, is built almost at the
+      foot of the Libyan range, on a strip of land barely a mile in width, which
+      separates the river from the hills. A canal surrounds it on three sides,
+      and makes, as it were, a natural ditch about its walls; during the
+      inundation it is connected with the mainland only by narrow causeways&mdash;shaded
+      with mimosas&mdash;and looking like a raft of verdure aground in the
+      current.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  These prerogatives were still exercised by the princes of
+     the nomes under the Middle and New Empires; they only
+     enjoyed them then by the good will of the reigning
+     sovereign.
+
+     **  The Egyptian word for the tree which gives its name to
+     this principality is <i>atf, iatf, i�tf</i>: it is only by a
+     process of elimination that I have come to identify it with
+     the <i>Pistacia Terebinthus</i>, L., which furnished the
+     Egyptians with the scented resin <i>sn�tir</i>.
+
+     ***  Boudier's drawing, reproduced on p. 31, and taken from
+     a photograph by Beato, gives most faithfully the aspect
+     presented by the plain and the modern town of Siout during
+     the inundation.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0058" id="linklinkimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/094.jpg" width="100%" alt="094.jpg Nomes of Middle Egypt " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The site is as happy as it is picturesque; not only does the town command
+      the two arms of the river, opening or closing the waterway at will, but
+      from time immemorial the most frequented of the routes into Central Africa
+      has terminated at its gates, bringing to it the commerce of the Soudan. It
+      held sway, at the outset, over both banks, from range to range, northward
+      as far as Deyr�t, where the true Bahr Yusuf leaves the Nile, and southward
+      to the neighbourhood of Gebel Sheikh Haridi. The extent and original
+      number of the other principalities is not so easily determined.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The most important, to the north of Si�t, were those of the Hare and the
+      Oleander. The principality of the Hare never reached the dimensions of
+      that of its neighbour the Terebinth, but its chief town was Khm�n�, whose
+      antiquity was so remote, that a universally accepted tradition made it the
+      scene of the most important acts of creation.[*] That of the Oleander, on
+      the contrary, was even larger than that of the Terebinth, and from
+      Hinins�, its chief governor ruled alike over the marshes of the Fay�m and
+      the plains of Beni-Suef.[**] To the south, Ap� on the right bank governed
+      a district so closely shut in between a bend of the Nile and two spurs of
+      the range, that its limits have never varied much since ancient times. Its
+      inhabitants were divided in their employment between weaving and the
+      culture of cereals. From early times they possessed the privilege of
+      furnishing clothing to a large part of Egypt, and their looms, at the
+      present day, still make those checked or striped "melayahs" which the
+      fellah women wear over their long blue tunics.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Khm�n�, the present Ashm�ne�n, is the Hermopolis of the
+     Greeks, the town of the god Thot.
+
+     **  Hinins� is the <i>Heraecleopolis Magna</i> of the Greeks, the
+     present Henassieh, called also Ahnas-el-Medineh. The
+     Egyptian word for the tree which gives its name to this
+     principality, is N�r�t. Loret has shown that this tree,
+     <i>N�r�t</i>, is the oleander.
+
+     ***  Ap� was the Panopolis or Chemmis of the Greeks, the
+     town of the god M�n or ithyphallic Khim�. Its manufactures
+     of linen are mentioned by Strabo; the majority of the
+     beautiful Coptic woven fabrics and embroideries which have
+     been brought to Europe lately, come from the necropolis of
+     the Arab period at Ap�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Beyond Ap�, Thinis, the Girgeh of the Arabs, situate on both banks of the
+      river, rivalled Khm�n� in antiquity and Si�t in wealth: its plains still
+      produce the richest harvests and feed the most numerous herds of sheep and
+      oxen in the Said.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0059" id="linklinkimage-0059">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/096.jpg" width="100%" alt="096.jpg Nomes of Upper Egypt " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As we approach the cataract, information becomes scarcer. Q�bti and A�n�
+      of the South, the Coptos and Hermonthis of the Greeks, shared peaceably
+      the plain occupied later on by Thebes and its temples, and Nekhab�t and
+      Zob� watched over the safety of Egypt. Nekhab�t soon lost its position as
+      a frontier town, and that portion of Nubia lying between Gebel Silsileh
+      and the rapids of Syene formed a kind of border province, of which
+      Nub�t-Ombos was the principal sanctuary and Abu-Elephantine the fortress:
+      beyond this were the barbarians, and those inaccessible regions whence the
+      Nile descended upon our earth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The organization of the Delta, it would appear, was more slowly brought
+      about. It must have greatly resembled that of the lowlands of Equatorial
+      Africa, towards the confluence of the Bahr el Abiad and the Bahr el
+      Ghaz�l. Great tracts of mud, difficult to describe as either solid or
+      liquid, marshes dotted here and there with sandy islets, bristling with
+      papyrus reeds, water-lilies, and enormous plants through which the arms of
+      the Nile sluggishly pushed their ever-shifting course, low-lying wastes
+      intersected with streams and pools, unfit for cultivation and scarcely
+      available for pasturing cattle. The population of such districts, engaged
+      in a ceaseless struggle with nature, always preserved relatively ruder
+      manners, and a more rugged and savage character, impatient of all
+      authority. The conquest of this region began from the outer edge only. A
+      few principalities were established at the apex of the Delta in localities
+      where the soil had earliest been won from the river. It appears that one
+      of these divisions embraced the country south of and between the
+      bifurcation of the Nile: A�n� of the North, the Heliopolis of the Greeks,
+      was its capital. In very early times the principality was divided, and
+      formed three new states, independent of each other. Those of A�n� and the
+      Haunch were opposite to each other, the first on the Arabian, the latter
+      on the Libyan bank of the Nile. The district of the White Wall marched
+      with that of the Haunch on the north, and on the south touched the
+      territory of the Oleander. Further down the river, between the more
+      important branches, the governors of Sai's and of Bubastis, of Athribis
+      and of Busiris, shared among themselves the primitive Delta. Two frontier
+      provinces of unequal size, the Arabian on the east in the Wady Tumilat,
+      and the Libyan on the west to the south of Lake Mareotis, defended the
+      approaches of the country from the attacks of Asiatic Bed�wins and of
+      African nomads. The marshes of the interior and the dunes of the littoral,
+      were not conducive to the development of any great industry or
+      civilization. They only comprised tracts of thinly populated country, like
+      the principalities of the Harpoon and of the Cow, and others whose limits
+      varied from century to century with the changing course of the river. The
+      work of rendering the marshes salubrious and of digging canals, which had
+      been so successful in the Nile Valley, was less efficacious in the Delta,
+      and proceeded more slowly. Here the embankments were not supported by a
+      mountain chain: they were continued at random across the marshes, cut at
+      every turn to admit the waters of a canal or of an arm of the river. The
+      waters left their usual bed at the least disturbing influence, and made a
+      fresh course for themselves across country. If the inundation were
+      delayed, the soft and badly drained soil again became a slough: should it
+      last but a few weeks longer than usual, the work of several generations
+      was for a long time undone. The Delta of one epoch rarely presented the
+      same aspect as that of previous periods, and Northern Egypt never became
+      as fully mistress of her soil as the Egypt of the south.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkimage-0060" id="linklinkimage-0060">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/099.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/099th.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="099.jpg Nomes of Lower Egypt " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> Click on the Image to Enlarge to Full Size
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These first principalities, however small they appear to us, were yet too
+      large to remain undivided. In those times of slow communication, the
+      strong attraction which a capital exercised over the provinces under its
+      authority did not extend over a wide radius. That part of the population
+      of the Terebinth, living sufficiently near to Si�t to come into the town
+      for a few hours in the morning, returning in the evening to the villages
+      when business was done, would not feel any desire to withdraw from the
+      rule of the prince who governed there. On the other hand, those who lived
+      outside that restricted circle were forced to seek elsewhere some places
+      of assembly to attend the administration of justice, to sacrifice in
+      common to the national gods, and to exchange the produce of the fields and
+      of local manufactures. Those towns which had the good fortune to become
+      such rallying-points naturally played the part of rivals to the capital,
+      and their chiefs, with the district whose population, so to speak,
+      gravitated around them, tended to become independent of the prince. When
+      they succeeded in doing this, they often preserved for the new state thus
+      created, the old name, slightly modified by the addition of an epithet.
+      The primitive territory of Si�t was in this way divided into three
+      distinct communities; two, which remained faithful to the old emblem of
+      the tree&mdash;the Upper Terebinth, with Si�t itself in the centre, and
+      the Lower Terebinth, with K�sit to the north; the third, in the south and
+      east, took as their totem the immortal serpent which dwelt in their
+      mountains, and called themselves the Serpent Mountain, whose chief town
+      was that of the Sparrow Hawk. The territory of the Oleander produced by
+      its dismemberment the principality of the Upper Oleander, that of the
+      Lower Oleander, and that of the Knife. The territory of the Harpoon in the
+      Delta divided itself into the Western and Eastern Harpoon. The fission in
+      most cases could not have been accomplished without struggles; but it did
+      take place, and all the principalities having a domain of any considerable
+      extent had to submit to it, however they may have striven to avoid it.
+      This parcelling out was continued as circumstances afforded opportunity,
+      until the whole of Egypt, except the half desert districts about the
+      cataract, became but an agglomeration of petty states nearly equal in
+      power and population.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Examples of the subdivision of ancient nomes and the
+     creation of fresh nomes are met with long after primitive
+     times. We find, for example, the nome of the Western Harpoon
+     divided under the Greeks and Romans into two districts&mdash;that
+     of the Harpoon proper, of which the chief town was Sonti-
+     nofir; and that of Ran�nr, with the On�phis of classical
+     geographers for its capital.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Greeks called them nomes, and we have borrowed the word from them; the
+      natives named them in several ways, the most ancient term being "n��t,"
+      which may be translated <i>domain</i>, and the most common appellation in
+      recent times being "hosp�," which signifies <i>district</i>. The number of
+      the nomes varied considerably in the course of centuries: the hieroglyphic
+      monuments and classical authors fixed them sometimes at thirty-six,
+      sometimes at forty, sometimes at forty-four, or even fifty. The little
+      that we know of their history, up to the present time, explains the reason
+      of this variation. Ceaselessly quarrelled over by the princely families
+      who possessed them, the nomes were alternately humbled and exalted by
+      civil wars, marriages, and conquest, which caused them continually to pass
+      into fresh hands, either entire or divided. The Egyptians, whom we are
+      accustomed to consider as a people respecting the established order of
+      things, and conservative of ancient tradition, showed themselves as
+      restless and as prone to modify or destroy the work of the past, as the
+      most inconstant of our modern nations. The distance of time which
+      separates them from us, and the almost complete absence of documents,
+      gives them an appearance of immobility, by which we are liable to be
+      unconsciously deceived; when the monuments still existing shall have been
+      unearthed, their history will present the same complexity of incidents,
+      the same agitations, the same instability, which we suspect or know to
+      have been characteristic of most other Oriental nations. One thing alone
+      remained stable among them in the midst of so many revolutions, and which
+      prevented them from losing their individuality and from coalescing in a
+      common unity. This was the belief in and the worship of one particular
+      deity. If the little capitals of the petty states whose origin is lost in
+      a remote past&mdash;Edf� and Denderah, Nekhab�t and B�to, Si�fc, Thinis,
+      Khm�n�, Sais, Bubastis, Athribis&mdash;had only possessed that importance
+      which resulted from the presence of an ambitious petty prince, or from the
+      wealth of their inhabitants, they would never have passed safe and sound
+      through the long centuries of existence which they enjoyed from the
+      opening to the close of Egyptian history. Fortune raised their chiefs,
+      some even to the rank of rulers of the world, and in turn abased them:
+      side by side with the earthly ruler, whose glory was but too often
+      eclipsed, there was enthroned in each nome a divine ruler, a deity, a god
+      of the domain, "n�tir n�iti," whose greatness never perished. The princely
+      families might be exiled or become extinct, the extent of the territory
+      might diminish or increase, the town might be doubled in size and
+      population or fall in ruins: the god lived on through all these
+      vicissitudes, and his presence alone preserved intact the rights of the
+      state over which he reigned as sovereign. If any disaster befell his
+      worshippers, his temple was the spot where the survivors of the
+      catastrophe rallied around him, their religion preventing them from mixing
+      with the inhabitants of neighbouring towns and from becoming lost among
+      them. The survivors multiplied with that extraordinary rapidity which is
+      the characteristic of the Egyptian fellah, and a few years of peace
+      sufficed to repair losses which apparently were irreparable. Local
+      religion was the tie which bound together those divers elements of which
+      each principality was composed, and as long as it remained, the nomes
+      remained; when it vanished, they disappeared with it. remained; when it
+      vanished, they disappeared with it. <br /> <br /> ==================== <br />
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0005" id="linklinkBimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/105.jpg" width="100%" alt="105.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+     <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0006" id="linklinkBimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/106.jpg" width="100%" alt="106.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklinkB2HCH0001" id="linklinkB2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER II.&mdash;THE GODS OF EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>THEIR NUMBER AND NATURE&mdash;THE FEUDAL GODS, LIVING AND DEAD&mdash;TRIADS&mdash;&mdash;
+      THE TEMPLES AND PRIESTHOOD&mdash;THE COSMOGONIES OF THE DELTA&mdash;&mdash;THE
+      ENNEADS OF HELIOPOLIS AND HERMOPOLIS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Multiplicity of the Egyptian gods: the commonalty of the gods, its
+      varieties, human, animal, and intermediate between man and beast; gods of
+      foreign origin, indigenous gods, and the contradictory forms with which
+      they were invested in accordance with various conceptions of their nature.
+      </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The Star-gods&mdash;The Sun-god as the Eye of the Shy; as a bird, as a
+      calf, and as a man; its barks, voyages round the world, and encounters
+      with the serpent Apopi&mdash;The Moon-god and its enemies&mdash;The
+      Star-gods: the Haunch of the Ox, the Hippopotamus, the Lion, the five
+      Horus-planets; Sothis Sirius, and Sah� Orion. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The feudal gods and their classes: the Nile-gods, the earth-gods, the
+      sky-gods and the sun-god, the Horus-gods&mdash;The equality of feudal gods
+      and goddesses; their persons, alliances, and marriages: their children&mdash;The
+      triads and their various developments. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The nature of the gods: the double, the soul, the body, death of men
+      and gods, and their fate after death&mdash;The necessity for preserving
+      the body, mummification&mdash;Dead gods the gods of the dead&mdash;The
+      living gods, their temples and images&mdash;The gods of the people, trees,
+      serpents, family fetiches&mdash;The theory of prayer and sacrifice: the
+      servants of the temples, the property of the gods, the sacerdotal
+      colleges. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The cosmogonies of the Delta: Sibu and Na�t, Osiris and Isis, SU and
+      Nephthys&mdash;Heliopolis and its theological schools: Ra, his
+      identification with Horus, his dual nature, and the conception of At�m�&mdash;The
+      Heliopolitan Enneads: formation of the Great Ennead&mdash;Thot and the
+      Hermopolitan Ennead: creation by articulate words and by voice alone&mdash;Diffusion
+      of the Enneads: their connection with the local triads, the god One and
+      the god Eight&mdash;The one and only gods.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0007" id="linklinkBimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/107.jpg" width="100%" alt="107.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h1>
+      THE GODS OF EGYPT
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The incredible number of religious scenes to be found among the
+      representations on the ancient monuments of Egypt is at first glance very
+      striking. Nearly every illustration in the works of Egyptologists brings
+      before us the figure of some deity receiving with an impassive countenance
+      the prayers and offerings of a worshipper. One would think that the
+      country had been inhabited for the most part by gods, and contained just
+      sufficient men and animals to satisfy the requirements of their worship.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0008" id="linklinkBimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/108.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="108.jpg the Goddess Napk�t, Stap�t.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  The goddess Napr�t, Nap�t; bas-relief from the first
+     chamber of Osiris, on the east side of the great temple of
+     Denderah. Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On penetrating into this mysterious world, we are confronted by an actual
+      rabble of gods, each one of whom has always possessed but a limited and
+      almost unconscious existence. They severally represented a function, a
+      moment in the life of man or of the universe; thus Napr�t was identified
+      with the ripe ear, or the grain of wheat;[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  The word <i>napr�t</i> means <i>grain</i>, the grain of wheat. The
+     grain-god is represented in the tomb of Seti I. as a man
+     wearing two full ears of wheat or barley upon his head. He
+     is mentioned in the <i>Hymn to the Nile</i> about the same date,
+     and in two or three other texts of different periods. The
+     goddess <i>Napr�t</i>, or <i>Nap�t</i>, to whom reference is here
+     made, was his duplicate; her head-dress is a sheaf of corn,
+     as in the illustration.
+
+     *** This goddess, whose name expresses and whose form
+     personifies the brick or stone couch, the child-bed or
+     -chair, upon which women in labour bowed themselves, is
+     sometimes subdivided into two or four secondary divinities.
+     She is mentioned along with Sha�t, <i>destiny</i>, and Ranin�t,
+     <i>suckling</i>. Her part of fairy godmother at the cradle of the
+     new-born child is indicated in the passage of the Westcar
+     Papyrus giving a detailed account of the births of three
+     kings of the fifth dynasty. She is represented in human
+     form, and often wears upon her head two long palm-shoots,
+     curling over at their ends.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Maskhon�t appeared by the child's cradle at the very moment of its
+      birth;[*] and Ranin�t presided over the naming and the nurture of the
+      newly born.[*] Neither Ranin�t, the fairy godmother, nor Maskhon�t
+      exercised over nature as a whole that sovereign authority which we are
+      accustomed to consider the primary attribute of deity. Every day of every
+      year was passed by the one in easing the pangs of women in travail; by the
+      other, in choosing for each baby a name of an auspicious sound, and one
+      which would afterwards serve to exorcise the influences of evil fortune.
+      No sooner were their tasks accomplished in one place than they hastened to
+      another, where approaching birth demanded their presence and their care.
+      From child-bed to child-bed they passed, and if they fulfilled the single
+      offices in which they were accounted adepts, the pious asked nothing more
+      of them. Bands of mysterious cynocephali haunting the Eastern and the
+      Western mountains concentrated the whole of their activity on one passing
+      moment of the day. They danced and chattered in the East for half an hour,
+      to salute the sun at his rising, even as others in the West hailed him on
+      his entrance into night.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Ranin�t presides over the child's suckling, but she also
+     gives him his name, and hence, his fortune. She is on the
+     whole the nursing goddess. Sometimes she is represented as a
+     human-headed woman, or as lioness-headed, most frequently
+     with the head of a serpent; she is also the urseus, clothed,
+     and wearing two long plumes on her head, and a simple urous,
+     as represented in the illustration on p. 169.
+
+     **  This is the subject of a vignette in the <i>Book of the
+     Dead</i>, ch. xvi., where the cynocephali are placed in echelon
+     upon the slopes of the hill on the horizon, right and left
+     of the radiant solar disk, to which they offer worship by
+     gesticulations.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was the duty of certain genii to open gates in Hades, or to keep the
+      paths daily traversed by the sun.[*] These genii were always at their
+      posts, never free to leave them, and possessed no other faculty than that
+      of punctually fulfilling their appointed offices. Their existence,
+      generally unperceived, was suddenly revealed at the very moment when the
+      specific acts of their lives were on the point of accomplishment. These
+      being completed, the divinities fell back into their state of inertia, and
+      were, so to speak, reabsorbed by their functions until the next
+      occasion.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 34, 35.
+
+     ***  The Egyptians employed a still more forcible expression
+     than our word "absorption" to express this idea. It was said
+     of objects wherein these genii concealed themselves, and
+     whence they issued in order to re-enter them immediately,
+     that these forms <i>ate</i> them, or that they <i>ate</i> their own
+     forms.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0009" id="linklinkBimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/110.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="110.jpg Some Fabulous Beasts of the Egyptian Desert. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from Champollion's copies, made
+     from the tombs of Beni-Hassan. To the right is the <i>sha</i>,
+     one of the animals of Sit, and an exact image of the god
+     with his stiff and arrow-like tail. Next comes the <i>safir</i>,
+     the griffin; and, lastly, we have the serpent-headed <i>saza</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Scarcely visible even by glimpses, they were not easily depicted; their
+      real forms being often unknown, these were approximately conjectured from
+      their occupations. The character and costume of an archer, or of a
+      spear-man, were ascribed to such as roamed through Hades, to pierce the
+      dead with arrows or with javelins. Those who prowled around souls to cut
+      their throats and hack them to pieces were represented as women armed with
+      knives, carvers&mdash;<i>don�t</i>&mdash;or else as lacerators&mdash;<i>nokit</i>.
+      Some appeared in human form; others as animals&mdash;bulls or lions, rams
+      or monkeys, serpents, fish, ibises, hawks; others dwelt in inanimate
+      things, such as trees,[*] sistrums, stakes stuck in the ground;[**] and
+      lastly, many betrayed a mixed origin in their combinations of human and
+      animal forms. These latter would be regarded by us as monsters; to the
+      Egyptians, they were beings, rarer perhaps than the rest, but not the less
+      real, and their like might be encountered in the neighbourhood of
+      Egypt.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Thus, the sycamores planted on the edge of the desert
+     were supposed to be inhabited by H�thor, N��t, Selk�t, N�t,
+     or some other goddess. In vignettes representing the
+     deceased as stopping before one of these trees and receiving
+     water and loaves of bread, the bust of the goddess generally
+     appears from amid her sheltering foliage. But occasionally,
+     as on the sarcophagus of Petosiris, the transformation is
+     complete, and the trunk from which the branches spread is
+     the actual body of the god or goddess. Finally, the whole
+     body is often hidden, and only the arm of the goddess to be
+     seen emerging from the midst of the tree, with an
+     overflowing libation vase in her hand.
+
+     **  The trunk of a tree, disbranched, and then set up in the
+     ground, seems to me the origin of the Osirian emblem called
+     <i>tat</i> or <i>didu</i>. The symbol was afterwards so
+     conventionalized as to represent four columns seen in
+     perspective, one capital overtopping another; it thus became
+     the image of the four pillars which uphold the world.
+
+     ***  The belief in the real existence of fantastic animals
+     was first noted by Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et
+     d'Arch�ologie �gyptiennes</i>, vol. i. pp. 117, 118, 132, and
+     vol.  ii.  p.   213.    Until then,  scholars only
+     recognized the sphinx, and other Egyptian monsters, as
+     allegorical combinations by which the priesthood claimed to
+     give visible expression in one and the same being to
+     physical or moral qualities belonging to several different
+     beings. The later theory has now been adopted by Wiedemann,
+     and by most contemporary Egyptologists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      How could men who believed themselves surrounded by sphinxes and griffins
+      of flesh and blood doubt that there were bull-headed and hawk-headed
+      divinities with human busts? The existence of such paradoxical creatures
+      was proved by much authentic testimony; more than one hunter had
+      distinctly seen them as they ran along the furthest planes of the horizon,
+      beyond the herds of gazelles of which he was in chase; and shepherds
+      dreaded them for their flocks as truly as they dreaded the lions, or the
+      great felidse of the desert.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * At Beni-Hassan and in Thebes many of the fantastic animals
+     mentioned in the text, griffins, hierosphinxes, serpent-
+     headed lions, are placed along with animals which might be
+     encountered by local princes hunting in the desert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This nation of gods, like nations of men, contained foreign elements, the
+      origin of which was known to the Egyptians themselves. They knew that
+      H�thor, the milch cow, had taken up her abode in their land from very
+      ancient times, and they called her the Lady of P�an�t, after the name of
+      her native country. B�s� had followed her in course of time, and claimed
+      his share of honours and worship along with her. He first appeared as a
+      leopard; then he became a man clothed in a leopard's skin, but of strange
+      countenance and alarming character, a big-headed dwarf with high
+      cheek-bones, and a wide and open mouth, whence hung an enormous tongue; he
+      was at once jovial and martial, the friend of the dance and of battle.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The hawk-headed monster with flower-tipped tail was
+     called the saga.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In historic times all nations subjugated by the Pharaohs transferred some
+      of their principal divinities to their conquerors, and the Libyan
+      Shehadidi was enthroned in the valley of the Nile, in the same way as the
+      Semitic Ba�l� and his retinue of Astartes, Anitis, Eeshephs, and Kadsh�s.
+      These divine colonists fared like all foreigners who have sought to settle
+      on the banks of the Nile: they were promptly assimilated, wrought,
+      moulded, and made into Egyptian deities scarcely distinguishable from
+      those of the old race. This mixed pantheon had its grades of nobles,
+      princes, kings, and each of its members was representative of one of the
+      elements constituting the world, or of one of the forces which regulated
+      its government.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0010" id="linklinkBimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/113.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="113.jpb Some Fabulous Beasts of the Egyptian Desert 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  B�s�, pp. 111-184. The tail-piece to the summary of this
+     chapter is a figure of B�s�, drawn by Faucher-Gudin from an
+     amulet in blue enamelled pottery.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sky, the earth, the stars, the sun, the Nile, were so many breathing
+      and thinking beings whose lives were daily manifest in the life of the
+      universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They were worshipped from one end of the valley to the other, and the
+      whole nation agreed in proclaiming their sovereign power. But when the
+      people began to name them, to define their powers and attributes, to
+      particularize their forms, or the relationships that subsisted among them,
+      this unanimity was at an end. Each principality, each nome, each city,
+      almost every village, conceived and represented them differently. Some
+      said that the sky was the Great Horus, Haro�ris, the sparrow-hawk of
+      mottled plumage which hovers in highest air, and whose gaze embraces the
+      whole field of creation. Owing to a punning assonance between his name and
+      the word <i>hor�</i>, which designates the human countenance, the two
+      senses were combined, and to the idea of the sparrow-hawk there was added
+      that of a divine face, whose two eyes opened in turn, the right eye being
+      the sun, to give light by day, and the left eye the moon, to illumine the
+      night. The face shone also with a light of its own, the zodiacal light,
+      which appeared unexpectedly, morning or evening, a little before sunrise,
+      and a little after sunset. These luminous beams, radiating from a common
+      centre, hidden in the heights of the firmament, spread into a wide
+      pyramidal sheet of liquid blue, whose base rested upon the earth, but
+      whose apex was slightly inclined towards the zenith. The divine face was
+      symmetrically framed, and attached to earth by four thick locks of hair;
+      these were the pillars which upbore the firmament and prevented its
+      falling into ruin. A no less ancient tradition disregarded as fabulous all
+      tales told of the sparrow-hawk, or of the face, and taught that heaven and
+      earth are wedded gods, Sib�, and N��t, from whose marriage came forth all
+      that has been, all that is, and all that shall be.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0011" id="linklinkBimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/115.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="115.jpg N��t the Starry One. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painted coffin of the XXIth
+     dynasty in Leyden.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Most people invested them with human form, and represented the earth-god
+      Sib� as extended beneath N��t the Starry One; the goddess stretched out
+      her arms, stretched out her slender legs, stretched out her body above the
+      clouds, and her dishevelled head drooped westward. But there were also
+      many who believed that Sib� was concealed under the form of a colossal
+      gander, whose mate once laid the Sun Egg, and perhaps still laid it daily.
+      From the piercing cries wherewith he congratulated her, and announced the
+      good news to all who cared to hear it&mdash;after the manner of his kind&mdash;he
+      had received the flattering epithet of <i>Ngagu o�r�</i>, the Great
+      Cack-ler. Other versions repudiated the goose in favour of a vigorous
+      bull, the father of gods and men, whose companion was a cow, a large-eyed
+      H�thor, of beautiful countenance. The head of the good beast rises into
+      the heavens, the mysterious waters which cover the world flow along her
+      spine; the star-covered underside of her body, which we call the
+      firmament, is visible to the inhabitants of earth, and her four legs are
+      the four pillars standing at the four cardinal points of the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0012" id="linklinkBimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/116.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="116.jpg the Goose-god Facing The Cat-goddess, The Lady Of Heaven. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a stella in the museum of
+     G�zeh. This is not the goose of Sib�, but the goose of Amon,
+     which was nurtured in the temple of Karnak, and was called
+     Smon�. Pacing it is the cat of Ma�t, the wife of Amon. Amon,
+     originally an earth-god, was, as we see, confounded with
+     Sib�, and thus naturally appropriated that deity's form of a
+     goose.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The planets, and especially the sun, varied in form and nature according
+      to the prevailing conception of the heavens. The fiery disk <i>Aton�</i>,
+      by which the sun revealed himself to men, was a living god, called R�, as
+      was also the planet itself.[*] Where the sky was regarded as Horus, R�
+      formed the right eye of the divine face: when Horus opened his eyelids in
+      the morning, he made the dawn and day; when he closed them in the evening,
+      the dusk and night were at hand.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *   The name of R� has been variously explained. The
+     commonest etymology is that deriving the name from a verb
+     r�, <i>to give, to make to be</i> a person or a thing, so that R�
+     would thus be the great organizer, the author of all things.
+     Lauth goes so far as to say that "notwithstanding its
+     brevity, R� is a composite word (r-a, <i>maker&mdash;to be</i>)" As a
+     matter of fact, the word is simply the name of the
+     planet applied to the god.    It means the <i>sun</i>, and nothing
+     more.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0013" id="linklinkBimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/117.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="117.jpg the Cow H�thor, The Lady Op Heaven.3 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     3  Drawn by Boudier, from a XXXth dynasty statue of green
+     basalt in the G�zeh Museum (Maspero, <i>Guide du Visiteur</i>, p.
+     345, No. 5243). The statue was also published by Mariette,
+     <i>Monuments divers</i>, pl. 96 A-B, and in the <i>Album
+     photographique du Mus�e de Boulaq</i>, pl. x.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Where the sky was looked upon as the incarnation of a goddess, R� was
+      considered as her son,[**] his father being the earth-god, and he was born
+      again with every new dawn, wearing a sidelock, and with his finger to his
+      lips as human children were conventionally represented.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  Several passages from the Pyramid texts prove that the
+     <i>two eyes</i> were very anciently considered as belonging to
+     the face of N��t, and this conception persisted to the last
+     days of Egyptian paganism. Hence, we must not be surprised
+     if the inscriptions generally represent the god R� as coming
+     forth from N��t under the form of a disc, or a scarabaeus,
+     and born of her even as human children are born.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was also that luminous egg, laid and hatched in the East by the
+      celestial goose, from which the sun breaks forth to fill the world with
+      its rays.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  These are the very expressions used in the seventeenth
+     chapter of the <i>Book of the Dead</i> (Naville's edition, vol.
+     i. pl. xxv. lines 58-61; Lepsius, <i>Todtenbuch</i>, pl. ix. 11.
+     50, 51).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0014" id="linklinkBimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/118.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="118.jpg the Twelve Stages in The Life of The Sun and Its Twelve Forms Throughout the Day. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  The twelve forms of the sun during the twelve hours of
+     the day, from the ceiling of the Hall of the New Year at
+     Edfu. Drawing by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nevertheless, by an anomaly not uncommon in religions, the egg did not
+      always contain the same kind of bird; a lapwing, or a heron, might come
+      out of it,[*] or perhaps, in memory of Horus, one of the beautiful golden
+      sparrow-hawks of Southern Egypt. A Sun-Hawk, hovering in high heaven on
+      outspread wings, at least presented a bold and poetic image; but what can
+      be said for a Sun-Calf? Yet it is under the innocent aspect of a spotted
+      calf, a "sucking calf of pure mouth,"[**] that the Egyptians were pleased
+      to describe the Sun-God when Sibu, the father, was a bull, and H�thor a
+      heifer.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The lapwing or the heron, the Egyptian <i>bon�</i>, is
+     generally the Osirian bird. The persistence with which it is
+     associated with Heliopolis and the gods of that city shows
+     that in this also we have a secondary form of R�.
+
+     **  The calf is represented in ch. cix. of the <i>Book of the
+     Dead</i> (Naville's edition, pl. cxx.), where the text says
+     (lines 10, 11), "I know that this calf is Harmakhis the Sun,
+     and that it is no other than the Morning Star, daily
+     saluting R�." The expression "<i>sucking calf of pure
+     mouth</i>" is taken word for word from a formula preserved in
+     the Pyramid texts (�nas, 1. 20).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But the prevalent conception was that in which the life of the sun was
+      likened to the life of man. The two deities presiding over the East
+      received the orb upon their hands at its birth, just as midwives receive a
+      new-born child, and cared for it during the first hour of the day and of
+      its life. It soon left them, and proceeded "under the belly of N��t,"
+      growing and strengthening from minute to minute, until at noon it had
+      become a triumphant hero whose splendour is shed abroad over all. But as
+      night comes on his strength forsakes him and his glory is obscured; he is
+      bent and broken down, and heavily drags himself along like an old man
+      leaning upon his stick. At length he passes away beyond the horizon,
+      plunging westward into the mouth of N��t, and traversing her body by night
+      to be born anew the next morning, again to follow the paths along which he
+      had travelled on the preceding day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A first bark, the <i>saktit</i>, awaited him at his birth, and carried him
+      from the Eastern to the Southern extremity of the world. <i>M�z�t</i>, the
+      second bark, received him at noon, and bore him into the land of Manu,
+      which is at the entrance into Hades; other barks, with which we are less
+      familiar, conveyed him by night, from his setting until his rising at
+      morn.[*] Sometimes he was supposed to enter the barks alone, and then they
+      were magic and self-directed, having neither oars, nor sails, nor
+      helm.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In the formul� of the <i>Book of Knowing that which is in
+     Hades</i>, the dead sun remains in the bark Saktit during part
+     of the night, and it is only to traverse the fourth and
+     fifth hours that he changes into another.
+
+     **  Such is the bark of the sun in the other world. Although
+     carrying a complete crew of gods, yet for the most part it
+     progresses at its own will, and without their help. The bark
+     containing the sun alone is represented in many vignettes of
+     the <i>Book of the Dead</i>, and at the head of many stel�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sometimes they were equipped with a full crew, like that of an Egyptian
+      boat&mdash;a pilot at the prow to take soundings in the channel and
+      forecast the wind, a pilot astern to steer, a quartermaster in the midst
+      to transmit the orders of the pilot at the prow to the pilot at the stern,
+      and half a dozen sailors to handle poles or oars. Peacefully the bark
+      glided along the celestial river amid the acclamations of the gods who
+      dwelt upon its shores. But, occasionally, Ap�pi, a gigantic serpent, like
+      that which hides within the earthly Nile and devours its banks, came forth
+      from the depth of the waters and arose in the path of the god.[*] As soon
+      as they caught sight of it in the distance, the crew flew to arms, and
+      entered upon the struggle against him with prayers and spear-thrusts. Men
+      in their cities saw the sun faint and fail, and sought to succour him in
+      his distress; they cried aloud, they were beside themselves with
+      excitement, beating their breasts, sounding their instruments of music,
+      and striking with all their strength upon every metal vase or utensil in
+      their possession, that their clamour might rise to heaven and terrify the
+      monster. After a time of anguish, R� emerged from the darkness and again
+      went on his way, while Ap�pi sank back into the abyss,[**] paralysed by
+      the magic of the gods, and pierced with many a wound.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In Upper Egypt there is a widespread belief in the
+     existence of a monstrous serpent, who dwells at the bottom
+     of the river, and is the genius of the Nile. It is he who
+     brings about those falls of earth (<i>batab�t</i>) at the decline
+     of the inundation which often destroy the banks and eat
+     whole fields. At such times, offerings of durrah, fowls, and
+     dates are made to him, that his hunger may be appeased, and
+     it is not only the natives who give themselves up to these
+     superstitious practices. Part of the grounds belonging to
+     the Karnak hotel at Luxor having been carried away during
+     the autumn of 1884, the manager, a Greek, made the customary
+     offerings to the serpent of the Nile.
+
+     **  The character of Ap�pi and of his struggle with the sun
+     was, from the first, excellently defined by Champollion as
+     representing the conflict of darkness with light.
+     Occasionally, but very rarely, Ap�pi seems to win, and his
+     triumph over R� furnishes one explanation of a solar
+     eclipse. A similar explanation is common to many races. In
+     one very ancient form of the Egyptian legend, the sun is
+     represented by a wild ass running round the world along the
+     sides of the mountains that uphold the sky, and the serpent
+     which attacks it is called <i>Hai�</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Apart from these temporary eclipses, which no one could foretell, the
+      Sun-King steadily followed his course round the world, according to laws
+      which even his will could not change. Day after day he made his oblique
+      ascent from east to south, thence to descend obliquely towards the west.
+      During the summer months the obliquity of his course diminished, and he
+      came closer to Egypt; during the winter it increased, and he went farther
+      away. This double movement recurred with such regularity from equinox to
+      solstice, and from solstice to equinox, that the day of the god's
+      departure and the day of his return could be confidently predicted. The
+      Egyptians explained this phenomenon according to their conceptions of the
+      nature of the world. The solar bark always kept close to that bank of the
+      celestial river which was nearest to men; and when the river overflowed at
+      the annual inundation, the sun was carried along with it outside the
+      regular bed of the stream, and brought yet closer to Egypt. As the
+      inundation abated, the bark descended and receded, its greatest distance
+      from earth corresponding with the lowest level of the waters. It was again
+      brought back to us by the rising strength of the next flood; and, as this
+      phenomenon was yearly repeated, the periodicity of the sun's oblique
+      movements was regarded as the necessary consequence of the periodic
+      movements of the celestial Nile.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The same stream also carried a whole crowd of gods, whose existence was
+      revealed at night only to the inhabitants of earth. At an interval of
+      twelve hours, and in its own bark, the pale disk of the moon&mdash;<i>Y��h�
+      A�h�</i>&mdash;followed the disk of the sun along the ramparts of the
+      world. The moon, also, appeared in many various forms&mdash;here, as a man
+      born of N��t;[*] there, as a cynocephalus or an ibis;[**] elsewhere, it
+      was the left eye of Horus,[***] guarded by the ibis or cynocephalus. Like
+      R�, it had its enemies incessantly upon the watch for it: the crocodile,
+      the hippopotamus, and the sow. But it was when at the full, about the 15th
+      of each month, that the lunar eye was in greatest peril.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  He may be seen as a child, or man, bearing the lunar disk
+     upon his head, and pressing the lunar eye to his breast.
+     Passages from the Pyramid text of Unas indicate the
+     relationship subsisting between Thot, Sib�, and N��t, making
+     Thot the brother of Isis, Sit, and Nephthys. In later times
+     he was considered a son of R�.
+
+     **  Even as late as the Gr�co-Roman period, the temple of
+     Thot at Khm�n� contained a sacred ibis, which was the
+     incarnation of the god, and said to be immortal by the local
+     priesthood. The temple sacristans showed it to Apion the
+     grammarian, who reports the fact, but is very sceptical in
+     the matter.
+
+     ***  The texts quoted by Chabas and Lepsius to show that the
+     sun is the right eye of Horus also prove that his left eye
+     is the moon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0015" id="linklinkBimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/123.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="123.jpg Egyptian Conception of the Principal Constellations of the Northern Sky.4 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     4  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the ceiling of the
+     Ramesseum. On the right, the <i>female hippopotamus</i> bearing
+     the <i>crocodile</i>, and leaning on the <i>Mon��t</i>; in the middle,
+     the <i>Haunch</i>, here represented by the whole bull; to the
+     left, <i>Selkit</i> and the <i>Sparrow-hawk</i>, with the <i>Lion</i>, and
+     the <i>Giant fighting the Crocodile</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sow fell upon it, tore it out of the face of heaven, and cast it,
+      streaming with blood and tears, into the celestial Nile, where it was
+      gradually extinguished, and lost for days; but its twin, the sun, or its
+      guardian, the cyno-cephalus, immediately set forth to find it and to
+      restore it to Horus. No sooner was it replaced, than it slowly recovered,
+      and renewed its radiance; when it was well&mdash;<i>�za�t</i>&mdash;the
+      sow again attacked and mutilated it, and the gods rescued and again
+      revived it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0016" id="linklinkBimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/124.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="124.jpg the Lunar Bark, Self-propelled, Under The Protection of the Two Eyes. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Each month there was a fortnight of youth and of growing splendour,
+      followed by a fortnight's agony and ever-increasing pallor. It was born to
+      die, and died to be born again twelve times in the year, and each of these
+      cycles measured a month for the inhabitants of the world. One invariable
+      accident from time to time disturbed the routine of its existence.
+      Profiting by some distraction of the guardians, the sow greedily swallowed
+      it, and then its light went out suddenly, instead of fading gradually.
+      These eclipses, which alarmed mankind at least as much as did those of the
+      sun, were scarcely more than momentary, the gods compelling the monster to
+      cast up the eye before it had been destroyed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0017" id="linklinkBimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/125.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="125.jpg the Haunch, and The Female Hippopotamus.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the rectangular zodiac
+     carved upon the ceiling of the great temple of Denderah
+     (D�michen, <i>Resultate</i>, vol. ii. pl. xxxix.).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Every evening the lunar bark issued out of Hades by the door which R� had
+      passed through in the morning, and as it rose on the horizon, the
+      star-lamps scattered over the firmament appeared one by one, giving light
+      here and there like the camp-fires of a distant army. However many of them
+      there might be, there were as many Indestructibles&mdash;<i>Akh�m� Sok�</i>&mdash;or
+      Unchanging Ones&mdash;<i>Akh�m� �rd�</i>&mdash;whose charge it was to
+      attend upon them and watch over their maintenance.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  The <i>Akh�m� Sok�</i> and the <i>Akh�m� �rd�</i> have been very
+     variously defined by different Egyptologists who have
+     studied them. Chabas considered them to be gods or genii of
+     the constellations of the ecliptic, which mark the apparent
+     course of the sun through the sky. Following the indications
+     given by D�v�ria, he also thought them to be the sailors of
+     the solar bark, and perhaps the gods of the twelve hours,
+     divided into two classes: the <i>Akh�m� Sok�</i> being those who
+     are rowing, and the <i>Akh�m� �rd�</i> those who are resting. But
+     texts found and cited by Brugsch show that the <i>Akh�m� Sok�</i>
+     are the planets accompanying R� in the northern sky, while
+     the <i>Akh�m� �rd�</i> are his escort in the south. The
+     nomenclature of the stars included in these two classes is
+     furnished by monuments of widely different epochs. The two
+     names should be translated according to the meaning of their
+     component words: <i>Akh�m� Sok�</i>, those who know not
+     destruction, the Indestructibles; and <i>Akh�m� �rd�</i> (
+     <i>Urzii</i>), those who know not the immobility of death, the
+     <i>Imperishables</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were not scattered at random by the hand which had suspended them,
+      but their distribution had been ordered in accordance with a certain plan,
+      and they were arranged in fixed groups like so many star republics, each
+      being independent of its neighbours. They represented the outlines of
+      bodies of men and animals dimly traced out upon the depths of night, but
+      shining with greater brilliancy in certain important places. The seven
+      stars which we liken to a chariot (Charles's Wain) suggested to the
+      Egyptians the haunch of an ox placed on the northern edge of the
+      horizon.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The forms of the constellations, and the number of stars
+     composing them in the astronomy of different periods, are
+     known from the astronomical scenes of tombs and temples. The
+     identity of the <i>Haunch</i> with the <i>Chariot</i>, or <i>Great Bear</i>
+     of modern astronomy, was discovered by Lepsius and confirmed
+     by Biot. Mariette pointed out that the Pyramid Arabs applied
+     the name of the <i>Haunch (er-Rigl)</i> to the same group of
+     stars as that thus designated by the ancient Egyptians.
+     Champollion had noted the position of the <i>Haunch</i> in the
+     northern sky, but had not suggested any identification. The
+     <i>Haunch</i> appertained to S�t-Typhon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two lesser stars connected the haunch&mdash;<i>Maskha�t</i>&mdash;with
+      thirteen others, which recalled the silhouette of a female hippopotamus&mdash;<i>Rir�t</i>&mdash;erect
+      upon her hind legs,[*] and jauntily carrying upon her shoulders a
+      monstrous crocodile whose jaws opened threateningly above her head.
+      Eighteen luminaries of varying size and splendour, forming a group hard by
+      the hippopotamus, indicated the outline of a gigantic lion couchant, with
+      stiffened tail, its head turned to the right, and facing the Haunch.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The connection of <i>Bir�t</i>, the female hippopotamus, with
+     the Haunch is made quite clear in scenes from Philae and
+     Edf�, representing Isis holding back Typhon by a chain, that
+     he might do no hurt to S�hii-Osiris. Jollois and Devilliers
+     thought that the hippopotamus was the <i>Great Bear</i>. Biot
+     contested their conclusions, and while holding that the
+     hippopotamus might at least in part present our
+     constellation of the Dragon, thought that it was probably
+     included in the scene only as an ornament, or as an emblem.
+     The present tendency is to identify the hippopotamus with
+     the Dragon and with certain stars not included in the
+     constellations surrounding it.
+
+     ***  The Lion, with its eighteen stars, is represented on
+     the tomb of Seti I.; on the ceiling of the Ramesseum; and on
+     the sarcophagus of Htari.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0018" id="linklinkBimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/127.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="127.jpg Okion, Sothis, and Two Hokus-planets Standing In Their Bakks. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  From the astronomic ceiling in the tomb of Seti I.
