diff options
Diffstat (limited to '19314-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 19314-0.txt | 2800 |
1 files changed, 2800 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/19314-0.txt b/19314-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..980ec0d --- /dev/null +++ b/19314-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2800 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Raphael, by Estelle M. Hurll + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Raphael + A Collection Of Fifteen Pictures And A Portrait Of The + Painter With Introduction And Interpretation + +Author: Estelle M. Hurll + +Editor: Estelle M. Hurll + +Release Date: September 19, 2006 [EBook #19314] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RAPHAEL *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: RAPHAEL SANZIO D' URBINO (BY HIMSELF) + _Uffizi Gallery, Florence_] + + + + Masterpieces of Art + + + + RAPHAEL + + A COLLECTION OF FIFTEEN PICTURES + + AND A PORTRAIT OF THE PAINTER + + WITH INTRODUCTION AND + + INTERPRETATION + + + + _EDITED BY_ + + ESTELLE M. HURLL + + + + + + BOSTON AND NEW YORK + + HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + + The Riverside Press Cambridge + + + Copyright, 1899, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO + + * * * * * + + + + +PREFACE + + +The object of this collection of prints is to introduce the student to +Raphael through the pictures which appeal directly to the imagination +with some story interest. With this characteristic as the leading +principle of choice, the variety of subjects is perhaps as wide as the +conditions admit. No attempt is made to represent all the sides of the +painter's art; his portraits are ignored and his Madonnas inadequately +represented, in order to give place to pictures which awaken as many +points of interest as possible. Within these narrow limits Raphael, as +an illustrator and a composer, is even in these few pictures clearly +represented. + +Had choice been limited to pictures painted throughout by Raphael +himself, the value of the collection would have been seriously +affected, as some of the master's most interesting works were handed +over to his pupils for execution. Our list, however, contains only +such works as are at this date reckoned indisputably to be from +Raphael's own designs. + +The text has only the modest aim of making the pictures intelligible. +Critical explanations are beyond its scope, and historical data are +for the most part relegated to the accompanying tables. The +Introduction is intended for teachers, and contains suggestions for a +comparative study of the pictures which may be carried out at +discretion. + +All the reproductions in this book are from photographs made directly +from the original paintings. In order to get the best results a +careful comparison was made of the work of leading photographers. The +photographer of each picture is mentioned in the Table of Contents. + +ESTELLE M. HURLL. + +NEW BEDFORD, MASS. + +June, 1899. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES + + +PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL. PAINTED BY HIMSELF. _Frontispiece._ +FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI. + +INTRODUCTION + +I. ON RAPHAEL'S CHARACTER AS AN ARTIST + +II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE + +III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE PICTURES + +IV. COLLATERAL READING FROM LITERATURE + +V. OUTLINE TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN RAPHAEL'S LIFE + +VI. RAPHAEL'S CONTEMPORARIES + +I. THE MADONNA OF THE CHAIR + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +II. ABRAHAM AND THE THREE ANGELS + + PICTURE FROM CARBON PRINT BY BRAUN, CLEMENT & CO. + +III. THE MIRACULOUS DRAUGHT OF FISHES + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY THURSTON THOMPSON + +IV. THE SACRIFICE AT LYSTRA + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY THURSTON THOMPSON + +V. HELIODORUS DRIVEN FROM THE TEMPLE + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +VI. THE LIBERATION OF PETER + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATRELLI ALINARI + +VII. THE HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I. + + PICTURE FROM CARBON PRINT BY BRAUN, CLEMENT & CO. + +VII. ST. CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ HANFSTAENGL + +IX. ST. CECILIA + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +X. THE TRANSFIGURATION + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +XI. PARNASSUS + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +XII. SOCRATES AND ALCIBIADES + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY GIACOMO BROGI + +XIII. THE FLIGHT OF ÆNEAS + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRATELLI ALINARI + +XIV. ST. MICHAEL SLAYING THE DRAGON + + PICTURE FROM CARBON PRINT BY BRAUN, CLEMENT & CO + +XV. THE SISTINE MADONNA + + PICTURE FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ HANFSTAENGL + +XVI. PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL (_See Frontispiece_) + + PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS + + * * * * * + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +I. ON RAPHAEL'S CHARACTER AS AN ARTIST. + + +No one of the old Italian masters has taken such a firm hold upon the +popular imagination as Raphael. Other artists wax and wane in public +favor as they are praised by one generation of critics or disparaged +by the next; but Raphael's name continues to stand in public +estimation as that of the favorite painter in Christendom. The passing +centuries do not dim his fame, though he is subjected to severe +criticism; and he continues, as he began, the first love of the +people. + +The subjects of his pictures are nearly all of a cheerful nature. He +exercised his skill for the most part on scenes which were agreeable +to contemplate. Pain and ugliness were strangers to his art; he was +preëminently the artist of joy. This is to be referred not only to his +pleasure-loving nature, but to the great influence upon him of the +rediscovery of Greek art in his day, an art which dealt distinctively +with objects of delight. + +Moreover Raphael is compassionate towards mind as well as heart; he +requires of us neither too strenuous feeling nor too much thinking. As +his subjects do not overtax the sympathies with harrowing emotions, +neither does his art overtax the understanding with complicated +effects. His pictures are apparently so simple that they demand no +great intellectual effort and no technical education to enjoy them. +He does all the work for us, and his art is too perfect to astonish. +It was not his way to show what difficult things he could do, but he +made it appear that great art is the easiest thing in the world. This +ease was, however, the result of a splendid mastery of his art. Thus +he arranges the fifty-two figures in the School of Athens, or the +three figures of the Madonna of the Chair, so simply and unobtrusively +that we might imagine such feats were an every-day affair. Yet in both +cases he solves most difficult problems of composition with a success +scarcely paralleled in the history of art. + +Even the Master himself seldom achieved the same kind of success +twice. His Parnassus lacks the variety of the School of Athens, though +the single figures have a similar grace, and the Incendio del Borgo or +Conflagration in the Borgo, with groups equal in beauty to any in the +other two frescoes, has not the unity of either. Again, while the +Parnassus and the Liberation of Peter show a masterly adaptation to +extremely awkward spaces, the Transfiguration fails to solve a much +easier problem of composition. + +Preferring by an instinct such as the Greek artist possessed, the +statuesque effects of repose to the portrayal of action, Raphael +showed himself capable of both. The Hellenic calm of Parnassus is not +more impressive than the splendid charge of the avenging spirits upon +Heliodorus; the visionary idealism of the angel-led Peter is matched +by the vigorous realism of Peter called from his fishing to the +apostleship; the brooding quiet of maternity expressed in the Madonna +of the Chair has a perfect complement in the alert activity of the +swiftly moving Sistine Madonna. + +Great as was Raphael's achievement in many directions, he is +remembered above all else as a painter of Madonnas. Here was the +subject best expressing the individuality of his genius. From the +beginning to the end of his career the sweet mystery of motherhood +never ceased to fascinate him. Again and again he sounded the depths +of maternal experience, always making some new discovery. + +The Madonna of the Chair emphasizes most prominently, perhaps, the +physical instincts of maternity. "She bends over the child," says +Taine, "with the beautiful action of a wild animal." Like a mother +creature instinctively protecting her young, she gathers him in her +capacious embrace as if to shield him from some impending danger. The +Sistine Madonna, on the other hand, is the most spiritual of Raphael's +creations, the perfect embodiment of ideal womanhood. The mother's +love is here transfigured by the spirit of sacrifice. Forgetful of +self, and obedient to the heavenly summons, she bears her son forth to +the service of humanity. + +Sister spirits of the Madonnas, and hardly second in delicate +loveliness, are the virgin saints of Raphael; the Catherine, the +Cecilia, the Magdalene, and the Barbara are abiding ideals in our +dreams of fair women. + +The same sweetness of nature which prompted Raphael's fondness for +lovely women and happy children shows itself also in his delineation +of angels. The archangel Michael, the angel visitors of Abraham, and +the celestial spirits appearing to Heliodorus all follow closely upon +the Madonnas in the purity and serenity of their beauty. In the same +fellowship also belongs the beautiful youth in the crowd at Lystra, +who is as sharply contrasted with his surroundings as if he were a +denizen of another sphere. The ideal is again repeated in the St. John +of the Cecilia altar-piece, whose uplifted face has a sweetness which +is not so much feminine as celestial. The angel of Peter's deliverance +is less successful than the artist's other angel types. The head +seems too small for the splendidly vigorous body, and the face lacks +somewhat of strength. + +If Raphael's favorite ideals were drawn from youth and womanhood, it +was not because he did not understand the purely masculine. The Æneas +of the Borgo fresco, the Paul of the Cecilia altar-piece, and the +Sixtus of the Sistine Madonna show, in three ages, what is best and +most distinctive in ideal manhood. + +Raphael's type of beauty is not such as calls forth immediate or +extravagant admiration: it is satisfying rather than amazing, and its +qualities dawn slowly though steadily upon the imagination. Raphael +holds always to the golden mean; no exaggerated note jars upon the +perfection of his harmonies. For this reason his pictures never grow +tiresome. They stand the test of daily companionship and grow ever +lovelier through familiarity. + +Without forcing the parallel, we may say that something of the same +spirit which animated the work of Raphael reappears in the familiar +poetry of Longfellow. The one artist had an eye for beautiful line, +the other had an ear for melodious verse, and both alike shunned +whatever was inharmonious, always seeking grace and symmetry. Their +subjects were, indeed, of dissimilar range. Raphael, impressed by the +scholarship of his time, chose themes which were larger and more +related to the experience of the world, while Longfellow was never +very far removed from the golden milestone of domestic life. Yet in +diverse subjects both turned instinctively to aspects of womanhood, to +what was refined and gently emotional, and turned away from the +violent and revolutionary. + + +II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE. + +Within the last forty years the methods of criticism as applied to art +have undergone so many changes that there has been a rapid succession +of biographers and critics of Raphael until the student reader of +to-day scarcely knows whom to believe. The time was when Vasari, in +his important "Lives of the Painters," was the accepted source of +information, and all current writers borrowed unquestioningly from him +both facts and opinions; but the old chronicler was too often +influenced by popular gossip and personal prejudice to be depended +upon. Many of his stories are positively disproved by documentary +evidence, and for some years he has stood in dust and disgrace on the +upper shelves of the bookcase. From this exile a revised edition has +recently brought him forth to fresh honors. The joint work of Mr. and +Mrs. E. H. Blashfield with A. A. Hopkins has given us an annotated +text which we may read with equal pleasure and profit. This is +certainly the best of all reference books to put us in touch with the +period in which Raphael lived. + +The German work on Raphael by Passavant, once so weighty, is now +useful only to those who have opportunity to compare it with other +authorities. So likewise the work of Crowe and Cavalcaselle is no +longer desirable as a sole