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diff --git a/19302.txt b/19302.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..708ff0a --- /dev/null +++ b/19302.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3911 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Dinosaurs, by William Diller Matthew + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Dinosaurs + With Special Reference to the American Museum Collections + + +Author: William Diller Matthew + + + +Release Date: September 16, 2006 [eBook #19302] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DINOSAURS*** + + +E-text prepared by Brian Janes, Suzanne Lybarger, Jeannie Howse, and the +Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team +(https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 19302-h.htm or 19302-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/3/0/19302/19302-h/19302-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/3/0/19302/19302-h.zip) + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has been | + | preserved. There are many unusual words in this document! | + | | + | A number of obvious typographical errors have been corrected | + | in this text. For a complete list, please see the end of | + | this document. | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +DINOSAURS + +With Special Reference to the American Museum Collections + +by + +W. D. MATTHEW + +Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology + + + + + + + +... '_Dragons of the prime +That tare each other in their slime_' + + +[Illustration: SKULL OF THE GREAT CARNIVOROUS DINOSAUR +TYRANNOSAURUS IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM.] + + +New York +American Museum of Natural History +1915 + + + + +DINOSAURS. + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. The Age of Reptiles. Its Antiquity, Duration + and Significance in Geological History. 9 + +CHAPTER II. North America in the Age of Reptiles. + Its Geographic and Climatic Changes. 16 + +CHAPTER III. Kinds of Dinosaurs. Common Characters and + Differences between the various Groups. + Classification. 25 + +CHAPTER IV. The Carnivorous Dinosaurs--Allosaurus, + Tyrannosaurus, Ornitholestes, etc. 33 + +CHAPTER V. The Amphibious Dinosaurs--Brontosaurus, + Diplodocus, etc. 60 + +CHAPTER VI. The Beaked Dinosaurs. + The Iguanodonts--Iguanodon, Camptosaurus. 75 + +CHAPTER VII. The Beaked Dinosaurs (continued). The + Duckbilled Dinosaurs--Trachodon, Saurolophus. 82 + +CHAPTER VIII. The Beaked Dinosaurs (continued). The + Armored Dinosaurs--Stegosaurus, Ankylosaurus. 101 + +CHAPTER IX. The Beaked Dinosaurs (concluded). The + Horned Dinosaurs--Triceratops, etc. 107 + +CHAPTER X. Geographical Distribution of Dinosaurs. 114 + +CHAPTER XI. Collecting Dinosaurs. How and Where they are + Found. The First Discovery of Dinosaurs in + the West. The Bone-Cabin Quarry. Fossil + Hunting by Boat in Canada. 116 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +This volume is in large part a reprint of various popular descriptions +and notices in the American Museum Journal and elsewhere by Professor +Henry Fairfield Osborn, Mr. Barnum Brown, and the writer. There has +been a considerable demand for these articles which are now mostly out +of print. In reprinting it seemed best to combine and supplement them +so as to make a consecutive and intelligible account of the Dinosaur +collections in the Museum. The original notices are quoted verbatim; +for the remainder of the text the present writer is responsible. +Professor S.W. Williston of Chicago University has kindly contributed +a chapter--all too brief--describing the first discoveries of +dinosaurs in the Western formations that have since yielded so large a +harvest. + +The photographs of American Museum specimens are by Mr. A.E. Anderson; +the field photographs by various Museum expeditions; the restorations +by Mr. Charles R. Knight. Most of these illustrations have been +published elsewhere by Professor Osborn, Mr. Brown and others. The +diagrams, figs. 1-9, 24, 25, 37 and 40, are my own. + + W. D. M. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE AGE OF REPTILES. + +ITS ANTIQUITY, DURATION AND SIGNIFICANCE IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY. + + +Palaeontology deals with the History of Life. Its time is measured in +geologic epochs and periods, in millions of years instead of +centuries. Man, by this measure, is but a creature of yesterday--his +"forty centuries of civilization"[1] but a passing episode. It is by +no means easy for us to adjust our perspective to the immensely long +spaces of time involved in geological evolution. We are apt to think +of all these extinct animals merely as prehistoric--to imagine them +all living at the same time and contending with our cave-dwelling +ancestors for the mastery of the earth. + +In order to understand the place of the Dinosaurs in world-history, we +must first get some idea of the length of geologic periods and the +immense space of time separating one extinct fauna from another. + +_The Age of Man._ Prehistoric time, as it is commonly understood, is +the time when barbaric and savage tribes of men inhabited the world +but before civilization began, and earlier than the written records on +which history is based. This corresponds roughly to the Pleistocene +epoch of geology; it is included along with the much shorter time +during which civilization has existed, in the latest and shortest of +the geological periods, the Quaternary. It was the age of the mammoth +and the mastodon, the megatherium and Irish deer and of other +quadrupeds large and small which are now extinct; but most of its +animals were the same species as now exist. It was marked by the great +episode of the Ice Age, when considerable parts of the earth's surface +were buried under immense accumulations of ice, remnants of which are +still with us in the icy covering of Greenland and Antarctica. + +_The Age of Mammals._ Before this period was a very much longer +one--at least thirty times as long--during which modern quadrupeds +were slowly evolving from small and primitive ancestors into their +present variety of form and size. This is the Tertiary Period or Age +of Mammals. Through this long period we can trace step by step the +successive stages through which the ancestors of horses, camels, +elephants, rhinoceroses, etc., were gradually converted into their +present form in adaptation to their various habits and environment. +And with them were slowly evolved various kinds of quadrupeds whose +descendants do not now exist, the Titanotheres, Elotheres, Oreodonts, +etc., extinct races which have not survived to our time. Man, as such, +had not yet come into existence, nor are we able to trace any direct +and complete line of ancestry among the fossil species known to us; +but his collateral ancestors were represented by the fossil species +of monkeys and lemurs of the Tertiary period. + + [Illustration: Fig. 1.--The Later Ages of Geologic Time.] + +_The Age of Reptiles._ Preceding the Age of Mammals lies a long vista +of geologic periods of which the later ones are marked by the +dominance of Reptiles, and are grouped together as the Age of Reptiles +or Mesozoic Era. This was the reign of the Dinosaurs, and in it we are +introduced to a world of life so different from that of today that we +might well imagine ourselves upon another planet. + +None of the ordinary quadrupeds with which we are familiar then +existed, nor any related to nor resembling them. But in their place +were reptiles large and small, carnivorous and herbivorous, walking, +swimming and even flying. + +_Crocodiles, Turtles and Sea Reptiles._ The Crocodiles and Turtles of +the swamps were not so very different from their modern descendants; +there were also sea-crocodiles, sea-turtles, huge marine lizards +(Mosasaurs) with flippers instead of feet; and another group of great +marine reptiles (Plesiosaurs) somewhat like sea-turtles but with long +neck and toothed jaws and without any carapace. These various kinds of +sea-reptiles took the place of the great sea mammals of modern times +(which were evolved during the Age of Mammals); of whales and +dolphins, seals and walruses, and manatees. + +_Pterodactyls._ The flying Reptiles or Pterosaurians, partly took the +place of birds, and most of them were of small size. Strange +bat-winged creatures, the wing membrane stretched on the enormously +elongated fourth finger, they are of all extinct reptiles the least +understood, the most difficult to reconstruct and visualize as they +were in life. + +_Dinosaurs._ The land reptiles were chiefly Dinosaurs, a group which +flourished throughout the Age of Reptiles and became extinct at its +close. "Dinosaur" is a general term which covers as wide a variety in +size and appearance as "Quadruped" among modern animals. And the +Dinosaurs in the Age of Reptiles occupied about the same place in +nature as the larger quadrupeds do today. They have been called the +Giant Reptiles, for those we know most about were gigantic in size, +but there were also numerous smaller kinds, the smallest no larger +than a cat. All of them had short, compact bodies, long tails, and +long legs for a reptile, and instead of crawling, they walked or ran, +sometimes upon all fours, more generally upon the hind limbs, like +ostriches, the long tail balancing the weight of the body. Some modern +lizards run this way on occasion, especially if they are in a hurry. +But the bodies of lizards are too long and their limbs too small and +slender for this to be the usual mode of progress, as it seems to have +been among the Dinosaurs. + + ANIMALS OF THE AGE OF REPTILES. + LAND REPTILES. + DINOSAURS corresponding to the larger quadrupeds or land + mammals of today. + CROCODILES, LIZARDS AND TURTLES still surviving. + SEA REPTILES. + PLESIOSAURS } corresponding to whales, dolphins, seals, + ICHTHYOSAURS } etc., or sea-mammals of today. + MOSASAURS } + FLYING REPTILES OR PTEROSAURS. + BIRDS WITH TEETH (scarce and little known). + PRIMITIVE MAMMALS of minute size (scarce and little known). + FISHES and INVERTEBRATES many of them of extinct races, all + more or less different from modern kinds. + +Fishes, large and small, were common in the seas and rivers of the Age +of Reptiles but all of them were more or less different from modern +kinds, and many belonged to ancient races now rare or extinct. + +The lower animals or Invertebrates were also different from those of +today, although some would not be very noticeably so at first glance. +Among molluscs, the Ammonites, related to the modern Pearly Nautilus, +are an example of a race very numerous and varied during all the +periods of the Reptilian Era, but disappearing at its close, leaving +only a few collateral descendants in the squids, cuttlefish and nautili +of the modern seas. The Brachiopods were another group of molluscs, or +rather molluscoids for they were not true molluscs, less abundant even +then than in previous ages and now surviving only in a few rare and +little known types such as the lamp-shell (_Terebratulina_). + +_Insects._ The Insect life of the earlier part of the Age of Reptiles +was notable for the absence of all the higher groups and orders, +especially those adapted to feed on flowers. There were no butterflies +or moths, no bees or wasps or ants although there were plenty of +dragonflies, cockroaches, bugs and beetles. But in the latter part of +this era, all these higher orders appeared along with the flowering +plants and trees. + +_Plants._ The vegetation in the early part of the era was very +different both from the gloomy forests of the more ancient Coal Era +and from that which prevails today. Cycads, ferns and fern-like +plants, coniferous trees, especially related to the modern +_Araucaria_ or Norfolk Island Pine, Ginkgos still surviving in China, +and huge equisetae or horsetail rushes, still surviving in South +American swamps and with dwarfed relatives throughout the world, were +the dominant plant types of that era. The flowering plants and +deciduous trees had not appeared. But in the latter half of the era +these appeared in ever increasing multitudes, displacing the lower +types and relegating them to a subordinate position. Unlike the more +rapidly changing higher animals these ancient Mesozoic groups of +plants have not wholly disappeared, but still survive, mostly in +tropical and southern regions or as a scanty remnant in contrast with +their once varied and dominant role. + +There is every reason to believe that upon the appearance of these +higher plants whose flower and fruit afforded a more concentrated and +nourishing food, depended largely the evolution of the higher animal +life both vertebrate and insect, of the Cenozoic or modern era. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: The records of Egypt and Chaldaea extend back at least +sixty centuries.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +NORTH AMERICA IN THE AGE OF REPTILES. + +ITS GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES. + + +North America in the Age of Reptiles would have seemed almost as +strange to our eyes in its geography as in its animals and plants. The +present outlines of its coast, its mountains and valleys, its rivers +and lakes, have mostly arisen since that time. Even the more ancient +parts of the continent have been profoundly modified through the +incessant work of rain and rivers and of the waves, tending to wear +down the land surfaces, of volcanic outbursts building them up, and of +the more mysterious agencies which raise or depress vast stretches of +mountain chains or even the whole area of a continent, and which tend +on the whole so far as we can see, to restore or increase the relief +of the continents, as the action of the surface waters tends to bring +them down to or beneath the sea level. + +_Alternate Overflow and Emergence of Continents._ In a broad way these +agencies of elevation and of erosion have caused in their age-long +struggle an alternation of periods of overflow and periods of +continental emergence during geologic time. During the periods of +overflow, great portions of the low-lying parts of the continents were +submerged, and formed extensive but comparatively shallow seas. The +mountains through long continued erosion were reduced to gentle and +uniform slopes of comparatively slight elevation. Their materials were +brought down by rivers to the sea-coast, and distributed as +sedimentary formations over the shallow interior seas or along the +margins of the continents. But this load of sediments, transferred +from the dry land to the ocean margins and shallow seas, disturbed the +balance of weight (isostasy) which normally keeps the continental +platforms above the level of the ocean basins (which as shown by +gravity measurement are underlain by materials of higher specific +gravity than the continents). In due course of time, when the strain +became sufficient, it was readjusted by earth movements of a slowness +proportioned to their vastness. These movements while tending upon the +whole to raise the continents to or sometimes beyond their former +relief, did not reverse the action of erosion agencies in detail, but +often produced new lines or areas of high elevation. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.--North America in the Later Cretacic + Period. Map outlines after Schuchert.] + +_Geologic Periods._ A geologic period is the record of one of these +immense and long continued movements of alternate submergence and +elevation of the continents. It begins, therefore, and ends with a +time of emergence, and includes a long era of submergence. + +These epochs of elevation are accompanied by the development of cold +climates at the poles, and elsewhere of arid conditions in the +interior of the continents. The epochs of submergence are accompanied +by a warm, humid climate, more or less uniform from the equator to the +poles. + +The earth has very recently, in a geologic sense, passed through an +epoch of extreme continental elevation the maximum of which was marked +by the "Ice Age." The continents are still emerged for the most part +almost to the borders of the "continental shelf" which forms their +maximum limit. And in the icy covering of Greenland and Antarctica a +considerable portion still remains of the great ice-sheets which at +their maximum covered large parts of North America and Europe. We are +now at the beginning of a long period of slow erosion and subsidence +which, if this interpretation of the geologic record be correct, will +in the course of time reduce the mountains to plains and submerge +great parts of the lowlands beneath the ocean. As compensation for the +lesser extent of dry land we may look forward to a more genial and +favorable climate in the reduced areas that remain above water. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Relative Length of Ages of Reptiles, + Mammals and Man.] + +_Length of Geologic Cycles._ But these vast cycles of geographic and +climatic change will take millions of years to accomplish their +course. The brief span of human life, or even the few centuries of +recorded civilization are far too short to show any perceptible change +in climate due to this cause. The utmost stretch of a man's life will +cover perhaps one-two hundred thousandth part of a geologic period. +The time elapsed since the dawn of civilization is less than a +three-thousandth part. Of the days and hours of this geologic year, +our historic records cover but two or three minutes, our individual +lives but a fraction of a second. We must not expect to find records +of its changing seasons in human history, still less to observe them +personally. + + [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Relative Length of Prehistoric and + Historic Time.] + +There are indeed minor cycles of climate within this great cycle. The +great Ice Age through which the earth has so recently passed was +marked by alternations of severity and mildness of climate, of advance +and recession of the glaciers, and within these smaller cycles are +minor alternations whose effect upon the course of human history has +been shown recently by Professor Huntington ("The Pulse of Asia"). But +the great cycles of the geologic periods are of a scope far too vast +for their changes to be perceptible to us except through their +influence upon the course of evolution. + +_The Later Cycles of Geologic Time._ The Reptilian Era opens with a +period of extreme elevation, which rivalled that of the Glacial Epoch +and was similarly accompanied by extensive glaciation of which some +traces are preserved to our day in characteristic glacial boulders, +ice scratches, and till, imbedded or inter-stratified in the strata of +the Permian age. Between these two extremes of continental emergence, +the Permian and the Pleistocene, we can trace six cycles of alternate +submergence and elevation, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 5), +representing the proportion of North America which is known to have +been above water during the six geologic periods that intervene. + +From this diagram it will appear that the six cycles or periods were +by no means equal in the amount of overflow or complete recovery of +the drowned lands. The Cretacic period was marked by a much more +extensive and long continued flooding; the great plains west of the +Mississippi were mostly under water from the Gulf of Mexico to the +Arctic Ocean. The earlier overflows were neither so extensive nor so +long continued. The great uplift of the close of the Cretacic regained +permanently the great central region and united East and West, and the +overflows of the Age of Mammals were mostly limited to the South +Atlantic and Gulf coasts. + +_Sedimentary Formations._ During the epochs of greatest overflow great +marine formations were deposited over large areas of what is now dry +land. These were followed as the land rose to sea level by extensive +marsh and delta formations, and these in turn by scattered and +fragmentary dry land deposits spread by rivers over their flood +plains. In the marine formations are found the fossil remains of the +sea-animals of the period; in the coast and delta formations are the +remains of those which inhabited the marshes and forests of the coast +regions; while the animals of the dryland, of plains and upland, left +their remains in the river-plain formations. + + [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Geologic Cycles and the Land Area of North + America (after Schuchert).] + +These last, however, fragmentary and loose and overlying the rest, +were the first to be swept away by erosion during the periods of +elevation; and of such formations in the Age of Reptiles very little, +if anything, seems to have been preserved to our day. Consequently we +know very little about the upland animals of those times, if as seems +very probable, they were more or less different from the animals of +the coast-forests and swamps. The river-plain deposits of the Age of +Mammals on the other hand, are still quite extensive, especially those +of its later epochs, and afford a fairly complete record in some parts +of the continent of the upland fauna of those regions. + +_Occurrence of Dinosaur Bones._ Dinosaur bones are found mostly in the +great delta formations, and since those were accumulated chiefly in +the early stages of great continental elevations, it follows that our +acquaintance with Dinosaurs is mostly limited to those living at +certain epochs during the Age of Reptiles. In point of fact so far as +explorations have yet gone in this country, the Dinosaur fauna of the +close of the Jurassic and beginning of the Comanchic and that of the +later Cretacic are the only ones we know much about. The immense +interval of time that preceded, and the no less vast stretch of time +that separated them, is represented in the record of Dinosaur history +by a multitude of tracks and a few imperfect skeletons assigned to the +close of the Triassic period, and by a few fragments from formations +which may be intermediate in age between the Jurassic-Comanchic and +the late Cretacic. Consequently we cannot expect to trace among the +Dinosaurs, the gradual evolution of different races, as we can do +among the quadrupeds of the Age of Mammals. + +_Imperfection of the Geologic Record._ The Age of Mammals in North +America presents a moving picture of the successive stages in the +evolution of modern quadrupeds; the Age of Reptiles shows (broadly +considered) two photographs representing the land vertebrates of two +long distant periods, as remote in time from each other as the later +one is remote from the present day. Of the earlier stages in the +evolution of the Dinosaurs there are but a few imperfect sketches in +this country; in Europe the picture is more complete. In the course of +time, as exploration progresses, we shall no doubt recover more +complete records. But probably we shall never have so complete a +history of the terrestrial life of the Age of Reptiles as we have of +the Age of Mammals. The records are defective, a large part of them +destroyed or forever inaccessible. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +KINDS OF DINOSAURS. + +COMMON CHARACTERS AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE VARIOUS GROUPS. + + +In the preceding chapter we have attempted to point out the place in +nature that the Dinosaurs occupied and the conditions under which they +lived. They were the dominant land animals of their time, just as the +quadrupeds were during the Age of Mammals. Their sway endured for a +long era, estimated at nine millions of years, and about three times +as long as the period which has elapsed since their disappearance. +They survived vast changes in geography and climate, and became +extinct through a combination of causes not fully understood as yet; +probably the great changes in physical conditions at the end of the +Cretacic period, and the development of mammals and birds, more +intelligent, more active, and better adapted to the new conditions of +life, were the most important factors in their extinction. + +The Dinosaurs originated, so far as we can judge, as lizard-like +reptiles with comparatively long limbs, long tails, five toes on each +foot, tipped with sharp claws, and with a complete series of sharp +pointed teeth. It would seem probable that these ancestors were more +or less bipedal, and adapted to live on dry land. They were probably +much like the modern lizards in size, appearance and habitat:[2] + +From this ancestral type the Dinosaurs evolved into a great variety of +different kinds, many of them of gigantic size, some herbivorous, some +carnivorous; some bipedal, others quadrupedal; many of them protected +by various kinds of bony armor-plates, or provided with horns or +spines; some with sharp claws, others with blunted claws or hoofs. + + [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Outline Restorations of Dinosaurs. Scale + about nineteen feet to the inch.] + +These various kinds of Dinosaurs are customarily grouped as follows: + +I. _Carnivorous Dinosaurs_ or _Theropoda_. With sharp pointed teeth, +sharp claws; bipedal, with bird-like hind feet, generally +three-toed;[3] the fore-limbs adapted for grasping or tearing, but not +for support of the body. The head is large, neck of moderate length, +body unarmored. The principal Dinosaurs of this group in America are + +_Allosaurus_, _Ornitholestes_--Upper Jurassic period. + +_Tyrannosaurus, Deinodon, Albertosaurus, Ornithomimus_--Upper Cretacic +period. + + [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Skulls of Dinosaurs, illustrating the + principal types--_Anchisaurus_ after Marsh, the others from + American Museum specimens.] + +II. _Amphibious Dinosaurs_ or _Sauropoda_. With blunt-pointed teeth +and blunt claws, quadrupedal, with elephant-like limbs and feet, long +neck and small head. Unarmored. Principal dinosaurs of this group in +America are _Brontosaurus_, _Diplodocus_, _Camarasaurus_ +(_Morosaurus_) and _Brachiosaurus_, all of the Upper Jurassic and +Comanchic periods. + +III. _Beaked Dinosaurs_ or _Predentates_. With a horny beak on the +front of the jaw, cutting or grinding teeth behind it. All +herbivorous, with pelvis of peculiar type, with hoofs instead of +claws, and many genera heavily armored. Mostly three short toes on the +hind foot, four or five on the fore foot. This group comprises animals +of very different proportions as follows: + +1. _Iguanodonts._ Bipedal, unarmored, with a single row of serrated +cutting teeth, three-toed hind feet. Upper Jurassic, Comanchic and +Cretacic. _Camptosaurus_ is the best known American genus. + +2. _Trachodonts_ or _Duck-billed Dinosaurs_. Like the Iguanodonts but +with numerous rows of small teeth set close together to form a +grinding surface. Cretacic period. _Trachodon, Hadrosaurus, +Claosaurus, Saurolophus, Corythosaurus, etc._ + +3. _Stegosaurs_ or _Armored Dinosaurs_. Quadrupedal dinosaurs with +elephantine feet, short neck, small head, body and tail armored with +massive bony plates and often with large bony spines. Teeth in a +single row, like those of Iguanodonts. _Stegosaurus_ of the Upper +Jurassic, _Ankylosaurus_ of the Upper Cretacic. + + [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Hind Feet of Dinosaurs, to show the three + chief types (Theropoda, Orthopoda, Sauropoda).] + +4. _Ceratopsian_ or _Horned Dinosaurs_. Quadrupedal with elephantine +feet, short neck, very large head enlarged by an enormous bony frill +covering the neck, with a pair of horns over the eyes and a single +horn in front. Teeth in a single row, but broadened out and adapted +for grinding the food. No body armor. _Triceratops_ is the best known +type. _Monoclonius_, _Ceratops_, _Torosaurus_ and _Anchiceratops_ are +also of this group. All from the Cretacic period. + +_Classification of Dinosaurs._ It is probable that the Dinosaurs are +not really a natural group or order of reptiles, although they have +been generally so considered. The Carnivorous and Amphibious Dinosaurs +in spite of their diverse appearance and habits, are rather nearly +related, while the Beaked Dinosaurs form a group apart, and may be +descendants of a different group of primitive reptiles. These +relations are most clearly seen in the construction of the pelvis (see +fig. 9). In the first two groups the pubis projects downward and +forward as it does in the majority of reptiles, and the ilium is a +high rounded plate; while in the others the pelvis is of a wholly +different type, strongly suggesting the pelvis of birds. + + [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Pelves of Dinosaurs illustrating the two + chief types (Saurischia, Ornithischia) and their variations.] + +Recent researches upon Triassic dinosaurs, especially by the +distinguished German savants, Friedrich von Huene, Otto Jaekel and the +late Eberhard Fraas, and the discovery of more complete specimens of +these animals, also clear up the true relationships of these +primitive dinosaurs which have mostly been referred hitherto to the +Theropoda or Megalosaurians. The following classification is somewhat +more conservative than the arrangement recently proposed by von Huene. + + ORDER SAURISCHIA Seeley. + Suborder _Coelurosauria_ von Huene + (=Compsognatha Huxley, Symphypoda Cope.) + Fam. Podokesauridae Triassic, Connecticut. + " Hallopodidae Jurassic, Colorado. + " Coeluridae Jurassic and Comanchic, North America. + " Compsognathidae Jurassic, Europe. + Suborder _Pachypodosauria_ von Huene. + Fam. Anchisauridae Triassic, North America and Europe. + " Zanclodontidae } + " Plateosauridae } Triassic, Europe.* + Suborder _Theropoda_ Marsh (=Goniopoda Cope) + Fam. Megalosauridae Jurassic and Comanchic. + " Deinodontidae Cretacic. + " Ornithomimidae Cretacic, North America. + Suborder _Sauropoda_ Marsh + (=Opisthocoelia Owen, Cetiosauria Seeley.) + Fam. Cetiosauridae } + " Morosauridae } Jurassic and Comanchic. + " Diplodocidae } + Order ORNITHISCHIA Seeley + (=Orthopoda Cope, Predentata Marsh.) + Suborder _Ornithopoda_ Marsh (Iguanodontia Dollo) + Fam. Nanosauridae Jurassic, Colorado. + " Camptosauridae } + " Iguanodontidae } Jurassic and Comanchic. + " Trachodontidae (=Hadrosauridae), Cretacic. + Suborder _Stegosauria_ Marsh. + Fam. Scelidosauridae } Jurassic and Comanchic. + " Stegosauridae } + " Ankylosauridae (=Nodosauridae), Cretacic. + Suborder _Ceratopsia_ Marsh. + Fam. Ceratopsidae Cretacic. + +* Regarded by Dr. von Huene as ancestral respectively to the + Theropoda and Sauropoda. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 2: If some vast catastrophe should today blot out all the +mammalian races including man, and the birds, but leave the lizards +and other reptiles still surviving, with the lower animals and plants, +we might well expect the lizards in the course of geologic periods to +evolve into a great and varied land fauna like the Dinosaurs of the +Mesozoic Era.] + +[Footnote 3: The ancestral types have four complete toes, but in the +true Theropoda the inner digit is reduced to a small incomplete +remnant, its claw reversed and projecting at the back of the foot, as +in birds.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CARNIVOROUS DINOSAURS, ALLOSAURUS, TYRANNOSAURUS, +ORNITHOLESTES, ETC. + +SUB-ORDER THEROPODA. + + +The sharp teeth, compressed and serrated like a palaeolithic spear +point, and the powerful sharp-pointed curved claws on the feet, prove +the carnivorous habits of these dinosaurs. The well-finished joints, +dense texture of the hollow bones and strongly marked muscle-scars +indicate that they were active and powerful beasts of prey. They range +from small slender animals up to the gigantic _Tyrannosaurus_ +equalling the modern elephant in bulk. They were half lizard, half +bird in proportions, combining the head, the short neck and small fore +limbs and long snaky tail of the lizard with the short, compact body, +long powerful hind limbs and three-toed feet of the bird. The skin was +probably either naked or covered with horny scales as in lizards and +snakes; at all events it was not armor-plated as in the crocodile.[4] +They walked or ran upon the hind legs; in many of them the fore limbs +are quite unfitted for support of the body and must have been used +solely in fighting or tearing their prey. + + [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Hind Limb of Allosaurus, Dr. J.L. Wortman + standing to one side. Dr. Wortman is one of the most notable and + successful collectors of fossil vertebrates and was in charge of + the Museum's field work in this department from 1891-1898.] + +The huge size of some of these Mesozoic beasts of prey finds no +parallel among their modern analogues. It is only among marine animals +that we find predaceous types of such gigantic size. But among the +carnivorous dinosaurs we fail to find any indications of aquatic or +even amphibious habits. They might indeed wade in the water, but they +could hardly be at home in it, for they were clearly not good +swimmers. We must suppose that they were dry land animals or at most +swamp dwellers. + +_Dinosaur Footprints._ The ancestors of the Theropoda appear first in +the Triassic period, already of large size, but less completely +bipedal than their successors. Incomplete skeletons have been found in +the Triassic formations of Germany[5] but in this country they are +chiefly known from the famous fossil footprints (or "bird-tracks" as +they were at first thought to be), found in the flagstone quarries at +Turner's Falls on the Connecticut River, in the vicinity of Boonton, +New Jersey, and elsewhere. These tracks are the footprints of numerous +kinds of dinosaurs, large and small, mostly of the carnivorous group, +which lived in that region in the earlier part of the Age of Reptiles, +and much has been learned from them as to the habits of the animals +that made them. The tracks ascribed to carnivorous dinosaurs run in +series with narrow tread, short or long steps, here and there a light +impression of tail or forefoot and occasionally the mark of the shank +and pelvis when the animal settled back and squatted down to rest a +moment. The modern crocodiles when they lift the body off the ground, +waddle forward with the short limbs wide apart, and even the lizards +which run on their hind legs have a rather wide tread. But these +dinosaurs ran like birds, setting one foot nearly in front of the +other, so that the prints of right and left feet are nearly in a +straight line. This was on account of their greater length of limb, +which made it easy for them to swing the foot directly underneath the +body at each step like mammals and birds, and thus maintain an even +balance, instead of wabbling from side to side as short legged animals +are compelled to do. + +Of the animals that made these innumerable tracks the actual remains +found thus far in this country are exceedingly scanty. Two or three +incomplete skeletons of small kinds are in the Yale Museum, of which +_Anchisaurus_ is the best known. + +_Megalosaurus._ Fragmentary remains of this huge carnivorous dinosaur +were found in England nearly a century ago, and the descriptions by +Dean Buckland and Sir Richard Owen and the restorations due to the +imaginative chisel of Waterhouse Hawkins, have made it familiar to +most English readers. Unfortunately it was, and still remains, very +imperfectly known. It was very closely related to the American +_Allosaurus_ and unquestionably similar in appearance and habits.[6] + + +ALLOSAURUS. + +The following extract is from the American Museum Journal for January +1908.[7] + +"Although smaller than its huge contemporary Brontosaurus, this animal +is of gigantic proportions being 34 feet 2 inches in length, and 8 +feet 3 inches high." + + [Illustration: Fig. 11.--MOUNTED SKELETON OF ALLOSAURUS IN THE + AMERICAN MUSEUM. _After Osborn_] + +_History of the Allosaurus Skeleton._ "This rare and finely preserved +skeleton was collected by Mr. F.F. Hubbell in October 1879, in the +Como Bluffs near Medicine Bow, Wyoming, the richest locality in +America for dinosaur skeletons, and is a part of the great collection +of fossil reptiles, amphibians and fishes gathered together by the +late Professor E.D. Cope, and presented to the American Museum in 1899 +by President Jesup. + +"Shortly after the Centennial Exposition (1876) it had been planned +that Professor Cope's collection of fossils should form part of a +great public museum in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, the city +undertaking the cost of preparing and exhibiting the specimens, an +arrangement similar to that existing between the American Museum and +the City of New York.[8] + +"The plan, however, fell through, and the greater part of this +magnificent collection remained in storage in the basement of Memorial +Hall in Fairmount Park, for the next twenty years. From time to time +Professor Cope removed parts of the collection to his private museum +in Pine Street, for purposes of study and scientific description. He +seems, however, to have had no idea of the perfection and value of +this specimen. In 1899 when the collection was purchased from his +executors by Mr. Jesup, the writer went to Philadelphia under the +instructions of Professor Osborn, Curator of Fossil Vertebrates, to +superintend the packing and removal to the American Museum. At that +time the collection made by Hubbell was still in Memorial Hall, and +the boxes were piled up just as they came in from the West, never +having been unpacked. Professor Cope's assistant, Mr. Geismar, +informed the writer that Hubbell's collection was mostly fragmentary +and not of any great value. Mr. Hubbell's letters from the field +unfortunately were not preserved, but it is likely that they did not +make clear what a splendid find he had made, and as some of his +earlier collections had been fragmentary and of no great interest, the +rest were supposed to be of the same kind. + +"When the Cope Collection was unpacked at the American Museum, this +lot of boxes, not thought likely to be of much interest, was left +until the last, and not taken in hand until 1902 or 1903. But when +this specimen was laid out, it appeared that a treasure had come to +light. Although collected by the crude methods of early days, it +consisted of the greater part of the skeleton of a single individual, +with the bones in wonderfully fine preservation, considering that they +had been buried for say eight million years. They were dense black, +hard and uncrushed, even better preserved and somewhat more complete +than the two fine skeletons of Allosaurus from Bone-Cabin Quarry, the +greatest treasures that this famous quarry had supplied. The great +carnivorous dinosaurs are much rarer than the herbivorous kinds, and +these three skeletons are the most complete that have ever been found. +In all the years of energetic exploration that the late Professor +Marsh devoted to searching for dinosaurs in the Jurassic and +Cretaceous formations of the West, he did not obtain any skeletons of +carnivorous kinds anywhere near as complete as these, and their +anatomy was in many respects unknown or conjectural. By comparison of +the three Allosaurus skeletons with one another and with other +specimens of carnivorous dinosaurs of smaller size in this and other +museums, particularly in the National Museum and the Kansas University +Museum, we have been able to reconstruct the missing parts of the Cope +specimen with very little possibility of serious error." + +_Evidence for Combining and Posing this Mount._ "An incomplete +specimen of Brontosaurus, found by Doctor Wortman and Professor W.C. +Knight of the American Museum Expedition of 1897, had furnished +interesting data as to the food and habits of Allosaurus, which were +confirmed by several other fragmentary specimens obtained later in the +Bone-Cabin Quarry. In this Brontosaurus skeleton several of the bones, +especially the spines of the tail vertebrae, when found in the rock, +looked as if they had been scored and bitten off, as though by some +carnivorous animal which had either attacked the Brontosaurus when +alive, or had feasted upon the carcass. When the Allosaurus jaw was +compared with these score marks, it was found to fit them exactly, the +spacing of the scratches being the same as the spacing of the teeth. +Moreover, on taking out the Brontosaurus vertebrae from the quarry, a +number of broken off teeth of Allosaurus were found lying beside them. +As no other remains of Allosaurus or any other animal were +intermingled with the Brontosaurus skeleton, the most obvious +explanation was that these teeth were broken off by an Allosaurus +while devouring the Brontosaurus carcass. Many of the bones of other +herbivorous dinosaurs found in the Bone-Cabin Quarry were similarly +scored and bitten off, and the teeth of Allosaurus were also found +close to them. + +"With these data at hand the original idea was conceived of combining +these two skeletons, both from the same formation and found within a +few miles of each other, to represent what must actually have happened +to them in the remote Jurassic period, and mount the Allosaurus +skeleton standing over the remains of a Brontosaurus in the attitude +of feeding upon its carcass. Some modifications were made in the +position to suit the exigencies of an open mount, and to accommodate +the pose to the particular action; the head of the animal was lifted a +little, one hind foot planted upon the carcass, while the other, +resting upon the ground bears most of the weight. The fore feet, used +in these animals only for fighting or for tearing their prey, not for +support, are given characteristic attitudes, and the whole pose +represents the Allosaurus devouring the carcass and raising head and +fore foot in a threatening manner as though to drive away intruders. +The balance of the various parts was carefully studied and adjusted +under direction of the curator. The preparation and mounting of the +specimen were done by Mr. Adam Hermann, head preparator, and his +assistants, especially Messrs. Falkenbach and Lang. + + [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Restoration of Allosaurus by C.R. Knight. + _After Osborn_] + +"As now exhibited in the Dinosaur Hall, this group gives to the +imaginative observer a most vivid picture of a characteristic scene in +that bygone age, millions of years ago, when reptiles were the lords +of creation, and 'Nature, red in tooth and claw' had lost none of her +primitive savagery, and the era of brute force and ferocity showed +little sign of the gradual amelioration which was to come to pass in +future ages through the predominance of superior intelligence." + +_Appearance and Habits of Allosaurus._ A study of the mechanism of the +Allosaurus skeleton shows us in the first place that the animal is +balanced on the hind limbs, the long heavy tail making an adequate +counterpoise for the short compact body and head. The hind limbs are +nine feet in length when extended, about equal to the length of the +body and neck, and the bones are massively proportioned. When the +thigh bone is set in its normal position, as indicated by the position +of the scars and processes for attachment of the principal muscles +(see under Brontosaurus for the method used to determine this), the +knee bends forward as in mammals and birds, not outward as in most +modern reptiles. The articulations of the foot bones show that the +animal rested upon the ends of the metapodials, as birds and many +mammals do, not upon the sole of the foot like crocodiles or lizards. +The flat vertebral joints show that the short compact body was not as +flexible as the longer body of crocodiles or lizards, in which the +articulations are of the ball and socket type showing that in them +this region was very flexible. The tail also shows a limited +flexibility. It could not be curled or thrown over the back, but +projected out behind the animal, swinging from side to side or up and +down as much as was needed for balance. The curvature of the ribs +shows that the body was narrow and deep, unlike the broad flattened +body of the crocodile or the less flattened but still broad body of +the lizard. The loose hung jaw, articulated far back, shows by the set +of its muscles that it was capable of an enormous gape; while in the +skull there is evidence of a limited movement of the upper jaw on the +cranial portion, intended probably to assist in the swallowing of +large objects, like the double jointed jaw of a snake. + +As to the nature of the skin we have no exact knowledge. We may be +sure that it had no bony armor like the crocodile, for remains of any +such armor could not fail to be preserved with the skeletons, as it +always is in fossil crocodiles or turtles. Perhaps it was scaly like +the skin of lizards and snakes, for the horny scales of the body are +not preserved in fossil skeletons of these reptiles. But if so we +might expect from the analogy of the lizard that the scales of the +head would be ossified and preserved in the fossil; and there is +nothing of this kind in the Carnivorous Dinosaurs. We can exclude +feathers from consideration, for these dinosaurs have no affinities to +birds, and there is no evidence for feathers in any dinosaur. Probably +the best evidence is that of the Trachodon or duck-billed dinosaur +although this animal was but distantly related to the Allosaurus. In +Trachodon (see p. 94), we know that the skin bore neither feathers nor +overlapping scales but had a curiously patterned mosaic of tiny +polygonal plates and was thin and quite flexible. Some such type of +skin as this, in default of better evidence, we may ascribe to the +Allosaurus. + + [Illustration: Fig. 13.