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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge, by Frank Stevens
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Stonehenge
+       Today and Yesterday
+
+Author: Frank Stevens
+
+Illustrator: Heywood Sumner
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2006 [EBook #19130]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Jeannie Howse and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                          |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation matches the original document.      |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Typographical errors have been corrected in this text.       |
+    | For a complete list, please see the bottom of this document. |
+    |                                                              |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STONEHENGE:
+
+TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge
+    as it probably was. Plan & Bird'seye View.]
+
+
+
+
+STONEHENGE
+TODAY & YESTERDAY
+
+BY
+
+FRANK STEVENS
+
+Curator of the Salisbury Museum
+with Plans and Illustrations by
+
+HEYWOOD SUMNER. F.S.A.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+LONDON:
+Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd
+Price 1s net
+1916.
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+The interest that has always attached itself to Stonehenge has,
+without doubt, been in a great measure due to the mystery as to the
+origin of this unique monument of bygone time. But the careful
+investigations carried out by the modern school of archaeologists, as
+instanced in the work of General Pitt Rivers, Mr. Gowland, and others,
+every excavation being carried out with great care and scientific
+accuracy, have had good results; little by little the history of
+Stonehenge has been unravelled; a fact that Mr. Stevens has clearly
+demonstrated in the present volume. We now know how, when, and who,
+built this remarkable temple. One point, however, still remains a
+mystery, viz. whence the so-called foreign stones were obtained?
+Clearly, as geology shows, from no spot in Wiltshire.
+
+Amongst the many rude stone circles scattered over Great Britain,
+Stonehenge is unique, in the fact of having its sarsen stones
+carefully though roughly worked; and also in the introduction of the
+horseshoe within the circles, in the design or plan of the building.
+As in the present day, our churches, in their design, symbolise the
+Cross, so we may fairly infer that the horseshoe at Stonehenge had its
+own special meaning, as it still has in the East.
+
+I would advise all interested in the subject, after reading Mr.
+Stevens' lucid and comprehensive account, to visit this weird monument
+and judge for themselves; take Omar's sound advice, "_To-day_" view
+the "_Dead Yesterday_," wait not for the "_Unborn To-morrow_."
+
+                         H.P. BLACKMORE.
+SALISBURY.
+  _March 1, 1916._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+FOREWORD                                                   v
+
+STONEHENGE SUMMARISED FOR VISITORS                         1
+
+SALISBURY PLAIN                                            8
+
+STONEHENGE                                                12
+
+THE LITHOLOGY OF STONEHENGE                               15
+  1. The Story of the Sarsens                                      17
+  2. The Foreign Stones                                            20
+
+THE STONES WITHOUT THE CIRCLE                             27
+  1. The Hele Stone or Friar's Heel                                28
+  2. The Legend of the Friar's Heel                                29
+  3. The "Slaughtering Stone"                                      31
+  4. The Earthwork                                                 34
+
+THE BUILDING OF STONEHENGE                                36
+  1. Dressing the Stones                                           40
+  2. Tenons and Mortices                                           42
+  3. The Process of Erection                                       45
+  4. Raising the Foreign Stones                                    49
+
+WHEN WAS STONEHENGE ERECTED?                              51
+
+WHAT WAS STONEHENGE?                                      57
+
+THE DRUID QUESTION                                        67
+
+THE BARROWS OF SALISBURY PLAIN                            70
+    1. The Round Barrows                                           73
+    2. The Men of the Barrows                                      87
+
+VALEDICTORY                                               92
+
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge, Today--Looking West.]
+
+
+
+
+STONEHENGE: TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY
+
+STONEHENGE SUMMARISED
+
+USEFUL FACTS, FOR THE ATTENTION OF VISITORS
+
+
+Each statement is furnished with a reference to the particular pages
+in this book, where fuller information and arguments "for and against"
+may be found.
+
+
+I. WHEN AND BY WHOM STONEHENGE WAS BUILT
+
+(_a_) Stonehenge was erected about the year 1700 B.C. (See page 51.)
+
+(_b_) It was built by a race or men who had only a slight knowledge
+of the use of bronze, and no knowledge of iron. (See pages 40-49.)
+
+
+II. STONEHENGE CONSISTS OF
+
+(_a_) A circular earthwork, 300 feet in diameter. (See page 34.)
+
+(_b_) An avenue bounded by earthworks approaching it on the
+north-east. (See page 34.)
+
+(_c_) One large unworked Sarsen Stone, called the "Hele Stone," or
+"Friar's Heel." (See page 28.)
+
+(_d_) A recumbent slab within the earthwork called the "Slaughtering
+Stone." (See page 31.)
+
+(_e_) Two small unhewn Sarsens lying north-west and south-east of the
+Circle of Stones. (See page 27.)
+
+(_f_) A ring of hewn Sarsen stones with "imposts" or lintels mortised
+to them. The lintels are fitted together with toggle joints. Sixteen
+out of the original thirty uprights of these "Trilithons" are now
+standing.
+
+The diameter of this circle is about 108 feet, or that of the dome of
+St. Paul's. (See page 12.)
+
+(_g_) A ring of less perfectly hewn "Foreign Stones" (_i.e._ stones
+not to be found in Wiltshire at the present day).
+
+These numbered between thirty and forty. Only seven are standing
+to-day, nine are overthrown. (See page 20.)
+
+(_h_) Five great Trilithons, arranged in a horseshoe, with the opening
+to the north-east. These Trilithons rise gradually in height towards
+the south-west. The largest group of stones fell A.D. 1620. Those next
+to the great Trilithon on the north-west, fell on January 3rd, 1797.
+
+To-day only two of the Inner Trilithons are standing. One upright of
+the great Trilithon (raised and made secure in 1901) is erect. (See
+page 17.)
+
+(_i_) A horseshoe of less perfectly hewn Foreign Stones. Originally
+there were fifteen or more of these monoliths averaging eight feet
+high. (See page 20.)
+
+(_j_) A simple recumbent slab of micaceous sandstone called the "Altar
+Stone." (See page 14.)
+
+
+III. WHERE THE STONES CAME FROM
+
+(_a_) The Sarsen Stones are the remains of a cap of Tertiary Sandstone
+which once covered the plain. (See page 17.)
+
+(_b_) The Foreign Stones are still a matter of debate. They have
+assuredly been brought from a distance. This is unusual; megalithic
+structures are usually built of materials found close at hand. (See
+page 20.)
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge. Looking towards the South East.]
+
+
+IV. HOW THE MONUMENT WAS ERECTED
+
+The large monoliths of Sarsen Stone were first of all roughly shaped
+as they lay _in situ_ on the Plain and then transported to the chosen
+site.
+
+The Foreign Stones were also dressed on the spot before erection.
+
+The entire work was performed with stone tools of the roughest
+description, weighing from half a pound to over sixty pounds. (See p.
+40.)
+
+The only trace of metal discovered in 1901, was a small stain of
+bronze on one stone, caused by contact with the stone of some very
+small bronze object, possibly an ornament. (See page 53.)
+
+The large Trilithons were erected from the centre of the site.
+
+The Foreign Stones were placed in position afterwards. (See pages
+45-49.)
+
+
+V. STONEHENGE AND THE SUMMER SOLSTICE
+
+It is a notable fact that the sun rises immediately over the summit of
+the "Hele Stone," in a line with the axis of Stonehenge on the Summer
+Solstice.
+
+Sir Norman Lockyer and Mr. Penrose, working on astronomical grounds,
+fix the date of the circle at 1680 B.C., with a possible error of 200
+years on either side.
+
+Much has been said as regards Sun Worship at Stonehenge. The exact
+use to which the circle was put is at present a matter of conjecture.
+(See page 57.)
+
+
+VI. STONE CIRCLES GENERALLY, AND STONEHENGE
+
+1. Stonehenge is probably the latest, and is certainly the most
+elaborate, stone circle in England.
+
+2. It is the only one in which the stones are squared, dressed, and
+provided with lintels or imposts.
+
+3. It is the only circle which contains a "horseshoe" arrangement of
+stones.
+
+4. Most of the stone circles in the South of England face towards the
+north-east. Stonehenge is one of these.
+
+5. Monuments of the Stonehenge type, but ruder, are found in the
+following neighbouring counties in South Britain: Cornwall,
+Devonshire, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire.
+
+6. Though Wiltshire only contains four such monuments, two of them,
+Avebury and Stonehenge, are the most remarkable in the kingdom.
+
+Avebury, the older of the two, has been almost destroyed, but when
+perfect was one of the largest.
+
+Stonehenge, the later, is the most finished example of a megalithic
+circle in England.
+
+
+VII. DRUIDS
+
+There seems to be no valid reason for supposing that Stonehenge was
+erected by the Druids. (See page 67.)
+
+
+VIII. THE BARROWS NEAR STONEHENGE
+
+The Barrows round Stonehenge were the burial places of a bronze-using
+race, of almost the same date as the Circle; they were erected mostly
+after the building of Stonehenge, and are more numerous in this spot
+than in any other part of England. (See page 73.)
+
+
+
+
+SALISBURY PLAIN
+
+  "We passed over the goodly plain, or rather sea of carpet, which I
+  think for evenness, extent, verdure, and innumerable flocks, to be
+  one of the most delightful prospects in nature."--"Evelyn's
+  Diary," 1654.
+
+
+There is not a county in England which does not pride itself upon some
+outstanding characteristic which places it in a category by itself.
+And if there be a thing particularly characteristic of Wiltshire, it
+is "the Plain" of which John Evelyn above quoted has written so
+kindly.
+
+The word Plain is somewhat misleading, for the surface of the
+Salisbury Downland is anything but even, as poor Samuel Pepys found to
+his cost when he traversed it in 1668, and on his journey encountered
+some "great hills, even to fright us." The actual truth lies midway
+between the "evenness" of Evelyn and the "great hills" of Pepys, and
+to the man of Wilts that word "Plain" will ever summon up a vision of
+rolling downs, a short, crisp, elastic turf dotted with flocks, and
+broken here and there by some crested earthwork or barrow, which rears
+itself from the undulating Down, and breaks the skyline with its
+sharp outline. It has been estimated that fully one-half of Wiltshire
+consists of these high bare chalk downs which rise in bold rounded
+bluffs from the valleys which thread their way through the county. It
+is impossible to escape them. The Cotswold shepherd looks downward on
+their folds, and marks the gleaming white of the occasional chalk pit
+which breaks the surface of their scarp.
+
+The huntsman in the Vale of the White Horse, and the farmer on the
+fringe of the shady depths of the New Forest alike live in the
+presence of the Wiltshire Downs. There is something of grandeur in the
+immensity of their broad unbroken line stretching as they do, or did,
+for mile upon mile, limited only by the horizon, a rolling sea of
+green pasture.
+
+And the very heart of the Downs is the Plain of Salisbury, that broad
+stretch which is bounded on the west by the wandering valley of the
+river Nadder, and on the east by the trickle of the Bourne, between
+which the "Hampshire" Avon divides the area with almost mathematical
+accuracy in two equal triangles; and Salisbury lies at the apex of
+each.
+
+The pasturage of the Downs, and the rich woodland of these valleys
+must have been important factors in those old days, when the builders
+of Stonehenge pushed inland from the coast, seeking a spot wherein
+they might settle. As a general rule, it may be held with
+considerable certainty, not only in Wiltshire, but also in other parts
+of England, that our early settlers from the Continent elected to live
+on the downland rather than in the valleys. Go where you may over the
+Plain, its turfy surface is scored by terraces or "lynchets," telling
+the tale of the ancient ploughman's furrows on the slopes, and side by
+side with them lie the scars of what were once cattle enclosures,
+farms, and stockaded villages. Nor is the explanation far to seek, for
+the valleys afforded shelter to the wolves, and were in places
+obstructed by undrained marshes, unhealthy and unfitted for the
+herdsman and his flocks, and impenetrable as regards roads.
+
+Midway between the valleys of the Nadder and the Avon lies
+"Stonehenge," a Megalithic Monument without an equal in this country,
+about which the legend of the peasant, as well as the speculation of
+the _savant_ have gathered in an ever-increasing volume.