+     (Lef�bure, 4th part, pl. xxxvi.).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Lion is sometimes shown as having a crocodile's tail. According to
+      Biot the Egyptian Lion has nothing in common with the Greek constellation
+      of that name, nor yet with our own, but was composed of smaller stars,
+      belonging to the Greek constellation of the Cup or to the continuation of
+      the Hydra, so that its head, its body, and its tail would follow the [ ]
+      of the Hydra, between the [ ] and [ ] of that constellation, or the [ ] of
+      the Virgin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Most of the constellations never left the sky: night after night they were
+      to be found almost in the same places, and always shining with the same
+      even light.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0019" id="linklinkBimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/128.jpg" width="100%" alt="128.jpg Sahu-orion. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a small bronze in the G�zeh
+     Museum, published by Mariette, in the <i>Album photographique
+     du Mus�e de Boulaq</i>, pl. 9. The legs are a modern
+     restoration.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Others borne by a slow movement passed annually beyond the limits of sight
+      for months at a time. Five at least of our planets were known from all
+      antiquity, and their characteristic colours and appearances carefully
+      noted. Sometimes each was thought to be a hawk-headed Horus. �apshetat�i,
+      our Jupiter, Kahiri-(Saturn), Sobk�-(Mercury), steered their barks
+      straight ahead like I��h� and R�; but Mars-Doshiri, the red, sailed
+      backwards. As a star Bonu, the bird (Yenus) had a dual personality; in the
+      evening it was Uati, the lonely star which is the first to rise, often
+      before nightfall; in the morning it became Ti�n�tiri, the god who hails
+      the sun before his rising and proclaims the dawn of day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Sah� and Sopd�t, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this mysterious
+      world. Sah� consisted of fifteen stars, seven large and eight small, so
+      arranged as to represent a runner darting through space, while the fairest
+      of them shone above his head, and marked him out from afar to the
+      admiration of mortals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0020" id="linklinkBimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/129.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="129.jpg Orion and the Cow Sothis Separated by The Sparrow-hawk. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Scene from the rectangular zodiac of Denderah, drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken with magnesium light
+     by D�michen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      With his right hand he flourished the <i>crux ansata</i>, and turning his
+      head towards Sothis as he beckoned her on with his left, seemed as though
+      inviting her to follow him. The goddess, standing sceptre in hand, and
+      crowned with a diadem of tall feathers surmounted by her most radiant
+      star, answered the call of Sah� with a gesture, and quietly embarked in
+      pursuit as though in no anxiety to overtake him. Sometimes she is
+      represented as a cow lying down in her bark, with tree stars along her
+      back, and Sirius flaming from between her horns.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The identity of the cow with Sothis was discovered by
+     Jollois and Devilliers. It is under this animal form that
+     Sothis is represented in most of the Gr�co-Roman temples,
+     at Denderah, Edf�, Esneh, D�r el-Med�neh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Not content to shine by night only, her bluish rays, suddenly darted forth
+      in full daylight and without any warning, often described upon the sky the
+      mystic lines of the triangle which stood for her name. It was then that
+      she produced those curious phenomena of the zodiacal light which other
+      legends attributed to Horus himself. One, and perhaps the most ancient of
+      the innumerable accounts of this god and goddess, represented Sah� as a
+      wild hunter. A world as vast as ours rested upon the other side of the
+      iron firmament; like ours, it was distributed into seas, and continents
+      divided by rivers and canals, but peopled by races unknown to men. Sah�
+      traversed it during the day, surrounded by genii who presided over the
+      lamps forming his constellation. At his appearing "the stars prepared
+      themselves for battle, the heavenly archers rushed forward, the bones of
+      the gods upon the horizon trembled at the sight of him," for it was no
+      common game that he hunted, but the very gods themselves. One attendant
+      secured the prey with a lasso, as bulls are caught in the pastures, while
+      another examined each capture to decide if it were pure and good for food.
+      This being determined, others bound the divine victim, cut its throat,
+      disembowelled it, cut up its carcass, cast the joints into a pot, and
+      superintended their cooking. Sah� did not devour indifferently all that
+      the fortune of the chase might bring him, but classified his game in
+      accordance with his wants. He ate the great gods at his breakfast in the
+      morning, the lesser gods at his dinner towards noon, and the small ones at
+      his supper; the old were rendered more tender by roasting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0021" id="linklinkBimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/131.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="131.jpg Amon-r�, As M�n� of Coptos, and Invested With His Emblems. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Scene on the north wall of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak;
+     drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in
+     1882. The king, Seti I., is presenting bouquets of leaves to
+     Amon-M�n�. Behind the god stands Isis (of Coptos), sceptre
+     and <i>crux ansata</i> in hand.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As each god was assimilated by him, its most precious virtues were
+      transfused into himself; by the wisdom of the old was his wisdom
+      strengthened, the youth of the young repaired the daily waste of his own
+      youth, and all their fires, as they penetrated his being, served to
+      maintain the perpetual splendour of his light.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The nome gods who presided over the destinies of Egyptian cities, and
+      formed a true feudal system of divinities, belonged to one or other of
+      these natural categories. In vain do they present themselves under the
+      most shifting aspects and the most deceptive attributes; in vain disguise
+      themselves with the utmost care; a closer examination generally discloses
+      the principal features of their original physiognomies. Osiris of the
+      Delta, Khu�m� of the Cataract, Harsh�fit� of Heracleopolis, were each of
+      them, incarnations of the fertilizing and life-sustaining Nile. Wherever
+      there is some important change in the river, there they are more
+      especially installed and worshipped: Khn�m� at the place of its entering
+      into Egypt, and again at the town of H��r�t, near the point where a great
+      arm branches off from the Eastern stream to flow towards the Libyan hills
+      and form the Bahr-Y�suf: Harsh�fit� at the gorges of the Fay�m, where the
+      Bahr-Y�suf leaves the valley; and, finally, Osiris at Mendes and at
+      Busiris, towards the mouth of the middle branch, which was held to be the
+      true Nile by the people of the land. Isis of B�to denoted the black
+      vegetable mould of the valley, the distinctive soil of Egypt annually
+      covered and fertilized by the inundation.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the case of Isis, as in that of Osiris, we must mark
+     the original character; and note her characteristics as
+     goddess of the Delta before she had become a multiple and
+     contradictory personality through being confounded with
+     other divinities.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But the earth in general, as distinguished from the sky&mdash;the earth
+      with its continents, its seas, its alternation of barren deserts and
+      fertile lands&mdash;was represented as a man: Phtah at Memphis, Amon at
+      Thebes, M�n� at Coptos and at Panopolis. Amon seems rather to have
+      symbolized the productive soil, while M�n� reigned over the desert. But
+      these were fine distinctions, not invariably insisted upon, and his
+      worshippers often invested Amon with the most significant attributes of
+      M�n�.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0022" id="linklinkBimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/133.jpg" width="100%" alt="133.jpg Anh�ri. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bronze of the Sa�te period,
+     in my own possession.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Sky-gods, like the Earth-gods, were separated into two groups, the one
+      consisting of women: H�thor of Denderah, or N�t of Sais; the other
+      composed of men identical with Horus, or derived from him: Anh�ri-Sh� of
+      Sebennytos and Thinis; Harmerati, Horus of the two eyes, at Pharbaethos;
+      Har-Sapdi, Horus the source of the zodiacal light, in the W�dy Tumil�t;
+      and finally Harh�d�ti at Edf�. R�, the solar disk, was enthroned at
+      Heliopolis, and sun-gods were numerous among the nome deities, but they
+      were sun-gods closely connected with gods representing the sky, and
+      resembled Horus quite as much as R�. Whether under the name of Horus or of
+      Anh�ri, the sky was early identified with its most brilliant luminary, its
+      solar eye, and its divinity was as it were fused into that of the Sun.
+      Horus the Sun, and R�, the Sun-Cod of Heliopolis, had so permeated each
+      other that none could say where the one began and the other ended. One by
+      one all the functions of R� had been usurped by Horus, and all the
+      designations of Horus had been appropriated by R�. The sun was styled
+      Harmakh��ti, the Horus of the two mountains&mdash;that is, the Horus who
+      comes forth from the mountain of the east in the morning, and retires at
+      evening into the mountain of the west;[*] or Hartim�, Horus the Pikeman,
+      that Horus whose lance spears the hippopotamus or the serpent of the
+      celestial river; or Harn�bi, the Golden Horus, the great golden
+      sparrow-hawk with mottled plumage, who puts all other birds to flight; and
+      these titles were indifferently applied to each of the feudal gods who
+      represented the sun.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  From the time of Champollion, Harmakh��ti has been
+     identified with the Harmachis of the Greeks, the great
+     Sphinx.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0023" id="linklinkBimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/134.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="134.jpg the Hawk-headed Hokus.2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  A bronze of the Sa�te period, from the Posno collection,
+     and now in the Louvre; drawn by Faucher-Gudin. The god is
+     represented as upholding a libation vase with both hands,
+     and pouring the life-giving water upon the king, standing,
+     or prostrate, before him.    In performing this ceremony, he
+     was always assisted by another god, generally by Sit,
+     sometimes by Thot or Anubis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter were numerous. Sometimes, as in the case of Harkhobi, Horus of
+      Khobi�,[*] a geographical qualification was appended to the generic term
+      of Horus, while specific names, almost invariably derived from the parts
+      which they were supposed to play, were borne by others. The sky-god
+      worshipped at Thinis in Upper Egypt, at Zar�t and at Sebennytos in Lower
+      Egypt, was called Anhuri. When he assumed the attributes of R�, and took
+      upon himself the solar nature, his name was interpreted as denoting the
+      conqueror of the sky. He was essentially combative. Crowned with a group
+      of upright plumes, his spear raised and ever ready to strike the foe, he
+      advanced along the firmament and triumphantly traversed it day by day.[**]
+      The sun-god who at Medam�fc Ta�d and Erment had preceded Amon as ruler of
+      the Theban plain, was also a warrior, and his name of Mont� had reference
+      to his method of fighting. He was depicted as brandishing a curved sword
+      and cutting off the heads of his adversaries.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  <i>Harkhobi, Har�mkhobi�</i> is the Horus of the marshes
+     (<i>khobi�</i>) of the Delta, the lesser Horus the son of Isis,
+     who was also made into the son of Osiris.
+
+     **  The right reading of the name was given as far back as
+     Lepsius. The part played by the god, and the nature of the
+     link connecting him with Sh�, have been explained by
+     Maspero. The Greeks transcribed his name Onouris, and
+     identified him with Ares.
+
+     ***  Mont� preceded Amon as god of the land between K�s and
+     Gebel�n, and he recovered his old position in the Gr�co-
+     Roman period after the destruction of Thebes. Most
+     Egyptologists, and finally Brugsch, made him into a
+     secondary form of Amon, which is contrary to what we know of
+     the history of the province. Just as On� of the south
+     (Erment) preceded Thebes as the most important town in that
+     district, so Mont� had been its most honoured god. Heer
+     Wiedemann thinks the name related to that of Amon and
+     derived from it, with the addition of the final <i>t�</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each of the feudal gods naturally cherished pretensions to universal
+      dominion, and proclaimed himself the suzerain, the father of all the gods,
+      as the local prince was the suzerain, the father of all men; but the
+      effective suzerainty of god or prince really ended where that of his peers
+      ruling over the adjacent nomes began.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0024" id="linklinkBimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/136.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="136.jpg the Hoeus of Hibon�, on The Back Of The Gazelle. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The goddesses shared in the exercise of supreme power, and had the same
+      right of inheritance and possession as regards sovereignty that women had
+      in human law.[*] Isis was entitled lady and mistress at B�to, as H�thor
+      was at Denderah, and as Nit at Sais, "the firstborn, when as yet there had
+      been no birth." They enjoyed in their cities the same honours as the male
+      gods in theirs; as the latter were kings, so were they queens, and all
+      bowed down before them. The animal gods, whether entirely in the form of
+      beasts, or having human bodies attached to animal heads, shared
+      omnipotence with those in human form. Horus of Hibon� swooped down upon
+      the back of a gazelle like a hunting hawk, H�thor of Denderah was a cow,
+      Bastit of Bubastis was a cat or a tigress, while Nekhabit of El Kab was a
+      great bald-headed vulture.[**] Hermopolis worshipped the ibis and
+      cynocephalus of Thot; Oxyrrhynchus the <i>mor-myrus</i> fish;[***] and
+      Ombos and the Fay�m a crocodile, under the name of Sobk�,[****] sometimes
+      with the epithet of Aza�, the brigand.[v]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In attempts at reconstituting Egyptian religions, no
+     adequate weight has hitherto been given to the equality of
+     gods and goddesses, a fact to which attention was first
+     called by Maspeeo (<i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. p. 253, et seq.).
+
+     **  Nekhab�t, the goddess of the south, is the vulture, so
+     often represented in scenes of war or sacrifice, who hovers
+     over the head of the Pharaohs. She is also shown as a
+     vulture-headed woman.
+
+     ***  We have this on the testimony of classic writers,
+     Steabo, book xvii. p. 812, <i>De Iside et Csiride</i>, � vii.,
+     1872, Paethey's edition, pp. 9, 30, 128. ^Elianus, Hist,
+     anim., book x. � 46.
+
+     ****  Sobh�, Sovk� is the animal's name, and the exact
+     translation of Sov� would be crocodile-god. Its Greek
+     transcription is [ ]. On account of the assonance of the
+     names he was sometimes confounded with <i>Siv�, Sib�</i> by the
+     Egyptians themselves, and thus obtained the titles of that
+     god. This was especially the case at the time when Sit
+     having been proscribed, Sovk� the crocodile, who was
+     connected with Sit, shared his evil reputation, and
+     endeavoured to disguise his name or true character as much
+     as possible.
+
+     v  Aza�  is generally considered to be the Osiris of the
+     Fay�m, but he was only transformed into Osiris, and that by
+     the most daring process of assimilation.    His full name
+     defines him as <i>Osiri Aza� hi halt To-sit (Osiris the
+     Brigand, who is in the Fay�m)</i>, that is to say,  as Sovk�
+     identified with Osiris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0025" id="linklinkBimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/138.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="138.jpg the Cat-headed Bast. 4 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     4  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a green enamelled figure in
+     my possession (Sa�te period).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We cannot always understand what led the inhabitants of each nome to
+      affect one animal rather than another. Why, towards Gr�co-Roman times,
+      should they have worshipped the jackal, or even the dog, at Si�t?[**] How
+      came Sit to be incarnate in a fennec, or in an imaginary quadruped?[***]
+      Occasionally, however, we can follow the train of thought that determined
+      their choice.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     ** Uapua�t�, the <i>guide of the celestial ways</i>, who must not
+     be confounded with Anubis of the Cynopolite nome of Upper
+     Egypt, was originally the feudal god of Si�t. He guided
+     human souls to the paradise of the Oasis, and the sun upon
+     its southern path by day, and its northern path by night.
+
+     ***  Champollion, Rosellini, Lepsius, have held that the
+     Typhonian animal was a purely imaginary one, and Wilkinson
+     says that the Egyptians themselves admitted its unreality by
+     representing it along with other fantastic beasts. This
+     would rather tend to show that they believed in its actual
+     existence (cf. p. 112 of this History). Plbyte thinks that
+     it may be a degenerated form of the figure of the ass or
+     oryx.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The habit of certain monkeys in assembling as it were in full court, and
+      chattering noisily a little before sunrise and sunset, would almost
+      justify the as yet uncivilized Egyptians in entrusting cynocephali with
+      the charge of hailing the god morning and evening as he appeared in the
+      east, or passed away in the west.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0026" id="linklinkBimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/139.jpg" width="100%" alt="139.jpg Two Images " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If R� was held to be a grasshopper under the Old Empire, it was because he
+      flew far up in the sky like the clouds of locusts driven from Central
+      Africa which suddenly fall upon the fields and ravage them. Most of the
+      Nile-gods, Khn�m�, Osiris, Harshafit�, were incarnate in the form of a ram
+      or of a buck. Does not the masculine vigour and procreative rage of these
+      animals naturally point them out as fitting images of the life-giving Nile
+      and the overflowing of its waters? It is easy to understand how the
+      neighbourhood of a marsh or of a rock-encumbered rapid should have
+      suggested the crocodile as supreme deity to the inhabitants of the Fay�m
+      or of Ombos. The crocodiles there multiplied so rapidly as to constitute a
+      serious danger; there they had the mastery, and could be appeased only by
+      means of prayers and sacrifices. When instinctive terror had been
+      superseded by reflection, and some explanation was offered of the origin
+      of the various cults, the very nature of the animal seemed to justify the
+      veneration with which it was regarded. The crocodile is amphibious; and
+      Sobk� was supposed to be a crocodile, because before the creation the
+      sovereign god plunged recklessly into the dark waters and came forth to
+      form the world, as the crocodile emerges from the river to lay its eggs
+      upon the bank.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Most of the feudal divinities began their lives in solitary grandeur,
+      apart from, and often hostile to, their neighbours. Families were assigned
+      to them later.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The existence of the Egyptian triads was discovered and
+     defined by Champollion. These triads have long served as the
+     basis upon which modern writers have sought to establish
+     their systems of the Egyptian religion. Brugsch was the
+     first who rightly attempted to replace the triad by the
+     Ennead, in his book Religion und Mythologie der alten
+     �gypter. The process of forming local triads, as here set
+     forth, was first pointed out by Maspero (<i>�tudes de
+     Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. p. 269,
+     et seq.).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each appropriated two companions and formed a trinity, or as it is
+      generally called, a triad. But there were several kinds of triads. In
+      nomes subject to a god, the local deity was frequently content with one
+      wife and one son; but often he was united to two goddesses, who were at
+      once his sisters and his wives according to the national custom.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0027" id="linklinkBimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/141.jpg" width="100%" alt="141.jpg Nit of Sa�s. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Thus, Thot of Hermopolis possessed himself of a harem consisting of
+      Sesha�t-Safk-h�t�b�i and Hahm���t. T�m� divided the homage of the
+      inhabitants of Helio-polis with Nebth�tp�t and with I�sas�t. Khn�m�
+      seduced and married the two fairies of the neighbouring cataract&mdash;An�k�t
+      the constrainer, who compresses the Nile between its rocks at Philse and
+      at Syene, and Sat�t the archeress, who shoots forth the current straight
+      and swift as an arrow.[*] Where a goddess reigned over a nome, the triad
+      was completed by two male deities, a divine consort and a divine son. N�t
+      of Sai's had taken for her husband Osiris of Mendes, and borne him a
+      lion's whelp, Ari-hos-nofir.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. p. 273, et seq.
+
+     **  <i>Arihosnofir</i> means <i>the lion whose gaze has a
+     beneficent fascination</i>. He also goes under the name of
+     <i>Tutu</i>, which seems as though it should be translated "<i>the
+     bounding</i>,"&mdash;a mere epithet characterizing one gait of the
+     lion-god's.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      H�thor of Denderah had completed her household with Haro�ris and a younger
+      Horus, with the epithet of Ahi&mdash;he who strikes the sistrum.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Brugsch explains the name of Ahi as meaning <i>he who
+     causes his waters to rise</i>, and recognizes this personage as
+     being, among other things, a form of the Nile. The
+     interpretation offered by myself is borne out by the many
+     scenes representing the child of H�thor playing upon the
+     sistrum and the <i>mon��t</i>. Moreover, <i>ahi, ah�t</i> is an
+     invariable title of the priests and priestesses whose office
+     it is, during religious ceremonies, to strike the sistrum,
+     and that other mystic musical instrument, the sounding whip
+     called <i>mon��t</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0028" id="linklinkBimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/142.jpg" width="100%" alt="142.jpg Imhotp�. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bronze statuette encrusted
+     with gold, in the G�zeh Museum.    The seat is alabaster,
+     and of modern manufacture.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A triad containing two goddesses produced no legitimate offspring, and was
+      unsatisfactory to a people who regarded the lack of progeny as a curse
+      from heaven; one in which the presence of a son promised to ensure the
+      perpetuity of the race was more in keeping with the idea of a blessed and
+      prosperous family, as that of gods should be. Triads of the former kind
+      were therefore almost everywhere broken up into two new triads, each
+      containing a divine father, a divine mother, and a divine son. Two
+      fruitful households arose from the barren union of Thot with Safkh�t�b�i
+      and Nahm���t: one composed of Thot, Safkh�t�b�i, and Harn�bi, the golden
+      sparrow-hawk;[***] into the other Nahm���t and her nursling Nofirhor�
+      entered.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     ***  This somewhat rare triad, noted by Wilkinson, is
+     sculptured on the wall of a chamber in the T�rah quarries.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0029" id="linklinkBimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/143.jpg" width="100%" alt="143.jpg Nofirt�m�. 3 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     3  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bronze statuette incrusted
+     with gold, in the G�zeh Museum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The persons united with the old feudal divinities in order to form triads
+      were not all of the same class. Goddesses, especially, were made to order,
+      and might often be described as grammatical, so obvious is the linguistic
+      device to which they owe their being. From R�, Amon, Horus, Sobk�, female
+      Ras, Anions, Horuses, and Sobk�s were derived, by the addition of the
+      regular feminine affix to the primitive masculine names&mdash;R��t,
+      Amon�t, Hor�t, Sobk�t.[*] In the same way, detached cognomens of divine
+      fathers were embodied in divine sons. Imhotp�, "he who comes in peace,"
+      was merely one of the epithets of Phtah before he became incarnate as the
+      third member of the Memphite triad.[**] In other cases, alliances were
+      contracted between divinities of ancient stock, but natives of different
+      nomes, as in the case of Isis of B�to and the Mendesian Osiris; of
+      Haro�ris of Edfu and H�thor of Denderah.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Maspero,   <i>�tudes  de  Mythologie et  d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 7, 8, 256.
+
+     **  Imhotp�, the Imouthes of the Greeks, and by them
+     identified with �sculapius, was discovered by Salt, and his
+     name was first translated as <i>he who comes with offering</i>.
+     The translation, <i>he who comes in peace</i>, proposed by E. de
+     Roug�, is now universally adopted. Imhotp� did not take form
+     until the time of the New Empire; his great popularity at
+     Memphis and throughout Egypt dates from the Sa�te and Greek
+     periods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the same manner Sokh�t of Letopolis and Bast�t of Bubastis were
+      appropriated as wives to Phtah of Memphis, Nofirt�m� being represented as
+      his son by both unions.[*] These improvised connections were generally
+      determined by considerations of vicinity; the gods of conterminous
+      principalities were married as the children of kings of two adjoining
+      kingdoms are married, to form or to consolidate relations, and to
+      establish bonds of kinship between rival powers whose unremitting
+      hostility would mean the swift ruin of entire peoples.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The system of triads, begun in primitive times and con-, tinned unbrokenly
+      up to the last days of Egyptian polytheism, far from in any way lowering
+      the prestige of the feudal gods, was rather the means of enhancing it in
+      the eyes of the multitude. Powerful lords as the new-comers might be at
+      home, it was only in the strength of an auxiliary title that they could
+      enter a strange city, and then only on condition of submitting to its
+      religious law. H�thor, supreme at Denderah, shrank into insignificance
+      before Haro�ris at Edf�, and there retained only the somewhat subordinate
+      part of a wife in the house of her husband.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Originally, Nofirt�m� appears to have been the son of cat
+     or lioness-headed goddesses, Bast�t and Sokh�t, and from
+     them he may have inherited the lion's head with which he is
+     often represented. His name shows him to have been in the
+     first place an incarnation of At�m�, but he was affiliated
+     to the god Phtah of Memphis when that god became the husband
+     of his mothers, and preceded Imhotp� as the third personage
+     in the oldest Memphite triad.
+
+     **  Each year, and at a certain time, the goddess came in
+     high state to spend a few days in the great temple of Edf�,
+     with her husband Haro�ris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, Haro�ris when at Denderah descended from the supreme
+      rank, and was nothing more than the almost useless consort of the lady
+      H�thor. His name came first in invocations of the triad because of his
+      position therein as husband and father; but this was simply a concession
+      to the propriety of etiquette, and even though named in second place,
+      H�thor was none the less the real chief of Denderah and of its divine
+      family.[*] Thus, the principal personage in any triad was always the one
+      who had been patron of the nome previous to the introduction of the triad:
+      in some places the father-god, and in others the mother-goddess.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The part played by Haro�ris at Denderah was so
+     inconsiderable that the triad containing him is not to be
+     found in the temple. "In all our four volumes of plates, the
+     triad is not once represented, and this is the more
+     remarkable since at Thebes, at Memphis, at Philse, at the
+     cataracts, at Elephantine, at Edf�, among all the data which
+     one looks to find in temples, the triad is most readily
+     distinguished by the visitor. But we must not therefore
+     conclude that there was no triad in this case. The triad of
+     Edf� consists of Hor-Hut, H�thor, and Hor-Sam-ta-ui. The
+     triad of Denderah contains H�thor, Hor-Hut, and Hor-Sam-ta-
+     ui. The difference is obvious. At Edf�, the male principle,
+     as represented by Hor-Hut, takes the first place, whereas
+     the first person at Denderah is H�thor, who represents the
+     female principle" (Mariette, <i>Dend�rah</i>, Texte, pp. 80, 81).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0030" id="linklinkBimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/145.jpg" width="100%" alt="145.jpg Horus " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a statuette in the G�zeh
+     Museum (Mariette, <i>Album du Mus�e de Boulaq</i>, pl. 4).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The son in a divine triad had of himself but limited authority. When Isis
+      and Osiris were his parents, he was generally an infant Horus, naked, or
+      simply adorned with necklaces and bracelets; a thick lock of hair depended
+      from his temple, and his mother squatting on her heels, or else sitting,
+      nursed him upon her knees, offering him her breast.[*] Even in triads
+      where the son was supposed to have attained to man's estate, he held the
+      lowest place, and there was enjoined upon him the same respectful attitude
+      towards his parents as is observed by children of human race in the
+      presence of theirs. He took the lowest place at all solemn receptions,
+      spoke only with his parents' permission, acted only by their command and
+      as the agent of their will. Occasionally he was vouchsafed a character of
+      his own, and filled a definite position, as at Memphis, where Imhotp� was
+      the patron of science.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  For representations of Harpocrates, the child Horus, see
+     Lanzone, <i>Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia</i>, pis. ccxxvii.,
+     ccxxviii., and particularly pl. cccx. 2, where there is a
+     scene in which the young god, represented as a sparrow-hawk,
+     is nevertheless sucking the breast of his mother Isis with
+     his beak.
+
+     **  Hence he is generally represented as seated, or
+     squatting, and attentively reading a papyrus roll, which
+     lies open upon his knees; cf. the illustration on p. 142.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But, generally, he was not considered as having either office or marked
+      individuality; his being was but a feeble reflection of his father's, and
+      possessed neither life nor power except as derived from him. Two such
+      contiguous personalities must needs have been confused, and, as a matter
+      of fact, were so confused as to become at length nothing more than two
+      aspects of the same god, who united in his own person degrees of
+      relationship mutually exclusive of each other in a human family. Father,
+      inasmuch as he was the first member of the triad; son, by virtue of being
+      its third member; identical with himself in both capacities, he was at
+      once his own father, his own son, and the husband of his mother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Gods, like men, might be resolved into at least two elements, soul and
+      body;[*] but in Egypt, the conception of the soul varied in different
+      times and in different schools. It might be an insect&mdash;butterfly,
+      bee, or praying mantis;[**] or a bird&mdash;the ordinary sparrow-hawk, the
+      human-headed sparrow-hawk, a heron or a crane&mdash;bi, ha�&mdash;whose
+      wings enabled it to pass rapidly through space;[***] or the black shadow&mdash;kha�b�t&mdash;that
+      is attached to every body, but which death sets free, and which
+      thenceforward leads an independent existence, so that it can move about at
+      will, and go out into the open sunlight.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In one of the Pyramid texts, S�h�-Orion, the wild hunter,
+     captures the gods, slaughters and disembowels them, cooks
+     their joints, their haunches, their legs, in his burning
+     cauldrons, and feeds on their souls as well as on their
+     bodies. A god was not limited to a single body and a single
+     soul; we know from several texts that R� had <i>seven souls
+     and fourteen doubles</i>.
+
+     **  Mr. Lepage-Renouf supposes that the soul may have been
+     considered as being a butterfly at times, as in Greece. M.
+     Lef�bure thinks that it must sometimes have been incarnate
+     as a wasp&mdash;I should rather say a bee or a praying mantis.
+
+     ***  The simple sparrow-hawk  is chiefly used to denote the
+     soul of a god; the human-headed sparrow-hawk, the heron, or
+     the crane  is used indifferently for human or divine souls.
+     It is from Horapollo that we learn this symbolic
+     significance of the sparrow-hawk and the pronunciation of
+     the name of the soul as <i>bai</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0031" id="linklinkBimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/147.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="147.jp the Black Shadow Coming out Into The Sunlight. 4 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     4  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Naville's <i>Das Thebanische
+     Todtenbuch, vol. i. pl. civ.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Finally, it might be a kind of light shadow, like a reflection from the
+      surface of calm water, or from a polished mirror, the living and coloured
+      projection of the human figure, a double&mdash;<i>ka</i>&mdash;reproducing
+      in minutest detail the complete image of the object or the person to whom
+      it belonged.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The nature of the double has long been misapprehended by
+     Egyptologists, who had even made its name into a kind of
+     pronominal form. That nature was publicly and almost
+     simultaneously announced in 1878, first by Maspero, and
+     directly afterwards by Lepage-Renouf.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0032" id="linklinkBimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/148.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="148.jpg the August Souls of Osiris and Horus in Adoration Before the Solar Disk. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by D�michen, of
+     a scene on the cornice of the front room of Osiris on the
+     terrace of the great temple of Denderah. The soul on the
+     left belongs to Horus, that on the right to Osiris, lord of
+     Ament�t. Each bears upon its head the group of tall feathers
+     which is characteristic of figures of Anh�ri (cf. p. 103).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The soul, the shadow, the double of a god, was in no way essentially
+      different from the soul, shadow, or double of a man; his body, indeed, was
+      moulded out of a more rarefied substance, and generally invisible, but
+      endowed with the same qualities, and subject to the same imperfections as
+      ours. The gods, therefore, on the whole, were more ethereal, stronger,
+      more powerful, better fitted to command, to enjoy, and to suffer than
+      ordinary men, but they were still men. They had bones,[**] muscles, flesh,
+      blood; they were hungry and ate, they were thirsty and drank; our
+      passions, griefs, joys, infirmities, were also theirs. The <i>sa</i>, a
+      mysterious fluid, circulated throughout their members, and carried with it
+      health, vigour, and life.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  For example, the text of the <i>Destruction of Men</i>, and
+     other documents, teach us that the flesh of the aged sun had
+     become gold, and his bones silver. The blood of R� is
+     mentioned in the <i>Book of the Dead</i>, as well as the blood of
+     Isis and of other divinities.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were not all equally charged with it; some had more, others less,
+      their energy being in proportion to the amount which they contained. The
+      better supplied willingly gave of their superfluity to those who lacked
+      it, and all could readily transmit it to mankind, this transfusion being
+      easily accomplished in the temples. The king, or any ordinary man who
+      wished to be thus impregnated, presented himself before the statue of the
+      god, and squatted at its feet with his back towards it. The statue then
+      placed its right hand upon the nape of his neck, and by making passes,
+      caused the fluid to flow from it, and to accumulate in him as in a
+      receiver. This rite was of temporary efficacy only, and required frequent
+      renewal in order that its benefit might be maintained.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0033" id="linklinkBimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/150.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="150.jpg the King After his Coronation Receiving The Imposition of the Sa. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Boudier from a photograph by M. Gay et, taken in
+     1889, of a scene in the hypostyle hall at L�xor. This
+     illustration shows the relative positions of prince and god.
+     Anion, after having placed the pschent upon the head of the
+     Pharaoh Amen�thes III., who kneels before him, proceeds to
+     <i>impose the sa</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By using or transmitting it the gods themselves exhausted their <i>sa</i>
+      of life; and the less vigorous replenished themselves from the stronger,
+      while the latter went to draw fresh fulness from a mysterious pond in the
+      northern sky, called the "pond of the Sa."[*] Divine bodies, continually
+      recruited by the influx of this magic fluid, preserved their vigour far
+      beyond the term allotted to the bodies of men and beasts. Age, instead of
+      quickly destroying them, hardened and transformed them into precious
+      metals. Their bones were changed to silver, their flesh to gold; their
+      hair, piled up and painted blue, after the manner of great chiefs, was
+      turned into lapis-lazuli.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *   It is thus that in the <i>Tale of the Daughter of the
+     Prince of Bakhtan</i> we find that one of the statues of the
+     Theban Kons� supplies itself with <i>sa</i> from another statue
+     representing one of the most powerful forms of the god. The
+     <i>pond of Sa</i>, whither the gods go to draw the magic fluid,
+     is mentioned in the Pyramid texts.
+
+     **  Cf. the text of the <i>Destruction of Men</i> (Il. 1, 2)
+     referred to above, where age produces these transformations
+     in the body of the sun. This changing of the bodies of the
+     gods into gold, silver, and precious stones, explains why
+     the alchemists, who were disciples of the Egyptians, often
+     compared the transmutation of metals to the metamorphosis of
+     a genius or of a divinity: they thought by their art to
+     hasten at will that which was the slow work of nature.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This transformation of each into an animated statue did not altogether do
+      away with the ravages of time. Decrepitude was no less irremediable with
+      them than with men, although it came to them more slowly; when the sun had
+      grown old "his mouth trembled, his drivelling ran down to earth, his
+      spittle dropped upon the ground."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      None of the feudal gods had escaped this destiny; for them as for mankind
+      the day came when they must leave the city and go forth to the tomb.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The idea of the inevitable death of the gods is expressed
+     in other places as well as in a passage of the eighth
+     chapter of the Booh of the Dead (Naville's edition), which
+     has not to my knowledge hitherto been noticed: "I am that
+     Osiris in the West, and Osiris knoweth his day in which he
+     shall be no more;" that is to say, the day of his death
+     when he will cease to exist. All the gods, At�m�, Horus, R�,
+     Thot, Phtah, Khn�m�, are represented under the forms of
+     mummies, and this implies that they are dead.    Moreover,
+     their tombs were pointed out in several places in Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The ancients long refused to believe that death was natural and
+      inevitable. They thought that life, once began, might go on indefinitely:
+      if no accident stopped it short, why should it cease of itself? And so men
+      did not die in Egypt; they were assassinated. The murderer often belonged
+      to this world, and was easily recognized as another man, an animal, some
+      inanimate object such as a stone loosened from the hillside, a tree which
+      fell upon the passer-by and crushed him. But often too the murderer was of
+      the unseen world, and so was hidden, his presence being betrayed in his
+      malignant attacks only. He was a god, an evil spirit, a disembodied soul
+      who slily insinuated itself into the living man, or fell upon him with
+      irresistible violence&mdash;illness being a struggle between the one
+      possessed and the power which possessed him. As soon as the former
+      succumbed he was carried away from his own people, and his place knew him
+      no more. But had all ended for him with the moment in which he had ceased
+      to breathe? As to the body, no one was ignorant of its natural fate. It
+      quickly fell to decay, and a few years sufficed to reduce it to a
+      skeleton. And as for the skeleton, in the lapse of centuries that too was
+      disintegrated and became a mere train of dust, to be blown away by the
+      first breath of wind. The soul might have a longer career and fuller
+      fortunes, but these were believed to be dependent upon those of the body,
+      and commensurate with them. Every advance made in the process of
+      decomposition robbed the soul of some part of itself; its consciousness
+      gradually faded until nothing was left but a vague and hollow form that
+      vanished altogether when the corpse had entirely disappeared. Erom an
+      early date the Egyptians had endeavoured to arrest this gradual
+      destruction of the human organism, and their first effort to this end
+      naturally was directed towards the preservation of the body, since without
+      it the existence of the soul could not be ensured. It was imperative that
+      during that last sleep, which for them was fraught with such terrors, the
+      flesh should neither become decomposed nor turn to dust, that it should be
+      free from offensive odour and secure from predatory worms.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They set to work, therefore, to discover how to preserve it. The oldest
+      burials which have as yet been found prove that these early inhabitants
+      were successful in securing the permanence of the body for a few decades
+      only. When one of them died, his son, or his nearest relative, carefully
+      washed the corpse in water impregnated with an astringent or aromatic
+      substance, such as natron or some solution of fragrant gums, and then
+      fumigated it with burning herbs and perfumes which were destined to
+      overpower, at least temporarily, the odour of death.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is to be gathered from the various Pyramid texts
+     relating to the purification by water and to fumigation: the
+     pains taken to secure material cleanliness, described in
+     these formulas, were primarily directed towards the
+     preservation of the bodies subjected to these processes, and
+     further to the perfecting of the souls to which these bodies
+     had been united.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Having taken these precautions, they placed the body in the grave,
+      sometimes entirely naked, sometimes partially covered with its ordinary
+      garments, or sewn up in a closely fitting gazelle skin. The dead man was
+      placed on his left side, lying north and south with his face to the east,
+      in some cases on the bare ground, in others on a mat, a strip of leather
+      or a fleece, in the position of a child in the foetal state. The knees
+      were sharply bent at an angle of 45� with the thighs, while the latter
+      were either at right angles with the body, or drawn up so as almost to
+      touch the elbows. The hands are sometimes extended in front of the face,
+      sometimes the arms are folded and the hands joined on the breast or neck.
+      In some instances the legs are bent upward in such a fashion that they
+      almost lie parallel with the trunk. The deceased could only be made to
+      assume this position by a violent effort, and in many cases the tendons
+      and the flesh had to be cut to facilitate the operation. The dryness of
+      the ground selected for these burial-places retarded the corruption of the
+      flesh for a long time, it is true, but only retarded it, and so did not
+      prevent the soul from being finally destroyed. Seeing decay could not be
+      prevented, it was determined to accelerate the process, by taking the
+      flesh from the bones before interment. The bodies thus treated are often
+      incomplete; the head is missing, or is detached from the neck and laid in
+      another part of the pit, or, on the other hand, the body is not there, and
+      the head only is found in the grave, generally placed apart on a brick, a
+      heap of stones, or a layer of cut flints. The forearms and the hands were
+      subjected to the same treatment as the head. In many cases no trace of
+      them appears, in others they are deposited by the side of the skull or
+      scattered about haphazard. Other mutilations are frequently met with; the
+      ribs are divided and piled up behind the body, the limbs are disjointed or
+      the body is entirely dismembered, and the fragments arranged upon the
+      ground or enclosed together in an earthenware chest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These precautions were satisfactory in so far as they ensured the better
+      preservation of the more solid parts of the human frame, but the Egyptians
+      felt this result was obtained at too great a sacrifice. The human organism
+      thus deprived of all flesh was not only reduced to half its bulk, but what
+      remained had neither unity, consistency, nor continuity. It was not even a
+      perfect skeleton with its constituent parts in their relative places, but
+      a mere mass of bones with no connecting links. This drawback, it is true,
+      was remedied by the artificial reconstruction in the tomb of the
+      individual thus completely dismembered in the course of the funeral
+      ceremonies. The bones were laid in their natural order; those of the feet
+      at the bottom, then those of the leg, trunk, and arms, and finally the
+      skull itself. But the superstitious fear inspired by the dead man,
+      particularly of one thus harshly handled, and particularly the
+      apprehension that he might revenge himself on his relatives for the
+      treatment to which they had subjected him, often induced them to make this
+      restoration intentionally incomplete. When they had reconstructed the
+      entire skeleton, they refrained from placing the head in position, or else
+      they suppressed one or all of the vertebras of the spine, so that the
+      deceased should be unable to rise and go forth to bite and harass the
+      living. Having taken this precaution, they nevertheless felt a doubt
+      whether the soul could really enjoy life so long as one half only of the
+      body remained, and the other was lost for ever: they therefore sought to
+      discover the means of preserving the fleshy parts in addition to the bony
+      framework of the body. It had been observed that when a corpse had been
+      buried in the desert, its skin, speedily desiccated and hardened, changed
+      into a case of blackish parchment beneath which the flesh slowly wasted
+      away,[*] and the whole frame thus remained intact, at least in appearance,
+      while its integrity ensured that of the soul.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Such was the appearance of the bodies of Coptic monks of
+     the sixth, eighth, and ninth centuries, which I found in the
+     convent cemeteries of Contra-Syene, Ta�d, and Akhm�m, right
+     in the midst of the desert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An attempt was made by artificial means to reproduce the conservative
+      action of the sand, and, without mutilating the body, to secure at will
+      that incorruptibility without which the persistence of the soul was but a
+      useless prolongation of the death-agony. It was the god Anubis&mdash;the
+      jackal lord of sepulture&mdash;who was supposed to have made this
+      discovery. He cleansed the body of the viscera, those parts which most
+      rapidly decay, saturated it with salts and aromatic substances, protected
+      it first of all with the hide of a beast, and over this laid thick layers
+      of linen. The victory the god had thus gained over corruption was,
+      however, far from being a complete one. The bath in which the dead man was
+      immersed could not entirely preserve the softer parts of the body: the
+      chief portion of them was dissolved, and what remained after the period of
+      saturation was so desiccated that its bulk was seriously diminished.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When any human being had been submitted to this process, he emerged from
+      it a mere skeleton, over which the skin remained tightly drawn: these
+      shrivelled limbs, sunken chest, grinning features, yellow and blackened
+      skin spotted by the efflorescence of the embalmer's salts, were not the
+      man himself, but rather a caricature of what he had been. As nevertheless
+      he was secure against immediate destruction, the Egyptians described him
+      as furnished with his shape; henceforth he had been purged of all that was
+      evil in him, and he could face with tolerable security whatever awaited
+      him in the future. The art of Anubis, transmitted to the embalmers and
+      employed by them from generation to generation, had, by almost eliminating
+      the corruptible part of the body without destroying its outward
+      appearance, arrested decay, if not for ever, at least for an unlimited
+      period of time. If there were hills at hand, thither the mummied dead were
+      still borne, partly from custom, partly because the dryness of the air and
+      of the soil offered them a further chance of preservation. In districts of
+      the Delta where the hills were so distant as to make it very costly to
+      reach them, advantage was taken of the smallest sandy islet rising above
+      the marshes, and there a cemetery was founded. Where this resource failed,
+      the mummy was fearlessly entrusted to the soil itself, but only after
+      being placed within a sarcophagus of hard stone, whose lid and trough,
+      hermetically fastened together with cement, prevented the penetration of
+      any moisture. Reassured on this point, the soul followed the body to the
+      tomb, and there dwelt with it as in its eternal house, upon the confines
+      of the visible and invisible worlds.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Here the soul kept the distinctive character and appearance which
+      pertained to it "upon the earth:" as it had been a "double" before death,
+      so it remained a double after it, able to perform all functions of animal
+      life after its own fashion. It moved, went, came, spoke, breathed,
+      accepted pious homage, but without pleasure, and as it were mechanically,
+      rather from an instinctive horror of annihilation than from any rational
+      desire for immortality. Unceasing regret for the bright world which it had
+      left disturbed its mournful and inert existence. "O my brother, withhold
+      not thyself from drinking and from eating, from drunkenness, from love,
+      from all enjoyment, from following thy desire by night and by day; put not
+      sorrow within thy heart, for what are the years of a man upon earth? The
+      West is a land of sleep and of heavy shadows, a place wherein its
+      inhabitants, when once installed, slumber on in their mummy-forms, never
+      more waking to see their brethren; never more to recognize their fathers
+      or their mothers, with hearts forgetful of their wives and children. The
+      living water, which earth giveth to all who dwell upon it, is for me but
+      stagnant and dead; that water floweth to all who are on earth, while for
+      me it is but liquid putrefaction, this water that is mine. Since I came
+      into this funereal valley I know not where nor what I am. Give me to drink
+      of running water!... Let me be placed by the edge of the water with my
+      face to the North, that the breeze may caress me and my heart be refreshed
+      from its sorrow." By day the double remained concealed within the tomb. If
+      it went forth by night, it was from no capricious or sentimental desire to
+      revisit the spots where it had led a happier life. Its organs needed
+      nourishment as formerly did those of its body, and of itself it possessed
+      nothing "but hunger for food, thirst for drink."[*] Want and misery drove
+      it from its retreat, and flung it back among the living. It prowled like a
+      marauder about fields and villages, picking up and greedily devouring
+      whatever it might find on the ground&mdash;broken meats which had been
+      left or forgotten, house and stable refuse&mdash;and, should these meagre
+      resources fail, even the most revolting dung and excrement.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *   <i>Teti</i>, 11. 74, 75. "Hateful unto Teti is hunger, and
+     he eateth it not; hateful unto Teti is thirst, nor hath he
+     drunk it." We see that the Egyptians made hunger and thirst
+     into two substances or beings, to be swallowed as food is
+     swallowed, but whose effects were poisonous unless
+     counteracted by the immediate absorption of more satisfying
+     sustenance.