--View in the Hell Creek badlands in + central Montana, where the Tyrannosaurus skeleton was found.] + +As to its probable habits, it is safe to infer (see p. 33), that it +was predaceous, active and powerful, and adapted to terrestrial life. +Its methods of attack and combat must have been more like those of +modern reptiles than the more intelligent methods of the mammalian +carnivore. The brain cast of Allosaurus indicates a brain of similar +type and somewhat inferior grade to that of the modern crocodile or +lizard, and far below the bird or mammal in intelligence. The keen +sense of smell of the mammal, the keen vision of the bird, the highly +developed reasoning power of both, were absent in the dinosaur as in +the lizard or crocodile. We may imagine the Allosaurus lying in wait, +watching his prey until its near approach stimulates him into a +semi-instinctive activity; then a sudden swift rush, a fierce snap of +the huge jaws and a savage attack with teeth and claws until the +victim is torn in pieces or swallowed whole. But the stealthy, +persistent tracking of the cat or weasel tribe, the intelligent +generalship of the wolf pack, the well planned attack at the most +vulnerable point in the prey, characteristic of all the predaceous +mammals, would be quite impossible to the dinosaur. By watching the +habits of modern reptiles we may gain a much better idea of his +capacities and limitations than if we judge only from the efficiency +of his teeth and claws, and forget the inferior intelligence that +animated these terrible weapons. + + +TYRANNOSAURUS. + +The "Tyrant Saurian" as Professor Osborn has named him, was the climax +of evolution of the giant flesh-eating dinosaurs. It reached a length +of forty-seven feet, and in bulk must have equalled the mammoth or the +mastodon or the largest living elephants. The massive hind limbs, +supporting the whole weight of the body, exceeded the limbs of the +great proboscideans in bulk, and in a standing position the animal was +eighteen to twenty feet high, as against twelve for the largest +African elephants or the southern mammoth. The head (see frontispiece) +is 4 feet 3 inches long, 3 ft. 4 inches deep, and 2 ft. 9 inches wide; +the long deep powerful jaws set with teeth from 3 to 6 inches long and +an inch wide. To this powerful armament was added the great sharp +claws of the hind feet, and probably the fore feet, curved like those +of eagles, but six or eight inches in length. + +During ten years explorations in the Western Cretaceous formations, +Mr. Brown has secured for the Museum three skeletons of this +magnificent dinosaur, incomplete, but finely preserved. The first, +found in 1900, included the jaws, a large part of backbone and ribs, +and some limb bones. The second included most of skull and jaws, +backbone, ribs and pelvis and the hind limbs and feet, but not tail. +The third consisted of a perfect skull and jaws, the backbone, ribs, +pelvis and nearly all of the tail, but no limbs. From these three +specimens it has been possible to reconstruct the entire skeleton. The +exact construction of the fore feet is the only doubtful part. The +fore-limb is very small relatively to the huge size of the animal, but +probably was constructed much as in the _Allosaurus_ with two or three +large curved claws, the inner claw opposing the others. + + [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Quarry from which the _Tyrannosaurus_ + skeleton was taken. American Museum camp in foreground.] + +The missing parts of the two best skeletons have been restored, and +with the help of two small models of the skeleton, a group has been +made ready for mounting as the central piece of the proposed +Cretaceous Dinosaur Hall. One of the skeletons is temporarily placed +in the centre of the Quaternary Hall, space for it in the present +Dinosaur Hall being lacking. Following is Professor Osborn's +description of the preparation of this group:[9] + +"The mounting of these two skeletons presents mechanical problems of +very great difficulty. The size and weight of the various parts are +enormous. The height of the head in the standing position reaches from +18 to 20 feet above the ground; the knee joint alone reaches 6 feet +above the ground. All the bones are massive; the pelvis, femur and +skull are extremely heavy. Experience with _Brontosaurus_ and with +other large dinosaurs proves that it is impossible to design a +metallic frame in the right pose in advance of assembling the parts. +Even a scale restoration model of the animal as a whole does not +obviate the difficulty. + +"Accordingly in preparing to mount _Tyrannosaurus_ for exhibition a +new method has been adopted, namely, to _prepare a scale model of +every bone in the skeleton_ and mount this small skeleton with +flexible joints and parts so that all studies and experiments as to +pose can be made with the models. + +"This difficult and delicate undertaking was entrusted to Mr. Erwin +Christman of the artistic staff of the Department of Vertebrate +Palaeontology of the Museum, who has prepared two very exact models to +a one-sixth scale, representing our two skeletons of _Tyrannosaurus +rex_, which fortunately are of exactly the same size. A series of +three experiments by Mr. Christman on the pose of _Tyrannosaurus_, +under the direction of the author and Curator Matthew, were not +satisfactory. The advice of Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars, Curator of +Reptiles in the New York Zoological Park, was sought and we thus +obtained the fourth pose, which is shown in the photographs published +herewith. + + [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Model of _Tyrannosaurus_ group for the + Cretaceous Dinosaur Hall.] + +"The fourth pose or study, for the proposed full sized mount, is that +of two reptiles of the same size attracted to the same prey. One +reptile is crouching over its prey (which is represented by a portion +of a skeleton). The object of this depressed pose is to bring the +perfectly preserved skull and pelvis very near the ground within easy +reach of the visiting observer. The second reptile is advancing, and +attains very nearly the full height of the animal. The general effect +of this group is the best that can be had and is very realistic, +particularly the crouching figure. A fifth study will embody some +further changes. The upright figure is not well balanced and will be +more effective with the feet closer together, the legs straighter and +the body more erect. These reptiles have a series of strong abdominal +ribs not shown in the models. The fourth position places the pelvis in +an almost impossible position as will be noted from the ischium and +pubis. + +"The lateral view of this fourth pose represents the animals just +prior to the convulsive single spring and tooth grip which +distinguishes the combat of reptiles from that of all mammals, +according to Mr. Ditmars. + +"The rear view of the standing skeleton displays the peculiarly avian +structure of the iliac junction with the sacral plate, characteristic +of these very highly specialized dinosaurs, also the marked reduction +of the upper end of the median metatarsal bone, which formerly was +believed to be peculiar to _Ornithomimus_." + +This model of the group is on exhibition with the mounted skeleton. + +As compared with its predecessor _Allosaurus_, the _Tyrannosaurus_ is +much more massively proportioned throughout. The skull is more solid, +the jaws much deeper and more powerful, the fore limb much smaller, +the tail shorter, the hind limb straighter and the foot bones more +compacted so that the animal was more strictly "digitigrade," +approaching the ostriches more closely in this particular. + + [Illustration: Fig. 16.--SKELETON OF TYRANNOSAURUS IN COMPARISON + WITH HUMAN SKELETON.] + +This animal probably reached the maximum of size and of development of +teeth and claws of which its type of animal mechanism was capable. Its +bulk precluded quickness and agility. It must have been designed to +attack and prey upon the ponderous and slow moving Horned and Armored +Dinosaurs with which its remains are found, and whose massive cuirass +and weapons of defense are well matched with its teeth and claws. The +momentum of its huge body involved a seemingly slow and lumbering +action, an inertia of its movements, difficult to start and difficult +to shift or to stop. Such movements are widely different from the +agile swiftness which we naturally associate with a beast of prey. But +an animal which exceeds an average elephant in bulk, no matter what +its habits, is compelled by the laws of mechanics to the ponderous +movements appropriate to its gigantic size. These movements, directed +and controlled by a reptilian brain, must needs be largely automatic +and instinctive. We cannot doubt indeed that the Carnivorous Dinosaurs +developed, along with their elaborately perfected mechanism for +attack, an equally elaborate series of instincts guiding their action +to effective purpose; and a complex series of automatic responses to +the stimulus afforded by the sight and action of their prey might +very well mimic intelligent pursuit and attack, always with certain +limits set by the inflexible character of such automatic adjustments. +But no animal as large as _Tyrannosaurus_ could leap or spring upon +another, and its slow stride quickening into a swift resistless rush, +might well end in unavoidable impalement upon the great horns of +_Triceratops_, futile weapons against a small and active enemy, but +designed no doubt to meet just such attacks as these. A true picture +of these combats of titans of the ancient world we cannot draw; +perhaps we will never be able to reconstruct it. But the above +considerations may serve to show how widely it would differ from the +pictures based upon any modern analogies. + +One may well inquire why it is that no such gigantic carnivora have +evolved among the mammalian land animals. The largest predaceous +quadrupeds living today are the lion and tiger. The bears although +some of them are much larger, are not generally carnivorous, except +for the polar bear, which is partly aquatic, preying chiefly upon +seals and fish. There are indeed carnivorous whales of gigantic size, +but no very large land carnivore. There were, it is true, during the +Tertiary and Pleistocene, lions and other carnivores considerably +larger than the living species. But none of them attained the size of +their largest herbivorous contemporaries, or even approached it. Among +the dinosaurs on the other hand we find that--setting aside +Brontosaurus and its allies as aquatic--the predaceous kinds equalled +or exceeded the largest of the herbivorous sorts. The difference is +striking, and it does not seem likely that it is merely accidental. + +The explanation lies probably in the fact that the large herbivorous +mammals are much more intelligent and active, and would be able to use +their weapons of defense so as to defy the attacks of relatively slow +moving giant beasts of prey, as they do also the more active but less +powerful assaults of smaller ones. The elephant or the rhinoceros is +in fact practically immune from the attacks of carnivora, and would +still be so were the carnivora to increase in size. The large modern +carnivora prey upon herbivores of medium or smaller size, which they +are active enough to surprise or run down. Carnivora of much larger +size would be too slow and heavy in movements to catch small prey, +while the larger herbivores by intelligent use of their defensive +weapons could still fend them off successfully. In consequence giant +carnivores would find no field for action in the Cenozoic world, and +hence they have not been evolved. + +But the giant herbivorous dinosaurs, well armed or well defended +though they were, had not the intelligence to use those weapons +effectively under all circumstances. Thus they might be successfully +attacked, at least sometimes, by the powerful although slow moving +Megalosaurians. + +The suggestion has also been made that these giant carnivores were +carrion-eaters rather than truly predaceous. The hypothesis can hardly +be effectively supported nor attacked. It is presented as a possible +alternate. + +_Albertosaurus._ Closely allied to the _Tyrannosaurus_ but smaller, +about equal in size to _Allosaurus_, was the _Albertosaurus_ of the +Edmonton formation in Canada. It is somewhat older than the Tyrannosaur +although still of the late Cretacic period, and may have been ancestral +to it. A fine series of limbs and feet as also skull, tail, etc., are +in the Museum's collections. At or about this time carnivorous +dinosaurs of slightly smaller size are known to have inhabited New +Jersey; a fragmentary skeleton of one secured by Professor Cope in 1869 +was described as _Laelaps_ (=_Dryptosaurus_).[10] + +_Ornitholestes._ In contrast with the _Allosaurus_ and _Tyrannosaurus_ +this skeleton represents the smaller and more agile carnivorous +dinosaurs which preyed upon the lesser herbivorous reptiles of the +period. These little dinosaurs were probably common during all the Age +of Reptiles, much as the smaller quadrupeds are today, but skulls or +skeletons are rarely found in the formations known to us. The +_Anchisaurus_, _Podokesaurus_ and other genera of the Triassic Period +have left innumerable tracks upon the sandy shales of the Newark +formation, but only two or three skeletons are known. A cast of one +of them is exhibited here. The original is preserved in the Yale +Museum. In the succeeding Jurassic Period we have the _Compsognathus_, +smallest of known dinosaurs, and this _Ornitholestes_ some six feet +long. A cast of the _Compsognathus_ skeleton is shown, the original +found in the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen is preserved in the +Munich Museum. The _Ornitholestes_ is from the Bone-Cabin Quarry in +Wyoming. The forefoot with its long slender digits is supposed to have +been adapted for grasping an active and elusive prey, and the name +(_Ornitho-lestes_ = bird-robber) indicates that that prey may +sometimes have been the primitive birds which were its contemporaries. +In the Cretacic Period, there were also small and medium sized +carnivorous dinosaurs, contemporary with the gigantic kinds; a +complete skeleton of _Ornithomimus_ at the entrance to the Dinosaur +Hall finely illustrates this group. In appearance most of these small +dinosaurs must have suggested long-legged bipedal lizards, running and +walking on their hind limbs, with the long tail stretched out behind +to balance the body. From what we know of their tracks it seems that +they walked or ran with a narrow treadway, the footsteps almost in the +middle line of progress. They did not hop like perching birds, nor did +they waddle like most living reptiles. Occasionally the tail or fore +feet touched the ground as they walked; and when they sat down, they +rested on the end of the pubic bones and on the tail. So much we can +infer from the footprint impressions. The general appearance is shown +in the restorations of _Ornitholestes_, _Compsognathus_ and +_Anchisaurus_ by Charles Knight. + + [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Skeleton of _Ornitholestes_ a small + carnivorous dinosaur of the Jurassic period. American Museum No. + 619.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Restoration of _Ornitholestes_, by C.R. + Knight under direction of Professor Osborn. _After Osborn_] + +_Ornithomimus._ The skeleton of this animal from the Cretacic of +Alberta was found by the Museum expedition of 1914. It is +exceptionally complete, and has been mounted as a panel, in position +as it lay in the rock, and with considerable parts of the original +sandstone matrix still adherent. The long slender limbs, long neck, +small head and toothless jaws are all singularly bird-like, and afford +a striking contrast to the Tyrannosaurus. At the time of writing, its +adaptation and relationships have not yet been thoroughly +investigated. + + [Illustration: Fig. 19.--MOUNTED SKELETON OF BRONTOSAURUS IN THE + AMERICAN MUSEUM.] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 4: This is still doubtful in _Tyrannosaurus_. A number of +very curious plates were found with one specimen in a quarry. B. +Brown, 1913.] + +[Footnote 5: Quite recently a series of more or less complete +skeletons have been secured from the upper Triassic (Keuper) near +Halberstadt in Germany. They are not true Megalosaurians, but +primitive types (Pachypodosauria) ancestral to both these and the +Sauropoda. Probably many of the Connecticut footprints were made by +animals of this primitive group. _Anchisaurus_ certainly belongs to +it.] + +[Footnote 6: It is evidently "the dinosaur" of Sir Conan Doyle's "Lost +World" but the vivid description which the great English novelist +gives of its appearance and habits, based probably upon the Hawkins +restoration, is not at all in accord with inferences from what is now +known of these animals. See p. 44.] + +[Footnote 7: Allosaurus, a carnivorous Dinosaur, and its Prey. By W.D. +Matthew. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Jour. Vol. viii, pp. 3-5, pl. 1.] + +[Footnote 8: The cost of preparation is now defrayed by the Museum.] + +[Footnote 9: Tyrannosaurus, Restoration and Model of the Skeleton. By +Henry Fairfield Osborn. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1913, vol. xxxii, +art. iv, pp. 91-92.] + +[Footnote 10: Since these lines were written the Museum has secured +finely preserved skeletons of two or more kinds of Carnivorous +Dinosaurs from the Belly River formation in Canada.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE AMPHIBIOUS DINOSAURS, BRONTOSAURUS, DIPLODOCUS, ETC. + +SUB-ORDER OPISTHOCOELIA (CETIOSAURIA OR SAUROPODA). + + +These were the Giant Reptiles par-excellence, for all of them were of +enormous size, and some were by far the largest of all four-footed +animals, exceeded in bulk only by the modern whales. In contrast to +the carnivorous dinosaurs these are quadrupedal, with very small head, +blunt teeth, long giraffe-like neck, elephantine body and limbs, long +massive tail prolonged at the tip into a whip-lash as in the lizards. +Like the elephant they have five short toes on each foot, probably +buried in life in a large soft pad, but the inner digits bear large +claws, blunt like those of turtles, one in the fore foot, three in the +hind foot. + +To this group belong the Brontosaurus and Diplodocus, the +Camarasaurus, Morosaurus and other less known kinds. All of them lived +during the late Jurassic and Comanchic ("Lower Cretaceous") and belong +to the older of the two principal Dinosaur faunas. They were +contemporaries of the Allosaurus and Megalosaurus, the Stegosaurus and +Iguanodon, but unlike the Carnivorous and Beaked Dinosaurs they +became wholly extinct before the Upper or true Cretacic, and left no +relatives to take part in the final epoch of expansion and prosperity +of the dinosaurian race at the close of the Reptilian era. + + [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Skeletons of _Brontosaurus_ (above) and + _Diplodocus_ (below) in the American Museum. The parts preserved + in these specimens are shaded. Scale, 10 feet=1 inch.] + + +BRONTOSAURUS. + +The following description of the Brontosaurus skeleton in the American +Museum was first published in the American Museum Journal of April, +1905:[11] + +"The Brontosaurus skeleton, the principal feature of the hall, is +sixty-six feet eight inches long. (The weight of the animal when alive +is estimated by W.K. Gregory at 38 tons). About one-third of the +skeleton including the skull is restored in plaster modelled or cast +from other incomplete skeletons. The remaining two-thirds belong to +one individual, except for a part of the tail, one shoulder-blade and +one hind limb, supplied from another skeleton of the same species. + +"The skeleton was discovered by Mr. Walter Granger of the Museum +expedition of 1898, about nine miles north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming. +It took the whole of the succeeding summer to extract it from the +rock, pack it, and ship it to the Museum. Nearly two years were +consumed in removing the matrix, piecing together and cementing the +brittle and shattered petrified bone, strengthening it so that it +would bear handling, and restoring the missing parts of the bones in +tinted plaster. The articulation and mounting of the skeleton and +modelling of the missing bones took an even longer time, so that it +was not until February, 1905, that the Brontosaurus was at last ready +for exhibition. + + [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Excavating the _Brontosaurus_ skeleton. + The upper photograph shows the anterior ribs of one side still + lying in position. The backbone is being prepared for removal, the + sections each containing three vertebrae, partly cased in plaster + and burlap (see chapter XI.) The lower photograph shows a later + stage of progress, the blocks being undercut and nearly ready to + turn over and incase the under side. Strips of wood have been + pasted into each section to strengthen it.] + +"It will appear, therefore, that the collection, preparation and +mounting of this gigantic fossil has been a task of extraordinary +difficulty. No museum has ever before attempted to mount so large a +fossil skeleton, and the great weight and fragile character of the +bones made it necessary to devise especial methods to give each bone a +rigid and complete support as otherwise it would soon break in pieces +from its own weight. The proper articulating of the bones and posing +of the limbs were equally difficult problems, for the Amphibious +Dinosaurs, to which this animal belongs, disappeared from the earth +long before the dawn of the Age of Mammals, and their nearest +relatives, the living lizards, crocodiles, etc., are so remote from +them in either proportions or habits that they are unsatisfactory +guides in determining how the bones were articulated and are of but +little use in posing the limbs and other parts of the body in +positions that they must have taken during life. Nor among the higher +animals of modern times is there one which has any analogy in +appearance or habits of life to those which we have been obliged by +the study of the skeleton to ascribe to the Brontosaurus. + +"As far as the backbone and ribs were concerned, the articulating +surfaces of the bones were a sufficient guide to enable us to pose +this part of the skeleton properly. The limb joints, however, are so +imperfect that we could not in this way make sure of having the bones +in a correct position. The following method, therefore, was adopted. + +"A dissection and thorough study was made by the writer, with the +assistance of Mr. Granger, of the limbs of alligators and other +reptiles, and the position, size and action of the principal muscles +were carefully worked out. Then the corresponding bones of the +Brontosaurus were studied, and the position and size of the +corresponding muscles were worked out, so far as they could be +recognized from the scars and processes preserved on the bone. The +Brontosaurus limbs were then provisionally articulated and posed, and +the position and size of each muscle were represented by a broad strip +of paper extending from its origin to its insertion. The action and +play of the muscles on the limb of the Brontosaurus could then be +studied, and the bones adjusted until a proper and mechanically +correct pose was reached. The limbs were then permanently mounted in +these poses, and the skeleton as it stands is believed to represent, +as nearly as study of the fossil enables us to know, a characteristic +position that the animal actually assumed during life.... + +"In proportions and appearance the Brontosaurus was quite unlike any +living animal. It had a long thick tail like the lizards and +crocodiles, a long, flexible neck like an ostrich, a thick short, +slab-sided body and straight, massive, post-like limbs suggesting the +elephant, and a remarkably small head for the size of the beast. The +ribs, limb-bones and tail-bones are exceptionally solid and heavy; the +vertebrae of the back and neck, and the skull, on the contrary are +constructed so as to combine the minimum of weight with the large +surface necessary for the attachment of the huge muscles, the largest +possible articulating surfaces, and the necessary strength at all +points of strain. For this purpose they are constructed with an +elaborate system of braces and buttresses of thin bony plates +connecting the broad articulating surfaces and muscular attachments, +all the bone between these thin plates being hollowed into a +complicated system of air-cavities. This remarkable structure can be +best seen in the unmounted skeleton of _Camarasaurus_, another +Amphibious Dinosaur." (The scientific name _Camarasaurus_=chambered +lizard, has reference to this peculiarity of construction.) + +"The teeth of the Brontosaurus indicate that it was an herbivorous +animal, feeding on soft vegetable food. Three opinions as to the +habitat of Amphibious Dinosaurs have been held by scientific +authorities. The first, advocated by Professor Owen, who described the +first specimens found sixty years ago (1841-60) and supported +especially by Professor Cope, has been most generally adopted. This +regards the animals as spending their lives entirely in shallow water, +partly immersed, wading about on the bottom, or perhaps occasionally +swimming, but unable to emerge entirely upon dry land.[12] More +recently, Professor Osborn has advocated the view that they resorted +occasionally to the land for egg laying or other purposes, and still +more recently the view has been taken by Mr. Riggs and the late +Professor Hatcher that they were chiefly terrestrial animals. The +writer inclines to the view of Owen and Cope, whose unequalled +knowledge of comparative anatomy renders their opinion on this +doubtful question especially authoritative. + + [Illustration: Fig. 22.