authority. Even the splendid work of Eugene +Müntz (translated by Walter Armstrong), the latest and most valuable +of the comprehensive books on Raphael, must be read in the light of +later criticism. Müntz's volume contains a complete list of the +master's works,--frescoes, easel pictures, tapestries, drawings, and +works in architecture and sculpture,--each class subdivided according +to subject. + +A few of the shorter biographies of Raphael have been corrected +according to the conclusions of the most recent critical scholarship, +as represented by Morelli. Notable among these is the life of Raphael +in Kugler's "Handbook of the Italian Schools," revised by A. H. +Layard, and the life of Raphael included in Mrs. Jameson's "Early +Italian Painters," revised by Estelle M. Hurll. + +The latest entirely new short biographies of Raphael are those (1) by +Mrs. Henry Ady (Julia Cartwright), issued in two parts as monographs for +"The Portfolio:" the "Early Work of Raphael" and "Raphael in Rome," and +(2) by H. Knackfuss in a series of German "Künstler-Monographien" (also +published in an English translation). Both are well illustrated and +useful books. + +Finally the student is referred to Bernhard Berenson's "Central +Italian Painters of the Renaissance" for an exceedingly valuable +estimate of Raphael's character as an artist. + +Many books have been written on the separate works of Raphael,--the +Vatican frescoes, the cartoons, the Madonnas, etc.,--but as most of +these are in German and Italian they are not generally available. The +Blashfield Vasari enumerates a long list of them in the Bibliography +preceding the "Life of Raphael." + + +III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE PICTURES OF THIS COLLECTION. + +_Portrait frontispiece._ Painted on wood, 1506, as a gift from the +painter to his uncle, Simone Ciarla, of Urbino. In 1588 the portrait +passed from Urbino to the Academy of St. Luke, Rome. Later it was sold +to Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici for the Hall of Portraits of the Old +Masters in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. + +1. _The Madonna of the Chair_ is a wood panel 2 ft. 4-3/4 in. +diameter. It was painted between 1510-1514, and is now in the Pitti +Gallery, Florence. + +2. _Abraham and the Three Angels_ is a mural painting in the fourth +arcade of the Loggie, Vatican Palace, Rome. It was executed by +Francesco Penni. + +3, 4. _The Miraculous Draught of Fishes_ and _The Sacrifice at Lystra_ +are cartoons in distemper colors. The execution was by Raphael's +pupils in 1515-1516. They were sent to Flanders as designs for +tapestries, and discovered by Rubens in a manufactory at Arras, 1630; +Charles I. of England purchased them, and they are now in the South +Kensington Museum, London. + +5. _Heliodorus driven from the Temple_ (detail of the larger +composition known by this name) is a mural painting which gives the +name to the Camera d' Eliodoro, Vatican Palace, Rome. The date of the +painting is 1511-1512. + +6. _The Liberation of Peter_ is a mural painting in the Camera d' +Eliodoro, Vatican Palace, Rome; the execution is by Giulio Romano, +1514. + +7. _The Holy Family of Francis I._ is a canvas panel 8 ft. 9 in. by 5 +ft. 3 in., painted for Lorenzo de' Medici, and presented by the Pope +Leo X. to Francis I. of France; hence the name. It was executed by +Giulio Romano in 1518, and is now in the Louvre, Paris. + +8. _St. Catherine of Alexandria_ is a wood panel 2 ft. 4 in. by I ft. +9-1/2 in., painted in 1507, and now in the National Gallery, London. + +9. _St. Cecilia_ is a panel painting which was transferred from wood +to canvas. It was painted about 1516 for the Church of S. Giovanni a +Monte, Bologna, and is now in the Bologna Gallery. + +10. _The Transfiguration_, 14 ft. 9 in. by 9 ft. 1-1/2 in. Raphael +painted the upper part in 1519, and the picture was finished after his +death by Giulio Romano. It was ordered by the Cardinal de' Medici for +the Cathedral at Narbonne (France), but was retained in Rome after the +artist's death. It was taken to Paris during the French Revolution, +and restored to Rome in 1815. It is now in the Vatican Gallery. + +11. _Parnassus_ is a mural painting in the Camera della Segnatura, +Vatican Palace, Rome. The date is 1509-1511. + +12. _Socrates and Alcibiades_ (detail of the School of Athens) is a +mural painting in the Camera della Segnatura, Vatican Palace, Rome. It +was painted in 1509-1511. + +13. _The Flight of Æneas_ (detail of the Conflagration in the Borgo), +a mural painting in the Camera dell' Incendio, Vatican Palace, Rome. +It was executed by Giulio Romano about 1515. + +14. _St. Michael slaying the Dragon_, a panel 8 ft. 9-1/2 in. by 5 ft. +3 in. It was painted on wood and transferred to canvas. It was ordered +by Leo X. as a gift to Francis I., and was presented to him by Lorenzo +de' Medici. The execution is by Giulio Romano, 1518. It is now in the +Louvre, Paris. + +15. _The Sistine Madonna_, a canvas panel 8 ft. 8 in. by 6 ft. 5 in., +was painted about 1515 for the high altar of the Church of St. Sixtus, +Piacenza, and received its name from the portrait figure of St. Sixtus +which it contains; it was purchased by the Elector of Saxony in +1753-1754 for the Dresden Gallery. + + +IV. COLLATERAL READINGS FROM LITERATURE. + +In connection with St. Catherine:-- + +Latin Hymn, Vox Sonora Nostri Chori, St. Catherine's +Day. Translated by David Morgan. + +Mrs. Jameson. Sacred and Legendary Art. + +S. Baring-Gould. Lives of the Saints. Volume for +November. + +In connection with St. Cecilia:-- + +S. Baring-Gould. Lives of the Saints. Volume for +November. + +Mrs. Jameson. Sacred and Legendary Art. + +Chaucer. Second Nonnes Tale. + +Dryden. Alexander's Feast: Ode in honor of St. Cecilia's +Day. + +In connection with Parnassus:-- + +Shelley. Hymn of Apollo. + +Keats. Ode to Apollo. + +Bulfinch. Age of Fable. + +In connection with the Flight of Æneas:-- + +Virgil. Æneid, Book II. Translated by C. P. Cranch. + +In connection with Socrates and Alcibiades:-- + +Fénelon. Lives of the Philosophers. Translated by +John Cormack. + +Plato. Alcibiades, The Symposium, Protagoras. Translated +by Jowett. + +Milton. Paradise Regained. Book IV. lines 240-285. + +In connection with St. Michael and the Dragon:-- +Milton. Paradise Lost. Book VI. + +In connection with the Sistine Madonna:-- +Mrs. Jameson. Sacred and Legendary Art (for St. +Barbara). + + +V. OUTLINE TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN RAPHAEL'S LIFE. + +1483. Raphael born at Urbino. + +1499. Raphael enters Perugino's studio at Perugia. + +1504. "The Marriage of the Virgin." + +1504. Raphael's first visit to Florence. + +1505. Raphael in Perugia:-- +The Madonna of St. Anthony. +The fresco of San Severo. + +1506. Visit at Urbino:-- +Raphael's portrait by himself. + +1504-1508. The Florentine Period:-- +Granduca Madonna. +Tempi Madonna. +Madonna in the Meadow. +The Madonna del Cardellino. +The Belle Jardiniere. +The Canigiani Madonna. + +1508. Raphael called to Rome by Pope Julius II. + +1511. Raphael frescoes the Camera della Segnatura. + +1512. Raphael begins decoration of the Camera d' Eliodoro. + +1513. Raphael commissioned by Leo X. to continue work begun +under Julius II. + +1514. "Galatea." + +1514. Raphael appointed architect of St. Peter's by Leo X. + +1508-1515. Some Madonnas of the Roman Period:--Foligno +Madonna. + +Garvagh Madonna. +The Madonna of Casa Alba. +The Madonna of the Chair. +The Sistine Madonna. + +1515. Camera dell' Incendio completed under Raphael's direction. + +1515-1516. Cartoons for tapestries executed under Raphael's +direction. + +1517. Farnesina frescoes painted under Raphael's direction. + +1519. The Transfiguration. + +1520. Raphael died in Rome. + + +VI. SOME FAMOUS CONTEMPORARIES OF RAPHAEL. + +IN ITALY. + +Rulers:-- + +Lorenzo de' Medici (reigned 1469-1492) and Pietro de' Medici +(1492-1494), dukes of Florence. + +Giovanni Galeazzo Sforza (reigned 1476-1494), Lodovico Maria +Sforza (1494-1500), and Massimiliano Sforza (1512-1515), +dukes of Milan. + +Francesco Maria della Rovere, duke of Urbino (born 1490; +died 1535). + +Ferdinand I. (reigned 1458-1494), Ferdinand II. (reigned +1495-1496), and Ferdinand III., kings of Naples, the last +being he who was also king of Spain as Ferdinand V. + +Innocent VIII. (1484-1492), Alexander VI. (1492-1503), +Pius III. (1503), Julius II. (1503-1513), and Leo X. (1513-1523), +popes. + +Painters:-- + +Older group:-- + +Perugino (1446-1523). +Bazzi (1477-1549). +Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). +Bartolommeo (1475-1517). +Giorgione (1477-1510). +Titian (1477-1576). +Giovanni Bellini (1428-1516). + +Compeers:-- + +Andrea del Sarto (1486-1531). +Sebastian del Piombo (1485-1547). +Assistants and Pupils:-- +Giulio Romano (1492-1546). +Giovanni da Udine (1487-1564). +Francesco Penni (1488-1528). +Marc Antonio (1487-1539), engraver. +Michelangelo (1474-1564), sculptor. +Bramante (1444-1514), architect of St. Peter's. +Sanazzaro Jacopo (1458-1530 or 1532), poet (De Partu Virginia). +Ariosto (1474-1533), poet (Orlando Furioso). +Francesco Berni (1496-1536), comic poet. +Cardinal Bembi (1470-1547), celebrated scholar. +Count Baldasarre Castiglione (1478-1529), writer and patron of literature. +Christopher Columbus (1436 or 1446-1506), discoverer. + +IN PORTUGAL. +Vasco da Gama (died 1525), discoverer. + +IN ENGLAND. +Richard III. (1483-1485), Henry VII. (1485-1509), Henry +VIII. (1509-1547), kings. +Sebastian Cabot (1477-15?), discoverer. + +IN GERMANY. +Frederick III. (1440-1493), emperor of Austria, and + Maximilian I. (1493-1519). +Martin Luther (1483-1546), religious reformer. +Albert Dürer (1471-1528), painter. +Holbein (1498-1543), painter. +Copernicus (1473-1545), astronomer. + +IN FRANCE. +Charles VIII. (1483-1498), king. +Rabelais (1483 or 1495-1553), satirist. + +IN SPAIN. +Ferdinand (died 1516) and Isabella (died 1504), king and +queen, beginning to reign in 1474. + + + + +I + +THE MADONNA OF THE CHAIR + + +In early days an Italian in addressing a lady used the word Madonna, +which, like the French word Madame, means My Lady. Now he says +Signora; Madonna would have to him an old-fashioned sound. To the rest +of the world this word Madonna has come to be applied almost wholly to +the Virgin Mary, with or without the child Jesus; and as Raphael +painted a great many pictures of the Madonna for churches or other +sacred places, a name has been given to each, drawn usually from some +circumstance about it. + +The Madonna of the Chair is so called because in this picture the +Virgin is seated. She is sitting in a low chair, holding her child on +her knee, and encircling him with her arms. Her head is laid tenderly +against the child's, and she looks out of the picture with a tranquil, +happy sense of motherly love. + +The child has the rounded limbs and playful action of the feet of a +healthy, warm-blooded infant, and he nestles into his mother's embrace +as snugly as a young bird in its nest. But as he leans against the +mother's bosom and follows her gaze, there is a serious and even grand +expression in his eyes which Raphael and other painters always sought +to give to the child Jesus to mark the difference between him and +common children. + +By the side of the Madonna is the child who is to grow up as St. John +the Baptist. He carries a reed cross, as if to herald the death of the +Saviour; his hands are clasped in prayer, and though the other two +look out of the picture at us, he fixes his steadfast look on the +child, in ardent worship. + +Around each of the heads is very faintly seen a nimbus, as it is +called; that is, the old painters were wont to distinguish sacred +persons by a circle about the head. Sometimes, as here, the circle is +a golden line only; sometimes it is a gold band almost like a plate +against which the head is set. This circular form took the name Nimbus +from the Latin word for a cloud, as if the heads of sacred persons +were in an unearthly surrounding. It is also called a halo. Such a +representation is a symbol or sign to indicate those higher and more +mysterious qualities which are beyond the artist's power to portray. + +This simple composition is a perfect round, and if one studies it +attentively one will see how curved and flowing are all the lines +within the circle; even the back of the chair, though perpendicular, +swells and curves into roundness. It is by such simple means as this +that the painter gives pleasure to the eye. The harmony of the lines +of the composition makes a perfect expression of the peaceful group +centred thus about the divine child. + +[Illustration: MADONNA OF THE CHAIR +_Pitti Gallery, Florence_] + +It is a home scene and one such as Raphael might have seen in Rome +in his own time. Not unlikely he saw a mother enfolding her child thus +when he was taking a walk at the quiet end of day, and caught at once +a suggestion from the scene for a Madonna. There is indeed an old +legend which grew up about this picture, relating the supposed +circumstances under which Raphael found a charming family group which +served him as a model, and which he rapidly sketched upon the head of +a cask; the circular form of the picture is thus accounted for. +Whether