+
+     **  King Teti, when distinguishing his fate from that of the
+     common dead, stated that he had abundance of food, and hence
+     was not reduced to so pitiful an extremity. "Abhorrent unto
+     Teti is excrement, Teti rejecteth urine, and Teti abhorreth
+     that which is abominable in him; abhorrent unto him is
+     faecal matter and he eateth it not, hateful unto Teti is
+     liquid filth." (<i>Teti</i>, 11. 68, 69<i>). The same doctrine is
+     found in several places in the Book of the Dead</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This ravenous sceptre had not the dim and misty form, the long shroud of
+      floating draperies of our modern phantoms, but a precise and definite
+      shape, naked, or clothed in the garments which it had worn while yet upon
+      earth, and emitting a pale light, to which it owed the name of Luminous&mdash;<i>Kh�,
+      Kh��</i>.[*] The double did not allow its family to forget it, but used
+      all the means at its disposal to remind them of its existence. It entered
+      their houses and their bodies, terrified them waking and sleeping by its
+      sudden apparitions, struck them down with disease or madness,[**] and
+      would even suck their blood like the modern vampire.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The name of luminous was at first so explained as to make
+     the light wherewith souls were clothed, into a portion of
+     the divine light. In my opinion the idea is a less abstract
+     one, and shows that, as among many other nations, so with
+     the Egyptians the soul was supposed to appear as a kind of
+     pale flame, or as emitting a glow analogous to the
+     phosphorescent halo which is seen by night about a piece of
+     rotten wood, or putrefying fish. This primitive conception
+     may have subsequently faded, and <i>kh� the glorious one</i>, one
+     of the <i>m�nes</i>, may have become one of those flattering
+     names by which it was thought necessary to propitiate the
+     dead; it then came to have that significance of <i>resplendent
+     with light</i> which is ordinarily attributed to it.
+
+     **  The incantations of which the Leyden Papyrus published
+     by Pleyte is full are directed against <i>dead men or dead
+     women</i> who entered into one of the living to give him the
+     <i>migraine</i>, and violent headaches. Another Leyden Papyrus,
+     briefly analyzed by Ohabas, and translated by Maspero,
+     contains the complaint, or rather the formal act of
+     requisition of a husband whom the <i>luminous</i> of his wife
+     returned to torment in his home, without any just cause for
+     such conduct.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One effectual means there was, and one only, of escaping or preventing
+      these visitations, and this lay in taking to the tomb all the various
+      provisions of which the double stood in need, and for which it visited
+      their dwellings. Funerary sacrifices and the regular cultus of the dead
+      originated in the need experienced for making provision for the sustenance
+      of the manes after having secured their lasting existence by the
+      mummification of their bodies.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Several chapters of the <i>Book of the Dead</i> consist of
+     directions for giving food to that part of man which
+     survives his death, e.g. chap, cv., "<i>Chapter for providing
+     food for the double</i>" (Naville's edition, pl. cxvii.), and
+     chap, cvi., "<i>Chapter for giving daily abundance unto the
+     deceased, in Memphis</i>" (Naville's edition, pl. cxviii.).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0034" id="linklinkBimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/161.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="161.jpg Sacrificing to the Dead in The Tomb Chapel. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Stela of Ant�f I., Prince of Thebes, drawn by Faucher-
+     Gudin from a photograph taken by Emil Brugsch-Bey.    Below,
+     servants and relations are bringing the victims and cutting
+     up the ox at the door of the tomb. In the middle is the dead
+     man, seated under his pavilion and receiving the sacrifice:
+     an attendant offers him drink, another brings him the haunch
+     of an ox a third a basket and two jars; provisions fill the
+     whole chamber. Behind Ant�f stand two servants, the one
+     fanning his master, and the second offering him his staff
+     and sandals. The position of the door, which is in the
+     lowest row of the scenes, indicates that what is represented
+     above it takes place within the tomb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Gazelles and oxen were brought and sacrificed at the door of the tomb
+      chapel; the haunches, heart, and breast of each victim being presented and
+      heaped together upon the ground, that there the dead might find them when
+      they began to be hungry. Vessels of beer or wine, great jars of fresh
+      water, purified with natron, or perfumed, were brought to them that they
+      might drink their fill at pleasure, and by such voluntary tribute men
+      bought their good will, as in daily life they bought that of some
+      neighbour too powerful to be opposed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The gods were spared none of the anguish and none of the perils which
+      death so plentifully bestows upon men. Their bodies suffered change and
+      gradually perished until nothing was left of them. Their souls, like human
+      souls, were only the representatives of their bodies, and gradually became
+      extinct if means of arresting the natural tendency to decay were not found
+      in time. Thus, the same necessity that forced men to seek the kind of
+      sepulture which gave the longest term of existence to their souls,
+      compelled the gods to the same course. At first, they were buried in the
+      hills, and one of their oldest titles describes them as those "who are
+      upon the sand,"[*] safe from putrefaction; afterwards, when the art of
+      embalming had been discovered, the gods received the benefit of the new
+      invention and were mummified.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the <i>Book of Knowing that which is in Hades</i>, for the
+     fourth and fifth hours of the night, we have the description
+     of the sandy realm of Sokaris and of the gods <i>Hiri� Sh��t�-
+     sen�</i>, who are on their sand. Elsewhere in the same book we
+     have a cynocephalus <i>upon its sand</i>, and the gods of the
+     eighth hour are also mysterious gods who are on their sand.
+     Wherever these personages are represented in the vignettes,
+     the Egyptian artist has carefully drawn the ellipse painted
+     in yellow and sprinkled with red, which is the conventional
+     rendering of sand, and sandy districts.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each nome possessed the mummy and the tomb of its dead god: at Thinis
+      there was the mummy and the tomb of Anhuri, the mummy of Osiris at Mendes,
+      the mummy of T�m� at Heliopolis.[*] In some of the nomes the gods did not
+      change their names in altering the mode of their existence: the deceased
+      Osiris remained Osiris; Nit and H�thor when dead were still N�t and
+      H�thor, at Sa�s and at Denderah. But Phtah of Memphis became Sokaris by
+      dying; Uap�a�t�, the jackal of Si�t, was changed into Anubis;[**] and when
+      his disk had disappeared at evening, Anh�ri, the sunlit sky of Thinis, was
+      Khontament�t, Lord of the West, until the following day.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The sepulchres of T�m�, Khopri, R�, Osiris, and in each
+     of them the heap of sand hiding the body, are represented in
+     the tomb of Seti I., as also the four rams in which the
+     souls of the god are incarnate. The tombs of the gods were
+     known even in Roman times.
+
+     **  To my mind, at least, this is an obvious conclusion from
+     the monuments of Si�t, in which the jackal god is called
+     Uap�a�t�, as the living god, lord of the city, and An�p�,
+     master of embalming or of the Oasis, lord of Ra-qrir�t,
+     inasmuch as he is god of the dead. Ra-qrir�t, <i>the door of
+     the stone</i>, was the name which the people of Si�t gave to
+     their necropolis and to the infernal domain of their god.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      That bliss which we dream of enjoying in the world to come was not granted
+      to the gods any more than to men. Their bodies were nothing but inert
+      larvae, "with unmoving heart,"[*] weak and shrivelled limbs, unable to
+      stand upright were it not that the bandages in which they were swathed
+      stiffened them into one rigid block. Their hands and heads alone were
+      free, and were of the green or black shades of putrid flesh.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This is the characteristic epithet for the dead Osiris,
+     Urdu Mt, he whose heart is unmoving, he whose heart no
+     longer beats, and who has therefore ceased to live.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0035" id="linklinkBimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/164.jpg" width="100%" alt="164.jpg Phtah As a Mummy. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawing by Faucher-Gudin of a bronze statuette of the
+     Sa�te period, found in the department of H�rault, at the end
+     of a gallery in an ancient mine.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their doubles, like those of men, both dreaded and regretted the light.
+      All sentiment was extinguished by the hunger from which they suffered, and
+      gods who were noted for their compassionate kindness when alive, became
+      pitiless and ferocious tyrants in the tomb. When once men were bidden to
+      the presence of Sokaris, Khontament�fc, or even of Osiris, "mortals come
+      terrifying their hearts with fear of the god, and none dareth to look him
+      in the face either among gods or men; for him the great are as the small.
+      He spareth not those who love him; he beareth away the child from its
+      mother, and the old man who walketh on his way; full of fear, all
+      creatures make supplication before him, but he turneth not his face
+      towards them." Only by the unfailing payment of tribute, and by feeding
+      him as though he were a simple human double, could living or dead escape
+      the consequences of his furious temper. The living paid him his dues in
+      pomps and solemn sacrifices, repeated from year to year at regular
+      intervals; but the dead bought more dearly the protection which he deigned
+      to extend to them. He did not allow them to receive directly the prayers,
+      sepulchral meals, or offerings of kindred on feast-days; all that was
+      addressed to them must first pass through his hands. When their friends
+      wished to send them wine, water, bread, meat, vegetables, and fruits, he
+      insisted that these should first be offered and formally presented to
+      himself; then he was humbly prayed to transmit them to such or such a
+      double, whose name and parentage were pointed out to him. He took
+      possession of them, kept part for his own use, and of his bounty gave the
+      remainder to its destined recipient. Thus death made no change in the
+      relative positions of the feudal god and his worshippers. The worshipper
+      who called himself the <i>amakh�</i> of the god during life was the
+      subject and vassal of his mummied god even in the tomb;[*] and the god
+      who, while living, reigned over the living, after his death continued to
+      reign over the dead.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The word <i>amakh�</i> is applied to an individual who has
+     freely entered the service of king or baron, and taken him
+     for his lord: <i>amakh� khir nibuf</i> means <i>vassal of his
+     lord</i>. In the same way, each chose for himself a god who
+     became his patron, and to whom he owed <i>fealty</i>, i.e. to
+     whom he was <i>amakh�</i>&mdash;vassal. To the god he owed the service
+     of a good vassal&mdash;tribute, sacrifices, offerings; and to his
+     vassal the god owed in return the service of a suzerain&mdash;
+     protection, food, reception into his dominions and access to
+     his person. A man might be absolutely <i>nib amahk�t</i>, master
+     of fealty, or, relatively to a god, <i>amakh� khir Osiri</i>, the
+     vassal of Osiris, <i>amakh� khir Phtah-Sokari</i>, the vassal of
+     Phtah-Sokaris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He dwelt in the city near the prince and in the midst of his subjects: R�
+      living in Heliopolis along with the prince of Heliopolis; Haro�ris in Edf�
+      together with the prince of Edf�; N�t in Sa�s with the prince of Sais.
+      Although none of the primitive temples have come down to us, the name
+      given to them in the language of the time, shows what they originally
+      were. A temple was considered as the feudal mansion&mdash;h��t,&mdash;the
+      house&mdash;<i>pir�, pi</i>,&mdash;of the god, better cared for, and more
+      respected than the houses of men, but not otherwise differing from them.
+      It was built on a site slightly raised above the level of the plain, so as
+      to be safe from the inundation, and where there was no natural mound, the
+      want was supplied by raising a rectangular platform of earth. A layer of
+      sand spread uniformly on the sub-soil provided against settlements or
+      infiltration, and formed a bed for the foundations of the building.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This custom lasted into Gr�co-Roman times, and was part of
+     the ritual for laying the foundations of a temple. After the
+     king had dug out the soil on the ground where the temple was
+     to stand, he spread over the spot sand mixed with pebbles
+     and precious stones, and upon this he laid the first course
+     of stone.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This was first of all a single room, circumscribed, gloomy, covered in by
+      a slightly vaulted roof, and having no opening but the doorway, which was
+      framed by two tall masts, whence floated streamers to attract from afar
+      the notice of worshippers; in front of its fa�ade [*] was a court, fenced
+      in with palisading.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  No Egyptian temples of the first period have come down to
+     our time, but Herr Erman has very justly remarked that we
+     have pictures of them in several of the signs denoting the
+     word <i>temple</i> in texts of the Memphite period.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0036" id="linklinkBimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/167.jpg" width="100%" alt="167.jpg the Sacred Bull. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  A sculptor's model from Tanis, now in the G�zeh Museum,
+     drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey. The sacred marks, as given in the illustration, are
+     copied from those of similar figures on stel� of the
+     Serapeum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Within the temple were pieces of matting, low tables of stone, wood, or
+      metal, a few utensils for cooking the offerings, a few vessels for
+      containing the blood, oil, wine, and water with which the god was every
+      day regaled. As provisions for sacrifice increased, the number of chambers
+      increased with them, and rooms for flowers, perfumes, stuffs, precious
+      vessels, and food were grouped around the primitive abode; until that
+      which had once constituted the whole temple became no more than its
+      sanctuary. There the god dwelt, not only in spirit but in body,[*] and the
+      fact that it was incumbent upon him to live in several cities did not
+      prevent his being present in all of them at once. He could divide his
+      double, imparting it to as many separate bodies as he pleased, and these
+      bodies might be human or animal, natural objects or things manufactured&mdash;such
+      as statues of stone, metal, or wood.[**] Several of the gods were
+      incarnate in rams: Osiris at Mendes, Harshafit� at Heracleopolis, Khn�m�
+      at Elephantine. Living rams were kept in their temples, and allowed to
+      gratify any fancy that came into their animal brains. Other gods entered
+      into bulls: R� at Heliopolis, and, subsequently, Phtah at Memphis, Min� at
+      Thebes, and Mont� at Hermonthis. They indicated beforehand by certain
+      marks such beasts as they intended to animate by. their doubles, and he
+      who had learnt to recognize these signs was at no loss to find a living
+      god when the time came for seeking one and presenting it to the adoration
+      of worshippers in the temple.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Thus at Denderah, it is said that the soul of H�thor
+     likes to leave heaven "in the form of a human-headed
+     sparrow-hawk of lapis-lazuli, accompanied by her divine
+     cycle, to come and unite herself to the statue." "Other
+     instances," adds Mariette, "would seem to justify us in
+     thinking that the Egyptians accorded a certain kind of life
+     to the statues and images which they made, and believed
+     (especially in connection with tombs) that the spirit
+     haunted images of itself."
+
+     **  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et l'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. i. p. 77, et seq.; <i>Arch�ologie
+     �gyptienne</i>, pp. 106, 107; English edition, pp. 105, 106.
+     This notion of actuated statues seemed so strange and so
+     unworthy of the wisdom of the Egyptians that Egyptologists
+     of the rank of M. de Roug� have taken in an abstract and
+     metaphorical sense expressions referring to the automatic
+     movements of divine images.
+
+     ***  The bulls of R� and of Phtah, the Mnevis and the Hapis,
+     are known to us from classic writers. The bull of Min� at
+     Thebes may be seen in the procession of the god as
+     represented on monuments of Ramses II. and Ramses III. B�kh�
+     (called Bakis by the Greeks), the bull of Hermonthis, is
+     somewhat rare, and mainly represented upon a few later
+     stel� in the G�zeh Museum; it is chiefly known from the
+     texts. The particular signs distinguishing each of these
+     sacred animals have been determined both on the authority of
+     ancient writers, and from examination of the figured
+     monuments; the arrangement and outlines of some of the black
+     markings of the Hapis are clearly shown in the illustration
+     on p. 167.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And if the statues had not the same outward appearance of actual life as
+      the animals, they none the less concealed beneath their rigid exteriors an
+      intense energy of life which betrayed itself on occasion by gestures or by
+      words. They thus indicated, in language which their servants could
+      understand, the will of the gods, or their opinion on the events of the
+      day; they answered questions put to them in accordance with prescribed
+      forms, and sometimes they even foretold the future.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0037" id="linklinkBimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/169.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="169.jpg Open-air Offerings to the Serpent. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken in the
+     tomb of Khopirker�sonb�. The inscription behind the urseus
+     states that it represents <i>Ban��t the August, lady of the
+     double granary</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each temple held a fairly large number of statues representing so many
+      embodiments of the local divinity and of the members of his triad. These
+      latter shared, albeit in a lesser degree, all the honours and all the
+      prerogatives of the master; they accepted sacrifices, answered prayers,
+      and, if needful, they prophesied. They occupied either the sanctuary
+      itself, or one of the halls built about the principal sanctuary, or one of
+      the isolated chapels which belonged to them, subject to the suzerainty of
+      the feudal god. The god has his divine court to help him in the
+      administration of his dominions, just as a prince is aided by his
+      ministers in the government of his realm.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This State religion, so complex both in principle and in its outward
+      manifestations, was nevertheless inadequate to express the exuberant piety
+      of the populace. There were casual divinities in every nome whom the
+      people did not love any the less because of their inofficial character;
+      such as an exceptionally high palm tree in the midst of the desert, a rock
+      of curious outline, a spring trickling drop by drop from the mountain to
+      which hunters came to slake their thirst in the hottest hours of the day,
+      or a great serpent believed to be immortal, which haunted a field, a grove
+      of trees, a grotto, or a mountain ravine.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was a serpent of this kind which gave its name to the
+     hill of Sh�ikh Har�d�, and the adjacent nome of the Serpent
+     Mountain; and though the serpent has now turned Mussulman,
+     he still haunts the mountain and preserves his faculty of
+     coming to life again every time that he is killed.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The peasants of the district brought it bread, cakes, fruits, and thought
+      that they could call down the blessing of heaven upon their fields by
+      gorging the snake with offerings. Everywhere on the confines of cultivated
+      ground, and even at some distance from the valley, are fine single
+      sycamores, flourishing as though by miracle amid the sand.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0038" id="linklinkBimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/171.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="171.jpg the Peasant's Offering to The Sycamore. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a scene in the tomb of
+     Khopirker�sonb�. The sacred sycamore here stands at the end
+     of a field of corn, and would seem to extend its protection
+     to the harvest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their fresh greenness is in sharp contrast with the surrounding
+      fawn-coloured landscape, and their thick foliage defies the midday sun
+      even in summer. But, on examining the ground in which they grow, we soon
+      find that they drink from water which has infiltrated from the Nile, and
+      whose existence is in nowise betrayed upon the surface of the soil. They
+      stand as it were with their feet in the river, though no one about them
+      suspects it. Egyptians of all ranks counted them divine and habitually
+      worshipped them,[**] making them offerings of figs, grapes, cucumbers,
+      vegetables, and water in porous jars daily replenished by good and
+      charitable people.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 224&mdash;227. They were represented
+     as animated by spirits concealed within them, but which
+     could manifest themselves on occasion. At such times the
+     head or whole body of the spirit of a tree would emerge from
+     its trunk, and when it returned to its hiding-place the
+     trunk reabsorbed it, or <i>ate</i> it again, according to the
+     Egyptian expression, which I have already had occasion to
+     quote above; see p. 110, note 3.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Passers-by drank of the water, and requited the unexpected benefit with a
+      short prayer. There were several such trees in the Memphite nome, and in
+      the Letopolite nome from Dash�r to G�zeh, inhabited, as every one knew, by
+      detached doubles of N��t and H�thor. These combined districts were known
+      as the "Land of the Sycamore," a name afterwards extended to the city of
+      Memphis; and their sacred trees are worshipped at the present day both by
+      Mussulman and Christian fellah�n.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The tree at Matar�eh, commonly called the <i>Tree of the
+     Virgin</i>, seems to me to be the successor of a sacred tree of
+     Heliopolis in which a goddess, perhaps H�thor, was
+     worshipped.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The most famous among them all, the Sycamore of the South&mdash;<i>n�h�t
+      r�sit</i>&mdash;was regarded as the living body of H�thor on earth. Side
+      by side with its human gods and prophetic statues, each nome proudly
+      advanced one or more sacred animals, one or more magic trees. Each family,
+      and almost every individual, also possessed gods and fetishes, which had
+      been pointed out for their worship by some fortuitous meeting with an
+      animal or an object; by a dream, or by sudden intuition. They had a place
+      in some corner of the house, or a niche in its walls; lamps were
+      continually kept burning before them, and small daily offerings were made
+      to them, over and above what fell to their share on solemn feast-days. In
+      return, they became the protectors of the household, its guardians and its
+      counsellors. Appeal was made to them in every exigency of daily life, and
+      their decisions were no less scrupulously carried out by their little
+      circle of worshippers, than was the will of the feudal god by the
+      inhabitants of his principality.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0039" id="linklinkBimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/173.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="173.jpg the Sacrifice of The Bull.--the Officiating Priest Lassoing the Victim. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Bas-relief from the temple of Seti I. at Abydos; drawn by
+     Boudier, from a photograph by M. Daniel H�ron. Seti I.,
+     second king of the XIXth dynasty, is throwing the lasso; his
+     son, Ramses II., who is still the crown prince, holds the
+     bull by the tail to prevent its escaping from the slipknot.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The prince was the great high priest. The whole religion of the nome
+      rested upon him, and originally he himself performed its ceremonies. Of
+      these, the chief was sacrifice,&mdash;that is to say, a banquet which it
+      was his duty to prepare and lay before the god with his own hands. He went
+      out into the fields to lasso the half-wild bull; bound it, cut its throat,
+      skinned it, burnt part of the carcase in front of his idol and distributed
+      the rest among his assistants, together with plenty of cakes, fruits,
+      vegetables, and wine.[*] On the occasion, the god was present both in body
+      and double, suffering himself to be clothed and perfumed, eating and
+      drinking of the best that was set on the table before him, and putting
+      aside some of the provisions for future use. This was the time to prefer
+      requests to him, while he was gladdened and disposed to benevolence by
+      good cheer. He was not without suspicion as to the reason why he was so
+      feasted, but he had laid down his conditions beforehand, and if they were
+      faithfully observed he willingly yielded to the means of seduction brought
+      to bear upon him. Moreover, he himself had arranged the ceremonial in a
+      kind of contract formerly made with his worshippers and gradually
+      perfected from age to age by the piety of new generations.[**] Above all
+      things, he insisted on physical cleanliness. The officiating priest must
+      carefully wash&mdash;<i>��b�</i>&mdash;his face, mouth, hands, and body;
+      and so necessary was this preliminary purification considered, that from
+      it the professional priest derived his name of <i>��b�</i>, the washed,
+      the clean.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This appears from the sacrificial ritual employed in the
+     temples up to the last days of Egyptian paganism; cf., for
+     instance, the illustration on p. 173, where the king is
+     represented as lassoing the bull. That which in historic
+     times was but an image, had originally been a reality.
+
+     **  The most striking example of the divine institution of
+     religious services is furnished by the inscription relating
+     the history of the destruction of men in the reign of R�,
+     where the god, as he is about to make his final ascension
+     into heaven, substitutes animal for human sacrifices.
+
+     ***  The idea of physical cleanliness comes out in such
+     variants as <i>��b� tot�i</i>, "clean of both hands," found on
+     stelae instead of the simple title <i>��b�</i>. We also know, on
+     the evidence of ancient writers, the scrupulous daily care
+     which Egyptian priests took of their bodies. It was only as
+     a secondary matter that the idea of moral purity entered
+     into the conception of a priest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His costume was the archaic dress, modified according to circumstances.
+      During certain services, or at certain points in the sacrifices, it was
+      incumbent upon him to wear sandals, the panther-skin over his shoulder,
+      and the thick lock of hair falling over his right ear; at other times he
+      must gird himself with the loin-cloth having a jackal's tail, and take the
+      shoes from off his feet before proceeding with his office, or attach a
+      false beard to his chin. The species, hair, and age of the victim, the way
+      in which it was to be brought and bound, the manner and details of its
+      slaughter, the order to be followed in opening its body and cutting it up,
+      were all minutely and unchangeably decreed. And these were but the least
+      of the divine exactions, and those most easily satisfied. The formulas
+      accompanying each act of the sacrificial priest contained a certain number
+      of words whose due sequence and harmonies might not suffer the slightest
+      modification whatever, even from the god himself, under penalty of losing
+      their efficacy.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Purification Ritual for officiating priests is
+     contained in a papyrus of the Berlin Museum, whose analysis
+     and table of chapters has been published by Herr Oscar von
+     Lemm, <i>Das Bitualbuch des Ammonsdienstes</i>, p. 4, et seq.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were always recited with the same rhythm, according to a system of
+      chaunting in which every tone had its virtue, combined with movements
+      which confirmed the sense and worked with irresistible effect: one false
+      note, a single discord between the succession of gestures and the
+      utterance of the sacramental words, any hesitation, any awkwardness in the
+      accomplishment of a rite, and the sacrifice was vain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Worship as thus conceived became a legal transaction, in the course of
+      which the god gave up his liberty in exchange for certain compensations
+      whose kind and value were fixed by law. By a solemn deed of transfer the
+      worshipper handed over to the legal representatives of the contracting
+      divinity such personal or real property as seemed to him fitting payment
+      for the favour which he asked, or suitable atonement for the wrong which
+      he had done. If man scrupulously observed the innumerable conditions with
+      which the transfer was surrounded, the god could not escape the obligation
+      of fulfilling his petition;[*] but should he omit the least of them, the
+      offering remained with the temple and went to increase the endowments in
+      mortmain, while the god was pledged to nothing in exchange.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This obligation is evident from texts where, as in the
+     poem of Penta�ir�t, a king who is in danger demands from his
+     favourite god the equivalent in protection of the sacrifices
+     which he has offered to that divinity, and the gifts
+     wherewith he has enriched him. "Have I not made unto thee
+     many offerings?" says Ramses II. to Amon. "I have filled
+     thy temple with my prisoners, I have built thee a mansion
+     for millions of years.... Ah if evil is the lot of them who
+     insult thee, good are thy purposes towards those who honour
+     thee, O Amon!"
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Hence the officiating priest assumed a formidable responsibility as
+      regarded his fellows: a slip of memory, the slightest accidental impurity,
+      made him a bad priest, injurious to himself and harmful to those
+      worshippers who had entrusted him with their interests before the gods.
+      Since it was vain to expect ritualistic perfections from a prince
+      constantly troubled with affairs of state, the custom was established of
+      associating professional priests with him, personages who devoted all
+      their lives to the study and practice of the thousand formalities whose
+      sum constituted the local religion. Each temple had its service of
+      priests, independent of those belonging to neighbouring temples, whose
+      members, bound to keep their hands always clean and their voices true,
+      were ranked according to the degrees of a learned hierarchy. At their head
+      was a sovereign pontiff to direct them in the exercise of their functions.
+      In some places he was called the first prophet, or rather the first
+      servant of the god&mdash;<i>hon-n�tir topi</i>; at Thebes he was the first
+      prophet of Amon, at Thinis he was the first prophet of Anh�ri.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This title of <i>first prophet</i> belongs to priests of the
+     less important towns, and to secondary divinities. If we
+     find it employed in connection with the Theban worship, it
+     is because Amon was originally a provincial god, and only
+     rose into the first rank with the rise of Thebes and the
+     great conquests of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But generally he bore a title appropriate to the nature of the god whose
+      servant he was. The chief priest of R� at Heliopolis, and in all the
+      cities which adopted the Heliopolitan form of worship, was called <i>O�r�
+      ma�</i>, the master of visions, and he alone besides the sovereign of the
+      nome, or of Egypt, enjoyed the privilege of penetrating into the
+      sanctuary, of "entering into heaven and there beholding the god" face to
+      face. In the same way, the high priest of Anh�ri at Sebennytos was
+      entitled the wise and pure warrior&mdash;<i>ah��ti sa� u�bu</i>&mdash;because
+      his god went armed with a pike, and a soldier god required for his service
+      a pontiff who should be a soldier like himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These great personages did not always strictly seclude themselves within
+      the limits of the religious domain. The gods accepted, and even sometimes
+      solicited, from their worshippers, houses, fields, vineyards, orchards,
+      slaves, and fishponds, the produce of which assured their livelihood and
+      the support of their temples. There was no Egyptian who did not cherish
+      the ambition of leaving some such legacy to the patron god of his city,
+      "for a monument to himself," and as an endowment for the priests to
+      institute prayers and perpetual sacrifices on his behalf.[*] In course of
+      time these accumulated gifts at length formed real sacred fiefs&mdash;<i>hotp�-n�tir</i>&mdash;analogous
+      to the <i>wakfs</i> of Mussulman Egypt.[**] They were administered by the
+      high priest, who, if necessary, defended them by force against the greed
+      of princes or kings. Two, three, or even four classes of prophets or <i>heiroduli</i>
+      under his orders assisted him in performing the offices of worship, in
+      giving religious instruction, and in the conduct of affairs. Women did not
+      hold equal rank with men in the temples of male deities; they there formed
+      a kind of harem whence the god took his mystic spouses, his concubines,
+      his maidservants, the female musicians and dancing women whose duty it was
+      to divert him and to enliven his feasts. But in temples of goddesses they
+      held the chief rank, and were called <i>hierodules</i>, or priestesses, <i>hierodules</i>
+      of Nit, <i>hierodules</i> of H�thor, <i>hierodules</i> of Pakh�t.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  As regards the Sa�te period, we are beginning to
+     accumulate many stelae recording gifts to a god of land or
+     houses, made either by the king or by private individuals.
+
+     **  We know from the <i>Great Harris Papyrus</i> to what the
+     fortune of Amon amounted at the end of the reign of Ramses
+     III.; its details may be found in Brugsch, <i>Die
+     �gyptologie</i>, pp. 271-274. Cf. in Naville, <i>Bubastis, Eighth
+     Memoir of the Egyptian Exploration Fund</i>, p. 61, a
+     calculation as to the quantities of precious metals
+     belonging to one of the least of the temples of Bubastis;
+     its gold and silver were counted by thousands of pounds.
+
+     *** Mariette remarks  that   priests  play  but   a
+     subordinate part in the temple of H�thor. This fact, which
+     surprised him, is adequately explained by remembering that
+     H�thor being a goddess, women take precedence over men in a
+     temple dedicated to her. At Sais, the chief priest was a
+     man, the Tcharp-ha�t�; but the persistence with which women
+     of the highest rank, and even queens themselves, took the
+     title of prophetess of Nit from the times of the Ancient
+     Empire shows that in this city the priestess of the goddess
+     was of equal, if not superior, rank to the priest.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The lower offices in the households of the gods, as in princely
+      households, were held by a troop of servants and artisans: butchers to cut
+      the throats of the victims, cooks and pastrycooks, confectioners, weavers,
+      shoemakers, florists, cellarers, water-carriers and milk-carriers. In
+      fact, it was a state within a state, and the prince took care to keep its
+      government in his own hands, either by investing one of his children with
+      the titles and functions of chief pontiff', or by arrogating them to
+      himself. In that case, he provided against mistakes which would have
+      annulled the sacrifice by associating with himself several masters of the
+      ceremonies, who directed him in the orthodox evolutions before the god and
+      about the victim, indicated the due order of gestures and the necessary
+      changes of costume, and prompted him with the words of each invocation
+      from a book or tablet which they held in their hands.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The title of such a personage was <i>khri-habi</i>, the man
+     with the roll or tablet, because of the papyrus roll, or
+     wooden tablet containing the ritual, which he held in his
+     hand.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In addition to its rites and special hierarchy, each of the sacerdotal
+      colleges thus constituted had a theology in accordance with the nature and
+      attributes of its god. Its fundamental dogma affirmed the unity of the
+      nome god, his greatness, his supremacy over all the gods of Egypt and of
+      foreign lands[*]&mdash;whose existence was nevertheless admitted, and none
+      dreamed of denying their reality or contesting their power.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  In the inscriptions all local gods bear the titles of
+     <i>N�tir ��</i>, only god; S�ton n�tir�, S�ntir�, [ Greek word],
+     king of the gods; of <i>N�tir �a nib pit</i>, the great god, lord
+     of heaven, which show their pretensions to the sovereignty
+     and to the position of creator of the universe.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter also boasted of their unity, their greatness, their supremacy;
+      but whatever they were, the god of the nome was master of them all&mdash;their
+      prince, their ruler, their king. It was he alone who governed the world,
+      he alone kept it in good order, he alone had created it. Not that he had
+      evoked it out of nothing; there was as yet no concept of nothingness, and
+      even to the most subtle and refined of primitive theologians creation was
+      only a bringing of pre-existent elements into play.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0040" id="linklinkBimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/180.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="180.jpg Shu Uplifting the Sky. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawing by Faucher-Gudin of a green enamelled statuette
+     in my possession. It was from Shu that the Greeks derived
+     their representations, and perhaps their myth of Atlas.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latent germs of things had always existed, but they had slept for ages
+      and ages in the bosom of the N�, of the dark waters. In fulness of time
+      the god of each nome drew them forth, classified them, marshalled them
+      according to the bent of his particular nature, and made his universe out
+      of them by methods peculiarly his own. N�t of Sa�s, who was a weaver, had
+      made the world of warp and woof, as the mother of a family weaves her
+      children's linen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Khn�m�, the Nile-God of the cataracts, had gathered up the mud of his
+      waters and therewith moulded his creatures upon a potter's table. In the
+      eastern cities of the Delta these procedures were not so simple. There it
+      was admitted that in the beginning earth and sky were two lovers lost in
+      the N�, fast locked in each other's embrace, the god lying beneath the
+      goddess. On the day of creation a new god, Shu, came forth from the
+      primaeval waters, slipped between the two, and seizing N��t with both
+      hands, lifted her above his head with outstretched arms.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This was what the Egyptians called <i>the upliftings of
+     Sh�</i>. The event first took place at Hermopolis, and certain
+     legends added that in order to get high enough the god had
+     been obliged to make use of a staircase or mound situate in
+     this city, and which was famous throughout Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Though the starry body of the goddess extended in space&mdash;her head
+      being to the west and her loins to the east&mdash;her feet and hands hung
+      down to the earth. These were the four pillars of the firmament under
+      another form, and four gods of four adjacent principalities were in charge
+      of them. Osiris, or Horus the sparrow-hawk, presided over the southern,
+      and Sit over the northern pillar; Thot over that of the west, and Sapdi,
+      the author of the zodiacal light, over that of the east. They had divided
+      the world among themselves into four regions, or rather into four
+      "houses," bounded by those mountains which surround it, and by the
+      diameters intersecting between the pillars. Each of these houses belonged
+      to one, and to one only; none of the other three, nor even the sun
+      himself, might enter it, dwell there, or even pass through it without
+      having obtained its master's permission. Sibu had not been satisfied to
+      meet the irruption of Sh� by mere passive resistance. He had tried to
+      struggle, and he is drawn in the posture of a man who has just awakened
+      out of sleep, and is half turning on his couch before getting up. One of
+      his legs is stretched out, the other is bent and partly drawn up as in the
+      act of rising. The lower part of the body is still unmoved, but he is
+      raising himself with difficulty on his left elbow, while his head droops
+      and his right arm is lifted towards the sky. His effort was suddenly
+      arrested. Rendered powerless by a stroke of the creator, Sib� remained as
+      if petrified in this position, the obvious irregularities of the earth's
+      surface being due to the painful attitude in which he was stricken. His
+      sides have since been clothed with verdure, generations of men and animals
+      have succeeded each other upon his back, but without bringing any relief
+      to his pain; he suffers evermore from the violent separation of which he
+      was the victim when N��t was torn from him, and his complaint continues to
+      rise to heaven night and day.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0041" id="linklinkBimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/182.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="182.jpg Sh� Forcibly Separating Sib� and N��t. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting on the mummy-case
+     of B�tehamon in the Turin Museum. "Sh�, the great god, lord
+     of heaven," receives the adoration of two ram-headed souls
+     placed upon his right and left.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0042" id="linklinkBimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/183.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="183.jpg the Did� of Osiris. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a specimen in blue enamelled
+     pottery, now in my possession.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0043" id="linklinkBimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/183b.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="183b.jpg the Did� Dressed. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a figure frequently found in
+     Theban mummy-cases of XXIst and XXIInd dynasties (Wilkinson,
+     <i>Manners and Customs</i>. 2nd edit., vol. iii. pl. xxv., No 5).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The aspect of the inundated plains of the Delta, of the river by which
+      they are furrowed and fertilized, and of the desert sands by which they
+      are threatened, had suggested to the theologians of Mendes and B�to an
+      explanation of the mystery of creation, in which the feudal divinities of
+      these cities and of several others in their neighbourhood, Osiris, Sit,
+      and Isis, played the principal parts. Osiris first represented the wild
+      and fickle Nile of primitive times; afterwards, as those who dwelt upon
+      his banks learned to regulate his course, they emphasized the kindlier
+      side of his character and soon transformed him into a benefactor of
+      humanity, the supremely good being, �nnofri�, Onnophris.[*] He was lord of
+      the principality of Did�, which lay along the Sebennytic branch of the
+      river between the coast marshes and the entrance to the W�dy T�mil�t, but
+      his domain had been divided; and the two nomes thus formed, namely, the
+      ninth and sixteenth nomes of the Delta in the Pharaonic lists, remained
+      faithful to him, and here he reigned without rival, at Busiris as at
+      Mendes. His most famous idol-form was the Did�, whether naked or clothed,
+      the fetish, formed of four superimposed columns, which had given its name
+      to the principality.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  It has long been a dogma with Egyptologists that Osiris
+     came from Abydos. Maspero has shown that from his very
+     titles he is obviously a native of the Delta, and more
+     especially of Busiris and Mendes.
+
+     **  The Did� has been very variously interpreted. It has
+     been taken for a kind of nilometer, for a sculptor's or
+     modeller's stand, or a painter's easel for an altar with
+     four superimposed tables, or a sort of pedestal bearing four
+     door-lintels, for a series of four columns placed one behind
+     another, of which the capitals only are visible, one above
+     the other, etc. The explanation given in the text is that of
+     Reuvens, who recognized the Did� as a symbolic
+     representation of the four regions of the world; and of
+     Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. p. 359, note 3. According to Egyptian
+     theologians, it represented the spine of Osiris, preserved
+     as a relic in the town bearing the name of <i>Did�, Bid�t</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0044" id="linklinkBimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/185.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="185.jpg Osiris-onnophris, Whip and Crook in Hand. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Boudier from a statue in green basalt found at
+     Sakkarah, and now in the G�zeh Museum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They ascribed life to this Did�, and represented it with a somewhat
+      grotesque face, big cheeks, thick lips, a necklace round its throat, a
+      long flowing dress which hid the base of the columns beneath its folds,
+      and two arms bent across the breast, the hands grasping one a whip and the
+      other a crook, symbols of sovereign authority. This, perhaps, was the most
+      ancient form of Osiris; but they also represented him as a man, and
+      supposed him to assume the shapes of rams and bulls,[*] or even those of
+      water-birds, such as lapwings, herons, and cranes, which disported
+      themselves about the lakes of that district.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The ram of Mendes is sometimes Osiris, and sometimes the
+     soul of Osiris. The ancients took it for a he-goat, and to
+     them we are indebted for the record of its exploits.
+     According to Manetho, the worship of the sacred ram is not
+     older than the time of King Kaiekhos of the second dynasty.
+     A Ptolemaic necropolis of sacred rams was discovered by
+     Mariette at Tmai el-Amdid, in the ruins of Thm�is, and some
+     of their sarcophagi are now in the G�zeh Museum.
+
+     **  The Bon�, the chief among these birds, is not the
+     phoenix, as has so often been asserted. It is a kind of
+     heron, either the <i>Ardea cinerea</i>, which is common in Egypt,
+     or else some similar species.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The goddess whom we are accustomed to regard as inseparable from him, Isis
+      the cow, or woman with cow's horns, had not always belonged to him.
+      Originally she was an independent deity, dwelling at B�to in the midst of
+      the ponds of Adh�. She had neither husband nor lover, but had
+      spontaneously conceived and given birth to a son, whom she suckled among
+      the reeds&mdash;a lesser Horus who was called Harsi�s�t, Horus the son of
+      Isis, to distinguish him from Haro�ris. At an early period she was married
+      to her neighbour Osiris, and no marriage could have been better suited to
+      her nature. For she personified the earth&mdash;not the earth in general,
+      like Sibu, with its unequal distribution of seas and mountains, deserts
+      and cultivated land; but the black and luxuriant plain of the Delta, where
+      races of men, plants, and animals increase and multiply in ever-succeeding
+      generations. To whom did she owe this inexhaustible productive energy if
+      not to her neighbour Osiris, to the Nile? The Nile rises, overflows,
+      lingers upon the soil; every year it is wedded to the earth, and the earth
+      comes forth green and fruitful from its embraces.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0045" id="linklinkBimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="187.jpg Isis, Wearing the Cow-horn Head-dress. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Boudier from a green basalt statue in the G�zeh
+     Museum. Prom a photograph by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The marriage of the two elements suggested that of the two divinities;
+      Osiris wedded Isis and adopted the young Horus. But this prolific and
+      gentle pair were not representative of all the phenomena of nature. The
+      eastern part of the Delta borders upon the solitudes of Arabia, and
+      although it contains several rich and fertile provinces, yet most of these
+      owe their existence to the arduous labour of the inhabitants, their
+      fertility being dependent on the daily care of man, and on his regular
+      distribution of the water. The moment he suspends the straggle or relaxes
+      his watchfulness, the desert reclaims them and overwhelms them with
+      sterility. Sit was the spirit of the mountain, stone and sand, the red and
+      arid ground as distinguished from the moist black soil of the valley. On
+      the body of a lion or of a dog he bore a fantastic head with a slender
+      curved snout, upright and square-cut ears; his cloven tail rose stiffly
+      behind him, springing from his loins like a fork. He also assumed a human
+      form, or retained the animal head only upon a man's shoulders. He was felt
+      to be cruel and treacherous, always ready to shrivel up the harvest with
+      his burning breath, and to smother Egypt beneath a shroud of shifting
+      sand. The contrast between this evil being and the beneficent couple,
+      Osiris and Isis, was striking. Nevertheless, the theologians of the Delta
+      soon assigned a common origin to these rival divinities of Nile and
+      desert, red land and black. Sib� had begotten them, N��t had given birth
+      to them one after another when the demiurge had separated her from her
+      husband; and the days of their birth were the days of creation.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to one legend which is comparatively old in
+     origin, the fous* children of N��t, and Horus her grandson,
+     were born one after another, each on one of the intercalary
+     days of the year. This legend was still current in the Greek
+     period.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At first each of them had kept to his own half of the world. Moreover Sit,
+      who had begun by living alone, had married, in order that he might be
+      inferior to Osiris in nothing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0046" id="linklinkBimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/189.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="189.jpg Nephthys, As a Wailing Woman. 1 and the God S�t, Fighting. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1   Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a painted wooden statuette
+     in my possession, from a funeral couch found at Akhm�m. On
+     her head the goddess bears the hieroglyph for her name; she
+     is kneeling at the foot of the funeral couch of Osiris and
+     weeps for the dead god.
+
+     2  Bronze statuette of the XXth dynasty, encrusted with
+     gold, from the Hoffmann collection: drawn by Faucher-Gudin
+     from a photograph taken by Legrain in 1891. About the time
+     when the worship of S�t was proscribed, one of the Egyptian
+     owners of this little monument had endeavoured to alter its
+     character, and to transform it into a statuette of the god
+     Khn�m�. He took out the upright ears, replacing them with
+     ram's horns, but made no other change. In the drawing I have
+     had the later addition of the curved horns removed, and
+     restored the upright ears, whose marks may still be seen
+     upon the sides of the head-dress.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As a matter of fact, his companion, Nephthys, did not manifest any great
+      activity, and was scarcely more than an artificial counterpart of the wife
+      of Osiris, a second Isis who bore no children to her husband;[*] for the
+      sterile desert brought barrenness to her as to all that it touched.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The impersonal character of Nephthys, her artificial
+     origin, and her derivation from Isis, have been pointed out
+     by Maspero (<i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 362-364). The very name of the
+     goddess, which means <i>the lady (nib�t)</i> of the<i> mansion
+     (ha�t)</i>, confirms this view.
+
+ [Illustration: 190.jpg  PLAN  OF  THE   RUINS   OF  HELIOPOLIS. 2]
+
+     2  Drawn by Thuillier, from the <i>Description de l'Egypte</i>
+     (Atlas, Ant., vol. v. pl. 26, 1).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Yet she had lost neither the wish nor the power to bring forth, and sought
+      fertilization from another source. Tradition had it that she had made
+      Osiris drunken, drawn him to her arms without his knowledge, and borne him
+      a son; the child of this furtive union was the jackal Anubis. Thus when a
+      higher Nile overflows lands not usually covered by the inundation, and
+      lying unproductive for lack of moisture, the soil eagerly absorbs the
+      water, and the germs which lay concealed in the ground burst forth into
+      life. The gradual invasion of the domain of S�t by Osiris marks the
+      beginning of the strife. Sit rebels against the wrong of which he is the
+      victim, involuntary though it was; he surprises and treacherously slays
+      his brother, drives Isis into temporary banishment among her marshes, and
+      reigns over the kingdom of Osiris as well as over his own. But his triumph
+      is short-lived. Horus, having grown up, takes arms against him, defeats
+      him in many encounters, and banishes him in his turn. The creation of the
+      world had brought the destroying and the life-sustaining gods face to
+      face: the history of the world is but the story of their rivalries and
+      warfare.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      None of these conceptions alone sufficed to explain the whole mechanism of
+      creation, nor the part which the various gods took in it. The priests of
+      Heliopolis appropriated them all, modified some of their details and
+      eliminated others, added several new personages, and thus finally
+      constructed a complete cosmogony, the elements of which were learnedly
+      combined so as to correspond severally with the different operations by
+      which the world had been evoked out of chaos and gradually brought to its
+      present state. Heliopolis was never directly involved in the great
+      revolutions of political history; but no city ever originated so many
+      mystic ideas and consequently exercised so great an influence upon the
+      development of civilization.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  By its inhabitants it was accounted older  than any
+     other  city  of Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0047" id="linklinkBimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/192.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="192.jpg Horus, the Avenger of his Father, and Anubis �ap�a�t�. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by B�ato of a
+     bas-relief in the temple of Seti I. at Abydos. The two gods
+     are conducting King Ramses II., here identified with Osiris,
+     towards the goddess H�thor.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was a small town built on the plain not far from the Nile at the apex
+      of the Delta, and surrounded by a high wall of mud bricks whose remains
+      could still be seen at the beginning of the century, but which have now
+      almost completely disappeared.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0048" id="linklinkBimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/193.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="193.jpg the Sun Springing from an Opening Lotus-flower " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. The open lotus-flower, with a bud
+     on either side, stands upon the usual sign for any water-
+     basin. Here the sign represents the N�, that dark watery
+     abyss from which the lotus sprang on the morning of
+     creation, and whereon it is still supposed to bloom.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One obelisk standing in the midst of the open plain, a few waste mounds of
+      d�bris, scattered blocks, and two or three lengths of crumbling wall,
+      alone mark the place where once the city stood. Ka was worshipped there,
+      and the Greek name of Heliopolis is but the translation of that which was
+      given to it by the priests&mdash;Pi-ra, City of the Sun. Its principal
+      temple, the "Mansion of the Prince," rose from about the middle of the
+      enclosure, and sheltered, together with the god himself, those animals in
+      which he became incarnate: the bull Mnevis, and sometimes the Phoenix.