--RESTORATION OF BRONTOSAURUS BY C.R. + KNIGHT, UNDER DIRECTION OF PROFESSOR OSBORN. _After Osborn_] + +"The contrast between the massive structure of the limb-bones, ribs +and tail, and the light construction of the backbone, neck and skull, +suggests that the animal was amphibious, living chiefly in shallow +water, where it could wade about on the bottom, feeding upon the +abundant vegetation of the coastal swamps and marshes, and pretty much +out of reach of the powerful and active Carnivorous Dinosaurs which +were its principal enemies. The water would buoy up the massive body +and prevent its weight from pressing too heavily on the imperfect +joints of the limb and foot bones, which were covered during life with +thick cartilage, like the joints of whales, sea-lizards and other +aquatic animals. If the full weight of the animal came on these +imperfect joints the cartilage would yield and the ends of the bones +would grind against each other, thus preventing the limb from moving +without tearing the joint to pieces. The massive, solid limb and foot +bones weighted the limbs while immersed in water, and served the same +purpose as the lead in a diver's shoes, enabling the Brontosaurus to +walk about firmly and securely under water. On the other hand, the +joints of the neck and back are exceptionally broad, well fitting and +covered with a much thinner surface of cartilage. The pressure was +thus much better distributed over the joint, and the full weight of +the part of the animal above water (reduced as it was by the cellular +construction of the bones) might be borne on these joints without the +cartilage giving way. + +"Looking at the mounted skeleton we may see that if a line be drawn +from the hip joint to the shoulder-blade, all the bones below this are +massive, all above (including neck and head) are lightly constructed. +This line may be taken to indicate the average water-line, so to +speak, of this Leviathan of the Shallows. The long neck would enable +the animal, however, to wade to a considerable depth, and it might +forage for food either in the branches or the tops of trees, or more +probably, among the soft succulent water-plants of the bottom. The row +of short spoon-shaped stubby teeth around the front of the mouth would +serve to bite or pull off soft leaves and water-plants, but the animal +evidently could not masticate its food, and must have swallowed it +without chewing as do modern reptiles and birds. + +"The brain-case occupies only a small part of the back of the skull, +so that the brain must have been small even for a reptile, and its +organization (as inferred from the form of the brain-case) indicates a +very low grade of intelligence. Much larger than the brain proper was +the spinal cord, especially in the region of the sacrum, controlling +most of the reflex and involuntary actions of the huge organism. Hence +we can best regard the Brontosaurus as a great, slow-moving animal +automaton, a vast storehouse of organized matter directed chiefly or +solely by instinct, and to a very limited degree, if at all, by +conscious intelligence. Its huge size and its imperfect organization, +compared with the great quadrupeds of today, rendered its movements +slow and clumsy; its small and low brain shows that it must have been +automatic, instinctive and unintelligent." + +_Composition of the Brontosaurus Skeleton._ "The principal specimen, +No. 460, is from the Nine Mile Crossing of the Little Medicine Bow +River, Wyoming. It consists of the 5th, 6th, and 8th to 13th cervical +vertebrae, 1st to 9th dorsal and 3rd to 19th caudal vertebrae, all the +ribs, both coracoids, parts of sacrum and ilia, both ischia and pubes, +left femur and astragalus, and part of left fibula. The backbone and +most of the neck of this specimen were found articulated together in +the quarry, the ribs of one side in position, the remainder of the +bones scattered around them, and some of the tail bones weathered out +on the surface. + +"From No. 222, found at Como Bluffs, Wyo., were supplied the right +scapula, 10th dorsal vertebra, and right femur and tibia. + +"No. 339, from Bone-Cabin Quarry, Wyoming, supplied the 20th to 40th +caudal vertebrae, No. 592, from the same locality the metatarsals of +the right hind foot; and a few toe bones are supplied from other +specimens. + + [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Skull of _Diplodocus_ from Bone-Cabin + Quarry, north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming.] + +"The remainder of the skeleton is modelled in plaster, the scapula, +humerus, radius and ulna from the skeleton in the Yale Museum, the +rest principally from specimens in our own collections. The modelling +of the skull is based partly upon specimens in the Yale Museum, but +principally upon the complete skull of Morosaurus shown in another +case. + +"Mounted by A. Hermann, completed Feb. 10, 1905." + +_Diplodocus._ The _Diplodocus_ nearly equalled the Brontosaurus in +bulk and exceeded it in length. A skeleton in the Carnegie Museum at +Pittsburgh measures 87 feet in total length; although the mount is +composed from several individuals these proportions are probably not +far from correct. The skull is smaller and differently shaped and the +teeth are of quite different type. In the American Museum of Natural +History, a partial skeleton is exhibited in the wall case to the left +of the entrance of the Dinosaur Hall, and in an A-case near by are +skulls of _Diplodocus_ and _Morosaurus_ and a model of the skull of +_Brontosaurus_. The Diplodocus skull is widely different from the +other two in size and proportions and in the characters of teeth. + +When the first remains of these amphibious Dinosaurs were found in the +Oxford Clays of England, they were considered by Richard Owen to be +related to the Crocodiles, and named Opisthocoelia. Subsequently the +finding of complete skeletons in this country led Cope and Marsh to +place them with the true Dinosaurs and the latter named them +Sauropoda.[13] Remains of these animals have also been found in India, +in German East Africa, in Madagascar, and in South America, so that +they were evidently widely distributed. In the Northern world they +survived until the Comanchic or Lower Cretaceous Period, but in the +southern continents they may have lived on into the Upper Cretaceous +or true Cretacic. Some of the remains recently found in German East +Africa indicate an animal exceeding either _Brontosaurus_ or +_Diplodocus_ in bulk. + + [Illustration: Fig. 24.--The Largest Known Dinosaur. Sketch + reconstruction of _Brachiosaurus_, from specimens in the Field + Museum in Chicago, and the Natural History Museum in Berlin.] + +At the date of writing this handbook only preliminary accounts have +been given of the marvellous finds made near Tendaguru by the +expedition from Berlin. From these it appears that in length of neck +and fore limb this East African Dinosaur greatly exceeded either +_Brontosaurus_ or _Diplodocus_. The hinder parts of the skeleton +however, were relatively small. The proportions and measurements given +tally closely with the American _Brachiosaurus_, a gigantic sauropod +whose incomplete remains are preserved in the Field Museum in Chicago +and to this genus the Berlin authorities now refer their largest and +finest skeleton. If the Berlin specimens are correctly referred to +_Brachiosaurus_ they indicate an animal somewhat exceeding +_Diplodocus_ or _Brontosaurus_ in total bulk but distinguished by much +longer fore limbs and an immensely long neck--a giraffe-like wader +adapted to take refuge in deeper waters, more out of reach of the +fierce carnivores of the land.[14] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 11: The mounted Skeleton of Brontosaurus, by W.D. Matthew, +Amer. Mus. Jour. Vol. v, pp. 63-70, figs. 1-5.] + +[Footnote 12: Professor Williston makes the following criticism of +this theory: + + "I cannot agree with this view--the animals _must_ have laid + their eggs upon land--for the reason that reptile eggs cannot + hatch in water. S.W.W." + +But with deference to Williston's high authority I may note that there +is no evidence that the Sauropoda were egg-laying reptiles. They, or +some of them, may have been viviparous like the Ichthyosaurus.] + +[Footnote 13: European palaeontologists, especially Huxley and Seeley +in England, had also recognized their true relationships, and Seeley's +term Cetiosauria has precedence over Sauropoda, although the latter is +in common use.] + +[Footnote 14: It is of interest to observe that in this group of +Sauropoda, the Brachiosauridae, the neural spines of the vertebrae are +much simpler and narrower than in the Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. The +attachments were thus less extensive for the muscles of the back, +indicating that these muscles were less powerful. This difference is +correlated by Professor Williston with the longer fore limbs of the +Brachiosaurus, as signifying that the animal was less able, as indeed +he had less need, to rise up upon the hind limbs, in comparison with +Diplodocus or Brontosaurus in which the fore limbs were relatively +short.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE BEAKED DINOSAURS. + +ORDER ORTHOPODA (ORNITHISCHIA OR PREDENTATA.) + + +The peculiar feature of this group of Dinosaurs is the horny beak or +bill. The bony core sutured to the front of the upper and lower jaws +was covered in life by a horny sheath, as in birds or turtles. But +this is not the only feature in which they came nearer to birds than +do the other Dinosaurs. The pelvic or hip bones are much more +bird-like in many respects, especially the backward direction of the +pubic bone, the presence of a prepubis, in the number of vertebrae +coossified into a solid sacrum, in the proportions of the ilium and so +on. Various features in the anatomy of the head, shoulder-blades and +hind limbs are equally suggestive of birds, and it seems probable that +the earliest ancestors of the birds were very closely related to the +ancestors of this group of Dinosaurs. But the ancestral birds became +adapted to flying, the ancestral Predentates to terrestrial life, and +in their later development became as widely diversified in form and +habits as the warm-blooded quadrupeds which succeeded them in the Age +of Mammals. + + [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Skulls of Iguanodont and Trachodont + Dinosaurs. _Iguanodon_ and _Camptosaurus_ of the Jurassic and + Comanchic; _Kritosaurus_ and _Corythosaurus_ of the Middle + Cretacic (Belly River); _Saurolophus_ of the late Cretacic + (Edmonton); _Trachodon_ of the latest Cretacic (Lance). The + Iguanodon is European, the others North American. All 1/25 natural + size.] + +These Beaked Dinosaurs were, so far as we can tell, all vegetarians. +Unlike the birds, they retained their teeth and in some cases +converted them into a grinding apparatus which served the same purpose +as the grinders of herbivorous quadrupeds. It is interesting to +observe the different way in which this result is attained. In the +mammals the teeth, originally more complex in construction and fewer +in number, are converted into efficient grinders by infolding and +elongation of the crown of each tooth so as to produce on the wearing +surface a complex pattern of enamel ridges with softer dentine or +cement intervening, making a series of crests and hollows continually +renewed during the wear of the tooth. In the reptile the teeth, +originally simple in construction but more numerous and continually +renewed as they wear down and fall out,[15] are banked up in several +close packed rows, the enamel borders and softer dentine giving a +wearing surface of alternating crests and hollows continually renewed, +and reinforced from time to time, by the addition of new rows of teeth +to one side, as the first formed rows wear down to the roots. This is +the best illustrated in the _Trachodon_ (see fig. 27); the other +groups have not so perfect a mechanism. + + +A. THE IGUANODONTS: IGUANODON, CAMPTOSAURUS. + +_Sub-Order Ornithopoda or Iguanodontia._ + +In the early days of geology, about the middle of the nineteenth +century, bones and footprints of huge extinct reptiles were found in +the rocks of the Weald in south-eastern England. They were described +by Mantell and Owen and shown to pertain to an extinct group of +reptiles which Owen called the Dinosauria. So different were these +bones from those of any modern reptiles that even the anatomical +learning of the great English palaeontologist did not enable him to +place them all correctly or reconstruct the true proportions of the +animal to which they belonged. With them were found associated the +bones of the great carnivorous dinosaur _Megalosaurus_; and the weird +reconstructions of these animals, based by Waterhouse Hawkins upon the +imperfect knowledge and erroneous ideas then prevailing, must be +familiar to many of the older readers of this handbook. Life size +restorations of these and other extinct animals were erected in the +grounds of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, London, and in Central +Park, New York. Those in London still exist, so far as the writer is +aware, but the stern mandate of a former mayor of New York ordered the +destruction of the Central Park models, not indeed as incorrect +scientifically, but as inconsistent with the doctrines of revealed +religion, and they were accordingly broken up and thrown into the +waters of the Park lake. Small replicas of these early attempts at +restoring dinosaurs may still be seen in some of the older museums in +this country and abroad. + + [Illustration: Fig. 26.--SKELETON OF CAMPTOSAURUS, AN AMERICAN + RELATIVE OF THE IGUANODON.] + +The real construction of the Iguanodon was gradually built up by later +discoveries, and in 1877 an extraordinary find in a coal mine at +Bernissart in Belgium brought to light no less than seventeen +skeletons more or less complete. These were found in an ancient +fissure filled with rocks of Comanchic age, traversing the +Carboniferous strata in which the coal seam lay, and with them were +skeletons of other extinct reptiles of smaller size. The open fissure +had evidently served as a trap into which these ancient giants had +fallen, and either killed by the fall or unable to escape from the +pit, their remains had been subsequently covered up by sediments and +the pit filled in to remain sealed up until the present day. These +skeletons, unique in their occurrence and manner of discovery, are the +pride of the Brussels Museum of Natural History, and, together with +the earlier discoveries, have made the _Iguanodon_ the most familiar +type of dinosaur to the people of England and Western Europe. + + [Illustration: Fig. 27.--Teeth of the duck-billed dinosaur + _Trachodon_. The dental magazine has been removed from the lower + jaw and is seen to consist of several close-set rows of numerous + small pencil-like teeth which are pushed up from beneath as they + wear off at the grinding surface.] + +_Camptosaurus._ The American counterpart of the Iguanodons of Europe +was the _Camptosaurus_, nearly related and generally similar in +proportions but including mostly smaller species, and lacking some of +the peculiar features of the Old World genus. In the National Museum +at Washington, are mounted two skeletons of _Camptosaurus_, a large +and a small species, and in the American Museum a skeleton of a small +species. It suggests a large kangaroo in size and proportions, but the +three-toed feet, with hoof-like claws, the reptilian skull, loosely +put together, with lizard-like cheek teeth and turtle beak indicate a +near relative of the great _Iguanodon_. + +_Thescelosaurus._ The Iguanodont family survived until the close of +the Age of Reptiles, with no great change in proportions or +characters. Its latest member is _Thescelosaurus_, a contemporary of +_Triceratops_. Partial skeletons of this animal are shown in the +Dinosaur Hall; a more complete one is in the National Museum. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 15: Trachodont teeth never drop out, they are completely +consumed. Only in the Iguanodonts and Ceratopsia are they shed.--B. +Brown.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE BEAKED DINOSAURS (Continued). + +B. THE DUCK BILLED DINOSAURS,--TRACHODON, SAUROLOPHUS, ETC. + +_Sub-Order Ornithopoda; Family Trachodontidae._ + + +These animals of the Upper Cretaceous are probably descended from the +Iguanodonts of an older period. But the long ages that intervened, +some millions of years, have brought about various changes in the +race, not so much in general proportions as in altering the form and +relations of various bones of skull and skeleton and perfecting their +adaptation to a somewhat different habit of life, so that they must be +regarded as descendants perhaps, but certainly rather distant +relatives, of the older group. + +We know more about the Trachodonts than any other dinosaurs. For not +only are the skeletons more frequently found articulated, but parts of +the skin are not uncommonly preserved with them, and in one specimen +at least, so much of the skin is preserved that it may fairly be +called a "dinosaur mummy." This specimen of _Trachodon_ is in the +American Museum, and beside it are two fine mounted skeletons of the +largest size. There is also on exhibition a panel mount of a nearly +related genus, _Saurolophus_ the skeleton lying as it was found in the +rock, and a fine skeleton of a third genus _Corythosaurus_ with the +skin partly preserved on both sides of the crushed and flattened body +stands beside it. In the _Tyrannosaurus_ group when completed will +appear a fourth skeleton of the _Trachodon_. Several skulls and +incomplete skeletons on exhibition and other skeletons not yet +prepared add to the Museum collection of this group. Trachodon +skeletons may also be found in the Museums of New Haven, Washington, +Frankfurt-on-the-Main, London and Paris, but nowhere a series +comparable to that displayed at the American Museum. + + +THE TRACHODON GROUP. + +The following description of the Trachodon group is by Mr. Barnum +Brown and first appeared in the American Museum Journal for April +1908:[16] + +"This group takes us back in imagination to the Cretaceous period, +more than three millions of years ago, when Trachodonts were among the +most numerous of the dinosaurs. Two members of the family are +represented here as feeding in the marshes that characterized the +period, when one is startled by the approach of a carnivorous +dinosaur, Tyrannosaurus, their enemy, and rises on tiptoe to look over +the surrounding plants and determine the direction from which it is +coming. The other Trachodon, unaware of danger, continues peacefully +to crop the foliage. Perhaps the erect member of the group had already +had unpleasant experiences with hostile beasts, for a bone of its left +foot bears three sharp gashes which were made by the teeth of some +carnivorous dinosaur. + + [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Mounted Skeletons of _Trachodon_ in the + American Museum. Height of standing skeleton 16 feet, 10 inches.] + +"By thus grouping the skeletons in lifelike attitudes, the relation of +the different bones can best be shown, but these of course are only +two of the attitudes commonly taken by the creatures during life. +Mechanical and anatomical considerations, especially the long straight +shafts of the leg bones, indicate that dinosaurs walked with their +limbs straight under the body, rather than in a crawling attitude with +the belly close to the ground, as is common among living reptiles. + +"Trachodonts lived near the close of the Age of Reptiles in the Upper +Cretaceous and had a wide geographical distribution, their remains +having been found in New Jersey, Mississippi and Alabama, but more +commonly in Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas. A suggestion of the +great antiquity of these specimens is given by the fact that since the +animals died layers of rock aggregating many thousand feet in vertical +thickness have been deposited along the Atlantic coast. + +"The bones of the erect specimen are but little crushed and a clear +conception of the proportions of the animal can best be obtained from +this specimen. It will be seen that the Trachodon was shaped somewhat +like a kangaroo, with short fore legs, long hind legs, and a long +tail. The fore limbs are reduced indeed to about one-sixth the size of +the hind limbs and judging from the size and shape of the foot bones +the front legs could not have borne much weight. They were probably +used in supporting the anterior portion of the body when the creature +was feeding, and in aiding it to recover an upright position. The +specimen represented as feeding is posed so that the fore legs carry +very little of the weight of the body. There are four toes on the +front foot but the thumb is greatly reduced and the fifth digit or +little finger, is absent." (Subsequent discoveries have shown that the +arrangement of the digits made by Marsh and followed in this skeleton +is incorrect. It is the first digit that is absent, and the fifth is +reduced.) + +"The hind legs are massive and have three well developed toes ending +in broad hoofs. The pelvis is lightly constructed with bones elongated +like those of birds. The long deep compressed tail was particularly +adapted for locomotion in the water. It may also have served to +balance the creature when standing erect on shore. The broad expanded +lip of bone known as the fourth trochanter, on the inner posterior +face of the femur or thigh bone was for the attachment of powerful +tail muscles similar to those which enable the crocodile to move its +tail from side to side with such dexterity. This trochanter is absent +from the thigh bones of land-inhabiting dinosaurs with short tails, +such as _Stegosaurus_ and _Triceratops_. The tail muscles were +attached to the vertebrae by numerous rod-like tendons which are +preserved in position as fossils on the erect skeleton. Trachodonts +are thought to have been expert swimmers. Unlike other dinosaurs their +remains are frequently found in rocks that were formed under sea +water probably bordering the shores but nevertheless containing +typical sea shells. + +"The elaborate dental apparatus is such as to show clearly that +Trachodonts were strictly herbivorous creatures. The mouth was +expanded to form a broad duck-like bill which during life was covered +with a horny sheath, as in birds and turtles. Each jaw is provided +with from 45 to 60 vertical and from 10 to 14 horizontal rows of +teeth, so that there were more than 2000 teeth altogether in both +jaws. + +"Among living saurians, or reptiles, the small South American iguana +_Amblyrhynchus_ may be compared in some respects with the Trachodons +notwithstanding the difference in size. These modern saurians live in +great numbers on the shores of the Galapagos Islands off the coast of +Chile. They swim out to sea in shoals and feed exclusively on seaweed +which grows on the bottom at some distance from shore. The animal +swims with perfect ease and quickness by a serpentine movement of its +body and flattened tail, its legs meanwhile being closely pressed to +its side and motionless. This is also the method of propulsion of +crocodiles when swimming. + +"The carnivorous or flesh-eating dinosaurs that lived on land, such as +_Allosaurus_ and _Tyrannosaurus_, were protected from foes by their +sharp biting teeth, while the land-living herbivorous forms were +provided with defensive horns, as in _Triceratops_, sharp spines as +in _Stegosaurus_ or were completely armored as in _Ankylosaurus_. +Trachodon was not provided with horns, spines or plated armor, but it +was sufficiently protected from carnivorous land forms by being able +to enter and remain in the water. Its skin was covered with small +raised scales, pentagonal in form on the body and tail, where they +were largest, with smaller reticulations over the joints but never +overlapping as in snakes or fishes. A Trachodon skeleton was recently +found with an impression of the skin surrounding the vertebrae which +is so well preserved that it gives even the contour of the tail as is +shown in the illustration (fig. 32). + +"During the existence of the Trachodonts the climate of the northern +part of North America was much warmer than it is at present, the plant +remains indicating a climate for Wyoming and Montana similar to what +now prevails in Southern California. Palm leaves resembling the +palmetto of Florida are frequently found in the same rocks with these +skeletons. Here occur also such, at present, widely separated trees as +the gingko now native of China, and the Sequoia now native of the +Pacific Coast. Fruits and leaves of the fig tree are also common, but +most abundant among the plant remains are the Equisetae or horsetail +rushes, some species of which possibly supplied the Trachodons with +food. + + [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Restoration of the Duck-billed Dinosaur + Trachodon. This restoration, made by Mr. Knight under supervision + of Professor Osborn, embodies the latest evidence as to the + structure and characteristic poses of these animals, the character + of the skin and their probable habits and environment. _After + Osborn_] + +"Impressions of the more common plants found in the rocks of this +period with sections of the tree trunks showing the woody structure +will be [have been] introduced into the group as the ground on which +the skeletons stand. In the rivers and bayous of that remote period +there also lived many kinds of Unios or fresh-water clams, and other +shells, the casts of which are frequently found with Trachodon bones. +The fossil trunk of a coniferous tree was found in Wyoming, which was +filled with groups of wood-living shells similar to the living Teredo. +These also will be introduced in the ground-work. + +"The skeleton mounted in a feeding posture was one of the principal +specimens in the Cope Collection, which, through the generosity of the +late President Jesup, was purchased and given to the American Museum. +It was found near the Moreau River, north of the Black Hills, South +Dakota, in 1882, by Dr. J.L. Wortman and Mr. R.S. Hill, collectors for +Professor Cope. The erect skeleton came from Crooked Creek, central +Montana, and was found by a ranchman, Mr. Oscar Hunter, while riding +through the bad lands with a companion in 1904. The specimen was +partly exposed, with backbone and ribs united in position. The parts +that were weathered out are much lighter in color than the other +bones. Their large size caused some discussion between the ranchmen +and to settle the question, Mr. Hunter dismounted and kicked off all +the tops of the vertebrae and rib-heads above ground, thereby proving +by their brittle nature that they were stone and not buffalo bones as +the other man contended. The proof was certainly conclusive, but it +was extremely exasperating to the subsequent collectors. Another +ranchman, Mr. Alfred Sensiba, heard of the find and knowing that it +was valuable 'traded' Mr. Hunter a six-shooter for his interest in it. +The specimen was purchased from Messrs. Sensiba Brothers and excavated +by the American Museum in 1906." + + [Illustration: Fig. 30.--THE DINOSAUR MUMMY. SKELETON OF A + TRACHODON PRESERVING THE SKIN IMPRESSIONS OVER A LARGE PART OF THE + BODY. _After Osborn_] + + +THE DINOSAUR "MUMMY." + +We all _believe_ that the Dinosaurs existed. But to realize it is not +so easy. Even with the help of the mounted skeletons and restorations, +they are somewhat unreal and shadowy beings in the minds of most of +us. But this "dinosaur mummy" sprawling on his back and covered with +shrunken skin--a real specimen, not restored in any part--brings home +the reality of this ancient world even as the mummy of an ancient +Egyptian brings home to us the reality of the world of the Pharaohs. +The description of this unique skeleton by Professor Henry Fairfield +Osborn first appeared in the Museum Journal for January 1911.[17] + +"Two years ago (1908) through the Jesup Fund, the Museum came into +possession of a most unique specimen discovered in August 1908, by the +veteran fossil hunter Charles H. Sternberg of Kansas. It is a large +herbivorous dinosaur of the closing period of the Age of Reptiles and +is known to palaeontologists as _Trachodon_ or more popularly as the +'duck-billed dinosaur.' + +"The skeleton or hard parts of these very remarkable animals had been +known for over forty years, and a few specimens of the epidermal +covering, but it was not until the discovery of the Sternberg specimen +that a complete knowledge of the outer covering of these dinosaurs was +gained. It appears probable that in a number of cases these priceless +skin impressions were mostly destroyed in removing the fossil +specimens from their surroundings because the explorers were not +expecting to find anything of the kind. Altogether seven specimens +have been discovered in which these delicate skin impressions were +partly preserved, but the 'Trachodon mummy' far surpasses all the +others, as it yields a nearly complete picture of the outer covering. + +"The reason the Sternberg specimen (_Trachodon annectens_) may be +known as a dinosaur 'mummy' is that in all the parts of the animal +which are preserved (_i.e._ all except the hind limbs and the tail), +the epidermis is shrunken around the limbs, tightly drawn along the +bony surfaces, and contracted like a great curtain below the chest +area. This condition of the epidermis suggests the following theory of +the deposition and preservation of this wonderful specimen, namely: +that after dying a natural death the animal was not attacked or preyed +upon by its enemies, and the body lay exposed to the sun entirely +undisturbed for a long time, perhaps upon a broad sand flat of a +stream in the low-water stage; the muscles and viscera thus became +completely dehydrated, or desiccated by the action of the sun, the +epidermis shrank around the limbs, was tightly drawn down along all +the bony surfaces, and became hardened and leathery, on the abdominal +surfaces the epidermis was certainly drawn within the body cavity, +while it was thrown into creases and folds along the sides of the body +owing to the shrinkage of the tissues within. At the termination of a +possible low-water season during which these processes of desiccation +took place, the 'mummy' may have been caught in a sudden flood, +carried down the stream and rapidly buried in a bed of fine river sand +intermingled with sufficient elements of clay to take a perfect cast +or mold of all the epidermal markings before any of the epidermal +tissues had time to soften under the solvent action of the water. In +this way the markings were indicated with absolute distinctness, ... +the visitor will be able by the use of the hand glass to study even +the finer details of the pattern, although of course there is no trace +either of the epidermis itself, which has entirely disappeared, or of +the pigmentation or coloring, if such existed. + +"Although attaining a height of fifteen to sixteen feet the trachodons +were not covered with scales or a bony protecting armature, but with +dermal tubercles of relatively small size, which varied in shape and +arrangement in different species, and not improbably associated with +this varied epidermal pattern there was a varied color pattern. The +theory of a color pattern is based chiefly upon the fact that the +larger tubercles concentrate and become more numerous on all those +portions of the body exposed to the sun, that is, on the outer +surfaces of the fore and hind limbs, and appear to increase also along +the sides of the body and to be more concentrated on the back. On the +less exposed areas, the under side of the body and the inner sides of +the limbs, the smaller tubercles are more numerous, the larger +tubercles being reduced to small irregularly arranged patches. From +analogy with existing lizards and snakes we may suppose, therefore, +that the trachodons presented a darker appearance when seen from the +back and a lighter appearance when seen from the front. + + [Illustration: Fig. 31.--The Dinosaur Mummy. Detail of skin of + under side of body. _After Osborn_] + + [Illustration: Fig. 32.--Skin impression from the tail of a + _Trachodon_. The impressions appear to have been left by horny + scutes or scales, not overlapping like the scales on the body of + most modern reptiles, but more like the scutes on the head of a + lizard.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Skull of Gila Monster (_Heloderma_), for + comparison of surface with skin impressions of _Trachodon_. + Enlarged to 4/3.] + +"The thin character of the epidermis as revealed by this specimen +favors also the theory that these animals spent a large part of their +time in the water, which theory is strengthened by the fact that the +diminutive fore limb terminates not in claws or hoofs, but in a broad +extension of the skin, reaching beyond the fingers and forming a kind +of paddle.[18] The marginal web which connects all the fingers with +each other, together with the fact that the lower side of the fore +limb is as delicate in its epidermal structure as the upper, +certainly tends to support the theory of the swimming rather than the +walking or terrestrial function of this fore paddle as indicated in +the accompanying preliminary restoration that was made by Charles R. +Knight working under the writer's direction. One is drawn in the +conventional bipedal or standing posture while the other is in a +quadrupedal pose or walking position, sustaining or balancing the fore +part of the body on a muddy surface with its fore feet. In the distant +water a large number of animals are disporting themselves. + +"The designation of these animals as the 'duck-billed' dinosaurs in +reference to the broadening of the beak, has long been considered in +connection with the theory of aquatic habitat. The conversion of the +fore limb into a sort of paddle, as evidenced by the Sternberg +specimen, strengthens this theory. + +"This truly wonderful specimen, therefore, nearly doubles our previous +insight into the habits and life of a very remarkable group of +reptiles." + +_Saurolophus, Corythosaurus._ In the latest Cretaceous formation, the +Lance or Triceratops beds, all the duck-billed dinosaurs are much +alike, and are referred to the single genus _Trachodon_. In somewhat +older formations of the Cretacic period there were several different +kinds. _Saurolophus_ has a high bony spine rising from the top of the +skull; in _Corythosaurus_ there is a thin high crest like the crown of +a cassowary on top of the skull, and the muzzle is short and small +giving a very peculiar aspect to the head. Complete skeletons of these +two genera are exhibited in the Dinosaur Hall; the _Corythosaurus_ is +worthy of careful study, as the skin of the body, hind limbs and tail, +the ossified tendons, and even the impressions of the muscular tissues +in parts of the body and tail, are more or less clearly indicated. + + [Illustration: Fig. 34.--SKELETON OF SAUROLOPHUS, FROM UPPER + CRETACIC OF ALBERTA. _After Brown_] + +These Duck-billed Dinosaurs probably ranged all over North America and +the northerly portions of the Old World during the later Cretacic. +Fragmentary remains have been found in New Jersey and southward along +the Atlantic coast. A partial skeleton was described many years ago by +Leidy under the name of _Hadrosaurus_ and restored and mounted in the +museum of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. _Telmatosaurus_ of the +Gosau formation in Austria also belongs to this group, and fragmentary +remains have been found in the upper Cretacic of Belgium, England and +France. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 16: Brown, Barnum. "The Trachodon Group." Amer. Mus. Jour. +Vol. viii, pp. 51-56, plate and 3 text figs., 1908.] + +[Footnote 17: Osborn, Henry Fairfield, "Dinosaur Mummy" Amer. Mus. +Jour. Vol. xi, pp. 7-11, illustrated, Jan. 1911.] + +[Footnote 18: There is some doubt whether this was really the +condition during life. W.D.M.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE BEAKED DINOSAURS (Continued.) + +C. THE ARMORED DINOSAURS--STEGOSAURUS, ANKYLOSAURUS. + +_Sub-Order Stegosauria._ + + +This group of dinosaurs is most remarkable for the massive bony armor +plates, crests or spines covering the body and tail. They were more or +less completely quadrupedal instead of bipedal, with straight +post-like limbs and short rounded hoofed feet adapted to support the +weight of the massive body and heavy armature. Although so different +superficially from the bird-footed biped Iguanodonts they are +evidently related to them, for the teeth are similar, and the horny +beak, the construction of the pelvis, the three-toed hind foot and +four-toed front foot all betray relationship. From what we know of +them it seems probable that they evolved from Iguanodont ancestors, +developing the bony armor as a protection against the attacks of +carnivorous dinosaurs, and modifying the proportions of limbs and feet +to enable them to support its weight. They were evidently herbivorous +and some of them of gigantic size. Smaller kinds with less massive +armor have been found in Europe but the largest and most extraordinary +members of this strange race are from North America. + + +STEGOSAURUS. + +This extraordinary reptile equalled the Allosaurus in size, and bore +along the crest of the back a double row of enormous bony plates +projecting upward and somewhat outward alternately to one side and the +other. The largest of these plates situated just back of the pelvis +were over two feet high, two and a half long, thinning out from a base +four inches thick. The tail was armed with four or more stout spines +two feet long and five or six inches thick at the base. In the neck +region and probably elsewhere the skin had numerous small bony nodules +and some larger ones imbedded in its substance or protecting its +surface. The head was absurdly small for so huge an animal, and the +stiff thick tail projected backward but was not long enough to reach +the ground. The hind limbs are very long and straight, the fore limbs +relatively short, and the short high arched back and extremely deep +and compressed body served to exaggerate the height and prominence of +the great plates. The surface of these plates, covered with a network +of blood-vessels, shows that they bore a covering of thick horny skin +during life, which probably projected as a ridge beyond their edges +and still further increased their size. The spines of the tail, also, +were probably cased in horn. + +This extraordinary animal was a contemporary of the Brontosaurus and +Allosaurus, and its discovery was one of the great achievements of the +late Professor Marsh. The skeletons which he described are mounted in +the Yale and National Museums. Another skeleton was found in the +famous Bone-Cabin Quarry, near Medicine Bow, Wyoming, by the American +Museum Expedition of 1901. This skeleton, at present withdrawn from +lack of space, will be mounted in the Jurassic Dinosaur Hall in the +new wing now under construction. + + [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Skull and lower jaw of Armored Dinosaur + _Ankylosaurus_, from Upper Cretacic (Edmonton formation) of + Alberta. Left side view. _After Brown_] + + +ANKYLOSAURUS. + +Related to _Stegosaurus_, equally huge, but very different in +proportions and character of its armor was the Ankylosaurus of the +late Cretacic. This animal, a contemporary of the Tyrannosaurus and +duck-billed dinosaurs was more effectively though less grotesquely +armored than its more ancient relative. The body is covered with +massive bony plates set close together and lying flat over the surface +from head to tip of tail. While the stegosaur's body was narrow and +compressed, in this animal it is exceptionally broad and the wide +spreading ribs are coossified with the vertebrae, making a very solid +support for the transverse rows of armor plates. The head is broad +triangular, flat topped and solidly armored, the plates consolidated +with the surface of the skull and overhanging sides and front, the +nostrils and eyes overhung by plates and bosses of bone; and the tail +ended in a blunt heavy club of massive plates consolidated to each +other and to the tip of the tail vertebrae. The legs were short, +massive and straight, ending probably in elephant-like feet. The +animal has well been called "the most ponderous animated citadel the +world has ever seen" and we may suppose that when it tucked in its +legs and settled down on the surface it would be proof even against +the attacks of the terrible Tyrannosaur. + + [Illustration: Fig. 36.--_Ankylosaurus_, top view of skull in fig. + 35. _After Brown_] + +This marvellous animal was made known to science by the discoveries of +the Museum parties in Montana and Alberta under Barnum Brown. +Fragmentary remains of smaller relatives had been discovered by +earlier explorers but nothing that gave any adequate notion of its +character or gigantic size. From a partial skeleton discovered in the +Hell Creek beds of Montana, and others in the Edmonton and Belly River +formations of the Red Deer River, Alberta, it has been possible to +reconstruct the entire skeleton of the animal, save for the feet, and +to locate and arrange most of the armor plates exactly. A skeleton +mount from these specimens will shortly be constructed for the +Cretaceous Dinosaur Hall. + +_Scelidosaurus, Polacanthus, etc._ Various armored dinosaurs, of +smaller size and less heavily plated, have been described from the +Jurassic, Comanchic and Cretacic formations of Europe. The best known +are _Scelidosaurus_ of the Lower Jurassic of England, and +_Polacanthus_ of the Comanchic (Wealden). _Stegopelta_ of the +Cretaceous of Wyoming is more nearly related to _Ankylosaurus_. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE BEAKED DINOSAURS (Concluded.) + +D. THE HORNED DINOSAURS, TRICERATOPS, ETC. + +_Sub-Order Ceratopsia._ + + +In 1887 Professor Marsh published a brief notice of what he supposed +to be a fossil bison horn found near Denver, Colorado. Two years later +the explorations of the lamented John B. Hatcher in Wyoming and +Montana resulted in the unexpected discovery that this horn belonged +not to a bison but to a gigantic horned reptile, and that it belonged +not in the geological yesterday as at first thought, but in the far +back Cretacic, millions of years ago. For Mr. Hatcher found complete +skulls, and later secured skeletons, clearly of the Dinosaurian group, +but representing a race of dinosaurs whose existence, or at least +their extraordinary character, had been quite unsuspected. It appeared +indeed that certain teeth and skeleton bones previously discovered by +Professor Cope were related to this new type of dinosaur, but the +fragments known to the Philadelphia professor gave him no idea of what +the animal was like, although with his usual acumen he had discerned +that they differed from any animal known to science and registered +them as new under the names of _Agathaumas_ 1873 and _Monoclonius_ +1876. Professor Marsh re-named his supposed bison "_Ceratops_" (_i.e._ +"horned face") and gave to the closely related skulls discovered by +Mr. Hatcher the name of _Triceratops_ (_i.e._ "three horned face"), +while to the whole group he gave the name of Ceratopsia. + + [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Skulls of Horned Dinosaurs. The lower + row, _Ceratops_, _Styracosaurus_, _Monoclonius_, are from the + Middle Cretacic (Belly River formation) of Alberta; + _Anchiceratops_ is from the Upper Cretacic (Edmonton formation) of + Alberta; _Triceratops_ and _Torosaurus_ from the uppermost + Cretacic (Lance formation) of Wyoming.] + +These were the first of a long series of discoveries which through +scientific and popular descriptions have made the Horned Dinosaurs +familiar to the world. Most of them are still very imperfectly known, +and of their evolution and earlier history we know very little as yet. +But we can form a fairly correct idea of their general appearance and +habits and of the part they played in the world of the late Cretacic. +So far as known they were limited to North America. The most striking +feature of the Horned Dinosaurs is the gigantic skull, armed with a +pair of horns over the orbits and a median horn on the nasal bones in +front, and with a great bony crest projecting at the back and sides. +In some species the skull with its bony frill attains a length of +seven or even eight feet and about three feet width; the usual length +is five or six feet and the width about three. In the best known +genus, _Triceratops_, the paired horns are long and stout and the +front horn quite short or almost absent, while in _Monoclonius_ these +proportions are reversed, the front horn being long while the paired +horns are rudimentary. + +The teeth are in a single row but are broadened out into a wide +grinding surface. The animal was quadrupedal, with short massive limbs +and rounded elephantine feet tipped with hoofs, three in the hind +foot, four in the fore foot, a short massive tail that could hardly +reach the ground, a short broad-barrelled body and a short neck +completely hidden on top and sides by the overhanging bony frill of +the skull. In many respects these animals are suggestive far more than +any other dinosaurs, of the great quadrupeds of Tertiary and modern +times, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, titanotheres and elephants, as in +the horns they suggest the bison. For this reason although less +gigantic than the Brontosaurus or Tyrannosaurus, less grotesque +perhaps, than the Stegosaurus, they are more interesting than any +other dinosaurs. While thus departing far from the earlier type of the +beaked dinosaurs (the Iguanodonts) they are evidently descended from +them. + + [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Skull of _Triceratops_ from the Lance + formation in Wyoming, one-eighteenth natural size. The length of + the horns is 2 feet, 9-1/2 inches. The rostral bone or beak, and + the lower jaw, are lacking; in the illustration on the cover they + have been restored in outline. This fine skull was discovered by + George M. Sternberg, and purchased for the Museum by Mr. Charles + Lanier in 1909.] + + +TRICERATOPS. + +This is the best known of the Horned Dinosaurs, as various skulls and +partial skeletons have been found from which it has been possible to +reconstruct the entire animal. There is a mounted skeleton in the +National Museum, another will shortly be mounted in the American +Museum, and there are skulls in several American and European +museums. + +_Triceratops_ exceeded the largest rhinoceroses in bulk, equalling a +fairly large elephant, but with much shorter legs. The great horns +over the eyes projected forward or partly upward; in one of our skulls +they are 33-1/2 inches long. During life they were probably covered +with horn increasing the length by six inches or perhaps a foot. The +ball-like condyle for articulation of the neck lies far underneath, at +the base of the frill, almost in the middle of the skull. + + [Illustration: Fig. 39.--Skull of _Monoclonius_, a horned dinosaur + from the Cretacic (Belly River formation) of Alberta. + One-fifteenth natural size. The horns over the eyes are + rudimentary, and the nasal horn large, reversing the proportions + in _Triceratops_.] + +_Monoclonius, Ceratops, etc._ The _Triceratops_ and another equally +gigantic Horned Dinosaur, _Torosaurus_, were the last survivors of +their race. In somewhat older formations of Cretacic age are found +remains of smaller kinds, some of them ancestors of these latest +survivors, others collaterally related. None of these have the bony +frill completely roofing over the neck as it does in _Triceratops_. +There is always a central spine projecting backwards and widening out +at the top to the bony margin of the frill which sweeps around on each +side to join bony plates that project from the sides of the skull top. +This encloses an open space or "fenestra," so that the neck was not +completely protected above. Sometimes the margin of the frill is +plain, at other times it carries a number of great spikes, like a +gigantic Horned Lizard (_Phrynosoma_). + + [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Outline sketch restoration of + _Triceratops_, from the mounted skeleton in the National Museum.] + +In _Ceratops_ the horns over the eyes are large and the nasal horn +small. In _Monoclonius_ the nasal horn is large and those over the +eyes are rudimentary. The great variety of species that has been found +in recent years shows that these Horned Dinosaurs were a numerous and +varied race of which as yet we know only a few. Of their evolution we +have little direct knowledge, but probably they are descended from the +Iguanodonts and Camptosaurs of the Comanchic, and their quadrupedal +gait, huge heads, short tails and other peculiarities are secondary +specializations, their ancestors being bipedal, long-tailed, small +headed and hornless. + +The fine skulls of _Triceratops_, _Monoclonius_, _Ceratops_ and +_Anchiceratops_ in the Museum collections illustrate the variety of +these remarkable animals. Complete skeletons of the first two genera +are being prepared for mounting and exhibition. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DINOSAURS. + + +Remains of Dinosaurs have been found in all the continents, but +chiefly in Europe and North America. Explorations in other parts of +the world have not as yet been sufficient to show whether or not each +continent developed especial kinds peculiar to it, nor to afford any +reliable evidence as to whether the relations of the continents were +different during the Mesozoic. Thus far, the Carnivorous group seems +most widespread, for it alone has been found in Australia. The +Sauropods or Amphibious Dinosaurs have been found in Europe, North +America, India, Madagascar, Patagonia, and Africa, sufficient to show +that their distribution was world wide with the possible exception of +Australia, and probable exception of most oceanic islands (few of the +modern oceanic islands existed at that time although there may well +have been many others no longer extant). The Beaked Dinosaurs are more +limited in their distribution, for none of them so far as at present +known reached Australia or South America. But in the present stage of +discovery it would be rash to conclude that they were surely limited +to the regions where they have been discovered. It is not wholly +clear as yet whether the Dinosaurian fauna that flourished at the end +of the Jurassic in the north survived to the Upper Cretacic in the +southern continents, but present evidence points that way, and +indicates that the girdle of ocean which during the Cretacic +depression encircled the northern world, formed a barrier which the +Cretacic dinosaurian fauna never succeeded in crossing. + +The earlier groups of Beaked Dinosaurs are found in both Europe and +America, and in the Cretacic the Duck-billed and Armored groups are +represented in both regions. The Horned Dinosaurs, however, are known +with certainty only from North America. + +While most of the important fossil specimens in this country have been +found in the West, more fragmentary remains have been found on the +Atlantic sea-board, and it is probable that they ranged all over the +intervening region, wherever they found an environment suited to their +particular needs. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +COLLECTING DINOSAURS. + +HOW AND WHERE THEY ARE FOUND. + + +The visitor who is introduced to the dinosaurs through the medium of +books and pictures or of the skeletons exhibited in the great museums, +finds it hard--well nigh impossible--to realize their existence. +However willing he may be to accept on faith the reconstructions of +the skeletons, the restorations of the animals and their supposed +environment, it yet remains to him somewhat of a fairy-tale, a +fanciful imaginative world peopled with ogres and dragons and +belonging to the unreal "once upon a time" which has no connection +with the ever present workaday world in which we live. Birds and +squirrels, rabbits and foxes belong to this real world because he has +seen them in his walks through the woods; even elephants and +rhinoceroses, though his acquaintance be limited to menagerie +specimens, seem fairly real--although one recalls the farmer's comment +on first seeing a giraffe in the Zoological park: "There aint no sich +animal." But dinosaurs--one easily realizes the state of mind that +prompts the inquiry so often made by visitors to the Dinosaur +Hall:--"they make these out of plaster, don't they?" So far as is +consistent with good taste, the aim of the American Museum has been +to enable the visitor to see for himself how much of plaster +reconstruction there is to each skeleton, and to explain in the labels +what the basis was for the reconstructed parts. + +_How They are Found._ But to the collector these extinct animals are +real enough. As he journeys over the western plains he sees the +various living inhabitants thereof, birds and beasts, as well as men, +pursuing their various modes of life; here and there he comes across +the scattered skeletons or bones of modern animals lying strewn upon +the surface of the ground or half buried in the soil of a cut bank. In +the shales or sandstones that underlie the soil he finds the objects +of his search, skeletons or bones of extinct animals, similarly +disposed, but buried in rock instead of soft soil, and exposed in +canyons and gullies cut through the solid rock. Each rock formation, he +knows by precept and experience, carries its own peculiar fauna, its +animals are different from those of the formation above and from those +in the formation below. Days and weeks he may spend in fruitless +search following along the outcrop of the formation, through rugged +badlands, along steep canyon walls, around isolated points or buttes, +without finding more than a few fragments, but spurred on by vivid +interest and the rainbow prospect of some new or rare find. Finally +perhaps, after innumerable disappointments, a trail of fragments leads +up to a really promising prospect. A cautious investigation indicates +that an articulated skeleton is buried at this point, and that not +too much of it has "gone out" and rolled in weathered fragments down +the slope. For the tedious and delicate process of disinterring the +skeleton from the rock he will need to keep ever in mind the form and +relations of each bone, the picture of the skeleton as it may have +been when buried. The heavy ledges above are removed with pick and +shovel, often with help of dynamite and a team and scraper. As he gets +nearer to the stratum in which the bones lie the work must be more and +more careful. A false blow with pick or chisel might destroy +irreparably some important bony structure. Bit by bit he traces out +the position and lay of the bones, working now mostly with awl and +whisk-broom, uncovering the more massive portions, blocking out the +delicate bones in the rock, soaking the exposed surfaces repeatedly +with thin "gum" (mucilage) or shellac, channeling around and between +the bones until they stand out on little pedestals above the quarry +floor. Then, after the gum or shellac has dried thoroughly and +hardened the soft parts, and the surfaces of bone exposed are further +protected by pasting on a layer of tissue paper, it is ready for the +"plaster jacket." This consists of strips of burlap dipped in +plaster-of-paris and pasted over the surface of each block until top +and sides, all but the pedestal on which it rests, are completely +cased in, the strips being pressed and kneaded close to the surface of +the block as they are laid on. When this jacket sets and dries the +block is rigid and stiff enough to lift and turn over; the remains of +the pedestal are trimmed off and the under surface is plastered like +the rest. With large blocks it is often necessary to paste into the +jacket, on upper or both sides, boards, scantling or sticks of wood to +secure additional rigidity. For should the block "rack," or become +shattered inside, even though no fragments were lost, the specimen +would be more or less completely ruined. + + [Illustration: Fig. 41.--A Dinosaur skeleton, prospected and ready + for encasing in plaster bandages and removal in blocks. + (_Corythosaurus_, Red Deer River, Alberta.)] + +The next stage will be packing in boxes with straw, hay or other +materials, hauling to the railway and shipment to New York. + +Arrived at the Museum, the boxes are unpacked, each block laid out on +a table, the upper side of its plaster jacket softened with water and +cut away, and the preparation of the bone begins. Always it is more or +less cracked and broken up, but the fragments lie in their natural +relations. Each piece must be lifted out, thoroughly cleaned from rock +and dirt, and the fractured surfaces cemented together again. Parts of +bones, especially the interior, are often rotted into dust while the +harder outer surface is still preserved. The dust must be scraped out, +the interior filled with a plaster cement, and the surface pieces +re-set in position. Very often a steel rod is set into the plaster +filling the interior of a bone, to secure additional strength. + +After this preparation is completed, each part being soaked repeatedly +with shellac until it will absorb no more, the bones can be handled +and laid out for study or exhibition. Then, if they are to be mounted +for a fossil skeleton, comes the work of restoring the missing parts. +For this a plaster composition is used. + +Where only parts of one side are missing the corresponding parts of +the other side are used for model; where both sides are missing, other +individuals or nearly related species may serve as a guide. But it is +seldom wise to attempt restoration of a skeleton unless at least +two-thirds of it is present; composite skeletons made up of the +remains of several or many individuals, have been attempted, but they +are dangerous experiments in animals so imperfectly known as are most +of the dinosaurs. There is too much risk of including bones that +pertain to other species or genera, and of introducing thereby into +the restoration a more or less erroneous concept of the animal which +it represents. The same criticism applies to an overly large amount of +plaster restoration. + + [Illustration: Fig. 42.--Bone-Cabin Draw on Little Medicine River + north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming. The location of the quarry is + indicated by the stack of crated specimens on the left, and close + to it the low sod-covered shack where the collecting party lived. + Beyond the draw lies the flat rolling surface of the Laramie + Plains and on the southern horizon the Medicine Bow Range with Elk + Mountain at the center.] + +In some instances the missing parts of a skeleton are not restored, +because, even though but a small part be gone, we have no good +evidence to guide in its reconstruction. This gives an imperfect and +sometimes misleading concept of what the whole skeleton was like, but +it is better than restoring it erroneously. Usually with the more +imperfect skeletons, a skull, a limb or some other characteristic +parts may be placed on exhibition but the remainder of the specimen is +stored in the study collections. + + [Illustration: Fig. 43.--American Museum party at Bone-Cabin + Quarry, 1899. Seated, left to right Walter Granger, Professor H.F. + Osborn, Dr. W.D. Matthew; standing, F. Schneider, Prof. R.S. Lull, + Albert Thomson, Peter Kaison.] + +_Where They are Found._ The chief dinosaur localities in this country +are along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains and the plains to the +eastward, from Canada to Texas. Not that dinosaurs were any more +abundant there than elsewhere. They probably ranged all over North +America, and different kinds inhabited other continents as well. But +in the East and the Middle West, the conditions were not favorable for +preserving their remains, except in a few localities. Formations of +this age are less extensive, especially those of the delta and +coast-swamps which the dinosaurs frequented. And where they do occur, +they are largely covered by vegetation and cannot be explored to +advantage. In the arid Western regions these formations girdle the +Rockies and outlying mountain chains for two-thousand miles from north +to south, and are extensively exposed in great escarpments, river +canyons and "badland" areas, bare of soil and vegetation and affording +an immense stretch of exposed rock for the explorer. Much of this area +indeed is desert, too far away from water to be profitably searched +under present conditions, or too far away from railroads to allow of +transportation of the finds at a reasonable expense. Fossils are much +more common in certain parts of the region, and these localities have +mostly been explored more or less thoroughly. But the field is far +from being exhausted. New localities have been found and old +localities re-explored in recent years, yielding specimens equal to or +better than any heretofore discovered. And as the railroad and the +automobile render new regions accessible, and the erosion of the +formations by wind and rain brings new specimens to the surface, we +may look forward to new discoveries for many years to come. + +In other continents, except in Europe, there has been but little +exploration for dinosaurs. Enough is known to assure us that they will +yield faunae no less extensive and remarkable than our own. We are in +fact only beginning to appreciate the vast extent and variety of these +records of a past world. + +In a preceding chapter it was shown that the chief formations in which +dinosaur remains have been found belong to the end of the Jurassic and +the end of the Cretacic periods. The Jurassic dinosaur formations +skirt the Rockies and outlying mountain ranges but are often turned up +on edge and poorly exposed, or barren of fossils. The richest +collecting ground is in the Laramie Plains, between the Rockies and +the Laramie range in south-central Wyoming, but important finds have +also been made in Colorado and Utah. The Cretaceous Dinosaur +formations extend somewhat further out on the plains to the eastward, +and the best collecting regions thus far explored are in eastern +Wyoming, central Montana and in Alberta, Canada. + + +THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF DINOSAURS IN THE WEST. + +_By Prof. S.W. Williston._ + +Most great discoveries are due rather to a state of mind, if I may use +such an expression, than to accident. The discovery of the immense +dinosaur deposits in the Rocky Mountains in March, 1877, may +truthfully be called great, for nothing in paleontology has equalled +it, and that it was made by three observers simultaneously can not be +called purely an accident. These discoverers were Mr. O. Lucas, then +a school teacher, later clergyman; Professor Arthur Lakes, then a +teacher in the School of Mines at Golden, Colorado; and Mr. William +Reed, then a section foreman of the Union Pacific Railroad at Como, +Wyoming, later the curator of paleontology of the University of +Wyoming--even as I write this, comes the notice of his death,--the +last. I knew them all, and the last two were long intimate friends. + +In the autumn of 1878 I wrote the following:[19] + +"The history of their discovery (the dinosaurs) is both interesting +and remarkable. For years the beds containing them had been studied by +geologists of experience, under the surveys of Hayden and King, but, +with the possible exception of the half of a caudal vertebra, obtained +by Hayden and described by Leidy as a species of _Poikilopleuron_, not +a single fragment had been recognized. This is all the more remarkable +from the fact that in several of the localities I have observed acres +literally strewn with fragments of bones, many of them extremely +characteristic and so large as to have taxed the strength of a strong +man to lift them. Three of the localities known to me are in the +immediate vicinity, if not upon the actual townsites of thriving +villages, and for years numerous fragments have been collected by (or +for) tourists and exhibited as fossil wood. The quantities hitherto +obtained, though apparently so vast, are wholly unimportant in +comparison with those awaiting the researches of geologists throughout +the Rocky Mountain region. I doubt not that many hundreds of tons will +eventually be exhumed." Rather a startling prophecy to make within +eighteen months of their discovery, but it was hardly exaggerated. + +It is impossible to say which of these three observers actually made +the first discovery of Jurassic dinosaurs; whatever doubt there is is +in favor of Mr. Reed. + +Professor Lakes, accompanied by his friend Mr. E.L. Beckwith, an +engineer, was, one day in March, 1877, hunting along the "hogback" in +the vicinity of Morrison, Colorado, for fossil leaves in the Dakota +Cretaceous sandstone which caps the ridge, when he saw a large block +of sandstone with an enormous vertebra partly imbedded in it. He +discussed the nature of the fossil with his friend (so he told me) and +finally concluded that it was a fossil bone. He had recently come from +England and had heard of Professor Phillips' discoveries of similar +dinosaurs there. He knew of Professor Marsh of Yale from his recent +discoveries of toothed birds in the chalk of Kansas, and reported the +find to him. As a result, the specimen, rock and all, was shipped to +him by express at ten cents a pound! And Professor Marsh immediately +announced the discovery of _Titanosaurus_ (_Atlantosaurus_) _immanis_, +a huge dinosaur having a probable length of one hundred and fifteen +feet and unknown height. And Professor Lakes was immediately set at +work in the "Morrison quarry" near by, whence comes the accepted name +of these dinosaur beds in the Rocky Mountains. Professor Lakes once +showed me the exact spot where he found his first specimen. + +Mr. Lucas, teaching his first term of a country school that spring in +Garden Park near Canyon City, as an amateur botanist was interested in +the plants of the vicinity. Rambling through the adjacent hills in +search of them, in March, 1877, he stumbled upon some fragments of +fossil bones in a little ravine not far from the famous quarry later +worked for Professor Marsh. He recognized them as fossils and they +greatly excited, not only his curiosity, but the curiosity of the +neighbors. He had heard of the late Professor Cope and sent some of +the bones to him, who promptly labelled them _Camarasaurus supremus_. + +The announcement of these discoveries promptly brought Mr. David +Baldwin, Professor Marsh's collector in New Mexico, to the scene. Only +a few months previously he had discovered fossil bones in the red beds +of New Mexico, the since famous Permian deposits. He naturally +explored the same beds at Canyon City, immediately below the dinosaur +deposits, and soon found the still very problematical _Hallopus_ +skeleton, at their very top, a specimen which after nearly forty years +remains unique of its kind. + +A few years earlier Professor Marsh, on his way east from the Tertiary +deposits of western Wyoming, had stopped at Como, Wyoming, to observe +the strange salamanders, or "fish with legs" as they were widely +known, so abundant in the lake at that place, about whose +transformations he later wrote a paper, perhaps the only one on modern +vertebrates that he ever published. While he was there Mr. Carlin, the +station agent, showed him some fossil bone fragments, so Mr. Reed told +me, that they had picked up in the vicinity, and about which Professor +Marsh made some comments. But he was so engrossed with the other +discoveries he was then making that he did not follow up the +suggestion. Had he done so the discovery of the "Jurassic Dinosaurs" +would have been made five years earlier. + +Mr. Reed, tramping over the famous Como hills after game--he had been +a professional hunter of game for the construction camps of the Union +Pacific Railroad--in the winter and spring of 1877, observed some +fossil bones just south of the railway station that excited his +curiosity. But he and Mr. Carlin did not make their discovery known to +Professor Marsh till the following autumn, and then under assumed +names, fearing that they would be robbed of their discovery. I was +sent to Como in November of 1877 from Canyon City. I got off the train +at the station after midnight, and enquired for the nearest +hotel--(the station comprised two houses only), and where I could find +Messrs. Smith and Robinson. I was told that the section house was the +only hotel in the place and that these gentlemen lived in the country +and that there was no regular bus-line yet running to their ranch. A +freshly opened box of cigars, however, helped clear up things, and I +joined Mr. Reed the next day in opening "Quarry No. 1" of the Como +hills. Inasmuch as the mercury in the thermometer during the next two +months seldom reached zero--upward I mean--the opening of this famous +deposit was made under difficulties. That so much "head cheese," as we +called it, was shipped to Professor Marsh was more the fault of the +weather and his importunities than our carelessness. However, we found +some of the types of dinosaurs that have since become famous. + +I joined Professor Lakes at the Morrison quarry in early September of +1877, and helped dig out some of the bones of _Atlantosaurus_. A few +weeks later I was sent to Canyon City to help Professor Mudge, my old +teacher, and Mr. Felch, who had begun work there in the famous "Marsh +Quarry". It was here that we found the type of _Diplodocus_. + +The hind leg, pelvis and much of the tail of this specimen lay in very +orderly arrangement in the sandstone near the edge of the quarry, but +the bones were broken into innumerable pieces. After consultation we +decided that they were too much broken to be worth saving--and so most +of them went over into the dump. Sacrilege, doubtless, the modern +collector will say, but we did not know much about the modern methods +of collecting in those days, and moreover we were in too much of a +hurry to get the new discoveries to Yale College to take much pains +with them. I did observe that the caudal vertebrae had very peculiar +chevrons, unlike others that I had seen, and so I attempted to save +some samples of them by pasting them up with thick layers of paper. +Had we only known of plaster-of-paris and burlap the whole specimen +might easily have been saved. Later, when I reached New Haven, I took +off the paper and called Professor Marsh's attention to the strange +chevrons. And _Diplodocus_ was the result. + + [Illustration: Fig. 44.--The first dinosaur specimen found at + Bone-Cabin Quarry. Hind limb of _Diplodocus_.] + +My own connection with the discoveries of these old dinosaurs +continued only through the following summer, in Wyoming, when we added +the first mammals from the hills immediately back of the station, and +the types of some of the smaller dinosaurs, and when we explored the +vicinity for other deposits, on Rock Creek and in the Freeze Out +Mountains. + +How many tons of these fossils have since been dug up from these +deposits in the Rocky Mountains is beyond computation. My prophecy of +hundreds of tons has been fulfilled; and they are preserved in many +museums of the world. + + S.W. WILLISTON. + + +THE DINOSAURS OF THE BONE-CABIN QUARRY.[20] + +_By Henry Fairfield Osborn._ + +One is often asked the questions: "How do you find fossils?" "How do +you know where to look for them?" One of the charms of the +fossil-hunter's life is the variety, the element of certainty combined +with the gambling element of chance. Like the prospector for gold, the +fossil-hunter may pass suddenly from the extreme of dejection to the +extreme of elation. Luck comes in a great variety of ways: sometimes +as the result of prolonged and deliberate scientific search in a +region which is known to be fossiliferous; sometimes in such a prosaic +manner as the digging of a well. Among discoveries of a highly +suggestive, almost romantic kind, perhaps none is more remarkable than +the one I shall now describe. + +_Discovery of the Great Dinosaur Quarry._ In central Wyoming, at the +head of a "draw," or small valley, not far from the Medicine Bow +River, lies the ruin of a small and unique building, which marks the +site of the greatest "find" of extinct animals made in a single +locality in any part of the world. The fortunate fossil-hunter who +stumbled on this site was Mr. Walter Granger of the American Museum +expedition of 1897. + +In the spring of 1898, as I approached the hillock on which the ruin +stands, I observed, among the beautiful flowers, the blooming cacti, +and the dwarf bushes of the desert, what were apparently numbers of +dark-brown boulders. On closer examination, it proved that there is +really not a single rock, hardly even a pebble, on this hillock; all +these apparent boulders are ponderous fossils which have slowly +accumulated or washed out on the surface from a great dinosaur bed +beneath. A Mexican sheep-herder had collected some of these petrified +bones for the foundations of his cabin, the first ever built of such +strange materials. The excavation of a promising outcrop was almost +immediately rewarded by finding a thigh-bone nearly six feet in length +which sloped downward into the earth, running into the lower leg and +finally into the foot, with all the respective parts lying in the +natural position as in life. This proved to be the previously unknown +hind limb of the great dinosaur _Diplodocus_. + +In this manner the "Bone-Cabin Quarry" was discovered and christened. +The total contents of the quarry are represented in the diagram (not +reprinted.) It has given us, by dint of six successive years of hard +work, the materials for an almost complete revival of the life of the +Laramie region as it was in the days of the dinosaurs. By the aid of +workmen of every degree of skill, by grace of the accumulated wisdom +of the nineteenth century, by the constructive imagination, by the aid +of the sculptor and the artist, we can summon these living forms and +the living environment from the vasty deep of the past. + +_The Famous Como Bluffs._ The circumstances leading up to our +discovery serve to introduce the story. From 1890 to 1897 we had been +steadily delving into the history of the Age of Mammals, in deposits +dating from two hundred thousand to three million years back, as we +rudely estimate geological time. In the course of seven years such +substantial progress had been made that I decided to push into the +history of the Age of Reptiles also, and, following the pioneers, +Marsh and Cope, to begin exploration in the period which at once marks +the dawn of mammalian life and the climax of the evolution of the +great amphibious dinosaurs. + +In the spring of 1897 we accordingly began exploration in the heart of +the Laramie Plains, on the Como Bluffs. On arrival, we found numbers +of massive bones strewn along the base of these bluffs, tumbled from +their stratum above, too weather-worn to attract collectors, and +serving only to remind one of the time when these animals--the +greatest, by far, that nature has ever produced on land--were monarchs +of the world. + +Aroused from sleep on a clear evening in camp by the heavy rumble of +a passing Union Pacific freight-train[21], I shall never forget my +meditations on the contrast between the imaginary picture of the great +Age of Dinosaurs, fertile in cycads and in a wonderful variety of +reptiles, and the present age of steam, of heavy locomotives toiling +through the semi-arid and partly desert Laramie Plains. + +So many animals had already been removed from these bluffs that we +were not very sanguine of finding more; but after a fortnight our +prospecting was rewarded by finding parts of skeletons of the +long-limbed dinosaur _Diplodocus_ and of the heavy-limbed dinosaur +_Brontosaurus_. The whole summer was occupied in taking these animals +out for shipment to the East, the so-called "plaster method" of +removal being applied with the greatest success. Briefly, this is a +surgical device applied on a large scale for the "setting" of the +much-fractured bones of a fossilized skeleton. It consists in setting +great blocks of the skeleton, stone and all, in a firm capsule of +plaster subsequently reinforced by great splints of wood, firmly drawn +together with wet rawhide. The object is to keep all the fragments and +splinters of bone together until it can reach the skilful hands of the +museum preparator. + +_The Rock Waves Connecting the Bluffs and the Quarry._ The Como Bluffs +are about ten miles south of the Bone-Cabin Quarry; between them is a +broad stretch of the Laramie Plains. The exposed bone layer in the two +localities is of the same age, and originally was a continuous level +stratum which may be designated as the "dinosaur beds;" but this +stratum, disturbed and crowded by the uplifting of the not far-distant +Laramie range of mountains and the Freeze Out Hills, was thrown into a +number of great folds or rock waves. Large portions, especially of the +upfolds, or "anticlines," of the waves, have been subsequently removed +by erosion; the edges of these upfolds have been exposed, thus +weathering out their fossilized contents, while downfolds are still +buried beneath the earth for the explorers of coming centuries. + +Therefore, as one rides across the country to-day from the bluffs to +the quarry, startling the intensely modern fauna, the prong-horn +antelopes, jack-rabbits, and sage-chickens, he is passing over a vast +graveyard which has been profoundly folded and otherwise shaken up and +disturbed. Sometimes one finds the bone layer removed entirely, +sometimes horizontal, sometimes oblique, and again dipping directly +into the heart of the earth. This layer (dinosaur beds) is not more +than two hundred and seventy-four feet in thickness, and is altogether +of fresh-water origin; but as a proof of the oscillations of the +earth-level both before and after this great thin sheet of fresh-water +rock was so widely spread, there are evidences of the previous +invasion of the sea (ichthyosaur beds) and of the subsequent invasion +of the sea (mosasaur beds) in the whole Rocky Mountain region. + +In traveling through the West, when once one has grasped the idea of +continental oscillation, or submergence and emergence of the land, of +the sequence of the marine and fresh-water deposits in laying down +these pages of earth-history, he will know exactly where to look for +this wonderful layer-bed of the giant dinosaurs; he will find that, +owing to the uplift of various mountain-ranges, it outcrops along the +entire eastern face of the Rockies, around the Black Hills, and in all +parts of the Laramie Plains; it yields dinosaur bones everywhere, but +by no means so profusely or so perfectly as in the two famous +localities we are describing. + +_How the Skeletons Lie in the Bluffs and Quarry._ At the bluffs single +animals lie from twenty to one hundred feet apart; one rarely finds a +whole skeleton, such as that of Marsh's _Brontosaurus excelsus_, the +finest specimen ever secured here, which is now one of the treasures +of the Yale museum. More frequently a half or a third of a skeleton +lies together. + +In the Bone-Cabin Quarry, on the other hand, we came across a +veritable Noah's-ark deposit, a perfect museum of all the animals of +the period. Here are the largest of the giant dinosaurs closely +mingled with the remains of the smaller but powerful carnivorous +dinosaurs which preyed upon them, also those of the slow and +heavy-moving armored dinosaurs of the period, as well as of the +lightest and most bird-like of the dinosaurs. Finely rounded, complete +limbs from eight to ten feet in length are found, especially those of +the carnivorous dinosaurs, perfect even to the sharply pointed and +recurved tips of their toes. Other limbs and bones are so crushed and +distorted by pressure that it is not worth while removing them. +Sixteen series of vertebrae were found strung together; among these +were eight long strings of tail-bones. The occurrence of these tails +is less surprising when we come to study the important and varied +functions of the tail in these animals, and the consequent connection +of the tail-bones by means of stout tendons and ligaments which held +them together for a long period after death. Skulls are fragile and +rare in the quarry, because in every one of these big skeletons there +were no fewer than ninety distinct bones which exceeded the head in +size, the excess in most cases being enormous. + + [Illustration: Fig. 45.--COLLECTING DINOSAURS AT BONE-CABIN + QUARRY. + a. The overlying soil and rocks are loosened with a pick and + removed with team and scraper down to the fossil layer. + + b. The fossil layer is carefully prospected with small tools, + chisels, awls and whisk brooms exposing the bones as they lie in + the rocks. + + c. The blocks containing the fossils are channelled around, + plastered over top and sides, undercut and carefully turned over + and the under side trimmed and plastered. + + d. The blocks are then packed in boxes or crates with hay or any + other available packing material. + + e. Boxes are loaded on wagons and hauled across country to the + railroad. + + f. Boxes are finally loaded on cars and shipped through to New + York City.] + +The bluffs appear to represent the region of an ancient shoreline, +such conditions as we have depicted in the restoration of +_Brontosaurus_ (fig. 22)--the sloping banks of a muddy estuary or of a +lagoon, either bare tidal flats or covered with vegetation. Evidently +the dinosaurs were buried at or near the spot where they perished. + +The Bone-Cabin Quarry deposit represents entirely different +conditions. The theory that it is the accumulation of a flood is, in +my opinion, improbable, because a flood would tend to bring entire +skeletons down together, distribute them widely, and bury them +rapidly. A more likely theory is that this was the area of an old +river-bar, which in its shallow waters arrested the more or less +decomposed and scattered carcasses which had slowly drifted +down-stream toward it, including a great variety of dinosaurs, +crocodiles, and turtles, collected from many points up-stream. Thus +were brought together the animals of a whole region, a fact which +vastly enhances the interest of this deposit. + +_The Giant Herbivorous Dinosaurs._ By far the most imposing of these +animals are those which may be popularly designated as the great or +giant dinosaurs. The name, derived from _deinos_ terrible, and +_sauros_ lizard, refers to the fact that they appeared externally like +enormous lizards, with very long limbs, necks, and tails. They were +actually remotely related to the tuatera lizard of New Zealand, and +still more remotely to the true lizards. + +No land animals have ever approached these giant dinosaurs in size, +and naturally the first point of interest is the architecture of the +skeleton. The backbone is indeed a marvel. The fitness of the +construction consists, like that of the American truss-bridge, in +attaining the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight. It is +brought about by dispensing with every cubic millimeter of bone which +can be spared without weakening the vertebrae for the various stresses +and strains to which they were subjected, and these must have been +tremendous in an animal from sixty to seventy feet in length. The +bodies of the vertebrae are of hour-glass shape, with great lateral and +interior cavities; the arches are constructed on the T-iron principle +of the modern bridge-builder, the back spines are tubular, the +interior is spongy, these devices being employed in great variety, and +constituting a mechanical triumph of size, lightness, and strength +combined. Comparing a great chambered dinosaurian (_Camarasaurus_) +vertebra (see above) with the weight per cubic inch of an ostrich +vertebra, we reach the astonishing conclusion that it weighed only +twenty-one pounds, or half the weight of a whale vertebra of the same +bulk. The skeleton of a whale seventy-four feet in length has recently +been found by Mr. F.A. Lucas of the Brooklyn Museum to weigh seventeen +thousand nine hundred and twenty pounds. The skeleton of a dinosaur of +the same length may be roughly estimated as not exceeding ten thousand +pounds. + +_Proofs of Rapid Movements on Land._ Lightness of skeleton is a +walking or running or flying adaptation, and not at all a swimming +one; a swimming animal needs gravity in its skeleton, because +sufficient buoyancy in the water is always afforded by the lungs and +soft tissues of the body. The extraordinary lightness of these +dinosaur vertebrae may therefore be put forward as proof of supreme +fitness for the propulsion of an enormous frame during occasional +incursions upon land[22]. There are additional facts which point to +land progression, such as the point in the tail where the flexible +structure suddenly becomes rigid, as shown in the diagram of vertebrae +below; the component joints are so solid and flattened on the lower +surface that they seem to demonstrate fitness to support partly the +body in a tripodal position like that of a kangaroo. I have therefore +hazarded the view that even some of these enormous dinosaurs were +capable of raising themselves on their hind limbs, lightly resting on +the middle portion of the tail. In such a position the animal would +have been capable not only of browsing among the higher branches of +trees, but of defending itself against the carnivorous dinosaurs by +using its relatively short but heavy front limbs to ward off attacks. + +There are also indications of aquatic habits in some of the giant +dinosaurs which render it probable that a considerable part of their +life was led in the water. One of these indications is the backward +position of the nostrils. Many, but not all, water-living mammals and +reptiles have the nostrils on top of the head, in order to breathe +more readily when the head is partly immersed. Another fact of note, +although perhaps less conclusive, is the fitness of the tail for use +while moving about in the water, if not in rapid swimming. + +The great tail, measuring from twenty-eight to thirty feet, was one of +the most remarkable structures in these animals, and undoubtedly +served a great variety of purposes, propelling while in the water, +balancing and supporting and defending while on land. In _Diplodocus_ +it was most perfectly developed from its muscular base to its delicate +and whip-like tip, perhaps for all these functions. + +_The Three Kinds of Giant Dinosaurs._ It is very remarkable that three +distinct kinds of these great dinosaurs lived at the same time in the +same general region, as proved by the fact that their remains are +freely commingled in the quarry. + +What were the differences in food and habits, in structure and in +gait, which prevented that direct and active competition between like +types in the struggle for existence which in the course of nature +always leads to the extermination of one or the other type? In the +last three years we have discovered very considerable differences of +structure which make it appear that these animals, while of the same +or nearly the same linear dimensions, did not enter into direct +competition either for food or for territory. + +The dinosaur named _Diplodocus_ by Marsh is the most completely known +of the three. Our very first discovery in the Bone-Cabin Quarry gave +us the hint that _Diplodocus_ was distinguished by relatively long, +slender limbs, and that it may be popularly known as the "long-limbed +dinosaur." The great skeleton found in the Como Bluffs enabled me to +restore for the first time the posterior half of one of these animals +estimated as sixty feet in length, the hips and tail especially being +in a perfect state of preservation. A larger animal, nearer seventy +feet in length, including the anterior half of the body, and still +more complete, was discovered about ten miles north of the quarry, and +is now in the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburg. Combined, these two +animals have furnished a complete knowledge of the great bony frame. +The head is only two feet long, and is, therefore, small out of all +proportion to the great body. The neck measures twenty-one feet four +inches, and is by far the longest and largest neck known in any animal +living or extinct. The back is relatively very short, measuring ten +feet eight inches. The vertebrae of the hip measure two feet and three +inches. The tail measures from thirty-two to forty feet. We thus +obtain, as a moderate estimate of the total length of the animal, +sixty-eight to seventy feet. The restored skeleton, published by Mr. +J.B. Hatcher in July, 1901, and partly embodying our results, gave to +science the first really accurate knowledge of the length of these +animals, which hitherto had been greatly overestimated. The highest +point in the body was above the hips; here in fact, was the center of +power and motion, because, as observed above, the tail fairly balanced +the anterior part of the body. + +The restoration by Mr. Knight is drawn from a very careful model made +under my direction, in which the proportions of the animal are +precisely estimated. It is, I think, accurate--for a restoration--as +well as interesting and up-to-date. These restorations are the +"working hypotheses" of our science; they express the present state of +our knowledge, and, being subject to modification by future +discoveries, are liable to constant change. + +By contrast, the second type of giant dinosaur, the _Brontosaurus_, or +"thunder saurian" of Marsh, as shown in the restoration (fig. 22), was +far more massive in structure and relatively shorter in body. Five +more or less complete skeletons are now to be seen in the Yale, +American, Carnegie, and Field Columbian museums. In 1898 we discovered +in the bluffs, about three miles west of the Bone-Cabin Quarry, the +largest of these animals which has yet been found; it was worked out +with great care and is now being restored and mounted complete in the +American Museum. The thigh-bone is enormous, measuring five feet eight +inches in length, and is relatively of greater mass than that of +_Diplodocus_. The neck, chest, hips, and tail are correspondingly +massive. The neck is relatively shorter, however, measuring eighteen +feet, while in _Diplodocus_ it measures over twenty-one feet. The +total length of this massive specimen is estimated at sixty-three +feet, or from six to eight feet less than the largest "long-limbed" +dinosaur. The height of the skeleton at the hips is fifteen feet. +There is less direct evidence that the "thunder saurian" had the power +of raising its fore quarters in the air than in the case of the +"light-limbed saurian," because no bend or supporting point in the +tail has been distinctly observed. + +The third type of giant dinosaur is the less completely known +"chambered saurian," the _Camarasaurus_ of Cope or _Morosaurus_ of +Marsh, an animal more quadrupedal in gait or walking more habitually +on all fours, like the great _Cetiosaurus_, or "whale saurian," +discovered near Oxford, England. With its shorter tail and heavier +fore limbs, it is still less probable that this animal had the power +of raising the anterior part of its body from the ground. Of a related +type, perhaps, is the largest dinosaur ever found; this is the +_Brachiosaurus_, limb-bones of which were discovered in central +Colorado in 1901 and are now preserved in the Field Columbian Museum +of Chicago. Its thigh-bone is six feet eight inches in length, and its +upper arm-bone, or humerus, is even slightly longer. + +_Feeding Habits of the Giant Dinosaurs._ We still have to solve one of +the most perplexing problems of fossil physiology; how did the very +small head, provided with light jaws, slender and spoon-shaped teeth +confined to the anterior region, suffice to provide food for these +monsters? I have advanced the idea that the food of _Diplodocus_ +consisted of some very abundant and nutritious species of water-plant; +that the clawed feet were used in uprooting such plants, while the +delicate anterior teeth were employed only for drawing them out of the +water; that the plants were drawn down the throat in large quantities +without mastication, since there were no grinding or back teeth +whatever in this animal. Unfortunately for this theory, it is now +found that the front feet were not provided with many claws, there +being only a single claw on the inner side. Nevertheless by some such +means as this, these enormous animals could have obtained sufficient +food in the water to support their great bulk. + +_The Carnivorous Dinosaurs._ Mingling with the larger bones in the +quarry are the more or less perfect remains of swamp turtles, of dwarf +crocodiles, of the entirely different group of plated dinosaurs, or +_Stegosauria_, but especially of two entirely distinct kinds of large +and small flesh-eating dinosaurs. The latter rounded out and gave +variety to the dinosaur society, and there is no doubt that they +served the savage but useful purpose, rendered familiar by the +doctrine of Malthus, of checking overpopulation. These fierce animals +had the same remote ancestry as the giant dinosaurs, but had gradually +acquired entirely different habits and appearance. + +Far inferior in size, they were superior in agility, exclusively +bipedal, with very long, powerful hind limbs, upon which they advanced +by running or springing, and with short fore limbs, the exact uses of +which are difficult to ascertain. Both hands and feet were provided +with powerful tearing claws. On the hind foot is the back claw, so +characteristic of the birds, which during the Triassic period left its +faint impression almost everywhere in the famous Connecticut valley +imprints of these animals. That the fore limb and hand were of some +distinct use is proved by the enormous size of the thumb-claw; while +the hand may not have conveyed food to the mouth, it may have served +to seize and tear the prey. As to the actual pose in feeding, there +can be little doubt as to its general similarity to that of the +_Raptores_ among the birds, as suggested to me by Dr. Wortman (see +fig. 10); one of the hind feet rested on the prey, the other upon the +ground, the body being further balanced or supported by the vertebrae +of the tail. The animal was thus in a position to apply its teeth and +exert all the power of its very powerful arched back in tearing off +its food. That the gristle of the bone or cartilage was very palatable +is attested not only by the toothmarks upon these bones, but by many +similar markings found in the Bone-Cabin Quarry. + +_The Bird-Catching Dinosaur._ Of all the bird-like dinosaurs which +have been discovered, none possesses greater similitude to the birds +than the gem of the quarry, the little animal about seven feet in +length which we have named _Ornitholestes_, or the "bird-catching +dinosaur." It was a marvel of speed, agility, and delicacy of +construction. Externally its bones are simple and solid-looking, but +as a matter of fact they are mere shells, the walls being hardly +thicker than paper, the entire interior of the bone having been +removed by the action of the same marvelous law of adaptation which +sculptured the vertebrae of its huge contemporaries. There is no +evidence, however, that these hollow bones were filled with air from +the lungs, as in the case of the bones of birds. The foot is +bird-like; the hand is still more so; in fact, no dinosaur hand has +ever before been found which so closely mimics that of a bird in the +great elongation of the first or index-finger, in the abbreviation of +the thumb and middle finger, and in the reduction of the ring-finger. +These fingers, with sharp claws, were not strong enough for climbing, +and the only special fitness we have been able to imagine is that they +were used for the grasping of a light and agile prey (see figs. 17, +18.) + +Another reason for the venture of designating this animal as the +"bird-catcher" is that the Jurassic birds (not thus far discovered in +America, but known from the _Archaeopteryx_ of Germany) were not so +active or such strong fliers as existing birds; in fact, they were not +unlike the little dinosaur itself. They were toothed, long-tailed, +short-armed, the body was feathered instead of scaled; they rose +slowly from the ground. This renders it probable that they were the +prey of the smaller pneumatic-built dinosaurs such as the present +animal. + +This hypothetical bird-catcher seems to have been designed to spring +upon a delicately built prey, the structure being the very antipode of +that of the large carnivorous dinosaurs. A difficulty in the +bird-catching theory, namely, that the teeth are not as sharp as one +would expect to find them in a flesh-eater, is somewhat offset by the +similarity of the teeth to those of the bird-eating monitor lizards +(_Varanus_), which are not especially sharp. + +_The Great Yield of the Quarry._ Our explorations in the quarry began +in the spring of 1898, and have continued ever since during favorable +weather. The total area explored at the close of the sixth year was +seven thousand two hundred and fifty square feet. Not one of the +twelve-foot squares into which the quarry was plotted lacked its +covering of bones, and in some cases the bones were two or three deep. +Each year we have expected to come to the end of this great deposit, +but it still yields a large return, although we have reason to believe +that we have exhausted the richest portions. + +We have taken up four hundred and eighty-three parts of animals, some +of which may belong to the same individuals. These were packed in two +hundred and seventy-five boxes, representing a gross weight of nearly +one hundred thousand pounds. Reckoning from the number of thigh-bones, +we reach, as a rough estimate of the total, seventy-three animals of +the following kinds: giant herbivorous dinosaurs, 44; plated +herbivorous dinosaurs, or stegosaurs, 3; iguanodonts or smaller +herbivorous dinosaurs, 4; large carnivorous dinosaurs, 6; small +carnivorous dinosaurs, 3; crocodiles, 4; turtles, 5. But this +represents only a part of the whole deposit, which we know to be of +twice the extent already explored, and these figures do not include +the bones which were partly washed out and used in the construction +of the Bone-Cabin. The grand total would probably include parts of +over one hundred giant dinosaurs. + +_The Struggle for Existence Among the Dinosaurs._ Never in the whole +history of the world as we now know it have there been such remarkable +land scenes as were presented when the reign of these titanic reptiles +was at its climax. It was also the prevailing life-picture of England, +Germany, South America, and India. We can imagine herds of these +creatures from fifty to eighty feet in length, with limbs and gait +analogous to those of gigantic elephants, but with bodies extending +through the long, flexible, and tapering necks into the diminutive +heads, and reaching back into the equally long and still more tapering +tails. The four or five varieties which existed together were each +fitted to some special mode of life; some living more exclusively on +land, others for longer periods in the water. + +The competition for existence was not only with the great carnivorous +dinosaurs, but with other kinds of herbivorous dinosaurs (the +iguanodonts), which had much smaller bodies to sustain and a much +superior tooth mechanism for the taking of food. + +The cutting off of this giant dinosaur dynasty was nearly if not quite +simultaneous the world over. The explanation which is deducible from +similar catastrophes to other large types of animals is that a very +large frame, with a limited and specialized set of teeth fitted only +to a certain special food, is a dangerous combination of characters. +Such a monster organism is no longer adaptable; any serious change of +conditions which would tend to eliminate the special food would also +eliminate these great animals as a necessary consequence. + + [Illustration: Fig. 46.--Badlands on the Red Deer River in + Alberta. This region is the richest known collecting ground for + cretacic dinosaurs.] + +There is an entirely different class of explanations, however, to be +considered, which are consistent both with the continued fitness of +structure of the giant dinosaurs themselves and with the survival of +their especial food; such, for example, as the introduction of a _new +enemy_ more deadly even than the great carnivorous dinosaurs. Among +such theories the most ingenious is that of the late Professor Cope, +who suggested that some of the small, inoffensive, and inconspicuous +forms of Jurassic mammals, of the size of the shrew and the hedgehog, +contracted the habit of seeking out the nests of these dinosaurs, +gnawing through the shells of their eggs, and thus destroying the +young. The appearance, or evolution, of any egg-destroying animals, +whether reptiles or mammals, which could attack this great race at +such a defenseless point would be rapidly followed by its extinction. +We must accordingly be on the alert for all possible theories of +extinction; and these theories themselves will fall under the +universal principle of the survival of the fittest until we +approximate or actually hit upon the truth. + + +FOSSIL HUNTING BY BOAT IN CANADA. + +_By Barnum Brown._ + +"How do you know where to look for fossils?" is a common question. In +general it may be answered that the surface of North America has been +pretty well explored by government surveys and scientific expeditions +and the geologic age of the larger areas determined. Most important in +determining the geologic sequence of the earth's strata are the fossil +remains of animal and plant life. A grouping of distinct species of +fossils correlated with stratigraphic characters in the rocks +determines these subdivisions. When a collection of fossils is desired +to represent a certain period, exploring parties are sent to these +known areas. Sometimes however, chance information leads up to most +important discoveries, such as resulted from the work of the past two +seasons in Alberta, Canada. + +A visitor to the Museum, Mr. J.L. Wagner, while examining our mineral +collections saw the large bones in the Reptile Hall and remarked to +the Curator of Mineralogy that he had seen many similar bones near his +ranch in the Red Deer Canyon of Alberta. After talking some time an +invitation was extended to the writer to visit his home and prospect +the canyon. Accordingly in the fall of 1909 a preliminary trip was made +to the locality. + +From Didsbury, a little town north of Calgary, the writer drove +eastward ninety miles to the Red Deer River through a portion of the +newly opened grain belt of Alberta, destined in the near future to +produce a large part of the world's bread. Near the railroad the land +is mostly under cultivation and comfortable homes and bountiful grain +fields testify to the rich nature of the soil. A few miles eastward +the brushland gives way to a level expanse of grass-covered prairie +dotted here and there by large and small lakes probably of glacial +origin. Mile after mile the road follows section lines and one is +rarely out of sight of the house of some "homesteader." It is through +this level farm land that the Red Deer River wends its way flowing +through a canyon far below the surface. Near Wagner's ranch the canyon +was prospected and so many bones found that it appeared most +desirable to do extended searching along the river. + +Usually fossils are found in "bad lands," where extensive areas are +denuded of grass and the surface eroded into hills and ravines. A camp +is located near some spring or stream and collectors ride or walk over +miles of these exposures in each direction till the region is +thoroughly explored. Quite different are conditions on the Red Deer +River. Cutting through the prairie land the river had formed a canyon +two to five hundred feet deep and rarely more than a mile wide at the +top. In places the walls are nearly perpendicular and the river winds +in its narrow valley, touching one side then crossing to the other so +that it is impossible to follow up or down its course any great +distance even on horseback. + +It was evident that the most feasible way to work these banks was from +a boat; consequently in the summer of 1910 our party proceeded to the +town of Red Deer, where the Calgary-Edmonton railroad crosses the +river. There a flatboat, twelve by thirty feet in dimension, was +constructed on lines similar to a western ferry boat, having a +carrying capacity of eight tons with a twenty-two foot oar at each end +to direct its course. The rapid current averaging about four miles per +hour precluded any thought of going up stream in a large boat, so it +was constructed on lines sufficiently generous to form a living boat +as well as to carry the season's collection of fossils. + +Supplied with a season's provisions, lumber for boxes, and plaster for +encasing bones, we began our fossil cruise down a canyon which once +echoed songs of the _Bois brule_, for this was at one time the fur +territory of the great Hudson Bay Company. + + [Illustration: Fig. 47.--American Museum Expedition on the Red + Deer River. Fossils secured along the banks were packed and loaded + aboard the large scow and floated down the river to the railway + station.] + +No more interesting or instructive journey has ever been taken by the +writer. High up on the plateau, buildings and haystacks proclaim a +well-settled country, but habitations are rarely seen from the river +and for miles we floated through picturesque solitude unbroken save by +the roar of the rapids. + +Especially characteristic of this canyon are the slides where the +current setting against the bank has undermined it until a mountain of +earth slips into the river, in some cases almost choking its course. +A continual sorting thus goes on, the finer material being carried +away while the boulders are left as barriers forming slow moving +reaches of calm water and stretches of rapids difficult to navigate +during low water. In one of these slides we found several small mammal +jaws and teeth not known before from Canada, associated with fossil +clam shells of Eocene age. + +The long midsummer days in latitude 52 deg gave many working hours, but +with frequent stops to prospect the banks we rarely floated more than +twenty miles per day. An occasional flock of ducks and geese were +disturbed as our boat approached and bank beaver houses were +frequently passed, but few of the animals were seen during the +daytime. Tying the boat to a tree at night we would go ashore to camp +among the trees where after dinner pipes were smoked in the glow of a +great camp fire. Only a fossil hunter or a desert traveler can fully +appreciate the luxury of abundant wood and running water. In the +stillness of the night the underworld was alive and many little feet +rustled the leaves where daylight disclosed no sound. Then the beaver +and muskrat swam up to investigate this new intruder, while from the +tree-tops came the constant query, "Who! Who!" + +For seventy miles the country is thickly wooded with pine and poplar, +the stately spruce trees silhouetted against the sky adding a charm to +the ever changing scene. Nature has also been kind to the treeless +regions beyond, for underneath the fertile prairie, veins of good +lignite coal of varying thickness are successively cut by the river. +In many places these are worked in the river banks during winter. One +vein of excellent quality is eighteen feet thick, although usually +they are much thinner. The government right has been taken to mine +most of this coal outcropping along the river. + + [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Locality of Ankylosaurus skull in + Edmonton formation in Red Deer River. The skull is in the rock + just above the pick, about the center of the photograph.] + +Along the upper portion of the stream are banks of Eocene age, from +which shells and mammal jaws were secured, but near the town of +Content where the river bends southward, a new series of rocks +appeared and in these our search was rewarded by finding dinosaur +bones similar to those seen at Wagner's ranch. Specimens were found in +increasing numbers as we continued our journey, and progress down the +river was necessarily much slower. Frequently the boat would be tied +up a week or more at one camp while we searched the banks, examining +the cliffs layer by layer that no fossil might escape observation. +With the little dingey the opposite side of the river was reached so +that both sides were covered at the same time from one camp. As soon +as a mile or more had been prospected or a new specimen secured, the +boat was dropped down to a new convenient anchorage. Box after box was +added to the collection till scarcely a cubit's space remained +unoccupied on board our fossil ark. + +Where prairie badlands are eroded in innumerable buttes and ravines it +is always doubtful if one has seen all exposures, so there was +peculiar satisfaction in making a thorough search of these river banks +knowing that few if any fossils had escaped observation. On account of +the heavy rainfall and frequent sliding of banks new fossils are +exposed every season so that in a few years these same banks can again +be explored profitably. This river will become as classic hunting +ground for reptile remains as the Badlands of South Dakota are for +mammals. + +Although the summer days are long in this latitude the season is short +and thousands of geese flying southward foretell the early winter. +Where the temperature is not infrequently forty to sixty degrees below +zero in winter, it is difficult to think of a time when a warm +climate could have prevailed, yet such condition is indicated by the +fossil plants. + +When the weather became too cold to work with plaster, the fossils +were shipped from a branch railroad forty-five miles distant, the camp +material was stored for the winter and with block and tackle the big +boat was hauled up on shore above the reach of high water. + +In the summer of 1911 the boat was recalked and again launched when we +continued our search from the point at which work closed the previous +year. During the summer we were visited by the Museum's President, +Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, and one of the Trustees, Mr. Madison +Grant. A canoeing trip, one of great interest and pleasure, was taken +with our visitors covering two hundred and fifty miles down the river +from the town of Red Deer, during which valuable material was added to +the collection and important geological data secured. + +As a result of the Canadian work the Museum is enriched by a +magnificent collection of Cretaceous fossils some of which are new to +science. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 19: Transactions Kansas Academy of Science, p. 43.] + +[Footnote 20: From Fossil Wonders of the West. Century Magazine 1904, +vol. lxviii, pp. 680-694. Reprinted by permission.] + +[Footnote 21: At this time the Union Pacific Railroad directly passed +the bluffs; in the recent improvement of the grade the main line has +been moved to the south.--H.F.O.] + +[Footnote 22: A different interpretation of this contraction is given +upon p. 68.] + + + + +REFERENCES. + + +The published literature on this subject consists chiefly of technical +descriptions and researches scattered through the files of numerous +scientific journals in Europe and America. Only the more important +titles are cited in this list. I have also listed the recently +published text books which give the most authoritative treatment of +the dinosaurs, and two or three popular books dealing with fossil +vertebrates. Students consulting these authorities should remember +that great additions to scientific knowledge of dinosaurs have been +made during the last two decades, and much of the new evidence is as +yet unpublished or undigested. The views and conclusions presented in +this handbook are based upon the study of the American Museum +collections as well as upon the authorities cited below. + + + ABEL, OTHENIUS, 1912. _Palaeobiologie der Wirbelthiere._ + Schweitzer-bart'sche Verlagsbuchh., Stuttgart. + + BRANCA U. JANENSCH, 1914. _Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der + Tendaguru Expedition._ Archiv. f. Biontologie, iii Bd, i Heft. + + BROWN, BARNUM, 1902-1914. Articles in Bulletin of Amer. Mus. Nat. + Hist., descriptive of new Cretaceous Dinosaurs. + + CHAMBERLIN & SALISBURY, 1905-7. _Geology_, vol. i-iii. (Henry Holt & + Co. pub.) + + COPE, E.D., 1868-1895. Articles in Hayden Survey Reports, American + Naturalist, Proceedings and Transactions of American + Philosophical Society and elsewhere, descriptive of various new + or little known dinosaurs. + + DOLLO, L., _Sauriens de Bernissart_, etc. Numerous articles chiefly + in Bulletin Museum Royale Hist. Nat. Belg. + + GILMORE, C.W., 1914. _Osteology of the Armored Dinosauria in the + U.S. National Museum with Special Reference to the Genus + Stegosaurus._ U.S. National Museum, Bulletin No. 89, pp. 1-136, + pll. i-xxxvii. + + GILMORE, C.W., 1909. _Osteology of the Jurassic Reptile + Camptosaurus_ etc. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxxvi, pp. + 197-332, pl. vi-xx. + + HATCHER, J.B., 1901. _Diplodocus (Marsh) its Osteology_, etc. + Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, vol. i, pp. 1-63, pll. i-xiii. + + HATCHER, J.B., 1903. _Osteology of Haplocanthosaurus._ Mem. Carn. + Mus., vol. ii, pp. 1-75, pll. i-vi. + + HATCHER, MARSH & LULL, 1907. _The Ceratopsia._ U.S. Geol. Survey + Monographs, vol. xlix, pp. i-xxx and 1-300, pll. i-li. + + HAY, O.P., 1902. _Bibliography of North American Fossil Vertebrata._ + U.S. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 179, pp. 1-868. + + HENNIG, E., 1912. _Am Tendaguru._ + + HOLLAND, W.J., 1906. _Osteology of Diplodocus._ Mem. Carn. Mus., + vol. ii, pp. 225-264, pl. xxiii-xxx. + + HUENE, F. VON, 1905-6. _Ueber die Dinosaurier der aussereuropaeischen + Trias._ Koken's Geol. u. Pal. Abh. N. F., B'd. viii, s. 99-154. + + HUENE, F. VON, 1907-8. _Die Dinosaurier der Europaeischen + Triasformation._ Geol. u. Pal. Abh. Supplem. Bd. pll. i-cxi. + + HUENE, F. VON, 1914. _Beitraege zur Geschichte der Archosaurier._ + Geol. u. Pal. Abh. N. F., B'd. xiii, pp. 1-53, pll. i-vii. + + HUENE, F. VON, 1903-1914. Numerous minor contributions in Anatom. + Anzeig. Neues Jahrb. f. min., Geol. Centralbl. and other + scientific journals. + + HUTCHINSON, REV. F.N., 1910. _Extinct Monsters and Creatures of + Other Days._ Chapman & Hall, London. + + HUXLEY, T.H., 1859-1870. Articles, chiefly in Quarterly Journal + Geol. Soc. and Geol. Magazine. Discussing the osteology and + systematic relationships of various Dinosaurs. + + JAEKEL, O., 1913-14. _Ueber die Wirbelthiere in den oberen Trias von + Halberstadt._ Palaeont. Zeitschr. B'd. i, s. 155-215, taf. + iii-iv. + + KNIPE, H.R., 1912. _Evolution in the Past._ Herbert & Daniel, + London. + + LAMBE, LAWRENCE, 1902, with H.F. Osborn. See Osborn & Lambe. + + LAMBE, LAWRENCE, 1913-4. Articles in Ottawa Naturalist descriptive + of new Cretacic Dinosaurs. + + LUCAS, F.A., 1901. _Extinct Animals._ Republished by the American + Museum, Price 35c. + + LUCAS, F.A., 1901. The Restoration of Extinct Animals, Smithsonian + Report for 1900, pp. 479-492, pll. i-viii. + + LULL, R.S., 1904. _Fossil Footprints of the Jura-Trias._ Mem. Boston + Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, pp. 461-558. + + LULL, R.S., 1910. _Dinosaurian Distribution._ Am. Journ. Sci., vol. + xxix, pp. 1-39; _The Armor of Stegosaurus_, ibid., pp. 201-210; + _Stegosaurus ungulatus_, ibid., vol. xxx, pp. 361-377. + + MARSH, O.C., 1877-1896. Numerous articles in the American Journal of + Science descriptive of new Dinosaurs or announcing results of + his studies on these fossils. + + MARSH, O.C., 1896. _The Dinosaurs of North America._ U.S. Geol. + Survey, 16th Ann. Rep., pt. i, pp. 133-414, pll. i-lxxxv. + + NOPSCA, 1899, 1902, 1904. _Dinosaurierreste aus Siebenburgen + (Telmatosaurus, etc._). Denkschr. math.-naturwiss. Kl. Kais. + Akad. Wiss. Wien, b'd. lxviii, lxxii, lxxiv. + + NOPSCA, 1906. _Zur Kenntniss der Genus Streptospondylus._ Beit. zur + Pal. Oest-ung. Bd. xix. + + NOPSCA, F., 1902-1911. Various articles on European Dinosaurs in + Geological Magazine, Bull. Soc. Geol. Norm., etc. + + OSBORN, H.F., 1899. _A Skeleton of Diplodocus_, Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. + Hist., vol. i, pp. 191-214, pll. xxiv-xxviii. + + OSBORN, H.F., 1912. _Crania of Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus; + Integument of the Iguanodont Dinosaur Trachodon_, Mem. Am. Mus. + Nat. Hist., N. S., vol. i, pp. 1-54, pll. i-x. + + OSBORN, H.F., 1898-1914. Articles in American Museum Bulletin, + descriptive of Sauropoda, _Ornitholestes_, _Allosaurus_, + _Tyrannosaurus_. + + OSBORN & LAMBE, 1902. _Vertebrata of the Mid-Cretaceous of the + North-West Territory._ Can. Geol. Survey Publications Quarto + series, vol. iii. + + OWEN, R., 1853-1877. Monographs on Fossil Reptilia. + Palaeontographical Society, London. + + RIGGS, E.S., 1901-4. Articles on Sauropoda in Field Museum of Nat. + Hist. Publications, Geology. + + SCHUCHERT, CHAS., 1910. _Palaeogeography of North America._ Bull. + Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xx, pp. 427-606, pll. 46-101. + + STROEMER VON REICHENBACH, E., 1912. _Lehrbuch der Palaeontologie, ii, + Wirbelthiere_ (B.G. Teubner, Leipzig u. Berlin.) + + THEVENIN, A., 1907. _Paleontologie de Madagascar, iv, Dinosaurs._ + Ann. de Paleont, t. ii, pp. 121-136, 2 pll. + + WOODWARD, A.S., 1898. _Vertebrate Palaeontology._ Cambridge Science + Manuals. + + ZITTEL (Broili u. a. rev.) 1911. _Grundzuge der Palaeontologie._ + + ZITTEL (EASTMAN transl.), 1902. _Textbook of Palaeontology, vol. ii, + Vertebrata_ (_except Mammals_). Macmillan & Co. + + + + * * * * * + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Typographical errors corrected in text: | + | | + | Page 9: Palaeontology replaced with Palaeontology | + | Page 36: familar replaced with familiar | + | Page 49: Palaeontology not replaced because it quotes | + | another book. | + | Page 66: pecularity replaced with peculiarity | + | Page 70: nust replaced with must | + | Page 129: consulation replaced with consultation | + | | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DINOSAURS*** + + +******* This file should be named 19302.txt or 19302.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/3/0/19302 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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