+
+The bibliography of Stonehenge alone comprises nearly a thousand
+volumes, and it is hard to pick up an old magazine or periodical which
+does not contain some notice of it. County historians, astronomers,
+Egyptologists, and antiquaries have argued, as old Omar would say,
+"about it and about" until the man of ordinary tastes who chances to
+visit the spot and to study the stones, finds himself confronted with
+such a mass of evidence, of theory, and of fantastic speculation,
+that he sadly turns aside befogged, or maybe fired by the example of
+others evolves from his inner consciousness yet another theory of his
+own to add to the already plethoric accumulation on the subject. The
+object of the following pages is not to propound any new theories, but
+rather to reduce the existing knowledge of Stonehenge to a compact
+compass, and to make it readily accessible to that vast body of
+individuals who take an intelligent interest in the stones, without
+having the leisure or opportunity of following up the elaborate stages
+by which certain conclusions have been arrived at. In short, it is a
+plain statement of the facts about Stonehenge which may serve either
+as a guide to the visitor, or as a useful remembrance of his visit.
+
+
+
+
+STONEHENGE
+
+  "Salisbury Cathedral and its neighbour Stonehenge are two eminent
+  monuments of art and rudeness, and may show the first essay and
+  the last perfection in architecture."--_Dr. Johnson, letter to
+  Mrs. Thrale_, 1783.
+
+
+Stonehenge is one of those historical monuments which possesses the
+disadvantage of a reputation. The first impression is always one of
+disappointment, the circle appears so much smaller than it really is
+by reason of its isolated situation. Its proportions are dwarfed by
+the wide expanse of downland which surrounds it. This feeling of
+disappointment, however, gradually gives place to one of wonder, as
+the stones are approached more closely, and their bulk is seen in true
+proportion. The diameter of the outer circle of stones is 108 feet, or
+almost exactly that of the internal diameter of the Dome of St.
+Paul's. A casual glance even at the monument is sufficient to show
+that its basic form is intended to be a circle. The earthwork which
+girdles the stones is circular and 300 feet in diameter. Within this
+stands the remnant of a circle of 30 upright stones, bearing imposts
+upon them; within this again is what was once a circle of smaller
+stones. Inside these three outer circular forms are two others, shaped
+like a horseshoe. The first consisted of the five large "Trilithons,"
+huge pylons of stone, comprising two uprights and an impost; standing
+separate, while in front of them is the remnant of a horseshoe of
+small upright stones, similar to those which comprise the inner circle
+of the monument.
+
+  [Illustration: Upright stones shaded--Prostrate stones in outline.]
+
+At first it may seem difficult to disentangle the chaos of fallen
+stone which meets the eye; but when once the original design of the
+structure is grasped, it becomes easy to piece together again in
+imagination a work which even in the light of modern and scientific
+engineering presents very considerable difficulties and problems.
+
+Lying flat within these concentric circles and horseshoes is a single
+flat tabular block generally known as the "Altar Stone." From this
+slab, now almost buried beneath the remains of a fallen Trilithon, the
+visitor may look in a north-easterly direction, and through the arches
+of the outer circle observe the "Hele Stone" or "Friar's Heel," which
+stands at some considerable distance from the main structure. On the
+Summer Solstice (or "Longest Day"), the sun rises immediately over the
+top of this monolith, when viewed from the centre of the Altar Stone.
+
+Such, then, are the facts which meet the eye when standing within
+Stonehenge. Each minute the stones appear to increase in bulk, and the
+problem of their coming grows more inscrutable. Then if wearied with
+such vastness, the eye may wander over the surrounding plain, broken
+in almost every direction by the sepulchral mounds, or Barrows, which
+cluster to the number of two hundred or more about the venerable stone
+circle. The connection between Stonehenge and the Barrows, seems
+almost irresistible. The hands which raised those huge monoliths must
+assuredly have been laid to rest almost within the touch of their
+shadow. Stonehenge and the Barrows, each casting light upon the
+other's origin, confirming and reconfirming each other's existence,
+knit together to-day as yesterday, by a bond of close union which even
+Time and speculations cannot sever.
+
+
+THE LITHOLOGY OF STONEHENGE
+
+Weatherworn and overgrown by lichen, it is not possible at the present
+day to see clearly the nature of the stones which go to make up
+Stonehenge. For that reason only the barest outline of the monument as
+it appears to the unknowing eye has been given, in order that the
+original plan may be grasped thoroughly before entering into those
+important issues which help to solve the enigma of its origin. Careful
+investigation reveals the fact that the stones vary very much in
+material, and that, further, just as the stones are placed in
+systematic order, so, too, has the same care been exercised in the
+selection of the material from which each circle or horseshoe has been
+built. Moreover, just as the stones can be divided into groups of
+uprights and imposts, or "Trilithons," and "simple uprights," so, too,
+has it been found that while all the Trilithons are composed of a
+"local" stone, known generally as "Sarsen"; all the "simple uprights"
+are of "foreign" stone, sometimes classed together roughly as
+"Syenite." This latter term must be understood in a very comprehensive
+sense since the simple uprights show considerable variation in
+quality, but one and all are foreign to the county of Wiltshire;
+whereas the larger Sarsen blocks are to be found in considerable
+numbers scattered over the Wiltshire Downs. This difference in
+material seems to present a considerable difficulty; and the question
+naturally arises, How did the foreign stones come to Salisbury Plain?
+This point will be considered later, as it is one involving other
+matters, such as the ethnology of the builders and the probable region
+from which they obtained these unusual materials. But the Sarsens
+present no problem, and so may be considered first of all, for
+familiar as they are their story is full of interest.
+
+  [Illustration: The Lithology of Stonehenge.]
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE SARSENS
+
+The geologist would probably describe the Sarsen stones of Wiltshire
+as "masses of saccharoid sandstone," which in plain English might be
+rendered as boulders closely resembling gigantic lumps of coarse
+sugar. These huge stones are to be found, though in decreasing
+numbers, scattered all over the plain, and particularly along the
+ridges of the Marlborough Downs. The country folk, always
+picturesquely minded, call them "Grey Wethers," and indeed in North
+Wilts, it is not hard to conjure up their poetic resemblance to a
+flock of titanic sheep, reclining at ease upon the pasturage of the
+Downs. The alternative name Sarsen, has an interesting derivation. It
+is a corruption of the word "Saracen." But what have Saracens to do
+with Wiltshire? Frankly nothing. The name has come to the stones from
+Stonehenge itself, and is a part of that ever interesting confusion of
+ideas, which has been bequeathed to us by our ancestors of the Middle
+Ages. To them all stone circles and megalithic monuments were the work
+of heathens, if not of the devil himself. Heathenism and all its works
+was roundly condemned, whether it be Celtic, Mahomedan, or Pagan; and
+the condemnation was as concise and universal as the phrase "Jews,
+Turks, Infidels, and Heretics" of the Christian Prayer Book to-day. In
+the early days of the _Moyen Age_, the Saracen stood for all that was
+antagonistic to Christianity. Consequently the stones of Stonehenge
+were Saracen or heathen stones, which the Wiltshire tongue has
+shortened in due time to Sarsen.
+
+This confusion of ideas may seem amusing, but it is not more absurd
+than the existing popular idea that Stonehenge is of Druidical origin.
+The stone circle of Salisbury Plain was many hundred years old when
+those half mythical Celtic priests first set foot in England, and the
+Druids of yesterday have about as much connection with Stonehenge as
+the Salvation Army of to-day.
+
+The Sarsen well repays a close examination. A glance at one of these
+stones as it lies on the Downland, shows that it has suffered greatly
+from the weather. It is the core, or kernel, of a much larger block of
+friable sandstone, worn away on all sides by wind and weather.
+Moreover, these isolated blocks appear on the Downs in a country
+devoid of any rock save chalk.
+
+How came they in their present position? In one sense they never came
+at all; for they existed on the surface of the chalk from the time it
+rose from the bottom of the sea to its present position. They are, in
+fact, the remains of a great sheet of fine sand and gravel cemented
+together by silex, which formerly overlay the chalk downs, the other
+parts of which have been dissolved and worn by wind and rain until
+only the harder cores or kernels survive to tell the tale. And the
+proof of this is not far to seek. The chalk of the London Basin is
+still capped by layers of such sandstone, as may be seen at Purfleet
+in Essex. The titanic sheep, or Grey Wethers, therefore, are merely a
+small residue of that widespread sandy deposit which once covered the
+whole of the south of England with its inhospitable sheet, and of
+which larger patches remain to-day in Surrey, Hampshire, and the Isle
+of Wight. But though the hand of Time and the buffets of the weather
+have been heavy on the Sarsens, the hand of man has likewise borne its
+share. In a district like the Plain, devoid of building material other
+than flint, these stones have attracted the unwelcome attention of the
+farmers. Walls, gateposts, and paving-stones have accounted for many,
+while in the interest of the road-mender many a noble Grey Wether has
+been led to slaughter to provide macadam for the roads. Hence it is
+not surprising that the number of Sarsen stones to be found on the
+Plain where Nature placed them is becoming less and less. Indeed, the
+time may yet come when they will be as extinct as the Great Bustard
+who once strutted among them, and their memory will survive only in
+their accidental use in a prehistoric monument like Stonehenge.
+
+
+THE FOREIGN STONES
+
+While the Sarsens usually awake the greatest interest by reason of
+their bulk, and the problem of how a primitive people was able to deal
+with them, a far greater problem is presented by the small uprights,
+or Foreign Stones, the like of which cannot be matched within a
+hundred miles of Salisbury Plain, while some can only be found upon
+the continent of Europe. Fragments carefully removed and submitted to
+mineralogists have made this fact abundantly clear, and consequently
+it is possible to arrive at the very definite conclusion that
+Stonehenge is certainly not a "Wiltshire" monument, and probably that
+it is not even "British" at all.
+
+Where have the stones come from? One school of writers ventures to
+suggest Kildare in Ireland. Others suggest Wales, Cornwall, Dartmoor,
+Shropshire, or Cumberland, where similar rocks are to be found, though
+perhaps not absolutely identical in character. Yet another theory
+advanced is that the Foreign Stones were transported to the plain as
+boulders of the "glacial drift." It has even been stated that the
+gravels of the district contain small pebbles composed of rock similar
+to these mysterious Foreign Stones. The statement has indeed been
+made, but as yet no Wiltshire geologist has produced one of these
+pebbles of which so much is written, and so little seen.
+
+These Glacial Drift theorists, further account for the absence of
+these foreign stones elsewhere than at Stonehenge, by yet another
+theory, that they, like most of the Sarsens, have all been used up for
+millstones, gateposts, and road metal.
+
+There are many millstones and gateposts in Wiltshire, but where is
+there one which corresponds in any way to the upright Foreign Stones
+at Stonehenge? The production of pebbles from the gravels of Wilts, or
+of a specimen gatepost or millstone would at once settle this
+question. Unhappily this tangible evidence is wanting, so, alluring as
+the Glacial Drift theory may appear, it must reluctantly be set aside
+for want of convincing evidence. Finally, there seems every reason to
+believe that the small upright stones are "naturalised aliens" from
+abroad, and that is why they have been described at the commencement
+of this section as "Foreign Stones." It must not be taken for granted
+that the small upright stones at present standing represent all the
+foreign rocks employed. Probably they are merely the hardest and most
+durable of those used in the original structure, the softer and more
+friable examples having disappeared entirely, owing to the action of
+the weather, and possibly also to the assaults of the unchecked
+relic-monger, who until recent years could with his hammer collect
+_souvenirs_ with impunity. In this connection, there is a story afoot
+that a hammer was kept upon the mantelpiece of a well-known hotel in
+Salisbury, which was reserved for the use of those intending to see
+Stonehenge, who might be wishful to bring back some convincing
+evidence of their visit.
+
+In all probability these foreign stones originally numbered
+forty-five. To-day there are but thirty.
+
+A complete lithology of the stones made by the late Professor J.W.
+Judd, in 1901, reveals the following rocks as comprising those used in
+the construction of Stonehenge.
+
+  1. _Sarsens._--Coarse and fine-grained Sandstone similar to the
+       Woolwich, Reading, or Bagshot beds. This stone is used for
+       the Trilithons, Hele Stone, a recumbent stone known as the
+       "Slaughtering Stone," and two small stones set north-west
+       and south-east of the circle. It is of local origin.
+
+  2. _Ophitic Diabase._--(Some porphyritic.)
+
+  3. _Highly altered basic Tuffs, and agglomerates_ (calcareous
+       chloritic schists).--Only one stump now remains.
+
+  4. _Altered Rhyolites and Dacites._--Only fragments of this rock
+       have been revealed during Mr. Gowland's excavations in 1901.
+       At one time doubtless there was a whole upright of this
+       material, but its striking appearance and fracture has
+       probably led to its demolition by generations of _souvenir_
+       hunters. Other fragments have been found in the barrows once
+       within sight of Stonehenge, but now destroyed by cultivation.
+
+  5. _Sandstones, Grits, and Quartzites._--The "Altar-Stone" belongs
+       to this class. It is interesting to note that Professor
+       Maskelyne has pointed out the similarity between the Altar
+       Stone at Stonehenge, and the "Stone of Destiny" in the
+       Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey.
+
+  6. _Grey Wackes._--Fragments only of these stones have been
+       discovered among the chippings incidental to the dressing of
+       the stones before erection.
+
+  Their absence at the present day is not a matter for surprise, as
+       stones of this class weather badly, and when exposed to the
+       action of frost and cold rapidly disintegrate.
+
+  7. _Argillaceous Flagstones and Slates._--As in the case of the
+       Grey Wackes, fragments only of these stones exist to tell the
+       story of the uprights which have vanished under atmospheric
+       changes.
+
+  8. _Glanconitic Sandstone_ (possibly Upper Greensand?).--Traces of
+       this rock have been discovered at Stonehenge by Mr.
+       Cunnington. Professor Judd suggests the possibility of a
+       boulder of this material having been found and used by the
+       builders of Stonehenge.
+
+  9. _Flints._--These of course are naturally found in abundance
+       throughout the district. Most of those found within
+       Stonehenge are broken fragments struck off in the process of
+       repointing flint chisels during the erection of the circle.
+
+The above catalogue of stones may not convey very much to the ordinary
+visitor, and has only been inserted for the sake of completeness; or
+for the information of geologists who may be concerned with this
+aspect of the history of the monument. The conclusions to be drawn
+from such a list, however, are not without interest to the general
+reader. From the varied fragments found, it is apparent that some six,
+or perhaps seven, different classes of stone were used for the small
+uprights, but that only the harder and more durable rocks (the
+diabase, rhyolite, etc.) have survived. The softer rocks (basic tuffs,
+grey wackes, flagstones, and slates), being more easily broken, have
+fallen victims to the souvenir hunter, and to the action of the
+weather, rain, and frost. Originally, as has already been stated, the
+foreign stones numbered forty-five, disposed as follows: thirty in the
+outer circle, and fifteen in the inner horseshoe. To-day only nineteen
+exist in the outer circle, and eleven in the inner horseshoe.
+
+A very striking proof that many of these foreign stones have
+disappeared, is to be found in the wide gaps which exist to-day in
+certain parts of the circle. That such gaps were originally filled by
+standing stones is beyond question, indeed, the base of a "schistose"
+stone (see Class 3 in the Lithology above) was actually discovered by
+Mr. Cunnington in the course of his investigations into the nature of
+the rocks composing Stonehenge. It is highly probable that careful and
+scientific excavation may add greatly to our knowledge in this
+direction.
+
+There is yet one other point of interest in connection with these
+foreign stones. On entering the circle from the north-east (the usual
+path taken by visitors) a recumbent foreign stone will be noticed on
+the left-hand side, which has two cavities worked in it. This is the
+only worked foreign stone in the whole monument, and at first sight
+these cavities may possibly suggest themselves as "mortise holes"
+similar to those on the Sarsen trilithons, to be described later. It
+has even been suggested that the small uprights once carried imposts,
+or lintel stones similar to the trilithons, on the evidence of this
+one stone. Such a theory, however attractive, should be accepted with
+due caution, for the cavities on the stone are far from the ends, and
+situated too close together to justify a comparison with the existing
+Sarsen trilithons of the outer circle. This stone has never yet been
+explained and its position defined, consequently it is omitted from
+the frontispiece.
+
+
+
+
+THE STONES WITHOUT THE CIRCLE
+
+
+Outside the circle of Trilithons stand three stones which have not as
+yet been described in detail, since they do not fall within the
+geometrical arrangement of the circle. They are, however, of the
+highest importance, as it is from them, and from their position, that
+it is possible to gather some conclusions as to one use to which the
+structure may have been put.
+
+Within the circular earthwork, lying in a line north-west and
+south-east, are two small untrimmed Sarsens, while outside the
+earthwork stands yet another unworked Sarsen, already referred to as
+the "Hele Stone" or "Friar's Heel." The fact that these three Sarsens
+are unworked, while all the others show very marked traces of dressing
+and trimming, is one that should be remembered. These three stones
+occupy no haphazard position either. As already stated, the "Hele
+Stone" marks the rising of the sun on the Summer Solstice. The
+remaining two mark both its rising on the Winter Solstice, and its
+setting on the Summer Solstice.
+
+
+THE HELE STONE OR FRIAR'S HEEL
+
+This stone, as being the largest of this group of three, and such a
+conspicuous feature in the structure, demands something more than mere
+passing mention. It is a monolith of unwrought stone standing sixteen
+feet high. Such untrimmed stones are to be found all the world over in
+connection with religious rites. Even the Jews were not untainted with
+this early cult of stone worship.
+
+"Among the smooth stones of the valley is thy portion; they are thy
+lot; even to them hast thou poured a drink offering, hast thou offered
+a meat offering," writes Isaiah.
+
+In Christian times the custom continued. The Council of Tours as late
+as A.D. 657 categorically excluded from Christianity all worshippers
+of upright stones; while later, Canute forbade the barbarous worship
+of stones, trees, fountains, and heavenly bodies. At once, therefore,
+this huge unwrought monolith suggests religion, and probably one of
+the earliest, and most primitive forms of worship. And thus being
+obviously connected with non-Christian rites, it is not surprising to
+find that it has a "devil-legend" attaching to it.
+
+
+THE LEGEND OF THE FRIAR'S HEEL
+
+The devil, so the story runs, determined one day to undertake some
+great and stupendous work, for the like of which he is famous
+throughout the world. In this devil we can still discern the
+Scandinavian "giant" legend, which in later Christian times became
+"devil" legends. The work had to be great, puzzling, and amazing to
+all beholders, for as the Wiltshire story-teller adds, "he had let an
+exciseman slip through his fingers." In the course of his wanderings
+up and down the earth, he had noticed some huge stones in the garden
+of an old crone in Ireland; and he determined, therefore, to transport
+them to the stoneless waste of Salisbury Plain as being the most
+unlikely spot in which to find such things. There yet remained the old
+woman's permission to be obtained before he could commence his labour.
+His request was at first met with a flat negative, but eventually the
+devil so played upon her cupidity, by the assurance that she could
+have as much money as she could count and add up while he was engaged
+in the work of removal, that she readily gave her consent. As usual
+the devil had the best of the bargain, for he, knowing her powers of
+arithmetic to be but scanty, handed her a number of pieces of money,
+whose value was fourpence halfpenny, and twopence three-farthings.
+The dame had barely managed to add the first two coins together, when
+the devil called upon her to stop, and looking round she saw the
+stones were all removed, and had been tied with a withe band into a
+neat bundle which was slung upon his shoulder. Away flew the devil
+towards Salisbury Plain, but as he sped onwards the withe cut deep
+into his shoulder, so heavy were the stones. He endured it as long as
+he could, but just towards the end of his journey, while passing over
+the valley of the Avon, he winced, and re-adjusted his burden; in so
+doing one of the stones fell down and plunged into the river at
+Bulford, where it remains at the present day, as witness to the
+veracity of this legend. Right glad to be rid of his burden when he
+reached the Plain, the devil made haste to set up the stones, and so
+delighted was he with the result of his first efforts, and with the
+progress he was making, that he cried aloud with glee, "Now I'll
+puzzle all men, for no one knows, nor ever will know, how these stones
+have come here." Unluckily this bold boast was overheard by a holy
+friar walking near, who straightway replied in right Wiltshire
+fashion, "That's more than thee can tell"; and then realising who the
+builder was, turned and fled for his life. Enraged at his discovery by
+the friar, and perceiving that his scheme had failed, the devil, who
+had just taken up a stone to poise it upon its two uprights, hurled
+it at the holy man, and struck him on the uplifted heel as he made
+haste to run. The friar's sanctity was evidently greater than his
+personal courage, for it was the stone and not the friar which
+suffered most from the impact. Even to-day the huge impress of the
+Friar's heel is to be seen upon the stone. At this juncture the sun
+rose, and the devil had perforce to relinquish his task. This accounts
+for the present scattered appearance of the stones.
+
+Turning from fancy to fact, the word Hele, from which the stone takes
+its name, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon verb _helan_ = "to
+conceal," and is so applied to the stone because it conceals the sun
+at rising on the day of the Summer Solstice.
+
+
+THE "SLAUGHTERING STONE"
+
+In all matters of archaeology it is constantly found that certain
+questions are better left in abeyance, or bequeathed to a coming
+generation for solution. The "Slaughtering Stone" appears to be an
+admirable example of this class. Just within the area enclosed by the
+earthwork circle, lies a prostrate Sarsen Stone, to which this name
+has been given. The idea of its having been used as a place of
+slaughter for the victim intended for sacrifice in the "Temple" of
+Stonehenge, seems to rest upon a very bare foundation. It is probably
+a picturesque piece of nomenclature devised by certain bygone
+antiquaries to whom Stonehenge was a "Druidical" monument, and who,
+therefore, having the idea of human sacrifice, and "wicker figures"
+prominently before them, naturally jumped at the idea of providing a
+slaughtering stone for the numberless human victims whom they imagined
+had been slain there. Nevertheless, the stone is curious because of
+the row of holes which have been worked across one corner, which
+certainly is unshapely, and which would square up the stone very
+nicely if it were removed along the line of these holes. The
+indentations are somewhat oval, suggesting that they were made by
+"pecking" with a sharp instrument, rather than drilled by a rotating
+one, which would make a circular incision. Having recorded this,
+however, there is little to add, except that Mr. Gowland, who minutely
+examined the stone in 1901, is of opinion that the oval indentations
+referred to are more recent than the building of Stonehenge. Had they
+been contemporaneous with the erection of the Trilithons, he is
+convinced that the action of the water in the holes, combined with
+frost, would have caused a very much greater amount of disintegration
+than exists to-day. Yet another difficulty arises. At the meeting of
+the British Archaeological Association at Devizes in 1880, a visit was
+paid to Stonehenge, and there were, as usual at such gatherings,
+papers and discussions dealing with it. Mr. William Cunnington,
+F.S.A., specially put on record the fact that his grandfather, Mr. H.
+Cunnington, and Sir R.C. Hoare, remembered this stone as standing
+erect. Here at all events are three conflicting statements. Under
+these circumstances it is well to leave the Slaughtering Stone as a
+problem for posterity.
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge. shewing the Avenue approach & the
+  earthwork surrounding the stone Circle.]
+
+
+THE EARTHWORK
+
+Visitors entering Stonehenge are apt in their eagerness to reach the
+stones to overlook a definite banked Avenue leading from the
+north-east towards the Hele Stone, and entering the circular earthwork
+enclosure. This earthwork is not very considerable to-day, but in the
+Stonehenge of yesterday it was probably far more marked and imposing.
+This Avenue extends from Stonehenge in a straight line northwards for
+about five hundred yards, where it divides into two branches, one
+going eastward towards the Avon, where there is an ancient ford, the
+other continuing northward until it joins yet another earthwork,
+generally known as the Cursus, about half a mile distant. The whole
+Avenue has suffered greatly in recent years and is fast disappearing
+entirely. Both the circular form of the earthwork enclosing
+Stonehenge, as well as the straight and parallel banks of the Avenue,
+are specially worthy of notice. They belong to a class of earthwork
+quite unlike the usual planning of cattle enclosures, and defensive
+works, and exhibit a precision in setting out which is only associated
+with the sepulchral and religious earthworks of prehistoric times in
+this country.
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge, Yesterday--Looking South East.]
+
+
+
+
+THE BUILDING OF STONEHENGE
+
+
+The question is often asked, "How did they build Stonehenge?" There is
+a refreshing simplicity about that indefinite word "they," but for the
+present, whoever "they" may be, it is possible to some extent, at all
+events, to furnish an answer to this ever recurring query. In the
+first place, however, it may be well to recapitulate very briefly the
+conclusions already arrived at, before entering into a more detailed
+description of the tools which were employed in the work of erection,
+and the methods by which the huge Sarsens were reared into position.
+
+Stonehenge is a circular monument, enclosed by a circular earthwork,
+and approached by an avenue lying north-east and south-west. Without
+the circle lie four Sarsen stones. The Hele Stone, and two smaller
+stones _unworked_, occupying definite sites with reference to the
+rising and setting of the sun at the Summer and Winter Solstices; and
+the so-called Slaughtering Stone, the use of which is at present a
+matter of speculation. The monument proper, consisting of a circle of
+Sarsen Trilithons, enclosing a circle of upright foreign stones.
+Within these, five detached Sarsen Trilithons, of graduated height.
+These five Trilithons are set horseshoe wise. Before them a standing
+horseshoe of foreign stones, and in the front of the great Trilithon a
+flat slab or altar stone. From this stone it is possible to look
+outwards towards the Hele Stone, which lies in line with the axis of
+the monument drawn through the centre of the Altar Stone. The Sarsen
+stones were obtained from the immediate neighbourhood, the foreign
+stones must have been imported from a very considerable distance. All
+the stones, with the exception of the four specially indicated, have
+been worked. The question naturally arises how were they worked? The
+answer to this may be given without the least hesitation: with stone
+tools. For many years the method of working the stones was a matter of
+great debate, and the uncertainty then prevailing permitted many
+theorists to speculate on the "Roman" origin of the structure. Now,
+however, the entire absence of any metal which resulted from Mr.
+Gowland's excavations in 1901, at once precludes the possibility of
+the builders being anything but a primitive people, to whom the use
+of metal was unknown, or only partly known. The stone tools in use in
+the construction of Stonehenge were of four kinds.
+
+i. Axes of rude form roughly chipped, and with a cutting edge.
+
+ii. Hammer-axes, chipped to an edge on one side and flat on the other.
+
+iii. Rounded hammer-stones; many of which show signs of bruising and
+hard wear. The material used in these three classes was flint. All of
+these tools would have been used in the hand, and not set in a handle.
+
+iv. Rounded hammer-stones of Sarsen, varying from one pound to six
+and a half pounds in weight. They would have been used for the surface
+dressing of the stones, to which reference will be made later.
+
+v. Mauls of compact Sarsen weighing between thirty-six and sixty-four
+pounds. The broadest side of these was more or less flat, and when
+wielded by two or three men they were capable of giving a very
+effective blow. Their use would have been for breaking the rude blocks
+into more or less regular forms; and consolidating the rubble
+foundations. It is specially notable that no ground or polished stone
+implements were found among them.
+
+  [Illustration: Flint implement from Stonehenge.]
+
+  [Illustration: Stag's horn pick from Stonehenge.]
+
+In addition to the stone tools, picks of deer horn were employed for
+quarrying the chalk when making the foundations of the uprights. Those
+who are familiar with the antlers of the deer, will recall the sharp
+pointed tine, known as the "brow tine," which projects forward from
+the horn above its core or socket. This was the tooth of the pick, all
+other tines being sawn off; thus transforming the antler into a very
+rough implement closely resembling a pick, with a single point. Many
+splinters from these picks were found actually embedded in the chalk
+of the foundations, and one entire discarded example was discovered
+showing great signs of use, the brow tine being worn away to a
+considerable extent.
+
+
+DRESSING THE STONES
+
+There can be little doubt that the Sarsens were first of all roughly
+hewn into shape, before they were conveyed to the site. It stands to
+reason that a primitive race, when faced with the problem of
+transporting a vast mass of stone, would first of all reduce its bulk
+to the approximate proportions which it would have when finished and
+erected. Moreover, the chippings and mason's waste discovered in the
+excavations of 1901 reveal comparatively little Sarsen stone, and only
+a few large fragments, such as must have been broken off in finally
+reducing the "Grey Wethers" to monolithic pillars and lintels. It must
+not be forgotten either, that the Sarsens occur naturally in tabular
+blocks, well adapted to the purpose of the builders. The surface of
+these blocks is often soft, and sugary, while the body of the stone
+is dense. The nature of their composition is such that no two stones
+are quite alike in hardness, some can be disintegrated easily, even
+with the fingers, while others are dense, and will resist blows with a
+hammer and chisel.
+
+But in any case the natural structure of the stone made it an ideal
+material for the Trilithons, or, it may be, that the Trilithons were
+the natural outcome of the physical peculiarities of the rock. The
+preliminary dressing may very possibly have been effected by lighting
+small fires along the proposed line of fracture, and heating the
+stone, and then by pouring cold water upon it, which would originate a
+cleavage in the grain, which would readily break away under blows from
+the heavy mauls referred to in Class V. of the Implements. Sides and
+ends could thus be roughly squared.
+
+The next point was the transportation of the rough ashlar to the site.
+Here the problem is not so formidable as it appears, when it is
+remembered that time was no object to the builders, that labour was
+abundant, and that in all probability the work was undertaken under
+the stimulus of religion.
+
+Labour, tree trunks, and stout ropes of twisted hide would have proved
+sufficient. It is only necessary to consider very briefly the
+megalithic monuments in Egypt, Assyria, and elsewhere, to see that
+such tasks were well within the capacities of a race emerging from
+comparative savagery. There exists on the wall of a tomb at El Bersheh
+in Egypt a very characteristic illustration of the transport of a
+Colossus; such as are to be seen _in situ_ in Egypt to-day. The
+approximate date of this is B.C. 2700-2500, and prior to Stonehenge by
+about 1000 years.
+
+Arrived at the site, the more skilled work of final dressing was
+completed. A close examination of the face of some of the fallen
+stones reveals several shallow grooves on the face with a rib or
+projection between them. It has been suggested that the rough stone
+was violently pounded with the heavy mauls until the surface was
+broken up and reduced to sand for a considerable depth, and the
+_debris_ brushed away. The projecting ridge resulting from this could
+then be cut away by hammer and stone chisel, or even by the hammer
+alone.
+
+
+TENONS AND MORTICES
+
+Hitherto no word has been said as to the arrangement of mortice and
+tenon, by which the Trilithons are keyed together. This has been done
+purposely, in order that the constructional questions relating to
+Stonehenge should, as far as possible, be dealt with together, and in
+due order. In the outer circle of Trilithons each upright had two
+tenons worked on its apex, to bear the two lintels or horizontal
+stones which rested upon it. Corresponding mortices were sunk in
+those stones to admit the tenons. In the case of the Trilithons of the
+Inner Horseshoe, only one tenon on each upright was necessary.
+Further, the ends of the lintels of the outer circle were shaped so as
+to dovetail into one another, and form what is known as a "toggle"
+joint. This can easily be seen to-day, in the group of three
+Trilithons which lie between the Altar Stone and the Hele Stone. This
+careful arrangement, of mortice, tenon, and toggle, has doubtless very
+much to do with the comparative stability of Stonehenge at the present
+day. Had these simple but effective measures not been taken, it would
+not be exceeding the bounds of possibility to say that to-day the ruin
+would have presented a mass of fallen stones, and the task of their
+reconstruction would be well-nigh impossible.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+Evidently the early mason found the cutting of these tenons by no
+means an easy task, for, with two exceptions, the workmanship is not
+remarkable. Luckily for the observer to-day the tenon on the remaining
+upright of the Great Trilithon is very strongly marked, and stands out
+boldly on its apex, thus affording a clue to those existing on other
+stones. The mortice holes were easier to accomplish. A small
+depression may have been made first of all, and then a round stone
+inserted with sand and water. In this way a smooth hollow could soon
+be worn. This principle is and has been applied by stone-using peoples
+in all quarters of the globe. The rough dovetailing of the lintels of
+the outer circle would present no difficulty to users of the tools
+already mentioned.
+
+To-day the surfaces of the Sarsens bear undoubted signs of weather,
+but in the Stonehenge of yesterday the Sarsens were beautifully
+finished with rough tooling all over their surface. This final finish
+was achieved by the Quartzite Hammers (Class IV.). A very beautiful
+piece of this work was discovered by Mr. Gowland in 1901. In the
+process of raising the upright of the Great Trilithon, a thin slab of
+that part of the stone which had been buried in the foundation became
+detached. The tooling upon this fragment is absolutely perfect, and as
+clean and sharp as it was when it left the hand of the craftsman about
+four thousand years ago. So remarkable was the workmanship that
+experiments were made on pieces of Sarsen with various materials to
+endeavour to secure the same quality of surface, during which it was
+found that whereas the ordinary masons' chisels of to-day failed to
+produce the effect, a quartzite pebble used as a tool at once
+reproduced the character and surface of the original finish on the
+Trilithon.
+
+The foreign stones appear to have been treated in a very similar
+manner, but it is not possible to discuss this with the same detail as
+in the case of the Sarsens, for the body of the rock to be dealt with
+varied vastly in quality and fracture. The method of dressing by
+pounding was probably not adopted. Quantities of small chippings from
+the foreign stones were found in 1901, so many indeed as to justify
+the claim that these stones were actually dressed on the spot, and not
+partly shaped before being transported to the circle, as in the case
+of the Sarsens. This at once disposes of a popular and ingenious
+suggestion that the foreign stones were originally a temple elsewhere,
+and that in migrating to Salisbury Plain, the tribe had brought their
+temple with them.
+
+
+THE PROCESS OF ERECTION
+
+Contrary to another cherished belief, the Sarsen Trilithons were
+erected first, followed by the foreign stones. The building of the
+group was continuous and no gap separates the Trilithon from the
+foreign upright. Of this abundant ocular proof was forthcoming in
+1901, when the foundations of the great Trilithon were laid bare, and
+the leaning upright restored to its original perpendicular position.
+When the ground was opened it was found that each upright had been
+differently bedded in the earth--and for a very good reason. The one
+was twenty-nine feet eight inches long, while the other was only
+twenty-five feet. Obviously they were the two finest "grey wethers"
+obtainable in the flock, and because of that, they were set aside for
+the most prominent place in the enclosure. The master builder decided
+that the height of this central Trilithon should be the equivalent of
+twenty-one feet at the present day. Therefore it was necessary to bed
+one stone deeper than the other, in order that their two summits
+should be level to receive the lintel, or impost. One stone,
+therefore, was sunk to a depth of four feet, while the other extended
+downwards eight feet three inches. To compensate for the lack of depth
+in the shorter stone, its base was shaped into an irregular projecting
+boss to give it a greater bearing area. It was decided to raise the
+larger stone first, and the foundation was dug as follows: A slanting
+trench was cut with the deer's horn picks through the earth and chalk,
+having at its deeper end a perpendicular chalk face against which the
+Sarsen could rest when upright. Rubble and chalk were cleared away,
+and the stone carefully slid down the plane to its foundation. To
+raise it, now that its base rested against a solid wall of chalk, was
+not a great matter. The same ropes of hide and tree trunks which had
+served for its transport would again have come into play. Slowly it
+would be levered up, and packings or wedges of wood or stone inserted.
+Thus inch by inch, probably, it rose higher and higher, strutted up,
+perhaps, by strong saplings as it reared its head above the busy crowd
+of builders. Blocks of Sarsens were packed beneath it to equalise the
+bearing, and then the excavation was filled in with chalk and rubble,
+which doubtless was well rammed down and consolidated with the big
+sixty-pound mauls. Among the packing of chalk and rubble were found a
+considerable number of the rough implements already referred to.
+
+  [Illustration: The central Entrance of Stonehenge. Looking S.W.]
+
+The shorter upright was next set on end. A shallower excavation had to
+suffice in this case, but the base of the stone, as has been already
+intimated, was wider, and to secure greater stability blocks of Sarsen
+were provided for the stone to rest on, other blocks being packed in
+carefully as it was raised, and curiously enough among the firm
+packing were several large stone mauls, fitted in to make the whole
+mass solid and compact. There is no direct evidence as to the actual
+method of placing the imposts upon the uprights. It has been
+suggested, and with every show of reason, that one extremity of the
+imposts would be raised and packed with timber. The opposite end
+would then be similarly treated. In this way, by alternately raising
+and wedging first one side and then the other, the impost could have
+been brought, in time, level with the summit of its upright, and
+levered over on to the tenons.
+
+Such a method is employed by primitive races to-day.
+
+
+RAISING THE FOREIGN STONES
+
+The five Sarsen Trilithons already mentioned were raised into position
+from the inside of the circle. Investigation has shown this to be a
+fact. It therefore stands to reason that the Foreign Stones were
+erected last, and not first as has so often been supposed.
+
+This is a hard saying, for it at once negatives the picturesque legend
+that the Foreign Stones were a stone circle brought from Ireland, and
+erected by a colonial tribe, who afterwards gave dignity to their
+primitive temple by the erection of stately Trilithons. Furthermore,
+the _debris_ of the ancient mason reveals chippings of Sarsen and
+Foreign Stone intermingled so thoroughly as to preclude any idea of
+two separate periods of building. Stonehenge, therefore, was erected
+at one date and continuously. It is a question, as yet, if the outer
+Sarsen Trilithons were erected from the outside or the inside of the
+circle.
+
+It has not been possible, in the foregoing brief description, to
+enter into minute detail, but it is hoped that sufficient has been
+said to show the stages by which the work of building was approached.
+
+First, the rough trimming of the Sarsen, as it lay upon the Down, then
+its transport to the spot, its final dressing, and the preparation of
+its foundation, followed by those anxious days during which the
+builders toiled as they raised it aloft; the feverish haste with which
+they rammed and packed the loose rubble about its foot, casting in
+their mauls and implements to wedge and fix it securely on its base:
+and last of all, the final effort of raising the impost on its wooden
+bed, rising now on this side, now on that, as the packings were
+inserted beneath the levered stone. What a contrast to the Stonehenge
+of to-day--abandoned and silent on the fast vanishing Plain of
+Salisbury. Yesterday, it was the workplace of a teeming hive of
+masons, the air filled with the tap of the smaller hammers dressing
+the stone faces, with the sullen thud of the big maul pounding the
+face of a newly arrived Sarsen, while the faint muffled "peck" of the
+deer's horn told of trench workers dressing down a chalk face to
+receive the thrust of the monolith, while high above the steady tap of
+the picks and hammers came the sounds of an unknown tongue raised now
+in command, now in argument, or encouragement as the work went on.
+
+
+
+
+WHEN WAS STONEHENGE ERECTED?
+
+
+Until comparatively recent years, the date of Stonehenge was a subject
+for speculation, and so fascinating did it prove that it attracted the
+attention of a vast number of minor authorities, who in the face of no
+definite data on which to base their theses, set the date of
+Stonehenge at almost any period except that to which it has been
+proved to belong.
+
+Many decided definitely that it was of Roman origin. For the most
+part, these speculations have not been based upon the tangible
+evidence of the Stones, the Tools, and the Barrows, but rather upon
+the records of early historians, whose evidence in those days was
+probably not a question of first-hand information.
+
+After all, the objects actually exhumed from the foundations of the
+Stones, must of necessity be the evidence of greatest importance. What
+are these objects? The following is a complete list taken from Mr.
+Gowland's report.
+
+_Excavation I._ (Seven feet deep.)--A Roman coin of Commodus and a
+penny of George III. at eight inches below the turf.
+
+A flint hammer-stone, and a splinter of deer's horn embedded in the
+chalk, at a depth of two and a half feet (below datum line).
+
+_Excavation II._ (Eight feet deep.)--Two, edged hammer-stones of
+flint, and two rounded ones of the same material, at a depth of three
+feet (below datum).
+
+_Excavation III._ (Eight feet three inches.)--A halfpenny of George
+I., just below the turf.
+
+A Roman coin (sestertius of Antonia) ten inches below the turf, and a
+pewter farthing of James II. at the same depth.
+
+Below this, at a depth varying from two feet to four feet, were
+twenty-six axes and hammer-stones of flint, two hammer-stones of
+Sarsen, and a large maul of the same material weighing over sixty-four
+pounds.
+
+A fourth excavation, known as Excavation Q, yielded at a depth of
+three feet six inches to four feet six inches, ten flint axes, one
+sandstone axe, nine edged flint hammer-stones, four rounded flint
+hammer-stones, ten Sarsen hammers, and seven mauls, weighing from
+thirty-six to fifty-eight and a half pounds. Large numbers of deer's
+horn splinters were discovered in this excavation.
+
+_Excavation V._ (Eight feet deep.)--Four axes of flint, one of Sarsen,
+three edged hammer-stones of flint, one Sarsen and one Diabase
+hammer-stone, were found at depths varying between two feet and four
+feet.
+
+One Sarsen hammer-stone was found under the base of the foreign
+upright, which stands in front of the upright monolith of the Great
+Trilithon, at a depth of six feet below datum.
+
+In this last excavation, at a depth of about seven feet, the slab of
+tooled Sarsen already referred to was discovered, and on it a very
+small stain of copper carbonate. The depth at which this stone was
+discovered precludes the possibility of metal being thus sunk by moles
+or rabbits.
+
+This list, like the details of the foreign stones, may not be of
+general interest, but it affords a very powerful argument for the date
+of the structure.
+
+To summarise the "finds." The metal objects found consist of various
+coins ranging from Roman to recent times, about half a dozen in
+number, all coming from the surface, and none at a greater depth than
+ten inches. In other words, they may be classed as "superficial"
+finds, of very little value; the more so, as some of the more recent
+coins were found at a greater depth than those of earlier date. The
+only other trace of metal is the small green stain upon the slab of
+Sarsen already alluded to. This stain can only have been caused by the
+contact with the stone of a small fragment of copper, which appears to
+have been entirely decomposed, as no traces of it could be found. It
+must have been very minute, since had it exceeded one-eighth of an
+inch, it could not have escaped the mesh of the sieve employed in
+searching for it. Clearly, therefore, it could not have been an
+implement; perhaps it was an ornament.
+
+On the other hand, the Stone Implements discovered number one hundred
+and fifteen, and were found scattered through the excavations at all
+depths, and even under the foundations of one of the foreign stones.
+
+Probably the entire area of Stonehenge, if opened up, would yield over
+seven thousand examples.
+
+The evidence of the Stone Implements goes far to give the date of the
+building. Horn picks similar to those employed at Stonehenge have been
+found in considerable numbers at Grimes Graves, where they were used
+for excavating chalk in order to win flint for implement making. Other
+picks have been found at Cissbury, near Worthing, where similar chalk
+workings existed. This resemblance between the finds at Stonehenge,
+Cissbury, and Grimes Graves, does not, however, end with the picks; it
+is repeated in the similarity of the Implements of Stone, those at
+Stonehenge being in some cases the counterpart of those found in the
+other localities.
+
+The Cissbury Implements have been assigned "to the Stone Age, or at
+any rate to the Age of Flint manufacture" by General Pitt Rivers, who
+discovered and reported upon them. Canon Greenwell describes the
+Implements from Grimes Graves as belonging to "a period when both
+metal and stone were in use."
+
+It is obvious, therefore, that the similarity between the tools used
+in the construction of Stonehenge, and those used in other parts of
+England for similar purposes, and definitely assigned to their period
+in the history of Man, demonstrates very clearly that the date of the
+building of Stonehenge may fairly be placed at a time when the use of
+stone was continuous with a partial use of bronze; and that if
+Stonehenge is not a Neolithic structure, it must certainly belong to
+the Early Bronze period. It might be urged that the roughness of the
+Tools, coupled with the marked absence of bronze, indicates an even
+earlier period than that already stated, but it must be remembered
+that the form of the implement is not always a criterion of its age.
+Moreover, bronze tools were not necessary for the dressing of the
+Stones, though had they been plentiful, it is more than probable that
+some might have been either lost or dropped during the work, and would
+have come to light during the excavations.
+
+Yet another sidelight upon the date of Stonehenge is to be found in
+the presence of chippings of foreign stone found inside some of the
+neighbouring Bronze Age barrows, which prove conclusively that the
+barrows must have been built at a date later than the erection of
+Stonehenge.
+
+To many people, the mention of a period of culture, such as the Early
+Bronze Age, may not convey very much. To give a date in years, on the
+other hand, is not always easy. The march of culture in those days was
+slow, and the gradation from the use of one material to another very
+prolonged, often reaching into centuries. Consequently any date must
+only be approximate and given under great reserve. The late Sir John
+Evans has suggested that the Bronze Age in this country might be set
+at 1400 B.C. Continental authorities set the age for countries in
+Europe somewhat earlier, at about 2000 B.C. This is a perfectly
+natural conclusion, for it is an ascertained fact that the flow of
+civilisation was from East to West, as has always been the case, and
+that, therefore, it is only to be expected that the Bronze Age of the
+Continent would ante-date that of England by some centuries.
+
+But, it is obvious from our present knowledge of Stonehenge that the
+Bronze Age was hardly established in the sense as used by Sir John
+Evans. Probably at the time of the building of Stonehenge bronze was
+only known as a rare substance, whose very scarcity would make it
+valuable as material for ornaments. It would not, therefore, be
+inconsistent with existing evidence to set the date of Stonehenge
+roughly at from 1700-1800 years B.C.
+
+
+
+
+WHAT WAS STONEHENGE?
+
+
+The Megalithic Stone structures, which exist not only in this country
+but also throughout the Continent of Europe, are a special feature of
+that period known as the Neolithic Age. As has already been shown,
+Stonehenge represents a very late type, erected at a time when the
+bronze culture had begun to overlap that of polished stone
+(Neolithic).
+
+These stone structures can be roughly divided into three classes.
+
+1. Single upright stones, or _menhirs_ (Celtic = "high stone"), which
+may be commemorative of some great event or personage.
+
+2. _Dolmens_ (Celtic = "table stone"), in which a stone slab is set
+table-wise on three or four uprights.
+
+3. _Cromlechs_ (Celtic = "stone circle"). Circles enclosing barrows or
+dolmens.
+
+Stonehenge is a highly specialised example of this last class. Round
+these cromlechs popular myth and superstition have crystallised
+themselves into tales of the devil and his works (as in the case of
+Stonehenge), ogres, giants, dwarfs, Sabbath breakers, and infidels,
+turned to stone. In nearly every case there is some story of the
+supernatural, which cannot be accidental, but which must have its root
+in past religious observance.
+
+It is a recognised fact that the worship of stones is more widely
+distributed than any other primitive cult. Its almost universal
+distribution can be referred to the tendency of the half savage mind
+to confuse persons and things, and from seeming likeness of the
+inanimate to the animate, to endue the lifeless object with the virtue
+and power of the living object. This mental outlook is better
+understood in practice than in theory. A Melanesian native may come
+across a large stone, lying upon the top of a number of smaller
+stones. It suggests to him a sow with her litter of pigs, and he at
+once makes an offering to it, in the hope that he will secure pigs. In
+determining the function of Stonehenge, therefore, it will be useful
+to compare it with similar existing stone circles. The largest of
+these in this country is Avebury, not many miles distant from
+Stonehenge. Unluckily, to-day it is so ruined that its former
+greatness is hardly to be distinguished by the unskilled observer.
+Formerly comprising some hundreds of unhewn Sarsen stones, barely a
+score remain in position at the present day. In Avebury, as it was,
+can be found the early typic model of which Stonehenge is the final
+product. The use of the circle as a basic form is common to both. In
+Avebury the Sarsen is a rough unhewn monolith; in Stonehenge it is
+squared, dressed, and crowned with its lintel. All evidences of a slow
+evolution from Neolithic to Bronze culture. But whereas the circle
+alone is used at Avebury, Stonehenge has in addition the horseshoe
+series of Trilithons and foreign uprights, and in this particular
+differs from all other Cromlechs in this country. It is the climax of
+the Megalithic monument, and its use very certainly must have been
+connected with the religion of the race which set it up. It was, in
+short, a religious structure, probably used for the observation of the
+sun, and possibly connected with "nature worship."
+
+The fact that the sun rises over the Hele Stone on the Summer
+Solstice, and that it can be observed in direct alignment with the
+centre of the Great Trilithon, can hardly be due to accident. Chance
+might bring two stones into such a position on the Solstice, but, in
+this case, the entire monument is so arranged as to place the rising
+sun in a due line with its axis on this particular day.
+
+It will be well to consider the facts which must have been within the
+knowledge of the builders of Stonehenge, and to trace as far as may be
+their reasoning in the building of it.
+
+To begin with, it is almost certain that at the time of building,
+there existed some primitive form of priesthood, or body of "wise
+men." This is quite compatible with the culture of the period. The
+existence of the Neolithic Long Barrows is sufficient evidence that
+man had, by this time, arrived at that particular culture which grasps
+the existence of a "spirit."
+
+Death only terminated the existence of the body, and not that of the
+spirit. It was even able to return and enter another body, say that of
+a new-born infant, an animal, or tree. And being after the manner of
+human beings, spirits could understand human language and become
+accessible to human petitions. Thus a spirit might even prove a
+powerful friend or enemy. And the dwellings of these spirits would be
+those great powers which meant so much to a primitive people; the sun,
+moon, stars, rivers, forests, and clouds; from which arose the two
+great classes of spirit, the "ancestral" and the "spirit of nature."
+From this general body was developed a regular hierarchy of good and
+evil spirits, gradually ascending to the conception of one great
+creative spirit, or superior deity.
+
+  [Illustration: Stonehenge. Looking N.E. from the altar stone
+  towards the hele stone.]
+
+To these early men, therefore, there was always the problem of
+maintaining diplomatic relations with the unseen forces about them,
+and for this purpose a primitive priesthood became necessary. The
+chieftain would manage the temporal affairs of the tribe, those
+spiritual would be relegated to a special body of wise men, or
+intermediaries. These men would certainly, from the nature of their
+calling, be not so much men of action as men of learning, the
+recorders of history and tradition, students of the natural phenomena,
+and of all those signs and portents which concerned the good of the
+community. One of the earliest facts which impressed itself upon them
+must have been the horizon. It was above that horizon that the sun
+rose in the morning, and below that horizon that it sank to rest at
+night; further, when the sun had set the moon and stars peeped up from
+that line, and sank below it, all in due course. These were facts
+easily apprehended. The common people even had grasped them, but the
+wise men learned more. As the link between man and the spirits of the
+stars, sun, and moon, they came to recognise that the sun did not rise
+over the same spot on the horizon every day. In the summer it rose
+roughly in the north-east and set in the north-west. In the winter, on
+the other hand, it rose in the south-east and set in the south-west.
+Moreover, these variations would be found to be regular and recurring.
+The sun would appear to move every day after the Solstice towards the
+east, and from the east towards the south, back again towards the
+east, and once more northwards. A staff set in the ground would
+determine the range of the sun's apparent journey and its extreme
+limits or turning points. This would fix the Summer Solstice in the
+north-east, and the winter Solstice in the south-east. Even such
+simple learning as this was probably beyond the capacity of the
+tribesman, whose daily duties took him afield early and late. But it
+was to his interest that all such observations should be entrusted to
+individuals who could keep definite count, and know exactly at what
+part of the horizon the sun might be expected to appear. In this way
+the solar year might be mapped out and divided into Solstices and
+Equinoxes. Nor was this a mere arbitrary arrangement. The good of the
+community depended upon it. The agriculturalist depended upon the sun
+for his crops. It was essential that he should know the correct time
+to plough, to sow, and to reap. Without the aid of the "wise men" he
+had no means of knowing what day it was, or how much longer he could
+count upon the sun for his primitive agriculture. The "wise man," on
+his side, realised the importance of his knowledge, and doubtless used
+it to his own advantage, thus winning support and respect from his
+simple followers.
+
+Temples, or stone circles corresponding to temples, might face either
+to the north-east or south-east, for the Summer or Winter Solstice,
+marking the end of the sun's journey, or they might be directed
+towards the east, when the sun would appear in the appointed spot
+twice in the year; once in his journey southward, and once on his
+return; in other words, at the two Equinoxes. Stonehenge is so
+arranged as to mark the sun at its Summer Solstice.
+
+But, interesting as these speculations of the Sun Temple theory may
+be, the facts recorded by Sir Norman Lockyer in 1901 are even more so,
+as by independent calculations he has arrived at the same date for
+Stonehenge as the archaeologist. Briefly his task was to calculate the
+extent of the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic since the
+building of Stonehenge. The whole process involves a certain knowledge
+of astronomical operations and calculations, and the reader is
+referred to Sir Norman Lockyer's book for the actual steps taken to
+arrive at his conclusion. But on astronomical grounds pure and simple
+he was able to fix the date of Stonehenge as "lying between 1900-1500
+B.C."
+
+It is at all events interesting that his results should tally with
+those of Mr. Gowland who, working on entirely different lines, came to
+practically the same conclusion.
+
+Having proceeded thus far it is well, however, not to insist too
+strongly on the "Sun Temple" theory, on the lines already sketched
+out. It should be always remembered that the "Hele Stone" is an
+unworked stone, which stands without the circle, and does not form a
+symmetrical integer in the structure. Being unwrought it may have been
+erected at an earlier date, and might belong to an earlier culture.
+It is possible that Stonehenge may have been a later addition to the
+Hele Stone. Many of the arguments relating to the "wise men" and the
+observation of sunrise are matters of analogy rather than direct
+proof, and though coincidences are ever suggestive and fascinating,
+they cannot always be entirely accepted as proof. While it is quite
+possible that the Hele Stone was erected to mark the Solstice and to
+afford a definite means of determining the year, this may not justify
+the theory that the entire structure was an astronomical observatory
+and dedicated entirely to sun worship, with elaborate ramifications,
+and "observation" mounds for celestial phenomena. Weighing, therefore,
+the archaeologist's and astronomer's evidence, it is fairly safe to
+conclude that Stonehenge can be dated at about B.C. 1700, and that its
+use was religious; probably a temple, in which the sun may have been
+adored in some way. As yet, however, the actual nature of that worship
+is a matter for speculation. It is of the utmost importance in dealing
+with a question like this, to observe the greatest caution and to
+maintain a strictly detached position. The astronomer, archaeologist,
+geologist, and anthropologist have each their share in the solution of
+the problem, but each also has the bias due to his own special
+science. The mineralogist solves the problem of the Foreign Stones by
+suggesting a "glacial drift" without reference to the geologist, who
+will tell him that the local gravels contain no pebbles which belong
+to those classes of stones known as Foreign Stones. The astronomer, in
+his quest for alignments, will convert barrows into observation
+mounds, without reference to their uses and contents, and without
+allowing for the ignorance of the period, while the anthropologist
+often allows his imagination to carry him beyond the limits of actual
+fact. Time, and constant careful investigation, will pierce some of
+the mists which must always shroud the origin of Stonehenge, but the
+true solution will be for the field archaeologist, rather than to the
+weaver of theories or the student in his library.
+
+The circular form, the horseshoe form, the unhewn Hele Stone, all
+bespeak religious origin. These are actual, visual facts, as is the
+sunrise on the Solstice. Around these arises a clamour of conflicting
+claims, each possibly containing much of real importance, each
+probably expressing some clue to guide the future worker on his way,
+but none containing that element of finality which is once and for all
+time to quell the storm of controversy which has ever raged about this
+ancient monument of the plain.
+
+
+
+
+THE DRUID QUESTION
+
+
+Perhaps one of the most persistent traditions which has been passed on
+from generation to generation is that which connects Stonehenge with
+the Druids. There is, indeed, a vast literature on the subject of
+Druidism, but the actual knowledge of the subject is limited, and the
+entire question is very obscure. Much of the information existing is
+derived from a time when Christianity had long been established. The
+early Celtic religion has in fact been overlaid and embellished by so
+many later theories as to be particularly confusing to the modern
+student. Benedictine historians have discovered in Druidism traces of
+revealed religion by the simple process of confusing similarity with
+identity. The Gaul adored the oak tree, therefore this must have been
+a far-off remembrance of the plains of Mamre.
+
+Another class of writers have invented for the Druids the mission of
+preserving in the West the learning of Phoenicia and Egypt. The cults
+of Baal and Moloch have been grafted upon them, and so forth, until
+the very Druid himself is lost in a mass of crystallisations from
+without. The insular Druids, to which our national traditions refer,
+were far more likely to be mere "wise men," or "witch doctors," with
+perhaps a spice of the conjuror. This, at all events, seems to be the
+case at the time when we first acquire any positive information
+concerning them. Theirs it would be to summon the rain clouds and to
+terrify the people by their charms. The Chief Druid of Tara, decked
+out in golden ear-clasps and his torque of heavy gold, is shown us as
+a "leaping juggler" as he tosses swords and balls in the air, "and
+like the buzzing of bees on a beautiful day is the motion of each
+passing the other."
+
+Amazing as is the bulk which has been written about the Druids, their
+beliefs, knowledge, and ethics, it seems even more remarkable that so
+much should have been said to connect them with the building of the
+stone circles which they are credited with having constructed as
+astronomical observatories and temples. As has already been indicated,
+Stonehenge belongs to an epoch far earlier than any Druidism of which
+record remains. This fact rests upon the evidence of both the
+archaeologist and the astronomer. It is, therefore, not a little
+puzzling that Sir Norman Lockyer, after fixing the date of Stonehenge
+at about 1700 B.C., should cite the Druids and their late Celtic cult
+in dealing with a monument which, on his own showing, was built in
+early Bronze times. There must exist a very wide gap of anything from
+seven hundred to a thousand years between the "May Year" Druids of
+whom he writes, and the builders of Stonehenge, and an interval
+possibly as great or even greater between Stonehenge and Avebury and
+those other north-east and south-east temples to which he attributes a
+Druidic form of worship. It is even a matter of grave question if the
+race who built the Stone Circles was not entirely different to the
+late Celtic inhabitants of the plain. Avebury has been classed as a
+Neolithic monument, built by the "long-headed" race whose remains are
+usually found in the Long Barrows; Stonehenge belongs to a bronze
+period, but at a very early date in that culture; its builders would
+probably belong to the round-headed type of man whose barrows are
+studded very closely round about it.
+
+
+
+
+THE BARROWS OF SALISBURY PLAIN
+
+
+It is impossible to approach Stonehenge without passing numbers of
+burial mounds or Barrows. North, south, east, or west they meet the
+eye, some singly, some in groups. In the immediate neighbourhood of
+Stonehenge there are two Long Barrows and three hundred Round ones,
+or, in other words, one-fourth of the Barrows in Wiltshire are to be
+found within a short distance of the Altar Stone of Stonehenge. This
+cannot altogether be accidental. The suggestion at once rises to the
+mind that these burial places clustering about the circle of
+Stonehenge are strongly reminiscent of the graveyard about the village
+church of to-day. The Rev. William Gilpin, writing in 1798, when as
+yet the Plain was unbroken by the plough and cultivation, recognised
+this fact at once. "All the Plain, at least that part of it near
+Stonehenge, is one vast cemetery.... From many places we counted above
+a hundred of them at once; sometimes as if huddled together, without
+any design, in other places rising in a kind of order. Most of them
+are placed on the more elevated parts of the Plain, and generally in
+sight of the great Temple." At one time it was considered that these
+Barrows were the monuments erected to the memory of warriors who had
+fallen in battle. Though this popular conception is still current, it
+seems hardly likely that a victorious army would tarry after the day
+was won to erect these laborious monuments, all of which are designed
+and laid out with no little skill. A far more reasonable hypothesis,
+and one more in accordance with fact, is that they represent the
+graves of exalted personages, and that their erection extended over a
+considerable period.
+
+The Barrows may be roughly divided into two classes: (i) the Long
+Barrow; (ii) the Round Barrow, with its three variants, the Bowl, the
+Bell, and Disc Barrow.
+
+The Long Barrow is the older form, and may usually be referred to the
+Neolithic Age. Wiltshire is specially rich in Long Barrows. There are
+no fewer than seventy-two within its limits, and fourteen others have
+been destroyed within the past century. They are usually found
+standing alone, and very seldom is it possible to find two of them
+within sight. They are also, as a rule, found upon rising ground.
+Their construction is somewhat curious. They vary from two to four
+hundred feet in length, thirty to fifty feet in breadth, and from
+three to twelve feet in height. The earth of which they are composed
+was dug out from a trench on either side of the mound. This trench
+did not, however, continue round the two ends of the barrow. They lie
+usually, but not always, east and west, and the eastern end is higher
+than that at the west. Within the higher end is the sepulchral
+deposit.
+
+  [Illustration: A Map of Stonehenge Down]
+
+Two such Long Barrows are within a short distance of Stonehenge. No
+metal objects have been found in these Long Barrows, though
+leaf-shaped flint arrow-heads, most delicately chipped, are almost
+invariably met with, and occasionally rough, hand-made, undecorated
+pottery. Most Long Barrows have been used for "secondary interments,"
+_i.e._ other bodies at a later date have been buried in them. These
+secondary interments are sometimes associated with bronze or even
+iron. Interesting as the Long Barrows are, however, they are only
+mentioned as being, so far as present information goes, the earliest
+form of regular sepulture in this country. It is highly improbable
+that they have any connection with Stonehenge, which must have been
+erected at an age when the Long Barrow with its inhumed body was
+passing away, and the plain was being peopled with a new race, the
+"round-headed" people, whose method of burial was considerably
+different.
+
+
+THE ROUND BARROWS
+
+The visitor to Stonehenge has only to turn his back to the "Friar's
+Heel," as he stands on the Altar Stone, and he will see a typical
+"group" of Round Barrows, seven in number. Let him remember, then,
+that Wiltshire boasts of two thousand similar sepulchral mounds; and
+that he can, within an easy distance of Stonehenge, find three hundred
+of them, while in the same radius he will only encounter two Long
+Barrows.
+
+The proportion, therefore, of round to long is considerable, viz.
+1:150. The figures of round and long for the entire county are
+eighty-six Long to two thousand Round Barrows, or 1:24. In other words
+there are five times more Round Barrows in the Stonehenge District,
+than there are anywhere else in Wiltshire, taking Long and Round
+Barrows together. This disproportion in distribution cannot altogether
+be the result of accident; it must bespeak a special attraction for
+the spot by the builders of the Barrows, and from the very fact that
+Stonehenge was erected at a time when these people were first arriving
+on Salisbury Plain, it does not seem extravagant to claim that they
+had some reason for wishing their remains finally to rest within easy
+distance of what must have been to them a sacred spot.
+
+As already noted, these Round Barrows can be divided into three
+classes: 1. The simple Bowl-shaped Barrow, that most frequently
+encountered, having a diameter of from twenty to sixty feet, and a
+height of from three to five feet. 2. The Bell-shaped Barrow which
+reaches its highest development on the plain round Stonehenge, and is
+more common and more beautiful in Wiltshire than in any other part of
+England.
+
+  [Illustration: Plans and Sections of Bowl Bell & Disc barrows.]
+
+Indeed, the Stonehenge Bell Barrows are the very crown of the
+Sepulchral Mound on Salisbury Plain. Unlike the Long Barrow, they are
+entirely surrounded by a circular ditch, from which material for the
+Mound has been excavated; within the ditch is a circular area level
+with the turf, from which the mound rises from five to fifteen feet in
+a graceful conical form. The diameter will be upwards of one hundred
+feet, so that the entire structure is considerably larger and more
+impressive than the Bowl Barrow.
+
+3. "The Disc Barrow," so named by Dr. Thurnam, the great Barrow
+expert, from its resemblance to a flat dish surrounded by a deep rim.
+It consists of a circular area, level with surrounding turf, having a
+diameter of about one hundred feet. This circular area is enclosed by
+a ditch with a bank on the outside, both usually very regular and well
+constructed. Within, at the centre, is a mound not more than a foot
+high containing the sepulchral deposit. Occasionally there are more
+than one of these minute mounds, which often escape notice by reason
+of their insignificance.
+
+It is very significant that the Disc Barrow is more plentiful around
+Stonehenge than in any other part of Wiltshire. Elsewhere they are
+comparatively rare.
+
+In the "Round" Barrows it is not uncommon to find that the body has
+been cremated before interment. In the Bowl and Bell types, about
+three out of every four bodies have been so disposed of. In Dorset the
+relative interments, by cremation or otherwise, is four out of five,
+while in Cornwall cremation is almost universal.
+
+Almost without exception, however, the Disc Barrows contain only
+cremated remains. The existing impression is that these three forms of
+Round Barrow were in use at one and the same time, but that the Bowl
+Barrow was the earliest, followed by the Bell, and that the Disc is
+the latest form of all. From construction, if for no other reason,
+this hypothesis seems perfectly tenable.
+
+The Barrows on the Plain were built of the materials most easily
+accessible, mould, chalk, and flints, with occasional fragments of
+Sarsen. As has already been recorded, fragments of Foreign Stone from
+Stonehenge have been found in one of those forming the group which lay
+immediately south-west of the circle, but now destroyed by
+cultivation. The method of procedure was simple. A grave would in many
+cases be dug sufficiently long to contain the body if buried by
+inhumation in a crouching position. This grave would vary in depth
+from a few inches to six feet. Sometimes blocks of Sarsen would be
+built over the body to protect it. The crouching posture is specially
+noteworthy. The knees are drawn up to the trunk and the legs bent on
+the thighs, while the arms are closed towards the chest, and the hands
+over the face. There has been some speculation as to the significance
+of this particular attitude. Some have seen in it that of an unborn
+infant, others the natural position in death, others again have
+maintained it was the primaeval posture of sleep. It seems quite
+possible, however, that the position may be due to mere utilitarian
+motives as being more compact for the purpose of burial. The lie of
+the inhumed skeleton is usually with the head to the north; exceptions
+show that the east, south-east, and south-west, have sometimes been
+selected, but never due south. Interments with the head to the west,
+as in Christian burial, are very rare.
+
+When burial by cremation took place, it is evident that the actual
+rite of burning took place elsewhere, and that the calcined remains
+were brought to the plain for burial. In some cases the ashes were
+conveyed to the spot wrapped in skins, or possibly in some rude form
+of cloth; more frequently in Wiltshire they were deposited in cinerary
+urns. The proportion of urn burial is as three to one. This method of
+conducting the cremation at one spot, and the subsequent removal of
+the ashes to another, generally considered sacred, is not uncommon,
+even at the present day.
+
+  [Illustration: The 'Stonehenge Urn'.]
+
+The urns were sometimes placed upright, at others they were inverted,
+the latter being the more common custom. The mouths of these urns were
+frequently stopped with clay, or closely packed flints. The urns vary
+in size considerably from nine inches to fifteen in height, and from
+about a pint to more than a bushel in capacity. A veritable giant
+rather over two feet high, the largest of its kind hitherto found in
+Wiltshire, is preserved in the Salisbury and South Wilts Museum.
+Another only two inches less in height was recovered from a Barrow
+within a third of a mile from Stonehenge.
+
+In most cases various objects were found associated with these
+interments, such as drinking-cups, food vessels, incense-cups, weapons
+and ornaments.
+
+  [Illustration: Beaker. Normanton Dn.]
+
+  [Illustration: 'Grape' Cup. Normanton Down.]
+
+The fictile vessels are all of a very primitive nature, being entirely
+moulded by hand, and showing no trace of the use of the potter's
+wheel. The body consists of a mixture of clay mixed with fine pebbles,
+or pounded flint, and sometimes ground chalk or shells. For finer work
+sharp sand has been employed. The firing is most primitive and
+imperfect. After drying in the sun the vessel was probably baked in
+the ashes of a fire of brushwood piled over and about it. The
+decoration, like the other processes, bespeaks a simple culture. It is
+usually in the nature of lines, or dots, varied now and then by thumb
+marks, many exhibit the impress of the thumbnail. A pointed stick
+would produce lines on the soft body of the vessel, so would a twisted
+cord, while a rude comb of points inserted in a stick, gave a fine
+dotted line. Circles, animal forms, or arabesques do not appear at
+all.
+
+  [Illustration: Unique variety of 'Incense cup'. Normanton Down.]
+
+The Cinerary Urns and Incense Cups were strictly sepulchral; the Food
+Vessels and Drinking Cups seem also to have been reserved for funeral
+rites, as they are not found apart from the Barrows, and placed beside
+the dead ceremonially, to contain provision for the Spirit in its
+voyage to the distant land to which it had departed. Both Food Vessels
+and Drinking Cups are rare in Wiltshire. Two were presented to the
+Salisbury Museum in 1915, both of which came from Hampshire. A similar
+vessel was found at Bulford in 1910, and is in the same collection.
+
+The "finds" in the Round Barrows are not, however, confined to
+pottery. Weapons, some of stone, some of bronze, and occasional
+ornaments of gold and amber shed further light upon this departed race
+of Salisbury Plain. Although this people has been referred to as a
+"Bronze Age" people, it does not follow that their weapons were made
+exclusively of that material. In all ages there is a perceptible
+overlap from the former culture. In much later days the bow and arrow
+lingered on long after the introduction of fire-arms; so, too, in
+these early times, the stone implement was used side by side with the
+more recent metal one. Axes both perforated and unperforated have been
+found, but it is distinctly significant of an advancing culture, that
+the perforated axes outnumber the older form. Several of these stone
+hammer-axes have been found associated with bronze daggers and celts,
+showing that the use of stone and bronze was contemporaneous.
+
+Dagger blades of flint have also been found in barrows, though not
+commonly. Four such blades, which might perhaps have been javelin
+heads, were found in one barrow at Winterbourne Stoke. They represent
+a very high standard of workmanship, and elegance of form and finish.
+Three are of a delicate leaf-shape, while the fourth is
+lozenge-shaped. Flint arrow-heads when found are always finely barbed.
+The bronze objects, however, are in excess of those of stone, thus
+showing that the new bronze was displacing the older flint implement.
+Moreover, all the bronze weapons are of an early type. This is of some
+considerable importance, since it would seem to indicate that the
+Barrows were erected very shortly after Stonehenge, which it will be
+remembered has been referred to an early period of the Bronze Age.
+Certainly only a very short interval separates the completion of
+Stonehenge and the building of the Barrows; or to put it in other
+words, before Stonehenge was built there only existed two, or perhaps
+three, Long Barrows upon the Plain; but when it was finished, Barrows
+to the number of three hundred grew up around it, and all these
+Barrows, from their contents, belong to a period almost identical with
+that of the Stone Circle itself.
+
+  [Illustration: Flint dagger. Stonehenge Dn.]
+
+  [Illustration: Hammer of oolitic stone.]
+
+  [Illustration: Flat bronze celt. Normanton Down.]
+
+No other Barrows in Wiltshire have been so productive of bronze
+daggers as those about Stonehenge. In some cases it has been possible
+to recover portions of the ornamental sheaths in which they lay. Their
+handles were of wood, strengthened occasionally with an oval pommel of
+bone. In some cases, gold pins have been hammered into the wood to
+form a zig-zag pattern.
+
+Personal ornaments also occur among the Barrow finds; more usually
+they are of amber, sometimes of gold, and occasionally of bronze.
+
+Ornaments of amber have been found in thirty-three barrows; the
+quality of the material is usually red and transparent, though
+sometimes a paler variety has been employed. These ornaments are
+mostly necklaces, either of beads, or of graduated plates perforated
+and strung together. One found at Lake consisted of nearly two hundred
+beads and plates, and when worn must have extended halfway down to the
+waist.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  [Illustration: Gold plated cone.]
+
+  [Illustration: Gold Plate. Normanton Down.]
+
+Ornaments of gold were found in seven barrows. Many of these were
+built up upon a wooden mould, the gold being hammered on, and fastened
+by indentation.
+
+
+THE MEN OF THE BARROWS
+
+It is only natural that the appearance of the men who lived at this
+remote age should attract some attention. Were they tall or short,
+dark or fair? What manner of man was it who went armed with the bronze
+dagger and wore the ornaments above described? Of the cremated
+remains, of course, nothing can be said; but the burials by inhumation
+which took place concurrently with those of the Cinerary Urn, furnish
+certain data from which it is possible to gather some idea as to the
+physical stature of the man of that day. Taking fifty-two measurements
+of bodies as a basis, the man of the Long Barrow would stand five feet
+six inches, while the man of the Round Barrow would be three inches
+taller. But it is in the shape of the head, even more than in the
+height, that the people of the Long Barrow differ from those of the
+Round. The man of the Long Barrow was long-headed (_dolicocephalic_)
+while those of the Round Barrows were round-headed (_brachycephalic_).
+It must not, however, be imagined that there is any special connection
+between a long head and a long barrow, or a round head and a round
+barrow. The point of special importance is that the Long-Headed Race
+was the earlier, and that it was followed by a Round-Headed Race. Such
+a state of things is after all perfectly within the range of facts as
+known to-day. The early race, comparatively short, and armed only with
+stone weapons, must in the struggle for existence, have given place to
+a taller and more powerful people, provided with metal and possessed
+of a higher culture. There is no proof that the early race was
+exterminated by the bronze-using people. It is far more probable that
+a similar condition existed to that which obtains to-day in America,
+where the stone-using aborigines are slowly vanishing, and giving
+place to an Eastern invasion which has gradually displaced them. And
+whence came this powerful dominant race? It may safely be assumed that
+it came from the East. In this country the wave of Conquest has always
+flowed from east to westwards. Further, the man of the Long Barrow
+himself came from the East and displaced the earlier Palaeolithic
+dweller about the close of the last Glacial Epoch, only in his turn to
+give place to the succeeding wave of taller and more alert settlers
+who followed him. These again melted away before the Roman, the Saxon,
+the Dane, and Norman, who in due course swept westward to these Isles,
+and similarly displaced one another. There is a recognised "Megalithic
+Route," as it is called, marked by huge stone monuments of the nature
+of Stonehenge, which, starting in India, can be traced to Persia,
+Palestine, Arabia, Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Spain, Portugal, and
+Brittany, finally crossing the Channel to Devon and Cornwall. It must
+not be understood that these circles were all of them temples, or that
+they all belong to the Bronze Age. Many of them were merely stones set
+up round a Long Barrow. Aristotle states that the Iberians were in the
+habit of placing as many stones round the tomb of a dead warrior as he
+had slain enemies. A similar practice existed among the Australian
+aborigines. At all events the practice of erecting circular stone
+structures in all parts of the world seems to link together all
+primitive peoples of every age into one common chain of ideas, and of
+those customs which are the natural outcome of them. The chain itself
+lengthens till it touches the higher and more specialised builders, in
+whose highly-finished work the early ideal may yet be traced.
+
+The early race which built the vast circle or cromlech of Avebury
+finds a very fitting echo in the later race which set up Stonehenge;
+just as in Brittany the rude and unhewn menhir of yesterday, set up to
+commemorate a fallen chieftain, finds its elaborated and wrought
+counterpart in the Nelson column of to-day.
+
+Some light is cast upon the existence of these two peoples, the
+long-headed and the round-headed, by Caesar, who refers to the former
+as an aboriginal pastoral people, while the latter are described as
+colonists from Belgic Gaul, and agriculturists. This distinction
+between the herdsman and the agriculturalist is quite in accordance
+with the stages of culture known and recognised by the archaeologist. A
+pastoral race is ever more primitive and lower in the scale than one
+which has solved the problem of husbandry and acquired the very
+material advantages of a settled habitation, in contradistinction to
+the nomadic existence of the shepherd.
+
+Tacitus also describes these two races, and points out that while the
+herdsmen were fair, the tillers of the soil were dark and that their
+hair was curly. He was particularly struck, too, by the physical
+resemblance between the inhabitants of Iberia and the fair-haired race
+of the south and south-east of Britain, while he considered the
+dark-haired race was more akin to the people of the opposite coast of
+Gaul.
+
+Certainly the Iberian skull inclines to length, while that of Gaul is
+broad and short, and these physical peculiarities, much modified
+perhaps, prevail even to-day. It would seem, therefore, that the
+practice of building stone circles originated with the fair-haired
+pastoral race which had passed over from Europe to the West of
+England, but that Stonehenge is the work of a later dark-haired people
+who arrived from Gaul, with a higher and more organised civilisation,
+and that it is due to this that Stonehenge possesses those special
+features of wrought stone, and the horseshoe, which are not to be
+found in any of the earlier monuments of the shepherd race. Having
+erected Stonehenge, and possessed themselves of the land, the
+religious associations of the spot very probably impelled them to
+sleep their last sleep within easy distance of it. It must not be
+supposed that by so doing they regarded Stonehenge as a definite
+Sepulchral Monument: rather would it have been somewhat of the same
+spirit which even at the present day led to the burial of the heart of
+a well-known peer in the Garden of Gethsemane.
+
+Subsequently other forms of worship, such, for example, as Druidism,
+may have been practised at Stonehenge; but of these it is beyond the
+question to speak. These priests, whatever they may have been, were
+not the originators or builders of the circle, they merely used it for
+their own purposes; and their usages will in no way affect the central
+facts of the Stonehenge of Yesterday.
+
+
+
+
+VALEDICTORY
+
+
+There is a certain sense of relief, not untinged with reluctance, on
+laying down the pen after dealing seriously with so solemn a subject
+as Stonehenge. The feeling of relief is akin to that of the schoolboy
+whose task is done, and who is free to give vent to his animal spirits
+unchecked by the hand of his master. The feeling of reluctance is that
+which this same master must feel when he finally takes off his cap and
+gown and becomes as other men, his brief authority gone with them. Cap
+and gown are laid aside, and the present writer can now speak with his
+readers freely, and offer perhaps some few words of practical advice.
+The foremost question will surely be "How shall I get to Stonehenge?"
+
+The answer largely depends upon the constitution and habits of the
+querist. For the motorist, the way is clear: he will choose the best
+road, or his chauffeur will do it for him; but it is possible even
+with a motor to secure a little variety on the road. An excellent
+route is to follow the main road from Salisbury to Amesbury, passing
+Old Sarum, a very considerable earthwork of Roman if not earlier
+origin. This road will give the motorist a fine idea of what the
+Plain once was, with its wide expanses of undulating land. Military
+requirements have broken up what the farmer had spared, but even
+to-day the Plain has a character of its own, and forms a fitting
+prelude to a visit to the "Stones." Passing through Amesbury, the
+circle is soon within sight. Unluckily the Stones do not appear to
+advantage from this approach. The best view of them is from Lake Down,
+which may be obtained if the return journey is made along the Avon
+Valley by Normanton and Wilsford, Woodford, and Durnford. In any case
+barrows will be seen on every side, particularly in the neighbourhood
+of Normanton and Wilsford.
+
+Those who can walk, and who are able to be afoot for about ten miles,
+should follow the road up the valley from Stratford-sub-Castle,
+crossing the river either at Stratford or Upper Woodford, visiting
+Stonehenge and then Amesbury, thence by train to Salisbury. Allowance
+should be made for the fact that the railway station is some distance
+from the town.
+
+Is there anything else to see? Plenty. As already stated there is Old
+Sarum, which is perhaps rather too big an undertaking to be crowded
+into the same day as Stonehenge. All the churches along the valley are
+interesting. Stratford has its quaint hour-glass stand in the village
+pulpit. Heale House, where Charles II. lay in the "hiding-hole" some
+four or five days. Great Durnford Church, with its fine Norman doors.
+Amesbury, home of the adorable Kitty Bellairs, Duchess of Queensbury,
+and patron of Gay, who wrote the Beggar's Opera under her roof, and
+the church (early English) all make pleasant breaks in the journey.
+
+The bulk of the objects found at Stonehenge, and in the Barrows on the
+Plain, belong to the Wiltshire Archaeological Society, and are
+preserved in their collection at Devizes. Visitors to Salisbury will
+find the journey by train somewhat lengthy, but it should not be
+neglected by the antiquary.
+
+Some very fine cinerary urns and Barrow pottery from the Plain,
+together with models, and a reconstruction of Stonehenge after
+Stukeley, are to be found in the Salisbury, South Wilts, and Blackmore
+Collections, at Salisbury.
+
+It is seldom that the eye of the artist, as well as that of the
+archaeologist is to be found in one and the same individual. Mr.
+Heywood Sumner, F.S.A., to whom I am indebted for far more assistance
+in this volume than his beautiful and characteristic penwork, has
+seldom been so happy in his choice of illustration, for Stonehenge is
+one of those subjects which belongs to him of right, by virtue of that
+understanding draughtsmanship which he has applied with such valuable
+results to the "Earthworks of Cranbourne Chase" and elsewhere.
+Readers are specially asked to give his plans kindly attention. They
+are based upon the Ordnance Survey Maps, with the sanction of the
+Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. They are far more interesting,
+and less fatiguing, than the usual guide book production. The
+bibliography of Stonehenge is frankly too heavy a subject to attempt
+even briefly. A complete bibliography arranged under authors' names
+alphabetically by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S. (1901, Devizes), will be
+found quite solid reading in itself. Readers anxious to extend their
+information, would do well to study Mr. Gowland's Report in
+"Archaeologia," 1902, side by side with Sir Norman Lockyer's Report to
+the Royal Society, of the same date. The two leading schools of
+thought can thus be contrasted at first hand. The Wilts Archaeological
+Magazine _passim_, and particularly 1883 and 1876 should be consulted,
+the latter article by Mr. W. Long has stood the test of publicity for
+forty years, without appreciable damage. A curious writer to whom Mr.
+Sumner is specially indebted is Mr. H. Browne of Amesbury; whose
+conclusions must not be taken seriously, but who has lovingly
+illustrated his work with restorations and sketches: it is all the
+more pleasant therefore to render thanks to a painstaking but not
+always appreciated worker. Last of all--greatest of all--Sir Richard
+Colt Hoare, whose "Ancient History of South Wilts," 1812, remains
+to-day a classic. These grand volumes mark the dawn of the new era of
+the field archaeologist. The foregoing names are few, but they are as
+old and tried friends, to whom reference can be safely made, and
+seldom in vain. When Hoare and Long have been digested, few authors
+have much else to offer, including the writer of the present lines.
+
+A most pleasant debt of obligation is to the new owner of Stonehenge,
+Mr. C.H.E. Chubb, who has rendered great assistance in the compilation
+of this little handbook. Himself a citizen of New Sarum, and a
+Wiltshireman by birthright, he can well be trusted faithfully to
+discharge his duty to the grand old Cromlech. A constant visitor to
+Stonehenge, he has already given a foretaste of his policy in revising
+the rates of admission to the military; a very gracious act, based on
+a common-sense appreciation of the usual condition of the pockets of
+H.M. forces. Landlords are not always as liberal.
+
+Last of all, my sincere thanks to Dr. H.P. Blackmore, Honorary
+Director of the Salisbury and Blackmore Museums, for reading and
+revising my manuscript.
+
+                    FRANK STEVENS.
+
+THE MUSEUM, SALISBURY.
+      _April 1, 1916._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Typographical errors corrected in text:                      |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Page 17: Sarson replaced with Sarsen                         |
+    | Page 43: Trithons replaced with Trilithons                   |
+    |                                                              |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge, by Frank Stevens
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