+      According to an old legend, this wondrous bird appeared in Egypt only once
+      in five hundred years. It is born and lives in the depths of Arabia, but
+      when its father dies it covers the body with a layer of myrrh, and flies
+      at utmost speed to the temple of Helio-polis, there to bury it.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The Phoenix is not the <i>Bon�</i> (cf. p. 186, note 2), but a
+     fabulous bird derived from the golden sparrow-hawk, which
+     was primarily a form of Haro�ris, and of the sun-gods in
+     second place only. On the authority of his Heliopolitan
+     guides, Herodotus tells us (ii. 83) that in shape and size
+     the phoenix resembled the eagle, and this statement alone
+     should have sufficed to prevent any attempt at identifying
+     it with the Bon�, which is either a heron or a lapwing.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0049" id="linklinkBimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/194.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="194.jpg the Plain and Mounds of Heliopolis Fifty Years Ago.2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a water-colour published by
+     Lepsius, <i>Denkm</i>., i. 56. The view is taken from the midst
+     of the ruins at the foot of the obelisk of Usirtasen.    A
+     little stream runs in the foreground, and passes through a
+     muddy pool; to right and left are mounds of ruins, which
+     were then considerable, but have since been partially razed.
+     In the distance Cairo rises against the south-west.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the beginning, R� was the sun itself, whose fires appear to be lighted
+      every morning in the east and to be extinguished at evening in the west;
+      and to the people such he always remained. Among the theologians there was
+      considerable difference of opinion on the point. Some held the disk of the
+      sun to be the body which the god assumes when presenting himself for the
+      adoration of his worshippers. Others affirmed that it rather represented
+      his active and radiant soul. Finally, there were many who defined it as
+      one of his forms of being&mdash;<i>khopri�</i>&mdash;one of his
+      self-manifestations, without presuming to decide whether it was his body
+      or his soul which he deigned to reveal to human eyes; but whether soul or
+      body, all agreed that the sun's disk had existed in the N� before
+      creation. But how could it have lain beneath the primordial ocean without
+      either drying up the waters or being extinguished by them? At this stage
+      the identification of R� with Horus and his right eye served the purpose
+      of the theologians admirably: the god needed only to have closed his
+      eyelid in order to prevent his fires from coming in contact with the
+      water.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is clearly implied in the expression so often used by
+     the sacred writers of Ancient Egypt in reference to the
+     appearance of the sun and his first act at the time of
+     creation: "<i>Thou openest the two eyes</i>, and earth is flooded
+     with rays of light."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was also said to have shut up his disk within a lotus-bud, whose folded
+      petals had safely protected it. The flower had opened on the morning of
+      the first day, and from it the god had sprung suddenly as a child wearing
+      the solar disk upon his head. But all theories led the theologians to
+      distinguish two periods, and as it were two beings in the existence of
+      supreme deity: a pre-mundane sun lying inert within the bosom of the dark
+      waters, and our living and life-giving sun.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0050" id="linklinkBimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="196.jpg Hakmakh��ti-hakmakhis, the Great God. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger of an
+     outer wall of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. Harmakhis grants
+     years and festivals to the Pharaoh Seti I., who kneels
+     before him, and is presented by the lioness-headed goddess
+     Sokh�t, here described as a magician&mdash;<i>O�r�t hilca�</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One division of the Heliopolitan school retained the use of traditional
+      terms and images in reference to these Sun-gods. To the first it left the
+      human form, and the title of R�, with the abstract sense of creator,
+      deriving the name from the verb <i>r�</i>, which means to give. For the
+      second it kept the form of the sparrow-hawk and the name of Harma-kh��ti&mdash;Horus
+      in the two horizons&mdash;which clearly denoted his function;[*] and it
+      summed up the idea of the sun as a whole in the single name of
+      R�-Harmakh��ti, and in a single image in which the hawk-head of Horus was
+      grafted upon the human body of R�. The other divisions of the school
+      invented new names for new conceptions. The sun existing before the world
+      they called Creator&mdash;<i>T�m�, At�m�</i> [**]&mdash;and our earthly
+      sun they called <i>Khopri</i>&mdash;He who is.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Harmakh��ti is Horus, the sky of the two horizons; <i>i.e.</i>
+     the sky of the daytime, and the night sky. When the
+     celestial Horus was confounded with R�, and became the sun
+     (cf. p. 133), he naturally also became the sun of the two
+     horizons, the sun by day, and the sun by night.
+
+     **  E. de Rouge, <i>�tudes sur le Rituel fun�raire</i>, p. 76:
+     "His name may be connected with two radicals. Tem is a
+     negation; it may be taken to mean <i>the Inapproachable One,
+     the Unknown</i> (as in Thebes, where <i>Aman</i> means mystery).
+     At�m is, in fact, described as 'existing alone in the
+     abyss,' before the appearance of light. It was in this time
+     of darkness that At�m performed the first act of creation,
+     and this allows of our also connecting his name with the
+     Coptic tamio, <i>creare</i>. At�m was also the prototype of man
+     (in Coptic tme, <i>homo</i>), and becomes a perfect 't�m' after
+     his resurrection." Rugsch would rather explain <i>T�m�</i> as
+     meaning <i>the Perfect One, the Complete</i>. E. de Roug�'s
+     philological derivations are no longer admissible; but his
+     explanation of the name corresponds so well with the part
+     played by the god that I fail to see how that can be
+     challenged.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      T�m� was a man crowned and clothed with the insignia of supreme power, a
+      true king of gods, majestic and impassive as the Pharaohs who succeeded
+      each other upon the throne of Egypt. The conception of Khopri as a disk
+      enclosing a scarab�us, or a man with a scarabous upon his head, or a
+      scarabus-headed mummy, was suggested by the accidental alliteration of his
+      name and that of Khopirr�, the scarab�us. The difference between the
+      possible forms of the god was so slight as to be eventually lost
+      altogether. His names were grouped by twos and threes in every conceivable
+      way, and the scarab�us of Khopri took its place upon the head of R�, while
+      the hawk headpiece was transferred from the shoulders of Harmakh��ti to
+      those of T�m�. The complex beings resulting from these combinations,
+      R�-T�m�, At�m�-R�, R�-T�m�-Khopri, R�-Harmakh��ti-T�m�,
+      T�m-Harmakh��ti-Khopri, never attained to any pronounced individuality.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0051" id="linklinkBimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/198.jpg" width="100%" alt="198.jpg Khopri, in his Bark " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They were as a rule simple duplicates of the feudal god, names rather than
+      persons, and though hardly taken for one another indiscriminately, the
+      distinctions between them had reference to mere details of their functions
+      and attributes. Hence arose the idea of making these gods into embodiments
+      of the main phases in the life of the sun during the day and throughout
+      the year. R� symbolized the sun of springtime and before sunrise,
+      Harmakh��ti the summer and the morning sun, At�m� the sun of autumn and of
+      afternoon, Khopri that of winter and of night. The people of Heliopolis
+      accepted the new names and the new forms presented for their worship, but
+      always subordinated them to their beloved R�. For them R� never ceased to
+      be the god of the nome; while At�m� remained the god of the theologians,
+      and was invoked by them, the people preferred R�. At Thinis and at
+      Sebennytos Anh�ri incurred the same fate as befell R� at Heliopolis. After
+      he had been identified with the sun, the similar identification of Sh�
+      inevitably followed. Of old, Anh�ri and Sh� were twin gods, incarnations
+      of sky and earth. They were soon but one god in two persons&mdash;the god
+      Anh�ri-Sh�, of which the one half under the title of Auh�ri represented,
+      like At�m�, the primordial being; and Sh�, the other half, became, as his
+      name indicates, the creative sun-god who upholds (<i>sh�</i>) the sky.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      T�rn� then, rather than R�, was placed by the Heliopolitan priests at the
+      head of their cosmogony as supreme creator and governor. Several versions
+      were current as to how he had passed from inertia into action, from the
+      personage of T�m� into that of R�. According to the version most widely
+      received, he had suddenly cried across the waters, "Come unto me!"[*] and
+      immediately the mysterious lotus had unfolded its petals, and R� had
+      appeared at the edge of its open cup as a disk, a newborn child, or a
+      disk-crowned sparrow-hawk; this was probably a refined form of a ruder and
+      earlier tradition, according to which it was upon R� himself that the
+      office had devolved of separating Sib� from N��t, for the purpose of
+      constructing the heavens and the earth.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was on this account that the Egyptians named the first
+     day of the year the <i>Day of Come-unto-me!</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But it was doubtless felt that so unseemly an act of intervention was
+      beneath the dignity even of an inferior form of the suzerain god; Sh� was
+      therefore borrowed for the purpose from the kindred cult of Anh�ri, and at
+      Heliopolis, as at Sebennytos, the office was entrusted to him of seizing
+      the sky-goddess and raising her with outstretched arms. The violence
+      suffered by N��t at the hands of Sh� led to a connexion of the Osirian
+      dogma of Mendes with the solar dogma of Sebennytos, and thus the tradition
+      describing the creation of the world was completed by another, explaining
+      its division into deserts and fertile lands. S�b�, hitherto concealed
+      beneath the body of his wife, was now exposed to the sun; Osiris and Sit,
+      Isis and Nephthys, were born, and, falling from the sky, their mother, on
+      to the earth, their father, they shared the surface of the latter among
+      themselves. Thus the Heliopolitan doctrine recognized three principal
+      events in the creation of the universe: the dualization of the supreme god
+      and the breaking forth of light, the raising of the sky and the laying
+      bare of the earth, the birth of the Nile and the allotment of the soil of
+      Egypt, all expressed as the manifestations of successive deities. Of these
+      deities, the latter ones already constituted a family of father, mother,
+      and children, like human families. Learned theologians availed themselves
+      of this example to effect analogous relationships between the rest of the
+      gods, combining them all into one line of descent. As At�m�-R� could have
+      no fellow, he stood apart in the first rank, and it was decided that Sh�
+      should be his son, whom he had formed out of himself alone, on the first
+      day of creation, by the simple intensity of his own virile energy. Sh�,
+      reduced to the position of divine son, had in his turn begotten Sib� and
+      N��t, the two deities which he separated. Until then he had not been
+      supposed to have any wife, and he also might have himself brought his own
+      progeny into being; but lest a power of spontaneous generation equal to
+      that of the demiurge should be ascribed to him, he was married, and the
+      wife found for him was Tafn��t, his twin sister, born in the same way as
+      he was born. This goddess, invented for the occasion, was never fully
+      alive, and remained, like Nephthys, a theological entity rather than a
+      real person. The texts describe her as the pale reflex of her husband.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0052" id="linklinkBimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/201.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="201.jpg the Twin Lions, Sh� and Tafn��t. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a vignette in the papyrus of
+     Ani in the British Museum, published by Lepage-Renouf in the
+     <i>Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Arch�ology</i>, vol.
+     xi., 1889-90, pp. 26-28. The inscription above the lion on
+     the right reads <i>safu</i>, "yesterday;" the other, <i>d�a�</i>,
+     "this morning."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Together with him she upholds the sky, and every morning receives the
+      newborn sun as it emerges from the mountain of the east; she is a lioness
+      when Sh� is a lion, a woman when he is a man, a lioness-headed woman if he
+      is a lion-headed man; she is angry when he is angry, appeased when he is
+      appeased; she has no sanctuary wherein he is not worshipped. In short, the
+      pair made one being in two bodies, or, to use the Egyptian expression,
+      "one soul in its two twin bodies."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hence we see that the Heliopolitans proclaimed the creation to be the work
+      of the sun-god, At�m�-R�, and of the four pairs of deities who were
+      descended from him. It was really a learned variant of the old doctrine
+      that the universe was composed of a sky-god, Horus, supported by his four
+      children and their four pillars: in fact, the four sons of the
+      Heliopolitan cosmogony, Sh� and Sib�, Osiris and Sit, were occasionally
+      substituted for the four older gods of the "houses" of the world. This
+      being premised, attention must be given to the important differences
+      between the two systems. At the outset, instead of appearing
+      contemporaneously upon the scene, like the four children of Horus, the
+      four Heliopolitan gods were deduced one from another, and succeeded each
+      other in the order of their birth. They had not that uniform attribute of
+      supporter, associating them always with one definite function, but each of
+      them felt himself endowed with faculties and armed with special powers
+      required by his condition. Ultimately they took to themselves goddesses,
+      and thus the total number of beings working in different ways at the
+      organization of the universe was brought up to nine. Hence they were
+      called by the collective name of the Ennead, the Nine gods&mdash;<i>pa�it
+      n�t�r�</i>,[*]&mdash;and the god at their head was entitled <i>Pa��ti</i>,
+      the god of the Ennead.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The first Egyptologists confounded the sign used in
+     writing <i>pa��t</i> with the sign <i>kh</i>, and the word <i>khet,
+     other</i>. E. de Roug� was the first to determine its phonetic
+     value: "it should be read Pa�, and designates a body of
+     gods." Shortly afterwards Beugsch proved that "the group of
+     gods invoked by E. de Roug� must have consisted of nine "&mdash;
+     of an Ennead. This explanation was not at first admitted
+     either by Lepsius or by Mariette, who had proposed a mystic
+     interpretation of the word in his <i>M�moire sur la m�re
+     d'Apis</i>, or by E. de Roug�, or by Chabas. The interpretation
+     a <i>Nine</i>, an <i>Ennead</i>, was not frankly adopted until later,
+     and more especially after the discovery of the Pyramid
+     texts; to-day, it is the only meaning admitted. Of course
+     the Egyptian Ennead has no other connection than that of
+     name with the Enneads of the Neo-Platonists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When creation was completed, its continued existence was ensured by
+      countless agencies with whose operation the persons of the Ennead were not
+      at leisure to concern themselves, but had ordained auxiliaries to preside
+      over each of the functions essential to the regular and continued working
+      of all things. The theologians of Heliopolis selected eighteen from among
+      the innumerable divinities of the feudal cults of Egypt, and of these they
+      formed two secondary Enneads, who were regarded as the offspring of the
+      Ennead of the creation. The first of the two secondary Enneads, generally
+      known as the Minor Ennead, recognized as chief Harsiesis, the son of
+      Osiris. Harsiesis was originally an earth-god who had avenged the
+      assassination of his father and the banishment of his mother by Sit; that
+      is, he had restored fulness to the Nile and fertility to the Delta. When
+      Harsiesis was incorporated into the solar religions of Heliopolis, his
+      filiation was left undisturbed as being a natural link between the two
+      Enneads, but his personality was brought into conformity with the new
+      surroundings into which he was transplanted. He was identified with R�
+      through the intervention of the older Horus, Haro�ris-Harmakhis, and the
+      Minor Ennead, like the Great Ennead, began with a sun-god. This
+      assimilation was not pushed so far as to invest the younger Horus with the
+      same powers as his fictitious ancestor: he was the sun of earth, the
+      everyday sun, while At�m�-R� was still the sun pre-mundane and eternal.
+      Our knowledge of the eight other deities of the Minor Ennead is very
+      imperfect.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0053" id="linklinkBimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/204.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="204.jpg the Four Funerary Genii, Khabson�f, Ti�ma�tf, Hapi, and Ams�t. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Wilkinson's <i>Manners and
+     Customs</i>, 2nd edit., vol. iii. p. 221, pl. xlviii.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We see only that these were the gods who chiefly protected the sun-god
+      against its enemies and helped it to follow its regular course. Thus
+      Harh�diti, the Horus of Edf�, spear in hand, pursues the hippopotami or
+      serpents which haunt the celestial waters and menace the god. The progress
+      of the Sun-bark is controlled by the incantations of Thot, while Uap�a�t�,
+      the dual jackal-god of Siufc, guides, and occasionally tows it along the
+      sky from south to north. The third Ennead would seem to have included
+      among its members Anubis the jackal, and the four funerary genii, the
+      children of Horus&mdash;Hapi, Ams�t, Ti�ma�tf, Kabhson�f; it further
+      appears as though its office was the care and defence of the dead sun, the
+      sun by night, as the second Ennead had charge of the living sun. Its
+      functions were so obscure and apparently so insignificant as compared with
+      those exercised by the other Enneads, that the theologians did not take
+      the trouble either to represent it or to enumerate its persons. They
+      invoked it as a whole, after the two others, in those formulas in which
+      they called into play all the creative and preservative forces of the
+      universe; but this was rather as a matter of conscience and from love of
+      precision than out of any true deference. At the initial impulse of the
+      lord of Heliopolis, the three combined Enneads started the world and kept
+      it going, and gods whom they had not incorporated were either enemies to
+      be fought with, or mere attendants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The doctrine of the Heliopolitan Ennead acquired an immediate and a
+      lasting popularity. It presented such a clear scheme of creation, and one
+      whose organization was so thoroughly in accordance with the spirit of
+      tradition, that the various sacerdotal colleges adopted it one after
+      another, accommodating it to the exigencies of local patriotism. Each
+      placed its own nome-god at the head of the Ennead as "god of the Nine,"
+      "god of the first time," creator of heaven and earth, sovereign ruler of
+      men, and lord of all action. As there was the Ennead of At�m� at
+      Heliopolis, so there was that of Anh�ri at Thinis and at Sebennytos; that
+      of Min� at Coptos and at Panopolis; that of Haro�ris at Edf�; that of
+      Sobkh� at Ombos; and, later, that of Phtah at Memphis and of Amon at
+      Thebes. Nomes which worshipped a goddess had no scruples whatever in
+      ascribing to her the part played by At�m�, and in crediting her with the
+      spontaneous maternity of Sh� and Tafn��t.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="206 (187K)" src="images/206.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Plan drawn by Thuillier, from the <i>Description de l'
+     Egypte</i>, Ant., vol. iv. pl. 50.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      N�t was the source and ruler of the Ennead of Sa�s, Isis of that of B�to,
+      and H�thor of that of Denderah.[**] Few of the sacerdotal colleges went
+      beyond the substitution of their own feudal gods for At�m�. Provided that
+      the god of each nome held the rank of supreme lord, the rest mattered
+      little, and the local theologians made no change in the order of the other
+      agents of creation, their vanity being unhurt even by the lower offices
+      assigned by the Heliopolitan tradition to such powers as Osiris, Sib�, and
+      Sit, who were known and worshipped throughout the whole country.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  On the Ennead of H�thor at Denderah, see Mariette,
+     Denderah, p. 80., et seq., of the text. The fact that N�t,
+     Isis, and, generally speaking, all the feudal goddesses,
+     were the chiefs of their local Enneads, is proved by the
+     epithets applied to them, which represent them as having
+     independent creative power by virtue of their own unaided
+     force and energy, like the god at the head of the
+     Heliopolitan Ennead.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The theologians of Hermopolis alone declined to borrow the new system just
+      as it stood, and in all its parts. Hermopolis had always been one of the
+      ruling cities of Middle Egypt. Standing alone in the midst of the land
+      lying between the Eastern and Western Mies, it had established upon each
+      of the two great arms of the river a port and a custom-house, where all
+      boats travelling either up or down stream paid toll on passing. Not only
+      the corn and natural products of the valley and of the Delta, but also
+      goods from distant parts of Africa brought to Si�fc by Soudanese caravans,
+      helped to fill the treasury of Hermopolis. Thot, the god of the city,
+      represented as ibis or baboon, was essentially a moon-god, who measured
+      time, counted the days, numbered the months, and recorded the years. Lunar
+      divinities, as we know, are everywhere supposed to exercise the most
+      varied powers: they command the mysterious forces of the universe; they
+      know the sounds, words, and gestures by which those forces are put in
+      motion, and not content with using them for their own benefit, they also
+      teach to their worshippers the art of employing them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0054" id="linklinkBimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/208.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="208.jpg the Ibis Thot. 1; and The Cynocephalous Thot. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1   Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from an enamelled pottery figure
+     from Coptos, now in my possession. Neck, feet, and tail are
+     in blue enamel, the rest is in green. The little personage
+     represented as squatting beneath the beak is M�it, the
+     goddess of truth, and the ally of Thot. The ibis was
+     furnished with a ring for suspending it; this has been
+     broken off, but traces of it may still be seen at the back
+     of the head.
+
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a green enamelled pottery
+     figure in my possession (Sa�te period).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thot formed no exception to this rule. He was lord of the voice, master of
+      words and of books, possessor or inventor of those magic writings which
+      nothing in heaven, on earth, or in Hades can withstand.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     ***  Cf. in the tale of Satni (Maspero, <i>Contes populaires
+     de l'Ancienne Egypte</i>, 2nd edit., p. 175) the description of
+     the book which Thot has himself written with his own hand,
+     and which makes its possessor the equal of the gods. "The
+     two formulas which are written therein, if thou recitest the
+     first thou shalt charm heaven, earth, Hades, the mountains,
+     the waters; thou shalt know the birds of the sky and the
+     reptiles, how many soever they be; thou shalt see the fish
+     of the deep, for a divine power will cause them to rise to
+     the surface of the water.    If thou readest the second
+     formula, even although thou shouldest be in the tomb, thou
+     shalt again take the form which was thine upon earth; thou
+     shalt even see the sun rising in heaven, and his cycle of
+     gods, and the moon in the form wherein it appeareth."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had discovered the incantations which evoke and control the gods; he
+      had transcribed the texts and noted the melodies of these incantations; he
+      recited them with that true intonation&mdash;<i>m� khr��</i>&mdash;which
+      renders them all-powerful, and every one, whether god or man, to whom he
+      imparted them, and whose voice he made true&mdash;<i>sm� khr��</i>&mdash;became
+      like himself master of the universe. He had accomplished the creation not
+      by muscular effort to which the rest of the cosmogonical gods primarily
+      owed their birth, but by means of formulas, or even of the voice alone,
+      "the first time" when he awoke in the N�. In fact, the articulate word and
+      the voice were believed to be the most potent of creative forces, not
+      remaining immaterial on issuing from the lips, but condensing, so to
+      speak, into tangible substances; into bodies which were themselves
+      animated by creative life and energy; into gods and goddesses who lived or
+      who created in their turn. By a very short phrase T�m� had called forth
+      the gods who order all things; for his "Come unto me!" uttered with a loud
+      voice upon the day of creation, had evoked the sun from within the lotus.
+      Thot had opened his lips, and the voice which proceeded from him had
+      become an entity; sound had solidified into matter, and by a simple
+      emission of voice the four gods who preside over the four houses of the
+      world had come forth alive from his mouth without bodily effort on his
+      part, and without spoken evocation. Creation by the voice is almost as
+      great a refinement of thought as the substitution of creation by the word
+      for creation by muscular effort. In fact, sound bears the same relation to
+      words that the whistle of a quartermaster bears to orders for the
+      navigation of a ship transmitted by a speaking trumpet; it simplifies
+      speech, reducing it as it were to a pure abstraction. At first it was
+      believed that the creator had made the world with a word, then that he had
+      made it by sound; but the further conception of his having made it by
+      thought does not seem to have occurred to the theologians. It was narrated
+      at Hermopolis, and the legend was ultimately universally accepted, even by
+      the Heliopolitans, that the separation of N��t and Sib� had taken place at
+      a certain spot on the site of the city where Sib� had ascended the mound
+      on which the feudal temple was afterwards built, in order that he might
+      better sustain the goddess and uphold the sky at the proper height. The
+      conception of a Creative Council of five gods had so far prevailed at
+      Hermopolis that from this fact the city had received in remote antiquity
+      the name of the "House of the Five;" its temple was called the "Abode of
+      the Five" down to a late period in Egyptian history, and its prince, who
+      was the hereditary high priest of Thot, reckoned as the first of his
+      official titles that of "Great One of the House of the Five."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The four couples who had helped At�m� were identified with the four
+      auxiliary gods of Thot, and changed the council of Five into a Great
+      Hermopolitan Ennead, but at the cost of strange metamorphoses. However
+      artificially they had been grouped about At�m�, they had all preserved
+      such distinctive characteristics as prevented their being confounded one
+      with another. When the universe which they had helped to build up was
+      finally seen to be the result of various operations demanding a
+      considerable manifestation of physical energy, each god was required to
+      preserve the individuality necessary for the production of such effects as
+      were expected of him. They could not have existed and carried on their
+      work without conforming to the ordinary conditions of humanity; being born
+      one of another, they were bound to have paired with living goddesses as
+      capable of bringing forth their children as they were of begetting them.
+      On the other hand, the four auxiliary gods of Hermopolis exercised but one
+      means of action&mdash;the voice. Having themselves come forth from the
+      master's mouth, it was by voice that they created and perpetuated the
+      world. Apparently they could have done without goddesses had marriage not
+      been imposed upon them by their identification with the corresponding gods
+      of the Heliopolitan Ennead; at any rate, their wives had but a show of
+      life, almost destitute of reality. As these four gods worked after the
+      manner of their master, Thot, so they also bore his form and reigned along
+      with him as so many baboons. When associated with the lord of Hermopolis,
+      the eight divinities of Heliopolis assumed the character and the
+      appearance of the four Hermopolitan gods in whom they were merged. They
+      were often represented as eight baboons surrounding the supreme baboon, or
+      as four pairs of gods and goddesses without either characteristic
+      attributes or features; or, finally, as four pairs of gods and goddesses,
+      the gods being, as far as we are able to judge, the couple N�-N��t answers
+      to Sh�-Tafn��t; Hah�-Heh�t to Sib� and N��fc; Kak�-Kak�t to Osiris and
+      Isis; Nin�-Nin�t to Sit and Nephthys. There was seldom any occasion to
+      invoke them separately; they were addressed collectively as the Eight&mdash;<i>Khm�n�</i>&mdash;and
+      it was on their account that Hermopolis was named <i>Khm�n�</i>, the City
+      of the Eight. Ultimately they were deprived of the little individual life
+      still left to them, and were fused into a single being to whom the texts
+      refer as Khomnin�, the god Eight.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0055" id="linklinkBimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/212.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="212.jpg the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a photograph by B�ato. Cf.
+     Lepsius, Denkm., iv. pl. 66 c. In this illustration I have
+     combined! the two extremities of a great scene at Phil�, in
+     which the <i>Eight</i>, divided into two groups of four, frog-
+     headed men, and the goddesses serpent-headed women. Morning
+     and evening  do they sing;   and the mysterious hymns
+     wherewith they salute the rising and the setting sun ensure
+     the continuity of his course.    Their names did not survive
+     their  metamorphoses;   each  pair had no longer more than a
+     single name, the termination of each name varying according
+     as a god or a goddess was intended:&mdash;Nu  and N��t, Heh� and
+     Heh�t, Kak� and Kak�t, Nin� and Nin�t, the god One and the
+     god Eight, the Monad and the Ogdoad. The latter had scarcely
+     more than a theoretical existence, and was generally
+     absorbed into the person of the former. Thus the theologians
+     of Hermopolis gradually disengaged the unity of their feudal
+     god from the multiplicity of the cosmogonie deities.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0056" id="linklinkBimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/213.jpg" width="100%" alt="213.jpg Amon. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a bronze statuette found at
+     Thebes, and now in my possession.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By degrees the Ennead of Thot was thus reduced to two terms: take part in
+      the adoration of the king. According to a custom common towards the
+      Gr�co-Roman period, the sculptor has made the feet of his gods like
+      jackals' heads; it is a way of realizing the well-known metaphor which
+      compares a rapid runner to the jackal roaming around Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As the sacerdotal colleges had adopted the Heliopolitan doctrine, so they
+      now generally adopted that of Hermopolis: Amon, for instance, being made
+      to preside indifferently over the eight baboons and over the four
+      independent couples of the primitive Ennead. In both cases the process of
+      adaptation was absolutely identical, and would have been attended by no
+      difficulty whatever, had the divinities to whom it was applied only been
+      without family; in that case, the one needful change for each city would
+      have been that of a single name in the Heliopolitan list, thus leaving the
+      number of the Ennead unaltered. But since these deities had been turned
+      into triads they could no longer be primarily regarded as simple units, to
+      be combined with the elements of some one or other of the Enneads without
+      preliminary arrangement. The two companions whom each had chosen had to be
+      adopted also, and the single Thot, or single At�m�, replaced by the three
+      patrons of the nome, thus changing the traditional nine into eleven.
+      Happily, the constitution of the triad lent itself to all these
+      adaptations. We have seen that the father and the son became one and the
+      same personage, whenever it was thought desirable. We also know that one
+      of the two parents always so far predominated as almost to efface the
+      other. Sometimes it was the goddess who disappeared behind her husband;
+      sometimes it was the god whose existence merely served to account for the
+      offspring of the goddess, and whose only title to his position consisted
+      in the fact that he was her husband. Two personages thus closely connected
+      were not long in blending into one, and were soon defined as being two
+      faces, the masculine and feminine aspects of a single being. On the one
+      hand, the father was one with the son, and on the other he was one with
+      the mother. Hence the mother was one with the son as with the father, and
+      the three gods of the triad were resolved into one god in three persons.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0057" id="linklinkBimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/215.jpg" width="100%" alt="215.jpg the Theban Ennead " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 This Ennead consists of fourteen members&mdash;Mont�,
+     duplicating At�m�; the four usual couples; then Horus, the
+     son of Isis and Osiris, together with his associate deities,
+     H�thor, Tanu, and An�t.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thanks to this subterfuge, to put a triad at the head of an Ennead was
+      nothing more than a roundabout way of placing a single god there: the
+      three persons only counted as one, and the eleven names only amounted to
+      the nine canonical divinities. Thus, the Theban Ennead of
+      Amon-Maut-Khons�, Sh�, Tafn��t, Sib�, N��t, Osiris, Isis, S�t, and
+      Nephthys, is, in spite of its apparent irregularity, as correct as the
+      typical Ennead itself. In such Enneads Isis is duplicated by goddesses of
+      like nature, such as H�thor, Selk�t, Tanin�t, and yet remains but one,
+      while Osiris brings in his son Horus, who gathers about himself all such
+      gods as play the part of divine son in other triads. The theologians had
+      various methods of procedure for keeping the number of persons in an
+      Ennead at nine, no matter how many they might choose to embrace in it.
+      Supernumeraries were thrown in like the "shadows" at Roman suppers, whom
+      guests would bring without warning to their host, and whose presence made
+      not the slightest difference either in the provision for the feast, or in
+      the arrangements for those who had been formally invited.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus remodelled at all points, the Ennead of Heliopolis was readily
+      adjustable to sacerdotal caprices, and even profited by the facilities
+      which, the triad afforded for its natural expansion. In time the
+      Heliopolitan version of the origin of Sh�-Tafn��t must have appeared too
+      primitively barbarous. Allowing for the licence of the Egyptians during
+      Pharaonic times, the concept of the spontaneous emission whereby At�rn�
+      had produced his twin children was characterized by a superfluity of
+      coarseness which it was at least unnecessary to employ, since by placing
+      the god in a triad, this double birth could be duly explained in
+      conformity with the ordinary laws of life. The solitary At�rn� of the more
+      ancient dogma gave place to At�rn� the husband and father. He had, indeed,
+      two wives, I�s�s�t and Nebthotp�t, but their individualities were so
+      feebly marked that no one took the trouble to choose between them; each
+      passed as the mother of Sh� and Tafn��fc. This system of combination, so
+      puerile in its ingenuity, was fraught with the gravest consequences to the
+      history of Egyptian religions. Shu having been transformed into the divine
+      son of the Heliopolitan triad, could henceforth be assimilated with the
+      divine sons of all those triads which took the place of T�m� at the heads
+      of provincial Enneads. Thus we find that Horus the son of Isis at B�to,
+      Arihosnofir the son of Nit at Sais, Khn�m� the son of H�thor at Esneh,
+      were each in turn identified with Sh� the son of At�rn�, and lost their
+      individualities in his. Sooner or later this was bound to result in
+      bringing all the triads closer together, and in their absorption into one
+      another. Through constant reiteration of the statement that the divine
+      sons of the triads were identical with Sh�, as being in the second rank of
+      the Ennead, the idea arose that this was also the case in triads
+      unconnected with Enneads; in other terms, that the third person in any
+      family of gods was everywhere and always Sh� under a different name. It
+      having been finally admitted in the sacerdotal colleges that T�m� and Sh�,
+      father and son, were one, all the divine sons were, therefore, identical
+      with T�m�, the father of Sh�, and as each divine son was one with his
+      parents, it inevitably followed that these parents themselves were
+      identical with T�m�. Reasoning in this way, the Egyptians naturally tended
+      towards that conception of the divine oneness to which the theory of the
+      Hermopolitan Ogdoad was already leading them. In fact, they reached it,
+      and the monuments show us that in comparatively early times the
+      theologians were busy uniting in a single person the prerogatives which
+      their ancestors had ascribed to many different beings. But this conception
+      of deity towards which their ideas were converging has nothing in common
+      with the conception of the God of our modern religions and philosophies.
+      No god of the Egyptians was ever spoken of simply as God. T�m� was the
+      "one and only god"&mdash;<i>n�tir ��� ���ti</i>&mdash;at Heliopolis;
+      Anh�ri-Sh� was also the "one and only god" at Sebennytos and at Thinis.
+      The unity of At�m� did not interfere with that of Anh�ri-Sh�, but each of
+      these gods, although the "sole" deity in his own domain, ceased to be so
+      in the domain of the other. The feudal spirit, always alert and jealous,
+      prevented the higher dogma which was dimly apprehended in the temples from
+      triumphing over local religions and extending over the whole land. Egypt
+      had as many "sole" deities as she had large cities, or even important
+      temples; she never accepted the idea of the sole God, "beside whom there
+      is none other."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkBimage-0058" id="linklinkBimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/218.jpg" width="100%" alt="218.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> ================= <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklinkCimage-0005" id="linklinkCimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/219.jpg" width="100%" alt="219.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0006" id="linklinkCimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/220.jpg" width="100%" alt="220.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linklinkC2HCH0001" id="linklinkC2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER III.&mdash;-THE LEGENDARY HISTORY OF EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>THE DIVINE DYNASTIES: R�, SH�, OSIEIS, S�T, HOEUS&mdash;THOT, AND THE
+      INVENTION OF SCIENCES AND WRITING&mdash;MENES, AND THE THREE FIRST HUMAN
+      DYNASTIES.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Egyptians claim to Be the most ancient of peoples: traditions
+      concerning the creation of man and of animals&mdash;The Heliopolitan
+      Enneads the framework of the divine dynasties&mdash;R�, the first King of
+      Egypt, and his fabulous history: he allows himself to be duped and robbed
+      by Isis, destroys rebellious men, and ascends into heaven. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The legend of Shu and Sibil&mdash;The reign of Osiris Onnophris and of
+      Isis: they civilize Egypt and the world&mdash;Osiris, slain by Sit, is
+      entombed by Isis and avenged by Horus&mdash;The wars of Typhon and of
+      Horus: peace, and the division of Egypt between the two gods. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The Osirian embalmment; the kingdom of Osiris opened to the followers
+      of Horus&mdash;The Book of the Dead&mdash;The journeying of the soul in
+      search of the fields of Ial�&mdash;The judgment of the soul, the negative
+      confession&mdash;The privileges and duties of Osirian souls&mdash;Confusion
+      between Osirian and Solar ideas as to the state of the dead: the dead in
+      the hark of the Sun&mdash;The going forth by day&mdash;The campaigns of
+      Harmakhis against Sit. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> Thot, the inventor: he reveals all sciences to men&mdash;Astronomy,
+      stellar tables; the year, its subdivisions, its defects, influence of the
+      heavenly bodies and the days upon human destiny&mdash;Magic arts;
+      incantations, amulets&mdash;-Medicine: the vitalizing spirits, diagnosis,
+      treatment&mdash;Writing: ideographic, syllabic, alphabetic. </i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i> The history of Egypt as handed down by tradition: Manetho, the royal
+      lists, main divisions of Egyptian history&mdash;The beginnings of its
+      early history vague and uncertain: Men�s, and the legend of Memphis&mdash;The
+      first three human dynasties, the two Thimie and the Memphite&mdash;Character
+      and, origin of the legends concerning them&mdash;The famine stela&mdash;The
+      earliest monuments: the step pyramid of Saqgdrah.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0007" id="linklinkCimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%" alt="221.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h1>
+      THE LEGENDARY HISTORY OF EGYPT
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The divine dynasties: R�, Sh�, Osiris, S�t, Horus&mdash;Thot, and the
+      invention of sciences and writing&mdash;Men�s, and the three first human
+      dynasties.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The building up and diffusion of the doctrine of the Ennead, like the
+      formation of the land of Egypt, demanded centuries of sustained effort,
+      centuries of which the inhabitants themselves knew neither the number nor
+      the authentic history. When questioned as to the remote past of their
+      race, they proclaimed themselves the most ancient of mankind, in
+      comparison with whom all other races were but a mob of young children; and
+      they looked upon nations which denied their pretensions with such
+      indulgence and pity as we feel for those who doubt a well-known truth.
+      Their forefathers had appeared upon the banks of the Nile even before the
+      creator had completed his work, so eager were the gods to behold their
+      birth. No Egyptian disputed the reality of this right of the firstborn,
+      which ennobled the whole race; but if they were asked the name of their
+      divine father, then the harmony was broken, and each advanced the claims
+      of a different personage.[*] Phtah had modelled man with his own
+      hands;[**] Khn�m� had formed him on a potter's table.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know the words which Plato puts into the mouth of an
+     Egyptian priest: "O Solon, Solon, you Greeks are always
+     children, and there is no old man who is a Greek! You are
+     all young in mind; there is no opinion or tradition of
+     knowledge among you which is white with age." Other nations
+     disputed their priority&mdash;the Phrygians, the Medes, or rather
+     the tribe of the Magi among the Medes, the Ethiopians, the
+     Scythians. A cycle of legends had gathered about this
+     subject, giving an account of the experiments instituted, by
+     Psamtik, or other sovereigns, to find out which were right,
+     Egyptians or foreigners.
+
+     **  At Phil� and at Denderah, Phtah is represented as piling
+     upon his potter's table the plastic clay from which he is
+     about to make a human body, and which is somewhat wrongly
+     called the egg of the world. It is really the lump of earth
+     from which man came forth at his creation.
+
+     ***  At Philas, Khn�m� calls himself "the potter who
+     fashions men, the modeller of the gods." He there moulds the
+     members of Osiris, the husband of the local Isis, as at
+     Erment he forms the body of Harsamta�i, or rather that of
+     Ptolemy C�sarion, the son of Julius C�sar and the celebrated
+     Cleopatra, identified with Harsamta�i.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      R� at his first rising, seeing the earth desert and bare, had flooded it
+      with his rays as with a flood of tears; all living things, vegetable and
+      animal, and man himself, had sprung pell-mell from his eyes, and were
+      scattered abroad with the light over the surface of the world.[*]
+      Sometimes the facts were presented under a less poetic aspect. The mud of
+      the Nile, heated to excess by the burning sun, fermented and brought forth
+      the various races of men and animals by spontaneous generation, having
+      moulded itself into a thousand living forms. Then its procreative power
+      became weakened to the verge of exhaustion. Yet on the banks of the river,
+      in the height of summer, smaller animals might still be found whose
+      condition showed what had once taken place in the case of the larger
+      kinds. Some appeared as already fully formed, and struggling to free
+      themselves from the oppressive mud; others, as yet imperfect, feebly
+      stirred their heads and fore feet, while their hind quarters were
+      completing their articulation and taking shape within the matrix of
+      earth.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  With reference to the substances which proceeded from the
+     eye of R�, see the remarks of Birch, <i>Sur un papyrus magique
+     du Mus�e Britannique</i>. By his tears (<i>rom�t�</i>) Horus, or his
+     eye as identified with the sun, had given birth to all men,
+     Egyptians (<i>rom�t�, rot�</i>), Libyans, and Asiatics, excepting
+     only the negroes. The latter were born from another part of
+     his body by the same means as those employed by At�m� in the
+     creation of Sh� and Tafn��t.
+
+     **  The same story is told, but with reference to rats only,
+     by Pliny, by Diodorus, by �lianus, by Macrobius, and by
+     other Greek or Latin writers. Even in later times, and in
+     Europe, this pretended phenomenon met with a certain degree
+     of belief, as may be seen from the curious work of Marcus
+     Fredericus Wendelinus, <i>Archipalatinus, Admiranda Nili</i>,
+     Franco-furti, mdcxxiii., cap. xxi. pp. 157-183. In Egypt all
+     the fellah�n believe in the spontaneous generation of rats
+     as in an article of their creed. They have spoken to me of
+     it at Thebes, at Denderah, and on the plain of Abydos; and
+     Major Brown has lately noted the same thing in the Fay�m.
+     The variant which he heard from the lips of the notables is
+     curious, for it professes to explain why the rats who infest
+     the fields in countless bands during the dry season,
+     suddenly disappear at the return of the inundation; born of
+     the mud and putrid water of the preceding year, to mud they
+     return, and as it were dissolve at the touch of the new
+     waters.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was not R� alone whose tears were endowed with vitalizing power. All
+      divinities whether beneficent or malevolent, Sit as well as Osiris or
+      Isis, could give life by weeping; and the work of their eyes, when once it
+      had fallen upon earth, flourished and multiplied as vigorously as that
+      which came from the eyes of R�.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0008" id="linklinkCimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/224.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="224.jpg Khn�m� Modelling Man Upon a Potter's Table. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Gayet. The scene is
+     taken from bas-reliefs in the temple of Luxor, where the god
+     Khn�m� is seen completing his modelling of the future King
+     Amen�thes III. and his double, represented as two children
+     wearing the side-lock and large necklace. The first holds
+     his finger to his lips, while the arms of the second swing
+     at his sides.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The individual character of the creator was not without bearing upon the
+      nature of his creatures; good was the necessary outcome of the good gods,
+      evil of the evil ones; and herein lay the explanation of the mingling of
+      things excellent and things execrable, which is found everywhere
+      throughout the world. Voluntarily or involuntarily, Sit and his partisans
+      were the cause and origin of all that is harmful. Daily their eyes shed
+      upon the world those juices by which plants are made poisonous, as well as
+      malign influences, crime, and madness. Their saliva, the foam which fell
+      from their mouths during their attacks of rage, their sweat, their blood
+      itself, were all no less to be feared. When any drop of it touched the
+      earth, straightway it germinated, and produced something strange and
+      baleful&mdash;a serpent, a scorpion, a plant of deadly nightshade or of
+      henbane. But, on the other hand, the sun was all goodness, and persons or
+      things which it cast forth into life infallibly partook of its benignity.
+      Wine that maketh man glad, the bee who works for him in the flowers
+      secreting wax and honey, the meat and herbs which are his food, the stuffs
+      that clothe him, all useful things which he makes for himself, not only
+      emanated from the Solar Eye of Horus, but were indeed nothing more than
+      the Eye of Horus under different aspects, and in his name they were
+      presented in sacrifice. The devout generally were of opinion that the
+      first Egyptians, the sons and flock of R�, came into the world happy and
+      perfect;[*] by degrees their descendants had fallen from that native
+      felicity into their present state.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In the tomb of Seti I, the words <i>flock of the Sun, flock
+     of R�</i>, are those by which the god Horus refers to men.