or not this pretty story is true, it is certain that the +Madonna of the Chair is a true picture of home life either in +Raphael's time or even in our own day. The mother wears a handkerchief +of many colors over her shoulders, and another on her head like the +Roman scarf one still sees nowadays. + +We may see what delight and reverence Madonna pictures like this have +awakened as we read the words of an old chant. In quaint diction and +with fanciful imagery the writer tried to express his feelings in the +presence of a painting which, if not this veritable Madonna of the +Chair, was certainly very like it. + + "When I view the mother holding + In her arms the heavenly boy, + Thousand blissful thoughts unfolding + Melt my heart with sweetest joy. + + "As the sun his radiance flinging + Shines upon the bright expanse, + So the child to Mary clinging + Doth her gentle heart entrance. + + "See the Virgin Mother beaming! + Jesus by her arms embraced, + Dew on softest roses gleaming, + Violet with lily chaste! + + "Each round other fondly twining. + Pour the shafts of mutual love, + Thick as flowers in meadow shining, + Countless as the stars above. + + "Oh, may one such arrow glowing, + Sweetest Child, which thou dost dart + Thro' thy mother's bosom going, + Blessed Jesus, pierce my heart." + + + + +II + +ABRAHAM AND THE THREE ANGELS + + +In the story of Abraham, as related in our Bible, we read of the +wandering and adventurous life of the patriarch as he moved from place +to place. In process of time he became "very rich in cattle, in +silver, and in gold." He was as brave as he was industrious. When Lot, +his brother's son, who dwelt in Sodom, was taken captive by some +foreign kings who had conquered the king of Sodom, Abraham armed his +large company of servants and went to the rescue. He recovered not +only his nephew, but all the booty which the victors had taken. +Moreover, Abraham was a man of vision as well as of action, a man who +feared God and sought righteousness. + +In his old age he was living with his aged wife Sarah on the plains of +Mamre. "He sat in the tent door in the heat of the day," the story +goes on,[1] "and he lifted up his eyes and looked, and lo, three men +stood by him: and when he saw them, he ran to meet them from the tent +door, and bowed himself toward the ground, and said, 'My Lord, if now +I have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee, from thy +servant: let a little water, I pray you, be fetched, and wash your +feet, and rest yourselves under the tree: and I will fetch a morsel of +bread, and comfort ye your hearts; after that ye shall pass on: for +therefore are ye come to your servant.' And they said, 'So do, as thou +hast said.' + +[Footnote 1: Genesis, chapter xviii., verses 1-8.] + +"And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, 'Make ready +quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the +hearth.' And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetcht a calf tender and +good, and gave it unto a young man; and he hasted to dress it. And he +took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it +before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat." + +In the picture we see Abraham welcoming his strange visitors in front +of his simple dwelling-place. He is dressed in Oriental robes and bows +himself to the ground after the custom of the Eastern people, who are +noted for their courtesy. He offers hospitality not as a favor to his +guests, but as a privilege which he craves from them. His, not theirs, +is the honor, he seems to say. + +The three angels have a mysterious air. They are in human form, and +yet they are unlike ordinary visitors. Their attitudes, the flowing of +the robes, their gestures, all denote something unusual. While the +three stand with outstretched hands as if encouraging and blessing +their host, Sarah peeps through the open door and listens to the talk. +A country landscape, such as may be seen in the vineyards of Italy, +stretches away in the distance. Raphael never traveled outside his own +country, and painted only such landscapes as were familiar to him. + +[Illustration: ABRAHAM AND THE THREE ANGELS +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +The picture was intended as an illustration of the Bible. In the days +when Raphael was painting, though the art of printing had been +invented, only scholars and learned men could read books, and those +which were printed were rarely in the language which the people spoke. +Men and women did indeed hear stories read out of the Bible, but they +knew these stories chiefly from paintings, and from carvings in wood +and stone. Churches and monasteries, palaces and public halls, were +adorned with fresco paintings, and these storied walls formed the +people's literature. + +Now the Pope, Leo the Tenth, employed Raphael to decorate parts of the +Vatican. The Vatican was the palace of the Popes in Rome, and one of +the open courts of the palace had a gallery or Loggia, as it is +called, built about its three sides. Raphael caused to be painted on +the walls of this gallery festoons of flowers and fruit and sometimes +animals, all surrounded and entwined with graceful ornaments. But it +was the vaulted ceiling of the gallery that he treated with the +greatest care. He made a great series of pictures from scenes in the +Old Testament, and some from the New, and his pupils painted these +upon the ceiling, so that it came to be known popularly as "Raphael's +Bible." + +The ceiling is not flat, and it does not stretch without break, but +the gallery is like a succession of arched porches, and the ceiling of +each is divided into panels, sloping in four directions, with a flat +panel in the centre. These panels are filled with charming pictures +which you can see by standing with your head thrown back. + +Raphael's Bible begins with the creation of the world; then follow the +history of Adam and Eve, and Noah and the deluge; in the fourth +section is the story of Abraham told in four compositions. Thus, +besides this picture of Abraham and the Three Angels, there is the +scene where Lot and his family are fleeing from Sodom, and his wife is +turned into a pillar of salt. There is also the meeting of Abraham and +Melchisedec (after Abraham's rescue of Lot), and a picture of God +promising a long line of descendants to Abraham. + +In this open gallery the people of Rome could walk and read the Bible +in a succession of pictures. Since these and similar pictures and +statues and carvings were everywhere, men, women, and children read +them as they would read books, and a popular painter was like a +popular story-teller nowadays. + + + + +III + +THE MIRACULOUS DRAUGHT OF FISHES + + +Another of the Bible scenes which Raphael painted was one which is +told in the New Testament concerning the Lord Jesus and his Apostles. +Some of these, as Peter and Andrew, James and John, were fishermen who +lived near the lake of Gennesaret in Galilee, and had spent most of +their lives in their boats. They had been much with their Master, and +sometimes left their boats to go with him through the country, when he +talked with them and healed the sick, and told the glad tidings, for +that is what the word Gospel means. One day he had been using Simon +Peter's boat as a sort of pulpit from which to speak to the people on +the shore. + + "Now when he had left speaking, he said unto Simon, 'Launch + out into the deep, and let down your nets for a draught,' + And Simon answering said unto him, 'Master, we have toiled + all the night, and have taken nothing: nevertheless at thy + word I will let down the net.' And when they had this done, + they inclosed a great multitude of fishes: and their net + brake. And they beckoned unto their partners, which were in + the other ship, that they should come and help them. And + they came, and filled both the ships, so that they began to + sink. + + "When Simon Peter saw it, he fell down at Jesus's knees, + saying, 'Depart from me: for I am a sinful man, O Lord.' For + he was astonished, and all that were with him, at the + draught of the fishes which they had taken; and so was also + James and John, the sons of Zebedee, which were partners + with Simon. And Jesus said unto Simon, 'Fear not: from + henceforth thou shalt catch men.'"[2] + +[Footnote 2: Luke, chapter v., verses 4-10.] + +In the picture we see the two boats laden with fish, one containing +Jesus with Peter and Andrew, and the other containing the partners +hauling in the net. The lake stretches away in the distance until it +seems to meet the sky in a line of light at the horizon. On the +opposite shore are the people to whom Jesus was speaking before the +fishermen launched out. Others on the bank are watching to get some of +the fish which are not hauled in. There is a boat over there just +pushing off. Fishhawks hover overhead, and on the nearer shore are +herons. + +Just as before in the Madonna of the Chair we saw how all the lines in +the picture were drawn as it were in a circle, so here it is the long +horizontal line on which the picture is built: the boats extending +across the foreground, the distant shore, and the horizon line +swelling into the upland. Some one has said that the boats are so +placed that it looks as if the figures were slowly passing before the +eye of the spectator. + +[Illustration: THE MIRACULOUS DRAUGHT OF FISHES +_South Kensington Museum, London_] + +Now this picture is not, like so many, painted on canvas or on wood. +Raphael was bidden to make designs for some great hangings or +tapestries for the chapel in the Vatican palace known as the Sistine +Chapel. He made his drawings, cartoons they are called, on a coarse +kind of paper, the pieces put together on a great frame, and these +cartoons were sent to Arras in Flanders, where they were copied in +tapestry by skillful artists. + +Raphael intended to represent scenes in the lives of the Apostles, and +his series was in two groups of five each, the first centring about +the life of St. Peter, the second about the life of St. Paul. The +tapestries are in the Vatican palace, but seven of the cartoons are in +the South Kensington Museum in London. There they are kept with great +care, but they have led a perilous life. When they were sent to Arras, +they were cut in strips for the convenience of the weavers, and +pricked with holes. Then after they had been copied in the tapestries, +they were thrown aside, as so much waste paper, and lay in a cellar, +neglected, for a hundred years. Fortunately they were not destroyed, +and the fragments were found in 1630, by the great Flemish painter +Rubens, who knew their value. He advised King Charles I. of England to +buy them, and they were still regarded as patterns for tapestries. The +king set up a manufactory at Mortlake, and some tapestries were made +from these cartoons. + +When the king was put to death, Cromwell bought the cartoons, and put +them away in some boxes at Whitehall. When Charles II. came to the +throne, he tried to sell them to France, but was stopped, and finally +they found a home at Hampton Court Palace. A few years ago they were +removed to their present place of keeping. + +The original tapestries, as we have said, were designed for the +Sistine Chapel, but they were long ago removed from that place and are +now preserved in the Gallery of Tapestries in the Vatican. + +The colors of the tapestries have faded, but color never formed the +chief attraction of these compositions. What one always admired, and +can still admire in engravings and other copies, is what we call the +dramatic character of the picture, the way in which the painter has so +arranged his figures as to make them tell a story in a lively, graphic +fashion. + +He can also, as his eye is more and more trained, discover the beauty +which lies in the drawing of forms, in masses and in lines. For an +engraving or a pencil drawing in black and white can give a great deal +of pleasure, and some painters make better pictures with pen and ink +than they can with a paint-box and brushes. + + + + +IV + +THE SACRIFICE AT LYSTRA + + +The Sacrifice at Lystra was another of the great tapestries, and was +in the second series of five which had to do with the life of St. Paul +as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. The apostle was on a journey +with his companion Barnabas, and they were teaching and healing as +they went. At Lystra they had performed a wonderful cure in healing a +man who had been a cripple from his birth. + + "And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up + their voices, saying in the speech of Lycaonia, 'The gods + are come down to us in the likeness of men,' And they called + Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercurius, because he was the + chief speaker. + + "Then the priest of Jupiter, which was before their city, + brought oxen and garlands unto the gates, and would have + done sacrifice with the people. Which, when the apostles, + Barnabas and Paul, heard of, they rent their clothes, and + ran in among the people, crying out, and saying, 'Sirs, why + do ye these things? We also are men of like passions with + you, and preach unto you that ye should turn from these + vanities unto the living God.' ... + + "And with these sayings scarce restrained they the people, + that they had not done sacrifice unto them."