+     Certain expressions used by Egyptian writers are in
+     themselves sufficient to show that the first generations of
+     men were supposed to have lived in a state of happiness and
+     perfection. To the Egyptians <i>the times of R�, the times of
+     the god</i>&mdash;that is to say, the centuries immediately
+     following on the creation&mdash;-were the ideal age, and no good
+     thing had appeared upon earth since then.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some, on the contrary, affirmed that their ancestors were born as so many
+      brutes, unprovided with the most essential arts of gentle life. They knew
+      nothing of articulate speech, and expressed themselves by cries only, like
+      other animals, until the day when Thot taught them both speech and
+      writing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These tales sufficed for popular edification; they provided but meagre
+      fare for the intelligence of the learned. The latter did not confine their
+      ambition to the possession of a few incomplete and contradictory details
+      concerning the beginnings of humanity. They wished to know the history of
+      its consecutive development from the very first; what manner of life had
+      been led by their fathers; what chiefs they had obeyed and the names or
+      adventures of those chiefs; why part of the nations had left the blessed
+      banks of the Nile and gone to settle in foreign lands; by what stages and
+      in what length of time those who had not emigrated rose out of native
+      barbarism into that degree of culture to which the most ancient monuments
+      bore testimony. No efforts of imagination were needful for the
+      satisfaction of their curiosity: the old substratum of indigenous
+      traditions was rich enough, did they but take the trouble to work it out
+      systematically, and to eliminate its most incongruous elements. The
+      priests of Heliopolis took this work in hand, as they had already taken in
+      hand the same task with regard to the myths referring to the creation; and
+      the Enneads provided them with a ready-made framework. They changed the
+      gods of the Ennead into so many kings, determined with minute accuracy the
+      lengths of their reigns, and compiled their biographies from popular
+      tales. The duality of the feudal god supplied an admirable expedient for
+      connecting the history of the world with that of chaos. T�m� was
+      identified with N�, and relegated to the primordial Ocean: R� was
+      retained, and proclaimed the first king of the world. He had not
+      established his rule without difficulty. The "Children of Defeat," beings
+      hostile to order and light, engaged him in fierce battles; nor did he
+      succeed in organizing his kingdom until he had conquered them in nocturnal
+      combat at Hermopolis, and even at Heliopolis itself.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The <i>Children of Defeat</i>, in Egyptian <i>Mos� batash�</i>, or
+     <i>Mos� batash�t</i>, are often confounded with the followers of
+     Sit, the enemies of Osiris. From the first they were
+     distinct, and represented beings and forces hostile to the
+     sun, with the dragon Ap�pi at their head. Their defeat at
+     Hermopolis corresponded to the moment when Shu, raising the
+     sky above the sacred mound in that city, substituted order
+     and light for chaos and darkness. This defeat is mentioned
+     in chap xvii. of the <i>Book of the Dead</i> (Naville's edition,
+     vol. i. pl. xxiii. 1. 3, et seq.), in which connexion E. de
+     Roug� first explained its meaning. In the same chapter of
+     the <i>Book of the Dead</i> (Naville's edition, vol. i. pis.
+     xxiv., xxv., 11. 54-58), reference is also made to the
+     battle by night, in Heliopolis, at the close of which R�
+     appeared in the form of a cat or lion, and beheaded the
+     great serpent.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Pierced with wounds, Ap�pi the serpent sank into the depths of Ocean at
+      the very moment when the new year began. The secondary members of the
+      Great Ennead, together with the Sun, formed the first dynasty, which began
+      with the dawn of the first day, and ended at the coming of Horus, the son
+      of Isis. The local schools of theology welcomed this method of writing
+      history as readily as they had welcomed the principle of the Ennead
+      itself. Some of them retained the Heliopolitan demiurge, and hastened to
+      associate him with their own; others completely eliminated him in favour
+      of the feudal divinity,&mdash;Amon at Thebes, Thot at Hermopolis, Phtah at
+      Memphis,&mdash;keeping the rest of the dynasty absolutely unchanged.[*]
+      The gods in no way compromised their prestige by becoming incarnate and
+      descending to earth. Since they were men of finer nature, and their
+      qualities, including that of miracle-working, were human qualities raised
+      to the highest pitch of intensity, it was not considered derogatory to
+      them personally to have watched over the infancy and childhood of primeval
+      man. The raillery in which the Egyptians occasionally indulged with regard
+      to them, the good-humoured and even ridiculous <i>r�les</i> ascribed to
+      them in certain legends, do not prove that they were despised, or that
+      zeal for them had cooled. The greater the respect of believers for the
+      objects of their worship, the more easily do they tolerate the taking of
+      such liberties, and the condescension of the members of the Ennead, far
+      from lowering them in the eyes of generations who came too late to live
+      with them upon familiar terms, only enhanced the love and reverence in
+      which they were held. Nothing shows this better than the history of R�.
+      His world was ours in the rough; for since Shu was yet nonexistent, and
+      Nuit still reposed in the arms of Sib�, earth and sky were but one.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Thot is the chief of the Hermopolitan Ennead, and the
+     titles ascribed to him by inscriptions maintaining his
+     supremacy show that he also was considered to have been the
+     first king. One of the Ptolemies said of himself that he
+     came "as the Majesty of Thot, because he was the equal of
+     At�m�, hence the equal of Khopri, hence the equal of R�."
+     At�m�-Khopri-R� being the first earthly king, it follows
+     that the <i>Majesty of Thot</i>, with whom Ptolemy identifies
+     himself, comparing himself to the three forms of the God R�,
+     is also the first earthly king.
+
+     **  This conception of the primitive Egyptian world is
+     clearly implied in the very terms employed by the author of
+     The Destruction of Men. Nuit does not rise to form the sky
+     until such time as R� thinks of bringing his reign to an
+     end; that is to say, after Egypt had already been in
+     existence for many centuries. In chap. xvii. of the Book of
+     the Dead (Naville's edition, vol. i. pl. xxiii. 11. 3-5) it
+     is stated that the reign of R� began in the times when the
+     upliftings had not yet taken place; that is to say, before
+     Shu had separated N��t from Sib�, and forcibly uplifted her
+     above the body of her husband.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nevertheless in this first attempt at a world there was vegetable, animal,
+      and human life. Egypt was there, all complete, with her two chains of
+      mountains, her Nile, her cities, the people of her nomes, and the nomes
+      themselves. Then the soil was more generous; the harvests, without the
+      labourer's toil, were higher and more abundant;[*] and when the Egyptians
+      of Pharaonic times wished to mark their admiration of any person or thing,
+      they said that the like had never been known since the time of R�.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is an ideal in accordance with the picture drawn of
+     the fields of Ial� in chap. ex. of the <i>Book of the Dead</i>
+     (Naville's edition, vol. i. pis. cxxi.~ cxxiii.). As with
+     the Paradise of most races, so the place of the Osirian dead
+     still possessed privileges which the earth had enjoyed
+     during the first years succeeding the creation; that is to
+     say, under the direct rule of R�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is an illusion common to all peoples; as their insatiable thirst for
+      happiness is never assuaged by the present, they fall back upon the
+      remotest past in search of an age when that supreme felicity which is only
+      known to them as an ideal was actually enjoyed by their ancestors. R�
+      dwelt in Heliopolis, and the most ancient portion of the temple of the
+      city, that known as the "Mansion of the Prince"&mdash;Ha�t Sar�,&mdash;passed
+      for having been his palace. His court was mainly composed of gods and
+      goddesses, and they as well as he were visible to men. It contained also
+      men who filled minor offices about his person, prepared his food, received
+      the offerings of his subjects, attended to his linen and household
+      affairs. It was said that the <i>o�r� ma�</i>&mdash;the high priest of R�,
+      the <i>hankist�t</i>&mdash;his high priestess, and generally speaking all
+      the servants of the temple of Heliopolis, were either directly descended
+      from members of this first household establishment of the god, or had
+      succeeded to their offices in unbroken succession.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0009" id="linklinkCimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/230.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="230.jpg at the First Hour of The Bay The Sun Embarks Fob His Journey Through Egypt.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the scenes represented
+     upon the architraves of the pronaos at Edf� (Rosellini,
+     <i>Monumenti del Culto</i>, pl. xxxviii. No. 1).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the morning he went forth with his divine train, and, amid the
+      acclamations of the crowd, entered the bark in which he made his
+      accustomed circuit of the world, returning to his home at the end of
+      twelve hours after the accomplishment of his journey. He visited each
+      province in turn, and in each he tarried for an hour, to settle all
+      disputed matters, as the final judge of appeal. He gave audience to both
+      small and great, he decided their quarrels and adjudged their lawsuits, he
+      granted investiture of fiefs from the royal domains to those who had
+      deserved them, and allotted or confirmed to every family the income
+      needful for their maintenance. He pitied the sufferings of his people, and
+      did his utmost to alleviate them; he taught to all comers potent formulas
+      against reptiles and beasts of prey, charms to cast out evil spirits, and
+      the best recipes for preventing illness. His incessant bounties left him
+      at length with only one of his talismans: the name given to him by his
+      father and mother at his birth, which they had revealed to him alone, and
+      which he kept concealed within his bosom lest some sorcerer should get
+      possession of it to use for the furtherance of his evil spells.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But old age came on, and infirmities followed; the body of R� grew bent,
+      "his mouth trembled, his slaver trickled down to earth and his saliva
+      dropped upon the ground." Isis, who had hitherto been a mere woman-servant
+      in the household of the Pharaoh, conceived the project of stealing his
+      secret from him, "that she might possess the world and make herself a
+      goddess by the name of the august god." Force would have been unavailing;
+      all enfeebled as he was by reason of his years, none was strong enough to
+      contend successfully against him. But Isis "was a woman more knowing in
+      her malice than millions of men, clever among millions of the gods, equal
+      to millions of spirits, to whom as unto R� nothing was unknown either in
+      heaven or upon earth." She contrived a most ingenious stratagem. When man
+      or god was struck down by illness, the only chance of curing him lay in
+      knowing his real name, and thereby adjuring the evil being that tormented
+      him. Isis determined to cast a terrible malady upon R�, concealing its
+      cause from him; then to offer her services as his nurse, and by means of
+      his sufferings to extract from him the mysterious word indispensable to
+      the success of the exorcism. She gathered up mud impregnated with the
+      divine saliva, and moulded of it a sacred serpent which she hid in the
+      dust of the road. Suddenly bitten as he was setting out upon his daily
+      round, the god cried out aloud, "his voice ascended into heaven and his
+      Nine called: 'What is it? what is it?' and his gods: 'What is the matter?
+      what is the matter?' but he could make them no answer so much did his lips
+      tremble, his limbs shake, and the venom take hold upon his flesh as the
+      Nile seizeth upon the land which it invadeth." Presently he came to
+      himself, and succeeded in describing his sensations. "Something painful
+      hath stung me; my heart perceiveth it, yet my two eyes see it not; my hand
+      hath not wrought it, nothing that I have made knoweth it what it is, yet
+      have I never tasted suffering like unto it, and there is no pain that may
+      overpass it.... Fire it is not, water it is not, yet is my heart in
+      flames, my flesh trembleth, all my members are full of shiverings born of
+      breaths of magic. Behold! let there be brought unto me children of the
+      gods of beneficent words, who know the power of their mouths, and whose
+      science reacheth unto heaven." They came, these children of the gods, all
+      with their books of magic. There came Isis with her sorcery, her mouth
+      full of life-giving breaths, her recipe for the destruction of pain, her
+      words which pour life into breathless throats, and she said: "What is it?
+      what is it, O father of the gods? May it not be that a serpent hath
+      wrought this suffering in thee; that one of thy children hath lifted up
+      his head against thee? Surely he shall be overthrown by beneficent
+      incantations, and I will make him to retreat at the sight of thy rays." On
+      learning the cause of his torment, the Sun-god is terrified, and begins to
+      lament anew: "I, then, as I went along the ways, travelling through my
+      double land of Egypt and over my mountains, that I might look upon that
+      which I have made, I was bitten by a serpent that I saw not. Fire it is
+      not, water it is not, yet am I colder than water, I burn more than fire,
+      all my members stream with sweat, I tremble, mine eye is not steady, no
+      longer can I discern the sky, drops roll from my face as in the season of
+      summer." Isis proposes her remedy, and cautiously asks him his ineffable
+      name. But he divines her trick, and tries to evade it by an enumeration of
+      his titles. He takes the universe to witness that he is called "Khopri in
+      the morning, R� at noon, T�m� in the evening." The poison did not recede,
+      but steadily advanced, and the great god was not eased. Then Isis said to
+      R�: "Thy name was not spoken in that which thou hast said. Tell it to me
+      and the poison will depart; for he liveth upon whom a charm is pronounced
+      in his own name." The poison glowed like fire, it was strong as the
+      burning of flame, and the Majesty of R� said, "I grant thee leave that
+      thou shouldest search within me, O mother Isis! and that my name pass from
+      my bosom into thy bosom." In truth, the all-powerful name was hidden
+      within the body of the god, and could only be extracted thence by means of
+      a surgical operation similar to that practised upon a corpse which is
+      about to be mummified. Isis undertook it, carried it through successfully,
+      drove out the poison, and made herself a goddess by virtue of the name.
+      The cunning of a mere woman had deprived R� of his last talisman.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In course of time men perceived his decrepitude. They took counsel against
+      him: "Lo! his Majesty waxeth old, his bones are of silver, his flesh is of
+      gold, his hair of lapis-lazuli." As soon as his Majesty perceived that
+      which they were saying to each other, his Majesty said to those who were
+      of his train, "Call together for me my Divine Eye, Sh�, Tafn��t, Sib�, and
+      N��t, the father and the mother gods who were with me when I was in the
+      N�, with the god N�. Let each bring his cycle along with him; then, when
+      thou shalt have brought them in secret, thou shalt take them to the great
+      mansion that they may lend me their counsel and their consent, coming
+      hither from the N� into this place where I have manifested myself." So the
+      family council comes together: the ancestors of R�, and his posterity
+      still awaiting amid the primordial waters the time of their manifestation&mdash;his
+      children Sh� and Tafn��t, his grandchildren Sib� and N��t. They place
+      themselves, according to etiquette, on either side his throne, prostrate,
+      with their foreheads to the ground, and thus their conference begins: "O
+      N�, thou the eldest of the gods, from whom I took my being, and ye the
+      ancestor-gods, behold! men who are the emanation of mine eye have taken
+      counsel together against me! Tell me what ye would do, for I have bidden
+      you here before I slay them, that I may hear what ye would say thereto."
+      N�, as the eldest, has the right to speak first, and demands that the
+      guilty shall be brought to judgment and formally condemned. "My son R�,
+      god greater than the god who made him, older than the gods who created
+      him, sit thou upon thy throne, and great shall be the terror when thine
+      eye shall rest upon those who plot together against thee!" But R� not
+      unreasonably fears that when men see the solemn pomp of royal justice,
+      they may suspect the fate that awaits them, and "flee into the desert,
+      their hearts terrified at that which I have to say to them." The desert
+      was even then hostile to the tutelary gods of Egypt, and offered an almost
+      inviolable asylum to their enemies. The conclave admits that the
+      apprehensions of R� are well founded, and pronounces in favour of summary
+      execution; the Divine Eye is to be the executioner. "Let it go forth that
+      it may smite those who have devised evil against thee, for there is no Eye
+      more to be feared than thine when it attacketh in the form of H�thor." So
+      the Eye takes the form of H�thor, suddenly falls upon men, and slays them
+      right and left with great strokes of the knife. After some hours, R�, who
+      would chasten but not destroy his children, commands her to cease from her
+      carnage; but the goddess has tasted blood, and refuses to obey him. "By
+      thy life," she replies, "when I slaughter men then is my heart right
+      joyful!"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0010" id="linklinkCimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/236.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="236.jpg Sokh�t, the Lioness-headed. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a bronze statuette of the
+     Sa�te period in the Gizeh Museum (Mariette, <i>Album
+     photographique du Mus�e de Boulaq</i>, pl. 6).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      That is why she was afterwards called Sokh�t the slayer, and represented
+      under the form of a fierce lioness. Nightfall stayed her course in the
+      neighbourhood of Heracleopolis; all the way from Heliopolis she had
+      trampled through blood. As soon as she had fallen asleep, R� hastily took
+      effectual measures to prevent her from beginning her work again on the
+      morrow. "He said: 'Call on my behalf messengers agile and swift, who go
+      like the wind.' When these messengers were straightway brought to him, the
+      Majesty of the god said: 'Let them run to Elephantine and bring me
+      mandragora in plenty.'"[**]
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      ** The mandragora of Elephantine was used in the manufacture of an
+      intoxicating and narcotic drink employed either in medicine or in magic.
+      In a special article, Brugsch has collected particulars preserved by the
+      texts as to the uses of this plant. It was not as yet credited with the
+      human form and the peculiar kind of life ascribed to it by western
+      sorcerers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When they had brought him the mandragora, the Majesty of this great god
+      summoned the miller which is in Heliopolis that he might bray it; and the
+      women-servants having crushed grain for the beer, the mandragora, and also
+      human blood, were mingled with the liquor, and thereof was made in all
+      seven thousand jars of beer. R� himself examined this delectable drink,
+      and finding it to possess the wished-for properties: "'It is well,' said
+      he; 'therewith shall I save men from the goddess;' then, addressing those
+      of his train: 'Take these jars in your arms, and carry them to the place
+      where she has slaughtered men.' R�, the king, caused dawn to break at
+      midnight, so that this philtre might be poured down upon the earth; and
+      the fields were flooded with it to the depth of four palms, according as
+      it pleased the souls of his Majesty." In the morning the goddess came,
+      "that she might return to her carnage, but she found that all was flooded,
+      and her countenance softened; when she had drunken, it was her heart that
+      softened; she went away drunk, without further thought of men." There was
+      some fear lest her fury might return when the fumes of drunkenness were
+      past, and to obviate this danger R� instituted a rite, partly with the
+      object of instructing future generations as to the chastisement which he
+      had inflicted upon the impious, partly to console Sokh�t for her
+      discomfiture. He decreed that "on New Year's Day there should be brewed
+      for her as many jars of philtre as there were priestesses of the sun. That
+      was the origin of all those jars of philtre, in number equal to that of
+      the priestesses, which, at the feast of H�thor, all men make from that day
+      forth."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Peace was re-established, but could it last long? Would not men, as soon
+      as they had recovered from their terror, betake themselves again to
+      plotting against the god? Besides, R� now felt nothing but disgust for our
+      race. The ingratitude of his children had wounded him deeply; he foresaw
+      ever-renewed rebellions as his feebleness became more marked, and he
+      shrank from having to order new massacres in which mankind would perish
+      altogether. "By my life," says he to the gods who accompanied him, "my
+      heart is too weary for me to remain with mankind, and slay them until they
+      are no more: annihilation is not of the gifts that I love to make." And
+      the gods exclaim in surprise: "Breathe not a word of thy weariness at a
+      time when thou dost triumph at thy pleasure." But R� does not yield to
+      their representations; he will leave a kingdom wherein they murmur against
+      him, and turning towards N� he says: "My limbs are decrepit for the first
+      time; I will not go to any place where I can be reached." It was no easy
+      matter to find him an inaccessible retreat owing to the imperfect state in
+      which the universe had been left by the first effort of the demiurge. N�
+      saw no other way out of the difficulty than that of setting to work to
+      complete the creation. Ancient tradition had imagined the separation of
+      earth and sky as an act of violence exercised by Shu upon Sib� and N��t.
+      History presented facts after a less brutal fashion, and Sh� became a
+      virtuous son who devoted his time and strength to upholding N��t, that he
+      might thereby do his father a service. N��t, for her part, showed herself
+      to be a devoted daughter whom there was no need to treat roughly in order
+      to teach her her duty; of herself she consented to leave her husband, and
+      place her beloved ancestor beyond reach. "The Majesty of N� said: 'Son
+      Shu, do as thy father R� shall say; and thou, daughter N��t, place him
+      upon thy back and hold him suspended above the earth!' N��t said: 'And how
+      then, my father N�?' Thus spake N��t, and she did that which N� commanded
+      her; she changed herself into a cow, and placed the Majesty of R� upon her
+      back. When those men who had not been slain came to give thanks to R�,
+      behold! they found him no longer in his palace; but a cow stood there, and
+      they perceived him upon the back of the cow." They found him so resolved
+      to depart that they did not try to turn him from his purpose, but only
+      desired to give him such a proof of their repentance as should assure them
+      of the complete pardon of their crime. "They said unto him: 'Wait until
+      the morning, O R�! our lord, and we will strike down thine enemies who
+      have taken counsel against thee.' So his Majesty returned to his mansion,
+      descended from the cow, went in along with them, and earth was plunged
+      into darkness. But when there was light upon earth the next morning, the
+      men went forth with their bows and their arrows, and began to shoot at the
+      enemy. Whereupon the Majesty of this god said unto them: 'Your sins are
+      remitted unto you, for sacrifice precludes the execution of the guilty.'
+      And this was the origin upon earth of sacrifices in which blood was shed."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus it was that when on the point of separating for ever, the god and men
+      came to an understanding as to the terms of their future relationship. Men
+      offered to the god the life of those who had offended him. Human sacrifice
+      was in their eyes the obligatory sacrifice, the only one which could
+      completely atone for the wrongs committed against the godhead; man alone
+      was worthy to wash away with his blood the sins of men.[*] For this one
+      time the god accepted the expiation just as it was offered to him; then
+      the repugnance which he felt to killing his children overcame him, he
+      substituted beast for man, and decided that oxen, gazelles, birds, should
+      henceforth furnish the material for sacrifice.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This legend, which seeks to explain the discontinuance of
+     human sacrifices among the Egyptians, affords direct proof
+     of their existence in primitive times. This is confirmed by
+     many facts. We shall see that <i>�ashb�ti</i> laid in graves were
+     in place of the male or female slaves who were originally
+     slaughtered at the tombs of the rich and noble that they
+     might go to serve their masters in the next world. Even in
+     Thebes, under the XIXth dynasty, certain rock-cut tombs
+     contain scenes which might lead us to believe that
+     occasionally at least human victims were sent to doubles of
+     distinction. During this same period, moreover, the most
+     distinguished hostile chiefs taken in war were still put to
+     death before the gods. In several towns, as at Eilithyia and
+     at Heliopolis, or before certain gods, such as Osiris or
+     Kronos-Sib�, human sacrifice lasted until near Roman times.
+     But generally speaking it was very rare. Almost everywhere
+     cakes of a particular shape, and called [Greek word], or
+     else animals, had been substituted for man.
+
+     **  It was asserted that the partisans of Ap�pi and of S�t,
+     who were the enemies of R�, Osiris, and the other gods, had
+     taken refuge in the bodies of certain animals. Hence, it was
+     really human or divine victims which were offered when
+     beasts were slaughtered in sacrifice before the altars.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This point settled, he again mounted the cow, who rose, supported on her
+      four legs as on so many pillars; and her belly, stretched out above the
+      earth like a ceiling, formed the sky. He busied himself with organizing
+      the new world which he found on her back; he peopled it with many beings,
+      chose two districts in which to establish his abode, the Field of Reeds&mdash;<i>Sokh�t
+      Ial�</i>&mdash;and the Field of Rest&mdash;<i>Sokh�t Hotp�t</i>&mdash;and
+      suspended the stars which were to give light by night. All this is related
+      with many plays upon words, intended, according to Oriental custom, as
+      explanations of the names which the legend assigned to the different
+      regions of heaven. At sight of a plain whose situation pleased him, he
+      cried: "The Field rests in the distance!"&mdash;and that was the origin of
+      the Field of Rest. He added: "There will I gather plants!"&mdash;and from
+      this the Field of Reeds took its name. While he gave himself up to this
+      philological pastime, N��t, suddenly transported to unaccustomed heights,
+      grew frightened, and cried for help: "For pity's sake give me supports to
+      sustain me!" This was the origin of the support-gods. They came and
+      stationed themselves by each of her four legs, steadying these with their
+      hands, and keeping constant watch over them. As this was not enough to
+      reassure the good beast, "R� said, 'My son Sh�, place thyself beneath my
+      daughter N��t, and keep watch on both sides over the supports, who live in
+      the twilight; hold thou her up above thy head, and be her guardian!'" Sh�
+      obeyed; N��t composed herself, and the world, now furnished with the sky
+      which it had hitherto lacked, assumed its present symmetrical form.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Sh� and Sib� succeeded R�, but did not acquire so lasting a popularity as
+      their great ancestor. Nevertheless they had their annals, fragments of
+      which have come down to us. Their power also extended over the whole
+      universe: "The Majesty of Sh� was the excellent king of the sky, of the
+      earth, of Hades, of the water, of the winds, of the inundation, of the two
+      chains of mountains, of the sea, governing with a true voice according to
+      the precepts of his father R�-Harmakhis."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0011" id="linklinkCimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/242.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="242.jpg Cow, Sustained Above the Earth by Sh� and The Support " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Only "the children of the serpent Ap�pi, the impious ones who haunt the
+      solitary places and the deserts," disavowed his authority. Like the
+      Bedaw�n of later times, they suddenly streamed in by the isthmus routes,
+      went up into Egypt under cover of night, slew and pillaged, and then
+      hastily returned to their fastnesses with the booty which they had carried
+      off. From sea to sea Ka had fortified the eastern frontier against them.
+      He had surrounded the principal cities with walls, embellished them with
+      temples, and placed within them those mysterious talismans more powerful
+      for defence than a garrison of men. Thus A�t-nobs�, near the mouth of the
+      Wady-T�mil�t, possessed one of the rods of the Sun-god, also the living
+      uraeus of his crown whose breath consumes all that it touches, and,
+      finally, a lock of his hair, which, being cast into the waters of a lake,
+      was changed into a hawk-headed crocodile to tear the invader in pieces.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Egyptians of all periods never shrank from such marvels.
+     One of the tales of the Theban empire tells us of a piece of
+     wax which, on being thrown into the water, changed into a
+     living crocodile capable of devouring a man. The talismans
+     which protected Egypt against invasion are mentioned by the
+     Pseudo-Callisthenes, who attributes their invention to
+     Nectanebo. Arab historians often refer to them.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The employment of these talismans was dangerous to those unaccustomed to
+      use them, even to the gods themselves. Scarcely was Sib� enthroned as the
+      successor of Shu, who, tired of reigning, had reascended into heaven in a
+      nine days' tempest, before he began his inspection of the eastern marches,
+      and caused the box in which was kept the ur�us of R� to be opened. "As
+      soon as the living viper had breathed its breath against the Majesty of
+      Sib� there was a great disaster&mdash;great indeed, for those who were in
+      the train of the god perished, and his Majesty himself was burned in that
+      day. When his Majesty had fled to the north of A�t-nobs�, pursued by the
+      fire of this magic urasus, behold! when he came to the fields of henna,
+      the pain of his burn was not yet assuaged, and the gods who were behind
+      him said unto him: 'O Sire! let them take the lock of R� which is there,
+      when thy Majesty shall go to see it and its mystery, and his Majesty shall
+      be healed as soon as it shall be placed upon thee.' So the Majesty of Sib�
+      caused the magic lock to be brought to Piar�t,&mdash;the lock for which
+      was made that great reliquary of hard stone which is hidden in the secret
+      place of Piar�t, in the district of the divine lock of the Lord R�,&mdash;and
+      behold! this fire departed from the members of the Majesty of Sib�. And
+      many years afterwards, when this lock, which had thus belonged to Sib�,
+      was brought back to Piar�t in A�t-nobs�, and cast into the great lake of
+      Piar�t whose name is <i>A�t-tostes�</i>, the dwelling of waves, that it
+      might be purified, behold! this lock became a crocodile: it flew to the
+      water and became Sobk�, the divine crocodile of A�t-nobs�." In this way
+      the gods of the solar dynasty from generation to generation multiplied
+      talismans and enriched the sanctuaries of Egypt with relics.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0012" id="linklinkCimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/244.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="244.jpg Three of the Divine Amulets Preserved in The Temple of A�t-nobs� at the Roman Period. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Griffith. The
+     three talismans here represented are two crowns, each in a
+     naos, and the burning fiery ur�us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Were there ever duller legends and a more senile phantasy! They did not
+      spring spontaneously from the lips of the people, but were composed at
+      leisure by priests desirous of enhancing the antiquity of their cult, and
+      augmenting the veneration of its adherents in order to increase its
+      importance. Each city wished it to be understood that its feudal sanctuary
+      was founded upon the very day of creation, that its privileges had been
+      extended or confirmed during the course of the first divine dynasty, and
+      that these pretensions were supported by the presence of objects in its
+      treasury which had belonged to the oldest of the king-gods. Such was the
+      origin of tales in which the personage of the beneficent Pharaoh is often
+      depicted in ridiculous fashion. Did we possess all the sacred archives, we
+      should frequently find them quoting as authentic history more than one
+      document as artificial as the chronicle of A�t-nobs�. When we come to the
+      later members of the Ennead, there is a change in the character and in the
+      form of these tales. Doubtless Osiris and S�t did not escape unscathed out
+      of the hands of the theologians; but even if sacerdotal interference
+      spoiled the legend concerning them, it did not altogether disfigure it.
+      Here and there in it is still noticeable a sincerity of feeling and
+      liveliness of imagination such as are never found in those of Sh� and of
+      Sib�. This arises from the fact that the functions of these gods left them
+      strangers, or all but strangers, to the current affairs of the world. Sh�
+      was the stay, Sib� the material foundation of the world; and so long as
+      the one bore the weight of the firmament without bending, and the other
+      continued to suffer the tread of human generations upon his back, the
+      devout took no more thought of them than they themselves took thought of
+      the devout. The life of Osiris, on the other hand, was intimately mingled
+      with that of the Egyptians, and his most trivial actions immediately
+      reacted upon their fortunes. They followed the movements of his waters;
+      they noted the turning-points in his struggles against drought; they
+      registered his yearly decline, yearly compensated by his aggressive
+      returns and his intermittent victories over Typhon; his proceedings and
+      his character were the subject of their minute study. If his waters almost
+      invariably rose upon the appointed day and extended over the black earth
+      of the valley, this was no mechanical function of a being to whom the
+      consequences of his conduct are indifferent; he acted upon reflection, and
+      in full consciousness of the service that he rendered. He knew that by
+      spreading the inundation he prevented the triumph of the desert; he was
+      life, he was goodness&mdash;<i>Onnofri�</i>&mdash;and Isis, as the partner
+      of his labours, became like him the type of perfect goodness. But while
+      Osiris developed for the better, Sit was transformed for the worse, and
+      increased in wickedness as his brother gained in purity and moral
+      elevation. In proportion as the person of S�t grew more defined, and stood
+      out more clearly, the evil within him contrasted more markedly with the
+      innate goodness of Osiris, and what had been at first an instinctive
+      struggle between two beings somewhat vaguely defined&mdash;the desert and
+      the Nile, water and drought&mdash;was changed into conscious and deadly
+      enmity. No longer the conflict of two elements, it was war between two
+      gods; one labouring to produce abundance, while the other strove to do
+      away with it; one being all goodness and life, while the other was evil
+      and death incarnate.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A very ancient legend narrates that the birth of Osiris and his brothers
+      took place during the five additional days at the end of the year; a
+      subsequent legend explained how N��t and Sib� had contracted marriage
+      against the express wish of R�, and without his knowledge. When he became
+      aware of it he fell into a violent rage, and cast a spell over the goddess
+      to prevent her giving birth to her children in any month of any year
+      whatever. But Thot took pity upon her, and playing at draughts with the
+      moon won from it in several games one seventy-second part of its fires,
+      out of which he made five whole days; and as these were not included in
+      the ordinary calendar, N��t could then bring forth her five children, one
+      after another: Osiris, Haro�ris, Sit, Isis, and Nephthys. Osiris was
+      beautiful of face, but with a dull and black complexion; his height
+      exceeded five and a half yards.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * As a matter of fact, Osiris is often represented with
+     black or green hands and face, as is customary for gods of
+     the dead; it was probably this peculiarity which suggested
+     the popular idea of his black complexion. A magic papyrus of
+     Ramesside times fixes the stature of the god at seven
+     cubits, and a phrase in a Ptolemaic inscription places it at
+     eight cubits, six palms, three fingers.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was born at Thebes, in the first of the additional days, and
+      straightway a mysterious voice announced that the lord of all&mdash;<i>nib�-r-zar�</i>&mdash;had
+      appeared. The good news was hailed with shouts of joy, followed by tears
+      and lamentations when it became known with what evils he was menaced.[*]
+      The echo reached R� in his far-off dwelling, and his heart rejoiced,
+      notwithstanding the curse which he had laid upon N��t. He commanded the
+      presence of his great-grandchild in Xo�s, and unhesitatingly acknowledged
+      him as the heir to his throne. Osiris had married his sister Isis, even,
+      so it was said, while both of them were still within their mother's
+      womb;[**] and when he became king he made her queen regent and the partner
+      of all his undertakings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One variant of the legend told that a certain Pamylis of
+     Thebes having gone to draw water had heard a voice
+     proceeding from the temple of Zeus, which ordered him to
+     proclaim aloud to the world the birth of the great king, the
+     beneficent Osiris. He had received the child from the hands
+     of Kronos, brought it up to youth, and to him the Egyptians
+     had consecrated the feast of Pamylies, which resembled the
+     Phallophoros festival of the Greeks.
+
+     ** <i>De Iside et Osiride</i>, Leemans' edition, � 12, pp. 20,
+     21. Haro�ris, the Apollo of the Greeks, was supposed to be
+     the issue of a marriage consummated before the birth of his
+     parents while they were still within the womb of their
+     mother Rhea-N��t. This was a way of connecting the personage
+     of Haro�ris with the Osirian myths by confounding him with
+     the homonymous Harsi�sis, the son of Isis, who became the
+     son of Osiris through his mother's marriage with that god.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians were as yet but half civilized; they were cannibals, and
+      though occasionally they lived upon the fruits of the earth, they did not
+      know how to cultivate them. Osiris taught them the art of making
+      agricultural implements&mdash;the plough and the hoe,&mdash;field labour,
+      the rotation of crops, the harvesting of wheat and barley,[*] and vine
+      culture.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Diodoeus even ascribes to him the discovery of barley and
+     of wheat; this is consequent upon the identification of Isis
+     with Demeter by the Greeks. According to the historian, Leo
+     of Pella, the goddess twined herself a crown of ripe ears
+     and placed it upon her head one day when she was sacrificing
+     to her parents.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Isis weaned them from cannibalism, healed their diseases by means of
+      medicine or of magic, united women to men in legitimate marriage, and
+      showed them how to grind grain between two flat stones and to prepare
+      bread for the household. She invented the loom with the help of her sister
+      Nephthys, and was the first to weave and bleach linen. There was no
+      worship of the gods before Osiris established it, appointed the offerings,
+      regulated the order of ceremonies, and composed the texts and melodies of
+      the liturgies. He built cities, among them Thebes itself, according to
+      some; though others declared that he was born there. As he had been the
+      model of a just and pacific king, so did he desire to be that of a
+      victorious conqueror of nations; and, placing the regency in the hands of
+      Isis, he went forth to war against Asia, accompanied by Thot the ibis and
+      the jackal Anubis. He made little or no use of force and arms, but he
+      attacked men by gentleness and persuasion, softened them with songs in
+      which voices were accompanied by instruments, and taught them also the
+      arts which he had made known to the Egyptians. No country escaped his
+      beneficent action, and he did not return to the banks of the Nile until he
+      had traversed and civilized the world from one horizon to the other.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      S�t-Typhon was red-haired and white-skinned, of violent, gloomy, and
+      jealous temper.[*] Secretly he aspired to the crown, and nothing but the
+      vigilance of Isis had kept him from rebellion during the absence of his
+      brother. The rejoicings which celebrated the king's return to Memphis
+      provided Sit with his opportunity for seizing the throne.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The colour of his hair was compared with that of a red-
+     haired ass, and on that account the ass was sacred to him.
+     As to his violent and jealous disposition, see the opinion
+     of Diodorus Siculus, book i. 21, and the picture drawn by
+     Synesius in his pamphlet �gyptius. It was told how he tore
+     his mother's bowels at birth, and made his own way into the
+     world through her side.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0013" id="linklinkCimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/250.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="250.jpg the Osmian Triad Hokus. Osiris, Isis. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawing by Boudier of the gold group in the Louvre
+     Museum. The drawing is made from a photograph which belonged
+     to M. de Witte, before the monument was acquired by E. de
+     Roug� in 1871. The little square pillar of lapis-lazuli,
+     upon which Osiris squats, is wrongly set up, and the names
+     and titles of King Osorkon, the dedicator of the triad, are
+     placed upside down.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He invited Osiris to a banquet along with seventy-two officers whose
+      support he had ensured, made a wooden chest of cunning workmanship and
+      ordered that it should be brought in to him, in the midst of the feast. As
+      all admired its beauty, he sportively promised to present it to any one
+      among the guests whom it should exactly fit. All of them tried it, one
+      after another, and all unsuccessfully; but when Osiris lay down within it,
+      immediately the conspirators shut to the lid, nailed it firmly down,
+      soldered it together with melted lead, and then threw it into the Tanitic
+      branch of the Nile, which carried it to the sea. The news of the crime
+      spread terror on all sides. The gods friendly to Osiris feared the fate of
+      their master, and hid themselves within the bodies of animals to escape
+      the malignity of the new king. Isis cut off her hair, rent her garments,
+      and set out in search of the chest. She found it aground near the mouth of
+      the river[*] under the shadow of a gigantic acacia, deposited it in a
+      secluded place where no one ever came, and then took refuge in B�to, her
+      own domain and her native city, whose marshes protected her from the
+      designs of Typhon even as in historic times they protected more than one
+      Pharaoh from the attacks of his enemies. There she gave birth to the young
+      Horus, nursed and reared him in secret among the reeds, far from the
+      machinations of the wicked one.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  At this point the legend of the Sa�te and Greek period
+     interpolates a whole chapter, telling how the chest was
+     carried out to sea and cast upon the Phoenician coast near
+     to Byblos. The acacia, a kind of heather or broom in this
+     case, grew up enclosing the chest within its trunk. This
+     addition to the primitive legend must date from the XVIIIth
+     to the XXth dynasties, when Egypt had extensive relations
+     with the peoples of Asia. No trace of it whatever has
+     hitherto been found upon Egyptian monuments strictly so
+     called; not even on the latest.
+
+     **  The opening illustration of this chapter (p. 221) is
+     taken from a monument at Phihe, and depicts Isis among the
+     reeds. The representation of the goddess as squatting upon a
+     mat probably gave rise to the legend of the floating isle of
+     Khemmis, which HECAT�US of Miletus had seen upon the lake of
+     B�to, but whose existence was denied by Herodotus
+     notwithstanding the testimony of Hecat�us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But it happened that S�t, when hunting by moonlight, caught sight of the
+      chest, opened it, and recognizing the corpse, cut it up into fourteen
+      pieces, which he scattered abroad at random. Once more Isis set forth on
+      her woeful pilgrimage. She recovered all the parts of the body excepting
+      one only, which the oxyrhynchus had greedily devoured;[*] and with the
+      help of her sister Nephthys, her son Horus, Anubis, and Thot, she joined
+      together and embalmed them, and made of this collection of his remains an
+      imperishable mummy, capable of sustaining for ever the soul of a god. On
+      his coming of age, Horus called together all that were left of the loyal
+      Egyptians and formed them into an army.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This part of the legend was so thoroughly well known,
+     that by the time of the XIXth dynasty it suggested incidents
+     in popular literature. When Biti�, the hero of <i>The Tale of
+     the Two Brothers</i>, mutilated himself to avoid the suspicion
+     of adultery, he cast his bleeding member into the water, and
+     <i>the Oxyrhynchus devoured it</i>.
+
+     **  Towards the Grecian period there was here interpolated
+     an account of how Osiris had returned from the world of the
+     dead to arm his son and train him to fight. According to
+     this tale he had asked Horus which of all animals seemed to
+     him most useful in time of war, and Horus chose the horse
+     rather than the lion, because the lion avails for the weak
+     or cowardly in need of help, whereas the horse is used for
+     the pursuit and destruction of the enemy. Judging from this
+     reply that Horus was ready to dare all, Osiris allowed him
+     to enter upon the war. The mention of the horse affords
+     sufficient proof that this episode is of comparatively late
+     origin (cf. p. 41 for the date at which the horse was
+     acclimatized in Egypt).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His "Followers"&mdash;<i>Shos�� Hor�</i>&mdash;defeated the "Accomplices
+      of S�t"&mdash;<i>Samiu S�t</i>&mdash;who were now driven in their turn to
+      transform themselves into gazelles, crocodiles and serpents,&mdash;animals
+      which were henceforth regarded as unclean and Typhonian. For three days
+      the two chiefs had fought together under the forms of men and of
+      hippopotami, when Isis, apprehensive as to the issue of the duel,
+      determined to bring it to an end. "Lo! she caused chains to descend upon
+      them, and made them to drop upon Horus. Thereupon Horus prayed aloud,
+      saying: 'I am thy son Horus!' Then Isis spake unto the fetters, saying;
+      'Break, and unloose yourselves from my son Horus!' She made other fetters
+      to descend, and let them fall upon her brother Sit. Forthwith he lifted up
+      his voice and cried out in pain, and she spake unto the fetters and said
+      unto them: 'Break!' Yea, when S�t prayed unto her many times, saying:
+      'Wilt thou not have pity upon the brother of thy son's mother?' then her
+      heart was filled with compassion, and she cried to the fetters: 'Break,
+      for he is my eldest brother!' and the fetters unloosed themselves from
+      him, and the two foes again stood face to face like two men who will not
+      come to terms." Horus, furious at seeing his mother deprive him of his
+      prey, turned upon her like a panther of the South. She fled before him on
+      that day when battle was waged with S�t the Violent, and he cut off her
+      head. But Thot transformed her by his enchantments and made a cow's head
+      for her, thereby identifying her with her companion, H�thor.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0014" id="linklinkCimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/253.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="253.jpg Isis-hathor, Cow-headed. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bronze statuette of Sa�te
+     period in the G�zeh Museum (Mariette, <i>Album photographique
+     du mus�e de Boulaq</i>, pl. 5, No. 167).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The war went on, with all its fluctuating fortunes, till the gods at
+      length decided to summon both rivals before their tribunal. According to a
+      very ancient tradition, the combatants chose the ruler of a neighbouring
+      city, Thot, lord of Hermopolis Parva, as the arbitrator of their quarrel.
+      S�t was the first to plead, and he maintained that Horus was not the son
+      of Osiris, but a bastard, whom Isis ha� conceived after the death of her
+      husband. Horua triumphantly vindicated the legitimacy of his birth; and
+      Thot condemned S�t to restore, according to some, the whole of the
+      inheritance which he had wrongly retained,&mdash;according to others, part
+      of it only. The gods ratified the sentence, and awarded to the arbitrator
+      the title of <i>�apirah�h�i</i>: he who judges between two parties. A
+      legend of more recent origin, and circulated after the worship of Osiris
+      had spread over all Egypt, affirmed that the case had remained within the
+      jurisdiction of Sib�, who was father to the one, and grandfather to the
+      other party. Sib�, however, had pronounced the same judgment as Thot, and
+      divided the kingdom into halves&mdash;<i>posh�i</i>; S�t retained the
+      valley from the neighbourhood of Memphis to the first cataract, while
+      Horus entered into possession of the Delta. Egypt henceforth consisted of
+      two distinct kingdoms, of which one, that of the North, recognized Horus,
+      the son of Isis, as its patron deity; and the other, that of the South,
+      placed itself under the protection of S�t N�b�ti, the god of Ombos.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Another form of the legend gives the 27th Athyr as the
+     date of the judgment, assigning Egypt to Horus, and to S�t
+     Nubia, or <i>Doshir�t</i>, the red land. It must have arisen
+     towards the age of the XVIIIth dynasty, at a time when their
+     piety no longer allowed the devout to admit that the
+     murderer of Osiris could be the legitimate patron of half
+     the country. So <i>the half</i> belonging to S�t was then placed
+     either in Nubia or in the western desert, which had, indeed,
+     been reckoned as his domain from earliest times.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The moiety of Horus, added to that of S�t, formed the kingdom which Sib�
+      had inherited; but his children failed to keep it together, though it was
+      afterwards reunited under Pharaohs of human race.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The three gods who preceded Osiris upon the throne had ceased to reign,
+      but not to live. R� had taken refuge in heaven, disgusted with his own
+      creatures; Sh� had disappeared in the midst of a tempest; and Sib� had
+      quietly retired within his palace when the time of his sojourning upon
+      earth had been fulfilled. Not that there was no death, for death, too,
+      together with all other things and beings, had come into existence in the
+      beginning, but while cruelly persecuting both man and beast, had for a
+      while respected the gods. Osiris was the first among them to be struck
+      down, and hence to require funeral rites. He also was the first for whom
+      family piety sought to provide a happy life beyond the tomb. Though he was
+      king of the living and the dead at Mendes by virtue of the rights of all
+      the feudal gods in their own principalities, his sovereignty after death
+      exempted him no more than the meanest of his subjects from that painful
+      torpor into which all mortals fell on breathing their last. But popular
+      imagination could not resign itself to his remaining in that miserable
+      state for ever. What would it have profited him to have Isis the great
+      Sorceress for his wife, the wise Horus for his son, two master-magicians&mdash;Thot
+      the Ibis and the jackal Anubis&mdash;for his servants, if their skill had
+      not availed to ensure him a less gloomy and less lamentable after-life
+      than that of men. Anubis had long before invented the art of mummifying,
+      and his mysterious science had secured the everlasting existence of the
+      flesh; but at what a price!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0015" id="linklinkCimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/256.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="256.jpg the Osirian Mummy Prepared and Laid Upon The Funerary Couch by the Jackal Anubis.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Rosellint, <i>Monumenti
+     Civili</i>, pl. cxxxiv. 2. While Anubis is stretching out his
+     hands to lay out the mummy on its couch, the soul is
+     hovering above its breast, and holding to its nostrils the
+     sceptre, and the wind-filled sail which is the emblem of
+     breath and of the new life.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      For the breathing, warm, fresh-coloured body, spontaneous in movement and
+      function, was substituted an immobile, cold and blackish mass, a
+      sufficient basis for the mechanical continuity of the double, but which
+      that double could neither raise nor guide; whose weight paralysed and
+      whose inertness condemned it to vegetate in darkness, without pleasure and
+      almost without consciousness of existence. Thot, Isis, and Horus applied
+      themselves in the case of Osiris to ameliorating the discomfort and
+      constraint entailed by the more primitive embalmment.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0016" id="linklinkCimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/257.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="257.jpg the Reception Op The Mummy by Anubis at The Door Op the Tomb, and The Opening of The Mouth. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a painting in the tomb of a
+     king in the Theban necropolis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They did not dispense with the manipulations instituted by Anubis, but
+      endued them with new power by means of magic. They inscribed the principal
+      bandages with protective figures and formulas; they decorated the body
+      with various amulets of specific efficacy for its different parts; they
+      drew numerous scenes of earthly existence and of the life beyond the tomb
+      upon the boards of the coffin and upon the walls of the sepulchral
+      chamber. When the body had been made imperishable, they sought to restore
+      one by one all the faculties of which their previous operations had
+      deprived it. The mummy was set up at the entrance to the vault; the statue
+      representing the living person was placed beside it, and semblance was
+      made of opening the mouth, eyes, and ears, of loosing the arms and legs,
+      of restoring breath to the throat and movement to the heart. The
+      incantations by which these acts were severally accompanied were so
+      powerful that the god spoke and ate, lived and heard, and could use his
+      limbs as freely as though he had never been steeped in the bath of the
+      embalmer. He might have returned to his place among men, and various
+      legends prove that he did occasionally appear to his faithful adherents.
+      But, as his ancestors before him, he preferred to leave their towns and
+      withdraw into his own domain. The cemeteries of the inhabitants of Busiris
+      and of Mendes were called <i>Sokh�t Ial�</i>, the Meadow of Reeds, and <i>Sokh�t
+      Hotp�</i>, the Meadow of Best. They were secluded amid the marshes, in
+      small archipelagoes of sandy islets where the dead bodies, piled together,
+      rested in safety from the inundations. This was the first kingdom of the
+      dead Osiris, but it was soon placed elsewhere, as the nature of the
+      surrounding districts and the geography of the adjacent countries became
+      better known; at first perhaps on the Phoenician shore beyond the sea, and
+      then in the sky, in the Milky Way, between the North and the East, but
+      nearer to the North than to the East. This kingdom was not gloomy and
+      mournful like that of the other dead gods, Sokaris or Khontament�t, but
+      was lighted by sun and moon; the heat of the day was tempered by the
+      steady breath of the north wind, and its crops grew and throve abundantly.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0017" id="linklinkCimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/259.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="259.jpg Osikis in Hades, Accompanied by Isis, Ament�t, And Nephthys, Receives the Homage of Truth. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel H�ron,
+     taken in 1881 in the temple of Seti I. at Abydos.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thick walls served as fortifications against the attacks of Sit and evil
+      genii; a palace like that of the Pharaohs stood in the midst of delightful
+      gardens; and there, among his own people, Osiris led a tranquil existence,
+      enjoying in succession all the pleasures of earthly life without any of
+      its pains.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The goodness which had gained him the title of Onnophris while he
+      sojourned here below, inspired him with the desire and suggested the means
+      of opening the gates of his paradise to the souls of his former subjects.
+      Souls did not enter into it unexamined, nor without trial. Each of them
+      had first to prove that during its earthly life it had belonged to a
+      friend, or, as the Egyptian texts have it, to a vassal of Osiris&mdash;<i>amakh�
+      khir Osiri</i>&mdash;one of those who had served Horus in his exile and
+      had rallied to his banner from the very beginning of the Typhonian wars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0018" id="linklinkCimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/260.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="260.jpg the Deceased Climbing The Slope of The Mountain Of the West,2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Naville Bas �gyptische
+     Todtenbuch, vol. i. pl. cxxviii. Ai.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These were those followers of Horus&mdash;<i>Shos�� Hor�</i>&mdash;so
+      often referred to in the literature of historic times.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Cf, p. 252. The <i>Followers of Horns</i>, i.e. those who had
+     followed Horus during the Typhonian wars, are mentioned in a
+     Turin fragment of the Canon of the Kings, in which the
+     author summarizes the chronology of the divine period. Like
+     the reign of R�, the time in which the followers of Horus
+     were supposed to have lived was for the Egyptians of classic
+     times the ultimate point beyond which history did not reach.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Horus, their master, having loaded them with favours during life, decided
+      to extend to them after death the same privileges which he had conferred
+      upon his father. He convoked around the corpse the gods who had worked
+      with him at the embalmment of Osiris: Anubis and Thot, Isis and Nephthys,
+      and his four children&mdash;H�pi, Qabhson�f, Ams�t, and Ti�ma�tf&mdash;to
+      whom he had entrusted the charge of the heart and viscera. They all
+      performed their functions exactly as before, repeated the same ceremonies,
+      and recited the same formulas at the same stages of the operations, and so
+      effectively that the dead man became a real Osiris under their hands,
+      having a true voice, and henceforth combining the name of the god with his
+      own.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0019" id="linklinkCimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/261.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="261.jpg the Mummy of S�timos� Clasping his Soul Into His Arms. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Guieysse-Lef�bure, <i>Le
+     Papyrus de Soutim�s</i>, pl. viii. The outlines of the original
+     have unfortunately been restored and enfeebled by the
+     copyist.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had been Sakhomka or Menka�r�; he became the Osiris Sakhomka, or the
+      Osiris Menka�r�, true of voice. Horus and his companions then celebrated
+      the rites consecrated to the "Opening of the Mouth and the Eyes:" animated
+      the statue of the deceased, and placed the mummy in the tomb, where Anubis
+      received it in his arms. Recalled to life and movement, the double
+      reassumed, one by one, all the functions of being, came and went and took
+      part in the ceremonies of the worship which was rendered to him in his
+      tomb. There he might be seen accepting the homage of his kindred, and
+      clasping to his breast his soul under the form of a great human-headed
+      bird with features the counterpart of his own. After being equipped with
+      the formulas and amulets wherewith his prototype, Osiris, had been
+      furnished, he set forth to seek the "Field of Reeds." The way was long and
+      arduous, strewn with perils to which he must have succumbed at the very
+      first stages had he not been carefully warned beforehand and armed against
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0020" id="linklinkCimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/262.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="262.jpg Cynocephali Drawing the Net in Which Souls Are Caught. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a facsimile by D�v�ria (E. de
+     Roug�, <i>�tudes sur le Rituel Fun�raire</i>, pl. iv. No. 4).
+     Ignorant souls fished for by the cynocephali are here
+     represented as fish; but the soul of Nofir�bn�, instructed
+     in the protective formulas, preserves its human form.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A papyrus placed with the mummy in its coffin contained the needful
+      topo-graphical directions and passwords, in order that he might neither
+      stray nor perish by the way. The wiser Egyptians copied out the principal
+      chapters for themselves, or learned them by heart while yet in life, in
+      order to be prepared for the life beyond. Those who had not taken this
+      precaution studied after death the copy with which they were provided; and
+      since few Egyptians could read, a priest, or relative of the deceased,
+      preferably his son, recited the prayers in the mummy's ear, that he might
+      learn them before he was carried away to the cemetery. If the double
+      obeyed the prescriptions of the "Book of the Dead" to the letter, he
+      reached his goal without fail.[*] On leaving the tomb he turned his back
+      on the valley, and staff in hand climbed the hills which bounded it on the
+      west, plunging boldly into the desert, where some bird, or even a kindly
+      insect such as a praying mantis, a grasshopper, or a butterfly, served as
+      his guide. Soon he came to one of those sycamores which grow in the sand
+      far away from the Nile, and are regarded as magic trees by the fellah�n.
+      Out of the foliage a goddess&mdash;N��t, ���thor, or N�t&mdash;half
+      emerged, and offered him a dish of fruit, loaves of bread, and a jar of
+      water.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Manuscripts of this work represent about nine-tenths of
+     the papyri hitherto discovered. They are not all equally
+     full; complete copies are still relatively scarce, and most
+     of those found with mummies contain nothing but extracts of
+     varying length. The book itself was studied by Champollion,
+     who called it the <i>Funerary Ritual</i>; Lepsius afterwards gave
+     it the less definite name of <i>Book of the Dead</i>, which seems
+     likely to prevail. It has been chiefly known from the
+     hieroglyphic copy at Turin, which Lepsius traced and had
+     lithographed in 1841, under the title of <i>Das Todtenbuch der
+     �gypter</i>. In 1865, E. du Roug� began to publish a hieratic
+     copy in the Louvre, but since 1886 there has been a critical
+     edition of manuscripts of the Theban period most carefully
+     collated by E. Naville, <i>Das Mgyptische Todtenbuch der XVIII
+     bis XX Dynastie</i>, Berlin, 1886, 2 vols, of plates in folio,
+     and 1 vol. of Introduction in 4to. On this edition see
+     Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. i. pp. 325-387.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By accepting these gifts he became the guest of the goddess, and could
+      never more retrace his steps[*] without special permission. Beyond the
+      sycamore were lands of terror, infested by serpents and ferocious beasts,
+      furrowed by torrents of boiling water, intersected by ponds and marshes
+      where gigantic monkeys cast their nets.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 224-227. It was not in Egypt
+     alone that the fact of accepting food offered by a god of
+     the dead constituted a recognition of suzerainty, and
+     prevented the human soul from returning to the world of the
+     living. Traces of this belief are found everywhere, in
+     modern as in ancient times, and E. B. Tylob, has collected
+     numerous examples of the same in Primitive Culture, 2nd
+     edit., vol. ii. pp. 47, 51, 52.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0021" id="linklinkCimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/264.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="264.jpg the Deceased and his Wife Seated in Front of The Sycamore of N��t and Receiving the Bread And Water Of The Next World. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a coloured plate in
+     Rosellini, <i>Monumenti civili.</i>,pl. cxxxiv. 3.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ignorant souls, or those ill prepared for the struggle, had no easy work
+      before them when they imprudently entered upon it. Those who were not
+      overcome by hunger and thirst at the outset were bitten by a urasus, or
+      horned viper, hidden with evil intent below the sand, and perished in
+      convulsions from the poison; or crocodiles seized as many of them as they
+      could lay hold of at the fords of rivers; or cynocephali netted and
+      devoured them indiscriminately along with the fish into which the
+      partisans of Typhon were transformed. They came safe and sound out of one
+      peril only to fall into another, and infallibly succumbed before they were
+      half through their journey. But, on the other hand, the double who was
+      equipped and instructed, and armed with the true voice, confronted each
+      foe with the phylactery and the incantation by which his enemy was held in
+      check. As soon as he caught sight of one of them he recited the
+      appropriate chapter from his book, he loudly proclaimed himself R�, T�m�,
+      Horus, or Khopri&mdash;that god whose name and attributes were best fitted
+      to repel the immediate danger&mdash;and flames withdrew at his voice,
+      monsters fled or sank paralysed, the most cruel of genii drew in their
+      claws and lowered their arms before him. He compelled crocodiles to turn
+      away their heads; he transfixed serpents with his lance; he supplied
+      himself at pleasure with all the provisions that he needed, and gradually
+      ascended the mountains which surround the world, sometimes alone, and
+      fighting his way step by step, sometimes escorted by beneficent
+      divinities. Halfway up the slope was the good cow H�fchor, the lady of the
+      West, in meadows of tall plants where every evening she received the sun
+      at his setting. If the dead man knew how to ask it according to the
+      prescribed rite, she would take him upon her shoulders[*] and carry him
+      across the accursed countries at full speed.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Coffins of the XXth and XXIst dynasties, with a yellow
+     ground, often display this scene. Generally the scene is
+     found beneath the feet of the dead, at the lower end of the
+     cartonage, and the cow is represented as carrying off at a
+     gallop the mummy who is lying on her back.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0022" id="linklinkCimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/266.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="266.jpg the Deceased Piercing a Serpent With his Lance. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Naville (<i>Das
+     �gyptische Todtenbuch</i>, vol. i. pl. iii. P b). The commonest
+     enemies of the dead were various kinds of serpents.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Having reached the North, he paused at the edge of an immense lake, the
+      lake of Kha, and saw in the far distance the outline of the Islands of the
+      Blest. One tradition, so old as to have been almost forgotten in
+      Rames-side times, told how Thot the ibis there awaited him, and bore him
+      away on his wings;[***] another, no less ancient but of more lasting
+      popularity, declared that a ferry-boat plied regularly between the solid
+      earth and the shores of paradise.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     ***  It is often mentioned in the Pyramid texts, and
+     inspired one of the most obscure chapters among them
+     (<i>Teti</i>, 11. 185-200; cf. <i>Recueil de Travaux</i>, vol. v. pp.
+     22, 23). It seems that the ibis had to fight with Sit for
+     right of passage.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The god who directed it questioned the dead, and the bark itself proceeded
+      to examine them before they were admitted on board; for it was a magic
+      bark. "Tell me my name," cried the mast; and the travellers replied: "He
+      who guides the great goddess on her way is thy name." "Tell me my name,"
+      repeated the braces. "The Spine of the Jackal �ap�a�t� is thy name." "Tell
+      me my name," proceeded the mast-head.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0023" id="linklinkCimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/267.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="267.jpg the Good Cow H�thor Carrying The Dead Man and His Soul. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a coloured facsimile
+     published by Leemans, <i>Monuments �gyptiens du Mus�e d'
+     Antiquit�s des Pays-Bas � Leyden</i>, part iii. pl. xii.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      "The Neck of Ams�t is thy name." "Tell me my name," asked the sail. "N��t
+      is thy name." Each part of the hull and of the rigging spoke in turn and
+      questioned the applicant regarding its name, this being generally a mystic
+      phrase by which it was identified either with some divinity as a whole, or
+      else with some part of his body.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When the double had established his right of passage by the correctness of
+      his answers, the bark consented to receive him and to carry him to the
+      further shore. There he was met by the gods and goddesses of the court of
+      Osiris: by Anubis, by Hathor the lady of the cemetery, by N�t, by the two
+      M��ts who preside over justice and truth, and by the four children of
+      Horus stiff-sheathed in their mummy wrappings. They formed as it were a
+      guard of honour to introduce him and his winged guide into an immense
+      hall, the ceiling of which rested on light graceful columns of painted
+      wood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0024" id="linklinkCimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/268.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="268.jpg Anubis and Thot Weighing the Heart of The Deceased in the Scales of Truth. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn  by   Faucher-Gudin,   from  pl.  cxxxvi. Ag of
+     Naville's  <i>Das Thebanische Todtenbuch</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At the further end of the hall Osiris was seated in mysterious twilight
+      within a shrine through whose open doors he might be seen wearing a red
+      necklace over his close-fitting case of white bandaging, his green face
+      surmounted by the tall white diadem flanked by two plumes, his slender
+      hands grasping flail and crook, the emblems of his power.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0025" id="linklinkCimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/269.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="269.jpg the Deceased is Brought Before The Shrine Of Osiris the Judge by Horus, The Son of Isis. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Behind him stood Isis and Nephthys watching over him with uplifted hands,
+      bare bosoms, and bodies straitly cased in linen. Forty-two jurors who had
+      died and been restored to life like their lord, and who had been chosen,
+      one from each of those cities of Egypt which recognized his authority,
+      squatted right and left, and motionless, clothed in the wrappings of the
+      dead, silently waited until they were addressed. The soul first advanced
+      to the foot of the throne, carrying on its outstretched hands the image of
+      its heart or of its eyes, agents and accomplices of its sins and virtues.
+      It humbly "smelt the earth," then arose, and with uplifted hands recited
+      its profession of faith. "Hail unto you, ye lords of Truth! hail to thee,
+      great god, lord of Truth and Justice! I have come before thee, my master;
+      I have been brought to see thy beauties. For I know thee, I know thy name,
+      I know the names of thy forty-two gods who are with thee in the Hall of
+      the Two Truths, living on the remains of sinners, gorging themselves with
+      their blood, in that day when account is rendered before Onnophris, the
+      true of voice. Thy name which is thine is 'the god whose two twins are the
+      ladies of the two Truths;' and I, I know you, ye lords of the two Truths,
+      I bring unto you Truth, I have destroyed sins for you. I have not
+      committed iniquity against men! I have not oppressed the poor! I have not
+      made defalcations in the necropolis! I have not laid labour upon any free
+      man beyond that which he wrought for himself! I have not transgressed, I
+      have not been weak, I have not defaulted, I have not committed that which
+      is an abomination to the gods. I have not caused the slave to be
+      ill-treated of his master! I have not starved any man, I have not made any
+      to weep, I have not assassinated any man, I have not caused any man to be
+      treacherously assassinated, and I have not committed treason against any!
+      I have not in aught diminished the supplies of temples! I have not spoiled
+      the shrewbread of the gods! I have not taken away the loaves and the
+      wrappings of the dead! I have done no carnal act within the sacred
+      enclosure of the temple! I have not blasphemed! I have in nought curtailed
+      the sacred revenues! I have not pulled down the scale of the balance! I
+      have not falsified the beam of the balance! I have not taken away the milk
+      from the mouths of sucklings! I have not lassoed cattle on their pastures!
+      I have not taken with nets the birds of the gods! I have not fished in
+      their ponds! I have not turned back the water in its season! I have not
+      cut off a water-channel in its course! I have not put out the fire in its
+      time! I have not defrauded the Nine Gods of the choice part of victims! I
+      have not ejected the oxen of the gods! I have not turned back the god at
+      his coming forth! I am pure! I am pure! I am pure! I am pure! Pure as this
+      Great Bon� of Heracleopolis is pure!... There is no crime against me in
+      this land of the Double Truth! Since I know the names of the gods who are
+      with thee in the Hall of the Double Truth, save thou me from them!"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkani" id="linklinkani"></a> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img alt="272b (279K)" src="images/272b.jpg" width="100%"
+      title="THE OCCUPATIONS OF ANI IN THE ELYSIAN FIELDS" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He then turned towards the jury and pleaded his cause before them. They
+      had been severally appointed for the cognizance of particular sins, and
+      the dead man took each of them by name to witness that he was innocent of
+      the sin which that one recorded. His plea ended, he returned to the
+      supreme judge, and repeated, under what is sometimes a highly mystic form,
+      the ideas which he had already advanced in the first part of his address.
+      "Hail unto you, ye gods who are in the Great Hall of the Double Truth, who
+      have no falsehood in your bosoms, but who live on Truth in A�n�, and feed
+      your hearts upon it before the Lord God who dwelleth in his solar disc!
+      Deliver me from the Typhon who feedeth on entrails, O chiefs! in this hour
+      of supreme judgment;&mdash;grant that the deceased may come unto you, he
+      who hath not sinned, who hath neither lied, nor done evil, nor committed
+      any crime, who hath not borne false witness, who hath done nought against
+      himself, but who liveth on truth, who feedeth on truth. He hath spread joy
+      on all sides; men speak of that which he hath done, and the gods rejoice
+      in it. He hath reconciled the god to him by his love; he hath given bread
+      to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked; he hath given
+      a boat to the shipwrecked; he hath offered sacrifices to the gods,
+      sepulchral meals unto the manes. Deliver him from himself, speak not
+      against him before the Lord of the Dead, for his mouth is pure, and his
+      two hands are pure!" In the middle of the Hall, however, his acts were
+      being weighed by the assessors. Like all objects belonging to the gods,
+      the balance is magic, and the genius which animates it sometimes shows its
+      fine and delicate little human head on the top of the upright stand which
+      forms its body. Everything about the balance recalls its superhuman
+      origin: a cynocephalus, emblematic of Thot, sits perched on the upright
+      and watches the beam; the cords which suspend the scales are made of
+      alternate <i>cruces ansato and tats</i>. Truth squats upon one of the
+      scales; Thot, ibis-headed, places the heart on the other, and always
+      merciful, bears upon the side of Truth that judgment may be favourably
+      inclined. He affirms that the heart is light of offence, inscribes the
+      result of the proceeding upon a wooden tablet, and pronounces the verdict
+      aloud. "Thus saith Thot, lord of divine discourse, scribe of the Great
+      Ennead, to his father Osiris, lord of eternity, 'Behold the deceased in
+      this Hall of the Double Truth, his heart hath been weighed in the balance
+      in the presence of the great genii, the lords of Hades, and been found
+      true. No trace of earthly impurity hath been found in his heart. Now that
+      he leaveth the tribunal true of voice, his heart is restored to him, as
+      well as his eyes and the material cover of his heart, to be put back in
+      their places each in its own time, his soul in heaven, his heart in the
+      other world, as is the custom of the "Followers of Horus." Henceforth let
+      his body lie in the hands of Anubis, who presideth over the tombs; let him
+      receive offerings at the cemetery in the presence of Onno-phris; let him
+      be as one of those favourites who follow thee; let his soul abide where it
+      will in the necropolis of his city, he whose voice is true before the
+      Great Ennead.'" In this "Negative Confession," which the worshippers of
+      Osiris taught to their dead, all is not equally admirable. The material
+      interests of the temple were too prominent, and the crime of killing a
+      sacred goose or stealing a loaf from the bread offerings was considered as
+      abominable as calumny or murder. But although it contains traces of
+      priestly cupidity, yet how many of its precepts are untarnished in their
+      purity by any selfish ulterior motive! In it is all our morality in germ,
+      and with refinements of delicacy often lacking among peoples of later and
+      more advanced civilizations. The god does not confine his favour to the
+      prosperous and the powerful of this world; he bestows it also upon the
+      poor. His will is that they be fed and clothed, and exempted from tasks
+      beyond their strength; that they be not oppressed, and that unnecessary
+      tears be spared them. If this does not amount to the love of our neighbour
+      as our religions preach it, at least it represents the careful solicitude
+      due from a good lord to his vassals. His pity extends to slaves; not only
+      does he command that no one should ill-treat them himself, but he forbids
+      that their masters should be led to ill-treat them. This profession of
+      faith, one of the noblest bequeathed us by the old world, is of very
+      ancient origin. It may be read in scattered fragments upon the monuments
+      of the first dynasties, and the way in which its ideas are treated by the
+      compilers of these inscriptions proves that it was not then regarded as
+      new, but as a text so old and so well known that its formulas were current
+      in all mouths, and had their prescribed places in epitaphs.[*] Was it
+      composed in Mendes, the god's own home, or in Heliopolis, when the
+      theologians of that city appropriated the god of Mendes and incorporated
+      him in their Ennead? In conception it certainly belongs to the Osirian
+      priesthood, but it can only have been diffused over the whole of Egypt
+      after the general adoption of the Heliopolitan Ennead throughout the
+      cities.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As soon as he was judged, the dead man entered into the possession of his
+      rights as a pure soul. On high he received from the Universal Lord all
+      that kings and princes here below bestowed upon their followers&mdash;rations
+      of food,[**] and a house, gardens, and fields to be held subject to the
+      usual conditions of tenure in Egypt, i.e. taxation, military service, and
+      the corv�e.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  For instance, one of the formulas found in Memphite tombs
+     states that the deceased had been the friend of his father,
+     the beloved of his mother, sweet to those who lived with
+     him, gracious to his brethren, loved of his servants, and
+     that he had never sought wrongful quarrel with any man;
+     briefly, that he spoke and did that which is right here
+     below.
+
+     **  The formula of the pyramid times is: "Thy thousand of
+     oxen, thy thousand of geese, of roast and boiled joints from
+     the larder of the gods, of bread, and plenty of the good
+     things presented in the hall of Osiris."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If the island was attacked by the partisans of Sit, the Osirian doubles
+      hastened in a body to repulse them, and fought bravely in its defence. Of
+      the revenues sent to him by his kindred on certain days and by means of
+      sacrifices, each gave tithes to the heavenly storehouses. Yet this was but
+      the least part of the burdens laid upon him by the laws of the country,
+      which did not suffer him to become enervated by idleness, but obliged him
+      to labour as in the days when he still dwelt in Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0026" id="linklinkCimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/275.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="275.jpg the Manes Tilling The Ground and Reaping in The Fields of Ial�. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a vignette in the funerary
+     papyrus of Nebhop�t in Turin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He looked after the maintenance of canals and dykes, he tilled the ground,
+      he sowed, he reaped, he garnered the grain for his lord and for himself.
+      Yet to those upon whom they were incumbent, these posthumous obligations,
+      the sequel and continuation of feudal service, at length seemed too heavy,
+      and theologians exercised their ingenuity to find means of lightening the
+      burden. They authorized the manes to look to their servants for the
+      discharge of all manual labour which they ought to have performed
+      themselves. Barely did a dead man, no matter how poor, arrive
+      unaccompanied at the eternal cities; he brought with him a following
+      proportionate to his rank and fortune upon earth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0027" id="linklinkCimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/276.jpg" width="100%" alt="276.jpg Uashb�ti. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin from a painted limestone statuette
+     from the tomb of <i>Sonnozm�</i> at Thebes, dating from the end
+     of the XXth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At first they were real doubles, those of slaves or vassals killed at the
+      tomb, and who had departed along with the double of the master to serve
+      him beyond the grave as they had served him here. A number of statues and
+      images, magically endued with activity and intelligence, was afterwards
+      substituted for this retinue of victims. Originally of so large a size
+      that only the rich or noble could afford them, they were reduced little by
+      little to the height of a few inches. Some were carved out of alabaster,
+      granite, diorite, fine limestone, or moulded out of fine clay and
+      delicately modelled; others had scarcely any human resemblance. They were
+      endowed with life by means of a formula recited over them at the time of
+      their manufacture, and afterwards traced upon their legs. All were
+      possessed of the same faculties. When the god who called the Osirians to
+      the corv�e pronounced the name of the dead man to whom the figures
+      belonged, they arose and answered for him; hence their designation of
+      "Respondents "&mdash;<i>�ashb�ti</i>. Equipped for agricultural labour,
+      each grasping a hoe and carrying a seed-bag on his shoulder, they set out
+      to work in their appointed places, contributing the required number of
+      days of forced labour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0028" id="linklinkCimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/277.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="277.jpg the Dead Man and his Wife Playing at Draughts In The Pavilion. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a vignette in No, 4 Papyrus,
+     Dublin (Naville, <i>Das Mgyptische Todtenbuch</i>, vol. i. pl.
+     xxvii. Da). The name of draughts is not altogether accurate;
+     a description of the game may be found in Falkner, <i>Games
+     Ancient and Oriental and how to play them</i>, pp. 9-101.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Up to a certain point they thus compensated for those inequalities of
+      condition which death itself did not efface among the vassals of Osiris;
+      for the figures were sold so cheaply that even the poorest could always
+      afford some for themselves, or bestow a few upon their relations; and in
+      the Islands of the Blest, fellah, artisan, and slave were indebted to the
+      Uashb�ti for release from their old routine of labour and unending toil.
+      While the little peasants of stone or glazed ware dutifully toiled and
+      tilled and sowed, their masters were enjoying all the delights of the
+      Egyptian paradise in perfect idleness. They sat at ease by the water-side,
+      inhaling the fresh north breeze, under the shadow of trees which were
+      always green. They fished with lines among the lotus-plants; they embarked
+      in their boats, and were towed along by their servants, or they would
+      sometimes deign to paddle themselves slowly about the canals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0029" id="linklinkCimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/278.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="278.jpg the Dead Man Sailing in his Bark Along The Canals Of the Fields of Ialit. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the Papyrus of Nebhop�t, in
+     Turin. This drawing is from part of the same scene as the
+     illustration on p. 275.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They went fowling among the reed-beds, or retired within their painted
+      pavilions to read tales, to play at draughts, to return to their wives who
+      were for ever young and beautiful.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  Gymnastic exercises, hunting, fishing, sailing, are all
+     pictured in Theban tombs. The game of draughts is mentioned
+     in the title of chap. xvii. of the <i>Book of the Dead</i>
+     (Naville's edition, vol. i. pl. xxiii. 1. 2), and the
+     women's pavilion is represented in the tomb of Rakhmiri That
+     the dead were supposed to read tales is proved from the fact
+     that broken ostraca bearing long fragments of literary works
+     are found in tombs; they were broken to kill them and to
+     send on their doubles to the dead man in the next world.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was but an ameliorated earthly life, divested of all suffering under
+      the rule and by the favour of the true-voiced Onnophris. The feudal gods
+      promptly adopted this new mode of life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0030" id="linklinkCimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/279.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="279.jpg Boat of a Funerary Fleet on Its Way to Abydos. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by �inil
+     Brugsch-Bey. The original was found in the course of M. de
+     Morgan's excavations at M��r, and is now at G�zeh. The dead
+     man is sitting in the cabin, wrapped in his cloak. As far as
+     I know, this is the only boat which has preserved its
+     original rigging.    It dates from the XIth or XIIth
+     dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Each of their dead bodies, mummified, and afterwards reanimated in
+      accordance with the Osirian myth, became an Osiris as did that of any
+      ordinary person. Some carried the assimilation so far as to absorb the god
+      of Mendes, or to be absorbed in him. At Memphis Phtah-Sokaris became
+      Phtah-Sokar-Osiris, and at Thinis Khontament�fc became Osiris
+      Khontament�t. The sun-god lent himself to this process with comparative
+      ease because his life is more like a man's life, and hence also more like
+      that of Osiris, which is the counterpart of a man's life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0031" id="linklinkCimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/280.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="280.jpg the Solar Bark Into Which The Dead Man is About To Enter. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a vignette in the Papyrus of
+     Nebqadn, in Paris.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Born in the morning, he ages as the day declines, and gently passes away
+      at evening. From the time of his entering the sky to that of his leaving
+      it, he reigns above as he reigned here below in the beginning; but when he
+      has left the sky and sinks into Hades, he becomes as one of the dead, and
+      is, as they are, subjected to Osirian embalmment. The same dangers that
+      menace their human souls threaten his soul also; and when he has
+      vanquished them, not in his own strength, but by the power of amulets and
+      magical formulas, he enters into the fields of lal�, and ought to dwell
+      there for ever under the rule of Onuophris. He did nothing of the kind,
+      however, for daily the sun was to be seen reappearing in the east twelve
+      hours after it had sunk into the darkness of the west. Was it a new orb
+      each time, or did the same sun shine every day? In either case the result
+      was precisely the same; the god came forth from death and re-entered into
+      life. Having identified the course of the sun-god with that of man, and R�
+      with Osiris for a first day and a first night, it was hard not to push the
+      matter further, and identify them for all succeeding days and nights,
+      affirming that man and Osiris might, if they so wished, be born again in
+      the morning, as R� was, and together with him. If the Egyptians had found
+      the prospect of quitting the darkness of the tomb for the bright meadows
+      of Ial� a sensible alleviation of their lot, with what joy must they have
+      been filled by the conception which allowed them to substitute the whole
+      realm of the sun for a little archipelago in an out-of-the-way corner of
+      the universe. Their first consideration was to obtain entrance into the
+      divine bark, and this was the object of all the various practices and
+      prayers, whose text, together with that which already contained the
+      Osirian formulas, ensured the unfailing protection of R� to their
+      possessor. The soul desirous of making use of them went straight from his
+      tomb to the very spot where the god left earth to descend into Hades. This
+      was somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of Abydos, and was reached
+      through a narrow gorge or "cleft" in the Libyan range, whose "mouth"
+      opened in front of the temple of Osiris Khontament�t, a little to the
+      north-west of the city. The soul was supposed to be carried thither by a
+      small flotilla of boats, manned by figures representing friends or
+      priests, and laden with food, furniture, and statues. This flotilla was
+      placed within the vault on the day of the funeral, and was set in motion
+      by means of incantations recited over it during one of the first nights of
+      the year, at the annual feast of the dead. The bird or insect which had
+      previously served as guide to the soul upon its journey now took the helm
+      to show the fleet the right way, and under this command the boats left
+      Abydos and mysteriously passed through the "cleft" into that western sea
+      which is inaccessible to the living, there to await the daily coming of
+      the dying sun-god.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0032" id="linklinkCimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/282.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="282.jpg the Solar Bark Passing Into The Mountain of The West. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a very small photograph
+     published in the Catalogue of the Minutoli Sale.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as his bark appeared at the last bend of the celestial Nile, the
+      cynocephali, who guarded the entrance into night, began to dance and
+      gesticulate upon the banks as they intoned their accustomed hymn. The gods
+      of Abydos mingled their shouts of joy with the chant of the sacred
+      baboons, the bark lingered for a moment upon the frontiers of day, and
+      initiated souls seized the occasion to secure their recognition and their
+      reception on board of it.[*] Once admitted, they took their share in the
+      management of the boat, and in the battles with hostile deities; but they
+      were not all endowed with the courage or equipment needful to withstand
+      the perils and terrors of the voyage. Many stopped short by the way in one
+      of the regions which it traversed, either in the realm of Khontament�t, or
+      in that of Sokaris, or in those islands where the good Osiris welcomed
+      them as though they had duly arrived in the ferry-boat, or upon the wing
+      of Thot. There they dwelt in colonies under the suzerainty of local gods,
+      rich, and in need of nothing, but condemned to live in darkness, excepting
+      for the one brief hour in which the solar bark passed through their midst,
+      irradiating them with beams of light.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This description of the embarkation and voyage of the
+     soul is composed from indications given in one of the
+     vignettes of chap. xvi. of the <i>Book of the Dead</i> (Naville's
+     edition, vol. i. pl. xxii.), combined with the text of a
+     formula which became common from the times of the XIth and
+     XIIth dynasties (Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et
+     l'Arch�ologie �gyptiennes</i>, vol. i. pp. 14-18, and <i>�tudes
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. i. pp. 122, 123).
+</pre>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     **  Maspero, <i>�tudes de Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie
+     �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 44, 45.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The few persevered, feeling that they had courage to accompany the sun
+      throughout, and these were indemnified for their sufferings by the most
+      brilliant fate ever dreamed of by Egyptian souls., Born anew with the
+      sun-god and appearing with him at the gates of the east, they were
+      assimilated to him, and shared his privilege of growing old and dying,
+      only to be ceaselessly rejuvenated and to live again with ever-renewed
+      splendour. They disembarked where they pleased, and returned at will into
+      the world. If now and then they felt a wish to revisit all that was left
+      of their earthly bodies, the human-headed sparrow-hawk descended the shaft
+      in full flight, alighted upon the funeral couch, and, with hands softly
+      laid upon the spot where the heart had been wont to beat, gazed upwards at
+      the impassive mask of the mummy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0033" id="linklinkCimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/284.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="284.jpg the Soul Descending The Sepulchral Shaft on Its Way to Rejoin the Mummy. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+      1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from D�v�ria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This was but for a moment, since nothing compelled these perfect souls to
+      be imprisoned within the tomb like the doubles of earlier times, because
+      they feared the light. They "went forth by day," and dwelt in those places
+      where they had lived; they walked in their gardens by their ponds of
+      running water; they perched like so many birds on the branches of the
+      trees which they had planted, or enjoyed the fresh air under the shade of
+      their sycamores; they ate and drank at pleasure; they travelled by hill
+      and dale; they embarked in the boat of R�, and disembarked without
+      weariness, and without distaste for the same perpetual round.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This conception, which was developed somewhat late, brought the Egyptians
+      back to the point from which they had started when first they began to
+      speculate on the life to come.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0034" id="linklinkCimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/285.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="285.jpg the Soul on The Edge of The Funeral Couch, With Its Hands on the Heart of The Mummy. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-
+     Bey, reproducing the miniature sarcophagus of the scribe R�
+     (Maspero, <i>Guide du Visiteur</i>, pp. 130, 131, No. 1621).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The soul, after having left the place of its incarnation to which in the
+      beginning it clung, after having ascended into heaven and there sought
+      congenial asylum in vain, forsook all havens which it had found above, and
+      unhesitatingly fell back upon earth, there to lead a peaceful, free, and
+      happy life in the full light of day, and with the whole valley of Egypt
+      for a paradise.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The connection, always increasingly intimate between Osiris and R�,
+      gradually brought about a blending of the previously separate myths and
+      beliefs concerning each. The friends and enemies of the one became the
+      friends and enemies of the other, and from a mixture of the original
+      conceptions of the two deities, arose new personalities, in which
+      contradictory elements were blent together, often without true fusion. The
+      celestial Horuses one by one were identified with Horus, son of Isis, and
+      their attributes were given to him, as his in the same way became theirs.
+      Apopi and the monsters&mdash;the hippopotamus, the crocodile, the wild
+      boar&mdash;who lay in wait for R� as he sailed the heavenly ocean, became
+      one with S�t and his accomplices. Sit still possessed his half of Egypt,
+      and his primitive brotherly relation to the celestial Horus remained
+      unbroken, either 'on account of their sharing one temple, as at N�b�t, or
+      because they were worshipped as one in two neighbouring nomes, as, for
+      example, at Oxyrrhynchos and at Heracleopolis Magna. The repulsion with
+      which the slayer of Osiris was regarded did not everywhere dissociate
+      these two cults: certain small districts persisted in this double worship
+      down to the latest times of paganism. It was, after all, a mark of
+      fidelity to the oldest traditions of the race, but the bulk of the
+      Egyptians, who had forgotten these, invented reasons taken from the
+      history of the divine dynasties to explain the fact. The judgment of Thot
+      or of Sib� had not put an end to the machinations of S�t: as soon as Horus
+      had left the earth, S�t resumed them, and pursued them, with varying
+      fortune, under the divine kings of the second Ennead. Now, in the year 363
+      of Harmakhis, the Typhonians reopened the campaign. Beaten at first near
+      Edf�, they retreated precipitately northwards, stopping to give battle
+      wherever their partisans predominated,&mdash;at Zatm�fc in the Theban
+      nome,[*] at Kha�tn�tr�t to the north-east of Denderah, and at Hibon� in
+      the principality of the Gazelle.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Zatm�t appears to have been situate at some distance from
+     Bayad�y�h, on the spot where the map published by the
+     Egyptian Commission marks the ruins of a modern village.
+     There was a necropolis of considerable extent there, which
+     furnishes the Luxor dealers with antiquities, many of which
+     belong to the first Theban empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0035" id="linklinkCimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/287.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="287.jpg the Soul Going Forth Into Its Garden by Day. 2 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     2  Copied by Faucher-Gudin from the survey-drawings of the
+     tomb of Anni by Boussac, member of the <i>Mission fran�aise</i>
+     in Egypt (1891). The inscription over the arbour gives the
+     list of the various trees in the garden of Anni during his
+     lifetime.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Several bloody combats, which took place between Oxyrrhynchos and
+      Heracleopolis Magna, were the means of driving them finally out of the
+      Nile Valley; they rallied for the last time in the eastern provinces of
+      the Delta, were beaten at Zal�, and giving up all hope of success on land,
+      they embarked at the head of the Gulf of Suez, in order to return to the
+      Nubian Desert, their habitual refuge in times of distress. The sea was the
+      special element of Typhon, and upon it they believed themselves secure.
+      Horus, however, followed them, overtook them near Shas-hir�t, routed them,
+      and on his return to Edfu, celebrated his victory by a solemn festival. By
+      degrees, as he made himself master of those localities which owed
+      allegiance to Sit, he took energetic measures to establish in them the
+      authority of Osiris and of the solar cycle. In all of them he built, side
+      by side with the sanctuary of the Typhonian divinities, a temple to
+      himself, in which he was enthroned under the particular form he was
+      obliged to assume in order to vanquish his enemies. Metamorphosed into a
+      hawk at the battle of Hibon�, we next see him springing on to the back of
+      Sit under the guise of a hippopotamus; in his shrine at Hibon� he is
+      represented as a hawk perching on the back of a gazelle, emblem of the
+      nome where the struggle took place. Near to Zal� he became incarnate as a
+      human-headed lion, crowned with the triple diadem, and having feet armed
+      with claws which cut like a knife; it was under the form, too, of a lion
+      that he was worshipped in the temple at Zal�. The correlation of Sit and
+      the celestial Horus was not, therefore, for these Egyptians of more recent
+      times a primitive religious fact; it was the consequence, and so to speak
+      the sanction, of the old hostility between the two gods.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkwars" id="linklinkwars">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/289.jpg" alt="" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Horus had treated his enemy in the same fashion that a victorious Pharaoh
+      treated the barbarians conquered by his arms: he had constructed a
+      fortress to keep his foe in check, and his priests formed a sort of
+      garrison as a precaution against the revolt of the rival priesthood and
+      the followers of the rival deity. In this manner the battles of the gods
+      were changed into human struggles, in which, more than once, Egypt was
+      deluged with blood. The hatred of the followers of Osiris to those of
+      Typhon was perpetuated with such implacability, that the nomes which had
+      persisted in adhering to the worship of Sit, became odious to the rest of
+      the population: the image of their master on the monuments was mutilated,
+      their names were effaced from the geographical lists, they were assailed
+      with insulting epithets, and to pursue and slay their sacred animals was
+      reckoned a pious act. Thus originated those skirmishes which developed
+      into actual civil wars, and were continued down to Roman times. The
+      adherents of Typhon only became more confirmed in their veneration for the
+      accursed god; Christianity alone overcame their obstinate fidelity to
+      him.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This incident in the wars of Horus and Sit is drawn by
+     Faucher-Gudin from a bas-relief of the temple of Edf�. On
+     the right, Har-H�d�ti, standing up in the solar bark,
+     pierces with his lance the head of a crocodile, a partisan
+     of S�t, lying in the water below; Harm�khis, standing behind
+     him, is present at the execution. Facing this divine pair,
+     is the young Horus, who kills a man, another partisan of
+     S�t, while Isis and Har-H�d�ti hold his chains; behind
+     Horus, Isis and Thot are leading four other captives bound
+     and ready to be sacrificed before Harm�khis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The history of the world for Egypt was therefore only the history of the
+      struggle between the adherents of Osiris and the followers of S�t; an
+      interminable warfare in which sometimes one and sometimes the other of the
+      rival parties obtained a passing advantage, without ever gaining a
+      decisive victory till the end of time. The divine kings of the second and
+      third Ennead devoted most of the years of their earthly reign to this end;
+      they were portrayed under the form of the great warrior Pharaohs, who,
+      from the eighteenth to the twelfth century before our era, extended their
+      rule from the plains of the Euphrates to the marshes of Ethiopia. A few
+      peaceful sovereigns are met with here and there in this line of conquerors&mdash;a
+      few sages or legislators, of whom the most famous was styled Thot, the
+      doubly great, ruler of Hermopolis and of the Hermopolitan Ennead. A legend
+      of recent origin made him the prime minister of Horus, son of Isis; a
+      still more ancient tradition would identify him with the second king of
+      the second dynasty, the immediate successor of the divine Horuses, and
+      attributes to him a reign of 3226 years. He brought to the throne that
+      inventive spirit and that creative power which had characterized him from
+      the time when he was only a feudal deity. Astronomy, divination, magic,
+      medicine, writing, drawing&mdash;in fine, all the arts and sciences
+      emanated from him as from their first source. He had taught mankind the
+      methodical observation of the heavens and of the changes that took place
+      in them, the slow revolutions of the sun, the rapid phases of the moon,
+      the intersecting movements of the five planets, and the shapes and limits
+      of the constellations which each night were lit up in the sky. Most of the
+      latter either remained, or appeared to remain immovable, and seemed never
+      to pass out of the regions accessible to the human eye. Those which were
+      situate on the extreme margin of the firmament accomplished movements
+      there analogous to those of the planets.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0037" id="linklinkCimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/293.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="293.jpg One of the Astronomical Tables Of The Tomb Of Ramses Iv. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a copy by Lepsius, <i>Denkm.</i>,
+     iii. 227, 3.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Every year at fixed times they were seen to sink one after another below
+      the horizon, to disappear, and rising again after an eclipse of greater or
+      less duration, to regain insensibly their original positions. The
+      constellations were reckoned to be thirty-six in number, the thirty-six <i>decani</i>
+      to whom were attributed mysterious powers, and of whom Sothis was queen&mdash;Sothis
+      transformed into the star of Isis, when Orion (S�h�), became the star of
+      Osiris. The nights are so clear and the atmosphere so transparent in
+      Egypt, that the eye can readily penetrate the depths of space, and
+      distinctly see points of light which would be invisible in our foggy
+      climate. The Egyptians did not therefore need special instruments to
+      ascertain the existence of a considerable number of stars which we could
+      not see without the help of our telescopes; they could perceive with the
+      naked eye stars of the fifth magnitude, and note them upon their
+      catalogues.[*] It entailed, it is true, a long training and uninterrupted
+      practice to bring their sight up to its maximum keenness; but from very
+      early times it was a function of the priestly colleges to found and
+      maintain schools of astronomy. The first observatories established on the
+      banks of the Nile seem to have belonged to the temples of the sun; the
+      high priests of R�&mdash;who, to judge from their title, were alone worthy
+      to behold the sun face to face&mdash;were actively employed from the
+      earliest times in studying the configuration and preparing maps of the
+      heavens. The priests of other gods were quick to follow their example: at
+      the opening of the historic period, there was not a single temple, from
+      one end of the valley to the other, that did not possess its official
+      astronomers, or, as they were called, "watchers of the night."[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *   Biot, however, states that stars of the third and fourth
+     magnitude "are the smallest which can be seen with the
+     naked eye." I believe I am right in affirming that several
+     of the fellah�n and Bedaw�n attached to the "service des
+     Antiquit�s" can see stars which are usually classed with
+     those of the fifth magnitude.