[3] + +[Footnote 3: Acts of the Apostles, chapter xiv., verses 11-15, 18.] + +In the picture we see the two apostles standing on a platform at the +left, by the steps of a temple, just as the crowd sweeps along from +the other side with two oxen in the midst of them. It was just such a +sacrificial procession as was formed on the days when they honored +their gods in the temples. Paul and Barnabas receive the demonstration +with dismay, the former rending his garments, and the latter clasping +his hands in perplexity. + +In the tumult of many figures we pick out five principal persons. At +the right is the restored cripple whose recovery is the origin of the +excitement. His folded hands, raised in adoration, come against the +back of a youth who, quick to see the apostles' displeasure, reaches +out an arm to stay the sacrifice. His hand nearly touches the shoulder +of the sturdy priest in front, who is lifting his axe to deal the +deathblow to the sacrificial ox. The priest's up-raised hand is +brought near the elbow of Paul, behind whom stands his fellow apostle. +Thus there is a continuous chain extending across the picture to link +together those who make up the plot of the story. The most attractive +face in the company is that of the youth in the centre, eager and +handsome among the stolid countenances surrounding him. The apostles +themselves are presently to join him in his efforts to restrain the +people, but for the moment, single-handed among so many, he springs +forward fearlessly to oppose the purpose of the mob. + +[Illustration: THE SACRIFICE AT LYSTRA +_South Kensington Museum, London_] + +These five figures thus linked together carry the story, but how +abundantly the scene is enriched by the minor characters! There are +not a great many figures, and each head is seen perfectly, so that one +can count the actual number of persons present; but the first +impression made on the eye is of a hurrying, eager crowd. As one looks +more closely, he discovers particular persons who help to fill out the +story. There are two priestesses kneeling beside the ox that is to be +sacrificed. One figure, other than the cripple who has been healed, is +shown in the attitude of prayer. Perhaps the old man at the extreme +right is drawing aside the robe of the cripple, curious to see if +there are any signs of the miracle, or if that really was the leg +which was helpless. + +The two children who stand by the altar, one playing the pipes, the +other with a book of music, are very characteristic of Raphael, who +loved thus to introduce a playful, innocent element. The singing child +has his eyes bent on the ram which is led up for sacrifice. + +Raphael, like other illustrators of the Bible, does not always follow +exactly the text which he is to illustrate. The people called Barnabas +Jupiter, and Paul Mercury. This would seem to show that Barnabas was a +great, imposing figure, and Paul, according to tradition, was a small, +undersized man; but there is no such contrast to be seen here. + +By a happy suggestion, the painter has placed in the background on a +pedestal a statue of Mercury. We know it by the winged staff which +Mercury is supposed to carry as a sign of his office of messenger of +the gods. + +Raphael painted at a time when scholars and artists were enthusiastic +over the rediscovery of the literature and art of the ancient world. +Such a scene as this, therefore, appealed to him; for he could not +only depict a Biblical incident, but he could make his picture a study +of ancient life. The architecture, the altar, the figure of Mercury, +the wreath-bound heads, the sacrificial act itself, were all such as +he could imagine from ancient Greece. Indeed, the whole picture is +like a copy of an antique bas-relief; and in the original cartoon +there is, below the picture, a decorative border studied from antique +sculpture, and below that still an ornamental edge which was very +common in Greek work. + +And yet, though Raphael thus made much of the Greek spirit in his +design, he was like all great painters of his day. He did not try +minutely to repeat Greek life as he imagined it. The men and women and +children were like those he was wont to see in Rome or Florence, or +Urbino, where he was born, and the headdresses were such as the women +of his time wore. + + + + +V + +HELIODORUS DRIVEN FROM THE TEMPLE + + +In the Vatican palace there is one chamber in a series of chambers +decorated with Raphael's paintings which is called in Italian Stanza +d'Eliodoro, or the Heliodorus Room. The name is taken from the first +of the paintings which cover the walls of the room. + +The story which Raphael told in this picture is taken from an incident +in the history of Jerusalem, which is related in one of the books of +the Apocrypha and in Josephus's History. + +It was at a time when Jerusalem was a prosperous city, owing its good +government to the upright and honorable character of the high priest +Onias. Through his efforts a large fund of money and treasure had been +laid up for the relief of widows and orphans. This treasure was stored +in the sacred precincts of the temple and carefully guarded for the +uses for which it was intended. + +Now it came about that a distant king heard of this valuable treasure +and set his heart upon it. He called his treasurer Heliodorus, and +straightway sent him to Jerusalem to bring back the treasure by fair +means or foul. Heliodorus was a bold man ready for his evil task. +Arriving at Jerusalem, he sought out Onias and made his demand, +which, as a matter of course, was promptly refused. Heliodorus then +prepared to take the treasure by force, and, accompanied by his men, +pushed into the temple amid the lamentations of the people and the +prayers of the priests. But just as the robbers had laid hands upon +the coveted treasure, a strange thing happened; and this is what the +old narrative relates:-- + + "There appeared unto them a horse with a terrible rider upon + him, and adorned with a very fair covering, and he ran + fiercely and smote at Heliodorus with his forefeet, and it + seemed that he that sat upon the horse had complete harness + of gold. + + "Moreover, two other young men appeared before him, notable + in strength, excellent in beauty, and comely in apparel, who + stood by him on either side, and scourged him continually + and gave him many sore stripes. + + "And Heliodorus fell suddenly unto the ground, and was + compassed with great darkness."[4] + +[Footnote 4: Maccabees, book ii., chapter iii., verses 25-27.] + +[Illustration: HELIODORUS DRIVEN FROM THE TEMPLE +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +In the picture the priests still kneel at the distant altar while the +temple treasures are being borne away in heavy chests and jars. +Meanwhile swift retribution overtakes the despoiler. In gallops the +mysterious gold-armored horseman, his prancing steed crushing the +prostrate Heliodorus under his forefeet. On rush the two celestial +avengers, springing through the air in great flying leaps. Their feet +do not touch the ground as, with outspread arms and wind-blown hair, +they bound lightly forward, raising their scourges to drive out the +enemy. Heliodorus vainly lifts his spear to save himself; his men are +panic-stricken; his plot is undone. And yet in all this the angelic +avengers do not touch one of the prostrate or falling figures. Even +the horse's hoofs are not planted on Heliodorus. The victory is not +won by force, but by the mysterious power of celestial spirits. + +Here is the way this picture affected a lover of art who stood before +it: "The Scourging of Heliodorus is full of energy, power, and +movement. The horse and his rider are irresistible, and the scourging +youths, terrible as embodied lightning; mortal weapons and mortal +muscles are powerless as infancy before such supernatural energies. +Like flax before the flame--like leaves before the storm--the strong +man and his attendants are consumed and borne away." + +There is an interesting contrast in this great picture, for while all +this terrible action is going on at one side, one sees in an opposite +part a group of women and children, looking on with astonishment and +alarm. Near by is a figure carried in a chair on the shoulders of +strong men. This figure is Pope Julius II, and the reason why Raphael +introduced him into the painting is as follows:-- + +Julius was a warlike Pope who had expelled the enemies of the church +from the Papal territories and enlarged the boundaries of these +territories. He was also a great patron of the arts. He called on +Raphael to make designs for this chamber which should represent the +miraculous deliverance of the church from her secular foes; and as he +was regarded as the chief instrument in the victory, Raphael made him +present at this Expulsion of Heliodorus. + +Not only the walls of the Heliodorus Room are adorned with pictures, +but the ceiling also is covered with designs, illustrating four Old +Testament stories of divine promises to the patriarchs: The Promise of +God to Abraham of a numerous posterity,[5] The Sacrifice of Isaac, +Jacob's Dream, Moses and the Burning Bush. + +[Footnote 5: Sometimes interpreted as God appearing to Noah.] + +Probably Raphael, who had friends among the cardinals and other +learned men of Rome, consulted them as to the selection of subjects +for this room. One can trace the thought which binds them all +together. On the ceiling we have God's promises made to his people of +old, while the pictures on the walls show how the same watchful +Providence delivered the church in later years. + + + + +VI + +THE LIBERATION OF PETER + + +On the wall below the design of Jacob's Dream, in the ceiling of this +same Heliodorus Room, is the Liberation of Peter, painted above and on +each side of a window. The story is taken from the Acts of the +Apostles, Herod the king, as the narrative says, "stretched forth his +hands to vex certain of the church. And he killed James the brother of +John with the sword. And because he saw it pleased the Jews, he +proceeded further to take Peter also." The story of the imprisonment +and liberation of Peter now follows:-- + + "And when he had apprehended him, he put him in prison, and + delivered him to four quarternions of soldiers to keep him; + intending after Easter to bring him forth to the people. + Peter therefore was kept in prison; but prayer was made + without ceasing of the church unto God for him. + + "And when Herod would have brought him forth, the same night + Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound with two + chains; and the keepers before the door kept the prison. And + behold, the angel of the Lord came upon him, and a light + shined in the prison; and he smote Peter on the side, and + raised him up, saying, 'Arise up quickly.' And his chains + fell off from his hands. And the angel said unto him, 'Gird + thyself, and bind on thy sandals.' And so he did. And he + saith unto him, 'Cast thy garment about thee, and follow + me.' And he went out, and followed him, and wist not that it + was true which was done by the angel; but thought he saw a + vision."[6] + +[Footnote 6: Acts of the Apostles, chapter xii., verses 4-9.] + +There is a succession of scenes in this story, and as the window runs +up into the wall, it gave Raphael an opportunity to distribute the +successive incidents in the three divisions thus formed. Over the +window, accordingly, is the scene of the awakening of Peter. The +angel, surrounded by a blaze of light, comes and smites the sleeping +apostle on the side, but his action also indicates that he raises him +and points to the door. Peter is shown bound by two chains, each +fastening him to one of the soldiers, who are both asleep at their +posts. The bars through which we see the scene are the prison bars. + +At the right of the window, the angel is shown leading Peter past the +guards, who are asleep on the steps. The prison is indicated by the +thick wall and solid masonry, by the side of which the two figures are +passing. The soldiers by their attitude show how sound asleep they +are,--one stretched out at half length, trying to look as if he were +awake, the other with his head fallen forward, and his hands clasped +over his shield. + +[Illustration: THE LIBERATION OF PETER +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +In both of these scenes, the apostle is marked by the sign of the +nimbus, which we saw in the first picture, the Madonna of the +Chair. But if you look narrowly, you will see that Raphael has added +that other sign by which Peter is distinguished. He carries a great +key. The reason is to be found in the words of our Lord to him as +recorded in the Gospel of Matthew, the sixteenth chapter and +nineteenth verse. The key is a most fitting symbol here, for it seems +to imply that the apostle is himself opening the gates of his prison +house. The angel holds his hand, as an older person might lead a child +in the dark. Peter is too dazed to know what has really happened. + +On the left is depicted the moment when the guards are awakened and +discover that their prisoner has escaped. It is an animated scene +illustrating the simple words of the gospel narrative: "Now as soon as +it was day, there was no small stir among the soldiers, what was +become of Peter." A man with a torch tells by his gesture that +something extraordinary has happened, and the one whom he arouses +shows by his face and his uplifted hand how startled he is; the light +from the torch is too dazzling for another just awakened, and the last +of all appears to be the one whom we saw asleep over his shield. + +Even in this very inadequate copy of a great painting, we can see what +is the noblest and most pervading beauty. It is the treatment of +light. The angel appears in the compartment over the window in a blaze +of light, and this light illuminates all the other figures. So it is +in the right-hand division, and Peter especially shows it, for the +side away from the angel is scarcely to be made out in the gloom. In +the left-hand division, the torch, the moon struggling through the +clouds, and the breaking of the dawn diffuse a light over the whole +scene. + +It is as if Raphael meant to make it clear that the supernatural light +from the angel was brighter and more intense than the light which +falls from natural means. Thus the Liberation of Peter, like the +Expulsion of Heliodorus, keeps in mind the power of the divine over +the human. Some have thought, besides, that Raphael had in his thought +the recent delivery from captivity of Leo X., the Pope who succeeded +Pope Julius II., for the decoration of the Heliodorus Room was done +successively under these two popes. + + + + +VII + +THE HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I + + +There are a great many pictures by the old masters representing what +is known as the Holy Family. This is a group consisting of the mother +and child, with one or more additional figures. The third figure is +sometimes the infant John the Baptist, or it may be Joseph the husband +of Mary; a fourth figure is likely to be St. Elizabeth, the mother of +John the Baptist, and sometimes all five of these are shown in a +group. + +That is the case with the painting of The Holy Family by Raphael, +which is now in the Louvre gallery in Paris, and is called The Holy +Family of Francis the First, because Raphael painted the picture for +that king of France. It is not difficult to make out the several +figures, for the painter has followed the natural order. + +The light falls chiefly on the child Jesus, who is springing up, as +Mary lifts him from his cradle. His happy, joyous face is raised with +a glad smile to the down-glancing mother. She has eyes only for him, +and into her face there has come a look of sweet gravity which helps +one to see that this is more than the play of a mother and child. + +Eagerly reaching forward to the golden-haired Jesus is the swarthy +John the Baptist, his hands folded in the gesture of prayer, the cross +which he carries as the herald of Jesus leaning against his breast, +and a look of bright wonder in his face. + +Leaning over and holding him is his mother, Elizabeth, whom the great +painters were wont to figure as an old woman, after the description of +her in the gospel as "well stricken in years." She also gazes down at +her child with a like expression of deep feeling, as if she always +carried about in her mind the wonderful scenes which attended his +birth. + +Behind the group is Joseph, the husband of Mary, in an attitude which +is very common in the old pictures. He rarely seems to be a part of +the group. He stands a little way off looking on, with a thoughtful +air, as if he were the guardian of this pair. Sometimes he is shown +with a staff or crutch, and it may be that here he rests his elbow on +it, while his head leans upon his half-closed hand. + +All these are distinguished by the nimbus which encircles the head of +a sacred person, but the two other figures in the picture have no +nimbus, for they are angels, as may be seen by the outstretched wing +of one of them, and by the pure unearthly expression on their faces. +One of these angels strews flowers over the child; the other, with +hands crossed on the breast, is rapt in adoration. + +[Illustration: THE HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I. +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +There is an opening which shows the sky, and it almost seems as if the +angels with crossed hands were listening to some divine melody that +came in with the angelic visitors. The whole scene is bathed in +light, and the longer we look the more we see the beauty of the lines +which flow in the picture as if to some heavenly music. All is action +save in the grave, contemplative figure of Joseph; and his serious, +resting attitude by its contrast makes more evident the leaping child, +the mother half stooping to lift him, John the Baptist pressing +forward and Elizabeth gently restraining him, with the two flying, +radiant angels. + +The power which a great painting has over us often makes us ask, How +did the painter do this? did he think of everything beforehand? did he +paint the picture bit by bit, or did he rapidly sketch it all as he +meant to have it, and then at leisure fill in the parts, and add this +or that? + +We know something of how painters work, and of the labor which they +sometimes put into their pictures, rubbing out and painting over. A +great master like Raphael always gives a sense of ease to his work, as +though it cost him nothing. But we know also that he took the greatest +pains as he took the greatest delight in his work. + +It happens that there exist drawings made by Raphael when he was +preparing to paint this very picture, and it is interesting to see how +he went to work. He has a young woman in his studio take just the +attitude which a mother would take who was about to lift her child. +That he may be sure to draw the form correctly, he has her dress not +fall below her knee, and she has bare arms. In this way he will know +just how the arm and the knee will bend, and how the muscles will +show. Then he makes another drawing with the dress falling to the +ground, but with the arm bare. Finally he draws the arm with the +sleeve over it. + +It was by such studies that he made sure of drawing correctly. They +are like exercises in grammar. But when he came to paint his picture, +he had not to think much about the correctness of his drawing; his +whole mind was intent upon making his peasant girl look as he imagined +the Virgin Mary to look. + + + + +VIII + +ST. CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA + + +This is the legend of St. Catherine. + +She was the daughter of King Costis and his wife Sabinella, who was +herself the daughter of the king of Egypt. When she came into the +world, a glory of light was seen to play around her head, and when she +was yet a little child, she gave such signs of wisdom that she was a +wonder to all about the court of Egypt. When she was no more than +fourteen years old, she was a marvel of learning. She could have +answered all the hard questions the Queen of Sheba asked Solomon, and +she knew her Plato by heart. + +At this time her father died, and so Catherine became queen; but this +did not change her way of living. She read her books and shut herself +up in the palace to study. Now this did not please her nobles, and +they besought her to take a husband who should help her rule the +people, and who should lead them in war. At this the girl asked +them:-- + +"What manner of man is this that I must marry?" And one of the nobles +made answer:-- + +"Madam, you are our sovereign lady and queen, and all the world knows +that you have four notable gifts. First, you are come of the most +noble blood in the whole world; second, you have a great inheritance +in your kingdom; third, you surpass all persons living in knowledge; +and fourth, you are most beautiful. So, then, you must needs take a +husband that you may have an heir who shall be the comfort and joy of +your people." + +"Is it indeed so?" said the young queen. "Then, if God has given me +such gifts, I am the more bound to love him and please him, and set +small store by my wisdom and beauty and riches and birth. He that +shall be my husband must also possess four notable gifts. He must be +of so noble blood, that all men shall worship him, and so great that I +shall never think I have made him king; so rich, that he will surpass +all others in riches; so full of beauty, that the angels of God will +desire to behold him; and so benign, that he will gladly forgive all +wrong done unto him. Find me such an one, and I will make him lord of +my heart." + +Now there was a certain hermit who dwelt in the desert about two days' +journey from Alexandria, and the Virgin Mary appeared to him and bade +him go and tell Catherine to fear not, for she should have a heavenly +bridegroom, even her Son, who was greater than any monarch of the +world, being himself the King of Glory, and the Lord of all power. + +[Illustration: ST. CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA +_National Gallery, London_] + +Until now the young queen had been a heathen, but when the hermit +showed her a picture of the Lord Christ, she was so filled with wonder +and devotion that she forgot her books and her learning and could +think only of him. And thus it came about that she had a strange +dream, in which she dreamt that she was brought to the Lord, and he +said, "She is not fair or beautiful enough for me." + +She woke in tears and sent for the hermit, who came and taught her the +Christian faith. She was baptized and her mother Sabinella with her. +Again she had a dream, and this time the Lord smiled on her, and put a +ring on her finger. + +So now Catherine despised still more earthly pomp and riches, and +being thus plighted to a heavenly bridegroom, she refused more +steadfastly all the attempts of her nobles to persuade her to be +married. The good Sabinella sustained her in this, but at last died, +and Catherine was now left alone. + +Then came the great emperor Maximin, who persecuted the Christians. +And he came to Alexandria and called the Christians together, and +commanded them, on pain of torment, to worship the heathen gods. When +Queen Catherine heard the uproar, she came forth of the palace and +stood before Maximin. She so used her learning, that she silenced the +emperor, and he could make no reply. + +Thereupon he ordered fifty of his most famous wise men to dispute with +her. But she answered them so convincingly that they themselves became +Christians, and Maximin was in such a rage that he burned them to +death, yet they did not flinch. + +Then did the emperor drag Catherine from her palace and cast her into +a dungeon. But the faithful queen prayed, and angels came and +ministered to her. At the end of twelve days the empress came to +visit her, and found the dungeon filled with light and fragrant with +sweet odors. So she and two hundred of her attendants fell down at the +feet of Catherine and declared themselves Christians. + +When Maximin found what had taken place he was filled with fury, and +put to death the empress and all the converts. But he was so overcome +with the beauty of Catherine that he offered to make her empress if +she would forsake Christ. + +When Catherine exclaimed: "Shall I forsake my glorious heavenly +bridegroom to unite myself with thee, who art base-born, wicked, and +deformed?" Then Maximin bade his men make four wheels, armed with +sharp points and blades, two turning in one direction, two in another, +so that the tender body of the beautiful queen should be torn asunder. + +So they bound her between the wheels, and at the same moment fire came +down from heaven, and the destroying angel broke the wheels in pieces, +which flew off and killed the executioner. + +Then Maximin, with his heart of stone, commanded that Catherine be +carried outside the city, and scourged and then beheaded. So it was +done; but when she was dead, angels bore her body over the desert and +over the Red Sea, and laid it away on the top of Mt. Sinai. As for the +tyrant, he was slain in battle, and the vultures devoured him. + +In our picture of St. Catherine, and in others like it, she is shown +standing by a wheel. She leans upon it as if ready for martyrdom, and +looks upward as if she saw the fire coming down from heaven. + + + + +IX + +ST. CECILIA + + +The legend of St. Cecilia is not so tragic as that of St. Catherine. +According to the story, Cecilia was a beautiful young girl who +belonged to a noble Roman family of the third century. + +Her parents were Christians in secret, and they brought her up in the +faith. She was a most devout scholar. Night and day she carried about +with her a roll containing the Gospel, hidden within her robe. She +excelled in music, and turned her good gift to the glory of God; for +she composed hymns which she sang with such sweetness, that it was +said the very angels descended from heaven to join their voices with +hers. + +Not only did she sing, but she played also on all instruments; but she +could find none which satisfied her desire to breathe forth the +harmony which dwelt within her, and so she invented