+
+     **   <i>Urshu</i>: this word is also used for the soldiers on
+     watch during the day upon the walls of a fortress. Birch
+     believed he had discovered in the British Museum a catalogue
+     of observations made at Thebes by several astronomers upon a
+     constellation which answered to the Hyades or the Pleiades;
+     it was merely a question in this text of the quantity of
+     water supplied regularly to the astronomers of a Theban
+     temple for their domestic purposes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the evening they went up on to the high terraces above the shrine, or
+      on to the narrow platforms which terminated the pylons, and fixing their
+      eyes continuously on the celestial vault above them, followed the
+      movements of the constellations and carefully noted down the slightest
+      phenomena which they observed. A portion of the chart of the heavens, as
+      known to Theban Egypt between the eighteenth and twelfth centuries before
+      our era, has survived to the present time; parts of it were carved by the
+      decorators on the ceilings of temples, and especially on royal tombs. The
+      deceased Pharaohs were identified with Osiris in a more intimate fashion
+      than their subjects. They represented the god even in the most trivial
+      details; on earth&mdash;where, after having played the part of the
+      beneficent Onnophris of primitive ages, they underwent the most complete
+      and elaborate embalming, like Osiris of the lower world; in Hades&mdash;where
+      they embarked side by side with the Sun-Osiris to cross the night and to
+      be born again at daybreak; in heaven&mdash;where they shone with
+      Orion-S�hu under the guardianship of Sothis, and, year by year, led the
+      procession of the stars. The maps of the firmament recalled to them, or if
+      necessary taught them, this part of their duties: they there saw the
+      planets and the <i>decani</i> sail past in their boats, and the
+      constellations follow one another in continuous succession. The lists
+      annexed to the charts indicated the positions occupied each month by the
+      principal heavenly bodies&mdash;their risings, their culminations, and
+      their settings. Unfortunately, the workmen employed to execute these
+      pictures either did not understand much about the subject in hand, or did
+      not trouble themselves to copy the originals exactly: they omitted many
+      passages, transposed others, and made endless mistakes, which made it
+      impossible for us to transfer accurately to a modern map the information
+      possessed by the ancients.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In directing their eyes to the celestial sphere, Thot had at the same time
+      revealed to men the art of measuring time, and the knowledge of the
+      future. As he was the moon-god <i>par excellence</i>, he watched with
+      jealous care over the divine eye which had been entrusted to him by Horus,
+      and the thirty days during which he was engaged in conducting it through
+      all the phases of its nocturnal life, were reckoned as a month. Twelve of
+      these months formed the year, a year of three hundred and sixty days,
+      during which the earth witnessed the gradual beginning and ending of the
+      circle of the seasons. The Nile rose, spread over the fields, sank again
+      into its channel; to the vicissitudes of the inundation succeeded the work
+      of cultivation; the harvest followed the seedtime: these formed three
+      distinct divisions of the year, each of nearly equal duration. Thot made
+      of them the three seasons,&mdash;that of the waters, Sha�t; that of
+      vegetation, Pir��t; that of the harvest, Sh�m�&mdash;each comprising four
+      months, numbered one to four; the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th months of Sha�t;
+      the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th months of Pir��t; the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
+      months of Sh�m�. The twelve months completed, a new year began, whose
+      birth was heralded by the rising of Sothis in the early days of August.
+      The first month of the Egyptian year thus coincided with the eighth of
+      ours. Thot became its patron, and gave it his name, relegating each of the
+      others to a special protecting divinity; in this manner the third month of
+      Sha�t fell to Hathor, and was called after her; the fourth of Pir��t
+      belonged to Ran��t or Ram��t, the lady of harvests, and derived from her
+      its appellation of Pharm�ti. Official documents always designated the
+      months by the ordinal number attached to them in each season, but the
+      people gave them by preference the names of their tutelary deities, and
+      these names, transcribed into Greek, and then into Arabic, are still used
+      by the Christian inhabitants of Egypt, side by side with the Mussulman
+      appellations. One patron for each month was, however, not deemed
+      sufficient: each month was subdivided into three decades, over which
+      presided as many <i>decani</i>, and the days themselves were assigned to
+      genii appointed to protect them. A number of festivals were set apart at
+      irregular intervals during the course of the year: festivals for the new
+      year, festivals for the beginning of the seasons, months and decades,
+      festivals for the dead, for the supreme gods, and for local divinities.
+      Every act of civil life was so closely allied to the religious life, that
+      it could not be performed without a sacrifice or a festival. A festival
+      celebrated the cutting of the dykes, another the opening of the canals, a
+      third the reaping of the first sheaf, or the carrying of the grain; a crop
+      gathered or stored without a festival to implore the blessing of the gods,
+      would have been an act of sacrilege and fraught with disaster. The first
+      year of three hundred and sixty days, regulated by the revolutions of the
+      moon, did not long meet the needs of the Egyptian people; it did not
+      correspond with the length of the solar year, for it fell short of it by
+      five and a quarter days, and this deficit, accumulating from twelvemonth
+      to twelvemonth, caused such a serious difference between the calendar
+      reckoning and the natural seasons, that it soon had to be corrected. They
+      intercalated, therefore, after the twelfth month of each year and before
+      the first day of the ensuing year, five epagomenal days, which they termed
+      the "five days over and above the year."[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There appears to be a tendency among Egyptologists now to
+     doubt the existence, under the Ancient Empire, of the five
+     epagomenal days, and as a fact they are nowhere to be found
+     expressly mentioned; but we know that the five gods of the
+     Osirian cycle were born during the epagomenal day (cf. p.
+     247 of this History), and the allusions to the Osirian
+     legend which are met with in the Pyramid texts, prove that
+     the days were added long before the time when those
+     inscriptions were cut. As the wording of the texts often
+     comes down from prehistoric times, it is most likely that
+     the invention of the epagomenal days is anterior to the
+     first Thinite and Memphite dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The legend of Osiris relates that Thot created them in order to permit
+      N��t to give birth to all her children. These days constituted, at the end
+      of the "great year," a "little month," which considerably lessened the
+      difference between the solar and lunar computation, but did not entirely
+      do away with it, and the six hours and a few minutes of which the
+      Egyptians had not taken count gradually became the source of fresh
+      perplexities. They at length amounted to a whole day, which needed to be
+      added every four years to the regular three hundred and sixty days, a fact
+      which was unfortunately overlooked. The difficulty, at first only slight,
+      which this caused in public life, increased with time, and ended by
+      disturbing the harmony between the order of the calendar and that of
+      natural phenomena: at the end of a hundred and twenty years, the legal
+      year had gained a whole month on the actual year, and the 1st of Thot
+      anticipated the heliacal rising of Sothis by thirty days, instead of
+      coinciding with it as it ought. The astronomers of the Gr�co-Roman period,
+      after a retrospective examination of all the past history of their
+      country, discovered a very ingenious theory for obviating this unfortunate
+      discrepancy. If the omission of six hours annually entailed the loss of
+      one day every four years, the time would come, after three hundred and
+      sixty-five times four years, when the deficit would amount to an entire
+      year, and when, in consequence, fourteen hundred and sixty whole years
+      would exactly equal fourteen hundred and sixty-one incomplete years. The
+      agreement of the two years, which had been disturbed by the force of
+      circumstances, was re-established of itself after rather more than
+      fourteen and a half centuries: the opening of the civil year became
+      identical with the beginning of the astronomical year, and this again
+      coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius, and therefore with the
+      official date of the inundation. To the Egyptians of Pharaonic times, this
+      simple and eminently practical method was unknown: by means of it hundreds
+      of generations, who suffered endless troubles from the recurring
+      difference between an uncertain and a fixed year, might have consoled
+      themselves with the satisfaction of knowing that a day would come when one
+      of their descendants would, for once in his life, see both years coincide
+      with mathematical accuracy, and the seasons appear at their normal times.
+      The Egyptian year might be compared to a watch which loses a definite
+      number of minutes daily. The owner does not take the trouble to calculate
+      a cycle in which the total of minutes lost will bring the watch round to
+      the correct time: he bears with the irregularity as long as his affairs do
+      not suffer by it; but when it causes him inconvenience, he alters the
+      hands to the right hour, and repeats this operation each time he finds it
+      necessary, without being guided by a fixed rule. In like manner the
+      Egyptian year fell into hopeless confusion with regard to the seasons, the
+      discrepancy continually increasing, until the difference became so great,
+      that the king or the priests had to adjust the two by a process similar to
+      that employed in the case of the watch.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The days, moreover, had each their special virtues, which it was necessary
+      for man to know if he wished to profit by the advantages, or to escape the
+      perils which they possessed for him. There was not one among them that did
+      not recall some incident of the divine wars, and had not witnessed a
+      battle between the partisans of Sit and those of Osiris or R�; the
+      victories or the disasters which they had chronicled had as it were
+      stamped them with good or bad luck, and for that reason they remained for
+      ever auspicious or the reverse. It was on the 17th of Athyr that Typhon
+      had enticed his brother to come to him, and had murdered him in the middle
+      of a banquet. Every year, on this day, the tragedy that had taken place in
+      the earthly abode of the god seemed to be repeated afresh in the heights
+      of heaven. Just as at the moment of the death of Osiris, the powers of
+      good were at their weakest, and the sovereignty of evil everywhere
+      prevailed, so the whole of Nature, abandoned to the powers of darkness,
+      became inimical to man. Whatever he undertook on that day issued in
+      failure. If he went out to walk by the river-side, a crocodile would
+      attack him, as the crocodile sent by S�t had attacked Osiris. If he set
+      out on a journey, it was a last farewell which he bade to his family and
+      friends: death would meet him by the way. To escape this fatality, he must
+      shut himself up at home, and wait in inaction until the hours of danger
+      had passed and the sun of the ensuing day had put the evil one to
+      flight.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * On the 20th of Thot no work was to be done, no oxen
+     killed, no stranger received. On the 22nd no fish might be
+     eaten, no oil lamp was to be lighted. On the 23rd "put no
+     incense on the fire, nor kill big cattle, nor goats, nor
+     ducks; eat of no goose, nor of that which has lived." On the
+     26th "do absolutely nothing on this day," and the same
+     advice is found on the 7th of Paophi, on the 18th, on the
+     26th, on the 27th, and more than thirty times in the
+     remainder of the Sallier Calendar. On the 30th of Mechir it
+     is forbidden to speak aloud to any one.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was to his interest to know these adverse influences; and who would
+      have known them all, had not Thot pointed them out and marked them in his
+      calendars? One of these, long fragments of which have come down to us,
+      indicated briefly the character of each day, the gods who presided over
+      it, the perils which accompanied their patronage, or the good fortune
+      which might be expected of them. The details of it are not always
+      intelligible to us, as we are still ignorant of many of the episodes in
+      the life of Osiris. The Egyptians were acquainted with the matter from
+      childhood, and were guided with sufficient exactitude by these
+      indications. The hours of the night were all inauspicious; those of the
+      day were divided into three "seasons" of four hours each, of which some
+      were lucky, while others were invariably of ill omen. "The 4th of Tybi: <i>good,
+      good, good</i>. Whatsoever thou seest on this day will be fortunate.
+      Whosoever is born on this day, will die more advanced in years than any of
+      his family; he will attain to a greater age than his father. The 5th of
+      Tybi: <i>inimical, inimical, inimical</i>. This is the day on which the
+      goddess Sokh�fc, mistress of the double white Palace, burnt the chiefs
+      when they raised an insurrection, came forth, and manifested themselves.
+      Offerings of bread to Sh�, Phtah, Thot: burn incense to R�, and to the
+      gods who are his followers, to Phtah, Thot, H�-S�, on this day. Whatsoever
+      thou seest on this day will be fortunate. The 6th of Tybi: <i>good, good,
+      good</i>. Whatsoever thou seest on this day will be fortunate. The 7th of
+      Tybi: <i>inimical, inimical, inimical</i>. Do not join thyself to a woman
+      in the presence of the Eye of Horus. Beware of letting the fire go out
+      which is in thy house. The 8th of Tybi: <i>good, good, good</i>.
+      Whatsoever thou seest with thine eye this day, the Ennead of the gods will
+      grant to thee: the sick will recover. The 9th of Tybi: <i>good, good, good</i>.
+      The gods cry out for joy at noon this day. Bring offerings of festal cakes
+      and of fresh bread, which rejoice the heart of the gods and of the manes.
+      The 10th of Tybi: <i>inimical, inimical, mimical</i>. Do not set fire to
+      weeds on this day: it is the day on which the god Sap-h�� set fire to the
+      land of Btito. The 11th of Tybi: <i>inimical, inimical, inimical</i>. Do
+      not draw nigh to any flame on this day, for R� entered the flames to
+      strike all his enemies, and whosoever draws nigh to them on this day, it
+      shall not be well with him during his whole life. The 12th of Tybi: <i>inimical,
+      inimical, inimical</i>. See that thou beholdest not a rat on this day, nor
+      approachest any rat within thy house: it is the day wherein Sokh�t gave
+      forth the decrees." In these cases a little watchfulness or exercise of
+      memory sufficed to put a man on his guard against evil omens; but in many
+      circumstances all the vigilance in the world would not protect him, and
+      the fatality of the day would overtake him, without his being able to do
+      ought to avert it. No man can at will place the day of his birth at a
+      favourable time; he must accept it as it occurs, and yet it exercises a
+      decisive influence on the manner of his death. According as he enters the
+      world on the 4th, 5th, or 6th of Paophi, he either dies of marsh fever, of
+      love, or of drunkenness. The child of the 23rd perishes by the jaws of a
+      crocodile: that of the 27th is bitten and dies by a serpent. On the other
+      hand, the fortunate man whose birthday falls on the 9th or the 29th lives
+      to an extreme old age, and passes away peacefully, respected by all.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0038" id="linklinkCimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/304.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="304.jpg the Gods Fighting Foe The Magician Who Has Invoked Them. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from  the tracing by Golbnischeff,
+     <i>Die Metternich-Stele</i>, pi, iii. 14.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thot, having pointed out the evil to men, gave to them at the same time
+      the remedy. The magical arts of which he was the repository, made him
+      virtual master of the other gods. He knew their mystic names, their secret
+      weaknesses, the kind of peril they most feared, the ceremonies which
+      subdued them to his will, the prayers which they could not refuse to grant
+      under pain of misfortune or death. His wisdom, transmitted to his
+      worshippers, assured to them the same authority which he exercised upon
+      those in heaven, on earth, or in the nether world. The magicians
+      instructed in his school had, like the god, control of the words and
+      sounds which, emitted at the favourable moment with the "correct voice,"
+      would evoke the most formidable deities from beyond the confines of the
+      universe: they could bind and loose at will Osiris, Sit, Anubis, even Thot
+      himself; they could send them forth, and recall them, or constrain them to
+      work and fight for them. The extent of their power exposed the magicians
+      to terrible temptations; they were often led to use it to the detriment of
+      others, to satisfy their spite, or to gratify their grosser appetites.
+      Many, moreover, made a gain of their knowledge, putting it at the service
+      of the ignorant who would pay for it. When they were asked to plague or
+      get rid of an enemy, they had a hundred different ways of suddenly
+      surrounding him without his suspecting it: they tormented him with
+      deceptive or terrifying dreams; they harassed him with apparitions and
+      mysterious voices; they gave him as a prey to sicknesses, to wandering
+      spectres, who entered into him and slowly consumed him. They constrained,
+      even at a distance, the wills of men; they caused women to be the victims
+      of infatuations, to forsake those they had loved, and to love those they
+      had previously detested. In order to compose an irresistible charm, they
+      merely required a little blood from a person, a few nail-parings, some
+      hair, or a scrap of linen which he had worn, and which, from contact with
+      his skin, had become impregnated with his personality. Portions of these
+      were incorporated with the wax of a doll which they modelled, and clothed
+      to resemble their victim; thenceforward all the inflictions to which the
+      image was subjected were experienced by the original; he was consumed with
+      fever when his effigy was exposed to the fire, he was wounded when the
+      figure was pierced by a knife. The Pharaohs themselves had no immunity
+      from these spells.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Spells were employed against Ramses III., and the evidence
+     in the criminal charge brought against the magicians
+     explicitly mentions the wax figures and the philters used on
+     this occasion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These machinations were wont to be met by others of the same kind, and
+      magic, if invoked at the right moment, was often able to annul the ills
+      which magic had begun. It was not indeed all-powerful against fate: the
+      man born on the 27th of Paophi would die of a snake-bite, whatever charm
+      he might use to protect himself. But if the day of his death were
+      foreordained, at all events the year in which it would occur was
+      uncertain, and it was easy for the magician to arrange that it should not
+      take place prematurely. A formula recited opportunely, a sentence of
+      prayer traced on a papyrus, a little statuette worn about the person, the
+      smallest amulet blessed and consecrated, put to flight the serpents who
+      were the instruments of fate. Those curious stelae on which we see Horus
+      half naked, standing on two crocodiles and brandishing in his fists
+      creatures which had reputed powers of fascination, were so many protecting
+      talismans; set up at the entrance to a room or a house, they kept off the
+      animals represented and brought the evil fate to nought.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0039" id="linklinkCimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/306.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="306.jpg the Child Horus on The Crocodiles. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from an Alexandrian stele in the
+     G�zeh Museum. The reason for the appearance of so many
+     different animals in this stele and  in  others of  the
+     same nature, has   been given by Maspero, <i>�tudes de
+     Mythologie et d'Arch�ologie �gyptiennes</i>, vol. ii. pp. 417-
+     419; they were all supposed to possess the evil eye and to
+     be able to fascinate their victim before striking him.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sooner or later destiny would doubtless prevail, and the moment would come
+      when the fated serpent, eluding all precautions, would succeed in carrying
+      out the sentence of death. At all events the man would have lived, perhaps
+      to the verge of old age, perhaps to the years of a hundred and ten, to
+      which the wisest of the Egyptians hoped to attain, and which period no man
+      born of mortal mother might exceed. If the arts of magic could thus
+      suspend the law of destiny, how much more efficacious were they when
+      combating the influences of secondary deities, the evil eye, and the
+      spells of man? Thot, who was the patron of sortilege, presided also over
+      exorcisms, and the criminal acts which some committed in his name could
+      have reparation made for them by others in his name. To malicious genii,
+      genii still stronger were opposed; to harmful amulets, those which were
+      protective; to destructive measures, vitalizing remedies; and this was not
+      even the most troublesome part of the magicians' task. Nobody, in fact,
+      among those delivered by their intervention escaped unhurt from the trials
+      to which, he had been subjected. The possessing spirits when they quitted
+      their victim generally left behind them traces of their occupation, in the
+      brain, heart, lungs, intestines&mdash;in fact, in the whole body. The
+      illnesses to which the human race is prone, were not indeed all brought
+      about by enchanters relentlessly persecuting their enemies, but they were
+      all attributed to the presence of an invisible being, whether spectre or
+      demon, who by some supernatural means had been made to enter the patient,
+      or who, unbidden, had by malice or necessity taken up his abode within
+      him. It was needful, after expelling the intruder, to re-establish the
+      health of the sufferer by means of fresh remedies. The study of simples
+      and other <i>materi� medic�</i> would furnish these; Thot had revealed
+      himself to man as the first magician, he became in like manner for them
+      the first physician and the first surgeon.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Egypt is naturally a very salubrious country, and the Egyptians boasted
+      that they were "the healthiest of all mortals;" but they did not neglect
+      any precautions to maintain their health. "Every month, for three
+      successive days, they purged the system by means of emetics or clysters.
+      The study of medicine with them was divided between specialists; each
+      physician attending to one kind of illness only. Every place possessed
+      several doctors; some for diseases of the eyes, others for the head, or
+      the teeth, or the stomach, or for internal diseases." But the subdivision
+      was not carried to the extent that Herodotus would make us believe. It was
+      the custom to make a distinction only between the physician trained in the
+      priestly schools, and further instructed by daily practice and the study
+      of books,&mdash;the bone-setter attached to the worship of Sokhit who
+      treated fractures by the intercession of the goddess,&mdash;and the
+      exorcist who professed to cure by the sole virtue of amulets and magic
+      phrases. The professional doctor treated all kinds of maladies, but, as
+      with us, there were specialists for certain affections, who were consulted
+      in preference to general practitioners. If the number of these specialists
+      was so considerable as to attract the attention of strangers, it was
+      because the climatic character of the country necessitated it. Where
+      ophthalmia and affections of the intestines raged violently, we
+      necessarily find many oculists[*] as well as doctors for internal
+      maladies. The best instructed, however, knew but little of anatomy. As
+      with the Christian physicians of the Middle Ages, religious scruples
+      prevented the Egyptians from cutting open or dissecting, in the cause of
+      pure science, the dead body which was identified with that of Osiris. The
+      processes of embalming, which would have instructed them in anatomy, were
+      not intrusted to doctors; the horror was so great with which any one was
+      regarded who mutilated the human form, that the "paraschite," on whom
+      devolved the duty of making the necessary incisions in the dead, became
+      the object of universal execration: as soon as he had finished his task,
+      the assistants assaulted him, throwing stones at him with such violence
+      that he had to take to his heels to escape with his life.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Affections of the eyes occupy one-fourth of the <i>Ebers
+     Papyrus</i>.
+
+     **  Diodorus Siculus, i. 91.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The knowledge of what went on within the body was therefore but vague.
+      Life seemed to be a little air, a breath which was conveyed by the veins
+      from member to member. "The head contains twenty-two vessels, which draw
+      the spirits into it and send them thence to all parts of the body. There
+      are two vessels for the breasts, which communicate heat to the lower
+      parts. There are two vessels for the thighs, two for the neck, two for the
+      arms, two for the back of the head, two for the forehead, two for the
+      eyes, two for the eyelids, two for the right ear by which enter the
+      breaths of life, and two for the left ear which in like manner admit the
+      breaths of death."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0040" id="linklinkCimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/310.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="310.jpg a Dead Man Receiving the Breath of Life. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Naville, in the
+     <i>�gyptische Todtenbuch</i>, vol. i. pl. lxix. The deceased
+     carries in this hand a sail inflated by the wind,
+     symbolizing the air, and holds it to his nostrils that he
+     may inhale the breaths which will fill anew his arteries,
+     and bring life to his limbs.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The "breaths" entering by the right ear, are "the good airs, the delicious
+      airs of the north;" the sea-breeze which tempers the burning of summer and
+      renews the strength of man, continually weakened by the heat and
+      threatened with exhaustion. These vital spirits, entering the veins and
+      arteries by the ear or nose, mingled with the blood, which carried them to
+      all parts of the body; they sustained the animal, and were, so to speak,
+      the cause of its movement. The heart, the perpetual mover&mdash;<i>h��ti</i>&mdash;collected
+      them and redistributed them throughout the body: it was regarded as "the
+      beginning of all the members," and whatever part of the living body the
+      physician touched, "whether the head, the nape of the neck, the hands, the
+      breast, the arms, the legs, his hand lit upon the heart," and he felt it
+      beating under his fingers. Under the influence of the good breaths, the
+      vessels were inflated and worked regularly; under that of the evil, they
+      became inflamed, were obstructed, were hardened, or gave way, and the
+      physician had to remove the obstruction, allay the inflammation, and
+      re-establish their vigour and elasticity. At the moment of death, the
+      vital spirits "withdrew with the soul; the blood," deprived of air,
+      "became coagulated, the veins and arteries emptied themselves, and the
+      creature perished" for want of breaths.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The majority of the diseases from which the ancient Egyptians suffered,
+      are those which still attack their successors; ophthalmia, affections of
+      the stomach, abdomen, and bladder, intestinal worms, varicose veins,
+      ulcers in the leg, the Nile pimple, and finally the "divine mortal
+      malady," the <i>divinus morbus</i> of the Latins, epilepsy. Anaemia, from
+      which at least one-fourth of the present population suffers, was not less
+      prevalent than at present, if we may judge from the number of remedies
+      which were used against hematuria, the principal cause of it. The
+      fertility of the women entailed a number of infirmities or local
+      affections which the doctors attempted to relieve, not always with
+      success.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * With regard to the diseases of women, cf. <i>Ebers Papyrus</i>,
+     pis. xciii., xcviii., etc. Several of the recipes are
+     devoted to the solution of a problem which appears to have
+     greatly exercised the mind of the ancients, viz. the
+     determination of the sex of a child before its birth.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The science of those days treated externals only, and occupied itself
+      merely with symptoms easily determined by sight or touch; it never
+      suspected that troubles which showed themselves in two widely remote parts
+      of the body might only be different effects of the same illness, and they
+      classed as distinct maladies those indications which we now know to be the
+      symptoms of one disease. They were able, however, to determine fairly well
+      the specific characteristics of ordinary affections, and sometimes
+      described them in a precise and graphic fashion. "The abdomen is heavy,
+      the pit of the stomach painful, the heart burns and palpitates violently.
+      The clothing oppresses the sick man and he can barely support it.
+      Nocturnal thirsts. His heart is sick, as that of a man who has eaten of
+      the sycamore gum. The flesh loses its sensitiveness as that of a man
+      seized with illness. If he seek to satisfy a want of nature he finds no
+      relief. Say to this, 'There is an accumulation of humours in the abdomen,
+      which makes the heart sick. I will act.'" This is the beginning of gastric
+      fever so common in Egypt, and a modern physician could not better diagnose
+      such a case; the phraseology would be less flowery, but the analysis of
+      the symptoms would not differ from that given us by the ancient
+      practitioner. The medicaments recommended comprise nearly everything which
+      can in some way or other be swallowed, whether in solid, mucilaginous, or
+      liquid form. Vegetable remedies are reckoned by the score, from the most
+      modest herb to the largest tree, such as the sycamore, palm, acacia, and
+      cedar, of which the sawdust and shavings were supposed to possess both
+      antiseptic and emollient properties. Among the mineral substances are to
+      be noted sea-salt, alum, nitre, sulphate of copper, and a score of
+      different kinds of stones&mdash;among the latter the "memphite stone" was
+      distinguished for its virtues; if applied to parts of the body which were
+      lacerated or unhealthy, it acted as an anaesthetic and facilitated the
+      success of surgical operations. Flesh taken from the living subject, the
+      heart, the liver, the gall, the blood&mdash;either dried or liquid&mdash;of
+      animals, the hair and horn of stags, were all customarily used in many
+      cases where the motive determining their preference above other <i>materi�
+      medic�</i> is unknown to us. Many recipes puzzle us by their originality
+      and by the barbaric character of the ingredients recommended: "the milk of
+      a woman who has given birth to a boy," the dung of a lion, a tortoise's
+      brains, an old book boiled in oil.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ebers Papyrus, pl. lxxviii. 1. 22&mdash;lxxix. 1. 1: "To
+     relieve a child who is constipated.&mdash;An old book. Boil it in
+     oil, and apply half to the stomach, to provoke evacuation."
+     It must not be forgotten that, the writings being on
+     papyrus, the old book in question, once boiled, would have
+     an effect analogous to that of our linseed-meal poultices.
+     If the physician recommended taking an old one, it was for
+     economical reasons merely; the Egyptians of the middle
+     classes would always have in their possession a number of
+     letters, copy-books, and other worthless waste papers, of
+     which they would gladly rid themselves in such a profitable
+     manner.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The medicaments compounded of these incongruous substances were often very
+      complicated. It was thought that the healing power was increased by
+      multiplying the curative elements; each ingredient acted upon a specific
+      region of the body, and after absorption, separated itself from the rest
+      to bring its influence to bear upon that region. The physician made use of
+      all the means which we employ to-day to introduce remedies into the human
+      system, whether pills or potions, poultices, or ointments, draughts or
+      clysters. Not only did he give the prescriptions, but he made them up,
+      thus combining the art of the physician with that of the dispenser. He
+      prescribed the ingredients, pounded them either separately or together, he
+      macerated them in the proper way, boiled them, reduced them by heating,
+      and filtered them through linen. Fat served him as the ordinary vehicle
+      for ointments, and pure water for potions; but he did not despise other
+      liquids, such as wine, beer (fermented or un-fermented), vinegar, milk,
+      olive oil, "ben" oil either crude or refined, even the urine of men and
+      animals: the whole, sweetened with honey, was taken hot, night and
+      morning. The use of more than one of these remedies became worldwide; the
+      Greeks borrowed them from the Egyptians; we have piously accepted them
+      from the Greeks; and our contemporaries still swallow with resignation
+      many of the abominable mixtures invented on the banks of the Nile, long
+      before the building of the Pyramids.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was Thot who had taught men arithmetic; Thot had revealed to them the
+      mysteries of geometry and mensuration; Thot had constructed instruments
+      and promulgated the laws of music; Thot had instituted the art of drawing,
+      and had codified its unchanging rules. He had been the inventor or patron
+      of all that was useful or beautiful in the Nile valley, and the climax of
+      his beneficence was reached by his invention of the principles of writing,
+      without which humanity would have been liable to forget his teaching, and
+      to lose the advantage of his discoveries. It has been sometimes questioned
+      whether writing, instead of having been a benefit to the Egyptians, did
+      not rather injure them. An old legend relates that when the god unfolded
+      his discovery to King Thamos, whose minister he was, the monarch
+      immediately raised an objection to it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0041" id="linklinkCimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/315.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="315.jpg Th0t Records the Years of The Life Of Ramses. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Bas-relief of the temple of Seti I. at Abydos, drawn by
+     Boudier; from a photograph by Beato. The god is marking with
+     his reed-pen upon the notches of a long frond of palm, the
+     duration in millions of years of the reign of Pharaoh upon
+     this earth, in accordance with the decree of the gods.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Children and young people, who had hitherto been forced to apply
+      themselves diligently to learn and retain whatever was taught them, now
+      that they possessed a means of storing up knowledge without trouble, would
+      cease to apply themselves, and would neglect to exercise their memories.
+      Whether Thamos was right or not, the criticism came too late: "the
+      ingenious art of painting words and of speaking to the eyes" had once for
+      all been acquired by the Egyptians, and through them by the greater part
+      of mankind. It was a very complex system, in which were united most of the
+      methods fitted for giving expression to thought, namely: those which were
+      limited to the presentment of the idea, and those which were intended to
+      suggest sounds.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0042" id="linklinkCimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/316.jpg" width="100%" alt="316.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At the outset the use was confined to signs intended to awaken the idea of
+      the object in the mind of the reader by the more or less faithful picture
+      of the object itself; for example, they depicted the sun by a centred
+      disc, the moon by a crescent, a lion by a lion in the act of walking, a
+      man by a small figure in a squatting attitude. As by this method it was
+      possible to convey only a very restricted number of entirely materialistic
+      concepts, it became necessary to have recourse to various artifices in
+      order to make up for the shortcomings of the ideograms properly so-called.
+      The part was put for the whole, the pupil in place of the whole eye, the
+      head of the ox instead of the complete ox. The Egyptians substituted cause
+      for effect and effect for cause, the instrument for the work accomplished,
+      and the disc of the sun signified the day; a smoking brazier the fire: the
+      brush, inkpot, and palette of the scribe denoted writing or written
+      documents. They conceived the idea of employing some object which
+      presented an actual or supposed resemblance to the notion to be conveyed;
+      thus, the foreparts of a lion denoted priority, supremacy, command; the
+      wasp symbolized royalty, and a tadpole stood for hundreds of thousands.
+      They ventured finally to use conventionalisms, as for instance when they
+      drew the axe for a god, or the ostrich-feather for justice; the sign in
+      these cases had only a conventional connection with the concept assigned
+      to it. At times two or three of these symbols were associated in order to
+      express conjointly an idea which would have been inadequately rendered by
+      one of them alone: a five-pointed star placed under an inverted crescent
+      moon denoted a month, a calf running before the sign for water indicated
+      thirst.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0043" id="linklinkCimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/317.jpg" width="100%" alt="317.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All these artifices combined furnished, however, but a very incomplete
+      means of seizing and transmitting thought. When the writer had written out
+      twenty or thirty of these signs and the ideas which they were supposed to
+      embody, he had before him only the skeleton of a sentence, from which the
+      flesh and sinews had disappeared; the tone and rhythm of the words were
+      wanting, as were also the indications of gender, number, person, and
+      inflection, which distinguish the different parts of speech and determine
+      the varying relations between them. Besides this, in order to understand
+      for himself and to guess the meaning of the author, the reader was obliged
+      to translate the symbols which he deciphered, by means of words which
+      represented in the spoken language the pronunciation of each symbol.
+      Whenever he looked at them, they suggested to him both the idea and the
+      word for the idea, and consequently a sound or group of sounds; when each
+      of them had thus acquired three or four invariable associations of sound,
+      he forgot their purely ideographic value and accustomed himself to
+      consider them merely as notations of sound.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first experiment in phonetics was a species of rebus, where each of
+      the signs, divorced from its original sense, served to represent several
+      words, similar in sound, but differing in meaning in the spoken language.
+      The same group of articulations, <i>Na�fir, Nofir</i>, conveyed in
+      Egyptian the concrete idea of a lute and the abstract idea of beauty; the
+      sign expressed at once the lute and beauty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0044" id="linklinkCimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%" alt="318.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The beetle was called Khopirru, and the verb "to be" was pronounced <i>khopir�</i>:
+      the figure of the beetle &amp; consequently signified both the insect and
+      the verb, and by further combining with it other signs, the articulation
+      of each corresponding syllable was given in detail. The sieve <i>Mia�</i>,
+      the mat <i>pu, pi</i>, the mouth <i>ra, r�</i>, gave the formula <i>kha�-pi-r�</i>,
+      which was equivalent to the sound of <i>khopir�</i>, the verb "to be:"
+      grouped together, they denoted in writing the concept of "to be" by means
+      of a triple rebus. In this system, each syllable of a word could be
+      represented by one of several signs, all sounding alike. One-half of these
+      "syllables" stood for open, the other half for closed syllables, and the
+      use of the former soon brought about the formation of a true alphabet. The
+      final vowel in them became detached, and left only the remaining consonant&mdash;for
+      example, <i>r in r�, h in ha, n in ni, b in b�</i>&mdash;so that r�, ha,
+      b�, eventually stood for r, h, n, and b only. This process in the course
+      of time having been applied to a certain number of syllables, furnished a
+      fairly large alphabet, in which several letters represented each of the
+      twenty-two chief articulations, which the scribes considered sufficient
+      for their purposes. The signs corresponding to one and the same letter
+      were homophones or "equivalents in sound"&mdash;[ ] are homophones, just
+      as [ ] and [ ], because each of them, in the group to which it belongs,
+      may be indifferently used to translate to the eye the articulations m or
+      n. One would have thought that when the Egyptians had arrived thus far,
+      they would have been led, as a matter of course, to reject the various
+      characters which they had used each in its turn, in order to retain an
+      alphabet only.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0045" id="linklinkCimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/319.jpg" width="100%" alt="319.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But the true spirit of invention, of which they had given proof, abandoned
+      them here as elsewhere: if the merit of a discovery was often their due,
+      they were rarely able to bring their invention to perfection. They kept
+      the ideographic and syllabic signs which they had used at the outset, and,
+      with the residue of their successive notations, made for themselves a most
+      complicated system, in which syllables and ideograms were mingled with
+      letters properly so called. There is a little of everything in an Egyptian
+      phrase, sometimes even in a word; as, for instance, in [ ] maszir�, the
+      ear, or [ ] kher��, the voice; there are the syllables [ ] kher, the
+      ordinary letters [ ], which complete the phonetic pronunciation, and
+      finally the ideograms, namely, [ ], which gives the picture of the ear by
+      the side of the written word for it, and [ ] which proves that the letters
+      represent a term designating an action of the mouth. This medley had its
+      advantages; it enabled the Egyptians to make clear, by the picture of the
+      object, the sense of words which letters alone might sometimes
+      insufficiently explain. The system demanded a serious effort of memory and
+      long years of study; indeed, many people never completely mastered it. The
+      picturesque appearance of the sentences, in which we see representations
+      of men, animals, furniture, weapons, and tools grouped together in
+      successive little pictures, rendered hieroglyphic writing specially
+      suitable for the decoration of the temples of the gods or the palaces of
+      kings. Mingled with scenes of worship, sacrifice, battle, or private life,
+      the inscriptions frame or separate groups of personages, and occupy the
+      vacant spaces which the sculptor or painter was at a loss to fill;
+      hieroglyphic writing is pre-eminently a monumental script. For the
+      ordinary purposes of life it was traced in black or red ink on fragments
+      of limestone or pottery, or on wooden tablets covered with stucco, and
+      specially on the fibres of papyrus. The exigencies of haste and the
+      unskilfulness of scribes soon changed both its appearance and its
+      elements; the characters when contracted, superimposed and united to one
+      another with connecting strokes, preserved only the most distant
+      resemblance to the persons or things which they had originally
+      represented. This cursive writing, which was somewhat incorrectly termed
+      hieratic, was used only for public or private documents, for
+      administrative correspondence, or for the propagation of literary,
+      scientific, and religious works.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was thus that tradition was pleased to ascribe to the gods, and among
+      them to Thot&mdash;the doubly great&mdash;the invention of all the arts
+      and sciences which gave to Egypt its glory and prosperity. It was clear,
+      not only to the vulgar, but to the wisest of the nation, that, had their
+      ancestors been left merely to their own resources, they would never have
+      succeeded in raising themselves much above the level of the brutes. The
+      idea that a discovery of importance to the country could have risen in a
+      human brain, and, once made known, could have been spread and developed by
+      the efforts of successive generations, appeared to them impossible to
+      accept. They believed that every art, every trade, had remained unaltered
+      from the outset, and if some novelty in its aspect tended to show them
+      their error, they preferred to imagine a divine intervention, rather than
+      be undeceived. The mystic writing, inserted as chapter sixty-four in the
+      <i>Book of the Dead</i>, and which subsequently was supposed to be of
+      decisive moment to the future life of man, was, as they knew, posterior in
+      date to the other formulas of which this book was composed; they did not,
+      however, regard it any the less as being of divine origin. It had been
+      found one day, without any one knowing whence it came, traced in blue
+      characters on a plaque of alabaster, at the foot of the statue of Thot, in
+      the sanctuary of Hermopolis. A prince, Hardiduf, had discovered it in his
+      travels, and regarding it as a miraculous object, had brought it to his
+      sovereign. This king, according to some, was H�sapha�ti of the first
+      dynasty, but by others was believed to be the pious Mykerinos. In the same
+      way, the book on medicine, dealing with the diseases of women, was held
+      not to be the work of a practitioner; it had revealed itself to a priest
+      watching at night before the Holy of Holies in the temple of Isis at
+      Coptos. "Although the earth was plunged into darkness, the moon shone upon
+      it and enveloped it with light. It was sent as a great wonder to the
+      holiness of King Kheops, the just of speech." The gods had thus exercised
+      a direct influence upon men until they became entirely civilized, and this
+      work of culture was apportioned among the three divine dynasties according
+      to the strength of each. The first, which comprised the most vigorous
+      divinities, had accomplished the more difficult task of establishing the
+      world on a solid basis; the second had carried on the education of the
+      Egyptians; and the third had regulated, in all its minutiae, the religious
+      constitution of the country. When there was nothing more demanding
+      supernatural strength or intelligence to establish it, the gods returned
+      to heaven, and were succeeded on the throne by mortal men. One tradition
+      maintained dogmatically that the first human king whose memory it
+      preserved, followed immediately after the last of the gods, who, in
+      quitting the palace, had made over the crown to man as his heir, and that
+      the change of nature had not entailed any interruption in the line of
+      sovereigns. Another tradition would not allow that the contact between the
+      human and divine series had been so close. Between the Ennead and Men�s,
+      it intercalated one or more lines of Theban or Thinite kings; but these
+      were of so formless, shadowy, and undefined an aspect, that they were
+      called Manes, and there was attributed to them at most only a passive
+      existence, as of persons who had always been in the condition of the dead,
+      and had never been subjected to the trouble of passing through life. Men�s
+      was the first in order of those who were actually living. From his time,
+      the Egyptians claimed to possess an uninterrupted list of the Pharaohs who
+      had ruled over the Nile valley. As far back as the XVIIIth dynasty this
+      list was written upon papyrus, and furnished the number of years that each
+      prince occupied the throne, or the length of his life.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only one of these lists which we possess, the "Turin
+     Royal Papyrus," was bought, nearly intact, at Thebes, by
+     Drovetti, about 1818, but was accidentally injured by him in
+     bringing home. The fragments of it were acquired, together
+     with the rest of the collection, by the Piedmontese
+     Government in 1820, and placed in the Turin Museum, where
+     Champollion saw and drew attention to them in 1824.
+     Seyffarth carefully collected and arranged them in the order
+     in which they now are; subsequently Lepsius gave a facsimile
+     of them in 1840, in his <i>Auswahl der wichtigsten Urhunden</i>,
+     pls. i.-vi., but this did not include the verso;
+     Champollion-Figeac edited in 1847, in the <i>Revue
+     Arch�ologique</i>, 1st series, vol. vi., the tracings taken by
+     the younger Champollion before Seyffarth's arrangement;
+     lastly, Wilkinson published the whole in detail in 1851.
+     Since then, the document has been the subject of continuous
+     investigation: E. de Roug� has reconstructed, in an almost
+     conclusive manner, the pages containing the first six
+     dynasties, and Lauth, with less certainty, those which deal
+     with the eight following dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Extracts from it were inscribed in the temples, or even in the tombs of
+      private persons; and three of these abridged catalogues are still extant,
+      two coming from the temples of Seti I. and Ramses II. at Abydos,[*] while
+      the other was discovered in the tomb of a person of rank named Tunari, at
+      Saqq�ra.[**] They divided this interminable succession of often
+      problematical personages into dynasties, following in this division, rules
+      of which we are ignorant, and which varied in the course of ages. In the
+      time of the Ramessides, names in the list which subsequently under the
+      Lagides formed five groups were made to constitute one single
+      dynasty.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The first table of Abydos, unfortunately incomplete, was
+     discovered in the temple of Ramses II. by Banks, in 1818;
+     the copy published by Caillaud and by Salt served as a
+     foundation for Champollion's first investigations on the
+     history of Egypt. The original, brought to France by Mimaut,
+     was acquired by England, and is now in the British Museum.
+     The second table, which is complete, all but a few signs,
+     was brought to light by Mariette in 1864, in the excavations
+     at Abydos, and was immediately noticed and published by
+     D�michen. The text of it is to be found in Mariette, <i>La
+     Nouvelle Table d'Abydos (Revue Arch�ologique</i>, 2nd series,
+     vol. xiii.), and <i>Abydos</i>, vol. i. pl. 43.
+
+     **  The table of Saqq�ra, discovered in 1863, has been
+     published by Mariette, <i>La Table de Saqq�ra (Revue
+     Arch�ologique</i>, 2nd series, vol. x. p. 169, et seq.), and
+     reproduced in the <i>Monuments Divers</i>, pl. 58.
+
+     ***  The Royal Canon of Turin, which dates from the
+     Ramesside period, gives, indeed, the names of these early
+     kings without a break, until the list reaches Unas; at this
+     point it sums up the number of Pharaohs and the aggregate
+     years of their reigns, thus indicating the end of a dynasty.
+     In the intervals between the dynasties rubrics are placed,
+     pointing out the changes which took place in the order of
+     direct succession. The division of the same group of
+     sovereigns into five dynasties has been preserved to us by
+     Manetho.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Manetho of Sebennytos, who wrote a history of Europe for the use of
+      Alexandrine Greeks, had adopted, on some unknown authority, a division of
+      thirty-one dynasties from Men�s to the Macedonian Conquest, and his system
+      has prevailed&mdash;not, indeed, on account of its excellence, but because
+      it is the only complete one which has come down to us.[*] All the families
+      inscribed in his lists ruled in succession.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The best restoration of the system of Manetho is that by
+     Lepsius, <i>Das Konigsbuch der Alten �gypter</i>, which should be
+     completed and corrected from the memoirs of Lauth, Lieblein,
+     Krall, and Unger. A common fault attaches to all these
+     memoirs, so remarkable in many respects. They regard the
+     work of Manetho, not as representing a more or less
+     ingenious system applied to Egyptian history, but as
+     furnishing an authentic scheme of this history, in which it
+     is necessary to enclose all the royal names which the
+     monuments have revealed, and are still daily revealing to
+     us.
+
+     **  E. de Roug� triumphantly demonstrated, in opposition to
+     Bunsen, now nearly fifty years ago, that all Manetho's
+     dynasties are successive, and the monuments discovered from
+     year to year in Egypt have confirmed his demonstration in
+     every detail.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The country was no doubt frequently broken up into a dozen or more
+      independent states, each possessing its own kings during several
+      generations; but the annalists had from the outset discarded these
+      collateral lines, and recognized only one legitimate dynasty, of which the
+      rest were but vassals. Their theory of legitimacy does not always agree
+      with actual history, and the particular line of princes which they
+      rejected as usurpers represented at times the only family possessing true
+      rights to the crown.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is enough to give two striking examples of this. The
+     royal lists of the time of the Ramessides suppress, at the
+     end of the XVIIIth dynasty, Amen�thes IV. and several of his
+     successors, and give the following sequence&mdash;Amen�thes
+     III., Harmhab�t, Ramses I., without any apparent hiatus;
+     Manetho, on the contrary, replaces the kings who were
+     omitted, and keeps approximately to the real order between
+     Horos (Amen�thes III.) and Armais (Harmhab�t). Again, the
+     official tradition of the XXth dynasty gives, between Ramses
+     II. and Ramses III., the sequence&mdash;M�nephtah, Seti IL,
+     Nakht-Seti; Manetho, on the other hand, gives Amenemes
+     followed by Th��ris, who appear to correspond to the
+     Amenmeses and Siphtah of contemporary monuments, but, after
+     M�nephtah, he omits Seti II. and Nakh�tou-Seti, the father
+     of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In Egypt, as elsewhere, the official chroniclers were often obliged to
+      accommodate the past to the exigencies of the present, and to manipulate
+      the annals to suit the reigning party; while obeying their orders the
+      chroniclers deceived posterity, and it is only by a rare chance that we
+      can succeed in detecting them in the act of falsification, and can
+      re-establish the truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0046" id="linklinkCimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/325.jpg" width="100%" alt="325.jpg Table of the Kings " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The system of Manetho, in the state in which it has been handed down to us
+      by epitomizers, has rendered, and continues to render, service to science;
+      if it is not the actual history of Egypt, it is a sufficiently faithful
+      substitute to warrant our not neglecting it when we wish to understand and
+      reconstruct the sequence of events. His dynasties furnish the necessary
+      framework for most of the events and revolutions, of which the monuments
+      have preserved us a record. At the outset, the centre to which the affairs
+      of the country gravitated was in the extreme north of the valley. The
+      principality which extended from the entrance of the Fay�m to the apex of
+      the Delta, and subsequently the town of Memphis itself, imposed their
+      sovereigns upon the remaining nomes, served as an emporium for commerce
+      and national industries, and received homage and tribute from neighbouring
+      peoples. About the time of the VIth dynasty this centre of gravity was
+      displaced, and tended towards the interior; it was arrested for a short
+      time at Heracleo-polis (IXth and Xth dynasties), and ended by fixing
+      itself at Thebes (XIth dynasty). From henceforth Thebes became the
+      capital, and furnished Egypt with her rulers. With the exception of the
+      XIVth Xo�te dynasty, all the families occupying the throne from the XIth
+      to the XXth dynasty were Theban. When the barbarian shepherds invaded
+      Africa from Asia, the Theba�d became the last refuge and bulwark of
+      Egyptian nationality; its chiefs struggled for many centuries against the
+      conquerors before they were able to deliver the rest of the valley. It was
+      a Theban dynasty, the XVIIIth, which inaugurated the era of foreign
+      conquest; but after the XIXth, a movement, the reverse of that which had
+      taken place towards the end of the first period, brought back the centre
+      of gravity, little by little, towards the north of the country. From the
+      time of the XXIst dynasty, Thebes ceased to hold the position of capital:
+      Tanis, Bubastis, Mendes, Sebennytos, and above all, Sais, disputed the
+      supremacy with each other, and political life was concentrated in the
+      maritime provinces. Those of the interior, ruined by Ethiopian and
+      Assyrian invasions, lost their influence and gradually dwindled away.
+      Thebes became impoverished and depopulated; it fell into ruins, and soon
+      was nothing more than a resort for devotees or travellers. The history of
+      Egypt is, therefore, divided into three periods, each corresponding to the
+      suzerainty of a town or a principality:&mdash;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I.&mdash;Memphite Period, usually called the "Ancient Empire," from the
+      Ist to the Xth dynasty: kings of Memphite origin ruled over the whole of
+      Egypt during the greater part of this epoch.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      II.&mdash;Theban Period, from the XIth to the XXth dynasty. It is divided
+      into two parts by the invasion of the Shepherds (XVIth dynasty):
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      a. The first Theban Empire (Middle Empire), from the XIth to the XIVth
+      dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      b. The new Theban Empire, from the XVIIth to the XXth dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      III.&mdash;Sa�te Period, from the XXIst to the XXXth dynasty, divided into
+      two unequal parts by the Persian Conquest:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      a. The first Sa�te period, from the XXIst to the XXVIth dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      b. The second Sa�te period, from the XXVIIIth to the XXXth dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Memphites had created the monarchy. The Thebans extended the rule of
+      Egypt far and wide, and made of her a conquering state: for nearly six
+      centuries she ruled over the Upper Nile and over Western Asia. Under the
+      Sa�tes she retired gradually within her natural frontiers, and from having
+      been aggressive became assailed, and suffered herself to be crushed in
+      turn by all the nations she had once oppressed.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The division into Ancient, Middle, and New Empire,
+     proposed by Lepsius, has the disadvantage of not taking into
+     account the influence which the removal of the seat of the
+     dynasties exercised on the history of the country. The
+     arrangement which I have here adopted was first put forward
+     in the <i>Revue critique</i>, 1873, vol. i. pp. 82, 83.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The monuments have as yet yielded no account of the events which tended to
+      unite the country under the rule of one man; we can only surmise that the
+      feudal principalities had gradually been drawn together into two groups,
+      each of which formed a separate kingdom. Heliopolis became the chief focus
+      in the north, from which civilization radiated over the rich plains and
+      the marshes of the Delta. Its colleges of priests had collected,
+      condensed, and arranged the principal myths of the local religions; the
+      Ennead to which it gave conception would never have obtained the
+      popularity which we must acknowledge it had, if its princes had not
+      exercised, for at least some period, an actual suzerainty over the
+      neighbouring plains. It was around Heliopolis that the kingdom of Lower
+      Egypt was organized; everything there bore traces of Heliopolitan theories&mdash;the
+      protocol of the kings, their supposed descent from R�, and the
+      enthusiastic worship which they offered to the sun. The Delta, owing to
+      its compact and restricted area, was aptly suited for government from one
+      centre; the Nile valley proper, narrow, tortuous, and stretching like a
+      thin strip on either bank of the river, did not lend itself to so complete
+      a unity. It, too, represented a single kingdom, having the reed and the
+      lotus for its emblems; but its component parts were more loosely united,
+      its religion was less systematized, and it lacked a well-placed city to
+      serve as a political and sacerdotal centre. Hermopolis contained schools
+      of theologians who certainly played an important part in the development
+      of myths and dogmas; but the influence of its rulers was never widely
+      felt. In the south, Si�t disputed their supremacy, and Heracleopolis
+      stopped their road to the north. These three cities thwarted and
+      neutralized one another, and not one of them ever succeeded in obtaining a
+      lasting authority over Upper Egypt. Each of the two kingdoms had its own
+      natural advantages and its system of government, which gave to it a
+      particular character, and stamped it, as it were, with a distinct
+      personality down to its latest days. The kingdom of Upper Egypt was more
+      powerful, richer, better populated, and was governed apparently by more
+      active and enterprising rulers. It is to one of the latter, Mini or Men�s
+      of Thinis, that tradition ascribes the honour of having fused the two
+      Egypts into a single empire, and of having inaugurated the reign of the
+      human dynasties. Thinis figured in the historic period as one of the least
+      of Egyptian cities. It barely maintained an existence on the left bank of
+      the Nile, if not on the exact spot now occupied by Girgeh, at least only a
+      short distance from it.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Thinis is not yet satisfactorily identified.
+     It is neither at Kom-es-Sult�n, as Mariette thought, nor,
+     according to the hypothesis of A. Schmidt, at El-Kherbeh.
+     Brugsch has proposed to fix the site at the village of
+     Tineh, near Berdis, and is followed in this by Dumichen. The
+     present tendency is to identify it either with Girgeh
+     itself, or with one of the small neighbouring towns&mdash;for
+     example, Birbeh&mdash;where there are some ancient ruins; this
+     was also the opinion of Champollion and of Nester L'h�te. I
+     may mention that, in a frequently quoted passage of
+     Hellanicos, Zo�ga corrects the reading [Greek phrase], which
+     would once more give us the name of Thinis: the mention of
+     this town as being "situated on the river," would be a fresh
+     reason for its identification with Girgeh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0047" id="linklinkCimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/332.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="332.jpg Plan of the Ruins Of Abydos, Made by Mariette In 1865 and 1875. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The principality of the Osirian Reliquary, of which it was the metropolis,
+      occupied the valley from one mountain range to the other, and gradually
+      extended across the desert as far as the Great Theban Oasis. Its
+      inhabitants worshipped a sky-god, Anh�ri, or rather two twin gods,
+      Anh�ri-Sh�, who were speedily amalgamated with the solar deities and
+      became a warlike personification of R�. Anh�ri-Sh�, like all the other
+      solar manifestations, came to be associated with a goddess having the form
+      or head of a lioness&mdash;a Sokh�t, who took for the occasion the epithet
+      of M�h�t, the northern one. Some of the dead from this city are buried on
+      the other side of the Nile, near the modern village of Mesheikh, at the
+      foot of the Arabian chain, whose steep cliffs here approach somewhat near
+      the river: the principal necropolis was at some distance to the east, near
+      the sacred town of Abydos. It would appear that, at the outset, Abydos was
+      the capital of the country, for the entire nome bore the same name as the
+      city, and had adopted for its symbol the representation of the reliquary
+      in which the god reposed. In very early times Abydos fell into decay, and
+      resigned its political rank to Thinis, but its religious importance
+      remained unimpaired. The city occupied a long and narrow strip of land
+      between the canal and the first slopes of the Libyan mountains. A brick
+      fortress defended it from the incursions of the Bedouin, and beside it the
+      temple of the god of the dead reared its naked walls. Here, Anh�ri, having
+      passed from life to death, was worshipped under the name of Khontament�t,
+      the chief of that western region whither souls repair on quitting this
+      earth. It is impossible to say by what blending of doctrines or by what
+      political combinations this Sun of the Night came to be identified with
+      Osiris of Mendes, since the fusion dates back to a very remote antiquity;
+      it had become an established fact long before the most ancient sacred
+      books were compiled. Osiris Khontament�t grew rapidly in popular favour,
+      and his temple attracted annually an increasing number of pilgrims. The
+      Great Oasis had been considered at first as a sort of mysterious paradise,
+      whither the dead went in search of peace and happiness. It was called
+      U�fc, the Sepulchre; this name clung to it after it had become an actual
+      Egyptian province, and the remembrance of its ancient purpose survived in
+      the minds of the people, so that the "cleft," or gorge in the mountain
+      through which the doubles journeyed towards it, never ceased to be
+      regarded as one of the gates of the other world. At the time of the New
+      Year festivals, spirits flocked thither from all parts of the valley; they
+      there awaited the coming of the dying sun, in order to embark with him and
+      enter safely the dominions of Khontament�t. Abydos, even before the
+      historic period, was the only town, and its god the only god, whose
+      worship, practised by all Egyptians, inspired them all with an equal
+      devotion. The excavations of the last few years have brought to light
+      some, at all events, of the oldest Pharaohs known to the Egyptian
+      annalists, namely, those whom they placed in their first human dynasties;
+      and the locality where the monuments of these princes were discovered,
+      shows us that these writers were correct in representing Thinis as playing
+      an important part in the history of the early ages of their country. If
+      the tomb of Men�s&mdash;that sovereign whom we are inclined to look upon
+      as the first king of the official lists&mdash;lies near the village of
+      Nagadeh, not far from Thebes,[*] those of his immediate successors are
+      close to Thinis, in the cemeteries of Abydos.[**] They stand at the very
+      foot of the Libyan hills, near the entrance to the ravine&mdash;the
+      "Cleft"&mdash;through which the mysterious oasis was reached, and thither
+      the souls flocked in order that they might enter by a safe way the land
+      beyond the grave.[***]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The objects found during these excavations are now in  the
+     G�zeh Museum.
+
+     **  The credit of having discovered this important
+     necropolis, and of having brought to light the earliest
+     known monuments of the first dynasties, is entirely due to
+     Am�lineau. He carried on important work there during four
+     years, from 1895 to 1899: unfortunately its success was
+     impaired by the theories which he elaborated with regard to
+     the new monuments, and by the delay in publishing an account
+     of the objects which remained in his possession.
+
+     ***  For the "Cleft," cf. supra, pp. 281, 282, 334.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The mass of pottery, whole and broken, which has accumulated on this site
+      from the offerings of centuries has obtained for it among the Fellahin the
+      name of Omm-el-G-a�b&mdash;"the mother of pots." The tombs there lie in
+      serried ranks. They present for the most part a rough model of the
+      pyramids of the Memphite period&mdash;rectangular structures of bricks
+      without mortar rising slightly above the level of the plain. The funeral
+      chamber occupies the centre of each, and is partly hollowed out of the
+      soil, like a shallow well, the sides being bricked. It had a flat timber
+      roof, covered by a layer of about three feet of sand; the floor also was
+      of wood, and in several cases the remains of the beams of both ceiling and
+      pavement have been brought to light. The body of the royal inmate was laid
+      in the middle of the chamber, surrounded by its funeral furniture and by a
+      part of the offerings. The remainder was placed in the little rooms which
+      opened out of the principal vault, sometimes on the same level, sometimes
+      on one higher than itself; after their contents had been laid within them,
+      the entrance to these rooms was generally walled up. Human bodies have
+      been found inside them, probably those of slaves killed at the funeral
+      that they might wait upon the dead in his life beyond the grave.[*] The
+      objects placed in these chambers were mostly offerings, but besides these
+      were coarse stelae bearing the name of a person, and dictated to "the
+      double of his luminary."[**] Some of them mention a dwarf[***] or a
+      favourite dog of the sovereign, who accompanied his master into the tomb.
+      Tablets of ivory or bone skilfully incised furnish us with scenes
+      representing some of the ceremonies of the deification of the king in his
+      lifetime and the sacrifices offered at the time of his burial;[****] in
+      rarer instances they record his exploits.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  El. Petrie, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty, part i.
+     p. 14.
+
+     **  The "luminous double" or the "double of his luminary" is
+     doubtless that luminous spectre which haunted the tombs and
+     even the houses of the living during the night, and which I
+     have mentioned, supra, p. 160.
+
+     ***  Petrie found the skeletons of two dwarfs, probably the
+     very two to whom the two stelae (Nos. 36, 37) in the tomb of
+     Semempses were raised. Was one of these dwarfs one of the
+     <i>Danga</i> of Puan�t who were sought after by the Pharaohs of
+     the Memphite dynasties?
+
+     ****  This was the ceremony called by the Egyptians "The
+     Festival of the Foundation "&mdash;<i>habu sadu</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The offerings themselves were such as we meet with in burials of a
+      subsequent age&mdash;bread, cakes, meat, and poultry of various sorts&mdash;indeed,
+      everything we find mentioned in the lists inscribed in the tombs of the
+      later dynasties, particularly the jars of wine and liquors, on the clay
+      bungs of which are still legible the impression of the signet bearing the
+      name of the sovereign for whose use they were sealed. Besides stuffs and
+      mats, the furniture comprised chairs, beds, stools, an enormous number of
+      vases, some in coarse pottery for common use, others in choice stone such
+      as diorite, granite, or rock crystal very finely worked, on the fragments
+      of all of which may be read cut in outline the names and preamble of the
+      Pharaoh to whom the object belonged. The ceremonial of the funerary
+      offering and its significance was already fully developed at this early
+      period; this can be gathered by the very nature of the objects buried with
+      the deceased, by their number, quantity, and by the manner in which they
+      were arranged. Like their successors in the Egypt of later times, these
+      ancient kings expected to continue their material existence within the
+      tomb, and they took precautions that life there should be as comfortable
+      as circumstances should permit. Access to the tomb was sometimes gained by
+      a sloping passage or staircase; this made it possible to see if everything
+      within was in a satisfactory condition. After the dead had been enclosed
+      in his chamber, and five or six feet of sand had been spread over the
+      beams which formed its roof, the position of the tomb was shown merely by
+      a scarcely perceptible rise in the soil of the necropolis, and its site
+      would soon have been forgotten, if its easternmost limits had not been
+      marked by two large stelae on which were carefully engraved one of the
+      appellations of the king&mdash;that of his double, or his Horus name.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * For the Horus name of the Pharaohs, see vol. �i., pp. 23-
+     25.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was on this spot, upon an altar placed between the two stel�, that the
+      commemorative ceremonies were celebrated, and the provisions renewed on
+      certain days fixed by the religious law. Groups of private tombs were
+      scattered around,&mdash;the resting-places of the chief officers of the
+      sovereign, the departed Pharaoh being thus surrounded in death by the same
+      courtiers as those who had attended him during his earthly existence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The princes, whose names and titles have been revealed to us by the
+      inscriptions on these tombs, have not by any means been all classified as
+      yet, the prevailing custom at that period having been to designate them by
+      their Horus names, but rarely by their proper names, which latter is the
+      only one which figures in the official lists which we possess of the
+      Egyptian kings. A few texts, more explicit than the rest, enable us to
+      identify three of them with the Usaphais, the Miebis, and the Semempses of
+      Manetho&mdash;the fifth, sixth, and seventh kings of the Ist dynasty.[*]
+      The fact that they are buried in the necropolis of Abydos apparently
+      justifies the opinion of the Egyptian chroniclers that they were natives
+      of Thinis. Is the Men�s who usually figures at their head[**] also a
+      Thinite prince?
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The credit is due to Sethe of having attributed their
+     ordinary names to several of the kings of the Ist dynasty
+     with Horus names only which were found by Am�lineau, and
+     these identifications have been accepted by all
+     Egyptologists. P�trie discovered quite recently on some
+     fragments of vases the Horus names of these same princes,
+     together with their ordinary names. The Usaphais, the
+     Miebis, and the Semempses of Manetho are now satisfactorily
+     identified with three of the Pharaohs discovered by
+     Am�lineau and by P�trie.
+
+     **  In the time of Seti I. and Ramses II. he heads the list
+     of the Table of Abydos. Under Ramses II. his statue was
+     carried in procession, preceding all  the  other  royal
+     statues.    Finally,   the  "Royal  Papyrus"  of  Turin,
+     written in the time of Ramses I., begins the entire series
+     of the human Pharaohs with his name.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Several scholars believe that his ordinary name, Mini, is to be read on an
+      ivory tablet engraved for a sovereign whose Horus name&mdash;Ahau�ti, the
+      warlike&mdash;is known to us from several documents, and whose tomb also
+      has been discovered, but at Nagadeh. It is a great rectangular structure
+      of bricks 165 feet long and 84 broad, the external walls of which were
+      originally ornamented by deep polygonal grooves, resembling those which
+      score the fa�ade of Chald�an buildings, but the Nagadeh tomjb has a second
+      brick wall which fills up all the hollows left in the first one, and thus
+      hides the primitive decoration of the monument. The building contains
+      twenty-one chambers, five of which in the centre apparently constituted
+      the dwelling of the deceased, while the others, grouped around these,
+      serve as storehouses from whence he could draw his provisions at will. Did
+      the king buried within indeed bear the name of Men�s,[*] and if such was
+      the case, how are we to reconcile the tradition of his Thinite origin with
+      the existence of his far-off tomb in the neighbourhood of Thebes?
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The sign <i>Manu</i>, which appears on the ivory tablet found
+     in this tomb, has been interpreted as a king's name, and
+     consequently inferred to be Men�s. This reading has been
+     disputed on various sides, and the point remains, therefore,
+     a contested one until further discovery.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Objects bearing his Horus name have been found at Omm-el-Ga�b, and it is
+      evident that he belonged to the same age as the sovereigns interred in
+      this necropolis. If, indeed, Men�s was really his personal name, there is
+      no reason against his being the Men�s of tradition, he whom the Pharaohs
+      of the glorious Theban dynasties regarded as the earliest of their purely
+      human ancestors. Whether he was really the first king who reigned over the
+      whole of Egypt, or whether he had been preceded by other sovereigns whose
+      monuments we may find in some site still unexplored, is a matter for
+      conjecture. That princes had exercised authority in various parts of the
+      country is still uncertain, but that the Egyptian historians did not know
+      them, seems to prove that they had left no written records of their names.
+      At any rate, a Men�s lived who reigned at the outset of history, and
+      doubtless before long the Nile valley, when more carefully explored, will
+      yield us monuments recording his actions and determining his date. The
+      civilization of the Egypt of his time was ruder than that with which we
+      have hitherto been familiar on its soil, but even at that early period it
+      was almost as complete. It had its industries and its arts, of which the
+      cemeteries furnish us daily with the most varied examples: weaving,
+      modelling in clay, wood-carving, the incising of ivory, gold, and the
+      hardest stone were all carried on; the ground was cultivated with hoe and
+      plough; tombs were built showing us the model of what the houses and
+      palaces must have been; the country had its army, its administrators, its
+      priests, its nobles, its writing, and its system of epigraphy differs so
+      little from that to which we are accustomed in later ages, that we can
+      decipher it with no great difficulty. Frankly speaking, all that we know
+      at present of the first of the Pharaohs beyond the mere fact of his
+      existence is practically <i>nil</i>, and the stories related of him by the
+      writers of classical times are mere legends arranged to suit the fancy of
+      the compiler. "This Men�s, according to the priests, surrounded Memphis
+      with dykes. For the river formerly followed the sandhills for some
+      distance on the Libyan side. Men�s, having dammed up the reach about a
+      hundred stadia to the south of Memphis, caused the old bed to dry up, and
+      conveyed the river through an artificial channel dug midway between the
+      two mountain ranges. Then Men�s, the first who was king, having enclosed a
+      firm space of ground with dykes, there founded that town which is still
+      called Memphis; he then made a lake round it, to the north and west, fed
+      by the river, the city being bounded on the east by the Nile."[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The dyke supposed to have been made by Men�s is evidently
+     that of Qoshe�sh, which now protects the province of G�zeh,
+     and regulates the inundation in its neighbourhood.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The history of Memphis, such as it can be gathered from the monuments,
+      differs considerably from the tradition current in Egypt at the time of
+      Herodotus. It appears, indeed, that at the outset, the site on which it
+      subsequently arose was occupied by a small fortress, Anb�-haz�&mdash;the
+      white wall&mdash;which was dependent on Heliopolis, and in which Phtah
+      possessed a sanctuary. After the "white wall" was separated from the
+      Heliopolitan principality to form a nome by itself, it assumed a certain
+      importance, and furnished, so it was said, the dynasties which succeeded
+      the Thinite. Its prosperity dates only, however, from the time when the
+      sovereigns of the Vth and VIth dynasties fixed on it for their residence;
+      one of them, Papi L, there founded for himself and for his "double" after
+      him, a new town, which he called Minnof�r�, from his tomb. Minnof�r�,
+      which is the correct pronunciation and the origin of Memphis, probably
+      signified "the good refuge," the haven of the good, the burying-place
+      where the blessed dead came to rest beside Osiris. The people soon forgot
+      the true interpretation, or probably it did not fall in with their taste
+      for romantic tales. They were rather disposed, as a rule, to discover in
+      the beginnings of history individuals from whom the countries or cities
+      with which they were familiar took their names: if no tradition supplied
+      them with this, they did not experience any scruple in inventing one. The
+      Egyptians of the time of the Ptolemies, who were guided in their
+      philological speculations by the pronunciation in vogue around them,
+      attributed the patronship of their city to a Princess Memphis, a daughter
+      of its founder, the fabulous Uchoreus; those of preceding ages before the
+      name had become altered, thought to find in Minnof�r� a "Mini Nofir," or
+      "Men�s the Good," the reputed founder of the capital of the Delta. Men�s
+      the Good, divested of his epithet, is none other than Men�s, the first
+      king, and he owes this episode in his life to a popular attempt at
+      etymology. The legend which identifies the establishment of the kingdom
+      with the construction of the city, must have originated at the time when
+      Memphis was still the residence of the kings and the seat of government,
+      at latest about the end of the Memphite period. It must have been an old
+      tradition in the time of the Theban dynasties, since they admitted
+      unhesitatingly the authenticity of the statements which ascribed to the
+      northern city so marked a superiority over their own country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0048" id="linklinkCimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/343.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="343.jpg Necklace, Bearing Name of Menes. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin after Prisse d'Avenues. The gold
+     medallions engraved with the name of Men�s are ancient, and
+     perhaps go back to the XXth dynasty; the setting is entirely
+     modern, with the exception of the three oblong pendants of
+     cornelian.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When once this half-mythical Men�s was firmly established in his position,
+      there was little difficulty in inventing a story which would portray him
+      as an ideal sovereign. He was represented as architect, warrior, and
+      statesman; he had begun the temple of Phtah, written laws and regulated
+      the worship of the gods, particularly that of H�pis, and he had conducted
+      expeditions against the Libyans. When he lost his only son in the flower
+      of his age, the people improvised a hymn of mourning to console him&mdash;the
+      "Maneros"&mdash;both the words and the tune of which were handed down from
+      generation to generation. He did not, moreover, disdain the luxuries of
+      the table, for he invented the art of serving a dinner, and the mode of
+      eating it in a reclining posture. One day, while hunting, his dogs,
+      excited by something or other, fell upon him to devour him. He escaped
+      with difficulty, and, pursued by them, fled to the shore of Lake Moeris,
+      and was there brought to bay; he was on the point of succumbing to them,
+      when a crocodile took him on his back and carried him across to the other
+      side.[*] In gratitude he built a new town, which he called Crocodilopolis,
+      and assigned to it for its god the crocodile which had saved him; he then
+      erected close to it the famous labyrinth and a pyramid for his tomb. Other
+      traditions show him in a less favourable light. They accuse him of having,
+      by horrible crimes, excited against him the anger of the gods, and allege
+      that after a reign of sixty to sixty-two years, he was killed by a
+      hippopotamus which came forth from the Nile.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  This is an episode from the legend of Osiris: at Phihe,
+     in the little building of the Antonines, may be seen a
+     representation of a crocodile crossing the Nile, carrying on
+     his back the mummy of the god. The same episode is also
+     found in the tale of Onus el Uj�d and of Uard f'il-Ikm�m,
+     where the crocodile leads the hero to his beautiful prisoner
+     in the Island of Phil�. Ebers, <i>�gypte</i>, French trans., vol.
+     ii. pp. 415, 416, has shown how this episode in the Arab
+     story must have been inspired by the bas-relief at Phil� and
+     by the scene which it portrays: the temple is still called
+     "Kasr," and the island "Geziret Onus el-Uj�d."
+
+     **  In popular romances, this was the usual end of criminals
+     of every kind; we shall see that another king, Akhthoes the
+     founder of the IXth dynasty, after committing horrible
+     misdeeds, was killed, in the same way as Men�s, by a
+     hippopotamus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They also related that the Sa�te Tafnakhti, returning from an expedition
+      against the Arabs, during which he had been obliged to renounce the pomp
+      and luxuries of royal life, had solemnly cursed him, and had caused his
+      imprecations to be inscribed upon a stele set up in the temple of Amon at
+      Thebes. Nevertheless, in the memory that Egypt preserved of its first
+      Pharaoh, the good outweighed the evil. He was worshipped in Memphis side
+      by side with Phtah and Ramses II.; his name figured at the head of the
+      royal lists, and his cult continued till the time of the Ptolemies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His immediate successors had an actual existence, and their tombs are
+      there in proof of it. We know where Usaphais, Miebis, and Semempses[*]
+      were laid to rest, besides more than a dozen other princes whose real
+      names and whose position in the official lists are still uncertain. The
+      order of their succession was often a matter of doubt to the Egyptians
+      themselves, but perhaps the discoveries of the next few years will enable
+      us to clear up and settle definitely matters which were shrouded in
+      mystery in the time of the Theban Pharaohs. As a fact, the forms of such
+      of their names as have been handed down to us by later tradition, are curt
+      and rugged, indicative of an early state of society, and harmonizing with
+      the more primitive civilization to which they belong: Ati the Wrestler,
+      Teti the Runner, Qenqoni the Crusher, are suitable rulers for a people,
+      the first duty of whose chief was to lead his followers into battle, and
+      to strike harder than any other man in the thickest of the fight.[**]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Flinders P�trie, <i>The 'Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty</i>,
+     vol. i. p. 56.
+
+     **  The Egyptians were accustomed to explain the meaning of
+     the names of their kings to strangers, and the Canon of
+     Eratosthenes has preserved several of their derivations, of
+     which a certain number, as, for instance, that of Men�s from
+     a�ovio�, the "lasting," are tolerably correct. M. Krall is,
+     to my knowledge, the only Egyptologist who has attempted to
+     glean from the meaning of these names indications of the
+     methods by which the national historians of Egypt
+     endeavoured to make up the lists of the earliest dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some of the monuments they have left us, seem to show that their reigns
+      were as much devoted to war as those of the later Pharaohs. The king whose
+      Horus name was N�rum�r, is seen on a contemporary object which has come
+      down to us, standing before a heap of beheaded foes; the bodies are all
+      stretched out on the ground, each with his head placed neatly between his
+      legs: the king had overcome, apparently in some important engagement,
+      several thousands of his enemies, and was inspecting the execution of
+      their leaders. That the foes with whom these early kings contended were in
+      most cases Egyptian princes of the nomes, is proved by the list of city
+      names which are inscribed on the fragments of another document of the same
+      nature, and we gather from them that Dobu (Edfu), Hasutonu (Cynopolis),
+      Habonu (Hipponon), Hakau (Memphis) and others were successively taken and
+      dismantled.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  Palette resembling the preceding one, and with it
+     deposited in the G�zeh Museum; reproduced by Steindokff, and
+     by J. de Morgan. The names of the towns were enclosed within
+     the embattled line which was used later on to designate
+     foreign countries. The animals which surmount them represent
+     the gods of Egypt, the king's protectors; and the king
+     himself, identified with these gods, is making a breach in
+     the wall with a pick-axe. The names of the towns have not
+     been satisfactorily identified: Hat-kau, for instance, may
+     not be Memphis, but it appears that there is no doubt with
+     regard to Habonu. Cf. Sayce, The Beginnings of the Egyptian
+     Monarchy in the Proceedings of the Biblical Arch�ological
+     Society, 1898, vol. xx. pp, 99-101.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On this fragment King Den is represented standing over a prostrate chief
+      of the Bedouin, striking him with his mace. Sondi, who is classed in the
+      IInd dynasty, received a continuous worship towards the end of the IIIrd
+      dynasty. But did all those whose names preceded or followed his on the
+      lists, really exist as he did? and if they existed, to what extent do the
+      order and the relation assigned to them agree with the actual truth? The
+      different lists do not contain the same names in the same positions;
+      certain Pharaohs are added or suppressed without appreciable reason. Where
+      Manetho inscribes Kenkenes and Ouenephes, the tables of the time of Seti
+      I. gave us Ati and Ata; Manetho reckons nine kings to the IInd dynasty,
+      while they register only five.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The impossibility of reconciling the names of the Greek
+     with those of the Pharaonic lists has been admitted by most
+     of the savants who have discussed the matter, viz. Mariette,
+     E. de Rouge, Lieblein, Wiedemann; most of them explain the
+     differences by the supposition that, in many cases, one of
+     the lists gives the cartouche name, and the other the
+     cartouche prenomen of the same king.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The monuments, indeed, show us that Egypt in the past obeyed princes whom
+      her annalists were unable to classify: for instance, they associate with
+      Sondi a Pirsen�, who is not mentioned in the annals. We must, therefore,
+      take the record of all this opening period of history for what it is&mdash;namely,
+      a system invented at a much later date, by means of various artifices and
+      combinations&mdash;to be partially accepted in default of a better, but
+      without according to it that excessive confidence which it has hitherto
+      received. The two Thinite dynasties, in direct descent from the first
+      human king Men�s, furnish, like this hero himself, only a tissue of
+      romantic tales and miraculous legends in the place of history. A
+      double-headed stork, which had appeared in the first year of Teti, son of
+      Men�s, had foreshadowed to Egypt a long prosperity, but a famine under
+      Ouenephes, and a terrible plague under Semempses, had depopulated the
+      country: the laws had been relaxed, great crimes had been committed, and
+      revolts had broken out. During the reign of Bo�thos, a gulf had opened
+      near Bubastis, and swallowed up many people, then the Nile had flowed with
+      honey for fifteen days in the time of Nephercheres, and Sesochris was
+      supposed to have been a giant in stature. A few details about royal
+      edifices were mixed up with these prodigies. Teti had laid the foundation
+      of the great palace of Memphis, Ouenephes had built the pyramids of
+      Ko-kom� near Saqqara. Several of the ancient Pharaohs had published books
+      on theology, or had written treatises on anatomy and medicine; several had
+      made laws which lasted down to the beginning of the Christian era. One of
+      them was called Kak��, the male of males, or the bull of bulls. They
+      explained his name by the statement that he had concerned himself about
+      the sacred animals; he had proclaimed as gods, H�pis of Memphis, Mnevis of
+      Heliopolis, and the goat of Mendes. After him, Bin�thris had conferred the
+      right of succession upon all the women of the blood-royal. The accession
+      of the IIIrd dynasty, a Memphite one according to Manetho, did not at
+      first change the miraculous character of this history. The Libyans had
+      revolted against Necherophes, and the two armies were encamped before each
+      other, when one night the disk of the moon became immeasurably enlarged,
+      to the great alarm of the rebels, who recognized in this phenomenon a sign
+      of the anger of heaven, and yielded without fighting. Tosorthros, the
+      successor of Necherophes, brought the hieroglyphs and the art of
+      stone-cutting to perfection. He composed, as Teti did, books of medicine,
+      a fact which caused him to be identified with the healing god Imhotpu. The
+      priests related these things seriously, and the Greek writers took them
+      down from their lips with the respect which they offered to everything
+      emanating from the wise men of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What they related of the human kings was not more detailed, as we see,
+      than their accounts of the gods. Whether the legends dealt with deities or
+      kings, all that we know took its origin, not in popular imagination, but
+      in sacerdotal dogma: they were invented long after the times they dealt
+      with, in the recesses of the temples, with an intention and a method of
+      which we are enabled to detect flagrant instances on the monuments.
+      Towards the middle of the third century before our era, the Greek troops
+      stationed on the southern frontier, in the forts at the first cataract,
+      developed a particular veneration for Isis of Phil�. Their devotion spread
+      to the superior officers who came to inspect them, then to the whole
+      population of the Theb�id, and finally reached the court of the Macedonian
+      kings. The latter, carried away by force of example, gave every
+      encouragement to a movement which attracted worshippers to a common
+      sanctuary, and united in one cult the two races over which they ruled.
+      They pulled down the meagre building of the Sa'ite period which had
+      hitherto sufficed for the worship of Isis, constructed at great cost the
+      temple which still remains almost intact, and assigned to it considerable
+      possessions in Nubia, which, in addition to gifts from private
+      individuals, made the goddess the richest landowner in Southern Egypt.
+      Khn�m� and his two wives, An�kit and Sat�t, who, before Isis, had been the
+      undisputed suzerains of the cataract, perceived with jealousy their
+      neighbour's prosperity: the civil wars and invasions of the centuries
+      immediately preceding had ruined their temples, and their poverty
+      contrasted painfully with the riches of the new-comer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0049" id="linklinkCimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/350.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="350.jpg Sat�t Presents the Pharaoh Amen�thes Iii. To Khn�m�.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1 Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs of the
+     temple of Khn�m�, at Elephantine.    This bas-relief is now
+     destroyed.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The priests resolved to lay this sad state of affairs before King Ptolemy,
+      to represent to him the services which they had rendered and still
+      continued to render to Egypt, and above all to remind him of the
+      generosity of the ancient Pharaohs, whose example, owing to the poverty of
+      the times, the recent Pharaohs had been unable to follow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0050" id="linklinkCimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/351.jpg" width="100%" alt="351.jpg An�kit " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Doubtless authentic documents were wanting in their archives to support
+      their pretensions: they therefore inscribed upon a rock, in the island of
+      Sehel, a long inscription which they attributed to Zosiri of the IIIrd
+      dynasty. This sovereign had left behind him a vague reputation for
+      greatness. As early as the XIIth dynasty Usirtasen III. had claimed him as
+      "his father"&mdash;his ancestor&mdash;and had erected a statue to him; the
+      priests knew that, by invoking him, they had a chance of obtaining a
+      hearing. The inscription which they fabricated, set forth that in the
+      eighteenth year of Zosiri's reign he had sent to Mad�r, lord of
+      Elephantine, a message couched in these terms: "I am overcome with sorrow
+      for the throne, and for those who reside in the palace, and my heart is
+      afflicted and suffers greatly because the Nile has not risen in my time,
+      for the space of eight years. Corn is scarce, there is a lack of herbage,
+      and nothing is left to eat: when any one calls upon his neighbours for
+      help, they take pains not to go. The child weeps, the young man is uneasy,
+      the hearts of the old men are in despair, their limbs are bent."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ptolemies admit the claims which the local priests attempted to deduce
+      from this romantic tale? and did the god regain possession of the domains
+      and dues which they declared had been his right? The stele shows us with
+      what ease the scribes could forge official documents, when the exigencies
+      of they crouch on the earth, they fold their hands; the courtiers have no
+      further resources; the shops formerly furnished with rich wares are now
+      filled only with air, all that was in them has disappeared.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "My spirit also, mindful of the beginning of things, seeks to call upon
+      the Saviour who was here where I am, during the centuries of the gods,
+      upon Thot-Ibis, that great wise one, upon Imhotp�, son of Phtah of
+      Memphis. Where is the place in which the Nile is born? Who is the god or
+      goddess concealed there? What is his likeness?"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0051" id="linklinkCimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/353.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="353.jpg the Step Pyramid of Sauara. 1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by D�v�ria (1864); in
+     the foreground, the tomb of Ti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The lord of Elephantine brought his reply in person. He described to the
+      king, who was evidently ignorant of it, the situation of the island and
+      the rocks of the cataract, the phenomena of the inundation, the gods who
+      presided over it, and who alone could relieve Egypt from her disastrous
+      plight. Zosiri repaired to the temple of the principality and offered the
+      prescribed sacrifices; the god arose, opened his eyes, panted and cried
+      aloud, "I am Khn�m� who created thee!" and promised him a speedy return of
+      a high Nile and the cessation of the famine. Pharaoh was touched by the
+      benevolence which his divine father had shown him; he forthwith made a
+      decree by which he ceded to the temple all his rights of suzerainty over
+      the neighbouring nomes within a radius of twenty miles. Henceforward the
+      entire population, tillers and vinedressers, fishermen and hunters, had to
+      yield the tithe of their incomes to the priests; the quarries could not be
+      worked without the consent of Khn�m�, and the payment of a suitable
+      indemnity into his coffers, and finally, all metals and precious woods
+      shipped thence for Egypt had to submit to a toll on behalf of the temple.
+      Did the daily life forced the necessity upon them; it teaches us at the
+      same time how that fabulous chronicle was elaborated, whose remains have
+      been preserved for us by classical writers. Every prodigy, every fact
+      related by Manetho, was taken from some document analogous to the supposed
+      inscription of Zosiri.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *  The legend of the yawning gulf at Bubastis must be
+     connected with the gifts supposed to have been offered by
+     King Bo�thos to the temple of that town, to repair the
+     losses sustained by the goddess on that occasion; the legend
+     of the pestilence and famine is traceable to some relief
+     given by a local god, and for which Semempses and �enephes
+     might have shown their gratitude in the same way as Zosiri.
+     The tradition of the successive restorations of Denderah
+     accounts for the constructions attributed to Teti I. and to
+     Tosorthros; finally, the pr�te tided discoveries of sacred
+     books, dealt with elsewhere, show how Manetho was enabled to
+     attribute to his Pharaohs the authorship of works on
+     medicine or theology.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The real history of the early centuries, therefore, eludes our researches,
+      and no contemporary record traces for us those vicissitudes which Egypt
+      passed through before being consolidated into a single kingdom, under the
+      rule of one man. Many names, apparently of powerful and illustrious
+      princes, had survived in the memory of the people; these were collected,
+      classified, and grouped in a regular manner into dynasties, but the people
+      were ignorant of any exact facts connected with the names, and the
+      historians, on their own account, were reduced to collect apocryphal
+      traditions for their sacred archives. The monuments of these remote ages,
+      however, cannot have entirely disappeared: they exist in places where we
+      have not as yet thought of applying the pick, and chance excavations will
+      some day most certainly bring them to light. The few which we do possess
+      barely go back beyond the IIIrd dynasty: namely, the hypogeum of Shiri,
+      priest of Sondi and Pirsen�; possibly the tomb of Kh��thotp� at Saqq�ra;
+      the Great Sphinx of G�zeh; a short inscription on the rocks of the Wady
+      Magh�ra, which represents Zosiri (the same king of whom the priests of
+      Khn�m� in the Greek period made a precedent) working the turquoise or
+      copper mines of Sinai; and finally the Step-Pyramid where this same
+      Pharaoh rests.[*]
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The stele of Seh�l has enabled us to verify the fact that
+     the preamble [a string of titles] to the inscription of the
+     king, buried in the Step-Pyramid, is identical with that of
+     King Zosiri: it was, therefore, Zosiri who constructed, or
+     arranged for the construction of this monument as his tomb.
+     The Step-Pyramid of Saqq�ra was opened in 1819, at the
+     expense of the Prussian General Minutoli, who was the first
+     to give a brief description of the interior, illustrated by
+     plans and drawings.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It forms a rectangular mass, incorrectly orientated, with a variation from
+      the true north of 4� 35', 393 ft. 8 in. long from east to west, and 352
+      ft. deep, with a height of 159 ft. 9 in. It is composed of six cubes, with
+      sloping sides, each being about 13 ft. less in width than the one below
+      it; that nearest to the ground measures 37 ft. 8 in. in height, and the
+      uppermost one 29 ft. 9 in. It was entirely constructed of limestone from
+      the neighbouring mountains. The blocks are small, and badly cut, the stone
+      courses being concave to offer a better resistance to downward thrust and
+      to shocks of earthquake. When breaches in the masonry are examined, it can
+      be seen that the external surface of the steps has, as it were, a double
+      stone facing, each facing being carefully dressed. The body of the pyramid
+      is solid, the chambers being cut in the rock beneath. These chambers have
+      been often enlarged, restored, and reworked in the course of centuries,
+      and the passages which connect them form a perfect labyrinth into which it
+      is dangerous to venture without a guide. The columned porch, the galleries
+      and halls, all lead to a sort of enormous shaft, at the bottom of which
+      the architect had contrived a hiding-place, destined, no doubt, to contain
+      the more precious objects of the funerary furniture. Until the beginning
+      of this century, the vault had preserved its original lining of glazed
+      pottery. Three quarters of the wall surface were covered with green tiles,
+      oblong and slightly convex on the outer side, but flat on the inner: a
+      square projection pierced with a hole, served to fix them at the back in a
+      horizontal line by means of flexible wooden rods.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0052" id="linklinkCimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/356.jpg" width="100%"
+      alt="356. Jpg One of the Chambers Of The Step-pyramid, With Its Wall-covering of Glazed Tiles.1 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     1  Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the coloured sketch by
+     Sogato. M. Stern attributes the decoration of glazed pottery
+     to the XXVI '' dynasty, which opinion is shared by
+     Borchardt. The yellow and green glazed tiles hearing the
+     cartouche of Papi I., show that the Egyptians of the
+     Memphite dynasties used glazed facings at that early date;
+     we may, therefore, believe, if the tiles of the vault of
+     Zosiri are really of the Sa�te period, that they replaced a
+     decoration of the same kind, which belonged to the time of
+     its construction, and of which some fragments still exist
+     among the tiles of more recent date.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The three bands which frame one of the doors are inscribed with the titles
+      of the Pharaoh: the hieroglyphs are raised in either blue, red, green, or
+      yellow, on a fawn-coloured ground. Other kings had built temples, palaces,
+      and towns,&mdash;as, for instance, King Kh�sakhimu, of whose constructions
+      some traces exist at Hierac�npolis, opposite to El-Kab, or King
+      Kh�sakhmui, who preceded by a few years the Pharaohs of the IVth dynasty&mdash;but
+      the monuments which they raised to be witnesses of their power or piety to
+      future generations, have, in the course of ages, disappeared under the
+      tramplings and before the triumphal blasts of many invading hosts: the
+      pyramid alone has survived, and the most ancient of the historic monuments
+      of Egypt is a tomb.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linklinkCimage-0053" id="linklinkCimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:60%;">
+      <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%" alt="357.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 6em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
+
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+  </body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 04:55:37 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 04:55:37 -0700
commit	f9aca3d69b31cf4c58f609119ef425bbc8336c9a (patch)
tree	708d4ff6c03d9bde48d19e81751ba319eb5c1222 /19400-h