a new one, the +forerunner of the organ, and she consecrated it to the service of God. + +St. Cecilia like St. Catherine was a martyr, but the executioner who +was to put her to death was so affected by her innocence that his hand +trembled, and the wounds he made did not immediately cause her death. +She lived for three days, and as the story says:-- + + "She spent (these days) in prayers and exhortations to the + converts, distributing to the poor all she possessed; and she + called to her St. Urban, and desired that her house, in which she + then lay dying, should be converted into a place of worship for + the Christians. Thus, full of faith and charity, and singing with + her sweet voice praises and hymns to the last moment, she died at + the end of three days." + +Very naturally, St. Cecilia was taken as the patron saint of +musicians, and is sometimes represented as seated at a modern organ. +In this picture she is shown holding in her hands an instrument of +reeds, which may be taken as the beginning of the organ of later days. + +Her eyes are raised, and her head is upturned as she listens to the +choir of angels shown above in the clouds, their lips parted as they +sing from open books. She holds the instrument, but she is so intent +on the music she hears that it seems almost slipping from her hands. + +Indeed, some of the tubes are already dropping out of their place; and +as the eye follows them, it rests upon a number of other musical +instruments lying on the ground,--the pipe, the violin, the +tambourine, castanets, and others. It is as if we were shown the +various instruments which she had set aside as not satisfying to her, +and at last were shown her organ itself falling to pieces and dropping +from her hands. So faint and imperfect, the painter seems to say, are +all these forms of earthly music when compared with the heavenly. + +[Illustration: ST. CECILIA +_Bologna Gallery_] + +St. Cecilia is here in a company of other saints, not indeed of her +day and generation, but chosen by Raphael to give expression to +various ideas and sentiments. St. Paul, the great apostle to the +Gentiles, stands in a thoughtful attitude, one hand carrying a scroll +and resting on the hilt of a sword; for in one of his epistles, he +speaks of "the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God." He is +listening, and at the same time looks down upon the instruments as if +he were thinking how his earthly words, too, were dull beside the +voice of the Spirit. + +On the opposite side of the picture is Mary Magdalene. She holds the +pot of ointment with which she anointed the feet of Christ, and by the +movement of her feet she seems just to have come into the scene, and +looks out of the picture as if she were bidding us and all other +spectators look on the saint and listen to the angels. Perhaps the +artist, in choosing her for one of his figures, was mindful of the +words of the Lord, who praised her for bringing a precious gift, +without thinking of its worth, simply because she loved him, and +wished to show her devotion. So St. Cecilia poured out her music, the +richest gift she had, not thinking how she could turn it into money +and give it to the poor. + +Next to St. Paul, behind him and St. Cecilia, stands the evangelist +St. John. Painters and scholars alike have always seen in this figure +the beloved disciple, the one who leaned on the Lord's breast at the +last supper, and they delight to show him as a young man of refined +and beautiful countenance. His hand, with the parted fingers, seems +to make a gesture bidding one listen, and his face has a look of +rapture. It was natural indeed that Raphael should thus have placed in +the company one whose gospel is full of feeling, the life of Christ +set to music as it were. + +Finally, we have St. Augustine, one of the Fathers of the church, +standing in his priestly robe and holding a bishop's crook. He is +apparently exchanging glances with St. John. Perhaps he is designed to +show that the church makes much of music in its service. + +If we could see the painting itself with its beautiful color, we +should see even more distinctly not only how Raphael thought out his +design, making his figures all have a harmonious relation to one +another, but how perfectly the composition, in its lines, its light +and color, expresses this musical harmony of heaven and earth. + + + + +X + +THE TRANSFIGURATION + + +The Transfiguration is a picture divided into two parts. The lower +part is filled with more figures than the upper and contains more +action. On one side are nine of the disciples of Jesus; on the other +is a crowd of people in company with a father who brings his son to be +healed. He gives an account of his boy's sickness in these words:-- + + "He is mine only child. And lo! a spirit taketh him, and he + suddenly crieth out; and it teareth him that he foameth + again; and, bruising him, hardly departeth from him."[7] + +[Footnote 7: Luke, chapter ix., verses 38, 39.] + +The father calls upon the disciples, in the absence of Jesus, to heal +his son. In the company with him, we can make out two women kneeling +by the boy. We think it is the mother who supports him, and looks at +the disciples as she points to her son. How quiet and self-possessed +she is, in contrast to the poor fellow's violence as shown in his +position, and his distorted hands. + +She is wholly devoted to him, and the mother shows in her face and +bearing. But the other kneeling woman, who may be his sister, carries +a different expression as she points to the boy. She looks toward the +disciples with a severe and scornful air, as if saying: "What! you +profess to heal the sick, and you can do nothing for this poor +sufferer!" + +The figures in the background are crying aloud and stretching out +their arms for aid. One can count the persons, but it looks as if +there were a crowd behind that we do not see, all pressing forward. + +On the other side of the picture are the disciples, all eager, with +heads bent forward, and each gesturing to express his meaning. One, +younger than the others, with his hand against his breast, looks at +the father with a pitying but helpless expression, as if he would +gladly help him if he only could. Another has an open book as though +he were trying to find some word of comfort. One is pointing out the +boy to his neighbor, and two in the background seem to be lost in +perplexity. + +But, after all, though most of the disciples are thus intent, the eye +quickly notes the action of a figure near the centre, full of fire and +energy, who is pointing upward, away from the group, and calling upon +the father and the women to look that way. And the line of his arm +thrust out is continued by that of another disciple behind him, who +also points upward. + +For these two have seen the Lord, and they are bidding the troubled +parents look the same way for help. There, above all this turmoil and +confusion, is a scene of dazzling light, of which they alone seem to +be aware. + +[Illustration: THE TRANSFIGURATION +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +The upper part of the picture discloses the transfiguration of the +Saviour. As the evangelist tells us, he had taken Peter and James and +John with him, and had gone up into a mountain to pray. + + "And as he prayed, the fashion of his countenance was + altered, and his raiment was white and glistering. And, + behold, there talked with him two men, which were Moses and + Elias, who appeared in glory, and spake of his decease which + he should accomplish at Jerusalem. But Peter and they that + were with him were heavy with sleep; and when they were + awake, they saw his glory, and the two men that stood with + him."[8] + +[Footnote 8: Luke, chapter ix., verses 29-32.] + +The scene shown is at the moment of the awaking of the three +disciples, one not daring to look up again, but bowing his head and +folding his hands in prayer. They are dazzled with the glory. This +glory is a cloud of brightness which envelops the three figures of +Christ, Moses, and Elijah, or as the Greeks called him, Elias. The +Saviour looks heavenward with rapture in his gaze. + +On one side are seen two kneeling figures. They are said to stand for +the father and uncle of the Cardinal who ordered the picture from +Raphael. It was the fashion of the day thus to introduce a patron into +a painting, and Raphael has made them as obscure as he well could. + +We must not look at this great picture as if it were a panorama, where +a succession of scenes is witnessed, or find fault with it because the +Bible says that the transfiguration took place on one day and the +scene below took place the next day, when Jesus and his disciples had +come down from the mountain. Nor is anything said in the Bible which +would lead us to suppose that Jesus and the prophets were raised above +the ground. + +No; what Raphael intended was to draw a contrast between an earthly +scene of suffering and a heavenly scene of peace and serenity; and he +took two scenes which lie next each other in the scripture narrative. +That was his thought, and see how wonderfully he has expressed this +contrast throughout! + +There is the dark confusion and helplessness and grief below; above is +a scene of light which is like a vision, and this vision two of the +disciples see; and as we have pointed out, a contrast is made evident +in various parts of the picture. Indeed, the painting is made up of +contrasts; and not the least noticeable is that of the solid mass +below, square shaped, and the light, pyramid-shaped composition above. + +The Transfiguration was the last painting to which Raphael set his +brush, and it was still unfinished when he was suddenly stricken with +fever and died. As his body lay in state, in the hall where he had +been working, this great picture was hung at the head, and the people +who came in fell to weeping when they saw it. + + + + +XI + +PARNASSUS + + +Raphael was but twenty-five years old when he was bidden adorn a room +in the Vatican palace, and he made the four walls answer to four +divisions in the ceiling, just as afterward in the Heliodorus room. +The four divisions in the ceiling were filled with four figures, +representing Theology, Poetry, Philosophy, and Justice. Beneath Poetry +was this large, full design of Parnassus. + +[Illustration: PARNASSUS +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +Parnassus, in the old Greek myth, was the mountain on which the muses +were wont to meet, and here Apollo had his chief seat. Here, in the +fancy of the ancients, the poets and historians and dramatists came to +draw inspiration. So Raphael has made a great company of gods and +goddesses, and ancient and modern poets. + +By means of the accompanying diagram, all the figures in the +composition can be made out. + +As it is an imaginary scene, Raphael was free to bring together poets +of different ages and countries, grouping them by the natural +association of one with another. In this mythic realm time and space +are as nothing, and the poets are united in the higher fellowship of +the inspired imagination. + +[Illustration: KEY TO PARNASSUS +1. Apollo 2. Calliope 3. Polymnia 4. Clio 5. Erato 6. Terpsichore +7. Euterpe 8. Thalia 9. Urania 10. Melpomene 11. Unknown 12. Virgil +13. Homer 14. Dante 15. Scribe 16. Berni 17. Petrarch 18. Corinna +19. Alcæus 20. Sappho 21. Plautus 22. Terence 23. Ovid 24. Sannazzaro +25. Cornelius Gallus 26. Anacreon 27. Horace 28. Pindar] + +It is interesting to note how the painter has brought them together. +Apollo, of course, as the god of poetry and music, occupies the +central position, seated beneath some laurel trees, near the sacred +fountain of Hippocrene, with the nine Muses circling about him. Apollo +is always spoken of as playing the lyre, but Raphael gives him a +violin, because the action in playing that instrument is so graceful. +Some think also he meant to pay a compliment to a famous violinist of +that day. + +Calliope, the muse of epic poetry, rests for a moment the long trumpet +whose epic strains are wont to stir the courage of men. Polymnia, the +muse of sacred poetry, leans upon the lyre whose vibrant strings +thrill the gentler emotions of faith and love. + +Blind old Homer advances chanting the adventures of the Greek heroes, +and an eager youth writes down the verses. Behind him are Virgil and +Dante, and Virgil seems to be calling on Dante to listen to Apollo. + +Another group shows Pindar, a very aged figure, reciting his +impassioned odes to Horace and another poet, who listen with +admiration. Plautus and Terence, two writers of Latin comedy, walk +together in pleasant companionship. + +It was not an easy matter to dispose of the many figures and groups in +a space cut into, as this wall is, by a window, but how free and how +natural is the arrangement! It was among the first great paintings +which Raphael executed in the Vatican, and the grace and harmony which +mark his later works are here shown. + +The picture is interesting also as another illustration of the great +revival of learning which took place in Raphael's day. The old +literature of Greece and Rome had been rediscovered. For centuries it +had lain like a buried city, forgotten under the ignorance and the +fighting of the Middle Ages. Now it was brought to light, and the +recovered treasure was the common possession of Italy, not indeed so +much of the plain people as of the learned men and the artists. + +Raphael, as an artist, took delight in the statues which had been +found, and the other signs of Greek and Roman art; but it is not to be +supposed that he would know Homer and Virgil and Horace and Pindar and +Sappho at first hand. He had, however, friends among the learned men, +who could tell him of the treasures of classic literature, and his +imagination was quick to seize this material and adapt it to artistic +purposes. + + NOTE.--The key to Parnassus on page 61 is based on the + description of the painting in Cav. E. G. Massi's + "Descrizione delle Gallerie di Pittura nel Pontificio + Palazzo Vaticano," the authoritative guide-book to the + Vatican. Miss Eliza Allen Starr, in her monograph on the + frescoes of the Camera della Segnatura, called "The Three + Keys," identifies some of the figures differently, following + the authority of Dandolo's lectures. The "unknown" figure + she calls Sordello. + + + + +XII + +SOCRATES AND ALCIBIADES + + +In the same room which holds Parnassus, with Poetry above on the +ceiling, there is another wall painting by Raphael, which commonly +bears the name of The School of Athens, though that name was not +originally applied to it. In the ceiling above is a figure +representing Philosophy, and the picture below carries out the idea in +its presentation of an assembly of scholars. + +Just as in Parnassus Raphael brought together as in a beautiful dream +the god of poetry, the nine muses, and famous poets of the ancient and +what was to him the modern world, so, in the School of Athens, he has +assembled a great company of philosophers, chiefly out of the famous +line of Greek scholars. In a general way he has divided the assembly +into two groups, one of men who devote themselves to pure thought, the +other of those who apply their thought to science, like geometry, +arithmetic, astronomy, and music. + +There are more than fifty figures in this great painting. Raphael has +made it clear whom he meant to represent, in many cases. They were the +philosophers, whom his friends among the cardinals and learned men +were so enthusiastic about. But he has also gathered about these +teachers those who might be their pupils; they are in many cases young +Italians of his own day; indeed, he has even pictured himself coming +in with a fellow artist. + +What interested him was to paint a great number of persons who should +show by their faces and their attitudes that they were busy, in an +animated way, over what was worth thinking about. He placed them in a +noble hall, with a domed recess at the end, such as a great architect +of his day might have built. He showed a noble colonnade of pillars, +and he placed in niches statues of the old Greek gods like Apollo and +Minerva, who would be supposed to take an interest in what was going +on. + +The picture is so large and has so many figures that it would not be +easy to reproduce it here, and give a good idea of its various parts; +so a portion only is shown, depicting what is commonly known as the +group of Socrates and Alcibiades. Socrates can surely be +distinguished, for he had a singular face and head. Some have thought +the companion was not Alcibiades, but Xenophon. + +It does not greatly matter. Each was his companion and pupil, when he +was living. Xenophon wrote a narrative of his master's life and death. +Alcibiades is often mentioned in the dialogues of Plato, who also has +preserved for us the great sayings of Socrates. Two or three men stand +about, listening to a discussion which Socrates is having with his +companion. + +[Illustration: SOCRATES AND ALCIBIADES +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +The chief interest centres in Socrates, who seems to be explaining +his principles, telling them off, one by one, on his fingers. In the +old accounts which we have of this philosopher, he is shown to have +been a man who had thought deeply about the most important things, but +used the plainest, most homely speech when he was trying to make his +meaning clear. His plain face and eccentric figure were a familiar +sight in the market places, where he used to linger, drawing young men +into conversation, by which he tried to show them the better things of +life. + +Alcibiades was, as Socrates acknowledged, "the fairest and tallest of +the citizens;" he was also "among the noblest of them," and the nephew +of the powerful Athenian, Pericles. Moreover, he was rich, though this +was a smaller matter. All these things, however, had lifted Alcibiades +up; and with the vanity of youth, he was ambitious for a great +oratorical career, without having in reality any sufficient +preparation. It is at this juncture that he falls in with Socrates, +who begins to question him kindly about his plans. The young man +confesses his ambitions, and the philosopher innocently asks him where +and how he has made his preparatory studies. Alcibiades seems to think +that the ordinary subjects of oratory, such as questions of war and +peace, justice and injustice, need no special knowledge but that +learned of the people. + +"I cannot say that I have a high opinion of your teachers," says the +shrewd old philosopher; "you know that knowledge is the first +qualification of any teacher?" + +_Alcibiades._ Certainly. + +_Socrates._ And if they know, they must agree together and not differ? + +_Alcibiades._ Yes. + +_Socrates._ And would you say that they knew the things about which +they differ? + +_Alcibiades._ No. + +_Socrates._ Then how can they teach them? + +_Alcibiades._ They cannot.[9] + +So little by little, as one question follows another, Alcibiades comes +to see that the popular knowledge upon which he depends is a very weak +and variable thing. He confesses at last his own folly, and declares +his resolution to devote himself to thoughtful study. + +[Footnote 9: From Plato's dialogue, _Alcibiades_, Jowett's +translation.] + + + + +XIII + +THE FLIGHT OF ÆNEAS + + +In the series of rooms in the Vatican palace, of which one contains +Parnassus, and another the Expulsion of Heliodorus and the Liberation +of Peter, there is a room, the first of the series, which is called +the Room of the Great Fire, because it contains a large picture of the +Conflagration in the Borgo. + +The Borgo is that quarter of Rome where the Vatican stands, and in the +ninth century there was, one day, a great fire there. It was said that +the fire was put out by the Pope of that time, Leo IV., who stood in a +portico connected with the church of St. Peter, and made the sign of +the cross. + +Raphael was bidden make a painting upon one wall of the room, which +should represent the scene, and in his characteristic fashion he made +it to be not merely a copy of what he might suppose the scene to have +been; he introduced a poetic element, which at once made the piece a +work of great imagination. + +A poet, who was describing such an event, might use an illustration +from some other great historic fire. He might have said in effect: "In +this burning of the Borgo, men could have been seen carrying the aged +away on their shoulders, as when in ancient times Troy was burned, +and Æneas bore his father Anchises away from the falling timbers." + +This is exactly what Raphael did in painting. In the background of the +picture is seen Pope Leo IV. with his clergy, in the portico of the +old church of St. Peter's. The Pope's hand is raised, making the sign +of the cross; on the steps of the church are the people who have fled +to it for refuge. On each side of the foreground are burning houses. +Men are busy putting out the fire, and women are bringing them water. +Other men and women and children are escaping from the flames, and +some are heroically saving the weak and helpless. + +It is amongst these last that Raphael has placed the group called the +Flight of Æneas. The Trojan bears on his shoulders his father, the +old, blind Anchises. Behind is Creusa, the wife of Æneas, looking back +with terror upon the burning city, and by the side of Æneas is his +young son Iulus, looking up into his face with a trusting gaze. + +[Illustration: THE FLIGHT OF ÆNEAS +_Vatican Palace, Rome_] + +Some one of Raphael's friends had no doubt told him the story, or read +it to him out of Virgil's Æneid, which was one of the favorite books +in that day, when men were delighting in the recovery of the great +poetry of Greece and Rome. Here is a part of the story as told by +Virgil in the translation by C. P. Cranch:-- + + "But when I reached my old paternal home, + My father, whom I wished to bear away + To the high mountains, and who first of all + I sought, refused to lengthen out his life, + And suffer exile, now that Troy was lost. + 'O ye,' he said, 'whose blood is full of life, + Whose solid strength in youthful vigor stands,-- + Plan ye your flight! But if the heavenly powers + Had destined me to live, they would have kept + For me these seats. Enough, more than enough, + That one destruction I have seen, and I + Survive the captured city. Go ye then, + Bidding this frame farewell--thus, lying thus + Extended on the earth! I shall find death + From some hand.' + + * * * * * + + 'O father, dost thou think + That I can go and leave thee here alone? + Comes such bad counsel from my father's lips? + If't is the pleasure of the gods that naught + From the whole city should be left, and this + Is thy determined thought and wish, to add + To perishing Troy thyself and all thy kin,-- + The gate lies open for that death desired.'" + +So saying, Æneas calls for his arms, resolved to remain with Father +Anchises fighting the Greeks to the death. Thereupon Creusa his wife +begins to weep, begging him not to leave her and her little boy Iulus +to perish in the flames. In the midst of her lamentations a sacred +omen is given, in the appearance of lambent flames playing about the +head of Iulus. Anchises is convinced of the will of the gods. + + "'Now, now,' he cries, 'for us no more delay! + I follow; and wherever ye may lead, + Gods of my country, I will go! Guard ye + My family, my little grandson guard. + This augury is yours; and yours the power + That watches Troy. And now, my son, I yield, + Nor will refuse to go along with thee.' + And now through all the city we can hear + The roaring flames, which nearer roll their heat. + 'Come then, dear father! On my shoulders I + Will bear thee, nor will think the task severe. + Whatever lot awaits us, there shall be + One danger and one safety for us both. + Little Iulus my companion be; + And at a distance let my wife observe + Our footsteps.' + + * * * * * + + This said, a tawny lion's skin + On my broad shoulders and my stooping neck + I throw, and take my burden. At my side + Little Iulus links his hand in mine, + Following his father with unequal steps. + Behind us steps my wife. Through paths obscure + We wend; and I, who but a moment since + Dreaded no flying weapons of the Greeks, + Nor dense battalions of the adverse hosts, + Now start in terror at each rustling breeze, + And every common sound, held in suspense + With equal fears for those attending me, + And for the burden that I bore along." + + + + +XIV + +ST. MICHAEL SLAYING THE DRAGON + + +There are many legends about St. Michael, who is also represented as +the Archangel, or head of the whole company of angels, and most of +these legends spring from a few passages in the Bible, chiefly two. +One of these is in the Epistle of Jude, the ninth verse, where the +archangel Michael is alluded to as "contending with the Devil." The +other is in the Book of Revelation, beginning at the seventh verse of +the ninth chapter:-- + + "And there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought + against the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels, and + prevailed not; neither was their place found any more in + heaven. And the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent + called the Devil, and Satan which deceiveth the whole world; + he was cast out into the earth, and his angels were cast out + with him." + +The Book of Revelation is full of strange imagery; and ever since it +was written, men learned and unlearned have tried to turn its +impassioned verses into real historical scenes, past or to come. Above +all, this figure of a dragon, a monster part man, part brute, puzzled +people, and they have all sorts of explanations to make of it. + +In our fairy tales we often hear of hobgoblins and dragons and like +fearful beings, and we think of them as make-believe creatures, and +sometimes are afraid of them, even though if we are questioned we say +we know they do not really exist. But in Raphael's day, dragons were +by no means unreal things to people. Some thought they had seen them, +and there were a great many persons who if they had not seen them +themselves were sure others had seen them. + +In Raphael's day there were large tracts of the world, dark woods, +inaccessible mountains, which had hardly been explored at all, and +people fancied them haunted by strange men and stranger animals. As +more and more light is let into the world, these dark places +disappear, and we have come to know just what kinds of animals and men +there are everywhere. Yet still, we are not quite sure there may not +be singular beasts lurking out of sight, like the sea serpent for +example. + +Now, the dragon in early days stood for what was ugly and terrible and +a hater of good. The Greeks believed there were dragons, and they had +many tales of how Hercules or this or that hero slew a dragon. To the +Christian of the Middle Ages the dragon stood at one end of the scale, +an archangel at the other; for as the dragon was all darkness and +hideousness, the archangel was all light and beauty and gloriousness. +It thrilled every one to think of the angel of light fighting with and +overcoming the beast of darkness; for every one knew that sort of +struggle was going on in the world, even in himself. + +[Illustration: ST. MICHAEL SLAYING THE DRAGON +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +Raphael's picture gives a fine contrast between the beautiful, strong, +young archangel and his ugly foe. St. Michael hovers in mid air as +light and graceful as a bird, while Satan squirms beneath his feet, a +loathsome creature scorched by the flames and sulphurous fumes, which +pour from the clefts of the rock. + +In the artist's imagination both are spirits, and so both are winged; +for wings, which carry one through the air, naturally are symbols of +spiritual existence. But the wings of the archangel are the wings of +some great, glorious bird like the eagle, which soars upward toward +the sun; the wings of the dragon are more like the wings of a bat, +which flies only in darkness and clings to the roofs of caves. + +After all, the first and last impression which we get from the picture +is the lightning-like movement of the archangel. He darts at the +dragon as if he had come from heaven with the swiftness of light, his +robe flying like the wind away from him, his wings not spread in +flight, but lifted in his poise, and his face bearing the serenity of +an assured victory as he lifts his spear for its final thrust. + +The great English poet Milton has made use of this same subject in +"Paradise Lost." Here is a portion of the story in the sixth book, +lines 316-330:-- + + "Together both, with next to almighty arm + Uplifted imminent, one stroke they aimed + That might determine, and not need repeat + As not of power, at once; nor odds appeared + In might or swift prevention. + But the sword of Michael from the armory of God + Was given him, tempered so that neither keen + Nor solid might resist that edge: it met + The sword of Satan, with steep force to smite + Descending, and in half cut sheer; nor stayed + But with swift wheel reverse, deep entering, shared + All his right side. + Then Satan first knew pain, + And writhed him to and fro convolved; so sore + The griding sword with discontinuous wound + Passed through him." + + + + +XV + +THE SISTINE MADONNA + + +As we turn to the picture, famous the world over as the Sistine +Madonna, we seem to be looking through a window opening into heaven. +Faint in the background, yet filling the whole space, is a cloud of +innumerable cherubs; out of this cloud, and enveloped by it, appear +the Mother and Child. + +They are taking their way seemingly from heaven to earth. A curtain +has been drawn aside that we may see them, and two figures are on +either side, as if to await their passing, one gazing into their faces +while he points outward, the other also kneeling in devotion yet +looking intently down. The mother's robes are blown back by the wind +as she moves steadily forward. + +Underneath is a parapet, as if this were indeed a window, and two +beautiful boy-angels lean upon it, adoration on their faces and rest +in their position, as if they were everlastingly praising, and were +the very embodiments of cheerful innocence. + +It is worth while to look at this picture for a moment, without +thinking of its meaning, and indeed without paying much attention to +the beauty of the figures, just to see how this great painter has +managed the lines and masses of the work. In art, lines and masses +and color are not unlike what words and sentences and what we call +style are in literature. Even if a writer has good and beautiful +ideas, much of the pleasure we might derive is lost when the words are +ill chosen, the sentences are bungling, perhaps even ungrammatical, +and the whole expression is commonplace or confusing. + +We cannot get any notion of Raphael's color from our little print, but +it is not difficult to trace the lines and to see something of the +effect of the masses, and of light and shade. The shape of the whole +is a combination of pyramids. When you see the great base of a pyramid +and observe how the sides taper upward, you are aware that nothing +could stand more securely and at the same time suggest lightness, by +the rising and receding of the sides. + +Now here you see that lines drawn from the shoulders of the two +attendant figures would meet at the Virgin's head, as at the apex of a +pyramid. The curtains even help this effect, by being drawn aside in +such a way as to make these lines more evident. + +In the lower half of the picture the lines in the draperies of the +kneeling saints taper to an imaginary point between the heads of the +cherubs, forming a second inverted pyramid or triangle. Thus the +composition is inclosed in a harmonious figure whose outlines suggest +what we call a diamond. + +[Illustration: SISTINE MADONNA +_Dresden Gallery_] + +Perhaps one reason why a triangular arrangement satisfies the eye, +lies in the simple fact that the most important and yet familiar +object in nature is thus arranged. Thus in this picture, the three +principal persons form the upper triangle, and the body of each person +repeats the figure,--that is, the head rises from the shoulders in +such a way that the lines inclosing them produce a triangle. Further, +in each face, the line formed by the eyes is connected by two +imaginary lines meeting at the mouth. + +In the picture the central figure illustrates this very noticeably. +The arm of the Virgin forms by its position, along with the body of +the child, a base, from which two other lines rise, tapering to the +top of the head; the child's head lies right in the course of one of +these lines. Thus mother and child together form a single figure, the +two united in one. + +But when we have studied this simple principle of composition, we go +back with delight to the picture itself for what it tells us: the deep +mystery of the mother's face, as if she were lifted above the ordinary +plane of human life; the blended loveliness of childhood with the +consciousness of a holy calling; the lowly devotion yet dignity of St. +Barbara; the grandeur and forgetfulness of self of the Pope, whose +triple crown rests on the parapet; the perpetual childhood of the +angelic figures. + +The picture takes its name from the Pope, who had been canonized as +St. Sixtus. It was painted for the convent of St. Sixtus at Piacenza, +but early in the eighteenth century it was bought by the Elector of +Saxony, and now hangs in the gallery at Dresden. It is a pleasant +thing to know that when Frederick the Great bombarded Dresden, he +ordered his cannon to keep clear of the Picture Gallery. Napoleon, +too, though he took many pictures to Paris, did not take any from the +Dresden gallery. + +When we compare the Sistine Madonna with the Madonna of the Chair, we +see what a wide variety of pictures there may be on the single subject +of the Mother and Child. The Madonna of the Chair is, as we have said, +a home scene, like a picture from real life. The Sistine Madonna is a +vision; the figures are lifted above the actual surroundings of earth +into a purely ideal and heavenly atmosphere. In the Madonna of the +Chair, the Mother and Child are all in all to each other, and what +attracts us most in the picture is the mother's love. In the other +picture both mother and boy seem to forget themselves in the thought +of some glorious service to others. + + + + +XVI + +PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL + + +We have been looking at fifteen pictures designed by Raphael. They are +but a few of the great number painted either wholly or in part by the +master, or painted by his pupils from designs and sketches made by +him. He was thirty-seven years old when he died, and it was said that +he died on his birthday. His life was brimful of activity as a +painter. + +The portrait which stands at the beginning of this little book was +painted by himself at the age of twenty-three, for his mother's +brother, whom he was wont to call his "second father." An English +poet, Samuel Rogers, in his poem "Italy," has these lines which +describe it prettily:-- + + "His heavenly face a mirror of his mind, + His mind a temple for all lovely things + To flock to and inhabit." + +One of his contemporaries, Vasari, wrote a book of "Lives of the +Painters," and thus he speaks of Raphael: "All confessed the influence +of his sweet and gracious nature, which was so replete with +excellence, and so perfect in all the charities, that not only was he +honored by men, but even by the very animals, who would constantly +follow his steps, and always loved him." + +If we think of what was happening to Raphael in the year 1506, when he +painted this portrait, perhaps we shall read more truthfully the +expression in his face. Seven years before he had entered the studio +of Perugino, and had begun to learn from that master and to show +something of his own power. Two years before he had made his first +visit to Florence, and there he saw some of the great pictures by +Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo, and had a new conception of what +art could do. + +He had already shown the effect upon him in some of his greatest +Madonnas, and he stood now on the threshold of a great career. New +ambitions awoke within him; new ideals flashed upon his inner vision. +Modest and gentle though he was, he felt a growing consciousness of +his own power. + +So he holds his head high; not haughtily, but with a dignified +self-confidence. His eyes seem to see the visions of which he dreams; +his mouth is half parted as if in expectancy. Happy and lovable, there +is a sweet thoughtfulness in his air which gives promise of his +wonderful performance. + + * * * * * + + + + +PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS + +The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of +Webster's International Dictionary. + + +EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS. + +A Dash (¯) above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in fāte, ēve, + tīme, nōte, ūse. + +A Curve (˘) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in ădd, ĕnd, + ĭll, ŏdd, ŭp. + +A Dot ( ̇) above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in pȧst, + ȧbāte, Amĕricȧ. + +A Double Dot (¨) above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a in + fäther, älms. + +A Double Dot (..) below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in ba̤ll. + +A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in hẽr. + +A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o in bôrn. + + ḗ sounds like e in dḗpĕnd. + + ṓ sounds like o in prṓpōse. + + ç sounds like s. + + c̵ sounds like k. + + ṣ̱ sounds like z. + + ḡ is hard as in ḡet. + + ġ is soft as in ġem. + + +Aeneas (ḗ n[=ee]́ȧs). +Alcibiades (Ălçĭbī́ȧdēz). +Anchises (ăn kī́ s[=ee]z). +Apocrypha (ȧ pŏḱrĭ fȧ). +Apollo (Ȧpŏĺlō). +Arras (Ärräś). +Augustine (á̤ḡŭs t[=ee]n). + +Barnabas (Bäŕnȧbȧs). +Borgo (Bôŕḡō). + +Calliope (c̵ăllī́ṓpḗ). +Costis (c̵ŏśtĭs). +Creusa (c̵rēū́sȧ). + +Dante (Dăńtḗ). + +Elias (Ḗlī́ȧs). +Elijah (Ḗlī́jah). + +Galilee (Ḡăĺĭl[=ee]). +Gennesaret (Ḡĕnnĕśȧrĕt). +Gentiles (Ḡĕńtīleṣ̱). + +Heliodorus (Hēlĭōdṓrŭs). +Hercules (Hẽŕc̵ūlēṣ̱). +Herod (Hĕŕŏd). +Hippocrene (Hĭppōc̵rḗnḗ). + +Iulus (Iū́lŭs). + +Josephus (jō s[=ee]́fŭs). + +Leonardo da Vinci (lā ō näŕdō dä vĭńch[=ee]). +Loggia (lŏd́jȧ). +Louvre (l[=oo]́vr). +Lycaonia (līk ȧ ṓnĭ ȧ). +Lystra (Ly̆śtrȧ). + +Maccabees (măḱ ȧ b[=ee]z). +Madame (Mădämé). +Magdalene (Măǵ dā̇̇̇̇̇̇lĕn). +Mamre (Măḿ rē). +Maximin (Măx́ĭmĭn). +Melchisedec (mĕl kĭź ḗ dĕk). +Mercurius (Mẽrc̵ū́rĭŭs). +Minerva (Mĭnẽŕvȧ). + +Onias (O̱nī́ȧs). + +Parnassus (Pärnăśsŭs). +Pericles (Pĕŕĭc̵leṣ̱). +Perugino (pā r[=oo] j[=ee]́ nō). +Piacenza (Pē ä chĕń dzä). +Pindar (Pĭńdär). +Plato (Plā́tō). +Plautus (Plá̤tŭs). +Polymnia (Pṓly̆ḿnĭȧ). + +Raphael (Rä́fāĕl). + +Sabinella (Săbĭnĕĺlȧ). +Sappho (săf́fō). +Sheba (Shḗbȧ). +Signora (S[=ee]n yṓrȧ). +Sinai (Sīńī). +Sistine (Sĭśt[=ee]n). +Socrates (Sŏć̵rȧtēṣ̱). +Sodom (Sŏd́ŏm). +Stanza d́Eliodoro (Stäńdzä dā lḗ ṓ dṓ rō). + +Urban (Uŕbȧn). +Urbino ([=oo]r b[=ee]nō). + +Vasari (vä sä́ r[=ee]). +Vatican (Văt́ĭc̵ăn). + +Xenophon (zĕńṓ fŏn). + +Zebedee (Zĕb́ĕd[=ee]). + + * * * * * + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Raphael, by Estelle M. Hurll + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RAPHAEL *** + +***** This file should be named 19314-0.txt or 19314-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/3/1/19314/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |