initial commit of ebook 19031HEADmain

12 files changed, 20654 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/19031-8.txt b/19031-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..896d236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6561 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and
+Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons
+       Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer,
+       Wine, Spiritous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionery,
+       Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, Pickles, and
+       Other Articles Employed in Domestic Economy
+
+Author: Fredrick Accum
+
+Release Date: August 12, 2006 [EBook #19031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+TREATISE
+
+ON
+
+ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,
+
+_AND CULINARY POISONS_.
+
+
+EXHIBITING
+
+The Fraudulent Sophistications of
+
+BREAD, BEER, WINE, SPIRITOUS LIQUORS, TEA, COFFEE, CREAM, CONFECTIONERY,
+VINEGAR, MUSTARD, PEPPER, CHEESE, OLIVE OIL, PICKLES,
+
+AND OTHER ARTICLES EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
+
+
+AND
+
+METHODS OF DETECTING THEM.
+
+
+_By Fredrick Accum_,
+
+OPERATIVE CHEMIST, AND MEMBER OF THE PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES AND SOCIETIES
+OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN EUROPE.
+
+
+Philadelphia:
+PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY AB'M SMALL
+1820.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This Treatise, as its title expresses, is intended to exhibit easy
+methods of detecting the fraudulent adulterations of food, and of other
+articles, classed either among the necessaries or luxuries of the table;
+and to put the unwary on their guard against the use of such commodities
+as are contaminated with substances deleterious to health.
+
+Every person is aware that bread, beer, wine, and other substances
+employed in domestic economy, are frequently met with in an adulterated
+state: and the late convictions of numerous individuals for
+counterfeiting and adulterating tea, coffee, bread, beer, pepper, and
+other articles of diet, are still fresh in the memory of the public.
+
+To such perfection of ingenuity has the system of counterfeiting and
+adulterating various commodities of life arrived in this country, that
+spurious articles are every where to be found in the market, made up so
+skilfully, as to elude the discrimination of the most experienced
+judges.
+
+But of all possible nefarious traffic and deception, practised by
+mercenary dealers, that of adulterating the articles intended for human
+food with ingredients deleterious to health, is the most criminal, and,
+in the mind of every honest man, must excite feelings of regret and
+disgust. Numerous facts are on record, of human food, contaminated with
+poisonous ingredients, having been vended to the public; and the annals
+of medicine record tragical events ensuing from the use of such food.
+
+The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, is proof against prohibitions
+and penalties; and the possible sacrifice of a fellow-creature's life,
+is a secondary consideration among unprincipled dealers.
+
+However invidious the office may appear, and however painful the duty
+may be, of exposing the names of individuals, who have been convicted of
+adulterating food; yet it was necessary, for the verification of my
+statement, that cases should be adduced in their support; and I have
+carefully avoided citing any, except those which are authenticated in
+Parliamentary documents and other public records.
+
+To render this Treatise still more useful, I have also animadverted on
+certain material errors, sometimes unconsciously committed through
+accident or ignorance, in private families, during the preparation of
+various articles of food, and of delicacies for the table.
+
+In stating the experimental proceedings necessary for the detection of
+the frauds which it has been my object to expose, I have confined myself
+to the task of pointing out such operations only as may be performed by
+persons unacquainted with chemical science; and it has been my purpose
+to express all necessary rules and instructions in the plainest
+language, divested of those recondite terms of science, which would be
+out of place in a work intended for general perusal.
+
+The design of the Treatise will be fully answered, if the views here
+given should induce a single reader to pursue the object for which it
+is published; or if it should tend to impress on the mind of the Public
+the magnitude of an evil, which, in many cases, prevails to an extent so
+alarming, that we may exclaim with the sons of the Prophet,
+
+     "_THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT._"
+
+For the abolition of such nefarious practices, it is the interest of all
+classes of the community to co-operate.
+
+FREDRICK ACCUM.
+
+LONDON.
+1820.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD           _Page_ 13
+
+
+EFFECT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WATER EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY       33
+
+_Characters of Good Water_ 37
+
+_Chemical Constitution of the Waters used in Domestic Economy and
+the Arts_                                                             40
+
+_Rain Water_                                                          40
+_Snow Water_                                                          41
+_Spring Water_                                                        42
+_River Water_                                                         44
+
+_Substances usually contained in Common Water, and Tests by which
+they are detected_                                                    48
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of each of the different
+Substances usually contained in Common Water_                         54
+
+_Deleterious Effects of keeping Water for Domestic Economy, in
+Leaden Reservoirs_                                                    60
+
+_Method of detecting Lead, when contained in common Water_            69
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF WINE                                                  74
+
+_Method of detecting the Deleterious Adulterations of Wine_           86
+
+_Specific Differences, and Component Parts of Wine_                   89
+
+_Easy process of ascertaining the Quantity of Brandy contained in
+various sorts of Wine_                                                92
+
+_Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol
+contained in various kinds of Wine and other fermented Liquors_       94
+
+_Constitution of Home-made Wines_                                     96
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BREAD                                                 98
+
+_Method of detecting the Presence of Alum in Bread_                  108
+
+_Easy Method of judging of the Goodness of Bread-Corn and
+Bread-Flour_                                                         110
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BEER                                                 113
+
+_List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted for
+supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for Adulterating Beer_      119
+
+_Porter_                                                             121
+
+_Strength and Specific Differences of different kinds of Porter_     125
+
+_List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Beer
+with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer with their
+Strong Beer_                                                         129
+
+_Illegal Substances used for adulterating Beer_                      131
+
+_Ingredients seized at various Breweries and Brewers' Druggists,
+for adulterating Beer_                                               136
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Strong
+Beer with Table Beer_                                                143
+
+_Old, or Entire Beer; and New or Mild Beer_                          144
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for receiving and using
+illegal Ingredients in their Brewings_                               151
+
+_Method of detecting the Adulteration of Beer_                       158
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter,
+Ale, &c._                                                            160
+
+_Per Centage of Alcohol contained in Porter, and other kinds of
+Malt Liquors_                                                        162
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT TEA-LEAVES                                               163
+
+_Methods of detecting the Adulterations of Tea-Leaves_               171
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT COFFEE                                                   176
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BRANDY, RUM, AND GIN                                 187
+
+_Method of detecting the Adulterations of Brandy, Rum, and Malt
+Spirit_                                                              195
+
+_Method of detecting the Presence of Lead in Spiritous Liquors_      202
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Alcohol contained in
+different kinds of Spiritous Liquors_                                203
+
+_Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol contained in various
+kinds of Spiritous Liquors_                                          205
+
+
+POISONOUS CHEESE, _and method of detecting it_                       206
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT PEPPER, _and Method of detecting it_                     211
+
+_White Pepper, and method of manufacturing it_                       213
+
+
+POISONOUS CAYENNE PEPPER, _and method of detecting it_               215
+
+
+POISONOUS PICKLES, _and method of detecting them_                    217
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF VINEGAR, _and method of detecting it_                220
+
+_Distilled Vinegar_                                                  221
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF CREAM, _and method of detecting it_                  222
+
+
+POISONOUS CONFECTIONERY, _and method of detecting it_                224
+
+
+POISONOUS CATSUP, _and method of detecting it_                       227
+
+
+POISONOUS CUSTARDS                                                   231
+
+
+POISONOUS ANCHOVY SAUCE, _and method of detecting it_                234
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF LOZENGES, _and method of detecting them_             236
+
+
+POISONOUS OLIVE OIL, _and method of detecting it_                    239
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF MUSTARD                                              241
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF LEMON ACID, _and method of detecting it_             243
+
+
+POISONOUS MUSHROOMS                                                  246
+
+_Mushroom catsup_                                                    250
+
+
+POISONOUS SODA WATER, _and method of detecting it_                   251
+
+
+FOOD POISONED BY COPPER VESSELS, _and method of detecting it_        252
+
+
+FOOD POISONED BY LEADEN VESSELS, _and method of detecting it_        257
+
+
+INDEX                                                                261
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+TREATISE
+
+ON
+
+ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,
+
+AND
+
+CULINARY POISONS.
+
+
+
+
+PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
+
+
+Of all the frauds practised by mercenary dealers, there is none more
+reprehensible, and at the same time more prevalent, than the
+sophistication of the various articles of food.
+
+This unprincipled and nefarious practice, increasing in degree as it has
+been found difficult of detection, is now applied to almost every
+commodity which can be classed among either the necessaries or the
+luxuries of life, and is carried on to a most alarming extent in every
+part of the United Kingdom.
+
+It has been pursued by men, who, from the magnitude and apparent
+respectability of their concerns, would be the least obnoxious to public
+suspicion; and their successful example has called forth, from among the
+retail dealers, a multitude of competitors in the same iniquitous
+course.
+
+To such perfection of ingenuity has this system of adulterating food
+arrived, that spurious articles of various kinds are every where to be
+found, made up so skilfully as to baffle the discrimination of the most
+experienced judges.
+
+Among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now
+very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished--tea, coffee,
+bread, beer, wine, spiritous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar,
+mustard, cream, and other articles of subsistence.
+
+Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which
+is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are some
+substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.
+
+Some of these spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used
+as food; and as in these cases merely substances of inferior value are
+substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients, the sophistication,
+though it may affect our purse, does not injure our health. Of this kind
+are the manufacture of factitious pepper, the adulterations of mustard,
+vinegar, cream, &c. Others, however, are highly deleterious; and to this
+class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spiritous liquors,
+pickles, salad oil, and many others.
+
+There are particular chemists who make it a regular trade to supply
+drugs or nefarious preparations to the unprincipled brewer of porter or
+ale; others perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant; and
+others again to the grocer and the oilman. The operators carry on their
+processes chiefly in secresy, and under some delusive firm, with the
+ostensible denotements of a fair and lawful establishment.
+
+These illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method of a
+regular trade; they may severally claim to be distinguished as an _art
+and mystery_; for the workmen employed in them are often wholly ignorant
+of the nature of the substances which pass through their hands, and of
+the purposes to which they are ultimately applied.
+
+To elude the vigilance of the inquisitive, to defeat the scrutiny of the
+revenue officer, and to ensure the secresy of these mysteries, the
+processes are very ingeniously divided and subdivided among individual
+operators, and the manufacture is purposely carried on in separate
+establishments. The task of proportioning the ingredients for use is
+assigned to one individual, while the composition and preparation of
+them may be said to form a distinct part of the business, and is
+entrusted to another workman. Most of the articles are transmitted to
+the consumer in a disguised state, or in such a form that their real
+nature cannot possibly be detected by the unwary. Thus the extract of
+_coculus indicus_, employed by fraudulent manufacturers of malt-liquors
+to impart an intoxicating quality to porter or ales, is known in the
+market by the name of _black extract_, ostensibly destined for the use
+of tanners and dyers. It is obtained by boiling the berries of the
+coculus indicus in water, and converting, by a subsequent evaporation,
+this decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass, possessing, in a high
+degree, the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry
+from which it is prepared. Another substance, composed of extract of
+quassia and liquorice juice, used by fraudulent brewers to economise
+both malt and hops, is technically called _multum_.[1]
+
+The quantities of coculus indicus berries, as well as of black extract,
+imported into this country for adulterating malt liquors, are enormous.
+It forms a considerable branch of commerce in the hands of a few
+brokers: yet, singular as it may seem, no inquiry appears to have been
+hitherto made by the officers of the revenue respecting its application.
+Many other substances employed in the adulteration of beer, ale, and
+spiritous liquors, are in a similar manner intentionally disguised; and
+of the persons by whom they are purchased, a great number are totally
+unacquainted with their nature or composition.
+
+An extract, said to be innocent, sold in casks, containing from half a
+cwt. to five cwt. by the brewers' druggists, under the name of
+_bittern_, is composed of calcined sulphate of iron (copperas), extract
+of coculus indicus berries, extract of quassia, and Spanish liquorice.
+
+It would be very easy to adduce, in support of these remarks, the
+testimony of numerous individuals, by whom I have been professionally
+engaged to examine certain mixtures, said to be perfectly innocent,
+which are used in very extensive manufactories of the above description.
+Indeed, during the long period devoted to the practice of my
+profession, I have had abundant reason to be convinced that a vast
+number of dealers, of the highest respectability, have vended to their
+customers articles absolutely poisonous, which they themselves
+considered as harmless, and which they would not have offered for sale,
+had they been apprised of the spurious and pernicious nature of the
+compounds, and of the purposes to which they were destined.
+
+For instance, I have known cases in which brandy merchants were not
+aware that the substance which they frequently purchase under the
+delusive name of _flash_, for strengthening and clarifying spiritous
+liquors, and which is held out as consisting of burnt sugar and
+isinglass only, in the form of an extract, is in reality a compound of
+sugar, with extract of capsicum; and that to the acrid and pungent
+qualities of the capsicum is to be ascribed the heightened flavour of
+brandy and rum, when coloured with the above-mentioned matter.
+
+In other cases the ale-brewer has been supplied with ready-ground
+coriander seeds, previously mixed with a portion of _nux vomica_ and
+quassia, to give a bitter taste and narcotic property to the beverage.
+
+The retail venders of mustard do not appear to be aware that mustard
+seed alone cannot produce, when ground, a powder of so intense and
+brilliant a colour as that of the common mustard of commerce. Nor would
+the powder of real mustard, when mixed with salt and water, without the
+addition of a portion of pulverised capsicum, keep for so long a time as
+the mustard usually offered for sale.
+
+Many other instances of unconscious deceptions might be mentioned, which
+were practised by persons of upright and honourable minds.
+
+It is a painful reflection, that the division of labour which has been
+so instrumental in bringing the manufactures of this country to their
+present flourishing state, should have also tended to conceal and
+facilitate the fraudulent practices in question; and that from a
+correspondent ramification of commerce into a multitude of distinct
+branches, particularly in the metropolis and the large towns of the
+empire, the traffic in adulterated commodities should find its way
+through so many circuitous channels, as to defy the most scrutinising
+endeavour to trace it to its source.
+
+It is not less lamentable that the extensive application of chemistry to
+the useful purposes of life, should have been perverted into an
+auxiliary to this nefarious traffic. But, happily for the science, it
+may, without difficulty, be converted into a means of detecting the
+abuse; to effect which, very little chemical skill is required; and the
+course to be pursued forms the object of the following pages.
+
+The baker asserts that he does not put alum into bread; but he is well
+aware that, in purchasing a certain quantity of flour, he must take a
+sack of _sharp whites_ (a term given to flour contaminated with a
+quantity of alum), without which it would be impossible for him to
+produce light, white, and porous bread, from a half-spoiled material.
+
+The wholesale mealman frequently purchases this spurious commodity,
+(which forms a separate branch of business in the hands of certain
+individuals,) in order to enable himself to sell his decayed and
+half-spoiled flour.
+
+Other individuals furnish the baker with alum mixed up with salt, under
+the obscure denomination of _stuff_. There are wholesale manufacturing
+chemists, whose sole business is to crystallise alum, in such a form as
+will adapt this salt to the purpose of being mixed in a crystalline
+state with the crystals of common salt, to disguise the character of
+the compound. The mixture called _stuff_, is composed of one part of
+alum, in minute crystals, and three of common salt. In many other trades
+a similar mode of proceeding prevails. Potatoes are soaked in water to
+augment their weight.
+
+The practice of sophisticating the necessaries of life, being reduced to
+systematic regularity, is ranked by public opinion among other
+mercantile pursuits; and is not only regarded with less disgust than
+formerly, but is almost generally esteemed as a justifiable way to
+wealth.
+
+It is really astonishing that the penal law is not more effectually
+enforced against practices so inimical to the public welfare. The man
+who robs a fellow subject of a few shillings on the high-way, is
+sentenced to death; while he who distributes a slow poison to a whole
+community, escapes unpunished.
+
+It has been urged by some, that, under so vast a system of finance as
+that of Great Britain, it is expedient that the revenue should be
+collected in large amounts; and therefore that the severity of the law
+should be relaxed in favour of all mercantile concerns in proportion to
+their extent: encouragement must be given to large capitalists; and
+where an extensive brewery or distillery yields an important
+contribution to the revenue, no strict scrutiny need be adopted in
+regard to the quality of the article from which such contribution is
+raised, provided the excise do not suffer by the fraud.
+
+But the principles of the constitution afford no sanction to this
+preference, and the true interests of the country require that it should
+be abolished; for a tax dependent upon deception must be at best
+precarious, and must be, sooner or later, diminished by the irresistible
+diffusion of knowledge. Sound policy requires that the law should be
+impartially enforced in all cases; and if its penalties were extended to
+abuses of which it does not now take cognisance, there is no doubt that
+the revenue would be abundantly benefited.
+
+Another species of fraud, to which I shall at present but briefly
+advert, and which has increased to so alarming an extent, that it loudly
+calls for the interference of government, is the adulteration of drugs
+and medicines.
+
+Nine-tenths of the most potent drugs and chemical preparations used in
+pharmacy, are vended in a sophisticated state by dealers who would be
+the last to be suspected. It is well known, that of the article Peruvian
+bark, there is a variety of species inferior to the genuine; that too
+little discrimination is exercised by the collectors of this precious
+medicament; that it is carelessly assorted, and is frequently packed in
+green hides; that much of it arrives in Spain in a half-decayed state,
+mixed with fragments of other vegetables and various extraneous
+substances; and in this state is distributed throughout Europe.
+
+But as if this were not a sufficient deterioration, the public are often
+served with a spurious compound of mahogany saw-dust and oak wood,
+ground into powder mixed with a proportion of good quinquina, and sold
+as genuine bark powder.
+
+Every chemist knows that there are mills constantly at work in this
+metropolis, which furnish bark powder at a much cheaper rate than the
+substance can be procured for in its natural state. The price of the
+best genuine bark, upon an average, is not lower than twelve shillings
+the pound; but immense quantities of powder bark are supplied to the
+apothecaries at three or four shillings a pound.
+
+It is also notorious that there are manufacturers of spurious rhubarb
+powder, ipecacuanha powder,[2] James's powder; and other simple and
+compound medicines of great potency, who carry on their diabolical trade
+on an amazingly large scale. Indeed, the quantity of medical
+preparations thus sophisticated exceeds belief. Cheapness, and not
+genuineness and excellence, is the grand desideratum with the
+unprincipled dealers in drugs and medicines.
+
+Those who are familiar with chemistry may easily convince themselves of
+the existence of the fraud, by subjecting to a chemical examination
+either spirits of hartshorn, magnesia, calcined magnesia, calomel, or
+any other chemical preparation in general demand.
+
+Spirit of hartshorn is counterfeited by mixing liquid caustic ammonia
+with the distilled spirit of hartshorn, to increase the pungency of its
+odour, and to enable it to bear an addition of water.
+
+The fraud is detected by adding spirit of wine to the sophisticated
+spirit; for, if no considerable coagulation ensues, the adulteration is
+proved. It may also be discovered by the hartshorn spirit not producing
+a brisk effervescence when mixed with muriatic or nitric acid.
+
+Magnesia usually contains a portion of lime, originating from hard water
+being used instead of soft, in the preparation of this medicine.
+
+To ascertain the purity of magnesia, add to a portion of it a little
+sulphuric acid, diluted with ten times its bulk of water. If the
+magnesia be completely soluble, and the solution remains transparent, it
+may be pronounced _pure_; but not otherwise. Or, dissolve a portion of
+the magnesia in muriatic acid, and add a solution of sub-carbonate of
+ammonia. If any lime be present, it will form a precipitate; whereas
+pure magnesia will remain in solution.
+
+Calcined magnesia is seldom met with in a pure state. It may be assayed
+by the same tests as the common magnesia. It ought not to effervesce at
+all, with dilute sulphuric acid; and, if the magnesia and acid be put
+together into one scale of a balance, no diminution of weight should
+ensue on mixing them together. Calcined magnesia, however, is very
+seldom so pure as to be totally dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid;
+for a small insoluble residue generally remains, consisting chiefly of
+silicious earth, derived from the alkali employed in the preparation of
+it. The solution in sulphuric acid, when largely diluted, ought not to
+afford any precipitation by the addition of oxalate of ammonia.
+
+The genuineness of calomel may be ascertained by boiling, for a few
+minutes, one part, with 1/32 part of muriate of ammonia in ten parts of
+distilled water. When carbonate of potash is added to the filtered
+solution, no precipitation will ensue if the calomel be pure.
+
+Indeed, some of the most common and cheap drugs do not escape the
+adulterating hand of the unprincipled druggist. Syrup of buckthorn, for
+example, instead of being prepared from the juice of buckthorn berries,
+(_rhamnus catharticus_,) is made from the fruit of the blackberry
+bearing alder, and the dogberry tree. A mixture of the berries of the
+buckthorn and blackberry bearing alder, and of the dogberry tree, may be
+seen publicly exposed for sale by some of the venders of medicinal
+herbs. This abuse may be discovered by opening the berries: those of
+buckthorn have almost always four seeds; of the alder, two; and of the
+dogberry, only one. Buckthorn berries, bruised on white paper, stain it
+of a green colour, which the others do not.
+
+Instead of worm-seed (_artemisia santonica_,) the seeds of tansy are
+frequently offered for sale, or a mixture of both.
+
+A great many of the essential oils obtained from the more expensive
+spices, are frequently so much adulterated, that it is not easy to meet
+with such as are at all fit for use: nor are these adulterations easily
+discoverable. The grosser abuses, indeed, may be readily detected. Thus,
+if the oil be adulterated with alcohol, it will turn milky on the
+addition of water; if with expressed oils, alcohol will dissolve the
+volatile, and leave the other behind; if with oil of turpentine, on
+dipping a piece of paper in the mixture, and drying it with a gentle
+heat, the turpentine will be betrayed by its smell. The more subtile
+artists, however, have contrived other methods of sophistication, which
+elude all trials. And as all volatile oils agree in the general
+properties of solubility in spirit of wine, and volatility in the heat
+of boiling water, &c. it is plain that they may be variously mixed with
+each other, or the dearer sophisticated with the cheaper, without any
+possibility of discovering the abuse by any of the before-mentioned
+trials. Perfumers assert that the smell and taste are the only certain
+tests of which the nature of the thing will admit. For example, if a
+bark should have in every respect the appearance of good cinnamon, and
+should be proved indisputably to be the genuine bark of the cinnamon
+tree; yet if it want the cinnamon flavour, or has it but in a low
+degree, we reject it: and the case is the same with the essential oil of
+cinnamon. It is only from use and habit, or comparisons with specimens
+of known quality, that we can judge of the goodness, either of the drugs
+themselves, or of their oils.
+
+Most of the arrow-root, the fecula of the Maranta arudinacea, sold by
+druggists, is a mixture of potatoe starch and arrow-root.
+
+The same system of adulteration extends to articles used in various
+trades and manufactures. For instance, linen tape, and various other
+household commodities of that kind, instead of being manufactured of
+linen thread only, are made up of linen and cotton. Colours for
+painting, not only those used by artists, such as ultramarine,[3]
+carmine,[4] and lake;[5] Antwerp blue,[6] chrome yellow,[7] and Indian
+ink;[8] but also the coarser colours used by the common house-painter
+are more or less adulterated. Thus, of the latter kind, white lead[9] is
+mixed with carbonate or sulphate of barytes; vermilion[10] with red
+lead.
+
+Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a
+considerable portion of fine white clay, brought from St. Stephens, in
+Cornwall. In the manufacture of printing paper, a large quantity of
+plaster of Paris is added to the paper stuff, to increase the weight of
+the manufactured article. The selvage of cloth is often dyed with a
+permanent colour, and artfully stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a
+fugitive dye. The frauds committed in the tanning of skins, and in the
+manufacture of cutlery and jewelry, exceed belief.
+
+The object of all unprincipled modern manufacturers seems to be the
+sparing of their time and labour as much as possible, and to increase
+the quantity of the articles they produce, without much regard to their
+quality. The ingenuity and perseverance of self-interest is proof
+against prohibitions, and contrives to elude the vigilance of the most
+active government.
+
+The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, which seems to be a leading
+characteristic of the times, calls into action every human faculty, and
+gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention; and where lucre
+becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of even a fellow
+creature's life is a secondary consideration. In reference to the
+deterioration of almost all the necessaries and comforts of existence,
+it may be justly observed, in a civil as well as a religious sense, that
+"_in the midst of life we are in death_."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _The Times_, May 18, 1818. The King _v._ Richard Bowman. The
+defendant was a brewer, living in Wapping-street, Wapping, and was
+charged with having in his possession a drug called _multum_, and a
+quantity of copperas.
+
+The articles were produced by Thomas Gates, an excise officer, who had,
+after a search, found them on the defendant's premises. The Court
+sentenced the defendant to pay a fine of 200_l._
+
+The King _v._ Luke Lyons. The defendant is a brewer, and was brought up
+under an indictment charging him with having made use of various
+deleterious drugs in his brewery, among which were capsicum, copperas,
+&c. The defendant was ordered to pay the fines of 20_l._ upon the first
+count, 200_l._ upon the third, and 200_l._ upon the seventh count in the
+indictment.
+
+The King _v._ Thomas Evans. The charge against this defendant was, that
+he had in his possession forty-seven barrels of stale unpalatable beer.
+On, the 11th of March, John Wilson, an excise officer, went to the
+storehouse, and found forty-seven casks containing forty-three barrels
+and a half of sour unwholesome beer. Several samples of the beer were
+produced, all of them of a different colour, and filled with sediment. A
+fine of 30_l._ was ordered to be paid by the defendant.
+
+[2] Of this root, several varieties are imported. The white sort, which
+has no wrinkles, and no perceptible bitterness in taste, and which,
+though taken in a large dose, has scarcely any effect at all, after
+being pulverised by fraudulent druggists, and mixed with a portion of
+emetic tartar, is sold, at a low price, for the powder of genuine
+ipecacuanha root.
+
+[3] Genuine ultramarine should become deprived of its colour when thrown
+into concentrated nitric acid.
+
+[4] Genuine carmine should be totally soluble in liquid ammonia.
+
+[5] Genuine madder and carmine lakes should be totally soluble by
+boiling in a concentrated solution of soda or potash.
+
+[6] Genuine Antwerp blue should not become deprived of its colour when
+thrown into liquid chlorine.
+
+[7] Genuine chrome yellow should not effervesce with nitric acid.
+
+[8] The best Indian ink breaks, splintery, with a smooth glossy
+fracture, and feels soft, and not gritty, when rubbed against the teeth.
+
+[9] Genuine white lead should be completely soluble in nitric acid, and
+the solution should remain transparent when mingled with a solution of
+sulphate of soda.
+
+[10] Genuine vermilion should become totally volatilised on being
+exposed to a red heat; and it should not impart a red colour to spirit
+of wine, when digested with it.
+
+
+
+
+REMARKS
+
+ON THE
+
+Effect of different Kinds of Waters
+
+IN THEIR APPLICATION TO
+
+DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS;
+
+AND
+
+METHODS OF ASCERTAINING THEIR PURITY.
+
+
+It requires not much reflection to become convinced that the waters
+which issue from the recesses of the earth, and form springs, wells,
+rivers, or lakes, often materially differ from each other in their taste
+and other obvious properties. There are few people who have not observed
+a difference in the waters used for domestic purposes and in the arts;
+and the distinctions of _hard_ and _soft_ water are familiar to every
+body.
+
+Water perfectly pure is scarcely ever met with in nature.
+
+It must also be obvious, that the health and comfort of families, and
+the conveniences of domestic life, are materially affected by the supply
+of good and wholesome water. Hence a knowledge of the quality and
+salubrity of the different kinds of waters employed in the common
+concerns of life, on account of the abundant daily use we make of them
+in the preparation of food, is unquestionably an object of considerable
+importance, and demands our attention.
+
+The effects produced by the foreign matters which water may contain, are
+more considerable, and of greater importance, than might at first be
+imagined. It cannot be denied, that such waters as are _hard_, or loaded
+with earthy matter, have a decided effect upon some important functions
+of the human body. They increase the distressing symptoms under which
+those persons labour who are afflicted with what is commonly called
+gravel complaints; and many other ailments might be named, that are
+always aggravated by the use of waters abounding in saline and earthy
+substances.
+
+The purity of the waters employed in some of the arts and manufactures,
+is an object of not less consequence. In the process of brewing malt
+liquors, soft water is preferable to hard. Every brewer knows that the
+largest possible quantity of the extractive matter of the malt is
+obtained in the least possible time, and at the smallest cost, by means
+of soft water.
+
+In the art of the dyer, hard water not only opposes the solution of
+several dye stuffs, but it also alters the natural tints of some
+delicate colours; whilst in others again it precipitates the earthy and
+saline matters with which it is impregnated, into the delicate fibres of
+the stuff, and thus impedes the softness and brilliancy of the dye.
+
+The bleacher cannot use with advantage waters impregnated with earthy
+salts; and a minute portion of iron imparts to the cloth a yellowish
+hue.
+
+To the manufacturer of painters' colours, water as pure as possible is
+absolutely essential for the successful preparation of several delicate
+pigments. Carmine, madder lake, ultramarine, and Indian yellow, cannot
+be prepared without perfectly pure water.
+
+For the steeping or raiting of flax, soft water is absolutely necessary;
+in hard water the flax may be immersed for months, till its texture be
+injured, and still the ligneous matter will not be decomposed, and the
+fibres properly separated.
+
+In the culinary art, the effects of water more or less pure are
+likewise obvious. Good and pure water softens the fibres of animal and
+vegetable matters more readily than such as is called _hard_. Every cook
+knows that dry or ripe pease, and other farinaceous seeds, cannot
+_readily_ be boiled soft in hard water; because the farina of the seed
+is not perfectly soluble in water loaded with earthy salts.
+
+Green esculent vegetable substances are more tender when boiled in soft
+water than in hard water; although hard water imparts to them a better
+colour. The effects of hard and soft water may be easily shown in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Let two separate portions of tea-leaves be macerated, by precisely the
+same processes, in circumstances all alike, in similar and separate
+vessels, the one containing hard and the other soft water, either hot or
+cold, the infusion made with the soft water will have by far the
+strongest taste, although it possesses less colour than the infusion
+made with the hard water. It will strike a more intense black with a
+solution of sulphate of iron, and afford a more abundant precipitate,
+with a solution of animal jelly, which at once shews that soft water has
+extracted more tanning matter, and more gallic acid, from the
+tea-leaves, than could be obtained from them under like circumstances by
+means of hard water.
+
+Many animals which are accustomed to drink soft water, refuse hard
+water. Horses in particular prefer the former. Pigeons refuse hard water
+when they have been accustomed to soft water.
+
+
+CHARACTERS OF GOOD WATER.
+
+A good criterion of the purity of water fit for domestic purposes, is
+its softness. This quality is at once obvious by the touch, if we only
+wash our hands in it with soap. Good water should be beautifully
+transparent; a slight opacity indicates extraneous matter. To judge of
+the perfect transparency of water, a quantity of it should be put into a
+deep glass vessel, the larger the better, so that we can look down
+perpendicularly into a considerable mass of the fluid; we may then
+readily discover the slightest degree of muddiness much better than if
+the water be viewed through the glass placed between the eye and the
+light. It should be perfectly colourless, devoid of odour, and its
+taste soft and agreeable. It should send out air-bubbles when poured
+from one vessel into another; it should boil pulse soft, and form with
+soap an uniform opaline fluid, which does not separate after standing
+for several hours.
+
+It is to the presence of common air and carbonic acid gas that common
+water owes its taste, and many of the good effects which it produces on
+animals and vegetables. Spring water, which contains more air, has a
+more lively taste than river water.
+
+Hence the insipid or vapid taste of newly boiled water, from which these
+gases are expelled: fish cannot live in water deprived of those elastic
+fluids.
+
+100 cubic inches of the New River water, with which part of this
+metropolis is supplied, contains 2,25 of carbonic acid, and 1,25 of
+common air. The water of the river Thames contains rather a larger
+quantity of common air, and a smaller portion of carbonic acid.
+
+If water not fully saturated with common air be agitated with this
+elastic fluid, a portion of the air is absorbed; but the two chief
+constituent gases of the atmosphere, the oxygen and nitrogen, are not
+equally affected, the former being absorbed in preference to the latter.
+
+According to Mr. Dalton, in agitating water with atmospheric air,
+consisting of 79 of nitrogen, and 21 of oxygen, the water absorbs 1/64
+of 79/100 nitrogen gas = 1,234, and 1/27 of 21/100 oxygen gas = 778,
+amounting in all to 2,012.
+
+Water is freed from foreign matter by distillation: and for any chemical
+process in which accuracy is requisite, distilled water must be used.
+
+Hard waters may, in general, be cured in part, by dropping into them a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash; or, if the hardness be owing only
+to the presence of super-carbonate of lime, mere boiling will greatly
+remedy the defect; part of the carbonic acid flies off, and a neutral
+carbonate of lime falls down to the bottom; it may then be used for
+washing, scarcely curdling soap. But if the hardness be owing in part to
+sulphate of lime, boiling does not soften it at all.
+
+When spring water is used for washing, it is advantageous to leave it
+for some time exposed to the open air in a reservoir with a large
+surface. Part of the carbonic acid becomes thus dissipated, and part of
+the carbonate of lime falls to the bottom. Mr. Dalton[11] has observed
+that the more any spring is drawn from, the softer the water becomes.
+
+
+CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE WATERS USED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE
+ARTS.
+
+
+_Rain Water_,
+
+Collected with every precaution as it descends from the clouds, and at a
+distance from large towns, or any other object capable of impregnating
+the atmosphere with foreign matters, approaches more nearly to a state
+of purity than perhaps any other natural water. Even collected under
+these circumstances, however, it invariably contains a portion of common
+air and carbonic acid gas. The specific gravity of rain water scarcely
+differs from that of distilled water; and from the minute portions of
+the foreign ingredients which it generally contains, it is very _soft_,
+and admirably adapted for many culinary purposes, and various processes
+in different manufactures and the arts.
+
+Fresh-fallen _snow_, melted without the contact of air, appears to be
+nearly free from air. Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, however, affirm, that it
+contains nearly the usual proportion of air.
+
+Water from melted _ice_ does not contain so much air. _Dew_ has been
+supposed to be saturated with air.
+
+Snow water has long laid under the imputation of occasioning those
+strumous swellings in the neck which deform the inhabitants of many of
+the Alpine vallies; but this opinion is not supported by any
+well-authenticated indisputable facts, and is rendered still more
+improbable, if not entirely overturned, by the frequency of the disease
+in Sumatra[12], where ice and snow are never seen.
+
+In high northern latitudes, thawed snow forms the constant drink of the
+inhabitants during winter; and the vast masses of ice which float on the
+polar seas, afford an abundant supply of fresh water to the mariner.
+
+
+_Spring Water_,
+
+Includes well-water and all others that arise from some depth below the
+surface of the earth, and which are used at the fountain-head, or at
+least before they have run any considerable distance exposed to the air.
+Indeed, springs may be considered as rain water which has passed through
+the fissures of the earth, and, having accumulated at the bottom of
+declivities, rises again to the surface forming springs and wells. As
+wells take their origin at some depth from the surface, and below the
+influence of the external atmosphere, their temperature is in general
+pretty uniform during every vicissitude of season, and always several
+degrees lower than the atmosphere. They differ from one another
+according to the nature of the strata through which they issue; for
+though the ingredients usually existing in them are in such minute
+quantities as to impart to the water no striking properties, and do not
+render it unfit for common purposes, yet they modify its nature very
+considerably. Hence the water of some springs is said to be _hard_, of
+others _soft_, some _sweet_, others _brackish_, according to the nature
+and degree of the inpregnating ingredients.
+
+Common springs are insensibly changed into mineral or medicinal springs,
+as their foreign contents become larger or more unusual; or, in some
+instances, they derive medicinal celebrity from the absence of those
+ingredients usually occurring in spring-water; as, for example, is the
+case with the Malvern spring, which is nearly pure water.
+
+Almost all spring-waters possess the property termed _hardness_ in a
+greater or less degree; a property which depends chiefly upon the
+presence of super-carbonate, or of sulphate of lime, or of both; and the
+quantity of these earthy salts varies very considerably in different
+instances. Mr. Dalton[13] has shewn that one grain of sulphate of lime,
+contained in 2000 grains of water, converts it into the hardest spring
+water that is commonly met with.
+
+The waters of deep wells are usually much harder than those of springs
+which overflow the mouth of the well; but there are some exceptions to
+this rule.
+
+The purest springs are those which occur in primitive rocks, or beds of
+gravel, or filter through sand or silicious strata. In general, large
+springs are purer than small ones: and our old wells contain finer water
+than those that are new, as the soluble parts through which the water
+filters in channels under ground become gradually washed away.
+
+
+_River Water_,
+
+Is a term applied to every running stream or rivulet exposed to the air,
+and always flowing in an open channel. It is formed of spring water,
+which, by exposure, becomes more pure, and of running land or surface
+water, which, although turbid from particles of the alluvial soil
+suspended in it, is otherwise very pure. It is purest when it runs over
+a gravelly or rocky bed, and when its course is swift. It is generally
+soft, and more free from earthy salts than spring water; but it usually
+contains less common air and carbonic acid gas; for, by the agitation of
+a long current, and exposed to the temperature of the atmosphere, part
+of its carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the lime held in solution by
+it is in part precipitated, the loss of which contributes to the
+softness of the water. Its specific gravity thereby becomes less, the
+taste not so harsh, but less fresh and agreeable; and out of a hard
+spring is often made a stream of sufficient purity for most of the
+purposes where a soft water is required.
+
+The water called in this metropolis _New River Water_, contains a minute
+portion of muriate of lime, carbonate of lime, and muriate of soda.
+
+Some streams, however, that arise from clean silicious beds, and flow in
+a sandy or stony channel, are from the outset remarkably pure; such as
+the mountain lakes and rivulets in the rocky districts of Wales, the
+source of the beautiful waters of the Dee, and numberless other rivers
+that flow through the hollow of every valley. Switzerland has long been
+celebrated for the purity and excellence of its waters, which pour in
+copious streams from the mountains, and give rise to the finest rivers
+in Europe.
+
+Some rivers, however, that do not take their rise from a rocky soil, and
+are indeed at first considerably charged with foreign matter, during a
+long course, even over a richly cultivated plain, become remarkably pure
+as to saline contents; but often fouled with mud containing much animal
+and vegetable matter, which are rather suspended than held in true
+solution. Such is the water of the river Thames, which, taken up at
+London at low water mark, is very soft and good; and, after rest, it
+contains but a very small portion of any thing that could prove
+pernicious, or impede any manufacture. It is also excellently fitted for
+sea-store; but it then undergoes a remarkable spontaneous change, when
+preserved in wooden casks. No water carried to sea becomes putrid sooner
+than that of the Thames. But the mode now adopted in the navy of
+substituting iron tanks for wooden casks, tends greatly to obviate this
+disadvantage.
+
+Whoever will consider the situation of the Thames, and the immense
+population along its banks for so many miles, must at once perceive the
+prodigious accumulation of animal matters of all kinds, which by means
+of the common sewers constantly make their way into it. These matters
+are, no doubt, in part the cause of the putrefaction which it is well
+known to undergo at sea, and of the carburetted and sulphuretted
+hydrogen gases which are evolved from it. When a wooden cask is opened,
+after being kept a month or two, a quantity of carburetted and
+sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and the water is so black and offensive
+as scarcely to be borne. Upon racking it off, however, into large
+earthen vessels, and exposing it to the air, it gradually deposits a
+quantity of black slimy mud, becomes clear as crystal, and remarkably
+sweet and palatable.
+
+It might, at first sight, be expected that the water of the Thames,
+after having received all the contents of the sewers, drains, and water
+courses, of a large town, should acquire thereby such impregnation with
+foreign matters, as to become very impure; but it appears, from the most
+accurate experiments that have been made, that those kinds of impurities
+have no perceptible influence on the salubrious quality of a mass of
+water so immense, and constantly kept in motion by the action of the
+tides.
+
+Some traces of animal matter may, however, be detected in the water of
+the Thames; for if nitrate of lead be dropped into it,[14] "you will
+find that it becomes milky, and that a white powder falls to the bottom,
+which dissolves without effervescence in nitric acid. It is, therefore,
+(says Dr. Thomson) a combination of oxide of lead with some animal
+matter."
+
+
+SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER, AND TESTS BY WHICH THEY
+ARE DETECTED.
+
+To acquire a knowledge of the general nature of common water, it is only
+necessary to add to it a few chemical tests, which will quickly indicate
+the presence or absence of the substances that may be expected.
+
+Almost the only salts contained in common waters are the carbonates,
+sulphates, and muriates of soda, lime, and magnesia; and sometimes a
+very minute portion of iron may also be detected in them.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a wine-glass with distilled water, and add to it a few drops of a
+solution of soap in alcohol, the water will remain transparent.
+
+This test is employed for ascertaining the presence of earthy salts in
+waters. Hence it produces no change when mingled with distilled or
+perfectly pure water; but when added to water containing earthy salts, a
+white flocculent matter becomes separated, which speedily collects on
+the surface of the fluid. Now, from the quantity of flocculent matter
+produced, in equal quantities of water submitted to the test, a
+tolerable notion may be formed of the degrees of hardness of different
+kinds of water, at least so far as regards the fitness of the water for
+the ordinary purposes of domestic economy. This may be rendered obvious
+in the following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a number of wine-glasses with different kinds of pump or well
+water, and let fall into each glass a few drops of the solution of soap
+in alcohol. A turbidness will instantly ensue, and a flocculent matter
+collect on the surface of the fluid, if the mixture be left undisturbed.
+The quantity of flocculent matter will be in the ratio of the quantity
+of earthy salts contained in the water.
+
+It is obvious that the action of this test is not discriminative, with
+regard to the chemical nature of the earthy salt present in the water.
+It serves only to indicate the _presence_ or _absence_ of those kinds of
+substances which occasion that quality in water which is usually called
+_hardness_, and which is always owing to salts with an earthy base.
+
+If we wish to know the nature of the different acids and earths
+contained in the water, the following test may be employed.[15]
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add about twenty drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia, to half a
+wine-glass of the water; if a white precipitate ensues, we conclude that
+the water contains lime.
+
+By means of this test, one grain of lime may be detected in 24,250 of
+water.
+
+If this test occasion a white precipitate in water taken fresh from the
+pump or spring, and not after the water has been boiled and suffered to
+grow cold, the lime is dissolved in the water by an excess of carbonic
+acid; and if it continues to produce a precipitate in the water which
+has been concentrated by boiling, we then are sure that the lime is
+combined with a fixed acid.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+To detect the presence of iron, add to a wine-glassful of the water a
+few drops of an infusion of nut-galls; or better, suffer a nut-gall to
+be suspended in it for twenty-four hours, which will cause the water to
+acquire a blueish black colour, if iron be present.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add a few grains of muriate of barytes, to half a wine-glass of the
+water to be examined; if it produces a turbidness which does not
+disappear by the admixture of a few drops of muriatic acid, the presence
+of sulphuric acid is rendered obvious.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver occasions a milkiness
+with the water, which vanishes again by the copious addition of liquid
+ammonia, we have reason to believe that the water contains a salt, one
+of the constituent parts of which is muriatic acid.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If lime water or barytic water occasions a precipitate which again
+vanishes by the admixture of muriatic acid, then carbonic acid is
+present in the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If a solution of phosphate of soda produces a milkiness with the water,
+after a previous addition to it of a similar quantity of neutral
+carbonate of ammonia, we may then expect magnesia. The application of
+this test is best made in the following manner:
+
+Concentrate a quantity of the water to be examined to about 1/20 part of
+its bulk, and drop into about half a wine-glassful, about five grains of
+neutral carbonate of ammonia. No magnesia becomes yet precipitated if
+this earth be present; but on adding a like quantity of phosphate of
+soda, the magnesia falls down, as an insoluble salt. It is essential
+that the carbonate of ammonia be neutral.
+
+This test was first pointed out by Dr. Wollaston.
+
+The presence of oxygen gas loosely combined in water may readily be
+discovered in the following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a vial with water, and add to it a small quantity of green sulphate
+of iron. If the water be entirely free of oxygen, and if the vessel be
+well stopped and completely filled, the solution is transparent; but if
+otherwise, it soon becomes slightly turbid, from the oxide of iron
+attracting the oxygen, and a small portion of it, in this more highly
+oxidated state, leaving the acid and being precipitated. Or, according
+to a method pointed out by Driessen, the water is to be boiled for two
+hours in a flask filled with it, and immersed in a vessel of water kept
+boiling, with the mouth of the flask under the surface of the water: it
+is to be inverted in quicksilver, taking care that no air-bubble adheres
+to the side of the flask, and being tinged with infusion of litmus, a
+little nitrous gas is to be introduced: if the oxygen gas has been
+sufficiently expelled from the water, the purple colour of the litmus
+does not change; while, if oxygen be present, it immediately becomes
+red.[16]
+
+If we examine the different waters which are used for the ordinary
+purposes of life, and judge of them by the above tests, we shall find
+them to differ considerably from each other. Some contain a large
+quantity of saline and earthy matters, whilst others are nearly pure.
+The differences are produced by the great solvent power which water
+exercises upon most substances. Wells should never be lined with bricks,
+which render soft water hard; or, if bricks be employed, they should be
+bedded in and covered with cement.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE RELATIVE QUANTITY OF EACH OF THE DIFFERENT
+SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER.
+
+To ascertain the quantity of earthy and saline matter contained in
+water, the following is the most simple and easy method.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Put any measured quantity of the water into a platina, or silver
+evaporating basin, the weight of which is known, and evaporate the water
+upon a steam bath, at a temperature of about 180°, nearly to dryness;
+and, lastly, remove the basin to a sand bath, and let the mass be
+evaporated to perfect dryness. The weight of the platina basin being
+already known, we have only to weigh it carefully. When the solid saline
+contents of the water is attached to it, the increase of weight gives
+the quantity of solid matter contained in a given quantity of the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Pour upon the saline contents a quantity of distilled water equal to
+that in which the obtained salts were originally dissolved. If the whole
+saline matter become dissolved in this water, there is reason to believe
+that the saline matter has not been altered during the evaporation of
+the water. But if a portion remain undissolved, as is usually the case,
+then we may conclude that some of the salts have mutually decomposed
+each other, when brought into a concentrated state by the evaporation,
+and that salts have been formed which did not originally exist in the
+water before its evaporation.
+
+We have already mentioned that almost the only salts contained in common
+waters, are the carbonates, sulphates, and muriates, of soda, lime, and
+magnesia; and sometimes a very minute portion of iron. Having determined
+the different acids and bases present, in the manner stated at p. 49, we
+may easily ascertain the relative weight of each.
+
+The following formula suggested by Dr. Murray,[17] is fully as accurate
+a means of analysing waters as any other, and it is easy of execution.
+The weight of the saline ingredients of a given quantity of water being
+determined, we may proceed to the accurate analysis of it in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Measure out a determinate volume of the water (as 500 or 1000 cubic
+inches,) and evaporate it gradually, in an unglazed open vessel defended
+from dust, to one third of its original bulk; then divide this
+evaporated liquid into three equal portions.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Drop into the first portion, muriate of barytes; wash the precipitate,
+collect it, dry it at a red heat upon platina foil, and weigh it; digest
+it in nitric acid, dry it, and weigh it again. The loss of weight
+indicates the quantity of carbonate of barytes which the precipitate
+contained. The residual weight is sulphate of barytes; the carbonic acid
+in the water is equivalent to 0,22 of the weight of the carbonate of
+barytes; the sulphuric acid to 0,339 of the weight of the sulphate of
+barytes.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Precipitate the second portion of the concentrated water, by the
+addition of nitrate of silver; wash the precipitate, dry it, and fuse it
+on a piece of foil platina, previously weighed. By weighing the foil
+containing the fused chloride of silver, the weight of the precipitate
+may be ascertained. The fourth part of this weight is equivalent to the
+weight of the muriatic acid contained in the portion of water
+precipitated.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Precipitate the third portion of the water by the addition of oxalate of
+ammonia; wash and dry the precipitate; expose it to a red heat, on a
+platina foil, or in a capsule of platina; pour on it some dilute
+sulphuric acid; digest for some time, then evaporate to dryness, expose
+the capsule to a pretty strong heat, and, lastly, weigh the sulphate of
+lime thus produced: 0.453 of its weight indicate the quantity of lime in
+the portion of water precipitated.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add to the same third portion of the water thus freed from lime, a
+portion of a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, and then add
+phosphoric acid, drop by drop, as long as any precipitate falls down.
+Wash the precipitate, dry it, and expose it to a red heat in a platina
+capsule: it is phosphate of magnesia. 0.357 of the weight of this salt
+is equivalent to the weight of the magnesia contained in the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If the water contain a minute portion of iron, a quantity of it equal to
+one of the three preceding portions, must be taken and mixed with a
+solution of benzoate of ammonia. The precipitate being washed, dried,
+and exposed to a red heat, and weighed, nine-tenths of its weight
+indicate the weight of protoxide of iron contained in the water.
+
+In this manner the quantity of all the substances contained in the water
+will be ascertained, except there be any soda. To know the amount of it,
+the following method, pointed out by Dr. Murray, answers very well.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Evaporate a portion of the water to one third of its bulk. Precipitate
+the carbonic and sulphuric acids by the addition of muriate of barytes,
+taking care not to add any excess of the tests.
+
+Precipitate the lime by oxalate of ammonia, and the magnesia by
+carbonate of ammonia and phosphoric acid. (Page 52.) Then evaporate the
+liquid thus treated to dryness. A quantity of common salt will remain:
+let this be exposed to a red heat; 0.4 of its weight indicate the sodium
+contained in the bulk of water employed; and 0.4 sodium are equivalent
+to 0.53 of soda.
+
+It seems hardly requisite to mention some other substances that
+occasionally make their appearance in the waters used for domestic
+purposes. A fine divided sand is a common constituent, which is easily
+obtained in a separate state. We have only to evaporate a portion of the
+water to dryness, and redissolve the saline residue in distilled water.
+The silicious sand remains undissolved, and betrays itself by its
+insolubility in acids, and its easy fusibility into a transparant glass,
+with soda, before the blow-pipe.
+
+
+DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF KEEPING WATER FOR DOMESTIC ECONOMY IN LEADEN
+RESERVOIRS.
+
+The deleterious effect of lead, when taken into the stomach, is at
+present so universally known, that it is quite unnecessary to adduce
+any argument in proof of its dangerous tendency.
+
+The ancients were, upwards of 2000 years ago, as well aware of the
+pernicious quality of this metal as we are at the present day; and
+indeed they appeared to have been much more apprehensive of its effects,
+and scrupulous in the application of it to purposes of domestic economy.
+
+Their precautions may have been occasionally carried to an unnecessary
+length. This was the natural consequence of the imperfect state of
+experimental knowledge at that period. When men were unable to detect
+the poisonous matters--to be over scrupulous in the use of such water,
+was an error on the right side.
+
+The moderns, on the other hand, in part, perhaps, from an ill-founded
+confidence, and inattention to a careful and continued examination of
+its effects, have fallen into an opposite error.
+
+There can be no doubt that the mode of preserving water intended for
+food or drink in leaden reservoirs, is exceedingly improper; and
+although pure water exercises no sensible action upon metallic lead,
+provided air be excluded, the metal is certainly acted on by the water
+when air is admitted: this effect is so obvious, that it cannot escape
+the notice of the least attentive observer.
+
+The white line which may be seen at the surface of the water preserved
+in leaden cisterns, where the metal touches the water and where the air
+is admitted, is a carbonate of lead, formed at the expense of the metal.
+This substance, when taken into the stomach, is highly deleterious to
+health. This was the reason which induced the ancients to condemn leaden
+pipes for the conveyance of water; it having been remarked that persons
+who swallowed the sediment of such water, became affected with disorders
+of the bowels.[18]
+
+Leaden water reservoirs were condemned in ancient times by Hyppocrates,
+Galen, and Vitruvius, as dangerous: in addition to which, we may depend
+on the observations of Van Swieten, Tronchin, and others, who have
+quoted numerous unhappy examples of whole families poisoned by water
+which had remained in reservoirs of lead. Dr. Johnston, Dr. Percival,
+Sir George Baker, and Dr. Lamb, have likewise recorded numerous
+instances where dangerous diseases ensued from the use of water
+impregnated with lead.
+
+Different potable waters have unequal solvent powers on this metal. In
+some places the use of leaden pumps has been discontinued, from the
+expense entailed upon the proprietors by the constant want of repair.
+Dr. Lamb[19] states an instance where the proprietor of a well ordered
+his plumber to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the
+metal usually employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because
+he had observed that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it
+corroded the lead very soon.
+
+The following instance is related by Sir George Baker:[20]
+
+"A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had
+one-and-twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen survived
+their parents. During their infancy, and indeed _until they had quitted
+the place of their usual residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy_;
+being particularly subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The
+father, during many years, was paralytic; the mother, for a long time,
+was subject to colics and bilious obstructions.
+
+"After the death of the parents, the family sold the house which they
+had so long inhabited. The purchaser found it necessary to repair the
+pump. This was made of lead; which, upon examination was found to be so
+corroded, that several perforations were observed in the cylinder, in
+which the bucket plays; and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to
+the thinness of common brown paper, and was full of holes, like a
+sieve."
+
+I have myself seen numerous instances where leaden cisterns have been
+completely corroded by the action of water with which they were in
+contact: and there is, perhaps, not a plumber who cannot give testimony
+of having experienced numerous similar instances in the practice of his
+trade.
+
+I have been frequently called upon to examine leaden cisterns, which had
+become leaky on account of the action of the water which they contained;
+and I could adduce an instance of a legal controversy having taken place
+to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a
+plumber, originating from a similar cause--the plumber being accused of
+having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to be
+owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. Water containing
+a large quantity of common air and carbonic acid gas, always acts very
+sensibly on metallic lead.
+
+Water, which has no sensible action, in its natural state, upon lead,
+may acquire the capability of acting on it by heterogeneous matter,
+which it may accidentally receive. Numerous instances have shewn that
+vegetable matter, such as leaves, falling into leaden cisterns filled
+with water, imparted to the water a considerable solvent power of action
+on the lead, which, in its natural state it did not possess. Hence the
+necessity of keeping leaden cisterns clean; and this is the more
+necessary, as their situations expose them to accidental impurities. The
+noted saturnine colic of Amsterdam, described by Tronchin, originated
+from such a circumstance; as also the case related by Van Swieten,[21]
+of a whole family afflicted with the same complaint, from such a
+cistern. And it is highly probable that the case of disease recorded by
+Dr. Duncan,[22] proceeded more from some foulness in the cistern, than
+from the solvent power of the water. In this instance the officers of
+the packet boat used water for their drink and cooking out of a leaden
+cistern, whilst the sailors used the water taken from the same source,
+except that theirs was kept in wooden vessels. The consequence was, that
+all the officers were seized with the colic, and all the men continued
+healthy.
+
+The carelessness of the bulk of mankind, Dr. Lambe very justly observes,
+to these things, "is so great, that to repeat them again and again
+cannot be wholly useless."
+
+Although the great majority of persons who daily use water kept in
+leaden cisterns receive no sensible injury, yet the apparent salubrity
+must be ascribed to the great slowness of its operation, and the
+minuteness of the dose taken, the effects of which become modified by
+different causes and different constitutions, and according to the
+predisposition to diseases inherent in different individuals. The
+supposed security of the multitude who use the water with impunity,
+amounts to no more than presumption, in favour of any individual, which
+may or may not be confirmed by experience.
+
+Independent of the morbid susceptibility of impressions which
+distinguish certain habits, there is, besides, much variety in the
+original constitution of the human frame, of which we are totally
+ignorant.
+
+"The susceptibility or proneness to disease of each individual, must be
+esteemed peculiar to himself. Confiding to the experience of others is a
+ground of security which may prove fallacious; and the danger can with
+certainty be obviated only by avoiding its source. And considering the
+various and complicated changes of the human frame, under different
+circumstances and at different ages, it is neither impossible nor
+improbable that the substances taken into the system at one period, and
+even for a series of years, with apparent impunity may, notwithstanding,
+at another period, be eventually the occasion of disease and of death.
+
+"The experience of a single person, or of many persons, however
+numerous, is quite incompetent to the decision of a question of this
+nature.
+
+"The pernicious effects of an intemperate use of spiritous liquors is
+not less certain because we often see habitual drunkards enjoy a state
+of good health, and arrive at old age: and the same may be said of
+individuals who indulge in vices of all kinds, evidently destructive to
+life; many of whom, in spite of their bad habits, attain to a vigorous
+old age."[23]
+
+In confirmation of these remarks, we adduce the following account of the
+effect of water contaminated by lead, given by Sir G. Baker:
+
+"The most remarkable case on the subject that now occurs to my memory,
+is that of Lord Ashburnham's family, in Sussex; to which, spring water
+was supplied, from a considerable distance, in leaden pipes. In
+consequence, his Lordship's servants were every year tormented with
+colic, and some of them died. An eminent physician, of Battle, who
+corresponded with me on the subject, sent up some gallons of that water,
+which were analysed by Dr. Higgins, who reported that the water had
+contained more than the common quantity of carbonic acid; and that he
+found in it lead in solution, which he attributed to the carbonic acid.
+In consequence of this, Lord Ashburnham substituted wooden for leaden
+pipes; and from that time his family have had no particular complaints
+in their bowels."
+
+_Richmond, Sept. 27, 1802._
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING LEAD, WHEN CONTAINED IN WATER.
+
+One of the most delicate tests for detecting lead, is water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which instantly imparts to the fluid
+containing the minutest quantity of lead, a brown or blackish tinge.
+
+This test is so delicate that distilled water, when condensed by a
+leaden pipe in a still tub, is affected by it. To shew the action of
+this test, the following experiments will serve.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Pour into a wine-glass containing distilled water, an equal quantity of
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas: no change will take
+place; but if a 1/4 of a grain of acetate of lead (sugar of lead of
+commerce), or any other preparation of lead, be added, the mixture will
+instantly turn brown and dark-coloured.
+
+To apply this test, one part of the suspected water need merely to be
+mingled with a like quantity of water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen. Or better, a larger quantity, a gallon for example, of the
+water may be concentrated by evaporation to about half a pint, and then
+submitted to the action of the test.
+
+Another and more efficient mode of applying this test, is, to pass a
+current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the suspected water in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Take a bottle (_a_) or Florence flask, adapt to the mouth of it a cork
+furnished with a glass tube (_b_), bent at right angles; let one leg of
+the tube be immersed in the vial (_c_) containing the water to be
+examined; as shewn in the following sketch. Then take one part of
+sulphuret of antimony of commerce, break it into pieces of half the size
+of split pease, put it into the flask, and pour upon it four parts of
+common concentrated muriatic acid (spirit of salt of commerce).
+Sulphuretted hydrogen gas will become disengaged from the materials in
+abundance, and pass through the water in the vial (_c_). Let the
+extrication of the gas be continued for about five minutes; and if the
+minutest quantity of lead be present, the water will acquire a
+dark-brown or blackish tinge. The extrication of the gas is facilitated
+by the application of a gentle heat.
+
+The action of the sulphuretted hydrogen test, when applied in this
+manner, is astonishingly great; for one part of acetate of lead may be
+detected by means of it, in 20000 parts of water.[24]
+
+Another test for readily detecting lead in water, is sulphuretted
+chyazate of potash, first pointed out as such by Mr. Porret. A few drops
+of this re-agent, added to water containing lead, occasion a white
+precipitate, consisting of small brilliant scales of a considerable
+lustre.
+
+Sulphate of potash, or sulphate of soda, is likewise a very delicate
+test for detecting minute portions of lead. Dr. Thomson[25] discovered,
+by means of it, one part of lead in 100000 parts of water; and this
+acute Philosopher considers it as the most unequivocal test of lead that
+we possess. Dr. Thomson remarks that "no other precipitate can well be
+confounded with it, except sulphate of barytes; and there is no
+probability of the presence of barytes existing in common water."
+
+Carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, may also be used as agents to
+detect the presence of lead. By means of these salts Dr. Thomson was
+enabled to detect the presence of a smaller quantity of lead in
+distilled water, than by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. But the
+reader must here be told, that the use of these tests cannot be
+entrusted to an unskilful hand; because the alkaline carbonates throw
+down also lime and magnesia, two substances which are frequently found
+in common water; the former tests, namely, water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and nascent sulphuretted hydrogen, are
+therefore preferable.
+
+It is absolutely essential that the water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when employed as a test for detecting very minute quantities
+of lead, be fresh prepared; and if sulphate of potash, or sulphate of
+soda, be used as tests, they should be perfectly pure. Sulphate of
+potash is preferable to sulphate of soda. It is likewise advisable to
+act with these tests upon water concentrated by boiling. The water to
+which the test has been added does sometimes appear not to undergo any
+change, at first; it is therefore necessary to suffer the mixture to
+stand for a few hours; after which time the action of the test will be
+more evident. Mr. Silvester[26] has proposed gallic acid as a delicate
+test for detecting lead.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Dalton, Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 55.
+
+[12] Marsden's History of Sumatra.
+
+[13] Manchester Memoirs vol. x. 1819.
+
+[14] Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge Wells is chiefly
+supplied for Domestic Purposes, by Dr. Thomson; forming an Appendix to
+an Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells, by Dr. Scudamore.
+
+[15] It is absolutely essential that the tests should be pure.
+
+[16] Philosophical Magazine, vol. xv. p. 252.
+
+[17] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii. p. 259.
+
+[18] Sir G. Baker, Med. Trans. vol. i. p. 280.
+
+[19] Lamb on Spring Water.
+
+[20] Medical Trans. vol. i. p. 420.
+
+[21] Van Swieten ad Boerhaave, Aphorisms, 1060. Comment.
+
+[22] Medical Comment. Dec. 2, 1794.
+
+[23] Lambe on Spring Water.
+
+[24] See An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells, by Dr.
+Scudamore, p. 55.
+
+The application of the sulphuretted hydrogen test requires some
+precautions in those cases where other metals besides lead may be
+expected; because silver, quicksilver, tin, copper, and several other
+metals, are affected by it, as well as lead; but there is no chance of
+these metals being met with in common water.--See _Chemical Tests_,
+third edition, p. 207.
+
+[25] Analysis of Tunbridge Wells Water, by Dr. Scudamore, p. 55.
+
+[26] Nicholson's Journal, p. 33, 310.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Wine._
+
+
+It is sufficiently obvious, that few of those commodities, which are the
+objects of commerce, are adulterated to a greater extent than wine. All
+persons moderately conversant with the subject, are aware, that a
+portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for the purpose
+of brightening their colour; that Brazil wood, or the husks of
+elderberries and bilberries,[27] are employed to impart a deep rich
+purple tint to red Port of a pale, faint colour; that gypsum is used to
+render cloudy white wines transparent;[28] that an additional
+astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood
+sawdust,[29] and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled
+foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound
+frequently sold in this town by the name of _genuine old Port_.
+
+Various expedients are resorted to for the purpose of communicating
+particular flavours to insipid wines. Thus a _nutty_ flavour is produced
+by bitter almonds; factitious Port wine is flavoured with a tincture
+drawn from the seeds of raisins; and the ingredients employed to form
+the _bouquet_ of high-flavoured wines, are sweet-brier, oris-root,
+clary, cherry laurel water, and elder-flowers.
+
+The flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers, may all be purchased
+by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the
+trade; and even a manuscript recipe book for preparing them, and the
+whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on payment
+of a considerable fee.
+
+The sophistication of wine with substances not absolutely noxious to
+health, is carried to an enormous extent in this metropolis. Many
+thousand pipes of spoiled cyder are annually brought hither from the
+country, for the purpose of being converted into factitious Port wine.
+The art of manufacturing spurious wine is a regular trade of great
+extent in this metropolis.
+
+"There is, in this city, a certain fraternity of chemical operators, who
+work underground in holes, caverns, and dark retirements, to conceal
+their mysteries from the eyes and observation of mankind. These
+subterraneous philosophers are daily employed in the transmutation of
+liquors; and by the power of magical drugs and incantations, raising
+under the streets of London the choicest products of the hills and
+valleys of France. They can squeeze Bourdeaux out of the sloe, and draw
+Champagne from an apple. Virgil, in that remarkable prophecy,
+
+     _Incultisque ruhens pendebit sentibus uva._
+
+                                        Virg. Ecl. iv. 29.
+
+     The ripening grape shall hang on every thorn.
+
+seems to have hinted at this art, which can turn a plantation of
+northern hedges into a vineyard. These adepts are known among one
+another by the name of _Wine-brewers_; and, I am afraid, do great
+injury, not only to her Majesty's customs, but to the bodies of many of
+her good subjects."[30]
+
+The following are a few of the recipes employed in the manufacture of
+spurious wine:
+
+     To make _British Port Wine_.[31]--"Take of British grape wine, or
+     good cyder, 4 gallons; of the juice of red beet root two quarts;
+     brandy, two quarts; logwood 4 ounces; rhatany root, bruised, half a
+     pound: first infuse the logwood and rhatany root in brandy, and a
+     gallon of grape wine or cyder for one week; then strain off the
+     liquor, and mix it with the other ingredients; keep it in a cask
+     for a month, when it will be fit to bottle."
+
+
+     _British Champagne._--"Take of white sugar, 8 pounds; the whitest
+     brown sugar, 7 pounds, crystalline lemon acid, or tartaric acid, 1
+     ounce and a quarter, pure water, 8 gallons; white grape wine, two
+     quarts, or perry, 4 quarts; of French brandy, 3 pints."
+
+     "Put the sugar in the water, skimming it occasionally for two
+     hours, then pour it into a tub and dissolve in it the acid; before
+     it is cold, add some yeast and ferment. Put it into a clean cask
+     and add the other ingredients. The cask is then to be well bunged,
+     and kept in a cool place for two or three months; then bottle it
+     and keep it cool for a month longer, when it will be fit for use.
+     If it should not be perfectly clear after standing in the cask two
+     or three months, it should be rendered so by the use of isinglass.
+     By adding 1 lb. of fresh or preserved strawberries, and 2 ounces of
+     powdered cochineal, the PINK _Champagne may be made_."
+
+
+     _Southampton Port._[32]--"Take cyder, 36 gallons; elder wine, 11
+     gallons; brandy, 5 gallons; damson wine, 11 gallons; mix."
+
+The particular and separate department in this factitious wine trade,
+called _crusting_, consists in lining the interior surface of empty
+wine-bottles, in part, with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash, by
+suffering a saturated hot solution of this salt, coloured red with a
+decoction of Brazil-wood, to crystallize within them; and after this
+simulation of maturity is perfected, they are filled with the compound
+called Port wine.
+
+Other artisans are regularly employed in staining the lower extremities
+of bottle-corks with a fine red colour, to appear, on being drawn, as if
+they had been long in contact with the wine.
+
+The preparation of an astringent extract, to produce, from spoiled
+home-made and foreign wines, a "genuine old Port," by mere admixture; or
+to impart to a weak wine a rough austere taste, a fine colour, and a
+peculiar flavour; forms one branch of the business of particular
+wine-coopers: while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white wines,
+is the sole occupation of men who are called _refiners of wine_.
+
+We have stated that a crystalline crust is formed on the interior
+surface of bottles, for the purpose of misleading the unwary into a
+belief that the wine contained in them is of a certain age. A
+correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the whole
+interior of which is stained artificially with a crystalline crust of
+super-tartrate of potash, artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar
+to that before stated. Thus the wine-merchant, after bottling off a
+pipe of wine, is enabled to impose on the understanding of his
+customers, by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful
+dark coloured and fine crystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the
+age of the wine; a practice by no means uncommon, to flatter the vanity
+of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines.
+
+These and many other sophistications, which have long been practised
+with impunity, are considered as legitimate by those who pride
+themselves for their skill in the art of _managing_, or, according to
+the familiar phrase, _doctoring_ wines. The plea alleged in exculpation
+of them, is, that, though deceptive, they are harmless: but even
+admitting this as a palliation, yet they form only one department of an
+art which includes other processes of a tendency absolutely criminal.
+
+Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me that the adulteration
+of wine with substances deleterious to health, is certainly practised
+oftener than is, perhaps, suspected; and it would be easy to give some
+instances of very serious effects having arisen from wines contaminated
+with deleterious substances, were this a subject on which I meant to
+speak. The following statement is copied from the Monthly Magazine for
+March 1811, p. 188.
+
+"On the 17th of January, the passengers by the Highflyer coach, from the
+north, dined, as usual, at Newark. A bottle of Port wine was ordered; on
+tasting which, one of the passengers observed that it had an unpleasant
+flavour, and begged that it might be changed. The waiter took away the
+bottle, poured into a fresh decanter half the wine which had been
+objected to, and filled it up from another bottle. This he took into the
+room, and the greater part was drank by the passengers, who, after the
+coach had set out towards Grantham, were seized with extreme sickness;
+one gentleman in particular, who had taken more of the wine than the
+others, it was thought would have died, but has since recovered. The
+half of the bottle of wine sent out of the passengers' room, was put
+aside for the purpose of mixing negus. In the evening, Mr. Bland, of
+Newark, went into the hotel, and drank a glass or two of wine and water.
+He returned home at his usual hour, and went to bed; in the middle of
+the night he was taken so ill, as to induce Mrs. Bland to send for his
+brother, an apothecary in the town; but before that gentleman arrived,
+he was dead. An inquest was held, and the jury, after the fullest
+enquiry, and the examination of the surgeons by whom the body was
+opened, returned a verdict of--_Died by Poison._"
+
+The most dangerous adulteration of wine is by some preparations of lead,
+which possess the property of stopping the progress of acescence of
+wine, and also of rendering white wines, when muddy, transparent. I have
+good reason to state that lead is certainly employed for this purpose.
+The effect is very rapid; and there appears to be no other method known,
+of rapidly recovering ropy wines. Wine merchants persuade themselves
+that the minute quantity of lead employed for that purpose is perfectly
+harmless, and that no atom of lead remains in the wine. Chemical
+analysis proves the contrary; and the practice of clarifying spoiled
+white wines by means of lead, must be pronounced as highly deleterious.
+
+Lead, in whatever state it be taken into the stomach, occasions terrible
+diseases; and wine, adulterated with the minutest quantity of it,
+becomes a slow poison. The merchant or dealer who practises this
+dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder to that of fraud, and
+deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among those
+consumers who contribute to his emolument. If to debase the current
+coin of the realm be denounced as a capital offence, what punishment
+should be awarded against a practice which converts into poison a liquor
+used for sacred purposes.
+
+Dr. Watson[33] relates, that the method of adulterating wine with lead,
+was at one time a common practice in Paris.
+
+Dr. Warren[34] states an instance of thirty-two persons having become
+severely ill, after drinking white wine that had been adulterated with
+lead. One of them died, and one became paralytic.
+
+In Graham's Treatise on Wine-Making,[35] under the article of _Secrets_,
+belonging to the mysteries of vintners, p. 31, lead is recommended to
+prevent wine from becoming acid. The following lines are copied from Mr.
+Graham's work:
+
+
+    "_To hinder Wine from turning._
+
+    "Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into your cask, pretty
+    warm, and stop it close."
+
+
+    "_To soften Grey Wine._
+
+    "Put in a little vinegar wherein litharge has been well steeped, and
+    boil some honey, to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and
+    put a quart of it into a tierce of wine, and this will mend it."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The ancients knew that lead rendered harsh wines milder, and preserved
+it from acidity, without being aware that it was pernicious: it was
+therefore long used with confidence; and when its effects were
+discovered, they were not ascribed to that metal, but to some other
+cause.[36] When the Greek and Roman wine merchants wished to try whether
+their wine was spoiled, they immersed in it a plate of lead;[37] if the
+colour of the lead were corroded, they concluded that their wine was
+spoiled. Wine may become accidentally impregnated with lead.
+
+It is well known that bottles in which wine has been kept, are usually
+cleaned by means of shot, which by its rolling motion detaches the
+super-tartrate of potash from the sides of the bottles. This practice,
+which is generally pursued by wine-merchants, may give rise to serious
+consequences, as will become evident from the following case:[38]
+
+"A gentleman who had never in his life experienced a day's illness, and
+who was constantly in the habit of drinking half a bottle of Madeira
+wine after his dinner, was taken ill, three hours after dinner, with a
+severe pain in the stomach and violent bowel colic, which gradually
+yielded within twelve hours to the remedies prescribed by his medical
+adviser. The day following he drank the remainder of the same bottle of
+wine which was left the preceding day, and within two hours afterwards
+he was again seized with the most violent colliquative pains, headach,
+shiverings, and great pain over the whole body. His apothecary becoming
+suspicious that the wine he had drank might be the cause of the
+disease, ordered the bottle from which the wine had been decanted to be
+brought to him, with a view that he might examine the dregs, if any were
+left. The bottle happening to slip out of the hand of the servant,
+disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up
+circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, they crumbled into
+dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black lead with which the
+shot is glazed) being alone left unacted on, whilst the remainder of the
+metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had become contaminated with
+_lead and arsenic_, the shot being a compound of these metals, which no
+doubt had produced the mischief."
+
+
+TEST FOR DETECTING THE DELETERIOUS ADULTERATIONS OF WINE.
+
+A ready re-agent for detecting the presence of lead, or any other
+deleterious metal in wine, is known by the name of the _wine test_. It
+consists of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, acidulated
+with muriatic acid. By adding one part of it, to two of wine, or any
+other liquid suspected to contain lead, a dark coloured or black
+precipitate will fall down, which does not disappear by an addition of
+muriatic acid; and this precipitate, dried and fused before the blowpipe
+on a piece of charcoal, yields a globule of metallic lead. This test
+does not precipitate iron; the muriatic acid retains iron in solution
+when combined with sulphuretted hydrogen; and any acid in the wine has
+no effect in precipitating any of the sulphur of the test liquor. Or a
+still more efficacious method is, to pass a current of sulphuretted
+hydrogen gas through the wine, in the manner described, p. 70, having
+previously acidulated the wine with muriatic acid.
+
+The wine test sometimes employed is prepared in the following
+manner:--Mix equal parts of finely powdered sulphur and of slacked
+quick-lime, and expose it to a red heat for twenty minutes. To
+thirty-six grains of this sulphuret of lime, add twenty-six grains of
+super-tartrate of potassa; put the mixture into an ounce bottle, and
+fill up the bottle with water that has been previously boiled, and
+suffered to cool. The liquor, after having been repeatedly shaken, and
+allowed to become clear, by the subsidence of the undissolved matter,
+may then be poured into another phial, into which about twenty drops of
+muriatic acid have been previously put. It is then ready for use. This
+test, when mingled with wine containing lead or copper, turns the wine
+of a dark-brown or black colour. But the mere application of
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas to wine, acidulated by muriatic acid, is a far
+more preferable mode of detecting lead in wine.
+
+M. Vogel[39] has lately recommended acetate of lead as a test for
+detecting extraneous colours in red wine. He remarks, that none of the
+substances that can be employed for colouring wine, such as the berries
+of the Vaccinium Mirtillus (bilberries), elderberries, and Campeach
+wood, produce with genuine red wine, a greenish grey precipitate, which
+is the colour that is procured by this test by means of genuine red
+wines.
+
+Wine coloured with the juice of the bilberries, or elderberries, or
+Campeach wood, produces, with acetate of lead, a deep blue precipitate;
+and Brazil-wood, red saunders, and the red beet, produce a colour which
+is precipitated red by acetate of lead. Wine coloured by beet root is
+also rendered colourless by lime water; but the weakest acid brings back
+the colour. As the colouring matter of red wines resides in the skin of
+the grape, M. Vogel prepared a quantity of skins, and reduced them to
+powder. In this state he found that they communicated to alcohol a deep
+red colour: a paper stained with this colour was rendered red by acids
+and green by alkalies.
+
+M. Vogel made a quantity of red wine from black grapes, for the purpose
+of his experiments; and this produced the genuine greyish green
+precipitate with acetate of lead. He also found the same coloured
+precipitate in two specimens of red wine, the genuineness of which could
+not be suspected; the one from Chateau-Marguaux, and the other from the
+neighbourhood of Coblentz.
+
+
+SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES, AND COMPONENT PARTS OF WINE.
+
+Every body knows that no product of the arts varies so much as wine;
+that different countries, and sometimes the different provinces of the
+same country, produce different wines. These differences, no doubt, must
+be attributed chiefly to the climate in which the vineyard is
+situated--to its culture--the quantity of sugar contained in the grape
+juice--the manufacture of the wine; or the mode of suffering its
+fermentation to be accomplished. If the grapes be gathered unripe, the
+wine abounds with acid; but if the fruit be gathered ripe, the wine will
+be rich. When the proportion of sugar in the grape is sufficient, and
+the fermentation complete, the wine is perfect and generous. If the
+quantity of sugar be too large, part of it remains undecomposed, as the
+fermentation is languid, and the wine is sweet and luscious; if, on the
+contrary, it contains, even when full ripe, only a small portion of
+sugar, the wine is thin and weak; and if it be bottled before the
+fermentation be completed, part of the sugar remains undecomposed, the
+fermentation will go on slowly in the bottle, and, on drawing the cork,
+the wine sparkles in the glass; as, for example, Champagne. Such wines
+are not sufficiently mature. When the must is separated from the husk of
+the red grape before it is fermented, the wine has little or no colour:
+these are called _white_ wines. If, on the contrary, the husks are
+allowed to remain in the must while the fermentation is going on, the
+alcohol dissolves the colouring matter of the husks, and the wine is
+coloured: such are called _red_ wines. Hence white wines are often
+prepared from red grapes, the liquor being drawn off before it has
+acquired the red colour; for the skin of the grape only gives the
+colour. Besides in these principal circumstances, wines vary much in
+flavour.
+
+All wines contain one common and identical principle, from which their
+similar effects are produced; namely, _brandy_ or _alcohol_. It is
+especially by the different proportions of brandy contained in wines,
+that they differ most from one another. When wine is distilled, the
+alcohol readily separates. The spirit thus obtained is well known under
+the name of _brandy_.
+
+All wines contain also a free acid; hence they turn blue tincture of
+cabbage, red. The acid found in the greatest abundance in grape wines,
+is tartaric acid. Every wine contains likewise a portion of
+super-tartrate of potash, and extractive matter, derived from the juice
+of the grape. These substances deposit slowly in the vessel in which
+they are kept. To this is owing the improvement of wine from age. Those
+wines which effervesce or froth, when poured into a glass, contain also
+carbonic acid, to which their briskness is owing. The peculiar flavour
+and odour of different kinds of wines probably depend upon the presence
+of a _volatile oil_, so small in quantity that it cannot be separated.
+
+
+EASY METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF BRANDY CONTAINED IN VARIOUS
+SORTS OF WINE.
+
+The strength of all wines depends upon the quantity of alcohol or brandy
+which they contain. Mr. Brande, and Gay-Lussac, have proved, by very
+decisive experiments, that all wines contain brandy or alcohol ready
+formed. The following is the process discovered by Mr. Brande, for
+ascertaining the quantity of spirit, or brandy, contained in different
+sorts of wine.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add to eight parts, by measure, of the wine to be examined, one part of
+a concentrated solution of sub-acetate of lead: a dense insoluble
+precipitate will ensue; which is a combination of the test liquor with
+the colouring, extractive, and acid matter of the wine. Shake the
+mixture for a few minutes, pour the whole upon a filtre, and collect the
+filtered fluid. It contains the brandy or spirit, and water of the wine,
+together with a portion of the sub-acetate of lead. Add, in small
+quantities at a time, to this fluid, warm, dry, and pure sub-carbonate
+of potash (_not salt of tartar, or sub-carbonate of potash of
+commerce_), which has previously been freed from water by heat, till the
+last portion added remains undissolved. The brandy or spirit contained
+in the fluid will become separated; for the sub-carbonate of potash
+abstracts from it the whole of the water with which it was combined; the
+brandy or spirit of wine forming a distinct stratum, which floats upon
+the aqueous solution of the alkaline salt. If the experiment be made in
+a glass tube, from one-half inch to two inches in diameter, and
+graduated into 100 equal parts, the _per centage_ of spirit, in a given
+quantity of wine, may be read off by mere inspection. In this manner the
+strength of any wine may be examined.
+
+
+_Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol[40]
+contained in various kinds of Wines, and other fermented Liquors._[41]
+
+               Proportion of Spirit
+                          per Cent.
+                        by measure.
+     Lissa                   26,47
+     Ditto                   24,35
+       Average               25,41
+     Raisin Wine             26,40
+     Ditto                   25,77
+     Ditto                   23,30
+       Average               25,12
+     Marcella                26,03
+     Ditto                   25,05
+       Average               25,09
+     Madeira                 24,42
+     Ditto                   23,93
+     Ditto (Sercial)         21,40
+     Ditto                   19,24
+       Average               22,27
+     Port                    25,83
+     Ditto                   24,29
+     Ditto                   23,71
+     Ditto                   23,39
+     Ditto                   22,30
+     Ditto                   21,40
+     Ditto                   19,96
+       Average               22,96
+     Sherry                  19,81
+     Ditto                   19,83
+     Ditto                   18,79
+     Ditto                   18,25
+       Average               19,17
+     Teneriffe               19,79
+     Colares                 19,75
+     Lachryma Christi        19,70
+     Constantia (White)      19,75
+     Ditto (Red)             18,92
+     Lisbon                  18,94
+     Malaga (1666)           18,94
+     Bucellas                18,49
+     Red Madeira             22,30
+     Ditto                   18,40
+       Average               20,35
+     Cape Muschat            18,25
+     Cape Madeira            22,94
+     Ditto                   20,50
+     Ditto                   18,11
+       Average               20,51
+     Grape Wine              18,11
+     Calcavella              19,20
+     Ditto                   18,10
+       Average               18,65
+     Vidonia                 19,25
+     Alba Flora              17,26
+     Malaga                  17,26
+     Hermitage (White)       17,43
+     Roussillon              19,00
+     Ditto                   17,20
+       Average               18,13
+     Claret                  17,11
+     Ditto                   16,32
+     Ditto                   14,08
+     Ditto                   12,91
+       Average               15,10
+     Malmsey Madeira         16,40
+     Lunel                   15,52
+     Sheraaz                 15,52
+     Syracuse                15,28
+     Sauterne                14,22
+     Burgundy                16,60
+     Ditto                   15,22
+     Ditto                   14,53
+     Ditto                   11,95
+       Average               14,57
+     Hock                    14,37
+     Ditto                   13,00
+     Ditto (old in cask)      8,68
+       Average               12,08
+     Nice                    14,62
+     Barsac                  13,86
+     Tent                    13,30
+     Champagne (Still)       13,80
+     Ditto (Sparkling)       12,80
+     Ditto (Red)             12,56
+     Ditto (ditto)           11,30
+       Average               12,61
+     Red Hermitage           12,32
+     Vin de Grave            13,94
+     Ditto                   12,80
+       Average               13,37
+     Frontignac              12,79
+     Cote Rotie              12,32
+     Gooseberry Wine         11,84
+     Currant Wine            20,55
+     Orange Wine aver.       11,26
+     Tokay                    9,88
+     Elder Wine               9,87
+     Cyder highest aver.      9,87
+     Ditto lowest  ditto      5,21
+     Perry average            7,26
+     Mead                     7,32
+     Ale (Burton)             8,88
+     Ditto (Edinburgh)        6,20
+     Ditto (Dorchester)       5,50
+       Average                6,87
+     Brown Stout              6,80
+     London Porter aver.      4,20
+     Do. Small Beer, do.      1,28
+     Brandy                  53,39
+     Rum                     53,68
+     Gin                     51,60
+     Scotch Whiskey          54,32
+     Irish   ditto           53,99
+
+
+CONSTITUTION OF HOME-MADE WINES.
+
+Besides grapes, the most valuable of the articles of which wine is made,
+there are a considerable number of fruits from which a vinous liquor is
+obtained. Of such, we have in this country the gooseberry, the currant,
+the elderberry, the cherry, &c. which ferment well, and affords what are
+called _home-made wines_.
+
+They differ chiefly from foreign wines in containing a much larger
+quantity of acid. Dr. Macculloch[42] has remarked that the acid in
+home-made wines is principally the malic acid; while in grape wines it
+is the tartaric acid.
+
+The great deficiency in these wines, independent of the flavour, which
+chiefly originates, not from the juice, but from the seeds and husks of
+the fruits, is the excess of acid, which is but imperfectly concealed by
+the addition of sugar. This is owing, chiefly, as Dr. Macculloch
+remarks, to the tartaric acid existing in the grape juice in the state
+of super-tartrate of potash, which is in part decomposed during the
+fermentation, and the rest becomes gradually precipitated; whilst the
+malic acid exists in the currant and gooseberry juice in the form of
+malate of potash; which salt does not appear to suffer a decomposition
+during the fermentation of the wine; and, by its greater solubility, is
+retained in the wine. Hence Dr. Macculloch recommends the addition of
+super-tartrate of potash, in the manufacture of British wines. They also
+contain a much larger proportion of mucilage than wines made from
+grapes. The juice of the gooseberry contains some portion of tartaric
+acid; hence it is better suited for the production of what is called
+_English Champagne_, than any other fruit of this country.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] Dried bilberries are imported from Germany, under the fallacious
+name of _berry-dye_.
+
+[28] The gypsum had the property of clarifying wines, was known to the
+ancients. "The Greeks and Romans put gypsum in their new wines, stirred
+it often round, then let it stand for some time; and when it had
+settled, decanted the clear liquor. (_Geopon_, lib. vii. p. 483, 494.)
+They knew that the wine acquired, by this addition, a certain sharpness,
+which it afterwards lost; but that the good effects of the gypsum were
+lasting."
+
+[29] Sawdust for this purpose is chiefly supplied by the ship-builders,
+and forms a regular article of commerce of the brewers' druggists.
+
+[30] Tatler, vol. viii. p. 110, edit. 1797. 8vo.
+
+[31] Dr. Reece's Gazette of Health, No. 7.
+
+[32] Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias, p. 245.
+
+[33] Chemical Essays, vol. viii. p. 369.
+
+[34] Medical Trans. vol. ii. p. 80.
+
+[35] This book, which has run through many editions, may be supposed to
+have done some mischief.--In the Vintner's Guide, 4th edit. 1770, p. 67,
+a lump of sugar of lead, of the size of a walnut, and a table-spoonful
+of sal enixum, are directed to be added to a tierce (forty-two gallons)
+of muddy wine, _to cure it of its muddiness_.
+
+[36] Beckman's History of Inventions, vol. i. p. 398.
+
+[37] Pliny, lib. xiv. cap. 20.
+
+[38] Philosophical Magazine, 1819, No. 257, p. 229.
+
+[39] Journ. Pharm. iv. 56 (Feb. 1818.) and Thomson's Annals, Sept. 1818,
+p. 232.
+
+[40] Of a Specific Gravity. 825.
+
+[41] Philosophical Trans. 1811, p. 345; 1813, p. 87; Journal of Science
+and the Arts, No. viii. p. 290.
+
+[42] Macculloch on Wine. This is by far the best treatise published in
+this country on the Manufacture of Home-made Wines.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Bread._
+
+
+This is one of the sophistications of the articles of food most commonly
+practised in this metropolis, where the goodness of bread is estimated
+entirely by its whiteness. It is therefore usual to add a certain
+quantity of alum to the dough; this improves the look of the bread very
+much, and renders it whiter and firmer. Good, white, and porous bread,
+may certainly be manufactured from good wheaten flour alone; but to
+produce the degree of whiteness rendered indispensable by the caprice of
+the consumers in London, it is necessary (unless the very best flour is
+employed,) that the dough should be _bleached_; and no substance has
+hitherto been found to answer this purpose better than alum.
+
+Without this salt it is impossible to make bread, from the kind of flour
+usually employed by the London bakers, so white, as that which is
+commonly sold in the metropolis.
+
+If the alum be omitted, the bread has a slight yellowish grey hue--as
+may be seen in the instance of what is called _home-made bread_, of
+private families. Such bread remains longer moist than bread made with
+alum; yet it is not so light, and full of eyes, or porous, and it has
+also a different taste.
+
+The quantity of alum requisite to produce the required whiteness and
+porosity depends entirely upon the genuineness of the flour, and the
+quality of the grain from which the flour is obtained. The mealman makes
+different sorts of flour from the same kind of grain. The best flour is
+mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry cooks, and the inferior
+sorts in the making of bread. The bakers' flour is very often made of
+the worst kinds of damaged foreign wheat, and other cereal grains mixed
+with them in grinding the wheat into flour. In this capital, no fewer
+than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are brought into market. They
+are called fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse
+middlings, and twenty-penny flour. Common garden beans, and pease, are
+also frequently ground up among the London bread flour.
+
+I have been assured by several bakers, on whose testimony I can rely,
+that the small profit attached to the bakers' trade, and the bad
+quality of the flour, induces the generality of the London bakers to use
+alum in the making of their bread.
+
+The smallest quantity of alum that can be employed with effect to
+produce a white, light, and porous bread, from an inferior kind of
+flour, I have my own baker's authority to state, is from three to four
+ounces to a sack of flour, weighing 240 pounds. The alum is either mixed
+well in the form of powder, with a quantity of flour previously made
+into a liquid paste with water, and then incorporated with the dough; or
+the alum is dissolved in the water employed for mixing up the whole
+quantity of the flour for making the dough.
+
+Let us suppose that the baker intends to convert five bushels, or a sack
+of flour, into loaves with the least adulteration practised. He pours
+the flour into the kneading trough, and sifts it through a fine wire
+sieve, which makes it lie very light, and serves to separate any
+impurities with which the flour may be mixed. Two ounces of alum are
+then dissolved in about a quart of boiling water, and the solution
+poured into _the seasoning-tub_. Four or five pounds of salt are
+likewise put into the tub, and a pailful of hot-water. When this mixture
+has cooled down to the temperature of about 84°, three or four pints of
+yeast are added; the whole is mixed, strained through the seasoning
+sieve, emptied into a hole in the flour, and mixed up with the requisite
+portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter. Some dry flour is
+then sprinkled over the top, and it is covered up with cloths.
+
+In this situation it is left about three hours. It gradually swells and
+breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface. An additional
+quantity of warm water, in which one ounce of alum is dissolved, is now
+added, and the dough is made up into a paste as before; the whole is
+then covered up. In this situation it is left for a few hours.
+
+The whole is then intimately kneaded with more water for upwards of an
+hour. The dough is cut into pieces with a knife, and penned to one side
+of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled over it, and it is left in
+this state for about four hours. It is then kneaded again for
+half-an-hour. The dough is now cut into pieces and weighed, in order to
+furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf. The loaves are left in the
+oven about two hours and a half. When taken out, they are carefully
+covered up, to prevent as much as possible the loss of weight.[43]
+
+The following account of making a sack, of five bushels of flour into
+bread, is taken from Dr. P. Markham's Considerations on the Ingredients
+used in the Adulteration of Bread Flour, and Bread, p. 21:
+
+     5 bushels of flour,
+     8 ounces of alum,[44]
+     4 lbs. of salt,
+     1/2 a gallon of yeast, mixed with about
+     3 gallons of water.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+                                                    lbs.
+     The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained }
+     from the bushel of wheat, weighs           }    48
+
+                                lbs.
+         Fine pollard          4-1/4
+         Coarse pollard        4
+         Bran                  2-3/4
+                               ------                11
+                                                     --
+     The whole together                              59
+
+     To which add the loss of weight in }
+     manufacturing a bushel of wheat    }             2
+                                                     --
+         Produces the original weight                61
+                                                     --
+
+The theory of the bleaching property of alum, as manifested in the
+panification of an inferior kind of flour, is by no means well
+understood; and indeed it is really surprising that the effect should be
+produced by so small a quantity of that substance, two or three ounces
+of alum being sufficient for a sack of flour.
+
+From experiments in which I have been employed, with the assistance of
+skilful bakers, I am authorised to state, that without the addition of
+alum, it does not appear possible to make white, light, and porous
+bread, such as is used in this metropolis, unless the flour be of the
+very best quality.
+
+Another substance employed by fraudulent bakers, is subcarbonate of
+ammonia. With this salt, they realise the important consideration of
+producing light and porous bread, from spoiled, or what is technically
+called _sour flour_. This salt which becomes wholly converted into a
+gaseous state during the operation of baking, causes the dough to swell
+up into air bubbles, which carry before them the stiff dough, and thus
+it renders the dough porous; the salt itself is, at the same time,
+totally volatilised during the operation of baking. Thus not a vestige
+of carbonate of ammonia remains in the bread. This salt is also largely
+employed by the biscuit and ginger-bread bakers.
+
+Potatoes are likewise largely, and perhaps constantly, used by
+fraudulent bakers, as a cheap ingredient, to enhance their profit. The
+potatoes being boiled, are triturated, passed through a sieve, and
+incorporated with the dough by kneading. This adulteration does not
+materially injure the bread. The bakers assert, that the bad quality of
+the flour renders the addition of potatoes advantageous as well to the
+baker as to the purchaser, and that without this admixture in the
+manufacture of bread, it would be impossible to carry on the trade of a
+baker. But the grievance is, that the same price is taken for a potatoe
+loaf, as for a loaf of genuine bread, though it must cost the baker
+less.
+
+I have witness, that five bushels of flour, three ounces of alum, six
+pounds of salt, one bushel of potatoes boiled into a stiff paste, and
+three quarts of yeast, with the requisite quantity of water, produce a
+white, light, and highly palatable bread.
+
+Such are the artifices practised in the preparation of bread,[45] and it
+must be allowed, on contrasting them with those sophistications
+practised by manufacturers of other articles of food, that they are
+comparatively unimportant. However, some medical men have no hesitation
+in attributing many diseases incidental to children to the use of eating
+adulterated bread; others again will not admit these allegations: they
+persuade themselves that the small quantity of alum added to the bread
+(perhaps upon an average, from eight to ten grains to a quartern loaf,)
+is absolutely harmless.
+
+Dr. Edmund Davy, Professor of Chemistry, at the Cork Institution, has
+communicated the following important facts to the public concerning the
+manufacture of bread.
+
+"The carbonate of magnesia of the shops, when well mixed with flour, in
+the proportion of from twenty to forty grains to a pound of flour,
+materially improves it for the purpose of making bread.
+
+"Loaves made with the addition of carbonate of magnesia, rise well in
+the oven; and after being baked, the bread is light and spongy, has a
+good taste, and keeps well. In cases when the new flour is of an
+indifferent quality, from twenty to thirty grains of carbonate of
+magnesia to a pound of the flour will considerably improve the bread.
+When the flour is of the worst quality, forty grains to a pound of flour
+seem necessary to produce the same effect.
+
+"As the improvement in the bread from new flour depends upon the
+carbonate of magnesia, it is necessary that care should be taken to mix
+it intimately with the flour, previous to the making of the dough.
+
+"Mr. Davy made a great number of comparative experiments with other
+substances, mixed in different proportions with new bread flour. The
+fixed alkalies, both in their pure and carbonated state, when used in
+small quantity, to a certain extent were found to improve the bread made
+from new flour; but no substance was so efficacious in this respect as
+carbonate of magnesia.
+
+"The greater number of his experiments were performed on the worst new
+_seconds_ flour Mr. Davy could procure. He also made some trials on
+_seconds_ and _firsts_ of different quality. In some cases the results
+were more striking and satisfactory than in others; but in every
+instance the improvement of the bread, by carbonate of magnesia, was
+obvious.
+
+"Mr. Davy observes, that a pound of carbonate of magnesia would be
+sufficient to mix with two hundred and fifty-six pounds of new flour, or
+at the rate of thirty grains to the pound. And supposing a pound of
+carbonate of magnesia to cost half-a-crown, the additional expense would
+be only half a farthing in the pound of flour.
+
+"Mr. Davy conceives that not the slightest danger can be apprehended
+from the use of such an innocent substance, as the carbonate of
+magnesia, in such small proportion as is necessary to improve bread from
+new flour."
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF ALUM IN BREAD.
+
+Pour upon two ounces of the suspected bread, half a pint of boiling
+distilled water; boil the mixture for a few minutes, and filter it
+through unsized paper. Evaporate the fluid, to about one fourth of its
+original bulk, and let gradually fall into the clear fluid a solution of
+muriate of barytes. If a _copious_ white precipitate ensues, which does
+not disappear by the addition of _pure_ nitric acid, the presence of
+alum may be suspected. Bread, made without alum, produces, when assayed
+in this manner, merely a very slight precipitate, which originates from
+a minute portion of sulphate of magnesia contained in all common salt of
+commerce; and bread made with salt freed from sulphate of magnesia,
+produces an infusion with water, which does not become disturbed by the
+barytic test.
+
+Other means of detecting all the constituent parts of alum, namely, the
+alumine, sulphuric acid, and potash, so as to render the presence of the
+alum unequivocal, will readily suggest itself to those who are familiar
+with analytical chemistry; namely: one of the readiest means is, to
+decompose the vegetable matter of the bread, by the action of chlorate
+of potash, in a platina crucible, at a red heat, and then to assay the
+residuary mass--by means of muriate of barytes, for sulphuric acid; by
+ammonia, for alumine; and by muriate of platina, for potash[46]. The
+above method of detecting the presence of alum, must therefore be taken
+with some limitation.
+
+There is no unequivocal test for detecting in a _ready manner_ the
+presence of alum in bread, on account of the impurity of the common salt
+used in the making of bread. If we could, in the ordinary way of bread
+making, employ common salt, absolutely free from foreign saline
+substances, the mode of detecting the presence of alum, or at least one
+of its constituent parts, namely, the sulphuric acid, would be very
+easy. Some conjecture may, nevertheless, be formed of the presence, or
+absence, of alum, by assaying the infusion of bread in the manner
+stated, p. 109, and comparing the assay with the results afforded by an
+infusion of home-made or household bread, known to be genuine, and
+actually assayed in a similar manner.
+
+
+EASY METHOD OF JUDGING OF THE GOODNESS OF BREAD CORN, AND BREAD-FLOUR.
+
+Millers judge of the goodness of bread corn by the quantity of bran
+which the grain produces.
+
+Such grains as are full and plump, that have a bright and shining
+appearance, without any shrivelling and shrinking in the covering of
+the skin, are the best; for wrinkled grains have a greater quantity of
+skin, or bran, than such as are sound or plump.
+
+Pastry-cooks and bakers judge of the goodness of flour in the manner in
+which it comports itself in kneading. The best kind of wheaten flour
+assumes, at the instant it is formed into paste by the addition of
+water, a very gluey, ductile, and elastic paste, easy to be kneaded, and
+which may be elongated, flattened, and drawn in every direction, without
+breaking.
+
+For the following fact we are indebted to Mr. Hatchet.
+
+"Grain which has been heated or burnt in the stack, may in the following
+manner be rendered fit for being made into bread:
+
+"The wheat must be put into a vessel capable of holding at least three
+times the quantity, and the vessel filled with boiling water; the grain
+should then be occasionally stirred, and the hollow decayed grains,
+which float, may be removed. When the water has become cold, or in about
+half an hour, it is drawn off. Then rince the corn with cold water, and,
+having completely drained it, spread it thinly on the floor of a kiln,
+and thus thoroughly dry it, stirring and turning it frequently during
+this part of the process."[47]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[43] The sack of marketable flour is by law obliged to weigh 240 pounds,
+which is the produce of five bushels of wheat, and is upon an average
+supposed to make eighty quartern loaves of bread; and consequently
+sixteen of such loaves are made from each bushel of good wheat. It is
+admitted, however, that two or three loaves more than the above quantity
+can be made from the sack of flour, when it is the _genuine produce_ of
+_good wheat_; that is, in the proportion of about sixteen and a half
+loaves from each bushel of sound grain, and, it may be presumed, sixteen
+from a bushel of medium corn. The expense, in London, of making the sack
+of flour into bread, and disposing of it, is about nine shillings.
+
+A bushel of wheat, upon an average, weighs sixty-one pounds; when
+ground, the meal weighs 60-3/4 lbs.; which, on being dressed, produces
+46-3/4 lbs. of flour, of the sort called _seconds_; which alone is used
+for the making of bread in London and throughout the greater part of
+this country; and of pollard and bran 12-3/4 lbs., which quantity, when
+bolted, produces 3 lbs. of fine flour, this, when sifted, produces in
+good second flour 1-1/4 lb.
+
+[44] Whilst correcting this sheet for the press, the printer transmits
+to me the following lines:
+
+"On Saturday last, George Wood, a baker, was convicted before T. Evance,
+Esq. Union Hall, of having in his possession a quantity of alum for the
+adulteration of bread, and fined in the penalty of 5_l._ and costs,
+under 55 Geo. III. c. 99."--_The Times_, Oct. 1819.
+
+[45] There are instances of convictions on record, of bakers having used
+gypsum, chalk, and pipe clay, in the manufacture of bread.
+
+[46] See a Practical Treatise on the Use and Application of Chemical
+Tests, illustrated by experiments, 3d edit. p. 270, 231, 177, & 196.
+
+[47] Phil. Trans. for 1817, part i.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Beer._
+
+
+Malt liquors, and particularly porter, the favourite beverage of the
+inhabitants of London, and of other large towns, is amongst those
+articles, in the manufacture of which the greatest frauds are frequently
+committed.
+
+The statute prohibits the brewer from using any ingredients in his
+brewings, except malt and hops; but it too often happens that those who
+suppose they are drinking a nutritious beverage, made of these
+ingredients only, are entirely deceived. The beverage may, in fact, be
+neither more nor less than a compound of the most deleterious
+substances; and it is also clear that all ranks of society are alike
+exposed to the nefarious fraud. The proofs of this statement will be
+shewn hereafter.[48]
+
+The author[49] of a Practical Treatise on Brewing, which has run
+through eleven editions, after having stated the various ingredients for
+brewing porter, observes, "that however much they may surprise, however
+pernicious or disagreeable they may appear, he has always found them
+requisite in the brewing of porter, and he thinks they must invariably
+be used by those who wish to continue the taste, flavour, and appearance
+of the beer.[50] And though several Acts of Parliament have been passed
+to prevent porter brewers from using many of them, yet the author can
+affirm, from experience, he could never produce the present flavoured
+porter without them.[51] The intoxicating qualities of porter are to be
+ascribed to the various drugs intermixed with it. It is evident some
+porter is more heady than other, and it arises from the greater or less
+quantity of stupifying ingredients. Malt, to produce intoxication, must
+be used in such large quantities as would very much diminish, if not
+totally exclude, the brewer's profit."
+
+The practice of adulterating beer appears to be of early date. By an
+Act so long ago as Queen Anne, the brewers are prohibited from mixing
+_cocculus indicus_, or any unwholesome ingredients, in their beer, under
+severe penalties: but few instances of convictions under this act are to
+be met with in the public records for nearly a century. To shew that
+they have augmented in our own days, we shall exhibit an abstract from
+documents laid lately before Parliament.[52]
+
+These will not only amply prove, that unwholesome ingredients are used
+by fraudulent brewers, and that very deleterious substances are also
+vended both to brewers and publicans for adulterating beer, but that the
+ingredients mixed up in the brewer's enchanting cauldron are placed
+above all competition, even with the potent charms of Macbeth's witches:
+
+     "Root of hemlock, digg'd i' the dark,
+       +       +       +       +       +
+       +       +       +       +       +
+     For a charm of pow'rful trouble,
+     Like a hell-broth boil and bubble;
+     Double, double, toil and trouble,
+     Fire burn, and cauldron bubble."
+
+The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by
+narcotic substances, appears to have flourished during the period of the
+late French war; for, if we examine the importation lists of drugs, it
+will be noticed that the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a
+given time prior to that period, will bear no comparison with the
+quantity imported in the same space of time during the war, although an
+additional duty was laid upon this commodity. Such has been the amount
+brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds the
+quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch. The
+price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings
+to seven shillings the pound.
+
+It was at the period to which we have alluded, that the preparation of
+an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new saleable
+commodity, in the price-currents of _brewers'-druggists_. It was at the
+same time, also, that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, fell upon the
+idea of brewing beer from various drugs, without any malt and hops. This
+chemist did not turn brewer himself; but he struck out the more
+profitable trade of teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome
+fee. From that time forwards, written directions, and recipe-books for
+using the chemical preparations to be substituted for malt and hops,
+were respectively sold; and many adepts soon afterwards appeared every
+where, to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice, first pointed out
+by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity of
+brewers'-chemists took its rise. They made it their chief business to
+send travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting
+the price and quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use
+of brewers only. Their trade spread far and wide, but it was amongst the
+country brewers chiefly that they found the most customers; and it is
+amongst them, up to the present day, as I am assured by some of these
+operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that the greatest quantities of
+unlawful ingredients are sold.
+
+The Act of Parliament[53] prohibits chemists, grocers, and druggists,
+from supplying illegal ingredients to brewers under a heavy penalty, as
+is obvious from the following abstract of the Act.
+
+"No druggist, vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other
+person, shall sell or deliver to any licensed brewer, dealer in or
+retailer of beer, knowing him to be such, or shall sell or deliver to
+any person on account of or in trust for any such brewer, dealer or
+retailer, any liquor called by the name of or sold as colouring, from
+whatever material the same may be made, or any material or preparation
+other than unground brown malt for darkening the colour of worts or
+beer, or any liquor or preparation made use of for darkening the colour
+of worts or beer, or any molasses, honey, vitriol, quassia, cocculus
+Indian, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper or opium, or any extract or
+preparation of molasses, or any article or preparation to be used in
+worts or beer for or as a substitute for malt or hops; and if any
+druggist shall offend in any of these particulars, such liquor
+preparation, molasses, &c. shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any
+officer of excise, and the person so offending shall for each offence
+forfeit 500_l._"
+
+The following is a list of druggists and grocers, prosecuted by the
+Court of Excise, and convicted of supplying unlawful ingredients to
+brewers.
+
+
+_List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted from 1812 to
+1819, for supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for adulterating
+Beer._[54]
+
+John Dunn and another, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500_l._
+
+George Rugg and others, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500_l._
+
+John Hodgkinson and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to
+brewers, 100_l._ and costs.
+
+William Hiscocks and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 200_l._ and costs.
+
+G. Hornby; for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+W. Wilson, for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+George Andrews, grocer, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+Guy Knowles, for selling substitute for hops, costs.
+
+Kernot and Alsop, for selling cocculus india, &c. 25_l._
+
+Joseph Moss, for selling various drugs, 300_l._
+
+Ph. Whitcombe, John Dunn, and Arthur Waller, druggists, for having
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid and concealed.
+
+Isaac Hebberd, for having liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid
+and concealed.
+
+Ph. Whitcombe, John Dunn, and Arthur Waller, druggists, for making
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer.
+
+John Lord, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and costs.
+
+John Smith Carr, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Edward Fox, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+John Cooper, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40_l._ and costs.
+
+Joseph Bickering, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40_l._ and
+costs.
+
+John Howard, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+James Reynolds, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs.
+
+Thomas Hammond, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and
+costs.
+
+J. Mackway, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._
+
+T. Renton, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.
+
+R. Adamson, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.
+
+W. Weaver, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+J. Moss, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer.
+
+Alex. Braden, for selling liquorice, 20_l._
+
+J. Draper, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._
+
+
+PORTER.
+
+The method of brewing porter has not been the same at all times as it is
+at present.
+
+At first, the only essential difference in the methods of brewing this
+liquor and that of other kinds of beer, was, that porter was brewed from
+brown malt only; and this gave to it both the colour and flavour
+required. Of late years it has been brewed from mixtures of pale and
+brown malt.
+
+These, at some establishments, are mashed separately, and the worts from
+each are afterwards mixed together. The proportion of pale and brown
+malt, used for brewing porter, varies in different breweries; some
+employ nearly two parts of pale malt and one part of brown malt; but
+each brewer appears to have his own proportion; which the intelligent
+manufacturer varies, according to the nature and qualities of the malt.
+Three pounds of hops are, upon an average, allowed to every barrel,
+(thirty-six gallons) of porter.
+
+When the price of malt, on account of the great increase in the price of
+barley during the late war, was very high, the London brewers discovered
+that a larger quantity of wort of a given strength could be obtained
+from pale malt than from brown malt. They therefore increased the
+quantity of the former and diminished that of the latter. This produced
+beer of a paler colour, and of a less bitter flavour. To remedy these
+disadvantages, they invented an artificial colouring substance, prepared
+by boiling brown sugar till it acquired a very dark brown colour; a
+solution of which was employed to darken the colour of the beer. Some
+brewers made use of the infusion of malt instead of sugar colouring. To
+impart to the beer a bitter taste, the fraudulent brewer employed
+quassia wood and wormwood as a substitute for hops.
+
+But as the colouring of beer by means of sugar became in many instances
+a pretext for using illegal ingredients, the Legislature, apprehensive
+from the mischief that might, and actually did, result from it, passed
+an Act prohibiting the use of burnt sugar, in July 1817; and nothing but
+malt and hops is now allowed to enter into the composition of beer: even
+the use of isinglass for clarifying beer, is contrary to law.
+
+No sooner had the beer-colouring Act been repealed, than other persons
+obtained a patent for effecting the purpose of imparting an artificial
+colour to porter, by means of brown malt, specifically prepared for that
+purpose only. The beer, coloured by the new method, is more liable to
+become spoiled, than when coloured by the process formerly practised.
+The colouring malt does not contain any considerable portion of
+saccharine matter. The grain is by mere torrefaction converted into a
+gum-like substance, wholly soluble in water, which renders the beer
+more liable to pass into the acetous fermentation than the common brown
+malt is capable of doing; because the latter, if prepared from good
+barley, contains a portion of saccharine matter, of which the patent
+malt is destitute.
+
+But as brown malt is generally prepared from the worst kind of barley,
+and as the patent malt can only be made from good grain, it may become,
+on that account, an useful article to the brewer (at least, it gives
+colour and body to the beer;) but it cannot materially economise the
+quantity of malt necessary to produce good porter. Some brewers of
+eminence in this town have assured me, that the use of this mode of
+colouring beer is wholly unnecessary; and that porter of the requisite
+colour may be brewed better without it; hence this kind of malt is not
+used in their establishments. The quantity of gum-like matter which it
+contains, gives too much ferment to the beer, and renders it liable to
+spoil. Repeated experiments, made on a large scale, have settled this
+fact.
+
+
+STRENGTH AND SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PORTER.
+
+The strength of all kinds of beer, like that of wine, depends on the
+quantity of spirit contained in a given bulk of the liquor.
+
+The reader need scarcely be told, that of no article there are more
+varieties than of porter. This, no doubt, arises from the different mode
+of manufacturing the beer, although the ingredients are the same. This
+difference is more striking in the porter manufactured among country
+brewers, than it is in the beer brewed by the eminent London porter
+brewers. The totality of the London porter exhibits but very slight
+differences, both with respect to strength or quantity of spirit, and
+solid extractive matter, contained in a given bulk of it. The spirit may
+be stated, upon an average, to be 4,50 per cent. in porter retailed at
+the publicans; the solid matter, is from twenty-one to twenty-three
+pounds per barrel of thirty-six gallons. The country-brewed porter is
+seldom well fermented, and seldom contains so large a quantity of
+spirit; it usually abounds in mucilage; hence it becomes turbid when
+mixed with alcohol. Such beer cannot keep, without becoming sour.
+
+It has been matter of frequent complaint, that ALL the porter
+now brewed, is not what porter was formerly. This idea may be true with
+some exceptions. My professional occupations have, during these
+twenty-eight years, repeatedly obliged me to examine the strength of
+London porter, brewed by different brewers; and, from the minutes made
+on that subject, I am authorised to state, that the porter now brewed by
+the eminent London brewers, is unquestionably stronger than that which
+was brewed at different periods during the late French war. Samples of
+brown stout with which I have been obligingly favoured, whilst writing
+this Treatise, by Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.--Messrs. Truman,
+Hanbury, and Co.--Messrs. Henry Meux and Co.--and other eminent brewers
+of this capital--afforded, upon an average, 7,25 per cent. of alcohol,
+of 0,833 specific gravity; and porter, from the same houses, yielded
+upon an average 5,25 per cent. of alcohol, of the same specific
+gravity;[55] this beer received from the brewers was taken from the
+same store from which the publicans are supplied.
+
+It is nevertheless singular to observe, that from fifteen samples of
+beer of the same denominations, procured from different retailers, the
+proportions of spirit fell considerably short of the above quantities.
+Samples of brown stout, procured from the retailers, afforded, upon an
+average, 6,50 per cent. of alcohol; and the average strength of the
+porter was 4,50 per cent. Whence can this difference between the beer
+furnished by the brewer, and that retailed by the publican, arise? We
+shall not be at a loss to answer this question, when we find that so
+many retailers of porter have been prosecuted and convicted for mixing
+table beer with their strong beer; this is prohibited by law, as becomes
+obvious by the following words of the Act.[56]
+
+"If any common or other brewer, innkeeper, victualler, or retailer of
+beer or ale, shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer, ale, or
+worts, with table beer, worts, or water, in any tub or measure, he shall
+forfeit 50_l._" The difference between strong and table beer, is thus
+settled by Parliament.
+
+"All beer or ale[57] above the price of eighteen shillings per barrel,
+exclusive of ale duties now payable (viz. ten shillings per barrel,) or
+that may be hereafter payable in respect thereof, shall be deemed strong
+beer or ale; and all beer of the price of eighteen shillings the barrel
+or under, exclusive of the duty payable (viz. two shillings per barrel)
+in respect thereof, shall be deemed table beer within the meaning of
+this and all other Acts now in force, or that may hereafter be passed in
+relation to beer or ale or any duties thereon."
+
+
+_List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted from 1815 to 1818, for
+adulterating Beer with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer
+with their Strong Beer._[58]
+
+William Atterbury, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 40_l._
+
+Richard Dean, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+John Jay, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+James Atkinson, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 20_l._
+
+Samuel Langworth, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+Hannah Spencer, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 150_l._
+
+---- Hoeg, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 5_l._
+
+Richard Craddock, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 100_l._
+
+James Harris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+receiving stale beer, and mixing it with strong beer, 42_l._ and costs.
+
+Thomas Scoons, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing stale beer with strong beer, verdict 200_l._
+
+Diones Geer and another, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c.
+and for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400_l._
+
+Charles Coleman, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 35_l._ and costs.
+
+William Orr, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50_l._
+
+John Gardiner, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 100_l._
+
+John Morris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 20_l._
+
+John Harbur, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50_l._
+
+John Corrie, for mixing strong beer with table beer.
+
+John Cape, for mixing strong beer with table beer.
+
+Joseph Gudge, for mixing strong beer with small beer.
+
+
+ILLEGAL SUBSTANCES USED FOR ADULTERATING BEER.
+
+We have stated already (p. 113) that nothing is allowed by law to enter
+into the composition of beer, but malt and hops.
+
+The substances used by fraudulent brewers for adulterating beer, are
+chiefly the following:
+
+Quassia, which gives to beer a bitter taste, is substituted for hops;
+but hops possesses a more agreeable aromatic flavour, and there is also
+reason to believe that they render beer less liable to spoil by keeping;
+a property which does not belong to quassia. It requires but little
+discrimination to distinguish very clearly the peculiar bitterness of
+quassia in adulterated porter. Vast quantities of the shavings of this
+wood are sold in a half-torrefied and ground state to disguise its
+obvious character, and to prevent its being recognised among the waste
+materials of the brewers. Wormwood[59] has likewise been used by
+fraudulent brewers.
+
+The adulterating of hops is prohibited by the Legislature.[60]
+
+"If any person shall put any drug or ingredient whatever into hops to
+alter the colour or scent thereof, every person so offending, convicted
+by the oath of one witness before one justice of peace for the county or
+place where the offence was committed, shall forfeit 5_l._ for every
+hundred weight."
+
+Beer rendered bitter by quassia never keeps well, unless it be kept in a
+place possessing a temperature considerably lower than the temperature
+of the surrounding atmosphere; and this is not well practicable in large
+establishments.
+
+The use of boiling the wort of beer with hops, is partly to communicate
+a peculiar aromatic flavour which the hop contains, partly to cover the
+sweetness of undecomposed saccharine matter, and also to separate, by
+virtue of the gallic acid and tannin it contains, a portion of a
+peculiar vegetable mucilage somewhat resembling gluten, which is still
+diffused through the beer. The compound thus produced, separates in
+small flakes like those of curdled soap; and by these means the beer is
+rendered less liable to spoil. For nothing contributes more to the
+conversion of beer, or any other vinous fluid, into vinegar, than
+mucilage. Hence, also, all full-bodied and clammy ales, abounding in
+mucilage, and which are generally ill fermented, do not keep as perfect
+ale ought to do. Quassia is, therefore, unfit as a substitute for hops;
+and even English hops are preferable to those imported from the
+Continent; for nitrate of silver and acetate of lead produce a more
+abundant precipitate from an infusion of English hops, than can be
+obtained from a like infusion by the same agents from foreign hops.
+
+One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear _a fine
+frothy head_, as it is technically termed: because professed judges of
+this beverage, would not pronounce the liquor excellent, although it
+possessed all other good qualities of porter, without this requisite.
+
+To impart to porter this property of frothing when poured from one
+vessel into another, or to produce what is also termed a _cauliflower
+head_, the mixture called _beer-heading_, composed of common green
+vitriol (sulphate of iron,) alum, and salt, is added. This addition to
+the beer is generally made by the publicans.[61] It is unnecessary to
+genuine beer, which of itself possesses the property of bearing a strong
+white froth, without these additions; and it is only in consequence of
+table beer being mixed with strong beer, that the frothing property of
+the porter is lost. From experiments I have tried on this subject, I
+have reason to believe that the sulphate of iron, added for that
+purpose, does not possess the power ascribed to it. But the publicans
+frequently, when they fine a butt of beer, by means of isinglass,
+adulterate the porter at the same time with table beer, together with a
+quantity of molasses and a small portion of extract of gentian root, to
+keep up the peculiar flavour of the porter; and it is to the molasses
+chiefly, which gives a spissitude to the beer, that the frothing
+property must be ascribed; for, without it, the sulphate of iron does
+not produce the property of frothing in diluted beer.
+
+Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, are
+employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of late, a
+concentrated tincture of these articles, to be used for a similar
+purpose, and possessing a powerful effect, has appeared in the
+price-currents of brewers' druggists. Ginger root, coriander seed, and
+orange peels, are employed as flavouring substances chiefly by the ale
+brewers.
+
+From these statements, and the seizures that have been made of illegal
+ingredients at various breweries, it is obvious that the adulterations
+of beer are not imaginary. It will be noticed, however, that some of the
+sophistications are comparatively harmless, whilst others are effected
+by substances deleterious to health.
+
+The following list exhibits some of the unlawful substances seized at
+different breweries and at chemical laboratories.
+
+
+_List of Illegal Ingredients, seized from 1812 to 1818, at various
+Breweries and Brewers' Druggists._[62]
+
+1812, July. Josiah Nibbs, at Tooting, Surrey.
+
+     Multum                      84 lbs.
+     Cocculus indicus            12
+     Colouring                    4 galls.
+     Honey                about 180 lbs.
+     Hartshorn Shavings          14
+     Spanish Juice               46
+     Orange Powder               17
+     Ginger                      56
+
+Penalty 300_l._
+
+
+1813, June 13. Sarah Willis, at West Ham, Essex.
+
+     Cocculus indicus             1 lb.
+     Spanish Juice               12
+     Hartshorn Shavings           6
+     Orange Powder                1
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+August 3. Cratcherode Whiffing, Limehouse.
+
+     Grains of Paradise         44 lbs.
+     Quassia                    10
+     Liquorice                  64
+     Ginger                     80
+     Caraway Seeds              40
+     Orange Powder              14
+     Copperas                    4
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+Nov. 25. Elizabeth Hasler, at Stratford.
+
+     Cocculus indicus           12 lbs.
+     Multum                     26
+     Grains of Paradise         12
+     Spanish Juice              30
+     Orange Powder               3
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+Dec. 14. John Abbott, at Canterbury, Kent.
+
+     Copperas, &c.              14 lbs.
+     Orange powder               2
+
+Penalty 500_l._, and Crown's costs.
+
+Proof of using drugs at various times.
+
+
+1815, Feb. 15. Mantel and Cook, Castle-street, Bloomsbury-square.
+
+Proof of mixing strong with table beer, and using colouring and other
+things.
+
+Compromised for 300_l._
+
+
+1817. From Peter Stevenson, an old Servant to Dunn and Waller, St.
+John-street, brewers' druggists.
+
+     Cocculus Indicus Extract     6 lbs.
+     Multum                     560
+     Capsicum                    88
+     Copperas                   310
+     Quassia                    150
+     Colouring and Drugs         84
+     Mixed Drugs                240
+     Spanish Liquorice          420
+     Hartshorn Shavings          77
+     Liquorice Powder           175
+     Orange powder              126
+     Caraway Seeds              100
+     Ginger                     110
+     Ginger Root                176
+
+Condemned, not being claimed.
+
+
+July 30. Luke Lyons, Shadwell.
+
+     Capsicum                     1 lb
+     Liquorice Root Powder        2
+     Coriander Seed               2
+     Copperas                     1
+     Orange Powder                8
+     Spanish Liquorice          1/2
+     Beer Colouring              24 galls
+
+Not tried. (7th May, 1818.)
+
+
+Aug. 6. John Gray, at West Ham.
+
+     Multum                     4 lbs.
+     Spanish Liquorice         21
+     Liquorice Root Powder    113
+     Ginger                   116
+     Honey                     11
+
+Penalty, 300_l._, and costs; including mixing strong beer with table,
+and paying table-beer duty for strong beer, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Numerous other seizures of illegal substances, made at breweries, might
+be advanced, were it necessary to enlarge this subject to a greater
+extent.
+
+Mr. James West, from the excise office, being asked in the Committee of
+the House of Commons, appointed, 1819, to examine and report on the
+petition of several inhabitants of London, complaining of the high price
+and inferior quality of beer, produced the following seized
+articles:--"One bladder of honey, one bladder of extract of cocculus
+indicus, ground guinea pepper or capsicum, vitriol or copperas, orange
+powder, quassia, ground beer-heading, hard multum, another kind of
+multum or beer preparation, liquorice powder, and ground grains of
+paradise."
+
+Witness being asked "Where did you seize these things?" Answer, "Some of
+them were seized from brewers, and some of them from brewers'
+druggists, within these two years past." (May 8, 1818.)
+
+Another fraud frequently committed, both by brewers and publicans, (as
+is evident from the Excise Report,) is the practice of adulterating
+strong beer with small beer--This fraud is prohibited by law, since both
+the revenue and the public suffer by it.[63] "The duty upon strong beer
+is ten shillings a barrel; and upon table beer it is two shillings. The
+revenue suffers, because a larger quantity of beer is sold as strong
+beer; that is, at a price exceeding the price of table beer, without the
+strong beer duty being paid. In the next place, the brewer suffers,
+because the retailer gets table or mild beer, and retails it as strong
+beer." The following are the words of the Act, prohibiting the brewers
+mixing table beer with strong beer.
+
+"If any common brewer shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer,
+or strong worts with table beer or table worts, or with water in any
+guile or fermenting tun after the declaration of the quantity of such
+guile shall have been made; or if he shall at any time mix or suffer to
+be mixed strong beer or strong worts with table beer worts or with
+water, in any vat, cask, tub, measures or utensil, not being an entered
+guile or fermenting tun, he shall forfeit 200 pounds."[64]
+
+With respect to the persons who commit this offence, Mr. Carr,[65] the
+Solicitor of the Excise, observes, that "they are generally brewers who
+carry on the double trade of brewing both strong and table beer. It is
+almost impossible to prevent them from mixing one with the other; and
+frauds of very great extent have been detected, and the parties punished
+for that offence. One brewer at Plymouth evaded duties to the amount of
+32,000 pounds; and other brewers, who brew party guiles of beer,
+carrying on the two trades of ale and table beer brewers, where the
+trade is a victualling brewer, which is different from the common
+brewer, he being a person who sells only wholesale; the victualling
+brewer being a brewer and also a seller by retail."
+
+"In the neighbourhood of London," Mr. Carr continues, "more
+particularly, I speak from having had great experience, from the
+informations and evidence which I have received, that the retailers
+carry on a most extensive fraud upon the public, in purchasing stale
+table beer, or the bottoms of casks. There are a class of men who go
+about and sell such beer at table-beer price to public victuallers, who
+mix it in their cellars. If they receive beer from their brewers which
+is mild, they purchase stale beer; and if they receive stale beer, they
+purchase common table beer for that purpose; and many of the
+prosecutions are against retailers for that offence." The following may
+serve in proof of this statement.
+
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+adulterating Strong Beer with Table Beer._[66]
+
+Thomas Manton and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 300_l._
+
+Mark Morrell and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+20_l._ and costs.
+
+Robert Jones and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 125_l._
+
+Robert Stroad, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 200_l._ and
+costs.
+
+William Cobbett, brewer, mixing strong and table beer, 100_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Thomas Richard Withers, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 75_l._
+and costs.
+
+John Cowel, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, 50_l._ and costs.
+
+John Mitchell, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, absconded.
+
+George Lloyd and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+25_l._ and costs.
+
+James Edmunds and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+for a long period, verdict 600_l._
+
+John Hoffman, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, and using
+molasses, 130_l._ and costs.
+
+Samuel Langworth, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer,
+10_l._ and costs.
+
+Hannah Spencer, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer, verdict
+150_l._
+
+Joseph Smith and others, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer.
+
+Philip George, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 200_l._
+
+Joshua Row, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400_l._
+
+John Drew, jun. and another, for mixing strong beer with table, 50_l._
+and costs.
+
+John Cape, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 250_l._ and costs.
+
+John Williams and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 200_l._
+
+
+OLD, OR ENTIRE; AND NEW, OR MILD BEER.
+
+It is necessary to state, that every publican has two sorts of beer sent
+to him from the brewer; the one is called _mild_, which is beer sent out
+fresh as it is brewed; the other is called _old_; that is, such as is
+brewed on purpose for keeping, and which has been kept in store a
+twelve-month or eighteen months. The origin of the beer called
+_entire_, is thus related by the editor of the Picture of London:
+"Before the year 1730, the malt liquors in general used in London were
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and it was customary to call for a pint, or
+tankard, of half-and-half, _i.e._ half of ale and half of beer, half of
+ale and half of two-penny. In course of time it also became the practice
+to call for a pint or tankard of _three-threads_, meaning a third of
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and thus the publican had the trouble to go to
+three casks, and turn three cocks, for a pint of liquor. To avoid this
+inconvenience and waste, a brewer of the name of Harwood conceived the
+idea of making a liquor, which should partake of the same united
+flavours of ale, beer, and two-penny; he did so, and succeeded, calling
+it _entire_, or entire butt, meaning that it was drawn entirely from one
+cask or butt; and as it was a very hearty and nourishing liquor, and
+supposed to be very suitable for porters and other working people, it
+obtained the name of _porter_." The system is now altered, and porter is
+very generally compounded of two kinds, or rather the same liquor in two
+different states, the due admixture of which is palatable, though
+neither is good alone. One is _mild_ porter, and the other _stale_
+porter; the former is that which has a slightly bitter flavour; the
+latter has been kept longer. This mixture the publican adapts to the
+palates of his several customers, and effects the mixture very readily,
+by means of a machine, containing small pumps worked by handles. In
+these are four pumps, but only three spouts, because two of the pumps
+throw out at the same spout: one of these two pumps draws the mild, and
+the other the stale porter, from the casks down in the cellar; and the
+publican, by dexterously changing his hold works either pump, and draws
+both kinds of beer at the same spout. An indifferent observer supposes,
+that since it all comes from one spout, it is entire butt beer, as the
+publican professes over his door, and which has been decided by vulgar
+prejudice to be only good porter, though the difference is not easily
+distinguished. I have been informed by several eminent brewers, that of
+late, a far greater quantity is consumed of mild than of stale beer.
+
+The entire beer of the modern brewer, according to the statement of C.
+Barclay,[67] Esq. "consists of some beer brewed expressly for the
+purpose of keeping: it likewise contains a portion of returns from
+publicans; a portion of beer from the bottoms of vats; the beer that is
+drawn off from the pipes, which convey the beer from one vat to another,
+and from one part of the premises to another. This beer is collected and
+put into vats. Mr. Barclay also states that it contains a certain
+portion of brown stout, which is twenty shillings a barrel dearer than
+common beer; and some bottling beer, which is ten shillings a barrel
+dearer;[68] and that all these beers, united, are put into vats, and
+that it depends upon various circumstances, how long they may remain in
+those vats before they become perfectly bright. When bright, this beer
+is sent out to the publicans, for their _entire_ beer, and there is
+sometimes a small quantity of mild beer mixed with it."
+
+The present entire beer, therefore, is a very heterogeneous mixture,
+composed of all the waste and spoiled beer of the publicans--the bottoms
+of butts--the leavings of the pots--the drippings of the machines for
+drawing the beer--the remnants of beer that lay in the leaden pipes of
+the brewery, with a portion of brown stout, bottling beer, and mild
+beer.
+
+The old or _entire_ beer we have examined, as obtained from Messrs.
+Barclay's, and other eminent London brewers, is unquestionably a good
+compound; but it does no longer appear to be necessary, among fraudulent
+brewers, to brew beer on purpose for keeping, or to keep it twelve or
+eighteen months. A more easy, expeditious, and economical method has
+been discovered to convert any sort of beer into entire beer, merely by
+the admixture of a portion of sulphuric acid. An imitation of the age of
+eighteen months is thus produced in an instant. This process is
+technically called to bring beer _forward_, or to make it _hard_.
+
+The practice is a bad one. The genuine, old, or entire beer, of the
+honest brewer, is quite a different compound; it has a rich, generous,
+full-bodied taste, without being acid, and a vinous odour: but it may,
+perhaps, not be generally known that this kind of beer always affords a
+less proportion of alcohol than is produced from mild beer. The practice
+of bringing beer _forward_, it is to be understood, is resorted to only
+by fraudulent brewers.[69]
+
+If, on the contrary, the brewer has too large a stock of old beer on his
+hands, recourse is had to an opposite practice of converting stale,
+half-spoiled, or sour beer, into mild beer, by the simple admixture of
+an alkali, or an alkaline earth. Oyster-shell powder and subcarbonate of
+potash, or soda, are usually employed for that purpose. These substances
+neutralise the excess of acid, and render sour beer somewhat palatable.
+By this process the beer becomes very liable to spoil.
+
+It is the worst expedient that the brewer can practise: the beer thus
+rendered _mild_, soon loses its vinous taste; it becomes vapid; and
+speedily assumes a muddy grey colour, and an exceedingly disagreeable
+taste.
+
+These sophistications may be considered, at first, as minor crimes
+practised by fraudulent brewers, when compared with the methods employed
+by them for rendering beer noxious to health by substances absolutely
+injurious.
+
+To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious vegetable
+substance, called _cocculus indicus_, and the extract of this poisonous
+berry, technically called _black extract_, or, by some, _hard multum_,
+are employed. Opium, tobacco, nux vomica, and extract of poppies, have
+also been used.
+
+This fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by
+unprincipled brewers; and it is a lamentable reflection to behold so
+great a number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of this crime; nor is
+it less deplorable to find the names of druggists, eminent in trade,
+implicated in the fraud, by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers
+for fraudulent purposes.
+
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+receiving and using illegal Ingredients in their Brewings._[70]
+
+Richard Gardner, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 100_l._,
+judgment by default.
+
+Stephen Webb and another, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 500_l._
+
+Henry Wyatt, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, verdict 400_l._
+
+John Harbart, retailer, for receiving adulterating ingredients, verdict
+150_l._
+
+Philip Blake and others, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 250_l._
+
+James Sneed, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+John Rewell and another, brewers, ditto, verdict 100_l._
+
+John Swain and another, ditto, for using adulterating ingredients,
+verdict 200_l._
+
+John Ing, brewer, ditto, stayed on defendant's death.
+
+John Hall, ditto, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 5_l._ and
+costs.
+
+John Webb, retailer, for using adulterating ingredients.
+
+Ralph Fogg and another, brewers, for receiving and using adulterating
+ingredients.
+
+John Gray, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 300_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Richard Bowman, for using liquid in bladder, supposed to be extract of
+cocculus, 100_l._
+
+Richard Bowman, brewer, for ditto, 100_l._ and costs.
+
+Septimus Stephens, brewer, for ditto, verdict 50_l._
+
+James Rogers and another, brewer, for ditto, 220_l._ and costs.
+
+George Moore, brewer, for using colouring, 300_l._ and costs.
+
+John Morris, for using adulterating ingredients.
+
+Webb and Ball, for using ginger, Guinea pepper, and brown powder, (name
+unknown), 1st 100_l._ 2nd 500_l._
+
+Henry Clarke, for using molasses, 150_l._
+
+Kewell and Burrows, for using cocculus india, multum, &c. 100_l._
+
+Allatson and Abraham, for using cocculus india, multum, and porter
+flavour, 630_l._
+
+Swain and Sewell, for using cocculus india, Guinea-opium, &c. 200_l._
+
+John Ing, for using cocculus india, hard colouring, and honey, _dead_.
+
+William Dean, for using molasses, 50_l._
+
+John Cowell, for using Spanish-liquorice, and mixing table beer with
+strong beer, 50_l._
+
+John Mitchell, for using cocculus india, vitriol, and Guinea pepper,
+_left the country_.
+
+Lloyd and Man, for using extract of cocculus, 25_l._
+
+John Gray, for using ginger, hartshorn shavings, and molasses, 300_l._
+
+Jon Hoffman, for using molasses, Spanish juice, and mixing table with
+strong beer, 130_l._
+
+Rogers and Boon, for using extract of cocculus, multum, porter flavour,
+&c. 220_l._
+
+---- Betteley, for using wormwood, coriander seed, and Spanish juice,
+200_l._
+
+William Lane, brewer, for using wormwood instead of hops, 5_l._ and
+costs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken in beer,
+cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no doubt; and there
+is reasons to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance (and
+cocculus indicus is a powerful narcotic[71]), daily taken into the
+stomach, together with an intoxicating liquor, is highly more
+efficacious than it would be without the liquor. The effect may be
+gradual; and a strong constitution, especially if it be assisted with
+constant and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences
+perhaps for many years; but it never fails to shew its baneful effects
+at last. Independent of this, it is a well-established fact, that porter
+drinkers are very liable to apoplexy and palsy, without taking this
+narcotic poison.
+
+If we judge from the preceding lists of prosecutions and convictions
+furnished by the Solicitor of the Excise[72], it will be evident that
+many wholesale brewers, as well as retail dealers, stand very
+conspicuous among those offenders. But the reader will likewise notice,
+that there are no convictions, in any instance, against any of the
+eleven great London porter brewers[73] for any illegal practice. The
+great London brewers, it appears, believe that the publicans alone
+adulterate the beer. That many of the latter have been convicted of this
+fraud, the Report of the Board of Excise amply shews.--See p. 129.
+
+The following statement relating to this subject, we transcribe from a
+Parliamentary document:[74]
+
+Mr. Perkins being asked, whether he believed that any of the inferior
+brewers adulterated beer, answered, "I am satisfied there are some
+instances of that."
+
+_Question._--"Do you believe publicans do?" _Answer._--"I believe they
+do." _Q._--"To a great extent?" _A._--"Yes." _Q._--"Do you believe they
+adulterate the beer you sell them?" _A._--"I am satisfied there are
+some instances of that."--Mr. J. Martineau[75] being asked the following
+
+_Question._[76]--"In your judgment is any of the beer of the metropolis,
+as retailed to the publican, mixed with any deleterious ingredients?"
+
+_Answer._--"In retailing beer, in some instances, it has been."
+
+_Question._--"By whom, in your opinion, has that been done?"
+
+_Answer._--"In that case by the publicans who vend it."
+
+On this point, it is but fair, to the minor brewers, to record also the
+answers of some officers of the revenue, when they were asked whether
+they considered it more difficult to detect nefarious practices in large
+breweries than in small ones.
+
+Mr. J. Rogers being thus questioned in the Committee of the House of
+Commons,[77] "Supposing the large brewers to use deleterious or any
+illegal ingredients to such an amount as could be of any importance to
+their concern, do you think it would, or would not, be more easy to
+detect it in those large breweries, than in small ones?" his answer was,
+"more difficult to detect it in the large ones:" and witness being asked
+to state the reason why, answered, "Their premises are so much larger,
+and there is so much more strength, that a cart load or two is got rid
+of in a minute or two." Witness "had known, in five minutes, twenty
+barrels of molasses got rid of as soon as the door was shut."
+
+Another witness, W. Wells, an excise officer,[78] in describing the
+contrivances used to prevent detection, stated, that at a brewer's, at
+Westham, the adulterating substances "were not kept on the premises, but
+in the brewer's house; not the principal, but the working brewers; it
+not being considered, when there, as liable to seizure: the brewer had a
+very large jacket made expressly for that purpose, with very large
+pockets; and, on brewing mornings, he would take his pockets full of the
+different ingredients. Witness supposed that such a man's jacket,
+similar to what he had described, would convey quite sufficient for any
+brewery in England, as to _cocculus indicus_."
+
+That it may be more difficult for the officers of the excise to detect
+fraudulent practices in large breweries than in small ones, may be true
+to a certain extent: but what eminent London porter brewer would stake
+his reputation on the chance of so paltry a gain, in which he would
+inevitably be at the mercy of his own man? The eleven great porter
+brewers of this metropolis are persons of so high respectability, that
+there is no ground for the slightest suspicion that they would attempt
+any illegal practices, which they were aware could not possibly escape
+detection in their extensive establishments. And let it be remembered,
+that none of them have been detected for any unlawful practices,[79]
+with regard to the processes of their manufacture, or the adulteration
+of their beer.
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATION OF BEER.
+
+The detection of the adulteration of beer with deleterious vegetable
+substances is beyond the reach of chemical analysis. The presence of
+sulphate of iron (p. 134) may be detected by evaporating the beer to
+perfect dryness, and burning away the vegetable matter obtained, by the
+action of chlorate of pot-ash in a red-hot crucible. The sulphate of
+iron will be left behind among the residue in the crucible, which when
+dissolved in water, may be assayed, for the constituent parts of the
+salt, namely, iron and sulphuric acid: for the former, by tincture of
+galls, ammonia, and prussiate of potash; and for the latter, by muriate
+of barytes.[80]
+
+Beer, which has been rendered fraudulently _hard_ (see p. 148) by the
+admixture of sulphuric acid, affords a white precipitate (sulphate of
+barytes), by dropping into it a solution of acetate or muriate of
+barytes; and this precipitate, when collected by filtering the mass, and
+after having been dried, and heated red-hot for a few minutes in a
+platina crucible, does not disappear by the addition of nitric, or
+muriatic acid. Genuine old beer may produce a precipitate; but the
+precipitate which it affords, after having been made red-hot in a
+platina crucible, instantly becomes re-dissolved with effervescence by
+pouring on it some pure nitric or muriatic acid; in that case the
+precipitate is malate (not sulphate) of barytes, and is owing to a
+portion of malic acid having been formed in the beer.
+
+But with regard to the vegetable materials deleterious to health, it is
+extremely difficult, in any instance, to detect them by chemical
+agencies; and in most cases it is quite impossible, as in that of
+cocculus indicus in beer.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF SPIRIT CONTAINED IN PORTER, ALE,
+OR OTHER KINDS OF MALT LIQUORS.
+
+Take any quantity of the beer, put it into a glass retort, furnished
+with a receiver, and distil, with a gentle heat, as long as any spirit
+passes over into the receiver; which may be known by heating from time
+to time a small quantity of the obtained fluid in a tea-spoon over a
+candle, and bringing into contact with the vapour of it the flame of a
+piece of paper. If the vapour of the distilled fluid catches fire, the
+distillation must be continued until the vapour ceases to be set on
+fire by the contact of a flaming body. To the distilled liquid thus
+obtained, which is the spirit of the beer, combined with water, add, in
+small quantities at a time, pure subcarbonate of potash (previously
+freed from water by having been exposed to a red heat,) till the last
+portion of this salt added, remains undissolved in the fluid. The spirit
+will thus become separated from the water, because the subcarbonate of
+potash abstracts from it the whole of the water which it contained; and
+this combination sinks to the bottom, and the spirit alone floats on the
+top. If this experiment be made in a glass tube, about half or
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and graduated into 50 or 100
+equal parts, the relative per centage of spirit in a given quantity of
+beer may be seen by mere inspection.
+
+
+_Quantity of Alcohol contained in Porter, Ale, and other kinds of Malt
+Liquors._[81]
+
+     One hundred parts, by Measure,      Parts of Alcohol,
+          contained.                        by Measure.
+
+     Ale, home-brewed                           8,30
+     Ale, Burton, three Samples                 6,25
+     Ale, Burton[82]                            8,88
+     Ale, Edinburgh[82]                         6,20
+     Ale, Dorchester[82]                        5,50
+     Ale, common London-brewed,     }
+             six samples            }           5,82
+     Ale, Scotch, three samples                 5,75
+     Porter, London, eight samples              4,00
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           4,20
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           4,45
+     Ditto, Ditto, bottled.                     4,75
+     Brown Stout, four samples                  5
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           6,80
+     Small Beer, six samples                    0,75
+     Ditto, Ditto[84]                           1,28
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] See pages 119, &c.
+
+[49] Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 7.
+
+[50] Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 16.
+
+[51] Ibid. p. 16.
+
+[52] "Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons, to whom the
+petition of several inhabitants of London and its vicinity, complaining
+of the high price and inferior quality of beer, was referred, to examine
+the matter thereof, and to report the same, with their observations
+thereupon, to the House. Printed by order of the House of Commons,
+April, 1819."
+
+[53] 56 Geo. III. c. 2.
+
+[54] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer.--See pages 18,
+29, 30, 31, 36, 43.
+
+[55] The average specific gravity of different samples of brown stout,
+obtained direct from the breweries of Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.
+Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Co. Messrs. Henry Meux and Co. and from
+several other eminent London brewers, amounted to 1,022; and the average
+specific gravity of porter, from the same breweries, 1,018.
+
+[56] 2 Geo. III. c. 14, § 2.
+
+[57] 59 Geo. III. c. 53, § 25.
+
+[58] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 19, 29, 36,
+37, 43.
+
+[59] See Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons for reporting
+on the Price and Quality of Beer, 1819, p. 29.
+
+[60] 7 Geo. II. c. 19, § 2.
+
+[61] See List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for mixing table
+beer with strong beer, &c. p. 129.
+
+"Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, and is penetrating to the
+palate."--_S. Child on Brewing._
+
+[62] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 38.
+
+[63] See Mr. Carr's evidence in the Minutes of the House of Commons, p.
+32.
+
+[64] 42 George III, c. 38, § 12.
+
+[65] See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32.
+
+[66] Copied from the minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer, 1819, p. 29, 36,
+43.
+
+[67] See the Parliamentary Minutes, p. 94.
+
+[68] Mr. Barclay has not specified the relative proportions of brown
+stout and of bottling beer which are introduced at such an augmentation
+of expense.
+
+[69] Mr. Child, in his Treatise on Brewing, p. 23 directs, _to make new
+beer older, use oil of vitriol_.
+
+[70] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 29, 36.
+
+[71] The deleterious effect of Cocculus Indicus (the fruit of the
+memispermum cocculus) is owing to a peculiar bitter principle contained
+in it; which, when swallowed in minute quantities, intoxicates and acts
+as poison. It may be obtained from cocculus indicus berries in a
+detached state:--chemists call it picrotoxin, from +pichros+, bitter;
+and +toxichon+ poison.
+
+[72] See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 28, 36.
+
+[73] Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.--Truman, Hanbury and Co.--Reid
+and Co.--Whitbread and Co.--Combe, Delafield, and Co.--Henry Meux, and
+Co.--Calvert and Co.--Goodwin and Co.--Elliot and Co.--Taylor and
+Co.--Cox, and Camble and Co.
+
+See the Minutes, before quoted, p. 32.
+
+[74] _Ibid._ p. 58.
+
+[75] A partner in the brewery of Messrs. Whitbread and Co.
+
+[76] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 104.
+
+[77] Minutes, before quoted, p. 22.
+
+[78] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 40.
+
+[79] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32
+
+[80] See a Treatise on the Use and Application of Chemical Tests, 3d
+edition; Tests for Sulphuric Acid, &c.
+
+[81] Repository of Arts, No. 2, p. 74.--1816.
+
+[82] Copied from Professor Brande's Paper in the Philosophical
+Transactions, 1811, p. 345.
+
+[83] Result of our own Experiments, see p. 127.
+
+[84] Professor Brande's Experiments.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Tea-Leaves._
+
+
+The late detections that have been made respecting the illicit
+establishments for the manufacture of imitation tea leaves, arrested,
+not long ago, the attention of the public; and the parties by whom these
+manufactories were conducted, together with the numerous venders of the
+factitious tea, did not escape the hand of justice. In proof of this
+statement, it is only necessary to consult the London newspapers (the
+Times and the Courier) from March to July 1818; which show to what
+extent this nefarious traffic has been carried on; and they report also
+the prosecutions and convictions of numerous individuals who have been
+guilty of the fraud. The following are some of those prosecutions and
+convictions.
+
+HATTON GARDEN.--On Saturday an information came to be heard at
+this office, before Thomas Leach, Esq. the sitting magistrate, against a
+man of the name of Edmund Rhodes, charged with having, on the 12th of
+August last, dyed, fabricated, and manufactured, divers large
+quantities, viz. one hundred weight of sloe leaves, one hundred weight
+of ash leaves, one hundred weight of elder leaves, and one hundred
+weight of the leaves of a certain other tree, in imitation of tea,
+contrary to the statute of the 17th of Geo. III.[85] whereby the said
+Edmund Rhodes had, for every pound of such leaves so manufactured,
+forfeited the sum of 5_l._ making the total of the penalties amount to
+2,000_l._ The second count in the information charged the said Rhodes
+with having in his possession the above quantity of sloe, ash, elder,
+and other leaves, under the like penalty of 2,000_l._ The third count
+charged him with having, on the said 12th of August last, in his
+possession, divers quantities, exceeding six pounds weight of each
+respective kind of leaves; viz. fifty pounds weight of green sloe
+leaves, fifty pounds weight of green leaves of ash, fifty pounds weight
+of green leaves of elder, and fifty pounds weight of the green leaves of
+a certain other tree; not having proved that such leaves were gathered
+with the consent of the owners of the trees and shrubs from which they
+were taken, and that such leaves were gathered for some other use, and
+not for the purpose of manufacturing the same in imitation of tea;
+whereby he had forfeited for each pound weight, the sum of 5_l._
+amounting in the whole to 1,000_l._; and, in default of payment, in each
+case, subjected himself to be committed to the house of correction for
+not more than twelve months, nor less than six months.
+
+Mr. Denton, who appeared for the defendant, who was absent, said that he
+was a very poor man, with a family of five children, and was only the
+servant of the real manufacturer, and an ignorant man from the country,
+put into the premises to carry on the business, without knowing what the
+leaves were intended for. By direction of Mr. Mayo, who conducted the
+prosecution, several barrels and bags, filled with the imitation tea,
+were then brought into the office, and a sample from each handed round.
+To the eye they seemed a good imitation of tea.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 500_l._ on the second
+count.
+
+_The Attorney-General against Palmer._--This was an action by the
+Attorney-General against the defendant, Palmer, charging him with
+having in his possession a quantity of sloe-leaves and white-thorn
+leaves, fabricated into an imitation of tea.
+
+Mr. Dauncey stated the case to the jury, and observed that the
+defendant, Mr. Palmer, was a grocer. It would appear that a regular
+manufactory was established in Goldstone-street. The parties by whom the
+manufactory was conducted, was a person of the name of Proctor, and
+another person named J. Malins. They engaged others to furnish them with
+leaves, which, after undergoing a certain process, were sold to and
+drank by the public as tea. The leaves, in order to be converted into an
+article resembling black tea, were first boiled, then baked upon an iron
+plate; and, when dry, rubbed with the hand, in order to produce that
+curl which the genuine tea had. This was the most wholesome part of the
+operation; for the colour which was yet to be given to it, was produced
+by logwood. The green tea was manufactured in a manner more destructive
+to the constitution of those by whom it was drank. The leaves, being
+pressed and dried, were laid upon sheets of copper, where they received
+their colour from an article known by the name of Dutch pink. The
+article used in producing the appearance of the fine green bloom,
+observable on the China tea, was, however, decidedly a dead poison! He
+alluded to verdigris, which was added to the Dutch pink in order to
+complete the operation. This was the case which he had to bring before
+the jury; and hence it would appear, that, at the moment they were
+supposing they were drinking a pleasant and nutritious beverage, they
+were, in fact, in all probability, drinking the produce of the hedges
+round the metropolis, prepared for the purposes of deception in the most
+noxious manner. He trusted he should be enabled to trace to the
+possession of the defendant eighty pounds weight of the commodity he had
+been describing.
+
+Thomas Jones deposed, that he knew Proctor, and was employed by him at
+the latter end of April, 1817, to gather black and white thorn leaves.
+Sloe leaves were the black thorn. Witness also knew John Malins, the son
+of William Malins, a coffee-roaster; he did not at first know the
+purpose for which the leaves were gathered, but afterwards learnt they
+were to make imitation tea. Witness did not gather more than one hundred
+and a half weight of these leaves; but he employed another person, of
+the name of John Bagster, to gather them. He had two-pence per pound for
+them. They were first boiled, and the water squeezed from them in a
+press. They were afterwards placed over a slow-fire upon sheets of
+copper to dry; while on the copper they were rubbed with the hand to
+curl them. At the time of boiling there was a little _verdigris_ put
+into the water (this applied to green tea only.) After the leaves were
+dried, they were sifted, to separate the thorns and stalks. After they
+were sifted, more verdigris and some Dutch pink were added. The
+verdigris gave the leaves that green bloom observable on genuine tea.
+
+The black tea went through a similar course as the green, except the
+application of Dutch pink: a little verdigris was put in the boiling,
+and to this was added a small quantity of logwood to dye it, and thus
+the manufacture was complete. The drying operation took place on sheets
+of iron. Witness knew the defendant, Edward Palmer; he took some of the
+mixture he had been describing, to his shop. The first time he took some
+was in May, 1817. In the course of that month, or the beginning of June,
+he took four or five seven-pound parcels; when he took it there, it was
+taken up to the top of the house. Witness afterwards carried some to
+Russell-street, which was taken to the top of the house, about one
+hundred weight and three quarters; from this quantity he carried
+fifty-three pounds weight to the house of the defendant's porter, by the
+desire of Mr. Malins; it was in paper parcels of seven pounds each.
+
+John Bagster proved that he had been employed by Malins and Proctor, to
+gather sloe and white-thorn leaves: they were taken to Jones's house,
+and from thence to Malins' coffee-roasting premises; witness received
+two-pence per pound for them; he saw the manufacturing going on, but did
+not know much about it: witness saw the leaves on sheets of copper, in
+Goldstone-street.
+
+This was the case for the Crown.--Verdict for the Crown, 840_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Prentice._--This was an information
+similar to the last, in which the defendant submitted to a verdict for
+the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against Lawson Holmes._--In this case the
+defendant submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Orkney._--Thomas Jones proved that
+the defendant was a grocer, and in the month of May last he carried to
+his shop seven pounds of imitation tea, by the order of John Malins,
+for which he received the money, viz. 15_s._ 9_d._ or 2_s._ 3_d._ per
+pound.
+
+The jury found a verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 70_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against James Gray._--The defendant submitted to a
+verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 120_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against H. Gilbert, and Powel._--These defendants
+submitted to a verdict.--Penalties 140_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Clarke._--This defendant also
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against George David Bellis._--This defendant
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Horner._--The defendant in this case
+was a grocer; it was proved by Jones that he received twenty pounds of
+imitation tea.--Verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 210_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Dowling._--This was a grocer.
+Jones proved that he delivered seven pounds of imitation tea at Mr.
+Dowling's house, and received the money for it, namely 15_s._
+9_d._--Penalties 70_l._
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF TEA.
+
+The adulteration of tea may be evinced by comparing the botanical
+characters of the leaves of the two respective trees, and by submitting
+them to the action of a few chemical tests.
+
+The shape of the tea-leaf is slender and narrow, as shewn in this
+sketch, the edges are deeply serrated, and the end or extremity is
+acutely pointed. The texture of the leaf is very delicate, its surface
+smooth and glossy, and its colour is a lively pale green.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The sloe-leaf (and also the white-thorn leaf,) as shewn in this sketch,
+is more rounded, and the leaf is obtusely pointed. The serratures or
+jags on the edges are not so deep, the surface of the leaf is more
+uneven, the texture not so delicate, and the colour is a dark olive
+green.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+These characters of course can be observed only after the dried leaves
+have been suffered to macerate in water for about twenty-four hours.
+
+The leaves of some sorts of tea may differ in size, but the shape is the
+same in all of them; because all the different kinds of tea imported
+from China, are the produce of one species of plant, and the difference
+between the green and souchong, or black tea, depends chiefly upon the
+climate, soil, culture, age, and mode of drying the leaves.
+
+Spurious black tea,[86] slightly moistened, when rubbed on a sheet of
+white paper, immediately produces a blueish-black stain; and speedily
+affords, when thrown into cold water, a blueish-black tincture, which
+instantly becomes reddened by letting fall into it, a drop or two of
+sulphuric acid.
+
+Two ounces of the suspected leaves, should be infused in half-a-pint of
+cold, soft water, and suffered to stand for about an hour. Genuine tea
+produces an amber-coloured infusion, which does not become reddened by
+sulphuric acid.
+
+All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) which I have
+examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper (a poisonous
+substance,) and not by means of verdigris, or copperas.[87] The latter
+substances would instantly turn the tea black; because both these
+metallic salts being soluble in water, are acted on by the astringent
+matter of the leaves, whether genuine or spurious, and convert the
+infusion into ink.
+
+Tea, rendered poisonous by carbonate of copper, speedily imparts to
+liquid ammonia a fine sapphire blue tinge. It is only necessary to shake
+up in a stopped vial, for a few minutes, a tea-spoonful of the suspected
+leaves, with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, diluted with
+half its bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue
+colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present.
+
+Green tea, coloured with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water
+impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, immediately acquires a black
+colour. Genuine green tea suffers no change from the action of these
+tests.
+
+The presence of copper may be further rendered obvious, by mixing one
+part of the suspected tea-leaves, reduced to powder, with two or three
+parts of nitrate of potash, (or with two parts of chlorate of potash,)
+and projecting this mixture by small portions at a time, into a platina,
+or porcelain-ware crucible, kept red-hot in a coal fire; the whole
+vegetable matter of the tea leaves will thus become destroyed, and the
+oxide of copper left behind, in combination with the potash, of the
+nitrate of potash (or salt-petre,) or with the muriate of potash, if
+chlorate of potash has been employed.
+
+If water, acidulated with nitric acid, be then poured into the crucible
+to dissolve the mass, the presence of the copper may be rendered
+manifest by adding to the solution, liquid ammonia, in such quantity
+that the pungent odour of it predominates.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[85] Also, 2 Geo. I, c. 30, § 5; and 4 Geo. II, c. 14, § 11.
+
+[86] The examination of twenty-seven samples of imitation tea of
+different qualities, from the most costly, to the most common, which it
+fell to my lot to undertake, induces me to point out the marks of
+sophistications here detailed, as the most simple and expeditious.
+
+[87] Mr. Twining, an eminent tea-merchant, asserts, that "the leaves of
+spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas and sheep's
+dung."--See Encyclop. Britan. vol. xviii. p. 331. 1797. See also the
+History of the Tea Plant, p. 48; and p. 167 of this Treatise.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Coffee._
+
+
+The fraud of counterfeiting ground coffee by means of pigeon's beans and
+pease, is another subject which, not long ago, arrested the attention of
+the public: and from the numerous convictions of grocers prosecuted for
+the offence, it is evident that this practice has been carried on for a
+long time, and to a considerable extent.
+
+The following statement exhibits some of the prosecutions, instituted by
+the Solicitor of the Excise, against persons convicted of the fraud of
+manufacturing spurious, and adulterating genuine coffee.
+
+Alexander Brady, a grocer, (_See p. 182_) prosecuted and convicted of
+selling _sham-coffee_, said, "I have sold it for twenty years." Some of
+the persons prosecuted by the Solicitor of the Excise for this fraud, we
+might, at first sight, be inclined to believe, were inconscious that the
+adulterating of genuine coffee with spurious substances was illegal; but
+this ignorance affords no excuse, as the Act of the 43 Geo. III. cap.
+129, explicitly states: "If after the first day of September, 1803, any
+burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans, or other grain, or vegetable
+substance or substances prepared or manufactured for the purpose of
+being in imitation of or in any respect to resemble coffee or cocoa, or
+to serve as a substitute for coffee or cocoa, or alleged or pretended by
+the possessor or vender thereof so to be, _shall be made_, or kept for
+sale, or shall be _offered_ or _exposed to sale_, or shall be _found_ in
+the custody or possession of any _dealer_ or dealers in or _seller_ or
+sellers of _coffee_, or if any burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans,
+or other grain, or vegetable substance or substances not being coffee,
+shall be called by the preparer, manufacturer, possessor, or vender
+thereof, by the name of _English_ or _British_ coffee, or _any other
+name_ of coffee, or by the name of _American_ cocoa, or _English_ or
+_British_ cocoa, or any other name of cocoa, the same respectively shall
+be forfeited, together with the packages containing the same, and shall
+and may be seized by any officer or officers of Excise; and the person
+or persons preparing, manufacturing, or selling the same, or having the
+same in his, her, or their custody or possession, or the dealer or
+dealers in or seller or sellers of coffee or cocoa, in whose custody
+the same shall be found, shall forfeit and lose the sum of one hundred
+pounds."
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Malins._--This was an information
+filed by the Attorney-General against the defendant, charging him, he
+being a dealer in coffee, with having in his possession a large quantity
+of imitation coffee, made from scorched pease and beans, resembling
+coffee, and intended to be sold as such, contrary to the statute of the
+43d of the King, whereby he became liable to pay a fine of 100_l._
+
+J. Lawes deposed that he had lived servant with the defendant; he
+constantly roasted pease and beans, and ground them into powder. When so
+ground, the powder very much resembled coffee. Sometimes the sweepings
+of the coffee were thrown in among the pease and beans. Witness carried
+out this powder to several grocers in different parts of the town.
+
+Thomas Jones lived with the defendant. His occupation was roasting and
+grinding pease and beans. They looked, when ground, the same as coffee.
+Witness had seen Mr. John Malins sweep up the refuse coffee, and mix it
+with the pease and beans. He had taken out this mixture to grocers.
+
+J. Richardson, an excise-officer, deposed, that, in December 1817, he
+went to the premises of the defendant, and there seized four sacks, five
+tubs, and nine pounds in paper, of a powder made to resemble coffee. The
+quantity ground was 1,567 pounds; it had all the appearance of coffee;
+and a little coffee being mixed with it, any common person might be
+deceived. He also seized two sacks, containing 279 pounds of whole pease
+and beans roasted. Among the latter were some grains of coffee. The
+witness here produced samples of the articles seized.
+
+John Lawes deposed, that the articles exhibited were such as he was in
+the habit of manufacturing while in Mr. Malins' employment.
+
+The jury found a verdict for the Crown.--Penalty 100_l._
+
+_The King against Chaloner._--Mr. Chaloner, a dealer in tea and coffee,
+was charged on the oaths of Charles Henry Lord and John Pearson, both
+Excise officers, with having in his possession, on the 17th of March,
+nine pounds of spurious coffee, consisting of burnt pease, beans, and
+gravel or sand, and a portion of coffee, and with selling some of the
+same; also with having in his possession seventeen pounds of vegetable
+powder, and an article imitating coffee, which contained not a particle
+of genuine coffee.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 90_l._
+
+_The King against Peether._--This was an information against Mr. Thomas
+Peether, tea and coffee dealer, charging him with having in his
+possession a quantity of imitation coffee (or vegetable powder) on the
+25th of April last.
+
+The case being proved by the evidence of several witnesses, the
+defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Topping._--This was an information against Mr. John
+Lewis Topping, a dealer in tea and coffee, charging him with having
+thirty-seven pounds of vegetable powder in his possession. The article
+seized was produced to the commissioners of the Excise.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Samuel Hallett._--The defendant, Hallett, a grocer and
+dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having seven pounds of
+imitation coffee in his possession.
+
+Charles Henry Lord, an officer of the Excise, being sworn, stated, that
+he and Spencer, an officer, went, on the 28th of February last, to the
+shop of the defendant, and asked for an ounce of coffee, at three
+halfpence per ounce. He received the same, and having paid for it, left
+the shop. He examined the article, and found it was part coffee, and
+part imitation coffee, or what the defendant called vegetable powder,
+which is nothing more nor less than burnt pease and beans ground in a
+mill.
+
+Spencer, the officer of the Excise, corroborated the above evidence, and
+stated, that the sham-coffee seized at the defendant's house was shown
+to Mr. Joseph Hubbard, grocer, and tea and coffee dealer, in
+High-street, in the Borough of Southwark.
+
+Mr. Hubbard being sworn, stated, that he had examined the sham-coffee
+seized by the officers in the defendant's shop. The one ounce purchased
+by Lord, he knew to be nothing else than black pigeon's beans; there was
+no coffee amongst it.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Fox._--Mr. Edward Fox, grocer, and dealer in tea and
+coffee, was charged with having a large quantity of sham-coffee in his
+possession, and with selling the same for genuine coffee.
+
+Henry Spencer, an officer of the Excise, stated, that on the 21st of
+February he and Lord, another officer, went to the defendant's shop and
+purchased an ounce of coffee, for which he paid three halfpence. They
+examined it, and he was satisfied it was not genuine coffee; they
+purchased another ounce (which he produced to the commissioners of the
+Excise, who examined it); they were convinced it consisted partly of
+coffee and beans and pease.
+
+The defendant, in his defence said, that the poor people wanted a
+low-price article; and by mixing the vegetable powder and coffee
+together, he was able to sell it at three halfpence an ounce; he had
+sold it for years; he did it as a matter of accommodation to the poor,
+who could not give a higher price; he did not sell it for genuine
+coffee.
+
+_Commissioner._--"Then you have been defrauding the public for many
+years, and injuring the revenue by your illicit practices: the poor have
+an equal right to be supplied with as genuine an article as the rich."
+
+He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Brady._--The defendant, Mr. Alexander Brady, grocer,
+and dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having, on the 28th of
+February last, in his possession eighteen pounds of sham-coffee, and
+selling the same for genuine coffee.
+
+Lord and Pearson, Excise officers, stated, that they purchased an ounce
+of coffee of the defendant, on the 28th of February, and upon examining
+it they discovered that it was made up of pease and beans, ground with a
+small quantity of coffee. They also found eighteen pounds of vegetable
+powder mixed with coffee, in a state prepared for sale, wrapped in
+papers.
+
+One of the commissioners tasted some of the eighteen pounds of
+sham-coffee produced by the officers, and declared that it was a most
+infamous stuff, and unfit for human food.
+
+_Defendant._--"Why, I have sold it for twenty years."
+
+_Commissioner._--"Then you have been for twenty years acting most
+dishonestly, defrauding the revenue; and the health of the poor must
+have suffered very much by taking such an unwholesome article. Your
+having dealt in this article so long aggravates your case; you have for
+twenty years been selling burnt beans and pease for genuine coffee.--You
+are convicted in the penalty of 50_l._"
+
+_The King against Bowser._--The excise officers stated, that on the 28th
+of February they went to his shop: he was a grocer, dealer in tea and
+coffee; they seized seven pounds and a half of vegetable powder, which
+contained very little coffee, if any; and also a quarter of a pound of
+coffee mixed with vegetable powder.
+
+The defendant pleaded guilty to the charge, and prayed the court to
+mitigate the penalty. He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Thomas Owen._--The defendant, an extensive dealer in
+tea and coffee, appeared to an information charging him with having in
+his possession, and selling, a quantity of deleterious ingredients, and
+mixing them with coffee.
+
+Charles Henry Lord deposed, that on the 26th of February, he found, at
+the shop of the defendant, nineteen pounds of a composition consisting
+of beans and pease ground, and prepared so as to imitate coffee. He also
+discovered two pounds and a half of a mixture of coffee and vegetable
+powder. On the same day he proceeded to another shop of the defendant,
+and he there found five pounds more of the same stuff.
+
+Samples of the composition, in its mixed and unmixed state, were
+produced.
+
+Mr. Lawes addressed the commissioners on behalf of the defendant, in
+mitigation of punishment; for he did not mean to deny the offence. His
+client was a very young man, and had been most unfortunate in business.
+He was not aware until lately of the existence of any law by which it
+could be punished.
+
+The Commissioners observed, that they had a double duty to perform,
+namely, to protect the revenue from fraud, and to prevent the public
+from being imposed upon and injured by ingredients served to them
+instead of the food they intended to purchase. The fraud upon the
+revenue was, in the estimation of the court, the least part of the
+offence. Under all the circumstances, however, the court was inclined to
+be lenient to the defendant.
+
+He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._ for each quantity of
+sham-coffee.
+
+Mr. Greely and Mr. William Dando were fined 20_l._ each; and Mr. Hirling
+and Mr. Terry were fined 90_l._ each for selling spurious coffee.
+
+The adulteration of ground coffee, with pease and beans, is beyond the
+reach of chemical analysis; but it may, perhaps, not be amiss on this
+occasion to give to our readers a piece of advice given by a retired
+grocer to a friend, at no distant period:--"Never, my good fellow," he
+said, "purchase from a grocer any thing which passes through his mill.
+You know not what you get instead of the article you expect to
+receive--coffee, pepper, and all-spice, are all mixed with substances
+which detract from their own natural qualities."--Persons keeping mills
+of their own can at all times prevent these impositions.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Brandy, Rum, and Gin._
+
+
+By the Excise laws at present existing in this country, the various
+degrees of strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, whiskey, and other
+spiritous liquors, chiefly composed of little else than spirit of wine,
+are determined by the quantity of alcohol of a given specific gravity
+contained in the spiritous liquors of a supposed unknown strength. The
+great public importance of this subject in this country, where the
+consumption of spiritous liquors adds a vast sum to the public revenue,
+has been the means of instituting many very interesting series of
+experiments on this subject. The instrument used for that purpose by the
+Customs and officers of Excise, is called _Sikes_'s hydrometer,[88]
+which has now superseded the instrument called _Clark_'s hydrometer,
+heretofore in use.
+
+The specific gravity or strength of the legal standard spirit of the
+Excise, is technically called _proof_ or _proof spirit_. "This liquor
+(not being spirit sweetened, or having any ingredient dissolved in it,
+to defeat the strength thereof,) at the temperature of 57° Faht. weighs
+exactly 12/13th parts of an equal measure of distilled water;" and with
+this spirit the strength of all other spiritous liquors are compared
+according to law.
+
+The strength of spirit stronger than _proof_ or _over proof_, as it is
+termed by the revenue officers, is indicated by the bulk of water
+necessary to reduce a given volume of it, to the legal standard spirit,
+denominated _proof_--namely; if one gallon of water be required to bring
+twenty gallons of brandy, rum, or any other spirit, to proof, that
+spirit is said to be _1 to 20 over proof_. If one gallon of water be
+required to bring 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor to _proof_, it
+is said to be 1 to 15, 1 to 10, 1 to 5, and 1 to 2, _over proof_.
+
+The strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, or other spiritous liquors,
+weaker than _proof_, or under _proof_, is estimated by the quantity of
+water which would be necessary to abstract or bring the spirit up to
+proof.
+
+Thus, if from twenty gallons of brandy one gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 20 under proof.
+If from 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor, 1 gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 15, 1 in 10, 1 in
+5, and 1 in 2 under proof.
+
+It is necessary to understand this absurd language, which is in use
+amongst the officers of Excise and dealers in spirit, in order to know
+what is meant in commerce by the strength of spiritous liquors of
+different denominations. And hence, for the business of the exciseman, a
+table has been constructed, expressing the strength or specific gravity
+of mixtures of different proportions of spirit and water, at different
+degrees of temperature; and according to this table the duty on spirit
+is now levied.
+
+Brandy and rum is seizable, if sold by, or found in the possession of,
+the dealer, unless it possesses a certain strength.[89] The following
+are the words of the Act:
+
+"No distiller, rectifier,[90] compounder or dealer, shall serve or send
+out any foreign spirits, of a lower strength than that of 1 in 6 under
+hydrometer proof,[91] nor have in his possession any foreign spirits
+mixed together, except shrub, cherry or raspberry brandy, of lower
+strength than as aforesaid, upon pain of such spirits being forfeited;
+and such spirits, with the casks and vessels containing the same, may be
+seized by any officer of Excise."
+
+We have, therefore, a ready check against the frauds of the dishonest
+dealers, in spiritous liquors. If the spirit merchant engages to deliver
+a liquor of a certain strength, the hydrometer is by far the most easy
+and expeditious check that can be adopted to guard against frauds of
+receiving a weaker liquor for a stronger one; and to those individuals
+who are in the habit of purchasing large quantities of brandy, rum, or
+other spiritous liquors, the hydrometer renders the greatest service.
+For it is by no means an uncommon occurrence to meet with brandy, rum,
+and other spiritous liquors, of a specific gravity very much below the
+pretended strength which the liquor ought to possess.
+
+The following advice, given to his readers,[92] by the author of a
+Treatise on Brewing and Distilling, may serve to put the unwary on their
+guard against some of the frauds practised by mercenary dealers.
+
+"It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not taken
+notice of in this directory, to put one-third or one-fourth part of
+proof molasses brandy, proportionably, to what rum they dispose of;
+which cannot be distinguished, but by an extraordinary palate, and does
+not at all lessen the body or proof of the goods; but makes them about
+two shillings a gallon cheaper; and must be well mixed and incorporated
+together in your retailing cask; but you should keep some of the best
+rum, not adulterated, to please some customers, whose judgment and
+palate must be humoured."
+
+"When you are to draw a sample of goods to shew a person that has
+judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods into a phial to be tasted,
+or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, because the proof
+will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong; but draw the
+pattern of goods rather into a glass from the cock, to run very small,
+or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot and pour it
+into your glass, extending your pot as high above the glasses as you can
+without wasting it, which makes the goods carry a better head
+abundantly, than if the same goods were to be put and tried in a phial."
+
+"You must be so prudent as to make a distinction of the persons you have
+to deal with; what goods you sell to gentlemen for their own use, who
+require a great deal of attendance, and as much for time of payment, you
+must take a considerably greater price than of others; what goods you
+sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest, or at least some
+hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than common profit;
+what goods you sell to the poor, especially medicinally, (as many of
+your goods are sanative,) be as compassionate as the cases require."
+
+"All brandies, whether French, Spanish, or English; being proof goods,
+will admit of one point of _liquor_[93] to each gallon, to be made up
+and incorporated therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling smaller
+quantities; and all persons that insist upon having proof goods, which
+not one in twenty understands, you must supply out of what goods are not
+so reduced, though at a higher price."
+
+Such is the advice given by Mr. Shannon.
+
+The mode of judging by the taste of spiritous liquors is deceitful. A
+false strength is given to a weak liquor, by infusing in it acrid
+vegetable substances, or by adding to it a tincture of grains of
+paradise and Guinea pepper. These substances impart to weak brandy or
+rum, an extremely hot and pungent taste.
+
+Brandy and rum is also frequently sophisticated with British molasses,
+or sugar-spirit, coloured with burnt sugar.
+
+The flavour which characterises French brandy, and which is owing to a
+small portion of a peculiar essential oil contained in it, is imitated
+by distilling British molasses-spirit over wine lees;[94] but the
+spirit, prior to being distilled over wine lees, is previously
+deprived, in part, of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by
+rectification over fresh burnt charcoal and quick-lime. Other
+brandy-merchants employ a spirit obtained from raisin wine, which is
+suffered to pass into an incipient ascescency. The spirit thus procured
+partakes strongly of the flavour which is characteristic to foreign
+brandy.
+
+Oak saw-dust, and a spiritous tincture of raisin stones, are likewise
+used to impart to new brandy and rum a _ripe taste_, resembling brandy
+or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a somewhat oily consistence, so as
+to form a durable froth at its surface, when strongly agitated in a
+vial. The colouring substances are burnt sugar, or molasses; the latter
+gives to imitative brandy a luscious taste, and fulness _in the mouth_.
+These properties are said to render it particularly fit for the retail
+London customers.
+
+The following is the method of compounding or _making up_, as it is
+technically called, _brandy_[95] for retail:
+
+                                                 Gallons
+     "To ten puncheons of brandy                    1081
+     Add flavoured raisin spirit                     118
+     Tincture of grains of paradise                    4
+     Cherry laurel water                               2
+     Spirit of almond cakes                            2
+                                                 -------
+                                                    1207
+
+"Add also 10 handfuls of oak saw-dust; and give it _complexion_ with
+burnt sugar."
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF BRANDY, RUM, AND MALT SPIRIT.
+
+The false strength of brandy or rum is rendered obvious by diluting the
+suspected liquor with water; the acrimony of the capsicum, and grains of
+paradise, or pepper, may then be readily discovered by the taste.
+
+The adulteration of brandy with British molasses, or sugar-spirit,
+becomes evident by rubbing a portion of the suspected brandy between
+the palms of the hands; the spirit, as it evaporates, leaves the
+disagreeable flavour which is peculiar to all British spirits. Or the
+liquor may be deprived of its alcohol, by heating a portion in a spoon
+over a candle, till the vapour ceases to catch fire on the approach of a
+lighted taper. The residue thus obtained, of genuine French brandy,
+possesses a vinous odour, still resembling the original flavour of the
+brandy, whilst the residue, produced from sophisticated brandy, has a
+peculiarly disagreeable smell, resembling gin, or the breath of habitual
+drunkards.
+
+Arrack is coarsely imitated by adding to rum a small quantity of
+pyroligneous acid and some flowers (acid) of benzoe. The compound thus
+produced, however, must be pronounced a bad one. The author of a very
+popular Cookery Book,[96] directs two scruples of benzoic acid to be
+dissolved in one quart of rum, to make "_mock arrack_."
+
+
+MALT SPIRIT.
+
+Malt spirit, or gin, the favourite liquor of the lower order of people,
+which is characterised by the peculiar flavour of juniper berries, over
+which the raw spirit is distilled, is usually obtained from a mixture of
+malt and barley: sometimes both molasses and corn are employed,
+particularly if there be a scarcity of grain. But the flavour of
+whiskey, which is made from barley and oats, is owing to the malted
+grain being dried with peat, the smoke of which gives it the
+characteristic taste.
+
+The malt distiller is not allowed to furnish, under a heavy penalty, any
+crude or raw spirit to the rectifier or manufacturer of gin, of a
+greater strength than seven per cent. over proof. The rectifier who
+receives the spirit from the malt distiller is not allowed, under a
+certain penalty, to sweeten the liquor with sugar or other substances;
+nor is he permitted to send out the spirit to his customers but of a
+certain strength, as is obvious from the following words of the Act:
+
+"No rectifier or compounder shall sell or send out any British brandy,
+British rectified spirits, British compounds, or other British spirits,
+of greater strength than that of one in five under hydrometer proof[97]:
+and if he shall sell and send out any such spirits of a greater strength
+than that of one in five under hydrometer proof, such spirits, with the
+casks or vessels containing the same, shall be forfeited, and may be
+seized by any officer of Excise; and he shall also forfeit treble the
+value of such spirit, or 50_l._ at the election of the King's
+attorney-general, or the person who shall sue for the same; the single
+value of such spirits to be estimated at the highest London Price.[98]"
+
+If we examine gin, as retailed, we shall soon be convinced that it is a
+custom, pretty prevalent amongst dealers, to weaken this liquor
+considerably with water, and to sweeten it with sugar. This fraud may
+readily be detected by evaporating a quantity of the liquor in a
+table-spoon over a candle, to dryness; the sugar will thus be rendered
+obvious, in the form of a gum-like substance, when the spirit is
+volatilised.
+
+One hundred and twenty gallons of genuine gin, as obtained from the
+wholesale manufactories, are usually _made up_ by fraudulent retailers,
+into a saleable commodity, with fourteen gallons of water and twenty-six
+pounds of sugar. Now this dilution of the liquor produces a turbidness;
+because the oil of juniper and other flavouring substances which the
+spirit holds in solution, become precipitated by virtue of the water,
+and thus cause the liquor to assume an opaline colour: and the spirit
+thus weakened, cannot readily be rendered clear again by subsidence.
+Several expedients are had recourse to, to clarify the liquor in an
+expeditious manner; some of which are harmless; others are criminal,
+because they render the liquor poisonous.
+
+One of the methods, which is innocent, consists in adding to the
+weakened liquor, first, a portion of alum dissolved in water, and then a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash. The whole is stirred together, and
+left undisturbed for twenty-four hours. The precipitated alumine thus
+produced from the alum, by virtue of the sub-carbonate of potash, acts
+as a strainer upon the milky liquor, and carries down with it the finely
+divided oily matter which produced the blue colour of the diluted
+liquor. Roach, or Roman alum, is also employed, without any other
+addition, for clarifying spiritous liquors.
+
+
+"_To reduce unsweetened Gin._[99]
+
+     "A tun of fine gin                     252 gallons
+     "Water                                  36
+                                          -----
+     "Which added together make             288 gallons
+
+     "The _doctor is now put_ on,
+     and it is further reduced
+     with water                              19
+                                          -----
+     "Which gives        Total              307 gallons of gin.
+
+"This done, let 1 lb. of alum be just covered with water, and dissolved
+by boiling; rummage the whole well together, and pour in the alum, and
+the whole will be fine in a few hours."
+
+
+"_To prepare and sweeten British Gin._[100]
+
+"Get from your distiller an empty puncheon or cask, which will contain
+about 133 gallons. Then take a cask of clear rectified spirits, 120
+gallons, of the usual strength as rectifiers sell their goods at, put
+the 120 gallons of spirits into your empty cask.
+
+"Then take a quarter of an ounce of oil of vitriol, half an ounce of
+oil of almonds, a quarter of an ounce of oil of turpentine, one ounce of
+oil of juniper berries, half a pint of spirit of wine, and half a pound
+of lump sugar. Beat or rub the above in a mortar. When well rubbed
+together, have ready prepared half a gallon of lime water, one gallon of
+rose water; mix the whole in either a pail, or cask, with a stick, till
+every particle shall be dissolved; then add to the foregoing,
+twenty-five pounds of sugar dissolved in about nine gallons of rain or
+Thames water, or water that has been boiled, mix the whole well
+together, and stir them carefully with a stick in the 133 gallons cask.
+
+"To _force down_ the same, take and boil eight ounces of alum in three
+quarts of water, for three quarters of an hour; take it from the fire,
+and dissolve by degrees six or seven ounces of salt of tartar. When the
+same is milk-warm pour it into your gin, and stir it well together, as
+before, for five minutes, the same as you would a butt of beer newly
+fined. Let your cask stand as you mean to draw it. At every time you
+purpose to sweeten again, that cask must be well washed out; and take
+great care never to shake your cask all the while it is drawing."
+
+Another method of fining spiritous liquors, consists in adding to it,
+first, a solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a solution of alum.
+This practice is highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead
+produced, remains dissolved in the liquor, which it thus renders
+poisonous. Unfortunately, this method of clarifying spiritous liquors, I
+have good reason to believe, is more frequently practised than the
+preceding method, because its action is more rapid; and it imparts to
+the liquor a fine _complexion_, or great refractive power; hence some
+vestiges of lead may often be detected in malt spirit.
+
+The weakened spirit is then sweetened with sugar, and, to cover the raw
+taste of the malt spirit, _false strength_ is given to it with grains of
+paradise, Guinea pepper, capsicum, and other acrid and aromatic
+substances.
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF LEAD IN SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.
+
+The presence of lead may be detected in spiritous liquors, as stated on
+pages 70 and 86. The cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges
+of copper. This contamination, I have been informed, is accidental, and
+originates from the metallic vessels employed in the manufacture of the
+liquor.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF ALCOHOL IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF
+SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.
+
+The quantity of real alcohol in any spiritous liquors may readily be
+ascertained by simple distillation, which process separates the alcohol
+from the water and foreign matters contained in the liquor. Put any
+quantity of brandy, rum, or malt spirit diluted with about one-fourth
+its bulk of water, into a retort fitted to a capacious receiver, and
+distil with a gentle heat. The strongest spirit distils over first into
+the receiver, and the strength of the obtained products decreases, till
+at last it contains so much water as no longer to be inflammable by the
+approach of a lighted taper, when held in a spoon over a candle (see p.
+160.) If the process be continued, the distilled product becomes milky,
+scarcely spiritous to the smell, and of an acidulous taste. The
+distilling operation may then be discontinued. If the first, fourth or
+third part of the distilled product has been set apart, it will be
+found a moderately strong alcohol, and the remainder one more diluted.
+If the whole distilled spirit be mixed with perfectly dry subcarbonate
+of potash, the alcohol will float at the top of the potash, as stated,
+p. 161; it will separate into two distinct fluids. If the decanted
+alcohol be redistilled carefully with a very gentle heat, over a small
+portion of dry quick lime, or muriate of lime, it will be obtained
+extremely pure, and of a specific gravity of about 825, at 60° of
+temperature. Its flavour will vary according to the kind of spiritous
+liquor from which it is obtained.
+
+
+_Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol (of 825 specific gravity)
+contained in various kinds of spiritous Liquors._[101]
+
+                                                         Proportion of
+                                                       Alcohol per Cent.
+                                                          by Measure.
+
+Brandy, Cogniac, average proportion of 4 samples               52,75
+Ditto, Bourdeaux, ditto    ditto                               54,50
+Ditto, Cette                                                   53,00
+Ditto, Naples, average of 3 samples                            53,25
+Ditto, Spanish average of 6 samples                            52,28
+Rum                                                            53,68
+Ditto, Leeward, average of 9 samples                           53,00
+Scotch Whiskey, average of 6 samples                           53,50
+Irish   Ditto,  average of 4 samples                           54,25
+Arrack, Batavia                                                49,50
+Dutch Geneva                                                   52,25
+Gin (Hodges's,[102]) 3 samples, procured from retail dealers   48,25
+Ditto (Ditto,)[102] procured from the manufacturer             52,35
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[88] George III. c. xxviii. May 1818--"An Act for establishing the use
+of Sikes's hydrometer in ascertaining the strength of spirit, instead of
+Clark's hydrometer."
+
+[89] Sixteen and a half per cent. proof, according to Sikes's
+hydrometer.
+
+[90] 30 Geo. III c. 37, § 31.
+
+[91] According to Clarke's hydrometer.
+
+[92] Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with Brewing
+and Distilling, p. 167; and Shannon on Brewing and Distilling, p. 232,
+233.
+
+[93] Water.
+
+[94] This operation forms part of the business of the so-called brewers'
+druggists. It forms the article in their Price Currents, called _Spirit
+Flavour_.
+
+Wine lees are imported in this country for that purpose: they pay the
+same duty as foreign wines.
+
+[95] Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with Brewing
+and Distilling, p. 167.
+
+[96] Apicius Redivivus, 2d edition, p. 480.
+
+[97] Clark's hydrometer.
+
+[98] 30 Geo. III. c. 37, § 6.
+
+[99] Shannon on Brewing and Distilling, p. 198.
+
+[100] Ibid. p. 199.
+
+[101] Repository of Arts, p. 350, Dec. 1819.
+
+[102] Own experiment.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Cheese._
+
+
+Several instances have come under my notice in which Gloucester cheese
+has been contaminated with red lead, and has produced serious
+consequences on being taken into the stomach. In one poisonous sample
+which it fell to my lot to investigate, the evil had been caused by the
+sophistication of the anotta, employed for colouring cheese. This
+substance was found to contain a portion of red lead; a method of
+sophistication which has lately been confirmed by the following fact,
+communicated to the public by Mr. J. W. Wright, of Cambridge.[103]
+
+"As a striking example of the extent to which adulterated articles of
+food may be unconsciously diffused, and of the consequent difficulty of
+detecting the real fabricators of them, it may not be uninteresting to
+relate to your readers, the various steps by which the fraud of a
+poisonous adulteration of cheese was traced to its source.
+
+"Your readers ought here to be told, that several instances are on
+record, that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, and that this contamination has produced serious
+consequences. In the instance now alluded to, and probably in all other
+cases, the deleterious mixture had been caused ignorantly, by the
+adulteration of the anotta employed for colouring the cheese. This
+substance, in the instance I shall relate, was found to contain a
+portion of red lead; a species of adulteration which subsequent
+experiments have shewn to be by no means uncommon. Before I proceed
+further to trace this fraud to its source, I shall briefly relate the
+circumstance which gave rise to its detection.
+
+"A gentleman, who had occasion to reside for some time in a city in the
+West of England, was one night seized with a distressing but
+indescribable pain in the region of the abdomen and of the stomach,
+accompanied with a feeling of tension, which occasioned much
+restlessness, anxiety, and repugnance to food. He began to apprehend the
+access of an inflammatory disorder; but in twenty-four hours the
+symptoms entirely subsided. In four days afterwards he experienced an
+attack precisely similar; and he then recollected, that having, on both
+occasions, arrived from the country late in the evening, he had ordered
+a plate of toasted Gloucester cheese, of which he had partaken heartily;
+a dish which, when at home, regularly served him for supper. He
+attributed his illness to the cheese. The circumstance was mentioned to
+the mistress of the inn, who expressed great surprise, as the cheese in
+question was not purchased from a country dealer, but from a highly
+respectable shop in London. He, therefore, ascribed the before-mentioned
+effects to some peculiarity in his constitution. A few days afterwards
+he partook of the same cheese; and he had scarcely retired to rest, when
+a most violent cholic seized him, which lasted the whole night and part
+of the ensuing day. The cook was now directed henceforth not to serve up
+any toasted cheese, and he never again experienced these distressing
+symptoms. Whilst this matter was a subject of conversation in the house,
+a servant-maid mentioned that a kitten had been violently sick after
+having eaten the rind cut off from the cheese prepared for the
+gentleman's supper. The landlady, in consequence of this statement,
+ordered the cheese to be examined by a chemist in the vicinity, who
+returned for answer, that the cheese was contaminated with lead! So
+unexpected an answer arrested general attention, and more particularly
+as the suspected cheese had been served up for several other customers.
+
+"Application was therefore made by the London dealer to the farmer who
+manufactured the cheese: he declared that he had bought the anotta of a
+mercantile traveller, who had supplied him and his neighbours for years
+with that commodity, without giving occasion to a single complaint. On
+subsequent inquiries, through a circuitous channel, unnecessary to be
+detailed here at length, on the part of the manufacturer of the cheese,
+it was found, that as the supplies of anotta had been defective and of
+inferior quality, recourse had been had to the expedient of colouring
+the commodity with vermilion. Even this admixture could not be
+considered deleterious. But on further application being made to the
+druggist who sold the article, the answer was, that the vermilion had
+been mixed with a portion of red lead; and the deception was held to be
+perfectly innocent, as frequently practised on the supposition, that
+the vermilion would be used only as a pigment for house-painting. Thus
+the druggist sold his vermilion in the regular way of trade, adulterated
+with red lead to increase his profit, without any suspicion of the use
+to which it would be applied; and the purchaser who adulterated the
+anotta, presuming that the vermilion was genuine, had no hesitation in
+heightening the colour of his spurious anotta with so harmless an
+adjunct. Thus, through the circuitous and diversified operations of
+commerce, a portion of deadly poison may find admission into the
+necessaries of life, in a way which can attach no criminality to the
+parties through whose hands it has successively passed."
+
+This dangerous sophistication may be detected by macerating a portion of
+the suspected cheese in water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
+acidulated with muriatic acid; which will instantly cause the cheese to
+assume a brown or black colour, if the minutest portion of lead be
+present.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[103] Repository of Arts, vol. viii. No. 47, p. 262.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Pepper._
+
+
+Black pepper is the fruit of a shrubby creeping plant, which grows wild
+in the East Indies, and is cultivated, with much advantage, for the sake
+of its berries, in Java and Malabar. The berries are gathered before
+they are ripe, and are dried in the sun. They become black and
+corrugated on the surface.
+
+This factitious pepper-corns have of late been detected mixed with
+genuine pepper, is a fact sufficiently known.[104] Such an adulteration
+may prove, in many instances of household economy, exceedingly vexatious
+and prejudicial to those who ignorantly make use of the spurious
+article. I have examined large packages of both black and white pepper,
+by order of the Excise, and have found them to contain about 16 per
+cent. of this artificial compound. The spurious pepper is made up of
+oil cakes (the residue of lintseed, from which the oil has been
+pressed,) common clay, and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed in a
+mass, and granulated by being first pressed through a sieve, and then
+rolled in a cask. The mode of detecting the fraud is easy. It is only
+necessary to throw a sample of the suspected pepper into a bowl of
+water; the artificial pepper-corns fall to powder, whilst the true
+pepper remains whole.
+
+Ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a portion of
+genuine pepper, a quantity of pepper dust, or the sweepings from the
+pepper warehouses, mixed with a little Cayenne pepper. The sweepings are
+known, and purchased in the market, under the name of P. D. signifying
+pepper dust. An inferior sort of this vile refuse, or the sweepings of
+P. D. is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation of D. P. D.
+denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper dust.
+
+The adulteration of pepper, and the making and selling commodities in
+imitation of pepper, are prohibited, under a severe penalty. The
+following are the words of the Act:[105]
+
+"And whereas commodities made in imitation of pepper have of late been
+sold and found in the possession of various dealers in pepper, and other
+persons in Great Britain; be it therefore enacted, that from and after
+the said 5th day of July, 1819, if any commodity or substance shall be
+prepared by any person in imitation of pepper, shall be mixed with
+pepper, or sold or delivered as and for, or as a substitute for, pepper,
+or if any such commodity or substance, alone or mixed, shall be kept for
+sale, sold, or delivered, or shall be offered or exposed to sale, or
+shall be in the custody or possession of any dealer or seller of pepper,
+the same, together with all pepper with which the same shall be mixed,
+shall be forfeited, with the packages containing the same, and shall and
+may be seized by any officer of excise; and the person preparing,
+manufacturing, mixing as aforesaid, selling, exposing to sale, or
+delivering the same, or having the same in his, her, or their custody or
+possession, shall forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds."
+
+
+WHITE PEPPER.
+
+The common white pepper is factitious, being prepared from the black
+pepper in the following manner:--The pepper is first steeped in sea
+water and urine, and then exposed to the heat of the sun for several
+days, till the rind or outer bark loosens; it is then taken out of the
+steep, and, when dry, it is rubbed with the hand till the rind falls
+off. The white fruit is then dried, and the remains of the rind blown
+away like chaff. A great deal of the peculiar flavour and pungent hot
+taste of the pepper is taken off by this process. White pepper is always
+inferior in flavour and quality to the black pepper.
+
+However, there is a sort of native white pepper, produced on a species
+of the pepper plant, which is much better than the factitious, and
+indeed little inferior to the common black pepper.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] Thomson's Annals of Chemistry, 1816; also Repository of Arts, vol.
+i. 1816, p. 11.
+
+[105] George III. c. 53, § 21, 1819.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Cayenne Pepper._
+
+
+Cayenne pepper is an indiscriminate mixture of the powder of the dried
+pods of many species of capsicum, but especially of the capsicum
+frutescens, or bird pepper, which is the hottest of all.
+
+This annual plant, a native of South America, is cultivated in large
+quantities in our West-India islands, and even frequently in our
+gardens, for the beauty of its pods, which are long, pointed, and
+pendulous, at first of a green colour, and, when ripe, of a bright
+orange red. They are filled with a dry loose pulp, and contain many
+small, flat, kidney-shaped seeds. The taste of capsicum is extremely
+pungent and acrimonious, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire.
+
+The principle on which its pungency depends, is soluble in water and in
+alcohol.
+
+It is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to prevent it becoming
+bleached on exposure to light. This fraud may be readily detected by
+shaking up part of it in a stopped vial containing water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which will cause it speedily to assume a
+dark muddy black colour. Or the vegetable matter of the pepper may be
+destroyed, by throwing a mixture of one part of the suspected pepper and
+three of nitrate of potash (or two of chlorate of potash) into a red-hot
+crucible, in small quantities at a time. The mass left behind may then
+be digested in weak nitric acid, and the solution assayed for lead by
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Pickles._
+
+
+Vegetable substances, preserved in the state called pickles, by means of
+the antiseptic power of vinegar, whose sale frequently depends greatly
+upon a fine lively green colour; and the consumption of which, by
+sea-faring people in particular, is prodigious, are sometimes
+intentionally coloured by means of copper. Gerkins, French beans,
+samphires, the green pods of capsicum, and many other pickled vegetable
+substances, oftener than is perhaps expected, are met with impregnated
+with this metal. Numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued
+from the use of these stimulants of the palate, to which the fresh and
+pleasing hue has been imparted according to the deadly _formulæ_ laid
+down in some modern cookery books, such as boiling the pickles with
+half-pence, or suffering them to stand for a considerable period in
+brazen vessels.
+
+Dr. Percival[106] has given an account of "a young lady who amused
+herself, while her hair was dressing, with eating samphire pickles
+impregnated with copper. She soon complained of pain in the stomach;
+and, in five days, vomiting commenced, which was incessant for two days.
+After this, her stomach became prodigiously distended; and, in nine days
+after eating the pickles, death relieved her from her suffering."
+
+Among many recipes which modern authors of cookery books have given for
+imparting a green colour to pickles, the following are particularly
+deserving of censure; and it is to be hoped that they will be suppressed
+in future editions of the works.
+
+"_To Pickle Gerkins._[107]--"Boil the vinegar in a bell-metal or copper
+pot; pour it boiling hot on your cucumbers."
+
+"_To make greening._[108]--"Take a bit of verdigris, the bigness of a
+hazel-nut, finely powdered; half-a-pint of distilled vinegar, and a bit
+of alum powder, with a little bay salt. Put all in a bottle, shake it,
+and let it stand till clear. Put a small tea-spoonful into codlings, or
+whatever you wish to green."
+
+Mrs. E. Raffald[109] directs, "to render pickles green, boil them with
+halfpence, or allow them to stand for twenty-four hours in copper or
+brass pans."
+
+To detect the presence of copper, it is only necessary to mince the
+pickles, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk of
+water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles contain the minutest
+quantity of copper, the ammonia assumes a blue colour.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106] Medical Transactions, vol. iv. p. 80.
+
+[107] The Ladies' Library, vol. ii. p. 203.
+
+[108] Modern Cookery, or the English Housewife--2d edition, p. 94.
+
+[109] The English Housekeeper, p. 352, 354.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Vinegar._
+
+
+Vinegar, as prepared in this country, from malt, should be of a pale
+brown colour, perfectly transparent, of a pleasant, somewhat pungent,
+acid taste, and fragrant odour, but without any acrimony. From the
+mucilaginous impurities which malt vinegar always contains, it is apt,
+on exposure to air, to become turbid and ropy, and at last vapid. The
+inconvenience is best obviated by keeping the vinegar in bottles
+completely filled and well corked; and it is of advantage to boil it in
+the bottles a few minutes before they are corked.
+
+Vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to give it
+more acidity. The presence of this acid is detected, if, on the addition
+of a solution of acetate of barytes, a white precipitate is formed,
+which is insoluble in nitric acid, after having been made red-hot in the
+fire. (See p. 159.) With the same intention, of making the vinegar
+appear stronger, different acrid vegetable substances are infused in it.
+This fraud is difficult of detection; but when tasted with attention,
+the pungency of such vinegar will be found to depend rather on acrimony
+than acidity.
+
+Distilled vinegar, which is employed for various purposes of domestic
+economy, is frequently distilled, not in glass, as it ought to be, but
+in common stills with a pewter pipe, whence it cannot fail to acquire a
+metallic impregnation.
+
+One ounce, by measure, should dissolve at least thirteen grains of white
+marble.
+
+It should not form a precipitate on the addition of a solution of
+acetate of barytes, or of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
+The former circumstance shews, that it is adulterated with sulphuric
+acid; and the latter indicates a metal.
+
+The metallic impregnation is best rendered obvious by sulphuretted
+hydrogen, in the manner stated, page 69. The distilled vinegar of
+commerce usually contains tin, and not lead, as has been asserted.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Cream._
+
+
+Cream is often adulterated with rice powder or arrow root. The former is
+frequently employed for that purpose by pastry cooks, in fabricating
+creams and custards, for tarts, and other kinds of pastry. The latter is
+often used in the London dairies. Arrow-root is preferable to rice
+powder; for, when converted with milk into a thick mucilage by a gentle
+ebullition, it imparts to cream, previously diluted with milk, a
+consistence and apparent richness, by no means unpalatable, without
+materially impairing the taste of the cream.
+
+The arrow-root powder is mixed up with a small quantity of cold skimmed
+milk into a perfect, smooth, uniform mixture; more milk is then added,
+and the whole boiled for a few minutes, to effect the solution of the
+arrow-root: this compound, when perfectly cold, is mixed up with the
+cream. From 220 to 260 grains, (or three large tea-spoonfuls) of
+arrow root are added to one pint of milk; and one part of this solution
+is mixed with three of cream. It is scarcely necessary to state that
+this sophistication is innocuous.
+
+The fraud may be detected by adding to a tea-spoonful of the
+sophisticated cream a few drops of a solution of iodine in spirit of
+wine, which instantly produces with it a dark blue colour. Genuine cream
+acquires, by the addition of this test, a faint yellow tinge.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Confectionery._
+
+
+In the preparation of sugar plums, comfits, and other kinds of
+confectionery, especially those sweetmeats of inferior quality,
+frequently exposed to sale in the open streets, for the allurement of
+children, the grossest abuses are committed. The white comfits, called
+sugar pease, are chiefly composed of a mixture of sugar, starch, and
+Cornish clay (a species of very white pipe-clay;) and the red sugar
+drops are usually coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion. The
+pigment is generally adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of
+sweetmeats are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with
+preparations of copper. The following account of Mr. Miles[110] may be
+advanced in proof of this statement.
+
+"Some time ago, while residing in the house of a confectioner, I
+noticed the colouring of the green fancy sweetmeats being done by
+dissolving sap-green in brandy. Now sap-green itself, as prepared from
+the juice of the buckthorn berries, is no doubt a harmless substance;
+but the manufacturers of this colour have for many years past produced
+various tints, some extremely bright, which there can be no doubt are
+effected by adding preparations of copper.
+
+"The sweetmeats which accompany these lines you will find exhibit
+vestiges of being contaminated with copper.--The practice of colouring
+these articles of confectionery should, therefore, be banished: the
+proprietors of which are not aware of the deleterious quality of the
+substances employed by them."
+
+The foreign conserves, such as small green limes, citrons, hop-tops,
+plums, angelica roots, &c. imported into this country, and usually sold
+in round chip boxes, are frequently impregnated with copper.
+
+The adulteration of confitures by means of clay, may be detected by
+simply dissolving the comfits in a large quantity of boiling water. The
+clay, after suffering the mixture to stand undisturbed for a few days,
+will fall to the bottom of the vessel; and on decanting the clear fluid,
+and suffering the sediment to become dry gradually, it may be obtained
+in a separate state. If the adulteration has been effected by means of
+clay, the obtained precipitate, on exposure to a red heat in the bowl of
+a common tobacco-pipe, acquires a brick hardness.
+
+The presence of copper may be detected by pouring over the comfits
+liquid ammonia, which speedily acquires a blue colour, if this metal be
+present. The presence of lead is rendered obvious by water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen, acidulated with muriatic acid (see p. 69,)
+which assumes a dark brown or black colour, if lead be present.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] Philosoph. Mag. No. 258, vol. 54. 1819, p. 317.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Catsup._
+
+
+This article is very often subjected to one of the most reprehensible
+modes of adulteration ever devised. Quantities are daily to be met with,
+which, on a chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.
+Indeed, this condiment is often nothing else than the residue left
+behind after the process employed for obtaining distilled vinegar,
+subsequently diluted with a decoction of the outer green husk of the
+walnut, and seasoned with all-spice, Cayenne pepper, pimento, onions,
+and common salt.
+
+The quantity of copper which we have, more than once, detected in this
+sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account of its cheapness, is
+much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life, has exceeded the
+proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in domestic
+economy.
+
+The following account of Mr. Lewis[111] on this subject, will be
+sufficient to cause the public to be on their guard.
+
+"Being in the habit of frequently purchasing large quantities of pickles
+and other culinary sauces, for the use of my establishment, and also for
+foreign trade, it fell lately to my lot to purchase from a manufacturer
+of those commodities a quantity of walnut catsup, apparently of an
+excellent quality; but, to my great surprise, I had reason to believe
+that the article might be contaminated with some deleterious substance,
+from circumstances which happened in my business as a tavern keeper, but
+which are unnecessary to be detailed here; and it was this that induced
+me to make inquiry concerning the compounding of the suspected articles.
+
+"The catsup being prepared by boiling in a copper, as is usually
+practised, the outer green shell of walnuts, after having been suffered
+to turn black on exposure to air, in combination with common salt, with
+a portion of pimento and pepper-dust, in common vinegar, strengthened
+with some vinegar extract, left behind as residue in the still of
+vinegar manufacturers; I therefore suspected that the catsup might be
+impregnated with some copper. To convince myself of this opinion. I
+boiled down to dryness a quart of it in a stone pipkin, which yielded
+to me a dark brown mass. I put this mass into a crucible, and kept it in
+a coal fire, red-hot, till it became reduced to a porous black charcoal;
+on urging the heat with a pair of bellows, and stirring the mass in the
+crucible with the stem of a tobacco-pipe, it became, after two hours'
+exposure to an intense heat, converted into a greyish-white ash; but no
+metal could be discriminated amongst it. I now poured upon it some aqua
+fortis, which dissolved nearly the whole of it, with an effervescence;
+and produced, after having been suffered to stand, to let the insoluble
+portion subside, a bright grass-green solution, of a strong metallic
+taste; after immersing into this solution the blade of a knife, it
+became instantly covered with a bright coat of copper.
+
+"The walnut catsup was therefore evidently strongly impregnated with
+copper. On informing the manufacturer of this fact, he assured me that
+the same method of preparing the liquor was generally pursued, and that
+he had manufactured the article in a like manner for upwards of twenty
+years.
+
+"Such is the statement I wish to communicate; and if you will allow it a
+place in your Literary Chronicle, it may perhaps tend to put the unwary
+on their guard against the practice of preparing this sauce by boiling
+it in a copper, which certainly may contaminate the liquor, and render
+it poisonous."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[111] Literary Chronicle, No. 24, p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Custard._
+
+
+The leaves of the cherry laurel, _prunus lauro-cerasus_, a poisonous
+plant, have a nutty flavour, resembling that of the kernels of
+peach-stones, or of bitter almonds, which to most palates is grateful.
+These leaves have for many years been in use among cooks, to communicate
+an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, creams,
+_blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table.
+
+It has been asserted, that the laurel poison in custards and other
+articles of cookery is, on account of its being used in very small
+quantities, quite harmless. To refute this assertion, numerous instances
+might be cited; and, among them, a recent one, in which four children
+suffered most severely from partaking of custard flavoured with the
+leaves of this poisonous plant.
+
+"Several children at a boarding-school, in the vicinity of Richmond,
+having partaken of some custard flavoured with the leaves of the cherry
+laurel, as is frequently practised by cooks, four of the poor innocents
+were taken severely ill in consequence. Two of them, a girl six years of
+age, and a boy of five years old, fell into a profound sleep, out of
+which they could not be roused.
+
+"Notwithstanding the various medical exertions used, the boy remained in
+a stupor ten hours; and the girl nine hours; the other two, one of which
+was six years old, a girl, and a girl of seven years, complained of
+severe pains in the epigastric region. They all recovered, after three
+days' illness. I am anxious to communicate to you this fact, being
+convinced that your publication is read at all the scholastic
+establishments in this part of the country. I hope you will allow these
+lines a corner in your Literary Chronicle, where they may contribute to
+put the unwary on their guard, against the deleterious effects of
+flavouring culinary dishes with that baneful herb, the Cherry Laurel.
+
+"I am, with respect, your's, Sir,
+     "THOMAS LIDIARD."[112]
+
+What person of sense or prudence, then, would trust to the discretion of
+an ignorant cook, in mixing so dangerous an ingredient in his puddings
+and creams? Who but a maniac would choose to season his victuals with
+poison?
+
+The water distilled from cherry laurel leaves is frequently mixed with
+brandy and other spiritous liquors, to impart to them the flavour of the
+cordial called _noyeau_, (see also page 195.)
+
+This fluid, though long in frequent use as a flavouring substance, was
+not known to be poisonous until the year 1728; when the sudden death of
+two women, in Dublin, after drinking some of the common distilled cherry
+laurel water, demonstrated its deleterious nature.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[112] Literary Chronicle, No. 22, p. 348.--1819.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Anchovy Sauce._
+
+
+Several samples which we have examined of this fish sauce have been
+found contaminated with lead.
+
+The mode of preparation of this fish sauce, consists in rubbing down the
+broken anchovy in a mortar: and this triturated mass, being of a dark
+brown colour, receives, without much risk of detection, a certain
+quantity of Venetian red, added for the purpose of colouring it, which,
+if genuine, is an innocent colouring substance; but instances have
+occurred of this pigment having been adulterated with orange lead, which
+is nothing else than a better kind of minium, or red oxide of lead. The
+fraud may be detected, as stated p. 229.
+
+The conscientious oilmen, less anxious with respect to colour,
+substitute for this poison the more harmless pigment, called Armenian
+bole.
+
+The following recipe for making this fish sauce is copied from Gray's
+Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias, p. 241.
+
+"Anchovies, 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. and a half; pulp through a fine hair sieve;
+boil the bones with common salt, 7 oz. in water 6 lbs.; strain; add
+flour 7 oz. and the pulp of the fish; boil; pass the whole through the
+sieve; colour with Venetian red to your fancy. It should produce one
+gallon."
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Lozenges._
+
+
+Lozenges, particularly those into the composition of which substances
+enter that are not soluble in water, as ginger, cremor tartar, magnesia,
+&c., are often sophisticated. The adulterating ingredient is usually
+pipe-clay, of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar. The
+following detection of this fraud was lately made by Dr. T. Lloyd.[113]
+
+"Some ginger lozenges having lately fallen into my hands, I was not a
+little surprised to observe, accidentally, that when thrown into a coal
+fire, they suffered but little change. If one of the lozenges was laid
+on a shovel, previously made red-hot, it speedily took fire; but,
+instead of burning with a blaze and becoming converted into a charcoal,
+it took fire, and burnt with a feeble flame for scarcely half a minute,
+and there remained behind a stony hard substance, retaining the form of
+the lozenge. This unexpected result led me to examine these lozenges,
+which were bought at a respectable chemist's shop in the city; and I
+soon became convinced, that, in the preparation of them, a considerable
+quantity of common pipe-clay had been substituted for sugar. On making a
+complaint about this fraud at the shop where the article was sold, I was
+informed that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the
+one at three-pence the ounce, and the other at six-pence per ounce; and
+that the article furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity:
+the latter were distinguished by the epithet _verum_, they being
+composed of sugar and ginger only; but the former were manufactured
+partly of white Cornish clay, with a portion of sugar only, with ginger
+and Guinea pepper. I was likewise informed, that of Tolu lozenges,
+peppermint lozenges and ginger pearls, and several other sorts of
+lozenges, two kinds were kept; that the _reduced_ articles, as they were
+called, were manufactured for those very clever persons in their own
+conceit, who are fond of haggling, and insist on buying better bargains
+than other people, shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so
+that they can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap; and, secondly for
+those persons, who being but bad paymasters, yet, as the manufacturer,
+for his own credit's sake, cannot charge more than the usual price of
+the articles, he thinks himself therefore authorised to adulterate it in
+value, to make up for the risk he runs, and the long credit he must
+give."
+
+The comfits called ginger pearls, are frequently adulterated with clay.
+These frauds may be detected in the manner stated, page 225.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[113] Literary Gazette, No. 146.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Olive Oil._
+
+
+This commodity is sometimes contaminated with lead, because the fruit
+which yields the oil is submitted to the action of the press between
+leaden plates; and it is, moreover, a practice (particularly in Spain)
+to suffer the oil to become clear in leaden cisterns, before it is
+brought to market for sale. The French and Italian olive oil is usually
+free from this impregnation.
+
+Olive oil is sometimes mixed with oil of poppy seeds: but, by exposing
+the mixture to the freezing temperature, the olive oil freezes, while
+that of the poppy seeds remains fluid; and as oils which freeze with
+most difficulty are most apt to become rancid, olive oil is deteriorated
+by the mixture of poppy oil.
+
+Good olive oil should have a pale yellow colour, somewhat inclining to
+green; a bland taste, without smell; and should congeal at 38°
+Fahrenheit. In this country, it is frequently met with rancid.
+
+The presence of lead is detected by shaking, in a stopped vial, one part
+of the suspected oil, with two or three parts of water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen. This agent will render the oil of a dark brown or
+black colour, if any metal, deleterious to health, be present. The
+practice of keeping this oil in pewter or leaden cisterns, as is often
+the case, is objectionable; because the oil acts upon the metal. The
+dealers in this commodity assert, that it prevents the oil from becoming
+rancid: and hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure to remain
+immersed in the oil.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Mustard._
+
+
+Genuine mustard, either in powder, or in the state of a paste ready for
+use, is perhaps rarely to be met with in the shops. The article sold
+under the name of _genuine Durham mustard_, is usually a mixture of
+mustard and common wheaten flour, with a portion of Cayenne pepper, and
+a large quantity of bay salt, made with water into a paste, ready for
+use. Some manufacturers adulterate their mustard with radish-seed and
+pease flour.
+
+It has often been stated, that a fine yellow colour is given to mustard
+by means of turmeric. We doubt the truth of this assertion. The presence
+of the minutest quantity of turmeric may instantly be detected, by
+adding to the mustard a few drops of a solution of potash, or any other
+alkali, which changes the bright yellow colour, to a brown or deep
+orange tint.
+
+Two ounces and a half of Cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 lbs. of bay salt, 8 lbs.
+of mustard flour, and 1-1/2 lbs. of wheaten flour, made into a stiff
+paste, with the requisite quantity of water, in which the bay-salt is
+previously dissolved, forms the so-called _genuine Durham mustard_, sold
+in pots. The salt and Cayenne pepper contribute materially to the
+keeping of ready-made mustard.
+
+There is therefore nothing deleterious in the usual practice of
+adulterating this commodity of the table. The fraud only tends to
+deteriorate the quality and flavour of the genuine article itself.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Lemon Acid._
+
+
+It is well known to every one, that the expressed juice of lemons is
+extremely apt to spoil, on account of the sugar, mucilage, and
+extractive matter which it contains; and hence various means have been
+practised, with the intention of rendering it less perishable, and less
+bulky. The juice has been evaporated to the consistence of rob; but this
+always gives an unpleasant empyreumatic taste, and does not separate the
+foreign matters, so that it is still apt to spoil when agitated on board
+of ship in tropical climates. It has been exposed to frost, and part of
+the water removed under the form of ice; but this is liable to all the
+former objections; and, besides, where lemons are produced in sufficient
+quantity, there is not a sufficient degree of cold. The addition of a
+portion of spirit to the inspissated juice, separates the mucilage, but
+not the extractive matter and the sugar. By means, however, of
+separating the foreign matters associated with it, in the juice, by
+chemical processes unnecessary to be detailed here, citric acid is now
+manufactured, perfectly pure, and in a crystallised form, and is sold
+under the name of concrete lemon acid. In this state it is extremely
+convenient, both for domestic and medicinal purposes. One drachm, when
+dissolved in one ounce of water, is equal in strength to a like bulk of
+fresh lemon juice. To communicate the lemon flavour, it is only
+necessary to rub a lump of sugar on the rind of a lemon to become
+impregnated with a portion of the essential oil of the fruit, and to add
+the sugar to the lemonade, negus, punch, shrub, jellies or culinary
+sauces, prepared with the pure citric acid.
+
+Fraudulent dealers often substitute the cheaper tartareous acid, for
+citric acid. The negus and lemonade made by the pastry-cooks, and the
+liquor called punch, sold at taverns in this metropolis, is usually made
+with tartareous acid.
+
+To discriminate citric acid from tartareous acid, it is only necessary
+to add a concentrated solution of the suspected acid, to a concentrated
+solution of muriate of potash, taking care that the solution of the acid
+is in excess. If a precipitate ensues, the fraud is obvious, because
+citric acid does not produce a precipitate with a solution of muriate
+or potash.
+
+Or, by adding to a saturated solution of tartrate of potash, a saturated
+solution of the suspected acid, in excess, which produces with it an
+almost insoluble precipitate in minute granular crystals. Pure citric
+acid produces no such effect when added in excess to tartrate of
+potash.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Mushrooms._
+
+
+Mushrooms have been long used in sauces and other culinary preparations;
+yet there are numerous instances on record of the deleterious effects of
+some species of these _fungi_, almost all of which are fraught with
+poison.[114] Pliny already exclaims against the luxury of his countrymen
+in this article, and wonders what extraordinary pleasure there can be in
+eating such dangerous food.[115]
+
+But if the palate must be indulged with these treacherous luxuries, or,
+as Seneca calls them, "voluptuous poison,"[116] it is highly necessary
+that the mild eatable mushrooms, should be gathered by persons skilful
+enough to distinguish the good from the false, or poisonous, which is
+not always the case; nor are the characters which distinguish them
+strongly marked.
+
+The following statement is published by Mr. Glen, surgeon, of
+Knightsbridge:
+
+"A poor man, residing in Knightsbridge, took a walk in Hyde Park, with
+the intention of gathering some mushrooms. He collected a considerable
+number, and, after stewing them, began to eat them. He had finished the
+whole, with the exception of about six or eight, when, about eight or
+ten minutes from the commencement of his meal, he was suddenly seized
+with a dimness, or mist before his eyes, a giddiness of the head, with a
+general trembling and sudden loss of power;--so much so, that he nearly
+fell off the chair; to this succeeded loss of recollection: he forgot
+where he was, and all the circumstances of his case. This deprivation
+soon went off, and he so far rallied as to be able, though with
+difficulty, to get up, with the intention of going to Mr. Glen for
+assistance--a distance of about five hundred yards: he had not proceeded
+more than half way, when his memory again failed him; he lost his road,
+although previously well acquainted with it. He was met by a friend, who
+with difficulty learned his state, and conducted him to Mr. Glen's
+house. His countenance betrayed great anxiety: he reeled about, like a
+drunken man, and was greatly inclined to sleep; his pulse was low and
+feeble. Mr. Glen immediately gave him an emetic draught. The poison had
+so diminished the sensibility of the stomach, that vomiting did not take
+place for near twenty minutes, although another draught had been
+exhibited. During this interval his drowsiness increased to such a
+degree, that he was only kept awake by obliging him to walk round the
+room with assistance; he also, at this time, complained of distressing
+pains in the calves of his legs.--Full vomiting was at length produced.
+After the operation of the emetic, he expressed himself generally
+better, but still continued drowsy. In the evening Mr. Glen found him
+doing well."
+
+The following case is recorded in the Medical Transactions, vol. ii.
+
+"A middle-aged man having gathered what he called champignons, they were
+stewed, and eaten by himself and his wife; their child also, about four
+years old, ate a little of them, and the sippets of bread which were put
+into the liquor. Within five minutes after eating them, the man began to
+stare in an unusual manner, and was unable to shut his eyes. All
+objects appeared to him coloured with a variety of colours. He felt a
+palpitation in what he called his stomach; and was so giddy, that he
+could hardly stand. He seemed to himself swelled all over his body. He
+hardly knew what he did or said; and sometimes was unable to speak at
+all. These symptoms continued in a greater or less degree for
+twenty-four hours; after which, he felt little or no disorder. Soon
+after he perceived himself ill, one scruple of white vitriol was given
+him, and repeated two or three times, with which he vomited plentifully.
+
+"The woman, aged thirty-nine, felt all the same symptoms, but in a
+higher degree. She totally lost her voice and her senses, and was either
+stupid, or so furious that it was necessary she should be held. The
+white vitriol was offered to her, of which she was capable of taking but
+very little; however, after four or five hours, she was much recovered:
+but she continued many days far from being well, and from enjoying her
+former health and strength. She frequently fainted for the first week
+after; and there was, during a month longer, an uneasy sense of heat and
+weight in her breast, stomach, and bowels, with great flatulence. Her
+head was, at first waking, much confused; and she often experienced
+palpitations, tremblings, and other hysteric affections, to all which
+she had ever before been a stranger.
+
+"The child had some convulsive agitations of his arms, but was otherwise
+little affected. He was capable of taking half a scruple of ipecacuanha,
+with which he vomited, and was soon perfectly recovered."
+
+
+MUSHROOM CATSUP.
+
+The edible mushroom is the basis of the sauce called mushroom catsup; a
+great proportion of which is prepared by gardeners who grow the fungi.
+The mushrooms employed for preparing this sauce are generally those
+which are in a putrefactive state, and not having found a ready sale in
+the market; for no vegetable substance is liable to so rapid a
+spontaneous decomposition as mushrooms. In a few days after the fungus
+has been removed from the dung-bed on which it grows, it becomes the
+habitation of myriads of insects; and, if even the saleable mushroom be
+attentively examined, it will frequently be found to swarm with life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[114] Fungi plerique veneno turgent. Linn. Amæn. Acad.
+
+[115] Quæ voluptas tanta ancipitis cibi?--Plin. Nat. Hist. xxii. 23.
+
+[116] Sen. Ep. 95.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Soda Water._
+
+
+The beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated both with
+copper and lead; these metals being largely employed in the construction
+of the apparatus for preparing the carbonated water,[117] and the great
+excess of carbonic acid which the water contains, particularly enables
+it to act strongly on the metallic substances of the apparatus; a truth,
+of which the reader will find no difficulty in convincing himself, by
+suffering a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas to pass through the
+water.--See p. 70.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] Some manufacturers have been hence induced to construct the
+apparatus for manufacturing soda water wholly either of earthenware or
+of glass. Mr. Johnston, of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed
+out to the public the absolute necessity of this precaution.
+
+
+
+
+_Food poisoned by Copper Vessels._
+
+
+Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated with copper, in
+consequence of the employment of cooking utensils made of that metal. By
+the use of such vessels in dressing food, we are daily liable to be
+poisoned; as almost all acid vegetables, as well as sebaceous or pinguid
+substances, employed in culinary preparations, act upon copper, and
+dissolve a portion of it; and too many examples are met with of fatal
+consequences having ensued from eating food which had been dressed in
+copper vessels not well cleaned from the oxide of copper which they had
+contracted by being exposed to the action of air and moisture.
+
+The inexcusable negligence of persons who make use of copper vessels has
+been productive of mortality, so much more terrible, as they have
+exerted their action on a great number of persons at once. The annals of
+medicine furnish too many examples in support of this assertion, to
+render it necessary to insist more upon it here.
+
+Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper,
+observes, that "our food receives its quantity of poison in the kitchen
+by the use of copper pans and dishes. The brewer mingles poison in our
+beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. The sugar-baker employs copper
+pans; the pastry-cook bakes our tarts in copper moulds; the confectioner
+uses copper vessels: the oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass
+vessels, and verdigris is plentifully formed by the action of the
+vinegar upon the metal.
+
+"Though, after all, a single dose be not mortal, yet a quantity of
+poison, however small, when taken at every meal, must produce more fatal
+effects than are generally apprehended; and different constitutions are
+differently affected by minute quantities of substances that act
+powerfully on the system."
+
+The author of a tract, entitled, "Serious Reflections on the Dangers
+attending the Use of Copper Vessels," asserts that a numerous and
+frightful train of diseases is occasioned by the poisonous effects of
+pernicious matter received into the stomach insensibly with our
+victuals.
+
+Dr. Johnston[118] gives an account of the melancholy catastrophe of
+three men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence
+of eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops
+frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same
+cause.
+
+The following case[119] is related by Sir George Baker, M. D.
+
+"Some cyder, which had been made in a gentleman's family, being thought
+too sour, was boiled with honey in a brewing vessel, the rim of which
+was capped with lead. All who drank this liquor were seized with a bowel
+colic, more or less violently. One of the servants died very soon in
+convulsions; several others were cruelly tortured a long time. The
+master of the family, in particular, notwithstanding all the assistance
+which art could give him, never recovered his health; but died
+miserably, after having almost three years languished under a most
+tedious and incurable malady."
+
+Too much care and attention cannot be taken in preserving all culinary
+utensils of copper, in a state unexceptionably fit for their destined
+purpose. They should be frequently tinned, and kept thoroughly clean,
+nor should any food ever be suffered to remain in them for a longer time
+than is absolutely necessary to their preparation for the table. But the
+sure preventive of its pernicious effect, is, to banish copper utensils
+from the kitchen altogether.
+
+The following wholesome advice on this subject is given to cooks by the
+author of an excellent cookery book.[120]
+
+"Stew-pans and soup-kettles should be examined every time they are used;
+these, and their covers, must be kept perfectly clean and well tinned,
+not only on the inside, but about a couple of inches on the outside; so
+much mischief arises from their getting out of repair; and, if not kept
+nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain; the broths and soups will
+look green and dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and will be
+spoiled both for the eye and palate, and your credit will be lost; and
+as the health, and even the life, of the family depends upon this; the
+cook may be sure her employer had rather pay the tin-man's bill than
+the doctor's."
+
+The senate of Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited copper vessels, and
+ordered that none but such as were made of iron should be used in their
+fleet and armies.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[118] Johnston's Essay on Poison, p. 102.
+
+[119] Medical Transactions, vol. i. p. 213.
+
+[120] Apicius Redivivus, p. 91.
+
+
+
+
+_Food Poisoned by Leaden Vessels._
+
+
+Various kinds of food used in domestic economy, are liable to become
+impregnated with lead.
+
+The glazing of the common cream-coloured earthen ware, which is composed
+of an oxide of lead, readily yields to the action of vinegar and saline
+compounds; and therefore jars and pots of this kind of stone ware, are
+wholly unfit to contain jellies of fruits, marmalade, and similar
+conserves. Pickles should in no case be deposited in cream-coloured
+glazed earthenware.
+
+The custom which still prevails in some parts of this country of keeping
+milk in leaden vessels for the use of the dairy, is very improper.
+
+"In Lancashire[121] the dairies are furnished with milk-pans made of
+lead: and when Mr. Parks expostulated with some individuals on the
+danger of this practice, he was told that _leaden_ milk-pans throw up
+the cream much better than vessels of any other kind.
+
+"In some parts of the north of England it is customary for the
+inn-keepers to prepare mint-salad by bruising and grinding the vegetable
+in a large wooden bowl with a _ball of lead_ of twelve or fourteen
+pounds weight. In this operation the mint is cut, and portions of the
+lead are ground off at every revolution of the ponderous instrument. In
+the same county, it is a common practice to have brewing-coppers
+constructed with the bottom of copper and the whole sides of lead."
+
+The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured earthenware, and the salting
+and preserving of meat in leaden pans, are no less objectionable. All
+kinds of food which contain free vegetable acids, or saline
+preparations, attack utensils covered with a glaze, in the composition
+of which lead enters as a component part. The leaden beds of presses for
+squeezing the fruit in cyder countries, have produced incalculable
+mischief. These consequences never follow, when the lead is combined
+with tin; because this metal, being more eager for oxidation, prevents
+the solution of the lead.
+
+When we consider the various unsuspected means by which the poisons of
+lead and copper gain admittance into the human body, a very common but
+dangerous instance presents itself: namely, the practice of painting
+toys, made for the amusement of children, with poisonous substances,
+viz. red lead, verdigris, &c. Children are apt to put every thing,
+especially what gives them pleasure, into their mouths; the painting of
+toys with colouring substances that are poisonous, ought therefore to be
+abolished; a practice which lies the more open to censure, as it is of
+no real utility.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121] Park's Chemical Essays, vol. v. p. 193.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A
+
+Adulteration of anchovy sauce, 234
+  beer, 113
+  brandy, 187
+  bread, 98
+  catsup, 227
+  cayenne pepper, 215
+  cheese, 206
+  coffee, 176
+  confectionery, 224
+  cream, 222
+  custard, 231
+  gin, 187
+  lemon acid, 243
+  lozenges, 236
+  malt spirits, 197
+  mustard, 241
+  olive oil, 239
+  pepper, 211
+  pickles, 217
+  porter, 113
+  rum, 187
+  soda water, 251
+  tea, black, 173
+    green, 173
+  vinegar, 173
+    distilled, 221
+  wine, 74
+
+Age of beer, how fraudulently imitated, 148
+
+Alcohol, quantity contained in different kinds of wine, 94
+  malt liquors, 126
+  spiritous liquors, 205
+
+Ale, Burton, quantity of spirit which it contains, 162
+  Dorchester,                 ditto       ditto, 162
+  Edinburgh,                  ditto       ditto, 162
+  Home-brewed                 ditto       ditto, 162
+
+Alum, bleaching property in the panification of bread flour, 104
+  method of detecting it in bread, 108
+  for brightening muddy wines, 74
+    clarifying spiritous liquors, 200
+      adulterating beer, 134
+
+Arrack, imitation of, 196
+  Batavia, quantity of alcohol contained in it, 205
+
+Arrow root, sophistication of, 29
+
+
+B
+
+Bakers, their methods of judging of the goodness of bread flour, 111
+
+Beer, adulteration of, 113
+    act prohibiting it, 114
+    method of detecting it, 158
+    with narcotic substances, 150
+    with opium, tobacco, &c., 150
+  colouring of, act prohibiting it, 123
+  heading, composition and use of, 134
+  hard, what is meant by it, 148
+    fraudulent method of producing it, 148
+  half-spoiled, fraudulent practice of recovering it, 149
+  illegal substances used for adulterating it, 131
+  old, what is meant by it, 144
+  quantity of spirit contained in different kinds, 160
+  strong, adulteration of with small beer, 140
+      act prohibiting it, 140
+    how defined by law, 128
+  strength of different kinds, 125
+
+Bilberries, employed for colouring port wine, 74
+
+Bittern, for adulterating beer, 18
+
+Black Extract, for adulterating beer, 150
+
+Bland, Mr. tragical catastrophe of, 81
+
+Bouquet of high-flavoured wines, how produced, 75
+
+Brandy, adulteration of, 187
+    and method of detecting it, 195
+  complexion of, what is meant by it, 195
+
+Brandy flavour of, how imitated, 193
+  imitative, manufacture of, 194
+  method of compounding for retail trade, 195
+  quantity contained in different sorts of wine, 94
+    of alcohol contained in different kinds of, 205
+  legal strength, 190
+    how discovered by the Excise, 188
+  false strength, 195
+  flavour, imitative, how produced, 193
+
+Brazil wood, application of for colouring wine, 74
+
+Bread, adulteration of with alum, 98
+      methods of detecting it, 108
+    with potatoes, 105
+  goodness of, how estimated in this metropolis, 98
+  how rendered white and firm, 99
+  corn, method of judging its goodness, 110
+  flour, different sorts of from the same kind of grain, 99
+     adulteration of with bean flour, 99
+     process of making five bushels into bread, 102
+     made from new corn, improvement of, 107
+     method of judging of goodness, 110
+
+Brewers, list of, prosecuted for using illegal substances in their
+        brewings, 151
+  convicted of adulterating their strong beer with table beer, 143
+    Druggists, 119
+      prosecuted for supplying illegal ingredients to brewers for
+        adulterating beer, 119
+
+Breweries, illegal substances seized at various, 136
+
+Brown Stout, quantity of spirit contained in it, 126
+
+
+C
+
+Calcavella, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Carbonate of ammonia, used by fraudulent bakers, 105
+
+Catsup, adulteration of, 227
+
+Claret, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Clary, used for flavouring wine, 75
+
+Cheese, poisonous, and method of detecting it, 206
+
+Chemists, are not permitted to sell illegal ingredients to brewers for
+        adulterating beer, 118
+  list of, convicted of this fraud, 119
+
+Cherry-laurel water, dangerous application of for flavouring creams,
+        &c., 231
+  used in the manufacture of spurious wines, 75
+    in the manufacture of brandy, 195
+
+Citric Acid, adulteration of, 244
+  method of detecting, 245
+
+Cocculus indicus, nefarious application of in the brewing of beer, 18
+  early law prohibiting its application, 115
+  brewers prosecuted for using it, 152
+  seizures made of at different breweries, 136
+  narcotic property of, to what owing, 153
+  extract of, application in brewing, 136
+
+Coffee, adulteration of, 176
+    law in force against it, 177
+  grocers lately convicted of selling spurious, 176
+
+Confectionery, adulteration of, 224
+  methods of detecting it, 225
+
+Conserves, contamination of with copper, 226
+  should never be deposited in vessels glazed with lead, 257
+
+Constantia, quantity of spirit which it contains, 94
+
+Copperas, or salt of steel, publicans convicted of mixing it with their
+        beer, 129
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 136
+
+Cream, adulteration of, and mode of detecting it, 222
+
+Custards, flavoured with cherry laurel leaves, dangerous effects from
+        it, 231
+
+Cyder, melancholy catastrophe of persons drinking such as was
+        contaminated with lead, 254
+
+
+E
+
+Elder-berries are used for colouring port wine, 74
+  flowers are used for flavouring insipid white wines, 75
+
+Entire beer, origin of its name, 144
+  composition of, 146
+
+Extract of cocculus indicus is used by fraudulent brewers, 136
+
+
+F
+
+False strength, how given to wine and spiritous liquors, 19, 192
+  how given to vinegar, 220
+
+Flavour of French brandy, how imitated, 194
+
+Flour, new, of an indifferent quality, how rendered fit for being made
+        into good and wholesome bread, 107
+  different sorts, from the same kind of grain, 99
+  sour, practice of converting it into bread, 105
+
+Food, rendered poisonous by copper vessels, 252
+  by leaden vessels, 257
+
+Frothy head of porter, how artificially produced, 133
+
+
+G
+
+Geneva, Dutch, quantity of alcohol which it contains, 205
+
+Gin, adulteration of, 187
+  quantity of alcohol contained in different sorts, 205
+  dangerous method of clarifying, 202
+  legal exactment of its saleable strength, 197
+  _proof_, what is meant by this term, 188
+  strength of, how ascertained by the Excise, 188
+  sweetened, fraudulent practice of composing it for sale, 200
+  unsweetened,           ditto            ditto, 200
+  false strength, how given, 202
+
+
+H
+
+Hermitage, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Hops, adulteration of, prohibited by law, 132
+  its chemical action upon beer, 133
+
+Hydrometer, legal, now in use for ascertaining the strength of spiritous
+        liquors, 187
+
+Hyson tea, spurious. See Tea leaves
+
+
+I
+
+Imitation arrack, 196
+  tea. See Tea leaves
+  coffee. See Coffee
+
+
+L
+
+Leaden pumps and water reservoirs, dangerous effects to be apprehended
+        from them, 62
+
+Lisbon, quantity of spirit which it contains, 94
+
+Lozenges, adulteration of, 236
+
+Lemon acid, adulteration of, 243
+  method of detecting it, 244
+
+
+M
+
+Madeira, quantity of brandy which it contains, 94
+
+Malaga, quantity of brandy contained in it, 94
+
+Malt, patent, for colouring porter, 123
+    disadvantages of, 124
+  liquors, dangerous adulteration of, 115
+    strength of different kinds. See Porter, 126
+  spirits, adulterations of, 197
+    characteristic flavour, to what owing, 197
+    nefarious practices of compounding them for sale, 199
+    false strength, how given, 202
+    act restricting the strength of it, 197
+
+Meat, salted, should not be preserved in leaden vessels, 258
+
+Milk, improper practice of keeping it in leaden vessels, 257
+
+Mint salad, pernicious custom of preparing it, 258
+
+Multum, a substance employed for adulterating beer, 17
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 136
+
+Mushroom, poisonous, 246
+  Catsup, 250
+
+Mustard, adulteration of, 241
+
+
+O
+
+Oak-wood saw-dust, is used in the manufacture of spurious port wine, 75
+  in the manufacture of spurious brandy, 194
+
+Orris-root, is used for flavouring insipid wines, 75
+
+Olive oil, contamination of, with lead, and method of detecting it, 239
+
+
+P
+
+Pickles, contamination of with copper, 219
+  improper vessels for keeping them, 257
+
+Pepper, black, adulteration of, 211
+  law in force against it, 213
+
+Poisonous Cheese, 206
+  Cayenne pepper, 215
+  catsup, 227
+  custard, 231
+  olive oil, 239
+  mushroom, 246
+  pickles, 207
+  soda water, 251
+
+Porter, origin of its name, 121
+  adulteration of with wormwood, 132
+    act prohibiting it, 113
+  average strength of, as furnished to the publican, 126
+    ditto, as sent out by the retailers, 127
+  illegal substances for adulterating it, 131
+  brewers, convicted of adulterating their porter with illegal
+        ingredients, 151
+
+Porter, frothy head of, how produced, 133
+  method of ascertaining the strength of different kinds, 160
+  quantity of alcohol contained in London porter, 162
+
+Port wine, adulteration of, 74
+
+Publicans, prosecuted for adulterating their strong beer with table
+        beer, 129
+
+
+Q
+
+Quassia, fraudulent substitution of, for hops, 131
+  disadvantages of its application, 132
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 137
+
+
+R
+
+Raisin wine, quantity of brandy which it contains, 94
+
+Rum, adulteration of, 187
+  false strength, how given to it, 202
+  is seizable, if sold, unless of a certain strength, 189
+  quantity of alcohol contained in it, 205
+
+
+S
+
+Soda Water, poisonous, and method of detecting it, 251
+
+Spiritous Liquors, adulteration of, 187
+    dangerous practice of fining them with noxious ingredients, 202
+  quantity of alcohol contained in different kinds, 205
+
+Sweetmeats, adulteration of, 224
+
+Sweet-brier, use of it for flavouring wines, 75
+
+
+T
+
+Tarts of fruits, should not be baked in earthenware vessels glazed with
+        lead, 258
+
+Tea leaves, adulteration of, 171
+    method of detecting it, 171
+    law in force against it, 163
+  poisonous sophistication of, 173
+    method of detecting it, 174
+  coloring of, with verdigris, 168
+  black, spurious, process of manufacturing it, 168
+  green, imitation of, 169
+
+Tea dealers, convicted for selling adulterated tea, 169
+
+Toys, improper practice of painting them with poisonous colours, 259
+
+
+V
+
+Vidonia, quantity of brandy contained in it, 95
+
+Vin de Grave,      ditto      ditto, 95
+
+Vinegar, adulteration of, and method of detecting it, 220
+  distilled, and method of ascertaining its strength, 221
+
+
+W
+
+Water, characters of good, 37
+  chemical constitution of those used in domestic economy and the
+        arts, 33
+  danger of keeping it in leaden reservoirs, 60
+  hard, how softened and rendered fit for washing, 39
+  New River, constitution of, 38, 45
+  substances contained in potable, 48
+    how detected, 50
+  substances usually contained in spring, 42
+  taste and salubrious quality, to what owing, 33
+  Thames, constitution of, 46, 48
+
+Wine, adulteration of with alum, 74
+  British port, 77
+    champaigne, 77
+  bottles, improper practice of cleaning them, 85
+  bottle corks, practice of staining them red, 79
+
+Wine doctors, 80
+  quantity of alcohol contained in various kinds, 94, 95
+  dangerous practice of fining them, 83
+     to prevent them turning sour, 84
+  art of flavouring them, 75
+  home-made, chemical constitution of, 96
+  improvement from age, to what owing, 91
+  Southampton port, 78
+  strength of, on what it depends, 92
+  specific differences of different kinds, to what owing, 89
+  test, 86
+  white, manufacture of, from red grapes, 90
+
+Whiskey, Irish, flavour, to what owing, 197
+    strength of, 205
+  Scotch, ditto, 205
+
+Wormwood, substitution of, for hops, 132
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+Greek words in this text have been transliterated
+and placed between +marks+.
+
+The word "Pharmacopoeias" used an "oe" ligature in the original.
+
+Unusual spellings, variations in spellings, and variations in
+hyphenation have been left as in the original.  Examples include:
+
+     inpregnating
+     transparant
+     coculus/cocculus
+     inconscious
+     orris/oris root
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     page iii--comma added after "beer" in "beer, pepper, and other
+     articles of diet"
+
+     page x--changed period to comma after "Ale" in "Method of
+     ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter, Ale, &c."
+
+     page 61--changed "where" to "were" in "When men were unable to
+     detect the poisonous matters"
+
+     page 62--corrected spelling of "snd" to "and" in "by Hyppocrates,
+     Galen, and Vitruvius"
+
+     page 78--added "t" to "yeas" and added period at end of "before it
+     is cold, add some yeast and ferment."
+
+     page 98--corrected spelling of "indipensable" to "indispensable" in
+     "degree of whiteness rendered indispensable by the caprice of the
+     consumers"
+
+     page 104--changed comma to period after "sufficient for a sack of
+     flour"
+
+     page 113--changed comma to period after "made of these ingredients
+     only, are entirely deceived"
+
+     page 120--corrected "Authur" to "Arthur" in "Arthur Waller" and
+     corrected "Dun" to "Dunn" in "John Dunn"
+
+     page 126--added period after "Co" in "Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and
+     Co"
+
+     page 129--added period after "l" in "strong beer, 20l"
+
+     page 130--added comma after "Harbur" in "John Harbur, for using
+     salt of steel"
+
+     page 140--added ending quote mark after "of them from brewers'
+     druggists, within these two years past."
+
+     page 149--changed comma to period after "resorted to only by
+     fraudulent brewers"
+
+     page 152--changed semi-colon after "Stephens" in "Septimus
+     Stephens, brewer"
+
+     page 154--corrected spelling of "apolexy" to "apoplexy" in
+     "drinkers are very liable to apoplexy"
+
+     page 169--corrected spelling of "Malin's" to "Malins'" in "Malins'
+     coffee-roasting premises"
+
+     page 185--corrected spelling of "find" to "fined" in "were fined
+     20l. each"
+
+     page 202--added the word "on" in "as stated on pages 70 and 86"
+
+     page 210--corrected spelling of "annotta" to "anotta" in "who
+     adulterated the anotta"
+
+     page 222--added hyphen in "arrow-root"
+
+     page 223--added hyphen in "tea-spoonful" and corrected spelling of
+     "jodine" to "iodine" in "few drops of a solution of iodine"
+
+     page 227--added "s" at end of "Mr. Lewi "
+
+     page 231--corrected spelling of "cookry" to "cookery" in "articles
+     of cookery"
+
+     page 245--corrected spelling of "glanular" to "granular" in
+     "insoluble precipitate in minute granular crystals"
+
+     Footnote 46--added period after "p" in "3d edit. p. 270"
+
+     Footnote 87--added missing end quote after "with copperas and
+     sheep's dung." and removed extraneous period after "48" in "Plant,
+     p. 48;"
+
+     Footnote 115--corrected spelling of "Qvæ" to "Quæ" in "Quæ voluptas
+     tanta ancipitis cibi?"
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,
+and Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19031-8.txt or 19031-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/0/3/19031/
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19031-8.zip b/19031-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a85bc8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-8.zip
diff --git a/19031-h.zip b/19031-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b23488
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-h.zip
diff --git a/19031-h/19031-h.htm b/19031-h/19031-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4f786d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-h/19031-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,7516 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Treatise On Adulterations Of Food, And Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    body{ margin-left: 10%;
+          margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    ul  { list-style-type: none;  /* list with no symbol */ }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+
+    a { text-decoration: none } /*turns off link underline*/
+
+    div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */
+    div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */
+
+    table.left {margin-left: 10%}
+
+    td.tdright     {text-align:right}    /* data right-aligned */
+    td.tdleft      {text-align:left}     /* data left-aligned */
+    td.tdcenter    {text-align:center}   /* data centered */
+    td.tdindent    {padding-left: 2em;}  /* data indented a bit for a subitem */
+    td.tdmedindent {padding-left: 5em;}
+
+    li.subitem    { margin-left: 1em; }
+    li.sub2       { margin-left: 2em; }
+    li.sub3       { margin-left: 3em; }
+
+    hr.minor { width: 30%; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em; }
+    hr.minspaced { width: 30%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+    ins.correction { text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red; }
+    ins.greekcorr  { text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted #333; }
+
+    .biggap   { margin-top: 4em; } /* adds white space on title page */
+
+    .sectionhead { margin-top: 2em;
+                   text-align: center;
+                   font-weight: bold;
+                 }
+    .section     { margin-top: 2em; }
+
+    .columnleft  { float: left; width: 45%; }
+    .columnright { float: right; width: 45%; }
+    .bottom { clear: both; }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                right: 3%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .blockquot{ margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+    .center   { text-align: center; }
+    .right    { text-align: right; }
+    .smcap    { font-variant: small-caps; }
+    .lowercase   { text-transform:lowercase; }
+
+    .img      { text-align: center; padding: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } /* centering images */
+
+    .footnotehead     { margin-left: 5%; font-weight: bold;  margin-top: 1em; }
+    .footnotes        { border: dashed 1px; }
+    .footnote         { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .footnote .label  { position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right; }
+    .fnanchor         { vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none; }
+
+    .poem             { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left; }
+    .poem br          { display: none; }
+    .poem .stanza     { margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; }
+    .poem span.i0     { display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; }
+    .poem span.i14    { display: block; margin-left: 14em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; }
+
+    .notebox { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 5%; /* makes box around Transcriber's Notes at end of file */
+               margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; border: solid black 1px; }
+
+    .mynote { background-color: #DDE; color: black; padding: .5em; margin-left: 5%;
+              margin-right: 5%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%; } /* colored box for notes at beginning of file */
+
+
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and
+Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons
+       Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer,
+              Wine, Spiritous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionery,
+              Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, Pickles, and
+              Other Articles Employed in Domestic Economy
+
+Author: Fredrick Accum
+
+Release Date: August 12, 2006 [EBook #19031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class = "mynote">Transcriber's Note:<br /><br />
+Greek words that may not display correctly in all browsers are
+transliterated in the text using popups like this:
+<ins class="greekcorr" title="biblos">&#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#959;&#962;</ins>.
+Position your mouse over the word to see the transliteration.<br /><br />
+
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They have been marked in the text with <ins class="correction" title="like this">popups</ins>. A <a href="#TRANSCRIBERS_NOTES">complete list</a> of corrections follows the text.</div>
+
+<p class="biggap">&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>A</h3>
+
+<h1>TREATISE</h1>
+
+<h3>ON</h3>
+
+<h1>ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,</h1>
+
+<h1><i>AND CULINARY POISONS</i>.</h1>
+
+
+<h4>EXHIBITING</h4>
+
+<h2>The Fraudulent Sophistications of</h2>
+
+<h3>BREAD, BEER, WINE, SPIRITOUS LIQUORS, TEA, COFFEE, CREAM, CONFECTIONERY,
+VINEGAR, MUSTARD, PEPPER, CHEESE, OLIVE OIL, PICKLES,</h3>
+
+<h4>AND OTHER ARTICLES EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY.</h4>
+
+
+<h3>AND</h3>
+
+<h2>METHODS OF DETECTING THEM.</h2>
+
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 4em;"><i>By Fredrick Accum</i>,</h3>
+
+<h4>OPERATIVE CHEMIST, AND MEMBER OF THE PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES AND SOCIETIES
+OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN EUROPE.</h4>
+
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 4em;">Philadelphia:</h3>
+<h4>PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY AB'M SMALL</h4>
+<h4>1820.</h4>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This Treatise, as its title expresses, is intended to exhibit easy
+methods of detecting the fraudulent adulterations of food, and of other
+articles, classed either among the necessaries or luxuries of the table;
+and to put the unwary on their guard against the use of such commodities
+as are contaminated with substances deleterious to health.</p>
+
+<p>Every person is aware that bread, beer, wine, and other substances
+employed in domestic economy, are frequently met with in an adulterated
+state: and the late convictions of numerous individuals for
+counterfeiting and adulterating tea, coffee, bread, beer<ins title="Comma missing in original.">,</ins> pepper, and
+other articles of diet, are still fresh in the memory of the public.</p>
+
+<p>To such perfection of ingenuity has the system of counterfeiting and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>adulterating various commodities of life arrived in this country, that
+spurious articles are every where to be found in the market, made up so
+skilfully, as to elude the discrimination of the most experienced
+judges.</p>
+
+<p>But of all possible nefarious traffic and deception, practised by
+mercenary dealers, that of adulterating the articles intended for human
+food with ingredients deleterious to health, is the most criminal, and,
+in the mind of every honest man, must excite feelings of regret and
+disgust. Numerous facts are on record, of human food, contaminated with
+poisonous ingredients, having been vended to the public; and the annals
+of medicine record tragical events ensuing from the use of such food.</p>
+
+<p>The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, is proof against prohibitions
+and penalties; and the possible sacrifice of a fellow-creature's life,
+is a secondary consideration among unprincipled dealers.</p>
+
+<p>However invidious the office may appear, and however painful the duty
+may be, of exposing the names of individuals, who have been convicted of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>adulterating food; yet it was necessary, for the verification of my
+statement, that cases should be adduced in their support; and I have
+carefully avoided citing any, except those which are authenticated in
+Parliamentary documents and other public records.</p>
+
+<p>To render this Treatise still more useful, I have also animadverted on
+certain material errors, sometimes unconsciously committed through
+accident or ignorance, in private families, during the preparation of
+various articles of food, and of delicacies for the table.</p>
+
+<p>In stating the experimental proceedings necessary for the detection of
+the frauds which it has been my object to expose, I have confined myself
+to the task of pointing out such operations only as may be performed by
+persons unacquainted with chemical science; and it has been my purpose
+to express all necessary rules and instructions in the plainest
+language, divested of those recondite terms of science, which would be
+out of place in a work intended for general perusal.</p>
+
+<p>The design of the Treatise will be fully answered, if the views here
+given should induce a single reader to pursue the object <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>for which it
+is published; or if it should tend to impress on the mind of the Public
+the magnitude of an evil, which, in many cases, prevails to an extent so
+alarming, that we may exclaim with the sons of the Prophet,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"<i>THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<p>For the abolition of such nefarious practices, it is the interest of all
+classes of the community to co-operate.</p>
+
+<p class="right">FREDRICK ACCUM.</p>
+<p>LONDON.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1820.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table summary="Table of Contents" cellpadding="3" >
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#PRELIMINARY_OBSERVATIONS"><span class="smcap">Preliminary Observations on the Adulteration of Food</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><i>Page</i> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Effect_of_different_Kinds_of_Water"><span class="smcap">Effect of different Kinds of Water employed in Domestic Economy</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Characters_of_Good_Water"><i>Characters of Good Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Chemical_Constitution"><i>Chemical Constitution of the Waters used in Domestic Economy and the Arts</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Rain_Water"><i>Rain Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Snow_Water"><i>Snow Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Spring_Water"><i>Spring Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#River_Water"><i>River Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Substances_in_Common_Water"><i>Substances usually contained in Common Water, and Tests by which they are detected</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Method_of_ascertaining_Quantity"><i>Method of ascertaining the Quantity of each of the different Substances usually contained in Common Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Deleterious_Effects"><i>Deleterious Effects of keeping Water for Domestic Economy, in Leaden Reservoirs</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Method_of_Detecting_Lead"><i>Method of detecting Lead, when contained in common Water</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_69">69</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Wine"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Wine</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Method_of_Detecting_Adulterations_of_Wine"><i>Method of detecting the Deleterious Adulterations of Wine</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Specific_Differences"><i>Specific Differences, and Component Parts of Wine</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Quantity_of_Brandy"><i>Easy process of ascertaining the Quantity of Brandy contained in various sorts of Wine</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Tabular_View"><i>Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol contained in various kinds of Wine and other fermented Liquors</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Constitution_of_Home-made_Wine"><i>Constitution of Home-made Wines</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Bread"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Bread</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Detecting_Alum_in_Bread"><i>Method of detecting the Presence of Alum in Bread</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Goodness_of_Bread-Corn_Bread-Flour"><i>Easy Method of judging of the Goodness of Bread-Corn and Bread-Flour</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Beer"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Beer</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#List_of_Druggists_and_Grocers"><i>List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted for supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for Adulterating Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span><a href="#Porter"><i>Porter</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Strength_of_Porter"><i>Strength and Specific Differences of different kinds of Porter</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#List_of_Publicans_Prosecuted"><i>List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Beer with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer with their Strong Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Illegal_Beer"><i>Illegal Substances used for adulterating Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Ingredients_seized"><i>Ingredients seized at various Breweries and Brewers' Druggists, for adulterating Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Strong_Beer_with_Table_Beer"><i>List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Strong Beer with Table Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Old_Beer"><i>Old, or Entire Beer; and New or Mild Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Illegal_Ingredients"><i>List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for receiving and using illegal Ingredients in their Brewings</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Detecting_Adulteration_of_Beer"><i>Method of detecting the Adulteration of Beer</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span><a href="#Ascertaining_Quantity_of_Spirit"><i>Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter, Ale<ins title="Original has period.">,</ins> &amp;c.</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Per_Centage_of_Alcohol"><i>Per Centage of Alcohol contained in Porter, and other kinds of Malt Liquors</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Counterfeit_Tea-Leaves"><span class="smcap">Counterfeit Tea-Leaves</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Detecting_Adulterations_of_Tea-Leaves"><i>Methods of detecting the Adulterations of Tea-Leaves</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Counterfeit_Coffee"><span class="smcap">Counterfeit Coffee</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Brandy_Rum_and_Gin"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Brandy, Rum, and Gin</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Detecting_Adulterations_of_Brandy"><i>Method of detecting the Adulterations of Brandy, Rum, and Malt Spirit</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Detecting_Lead_in_Spirits"><i>Method of detecting the Presence of Lead in Spiritous Liquors</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Ascertaining_Alcohol_in_Spirits"><i>Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Alcohol contained in different kinds of Spiritous Liquors</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Per_Centage_of_Alcohol_in_Spirits"><i>Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol contained in various kinds of Spiritous Liquors</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Cheese"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Cheese</span></a> , <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span><a href="#Counterfeit_Pepper"><span class="smcap">Counterfeit Pepper</span></a>, <i>and Method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#White_Pepper"><i>White Pepper</i></a><i>, and method of manufacturing it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Cayenne_Pepper"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Cayenne Pepper</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Pickles"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Pickles</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting them</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Vinegar"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Vinegar</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Distilled_Vinegar"><i>Distilled Vinegar</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Cream"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Cream</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Confectionery"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Confectionery</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Catsup"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Catsup</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Custard"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Custards</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Anchovy_Sauce"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Anchovy Sauce</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span><a href="#Adulteration_of_Lozenges"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Lozenges</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting them</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Olive_Oil"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Olive Oil</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Mustard"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Mustard</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Adulteration_of_Lemon_Acid"><span class="smcap">Adulteration of Lemon Acid</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Mushrooms"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Mushrooms</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent"><a href="#Mushroom_Catsup"><i>Mushroom Catsup</i></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Poisonous_Soda_Water"><span class="smcap">Poisonous Soda Water</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Food_poisoned_by_Copper_Vessels"><span class="smcap">Food Poisoned by Copper Vessels</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#Food_Poisoned_by_Leaden_Vessels"><span class="smcap">Food Poisoned by Leaden Vessels</span></a>, <i>and method of detecting it</i></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A</h2>
+
+<h1>TREATISE</h1>
+
+<h4>ON</h4>
+
+<h2>ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,</h2>
+
+<h4>AND</h4>
+
+<h3>CULINARY POISONS.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PRELIMINARY_OBSERVATIONS" id="PRELIMINARY_OBSERVATIONS"></a>PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Of all the frauds practised by mercenary dealers, there is none more
+reprehensible, and at the same time more prevalent, than the
+sophistication of the various articles of food.</p>
+
+<p>This unprincipled and nefarious practice, increasing in degree as it has
+been found difficult of detection, is now applied to almost every
+commodity which can be classed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>among either the necessaries or the
+luxuries of life, and is carried on to a most alarming extent in every
+part of the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>It has been pursued by men, who, from the magnitude and apparent
+respectability of their concerns, would be the least obnoxious to public
+suspicion; and their successful example has called forth, from among the
+retail dealers, a multitude of competitors in the same iniquitous
+course.</p>
+
+<p>To such perfection of ingenuity has this system of adulterating food
+arrived, that spurious articles of various kinds are every where to be
+found, made up so skilfully as to baffle the discrimination of the most
+experienced judges.</p>
+
+<p>Among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now
+very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished&mdash;tea, coffee,
+bread, beer, wine, spiritous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar,
+mustard, cream, and other articles of subsistence.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which
+is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are some
+substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these spurious compounds are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>comparatively harmless when used
+as food; and as in these cases merely substances of inferior value are
+substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients, the sophistication,
+though it may affect our purse, does not injure our health. Of this kind
+are the manufacture of factitious pepper, the adulterations of mustard,
+vinegar, cream, &amp;c. Others, however, are highly deleterious; and to this
+class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spiritous liquors,
+pickles, salad oil, and many others.</p>
+
+<p>There are particular chemists who make it a regular trade to supply
+drugs or nefarious preparations to the unprincipled brewer of porter or
+ale; others perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant; and
+others again to the grocer and the oilman. The operators carry on their
+processes chiefly in secresy, and under some delusive firm, with the
+ostensible denotements of a fair and lawful establishment.</p>
+
+<p>These illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method of a
+regular trade; they may severally claim to be distinguished as an <i>art
+and mystery</i>; for the workmen employed in them are often wholly ignorant
+of the nature of the substances which pass through their hands, and of
+the purposes to which they are ultimately applied.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p><p>To elude the vigilance of the inquisitive, to defeat the scrutiny of the
+revenue officer, and to ensure the secresy of these mysteries, the
+processes are very ingeniously divided and subdivided among individual
+operators, and the manufacture is purposely carried on in separate
+establishments. The task of proportioning the ingredients for use is
+assigned to one individual, while the composition and preparation of
+them may be said to form a distinct part of the business, and is
+entrusted to another workman. Most of the articles are transmitted to
+the consumer in a disguised state, or in such a form that their real
+nature cannot possibly be detected by the unwary. Thus the extract of
+<i>coculus indicus</i>, employed by fraudulent manufacturers of malt-liquors
+to impart an intoxicating quality to porter or ales, is known in the
+market by the name of <i>black extract</i>, ostensibly destined for the use
+of tanners and dyers. It is obtained by boiling the berries of the
+coculus indicus in water, and converting, by a subsequent evaporation,
+this decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass, possessing, in a high
+degree, the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry
+from which it is prepared. Another substance, composed of extract of
+quassia and liquorice juice, used <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>by fraudulent brewers to economise
+both malt and hops, is technically called <i>multum</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p><p>The quantities of coculus indicus berries, as well as of black extract,
+imported into this country for adulterating malt liquors, are enormous.
+It forms a considerable branch of commerce in the hands of a few
+brokers: yet, singular as it may seem, no inquiry appears to have been
+hitherto made by the officers of the revenue respecting its application.
+Many other substances employed in the adulteration of beer, ale, and
+spiritous liquors, are in a similar manner intentionally disguised; and
+of the persons by whom they are purchased, a great number are totally
+unacquainted with their nature or composition.</p>
+
+<p>An extract, said to be innocent, sold in casks, containing from half a
+cwt. to five cwt. by the brewers' druggists, under the name of
+<i>bittern</i>, is composed of calcined sulphate of iron (copperas), extract
+of coculus indicus berries, extract of quassia, and Spanish liquorice.</p>
+
+<p>It would be very easy to adduce, in support of these remarks, the
+testimony of numerous individuals, by whom I have been professionally
+engaged to examine certain mixtures, said to be perfectly innocent,
+which are used in very extensive manufactories of the above description.
+Indeed, during the long period devoted to the practice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>of my
+profession, I have had abundant reason to be convinced that a vast
+number of dealers, of the highest respectability, have vended to their
+customers articles absolutely poisonous, which they themselves
+considered as harmless, and which they would not have offered for sale,
+had they been apprised of the spurious and pernicious nature of the
+compounds, and of the purposes to which they were destined.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, I have known cases in which brandy merchants were not
+aware that the substance which they frequently purchase under the
+delusive name of <i>flash</i>, for strengthening and clarifying spiritous
+liquors, and which is held out as consisting of burnt sugar and
+isinglass only, in the form of an extract, is in reality a compound of
+sugar, with extract of capsicum; and that to the acrid and pungent
+qualities of the capsicum is to be ascribed the heightened flavour of
+brandy and rum, when coloured with the above-mentioned matter.</p>
+
+<p>In other cases the ale-brewer has been supplied with ready-ground
+coriander seeds, previously mixed with a portion of <i>nux vomica</i> and
+quassia, to give a bitter taste and narcotic property to the beverage.</p>
+
+<p>The retail venders of mustard do not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>appear to be aware that mustard
+seed alone cannot produce, when ground, a powder of so intense and
+brilliant a colour as that of the common mustard of commerce. Nor would
+the powder of real mustard, when mixed with salt and water, without the
+addition of a portion of pulverised capsicum, keep for so long a time as
+the mustard usually offered for sale.</p>
+
+<p>Many other instances of unconscious deceptions might be mentioned, which
+were practised by persons of upright and honourable minds.</p>
+
+<p>It is a painful reflection, that the division of labour which has been
+so instrumental in bringing the manufactures of this country to their
+present flourishing state, should have also tended to conceal and
+facilitate the fraudulent practices in question; and that from a
+correspondent ramification of commerce into a multitude of distinct
+branches, particularly in the metropolis and the large towns of the
+empire, the traffic in adulterated commodities should find its way
+through so many circuitous channels, as to defy the most scrutinising
+endeavour to trace it to its source.</p>
+
+<p>It is not less lamentable that the extensive application of chemistry to
+the useful purposes of life, should have been perverted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>into an
+auxiliary to this nefarious traffic. But, happily for the science, it
+may, without difficulty, be converted into a means of detecting the
+abuse; to effect which, very little chemical skill is required; and the
+course to be pursued forms the object of the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>The baker asserts that he does not put alum into bread; but he is well
+aware that, in purchasing a certain quantity of flour, he must take a
+sack of <i>sharp whites</i> (a term given to flour contaminated with a
+quantity of alum), without which it would be impossible for him to
+produce light, white, and porous bread, from a half-spoiled material.</p>
+
+<p>The wholesale mealman frequently purchases this spurious commodity,
+(which forms a separate branch of business in the hands of certain
+individuals,) in order to enable himself to sell his decayed and
+half-spoiled flour.</p>
+
+<p>Other individuals furnish the baker with alum mixed up with salt, under
+the obscure denomination of <i>stuff</i>. There are wholesale manufacturing
+chemists, whose sole business is to crystallise alum, in such a form as
+will adapt this salt to the purpose of being mixed in a crystalline
+state with the crystals of common salt, to disguise the character <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>of
+the compound. The mixture called <i>stuff</i>, is composed of one part of
+alum, in minute crystals, and three of common salt. In many other trades
+a similar mode of proceeding prevails. Potatoes are soaked in water to
+augment their weight.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of sophisticating the necessaries of life, being reduced to
+systematic regularity, is ranked by public opinion among other
+mercantile pursuits; and is not only regarded with less disgust than
+formerly, but is almost generally esteemed as a justifiable way to
+wealth.</p>
+
+<p>It is really astonishing that the penal law is not more effectually
+enforced against practices so inimical to the public welfare. The man
+who robs a fellow subject of a few shillings on the high-way, is
+sentenced to death; while he who distributes a slow poison to a whole
+community, escapes unpunished.</p>
+
+<p>It has been urged by some, that, under so vast a system of finance as
+that of Great Britain, it is expedient that the revenue should be
+collected in large amounts; and therefore that the severity of the law
+should be relaxed in favour of all mercantile concerns in proportion to
+their extent: encouragement must be given to large capitalists; and
+where an extensive brewery or distillery <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>yields an important
+contribution to the revenue, no strict scrutiny need be adopted in
+regard to the quality of the article from which such contribution is
+raised, provided the excise do not suffer by the fraud.</p>
+
+<p>But the principles of the constitution afford no sanction to this
+preference, and the true interests of the country require that it should
+be abolished; for a tax dependent upon deception must be at best
+precarious, and must be, sooner or later, diminished by the irresistible
+diffusion of knowledge. Sound policy requires that the law should be
+impartially enforced in all cases; and if its penalties were extended to
+abuses of which it does not now take cognisance, there is no doubt that
+the revenue would be abundantly benefited.</p>
+
+<p>Another species of fraud, to which I shall at present but briefly
+advert, and which has increased to so alarming an extent, that it loudly
+calls for the interference of government, is the adulteration of drugs
+and medicines.</p>
+
+<p>Nine-tenths of the most potent drugs and chemical preparations used in
+pharmacy, are vended in a sophisticated state by dealers who would be
+the last to be suspected. It is well known, that of the article Peruvian
+bark, there is a variety of species <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>inferior to the genuine; that too
+little discrimination is exercised by the collectors of this precious
+medicament; that it is carelessly assorted, and is frequently packed in
+green hides; that much of it arrives in Spain in a half-decayed state,
+mixed with fragments of other vegetables and various extraneous
+substances; and in this state is distributed throughout Europe.</p>
+
+<p>But as if this were not a sufficient deterioration, the public are often
+served with a spurious compound of mahogany saw-dust and oak wood,
+ground into powder mixed with a proportion of good quinquina, and sold
+as genuine bark powder.</p>
+
+<p>Every chemist knows that there are mills constantly at work in this
+metropolis, which furnish bark powder at a much cheaper rate than the
+substance can be procured for in its natural state. The price of the
+best genuine bark, upon an average, is not lower than twelve shillings
+the pound; but immense quantities of powder bark are supplied to the
+apothecaries at three or four shillings a pound.</p>
+
+<p>It is also notorious that there are manufacturers of spurious rhubarb
+powder, ipecacuanha powder,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> James's powder; and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>other simple and
+compound medicines of great potency, who carry on their diabolical trade
+on an amazingly large scale. Indeed, the quantity of medical
+preparations thus sophisticated exceeds belief. Cheapness, and not
+genuineness and excellence, is the grand desideratum with the
+unprincipled dealers in drugs and medicines.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are familiar with chemistry may easily convince themselves of
+the existence of the fraud, by subjecting to a chemical examination
+either spirits of hartshorn, magnesia, calcined magnesia, calomel, or
+any other chemical preparation in general demand.</p>
+
+<p>Spirit of hartshorn is counterfeited by mixing liquid caustic ammonia
+with the distilled spirit of hartshorn, to increase the pungency of its
+odour, and to enable it to bear an addition of water.</p>
+
+<p>The fraud is detected by adding spirit of wine to the sophisticated
+spirit; for, if no <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>considerable coagulation ensues, the adulteration is
+proved. It may also be discovered by the hartshorn spirit not producing
+a brisk effervescence when mixed with muriatic or nitric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Magnesia usually contains a portion of lime, originating from hard water
+being used instead of soft, in the preparation of this medicine.</p>
+
+<p>To ascertain the purity of magnesia, add to a portion of it a little
+sulphuric acid, diluted with ten times its bulk of water. If the
+magnesia be completely soluble, and the solution remains transparent, it
+may be pronounced <i>pure</i>; but not otherwise. Or, dissolve a portion of
+the magnesia in muriatic acid, and add a solution of sub-carbonate of
+ammonia. If any lime be present, it will form a precipitate; whereas
+pure magnesia will remain in solution.</p>
+
+<p>Calcined magnesia is seldom met with in a pure state. It may be assayed
+by the same tests as the common magnesia. It ought not to effervesce at
+all, with dilute sulphuric acid; and, if the magnesia and acid be put
+together into one scale of a balance, no diminution of weight should
+ensue on mixing them together. Calcined magnesia, however, is very
+seldom so pure as to be totally dissolved by diluted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>sulphuric acid;
+for a small insoluble residue generally remains, consisting chiefly of
+silicious earth, derived from the alkali employed in the preparation of
+it. The solution in sulphuric acid, when largely diluted, ought not to
+afford any precipitation by the addition of oxalate of ammonia.</p>
+
+<p>The genuineness of calomel may be ascertained by boiling, for a few
+minutes, one part, with 1/32 part of muriate of ammonia in ten parts of
+distilled water. When carbonate of potash is added to the filtered
+solution, no precipitation will ensue if the calomel be pure.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, some of the most common and cheap drugs do not escape the
+adulterating hand of the unprincipled druggist. Syrup of buckthorn, for
+example, instead of being prepared from the juice of buckthorn berries,
+(<i>rhamnus catharticus</i>,) is made from the fruit of the blackberry
+bearing alder, and the dogberry tree. A mixture of the berries of the
+buckthorn and blackberry bearing alder, and of the dogberry tree, may be
+seen publicly exposed for sale by some of the venders of medicinal
+herbs. This abuse may be discovered by opening the berries: those of
+buckthorn have almost always four seeds; of the alder, two; and of the
+dogberry, only one. Buckthorn <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>berries, bruised on white paper, stain it
+of a green colour, which the others do not.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of worm-seed (<i>artemisia santonica</i>,) the seeds of tansy are
+frequently offered for sale, or a mixture of both.</p>
+
+<p>A great many of the essential oils obtained from the more expensive
+spices, are frequently so much adulterated, that it is not easy to meet
+with such as are at all fit for use: nor are these adulterations easily
+discoverable. The grosser abuses, indeed, may be readily detected. Thus,
+if the oil be adulterated with alcohol, it will turn milky on the
+addition of water; if with expressed oils, alcohol will dissolve the
+volatile, and leave the other behind; if with oil of turpentine, on
+dipping a piece of paper in the mixture, and drying it with a gentle
+heat, the turpentine will be betrayed by its smell. The more subtile
+artists, however, have contrived other methods of sophistication, which
+elude all trials. And as all volatile oils agree in the general
+properties of solubility in spirit of wine, and volatility in the heat
+of boiling water, &amp;c. it is plain that they may be variously mixed with
+each other, or the dearer sophisticated with the cheaper, without any
+possibility of discovering the abuse by any of the before-mentioned
+trials. Perfumers assert that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>the smell and taste are the only certain
+tests of which the nature of the thing will admit. For example, if a
+bark should have in every respect the appearance of good cinnamon, and
+should be proved indisputably to be the genuine bark of the cinnamon
+tree; yet if it want the cinnamon flavour, or has it but in a low
+degree, we reject it: and the case is the same with the essential oil of
+cinnamon. It is only from use and habit, or comparisons with specimens
+of known quality, that we can judge of the goodness, either of the drugs
+themselves, or of their oils.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the arrow-root, the fecula of the Maranta arudinacea, sold by
+druggists, is a mixture of potatoe starch and arrow-root.</p>
+
+<p>The same system of adulteration extends to articles used in various
+trades and manufactures. For instance, linen tape, and various other
+household commodities of that kind, instead of being manufactured of
+linen thread only, are made up of linen and cotton. Colours for
+painting, not only those used by artists, such as ultramarine,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>carmine,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and lake;<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Antwerp blue,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> chrome yellow,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and Indian
+ink;<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but also the coarser colours used by the common house-painter
+are more or less adulterated. Thus, of the latter kind, white lead<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is
+mixed with carbonate or sulphate of barytes; vermilion<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> with red
+lead.</p>
+
+<p>Soap used in house-keeping is frequently <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>adulterated with a
+considerable portion of fine white clay, brought from St. Stephens, in
+Cornwall. In the manufacture of printing paper, a large quantity of
+plaster of Paris is added to the paper stuff, to increase the weight of
+the manufactured article. The selvage of cloth is often dyed with a
+permanent colour, and artfully stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a
+fugitive dye. The frauds committed in the tanning of skins, and in the
+manufacture of cutlery and jewelry, exceed belief.</p>
+
+<p>The object of all unprincipled modern manufacturers seems to be the
+sparing of their time and labour as much as possible, and to increase
+the quantity of the articles they produce, without much regard to their
+quality. The ingenuity and perseverance of self-interest is proof
+against prohibitions, and contrives to elude the vigilance of the most
+active government.</p>
+
+<p>The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, which seems to be a leading
+characteristic of the times, calls into action every human faculty, and
+gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention; and where lucre
+becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of even a fellow
+creature's life is a secondary consideration. In reference <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>to the
+deterioration of almost all the necessaries and comforts of existence,
+it may be justly observed, in a civil as well as a religious sense, that
+"<i>in the midst of life we are in death</i>."</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>The Times</i>, May 18, 1818. The King <i>v.</i> Richard Bowman.
+The defendant was a brewer, living in Wapping-street, Wapping, and was
+charged with having in his possession a drug called <i>multum</i>, and a
+quantity of copperas.
+</p><p>
+The articles were produced by Thomas Gates, an excise officer, who had,
+after a search, found them on the defendant's premises. The Court
+sentenced the defendant to pay a fine of 200<i>l.</i>
+</p><p>
+The King <i>v.</i> Luke Lyons. The defendant is a brewer, and was brought up
+under an indictment charging him with having made use of various
+deleterious drugs in his brewery, among which were capsicum, copperas,
+&amp;c. The defendant was ordered to pay the fines of 20<i>l.</i> upon the first
+count, 200<i>l.</i> upon the third, and 200<i>l.</i> upon the seventh count in the
+indictment.
+</p><p>
+The King <i>v.</i> Thomas Evans. The charge against this defendant was, that
+he had in his possession forty-seven barrels of stale unpalatable beer.
+On, the 11th of March, John Wilson, an excise officer, went to the
+storehouse, and found forty-seven casks containing forty-three barrels
+and a half of sour unwholesome beer. Several samples of the beer were
+produced, all of them of a different colour, and filled with sediment. A
+fine of 30<i>l.</i> was ordered to be paid by the defendant.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Of this root, several varieties are imported. The white
+sort, which has no wrinkles, and no perceptible bitterness in taste, and
+which, though taken in a large dose, has scarcely any effect at all,
+after being pulverised by fraudulent druggists, and mixed with a portion
+of emetic tartar, is sold, at a low price, for the powder of genuine
+ipecacuanha root.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Genuine ultramarine should become deprived of its colour
+when thrown into concentrated nitric acid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Genuine carmine should be totally soluble in liquid
+ammonia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Genuine madder and carmine lakes should be totally soluble
+by boiling in a concentrated solution of soda or potash.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Genuine Antwerp blue should not become deprived of its
+colour when thrown into liquid chlorine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Genuine chrome yellow should not effervesce with nitric
+acid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The best Indian ink breaks, splintery, with a smooth glossy
+fracture, and feels soft, and not gritty, when rubbed against the
+teeth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Genuine white lead should be completely soluble in nitric
+acid, and the solution should remain transparent when mingled with a
+solution of sulphate of soda.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Genuine vermilion should become totally volatilised on
+being exposed to a red heat; and it should not impart a red colour to
+spirit of wine, when digested with it.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Effect_of_different_Kinds_of_Water" id="Effect_of_different_Kinds_of_Water"></a>REMARKS</h2>
+
+<h5>ON THE</h5>
+
+<h3>Effect of different Kinds of Waters</h3>
+
+<h5>IN THEIR APPLICATION TO</h5>
+
+<h4>DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS;</h4>
+
+<h5>AND</h5>
+
+<h4>METHODS OF ASCERTAINING THEIR PURITY.</h4>
+
+
+<p>It requires not much reflection to become convinced that the waters
+which issue from the recesses of the earth, and form springs, wells,
+rivers, or lakes, often materially differ from each other in their taste
+and other obvious properties. There are few people who have not observed
+a difference in the waters used for domestic purposes and in the arts;
+and the distinctions of <i>hard</i> and <i>soft</i> water are familiar to every
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Water perfectly pure is scarcely ever met with in nature.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p><p>It must also be obvious, that the health and comfort of families, and
+the conveniences of domestic life, are materially affected by the supply
+of good and wholesome water. Hence a knowledge of the quality and
+salubrity of the different kinds of waters employed in the common
+concerns of life, on account of the abundant daily use we make of them
+in the preparation of food, is unquestionably an object of considerable
+importance, and demands our attention.</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by the foreign matters which water may contain, are
+more considerable, and of greater importance, than might at first be
+imagined. It cannot be denied, that such waters as are <i>hard</i>, or loaded
+with earthy matter, have a decided effect upon some important functions
+of the human body. They increase the distressing symptoms under which
+those persons labour who are afflicted with what is commonly called
+gravel complaints; and many other ailments might be named, that are
+always aggravated by the use of waters abounding in saline and earthy
+substances.</p>
+
+<p>The purity of the waters employed in some of the arts and manufactures,
+is an object of not less consequence. In the process of brewing malt
+liquors, soft water is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>preferable to hard. Every brewer knows that the
+largest possible quantity of the extractive matter of the malt is
+obtained in the least possible time, and at the smallest cost, by means
+of soft water.</p>
+
+<p>In the art of the dyer, hard water not only opposes the solution of
+several dye stuffs, but it also alters the natural tints of some
+delicate colours; whilst in others again it precipitates the earthy and
+saline matters with which it is impregnated, into the delicate fibres of
+the stuff, and thus impedes the softness and brilliancy of the dye.</p>
+
+<p>The bleacher cannot use with advantage waters impregnated with earthy
+salts; and a minute portion of iron imparts to the cloth a yellowish
+hue.</p>
+
+<p>To the manufacturer of painters' colours, water as pure as possible is
+absolutely essential for the successful preparation of several delicate
+pigments. Carmine, madder lake, ultramarine, and Indian yellow, cannot
+be prepared without perfectly pure water.</p>
+
+<p>For the steeping or raiting of flax, soft water is absolutely necessary;
+in hard water the flax may be immersed for months, till its texture be
+injured, and still the ligneous matter will not be decomposed, and the
+fibres properly separated.</p>
+
+<p>In the culinary art, the effects of water <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>more or less pure are
+likewise obvious. Good and pure water softens the fibres of animal and
+vegetable matters more readily than such as is called <i>hard</i>. Every cook
+knows that dry or ripe pease, and other farinaceous seeds, cannot
+<i>readily</i> be boiled soft in hard water; because the farina of the seed
+is not perfectly soluble in water loaded with earthy salts.</p>
+
+<p>Green esculent vegetable substances are more tender when boiled in soft
+water than in hard water; although hard water imparts to them a better
+colour. The effects of hard and soft water may be easily shown in the
+following manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Let two separate portions of tea-leaves be macerated, by precisely the
+same processes, in circumstances all alike, in similar and separate
+vessels, the one containing hard and the other soft water, either hot or
+cold, the infusion made with the soft water will have by far the
+strongest taste, although it possesses less colour than the infusion
+made with the hard water. It will strike a more intense black with a
+solution of sulphate of iron, and afford a more abundant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>precipitate,
+with a solution of animal jelly, which at once shews that soft water has
+extracted more tanning matter, and more gallic acid, from the
+tea-leaves, than could be obtained from them under like circumstances by
+means of hard water.</p>
+
+<p>Many animals which are accustomed to drink soft water, refuse hard
+water. Horses in particular prefer the former. Pigeons refuse hard water
+when they have been accustomed to soft water.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Characters_of_Good_Water" id="Characters_of_Good_Water"></a>CHARACTERS OF GOOD WATER.</p>
+
+<p>A good criterion of the purity of water fit for domestic purposes, is
+its softness. This quality is at once obvious by the touch, if we only
+wash our hands in it with soap. Good water should be beautifully
+transparent; a slight opacity indicates extraneous matter. To judge of
+the perfect transparency of water, a quantity of it should be put into a
+deep glass vessel, the larger the better, so that we can look down
+perpendicularly into a considerable mass of the fluid; we may then
+readily discover the slightest degree of muddiness much better than if
+the water be viewed through the glass placed between the eye and the
+light. It <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>should be perfectly colourless, devoid of odour, and its
+taste soft and agreeable. It should send out air-bubbles when poured
+from one vessel into another; it should boil pulse soft, and form with
+soap an uniform opaline fluid, which does not separate after standing
+for several hours.</p>
+
+<p>It is to the presence of common air and carbonic acid gas that common
+water owes its taste, and many of the good effects which it produces on
+animals and vegetables. Spring water, which contains more air, has a
+more lively taste than river water.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the insipid or vapid taste of newly boiled water, from which these
+gases are expelled: fish cannot live in water deprived of those elastic
+fluids.</p>
+
+<p>100 cubic inches of the New River water, with which part of this
+metropolis is supplied, contains 2,25 of carbonic acid, and 1,25 of
+common air. The water of the river Thames contains rather a larger
+quantity of common air, and a smaller portion of carbonic acid.</p>
+
+<p>If water not fully saturated with common air be agitated with this
+elastic fluid, a portion of the air is absorbed; but the two chief
+constituent gases of the atmosphere, the oxygen and nitrogen, are not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>equally affected, the former being absorbed in preference to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Dalton, in agitating water with atmospheric air,
+consisting of 79 of nitrogen, and 21 of oxygen, the water absorbs 1/64
+of 79/100 nitrogen gas = 1,234, and 1/27 of 21/100 oxygen gas = 778,
+amounting in all to 2,012.</p>
+
+<p>Water is freed from foreign matter by distillation: and for any chemical
+process in which accuracy is requisite, distilled water must be used.</p>
+
+<p>Hard waters may, in general, be cured in part, by dropping into them a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash; or, if the hardness be owing only
+to the presence of super-carbonate of lime, mere boiling will greatly
+remedy the defect; part of the carbonic acid flies off, and a neutral
+carbonate of lime falls down to the bottom; it may then be used for
+washing, scarcely curdling soap. But if the hardness be owing in part to
+sulphate of lime, boiling does not soften it at all.</p>
+
+<p>When spring water is used for washing, it is advantageous to leave it
+for some time exposed to the open air in a reservoir with a large
+surface. Part of the carbonic acid becomes thus dissipated, and part of
+the carbonate of lime falls to the bottom. Mr. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>Dalton<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> has observed
+that the more any spring is drawn from, the softer the water becomes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Chemical_Constitution" id="Chemical_Constitution"></a>CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE WATERS USED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE
+ARTS.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Rain_Water" id="Rain_Water"></a><i>Rain Water</i>,</p>
+
+<p>Collected with every precaution as it descends from the clouds, and at a
+distance from large towns, or any other object capable of impregnating
+the atmosphere with foreign matters, approaches more nearly to a state
+of purity than perhaps any other natural water. Even collected under
+these circumstances, however, it invariably contains a portion of common
+air and carbonic acid gas. The specific gravity of rain water scarcely
+differs from that of distilled water; and from the minute portions of
+the foreign ingredients which it generally contains, it is very <i>soft</i>,
+and admirably adapted for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>many culinary purposes, and various processes
+in different manufactures and the arts.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;"><a name="Snow_Water" id="Snow_Water"></a>Fresh-fallen <i><b>snow</b></i>, melted without the contact of air, appears to be
+nearly free from air. Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, however, affirm, that it
+contains nearly the usual proportion of air.</p>
+
+<p>Water from melted <i>ice</i> does not contain so much air. <i>Dew</i> has been
+supposed to be saturated with air.</p>
+
+<p>Snow water has long laid under the imputation of occasioning those
+strumous swellings in the neck which deform the inhabitants of many of
+the Alpine vallies; but this opinion is not supported by any
+well-authenticated indisputable facts, and is rendered still more
+improbable, if not entirely overturned, by the frequency of the disease
+in Sumatra<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, where ice and snow are never seen.</p>
+
+<p>In high northern latitudes, thawed snow forms the constant drink of the
+inhabitants during winter; and the vast masses of ice which float on the
+polar seas, afford an abundant supply of fresh water to the mariner.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Spring_Water" id="Spring_Water"></a><i>Spring Water</i>,</p>
+
+<p>Includes well-water and all others that arise from some depth below the
+surface of the earth, and which are used at the fountain-head, or at
+least before they have run any considerable distance exposed to the air.
+Indeed, springs may be considered as rain water which has passed through
+the fissures of the earth, and, having accumulated at the bottom of
+declivities, rises again to the surface forming springs and wells. As
+wells take their origin at some depth from the surface, and below the
+influence of the external atmosphere, their temperature is in general
+pretty uniform during every vicissitude of season, and always several
+degrees lower than the atmosphere. They differ from one another
+according to the nature of the strata through which they issue; for
+though the ingredients usually existing in them are in such minute
+quantities as to impart to the water no striking properties, and do not
+render it unfit for common purposes, yet they modify its nature very
+considerably. Hence the water of some springs is said to be <i>hard</i>, of
+others <i>soft</i>, some <i>sweet</i>, others <i>brackish</i>, according <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>to the nature
+and degree of the inpregnating ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>Common springs are insensibly changed into mineral or medicinal springs,
+as their foreign contents become larger or more unusual; or, in some
+instances, they derive medicinal celebrity from the absence of those
+ingredients usually occurring in spring-water; as, for example, is the
+case with the Malvern spring, which is nearly pure water.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all spring-waters possess the property termed <i>hardness</i> in a
+greater or less degree; a property which depends chiefly upon the
+presence of super-carbonate, or of sulphate of lime, or of both; and the
+quantity of these earthy salts varies very considerably in different
+instances. Mr. Dalton<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> has shewn that one grain of sulphate of lime,
+contained in 2000 grains of water, converts it into the hardest spring
+water that is commonly met with.</p>
+
+<p>The waters of deep wells are usually much harder than those of springs
+which overflow the mouth of the well; but there are some exceptions to
+this rule.</p>
+
+<p>The purest springs are those which occur <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>in primitive rocks, or beds of
+gravel, or filter through sand or silicious strata. In general, large
+springs are purer than small ones: and our old wells contain finer water
+than those that are new, as the soluble parts through which the water
+filters in channels under ground become gradually washed away.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="River_Water" id="River_Water"></a><i>River Water</i>,</p>
+
+<p>Is a term applied to every running stream or rivulet exposed to the air,
+and always flowing in an open channel. It is formed of spring water,
+which, by exposure, becomes more pure, and of running land or surface
+water, which, although turbid from particles of the alluvial soil
+suspended in it, is otherwise very pure. It is purest when it runs over
+a gravelly or rocky bed, and when its course is swift. It is generally
+soft, and more free from earthy salts than spring water; but it usually
+contains less common air and carbonic acid gas; for, by the agitation of
+a long current, and exposed to the temperature of the atmosphere, part
+of its carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the lime held in solution by
+it is in part precipitated, the loss of which contributes to the
+softness of the water. Its specific gravity thereby <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>becomes less, the
+taste not so harsh, but less fresh and agreeable; and out of a hard
+spring is often made a stream of sufficient purity for most of the
+purposes where a soft water is required.</p>
+
+<p>The water called in this metropolis <i>New River Water</i>, contains a minute
+portion of muriate of lime, carbonate of lime, and muriate of soda.</p>
+
+<p>Some streams, however, that arise from clean silicious beds, and flow in
+a sandy or stony channel, are from the outset remarkably pure; such as
+the mountain lakes and rivulets in the rocky districts of Wales, the
+source of the beautiful waters of the Dee, and numberless other rivers
+that flow through the hollow of every valley. Switzerland has long been
+celebrated for the purity and excellence of its waters, which pour in
+copious streams from the mountains, and give rise to the finest rivers
+in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Some rivers, however, that do not take their rise from a rocky soil, and
+are indeed at first considerably charged with foreign matter, during a
+long course, even over a richly cultivated plain, become remarkably pure
+as to saline contents; but often fouled with mud containing much animal
+and vegetable matter, which are rather suspended <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>than held in true
+solution. Such is the water of the river Thames, which, taken up at
+London at low water mark, is very soft and good; and, after rest, it
+contains but a very small portion of any thing that could prove
+pernicious, or impede any manufacture. It is also excellently fitted for
+sea-store; but it then undergoes a remarkable spontaneous change, when
+preserved in wooden casks. No water carried to sea becomes putrid sooner
+than that of the Thames. But the mode now adopted in the navy of
+substituting iron tanks for wooden casks, tends greatly to obviate this
+disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever will consider the situation of the Thames, and the immense
+population along its banks for so many miles, must at once perceive the
+prodigious accumulation of animal matters of all kinds, which by means
+of the common sewers constantly make their way into it. These matters
+are, no doubt, in part the cause of the putrefaction which it is well
+known to undergo at sea, and of the carburetted and sulphuretted
+hydrogen gases which are evolved from it. When a wooden cask is opened,
+after being kept a month or two, a quantity of carburetted and
+sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and the water is so black and offensive
+as scarcely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>to be borne. Upon racking it off, however, into large
+earthen vessels, and exposing it to the air, it gradually deposits a
+quantity of black slimy mud, becomes clear as crystal, and remarkably
+sweet and palatable.</p>
+
+<p>It might, at first sight, be expected that the water of the Thames,
+after having received all the contents of the sewers, drains, and water
+courses, of a large town, should acquire thereby such impregnation with
+foreign matters, as to become very impure; but it appears, from the most
+accurate experiments that have been made, that those kinds of impurities
+have no perceptible influence on the salubrious quality of a mass of
+water so immense, and constantly kept in motion by the action of the
+tides.</p>
+
+<p>Some traces of animal matter may, however, be detected in the water of
+the Thames; for if nitrate of lead be dropped into it,<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> "you will
+find that it becomes milky, and that a white powder falls to the bottom,
+which dissolves without effervescence <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>in nitric acid. It is, therefore,
+(says Dr. Thomson) a combination of oxide of lead with some animal
+matter."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Substances_in_Common_Water" id="Substances_in_Common_Water"></a>SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER, AND TESTS BY WHICH THEY
+ARE DETECTED.</p>
+
+<p>To acquire a knowledge of the general nature of common water, it is only
+necessary to add to it a few chemical tests, which will quickly indicate
+the presence or absence of the substances that may be expected.</p>
+
+<p>Almost the only salts contained in common waters are the carbonates,
+sulphates, and muriates of soda, lime, and magnesia; and sometimes a
+very minute portion of iron may also be detected in them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Fill a wine-glass with distilled water, and add to it a few drops of a
+solution of soap in alcohol, the water will remain transparent.</p>
+
+<p>This test is employed for ascertaining the presence of earthy salts in
+waters. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>Hence it produces no change when mingled with distilled or
+perfectly pure water; but when added to water containing earthy salts, a
+white flocculent matter becomes separated, which speedily collects on
+the surface of the fluid. Now, from the quantity of flocculent matter
+produced, in equal quantities of water submitted to the test, a
+tolerable notion may be formed of the degrees of hardness of different
+kinds of water, at least so far as regards the fitness of the water for
+the ordinary purposes of domestic economy. This may be rendered obvious
+in the following manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Fill a number of wine-glasses with different kinds of pump or well
+water, and let fall into each glass a few drops of the solution of soap
+in alcohol. A turbidness will instantly ensue, and a flocculent matter
+collect on the surface of the fluid, if the mixture be left undisturbed.
+The quantity of flocculent matter will be in the ratio of the quantity
+of earthy salts contained in the water.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the action of this test is not discriminative, with
+regard to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>chemical nature of the earthy salt present in the water.
+It serves only to indicate the <i>presence</i> or <i>absence</i> of those kinds of
+substances which occasion that quality in water which is usually called
+<i>hardness</i>, and which is always owing to salts with an earthy base.</p>
+
+<p>If we wish to know the nature of the different acids and earths
+contained in the water, the following test may be employed.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Add about twenty drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia, to half a
+wine-glass of the water; if a white precipitate ensues, we conclude that
+the water contains lime.</p>
+
+<p>By means of this test, one grain of lime may be detected in 24,250 of
+water.</p>
+
+<p>If this test occasion a white precipitate in water taken fresh from the
+pump or spring, and not after the water has been boiled and suffered to
+grow cold, the lime is dissolved in the water by an excess of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>carbonic
+acid; and if it continues to produce a precipitate in the water which
+has been concentrated by boiling, we then are sure that the lime is
+combined with a fixed acid.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>To detect the presence of iron, add to a wine-glassful of the water a
+few drops of an infusion of nut-galls; or better, suffer a nut-gall to
+be suspended in it for twenty-four hours, which will cause the water to
+acquire a blueish black colour, if iron be present.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Add a few grains of muriate of barytes, to half a wine-glass of the
+water to be examined; if it produces a turbidness which does not
+disappear by the admixture of a few drops of muriatic acid, the presence
+of sulphuric acid is rendered obvious.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>If a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver occasions a milkiness
+with the water, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>which vanishes again by the copious addition of liquid
+ammonia, we have reason to believe that the water contains a salt, one
+of the constituent parts of which is muriatic acid.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>If lime water or barytic water occasions a precipitate which again
+vanishes by the admixture of muriatic acid, then carbonic acid is
+present in the water.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>If a solution of phosphate of soda produces a milkiness with the water,
+after a previous addition to it of a similar quantity of neutral
+carbonate of ammonia, we may then expect magnesia. The application of
+this test is best made in the following manner:</p>
+
+<p>Concentrate a quantity of the water to be examined to about 1/20 part of
+its bulk, and drop into about half a wine-glassful, about five grains of
+neutral carbonate of ammonia. No magnesia becomes yet precipitated if
+this earth be present; but on adding a like quantity of phosphate of
+soda, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>the magnesia falls down, as an insoluble salt. It is essential
+that the carbonate of ammonia be neutral.</p>
+
+<p>This test was first pointed out by Dr. Wollaston.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of oxygen gas loosely combined in water may readily be
+discovered in the following manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Fill a vial with water, and add to it a small quantity of green sulphate
+of iron. If the water be entirely free of oxygen, and if the vessel be
+well stopped and completely filled, the solution is transparent; but if
+otherwise, it soon becomes slightly turbid, from the oxide of iron
+attracting the oxygen, and a small portion of it, in this more highly
+oxidated state, leaving the acid and being precipitated. Or, according
+to a method pointed out by Driessen, the water is to be boiled for two
+hours in a flask filled with it, and immersed in a vessel of water kept
+boiling, with the mouth of the flask under the surface of the water: it
+is to be inverted in quicksilver, taking care that no air-bubble adheres
+to the side of the flask, and being tinged with infusion of litmus, a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>little nitrous gas is to be introduced: if the oxygen gas has been
+sufficiently expelled from the water, the purple colour of the litmus
+does not change; while, if oxygen be present, it immediately becomes
+red.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we examine the different waters which are used for the ordinary
+purposes of life, and judge of them by the above tests, we shall find
+them to differ considerably from each other. Some contain a large
+quantity of saline and earthy matters, whilst others are nearly pure.
+The differences are produced by the great solvent power which water
+exercises upon most substances. Wells should never be lined with bricks,
+which render soft water hard; or, if bricks be employed, they should be
+bedded in and covered with cement.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Method_of_ascertaining_Quantity" id="Method_of_ascertaining_Quantity"></a>METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE RELATIVE QUANTITY OF EACH OF THE DIFFERENT
+SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER.</p>
+
+<p>To ascertain the quantity of earthy and saline matter contained in
+water, the following is the most simple and easy method.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p><p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Put any measured quantity of the water into a platina, or silver
+evaporating basin, the weight of which is known, and evaporate the water
+upon a steam bath, at a temperature of about 180&deg;, nearly to dryness;
+and, lastly, remove the basin to a sand bath, and let the mass be
+evaporated to perfect dryness. The weight of the platina basin being
+already known, we have only to weigh it carefully. When the solid saline
+contents of the water is attached to it, the increase of weight gives
+the quantity of solid matter contained in a given quantity of the water.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Pour upon the saline contents a quantity of distilled water equal to
+that in which the obtained salts were originally dissolved. If the whole
+saline matter become dissolved in this water, there is reason to believe
+that the saline matter has not been altered during the evaporation of
+the water. But if a portion remain undissolved, as is usually the case,
+then we may conclude that some of the salts have mutually decomposed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>each other, when brought into a concentrated state by the evaporation,
+and that salts have been formed which did not originally exist in the
+water before its evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned that almost the only salts contained in common
+waters, are the carbonates, sulphates, and muriates, of soda, lime, and
+magnesia; and sometimes a very minute portion of iron. Having determined
+the different acids and bases present, in the manner stated at p. 49, we
+may easily ascertain the relative weight of each.</p>
+
+<p>The following formula suggested by Dr. Murray,<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> is fully as accurate
+a means of analysing waters as any other, and it is easy of execution.
+The weight of the saline ingredients of a given quantity of water being
+determined, we may proceed to the accurate analysis of it in the
+following manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Measure out a determinate volume of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>water (as 500 or 1000 cubic
+inches,) and evaporate it gradually, in an unglazed open vessel defended
+from dust, to one third of its original bulk; then divide this
+evaporated liquid into three equal portions.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Drop into the first portion, muriate of barytes; wash the precipitate,
+collect it, dry it at a red heat upon platina foil, and weigh it; digest
+it in nitric acid, dry it, and weigh it again. The loss of weight
+indicates the quantity of carbonate of barytes which the precipitate
+contained. The residual weight is sulphate of barytes; the carbonic acid
+in the water is equivalent to 0,22 of the weight of the carbonate of
+barytes; the sulphuric acid to 0,339 of the weight of the sulphate of
+barytes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Precipitate the second portion of the concentrated water, by the
+addition of nitrate of silver; wash the precipitate, dry it, and fuse it
+on a piece of foil platina, previously weighed. By weighing the foil
+containing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>the fused chloride of silver, the weight of the precipitate
+may be ascertained. The fourth part of this weight is equivalent to the
+weight of the muriatic acid contained in the portion of water
+precipitated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Precipitate the third portion of the water by the addition of oxalate of
+ammonia; wash and dry the precipitate; expose it to a red heat, on a
+platina foil, or in a capsule of platina; pour on it some dilute
+sulphuric acid; digest for some time, then evaporate to dryness, expose
+the capsule to a pretty strong heat, and, lastly, weigh the sulphate of
+lime thus produced: 0.453 of its weight indicate the quantity of lime in
+the portion of water precipitated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Add to the same third portion of the water thus freed from lime, a
+portion of a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, and then add
+phosphoric acid, drop by drop, as long as any precipitate falls down.
+Wash the precipitate, dry it, and expose it to a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>red heat in a platina
+capsule: it is phosphate of magnesia. 0.357 of the weight of this salt
+is equivalent to the weight of the magnesia contained in the water.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>If the water contain a minute portion of iron, a quantity of it equal to
+one of the three preceding portions, must be taken and mixed with a
+solution of benzoate of ammonia. The precipitate being washed, dried,
+and exposed to a red heat, and weighed, nine-tenths of its weight
+indicate the weight of protoxide of iron contained in the water.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner the quantity of all the substances contained in the water
+will be ascertained, except there be any soda. To know the amount of it,
+the following method, pointed out by Dr. Murray, answers very well.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Evaporate a portion of the water to one third of its bulk. Precipitate
+the carbonic and sulphuric acids by the addition of muriate of barytes,
+taking care not to add any excess of the tests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><p>Precipitate the lime by oxalate of ammonia, and the magnesia by
+carbonate of ammonia and phosphoric acid. (Page <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.) Then evaporate the
+liquid thus treated to dryness. A quantity of common salt will remain:
+let this be exposed to a red heat; 0.4 of its weight indicate the sodium
+contained in the bulk of water employed; and 0.4 sodium are equivalent
+to 0.53 of soda.</p>
+
+<p>It seems hardly requisite to mention some other substances that
+occasionally make their appearance in the waters used for domestic
+purposes. A fine divided sand is a common constituent, which is easily
+obtained in a separate state. We have only to evaporate a portion of the
+water to dryness, and redissolve the saline residue in distilled water.
+The silicious sand remains undissolved, and betrays itself by its
+insolubility in acids, and its easy fusibility into a transparant glass,
+with soda, before the blow-pipe.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Deleterious_Effects" id="Deleterious_Effects"></a>DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF KEEPING WATER FOR DOMESTIC ECONOMY IN LEADEN
+RESERVOIRS.</p>
+
+<p>The deleterious effect of lead, when taken into the stomach, is at
+present so universally known, that it is quite unnecessary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>to adduce
+any argument in proof of its dangerous tendency.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients were, upwards of 2000 years ago, as well aware of the
+pernicious quality of this metal as we are at the present day; and
+indeed they appeared to have been much more apprehensive of its effects,
+and scrupulous in the application of it to purposes of domestic economy.</p>
+
+<p>Their precautions may have been occasionally carried to an unnecessary
+length. This was the natural consequence of the imperfect state of
+experimental knowledge at that period. When men <ins class="correction" title="Original has where.">were</ins> unable to detect
+the poisonous matters&mdash;to be over scrupulous in the use of such water,
+was an error on the right side.</p>
+
+<p>The moderns, on the other hand, in part, perhaps, from an ill-founded
+confidence, and inattention to a careful and continued examination of
+its effects, have fallen into an opposite error.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the mode of preserving water intended for
+food or drink in leaden reservoirs, is exceedingly improper; and
+although pure water exercises no sensible action upon metallic lead,
+provided air be excluded, the metal is certainly acted on by the water
+when air is admitted: this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>effect is so obvious, that it cannot escape
+the notice of the least attentive observer.</p>
+
+<p>The white line which may be seen at the surface of the water preserved
+in leaden cisterns, where the metal touches the water and where the air
+is admitted, is a carbonate of lead, formed at the expense of the metal.
+This substance, when taken into the stomach, is highly deleterious to
+health. This was the reason which induced the ancients to condemn leaden
+pipes for the conveyance of water; it having been remarked that persons
+who swallowed the sediment of such water, became affected with disorders
+of the bowels.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>Leaden water reservoirs were condemned in ancient times by Hyppocrates,
+Galen, <ins class="correction" title="Original has snd.">and</ins> Vitruvius, as dangerous: in addition to which, we may depend
+on the observations of Van Swieten, Tronchin, and others, who have
+quoted numerous unhappy examples of whole families poisoned by water
+which had remained in reservoirs of lead. Dr. Johnston, Dr. Percival,
+Sir George Baker, and Dr. Lamb, have likewise recorded numerous
+instances where dangerous diseases ensued from the use of water
+impregnated with lead.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p><p>Different potable waters have unequal solvent powers on this metal. In
+some places the use of leaden pumps has been discontinued, from the
+expense entailed upon the proprietors by the constant want of repair.
+Dr. Lamb<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> states an instance where the proprietor of a well ordered
+his plumber to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the
+metal usually employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because
+he had observed that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it
+corroded the lead very soon.</p>
+
+<p>The following instance is related by Sir George Baker:<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>"A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had
+one-and-twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen survived
+their parents. During their infancy, and indeed <i>until they had quitted
+the place of their usual residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy</i>;
+being particularly subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The
+father, during many years, was paralytic; the mother, for a long time,
+was subject to colics and bilious obstructions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p><p>"After the death of the parents, the family sold the house which they
+had so long inhabited. The purchaser found it necessary to repair the
+pump. This was made of lead; which, upon examination was found to be so
+corroded, that several perforations were observed in the cylinder, in
+which the bucket plays; and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to
+the thinness of common brown paper, and was full of holes, like a
+sieve."</p>
+
+<p>I have myself seen numerous instances where leaden cisterns have been
+completely corroded by the action of water with which they were in
+contact: and there is, perhaps, not a plumber who cannot give testimony
+of having experienced numerous similar instances in the practice of his
+trade.</p>
+
+<p>I have been frequently called upon to examine leaden cisterns, which had
+become leaky on account of the action of the water which they contained;
+and I could adduce an instance of a legal controversy having taken place
+to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a
+plumber, originating from a similar cause&mdash;the plumber being accused of
+having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to be
+owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. Water containing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>a large quantity of common air and carbonic acid gas, always acts very
+sensibly on metallic lead.</p>
+
+<p>Water, which has no sensible action, in its natural state, upon lead,
+may acquire the capability of acting on it by heterogeneous matter,
+which it may accidentally receive. Numerous instances have shewn that
+vegetable matter, such as leaves, falling into leaden cisterns filled
+with water, imparted to the water a considerable solvent power of action
+on the lead, which, in its natural state it did not possess. Hence the
+necessity of keeping leaden cisterns clean; and this is the more
+necessary, as their situations expose them to accidental impurities. The
+noted saturnine colic of Amsterdam, described by Tronchin, originated
+from such a circumstance; as also the case related by Van Swieten,<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+of a whole family afflicted with the same complaint, from such a
+cistern. And it is highly probable that the case of disease recorded by
+Dr. Duncan,<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> proceeded more from some foulness in the cistern, than
+from the solvent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>power of the water. In this instance the officers of
+the packet boat used water for their drink and cooking out of a leaden
+cistern, whilst the sailors used the water taken from the same source,
+except that theirs was kept in wooden vessels. The consequence was, that
+all the officers were seized with the colic, and all the men continued
+healthy.</p>
+
+<p>The carelessness of the bulk of mankind, Dr. Lambe very justly observes,
+to these things, "is so great, that to repeat them again and again
+cannot be wholly useless."</p>
+
+<p>Although the great majority of persons who daily use water kept in
+leaden cisterns receive no sensible injury, yet the apparent salubrity
+must be ascribed to the great slowness of its operation, and the
+minuteness of the dose taken, the effects of which become modified by
+different causes and different constitutions, and according to the
+predisposition to diseases inherent in different individuals. The
+supposed security of the multitude who use the water with impunity,
+amounts to no more than presumption, in favour of any individual, which
+may or may not be confirmed by experience.</p>
+
+<p>Independent of the morbid susceptibility <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>of impressions which
+distinguish certain habits, there is, besides, much variety in the
+original constitution of the human frame, of which we are totally
+ignorant.</p>
+
+<p>"The susceptibility or proneness to disease of each individual, must be
+esteemed peculiar to himself. Confiding to the experience of others is a
+ground of security which may prove fallacious; and the danger can with
+certainty be obviated only by avoiding its source. And considering the
+various and complicated changes of the human frame, under different
+circumstances and at different ages, it is neither impossible nor
+improbable that the substances taken into the system at one period, and
+even for a series of years, with apparent impunity may, notwithstanding,
+at another period, be eventually the occasion of disease and of death.</p>
+
+<p>"The experience of a single person, or of many persons, however
+numerous, is quite incompetent to the decision of a question of this
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>"The pernicious effects of an intemperate use of spiritous liquors is
+not less certain because we often see habitual drunkards enjoy a state
+of good health, and arrive at old age: and the same may be said of
+individuals who indulge in vices of all kinds, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>evidently destructive to
+life; many of whom, in spite of their bad habits, attain to a vigorous
+old age."<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>In confirmation of these remarks, we adduce the following account of the
+effect of water contaminated by lead, given by Sir G. Baker:</p>
+
+<p>"The most remarkable case on the subject that now occurs to my memory,
+is that of Lord Ashburnham's family, in Sussex; to which, spring water
+was supplied, from a considerable distance, in leaden pipes. In
+consequence, his Lordship's servants were every year tormented with
+colic, and some of them died. An eminent physician, of Battle, who
+corresponded with me on the subject, sent up some gallons of that water,
+which were analysed by Dr. Higgins, who reported that the water had
+contained more than the common quantity of carbonic acid; and that he
+found in it lead in solution, which he attributed to the carbonic acid.
+In consequence of this, Lord Ashburnham substituted wooden for leaden
+pipes; and from that time his family have had no particular complaints
+in their bowels."</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Richmond, Sept. 27, 1802.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Method_of_Detecting_Lead" id="Method_of_Detecting_Lead"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING LEAD, WHEN CONTAINED IN WATER.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most delicate tests for detecting lead, is water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which instantly imparts to the fluid
+containing the minutest quantity of lead, a brown or blackish tinge.</p>
+
+<p>This test is so delicate that distilled water, when condensed by a
+leaden pipe in a still tub, is affected by it. To shew the action of
+this test, the following experiments will serve.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Pour into a wine-glass containing distilled water, an equal quantity of
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas: no change will take
+place; but if a 1/4 of a grain of acetate of lead (sugar of lead of
+commerce), or any other preparation of lead, be added, the mixture will
+instantly turn brown and dark-coloured.</p>
+
+<p>To apply this test, one part of the suspected water need merely to be
+mingled with a like quantity of water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen. Or better, a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>larger quantity, a gallon for example, of the
+water may be concentrated by evaporation to about half a pint, and then
+submitted to the action of the test.</p>
+
+<p>Another and more efficient mode of applying this test, is, to pass a
+current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the suspected water in the
+following manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+
+<p>Take a bottle (<i>a</i>) or Florence flask, adapt to the mouth of it a cork
+furnished with a glass tube (<i>b</i>), bent at right angles; let one leg of
+the tube be immersed in the vial (<i>c</i>) containing the water to be
+examined; as shewn in the following sketch. Then take one part of
+sulphuret of antimony of commerce, break it into pieces of half the size
+of split pease, put it into the flask, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>pour upon it four parts of
+common concentrated muriatic acid (spirit of salt of commerce).
+Sulphuretted hydrogen gas will become disengaged from the materials in
+abundance, and pass through the water in the vial (<i>c</i>). Let the
+extrication of the gas be continued for about five minutes; and if the
+minutest quantity of lead be present, the water will acquire a
+dark-brown or blackish tinge. The extrication of the gas is facilitated
+by the application of a gentle heat.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<img src="images/image1.png" alt="" width="50%" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The action of the sulphuretted hydrogen test, when applied in this
+manner, is astonishingly great; for one part of acetate of lead may be
+detected by means of it, in 20000 parts of water.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p><p>Another test for readily detecting lead in water, is sulphuretted
+chyazate of potash, first pointed out as such by Mr. Porret. A few drops
+of this re-agent, added to water containing lead, occasion a white
+precipitate, consisting of small brilliant scales of a considerable
+lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphate of potash, or sulphate of soda, is likewise a very delicate
+test for detecting minute portions of lead. Dr. Thomson<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> discovered,
+by means of it, one part of lead in 100000 parts of water; and this
+acute Philosopher considers it as the most unequivocal test of lead that
+we possess. Dr. Thomson remarks that "no other precipitate can well be
+confounded with it, except sulphate of barytes; and there is no
+probability of the presence of barytes existing in common water."</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, may also be used as agents to
+detect the presence of lead. By means of these salts Dr. Thomson was
+enabled to detect the presence of a smaller quantity of lead in
+distilled water, than by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. But the
+reader must <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>here be told, that the use of these tests cannot be
+entrusted to an unskilful hand; because the alkaline carbonates throw
+down also lime and magnesia, two substances which are frequently found
+in common water; the former tests, namely, water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and nascent sulphuretted hydrogen, are
+therefore preferable.</p>
+
+<p>It is absolutely essential that the water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when employed as a test for detecting very minute quantities
+of lead, be fresh prepared; and if sulphate of potash, or sulphate of
+soda, be used as tests, they should be perfectly pure. Sulphate of
+potash is preferable to sulphate of soda. It is likewise advisable to
+act with these tests upon water concentrated by boiling. The water to
+which the test has been added does sometimes appear not to undergo any
+change, at first; it is therefore necessary to suffer the mixture to
+stand for a few hours; after which time the action of the test will be
+more evident. Mr. Silvester<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> has proposed gallic acid as a delicate
+test for detecting lead.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Dalton, Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Marsden's History of Sumatra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Manchester Memoirs vol. x. 1819.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge Wells is
+chiefly supplied for Domestic Purposes, by Dr. Thomson; forming an
+Appendix to an Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells, by Dr.
+Scudamore.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> It is absolutely essential that the tests should be pure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Philosophical Magazine, vol. xv. p. 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii.
+p. 259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Sir G. Baker, Med. Trans. vol. i. p. 280.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Lamb on Spring Water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Medical Trans. vol. i. p. 420.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Van Swieten ad Boerhaave, Aphorisms, 1060. Comment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Medical Comment. Dec. 2, 1794.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Lambe on Spring Water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells,
+by Dr. Scudamore, p. 55.
+</p><p>
+The application of the sulphuretted hydrogen test requires some
+precautions in those cases where other metals besides lead may be
+expected; because silver, quicksilver, tin, copper, and several other
+metals, are affected by it, as well as lead; but there is no chance of
+these metals being met with in common water.&mdash;See <i>Chemical Tests</i>,
+third edition, p. 207.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Analysis of Tunbridge Wells Water, by Dr. Scudamore, p.
+55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Nicholson's Journal, p. 33, 310.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Wine" id="Adulteration_of_Wine"></a><i>Adulteration of Wine.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is sufficiently obvious, that few of those commodities, which are the
+objects of commerce, are adulterated to a greater extent than wine. All
+persons moderately conversant with the subject, are aware, that a
+portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for the purpose
+of brightening their colour; that Brazil wood, or the husks of
+elderberries and bilberries,<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> are employed to impart a deep rich
+purple tint to red Port of a pale, faint colour; that gypsum is used to
+render cloudy white wines transparent;<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> that an additional
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood
+sawdust,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled
+foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound
+frequently sold in this town by the name of <i>genuine old Port</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Various expedients are resorted to for the purpose of communicating
+particular flavours to insipid wines. Thus a <i>nutty</i> flavour is produced
+by bitter almonds; factitious Port wine is flavoured with a tincture
+drawn from the seeds of raisins; and the ingredients employed to form
+the <i>bouquet</i> of high-flavoured wines, are sweet-brier, oris-root,
+clary, cherry laurel water, and elder-flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers, may all be purchased
+by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the
+trade; and even a manuscript recipe book for preparing them, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>and the
+whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on payment
+of a considerable fee.</p>
+
+<p>The sophistication of wine with substances not absolutely noxious to
+health, is carried to an enormous extent in this metropolis. Many
+thousand pipes of spoiled cyder are annually brought hither from the
+country, for the purpose of being converted into factitious Port wine.
+The art of manufacturing spurious wine is a regular trade of great
+extent in this metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>"There is, in this city, a certain fraternity of chemical operators, who
+work underground in holes, caverns, and dark retirements, to conceal
+their mysteries from the eyes and observation of mankind. These
+subterraneous philosophers are daily employed in the transmutation of
+liquors; and by the power of magical drugs and incantations, raising
+under the streets of London the choicest products of the hills and
+valleys of France. They can squeeze Bourdeaux out of the sloe, and draw
+Champagne from an apple. Virgil, in that remarkable prophecy,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Incultisque ruhens pendebit sentibus uva.</i><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i14">Virg. Ecl. iv. 29.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The ripening grape shall hang on every thorn.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p><p>seems to have hinted at this art, which can turn a plantation of
+northern hedges into a vineyard. These adepts are known among one
+another by the name of <i>Wine-brewers</i>; and, I am afraid, do great
+injury, not only to her Majesty's customs, but to the bodies of many of
+her good subjects."<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following are a few of the recipes employed in the manufacture of
+spurious wine:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To make <i>British Port Wine</i>.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>&mdash;"Take of British grape wine, or
+good cyder, 4 gallons; of the juice of red beet root two quarts;
+brandy, two quarts; logwood 4 ounces; rhatany root, bruised, half a
+pound: first infuse the logwood and rhatany root in brandy, and a
+gallon of grape wine or cyder for one week; then strain off the
+liquor, and mix it with the other ingredients; keep it in a cask
+for a month, when it will be fit to bottle."</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>British Champagne.</i>&mdash;"Take of white sugar, 8 pounds; the whitest
+brown sugar, 7 pounds, crystalline lemon acid, or tartaric acid, 1
+ounce and a quarter, pure water, 8 gallons; white <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>grape wine, two
+quarts, or perry, 4 quarts; of French brandy, 3 pints."</p>
+
+<p>"Put the sugar in the water, skimming it occasionally for two
+hours, then pour it into a tub and dissolve in it the acid; before
+it is cold, add some yeas<ins title="t missing in original.">t</ins> and ferment<ins title="Period missing in original.">.</ins> Put it into a clean cask
+and add the other ingredients. The cask is then to be well bunged,
+and kept in a cool place for two or three months; then bottle it
+and keep it cool for a month longer, when it will be fit for use.
+If it should not be perfectly clear after standing in the cask two
+or three months, it should be rendered so by the use of isinglass.
+By adding 1 lb. of fresh or preserved strawberries, and 2 ounces of
+powdered cochineal, the <span class="smcap lowercase">PINK</span> <i>Champagne may be made</i>."</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>Southampton Port.</i><a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>&mdash;"Take cyder, 36 gallons; elder wine, 11
+gallons; brandy, 5 gallons; damson wine, 11 gallons; mix."</p></div>
+
+<p>The particular and separate department in this factitious wine trade,
+called <i>crusting</i>, consists in lining the interior surface of empty
+wine-bottles, in part, with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash, by
+suffering a saturated hot solution of this salt, coloured <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>red with a
+decoction of Brazil-wood, to crystallize within them; and after this
+simulation of maturity is perfected, they are filled with the compound
+called Port wine.</p>
+
+<p>Other artisans are regularly employed in staining the lower extremities
+of bottle-corks with a fine red colour, to appear, on being drawn, as if
+they had been long in contact with the wine.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of an astringent extract, to produce, from spoiled
+home-made and foreign wines, a "genuine old Port," by mere admixture; or
+to impart to a weak wine a rough austere taste, a fine colour, and a
+peculiar flavour; forms one branch of the business of particular
+wine-coopers: while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white wines,
+is the sole occupation of men who are called <i>refiners of wine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We have stated that a crystalline crust is formed on the interior
+surface of bottles, for the purpose of misleading the unwary into a
+belief that the wine contained in them is of a certain age. A
+correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the whole
+interior of which is stained artificially with a crystalline crust of
+super-tartrate of potash, artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar
+to that before stated. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>Thus the wine-merchant, after bottling off a
+pipe of wine, is enabled to impose on the understanding of his
+customers, by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful
+dark coloured and fine crystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the
+age of the wine; a practice by no means uncommon, to flatter the vanity
+of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines.</p>
+
+<p>These and many other sophistications, which have long been practised
+with impunity, are considered as legitimate by those who pride
+themselves for their skill in the art of <i>managing</i>, or, according to
+the familiar phrase, <i>doctoring</i> wines. The plea alleged in exculpation
+of them, is, that, though deceptive, they are harmless: but even
+admitting this as a palliation, yet they form only one department of an
+art which includes other processes of a tendency absolutely criminal.</p>
+
+<p>Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me that the adulteration
+of wine with substances deleterious to health, is certainly practised
+oftener than is, perhaps, suspected; and it would be easy to give some
+instances of very serious effects having arisen from wines contaminated
+with deleterious substances, were this a subject on which I meant to
+speak. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>following statement is copied from the Monthly Magazine for
+March 1811, p. 188.</p>
+
+<p>"On the 17th of January, the passengers by the Highflyer coach, from the
+north, dined, as usual, at Newark. A bottle of Port wine was ordered; on
+tasting which, one of the passengers observed that it had an unpleasant
+flavour, and begged that it might be changed. The waiter took away the
+bottle, poured into a fresh decanter half the wine which had been
+objected to, and filled it up from another bottle. This he took into the
+room, and the greater part was drank by the passengers, who, after the
+coach had set out towards Grantham, were seized with extreme sickness;
+one gentleman in particular, who had taken more of the wine than the
+others, it was thought would have died, but has since recovered. The
+half of the bottle of wine sent out of the passengers' room, was put
+aside for the purpose of mixing negus. In the evening, Mr. Bland, of
+Newark, went into the hotel, and drank a glass or two of wine and water.
+He returned home at his usual hour, and went to bed; in the middle of
+the night he was taken so ill, as to induce Mrs. Bland to send for his
+brother, an apothecary in the town; but before that gentleman arrived,
+he was dead. An inquest was held, and the jury, after the fullest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>enquiry, and the examination of the surgeons by whom the body was
+opened, returned a verdict of&mdash;<i>Died by Poison.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>The most dangerous adulteration of wine is by some preparations of lead,
+which possess the property of stopping the progress of acescence of
+wine, and also of rendering white wines, when muddy, transparent. I have
+good reason to state that lead is certainly employed for this purpose.
+The effect is very rapid; and there appears to be no other method known,
+of rapidly recovering ropy wines. Wine merchants persuade themselves
+that the minute quantity of lead employed for that purpose is perfectly
+harmless, and that no atom of lead remains in the wine. Chemical
+analysis proves the contrary; and the practice of clarifying spoiled
+white wines by means of lead, must be pronounced as highly deleterious.</p>
+
+<p>Lead, in whatever state it be taken into the stomach, occasions terrible
+diseases; and wine, adulterated with the minutest quantity of it,
+becomes a slow poison. The merchant or dealer who practises this
+dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder to that of fraud, and
+deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among those
+consumers who contribute to his emolument. If to debase the current
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>coin of the realm be denounced as a capital offence, what punishment
+should be awarded against a practice which converts into poison a liquor
+used for sacred purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Watson<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> relates, that the method of adulterating wine with lead,
+was at one time a common practice in Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Warren<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> states an instance of thirty-two persons having become
+severely ill, after drinking white wine that had been adulterated with
+lead. One of them died, and one became paralytic.</p>
+
+<p>In Graham's Treatise on Wine-Making,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> under the article of <i>Secrets</i>,
+belonging to the mysteries of vintners, p. 31, lead is recommended to
+prevent wine from becoming acid. The following lines are copied from Mr.
+Graham's work:</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"<i>To hinder Wine from turning.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into your cask, pretty
+warm, and stop it close."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section">"<i>To soften Grey Wine.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Put in a little vinegar wherein litharge has been well steeped, and
+boil some honey, to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and
+put a quart of it into a tierce of wine, and this will mend it."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="minspaced" />
+
+<p>The ancients knew that lead rendered harsh wines milder, and preserved
+it from acidity, without being aware that it was pernicious: it was
+therefore long used with confidence; and when its effects were
+discovered, they were not ascribed to that metal, but to some other
+cause.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> When the Greek and Roman wine merchants wished to try whether
+their wine was spoiled, they immersed in it a plate of lead;<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> if the
+colour of the lead were corroded, they concluded that their wine was
+spoiled. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>Wine may become accidentally impregnated with lead.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that bottles in which wine has been kept, are usually
+cleaned by means of shot, which by its rolling motion detaches the
+super-tartrate of potash from the sides of the bottles. This practice,
+which is generally pursued by wine-merchants, may give rise to serious
+consequences, as will become evident from the following case:<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>"A gentleman who had never in his life experienced a day's illness, and
+who was constantly in the habit of drinking half a bottle of Madeira
+wine after his dinner, was taken ill, three hours after dinner, with a
+severe pain in the stomach and violent bowel colic, which gradually
+yielded within twelve hours to the remedies prescribed by his medical
+adviser. The day following he drank the remainder of the same bottle of
+wine which was left the preceding day, and within two hours afterwards
+he was again seized with the most violent colliquative pains, headach,
+shiverings, and great pain over the whole body. His apothecary becoming
+suspicious that the wine he had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>drank might be the cause of the
+disease, ordered the bottle from which the wine had been decanted to be
+brought to him, with a view that he might examine the dregs, if any were
+left. The bottle happening to slip out of the hand of the servant,
+disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up
+circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, they crumbled into
+dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black lead with which the
+shot is glazed) being alone left unacted on, whilst the remainder of the
+metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had become contaminated with
+<i>lead and arsenic</i>, the shot being a compound of these metals, which no
+doubt had produced the mischief."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Method_of_Detecting_Adulterations_of_Wine" id="Method_of_Detecting_Adulterations_of_Wine"></a>TEST FOR DETECTING THE DELETERIOUS ADULTERATIONS OF WINE.</p>
+
+<p>A ready re-agent for detecting the presence of lead, or any other
+deleterious metal in wine, is known by the name of the <i>wine test</i>. It
+consists of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, acidulated
+with muriatic acid. By adding one part of it, to two of wine, or any
+other liquid suspected to contain lead, a dark coloured <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>or black
+precipitate will fall down, which does not disappear by an addition of
+muriatic acid; and this precipitate, dried and fused before the blowpipe
+on a piece of charcoal, yields a globule of metallic lead. This test
+does not precipitate iron; the muriatic acid retains iron in solution
+when combined with sulphuretted hydrogen; and any acid in the wine has
+no effect in precipitating any of the sulphur of the test liquor. Or a
+still more efficacious method is, to pass a current of sulphuretted
+hydrogen gas through the wine, in the manner described, p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, having
+previously acidulated the wine with muriatic acid.</p>
+
+<p>The wine test sometimes employed is prepared in the following
+manner:&mdash;Mix equal parts of finely powdered sulphur and of slacked
+quick-lime, and expose it to a red heat for twenty minutes. To
+thirty-six grains of this sulphuret of lime, add twenty-six grains of
+super-tartrate of potassa; put the mixture into an ounce bottle, and
+fill up the bottle with water that has been previously boiled, and
+suffered to cool. The liquor, after having been repeatedly shaken, and
+allowed to become clear, by the subsidence of the undissolved matter,
+may then be poured into another phial, into which about twenty drops of
+muriatic acid have been previously put. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>It is then ready for use. This
+test, when mingled with wine containing lead or copper, turns the wine
+of a dark-brown or black colour. But the mere application of
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas to wine, acidulated by muriatic acid, is a far
+more preferable mode of detecting lead in wine.</p>
+
+<p>M. Vogel<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> has lately recommended acetate of lead as a test for
+detecting extraneous colours in red wine. He remarks, that none of the
+substances that can be employed for colouring wine, such as the berries
+of the Vaccinium Mirtillus (bilberries), elderberries, and Campeach
+wood, produce with genuine red wine, a greenish grey precipitate, which
+is the colour that is procured by this test by means of genuine red
+wines.</p>
+
+<p>Wine coloured with the juice of the bilberries, or elderberries, or
+Campeach wood, produces, with acetate of lead, a deep blue precipitate;
+and Brazil-wood, red saunders, and the red beet, produce a colour which
+is precipitated red by acetate of lead. Wine coloured by beet root is
+also rendered colourless by lime water; but the weakest acid brings back
+the colour. As the colouring <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>matter of red wines resides in the skin of
+the grape, M. Vogel prepared a quantity of skins, and reduced them to
+powder. In this state he found that they communicated to alcohol a deep
+red colour: a paper stained with this colour was rendered red by acids
+and green by alkalies.</p>
+
+<p>M. Vogel made a quantity of red wine from black grapes, for the purpose
+of his experiments; and this produced the genuine greyish green
+precipitate with acetate of lead. He also found the same coloured
+precipitate in two specimens of red wine, the genuineness of which could
+not be suspected; the one from Chateau-Marguaux, and the other from the
+neighbourhood of Coblentz.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Specific_Differences" id="Specific_Differences"></a>SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES, AND COMPONENT PARTS OF WINE.</p>
+
+<p>Every body knows that no product of the arts varies so much as wine;
+that different countries, and sometimes the different provinces of the
+same country, produce different wines. These differences, no doubt, must
+be attributed chiefly to the climate in which the vineyard is
+situated&mdash;to its culture&mdash;the quantity of sugar contained in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>grape
+juice&mdash;the manufacture of the wine; or the mode of suffering its
+fermentation to be accomplished. If the grapes be gathered unripe, the
+wine abounds with acid; but if the fruit be gathered ripe, the wine will
+be rich. When the proportion of sugar in the grape is sufficient, and
+the fermentation complete, the wine is perfect and generous. If the
+quantity of sugar be too large, part of it remains undecomposed, as the
+fermentation is languid, and the wine is sweet and luscious; if, on the
+contrary, it contains, even when full ripe, only a small portion of
+sugar, the wine is thin and weak; and if it be bottled before the
+fermentation be completed, part of the sugar remains undecomposed, the
+fermentation will go on slowly in the bottle, and, on drawing the cork,
+the wine sparkles in the glass; as, for example, Champagne. Such wines
+are not sufficiently mature. When the must is separated from the husk of
+the red grape before it is fermented, the wine has little or no colour:
+these are called <i>white</i> wines. If, on the contrary, the husks are
+allowed to remain in the must while the fermentation is going on, the
+alcohol dissolves the colouring matter of the husks, and the wine is
+coloured: such are called <i>red</i> wines. Hence white wines are often
+prepared from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>red grapes, the liquor being drawn off before it has
+acquired the red colour; for the skin of the grape only gives the
+colour. Besides in these principal circumstances, wines vary much in
+flavour.</p>
+
+<p>All wines contain one common and identical principle, from which their
+similar effects are produced; namely, <i>brandy</i> or <i>alcohol</i>. It is
+especially by the different proportions of brandy contained in wines,
+that they differ most from one another. When wine is distilled, the
+alcohol readily separates. The spirit thus obtained is well known under
+the name of <i>brandy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>All wines contain also a free acid; hence they turn blue tincture of
+cabbage, red. The acid found in the greatest abundance in grape wines,
+is tartaric acid. Every wine contains likewise a portion of
+super-tartrate of potash, and extractive matter, derived from the juice
+of the grape. These substances deposit slowly in the vessel in which
+they are kept. To this is owing the improvement of wine from age. Those
+wines which effervesce or froth, when poured into a glass, contain also
+carbonic acid, to which their briskness is owing. The peculiar flavour
+and odour of different kinds of wines probably depend upon the presence
+of a <i>volatile oil</i>, so small in quantity that it cannot be separated.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Quantity_of_Brandy" id="Quantity_of_Brandy"></a>EASY METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF BRANDY CONTAINED IN VARIOUS
+SORTS OF WINE.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of all wines depends upon the quantity of alcohol or brandy
+which they contain. Mr. Brande, and Gay-Lussac, have proved, by very
+decisive experiments, that all wines contain brandy or alcohol ready
+formed. The following is the process discovered by Mr. Brande, for
+ascertaining the quantity of spirit, or brandy, contained in different
+sorts of wine.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">EXPERIMENT.</p>
+
+<p>Add to eight parts, by measure, of the wine to be examined, one part of
+a concentrated solution of sub-acetate of lead: a dense insoluble
+precipitate will ensue; which is a combination of the test liquor with
+the colouring, extractive, and acid matter of the wine. Shake the
+mixture for a few minutes, pour the whole upon a filtre, and collect the
+filtered fluid. It contains the brandy or spirit, and water of the wine,
+together with a portion of the sub-acetate of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>lead. Add, in small
+quantities at a time, to this fluid, warm, dry, and pure sub-carbonate
+of potash (<i>not salt of tartar, or sub-carbonate of potash of
+commerce</i>), which has previously been freed from water by heat, till the
+last portion added remains undissolved. The brandy or spirit contained
+in the fluid will become separated; for the sub-carbonate of potash
+abstracts from it the whole of the water with which it was combined; the
+brandy or spirit of wine forming a distinct stratum, which floats upon
+the aqueous solution of the alkaline salt. If the experiment be made in
+a glass tube, from one-half inch to two inches in diameter, and
+graduated into 100 equal parts, the <i>per centage</i> of spirit, in a given
+quantity of wine, may be read off by mere inspection. In this manner the
+strength of any wine may be examined.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Tabular_View" id="Tabular_View"></a><i>Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[40]</span></a>
+contained in various kinds of Wines, and other fermented Liquors.</i><a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[41]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<div class='columnleft'>
+<table border="0" summary="Percentage of Alcohol in Wines and Liquors">
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">Proportion of Spirit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">per Cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">by measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Lissa</td>
+  <td class="tdright">26,47</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">24,35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Raisin Wine</td>
+  <td class="tdright">26,40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">23,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Marcella</td>
+  <td class="tdright">26,03</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,05</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,09</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Madeira</td>
+  <td class="tdright">24,42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">23,93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Sercial)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">21,40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">22,27</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Port</td>
+  <td class="tdright">25,83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">24,29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">23,71</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">23,39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">22,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">21,40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">22,96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Sherry</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Teneriffe</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Colares</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Lachryma Christi</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Constantia (White)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Red)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,92</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Lisbon</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Malaga (1666)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Bucellas</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,49<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Red Madeira</td>
+  <td class="tdright">22,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">20,35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Cape Muschat</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Cape Madeira</td>
+  <td class="tdright">22,94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">20,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">20,51</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Grape Wine</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Calcavella</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Vidonia</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Alba Flora</td>
+  <td class="tdright">17,26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Malaga</td>
+  <td class="tdright">17,26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Hermitage (White)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">17,43</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Roussillon</td>
+  <td class="tdright">19,00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">17,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">18,13</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="columnright">
+<table border="0" summary="Percentage of Alcohol in Wines and Liquors">
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">Proportion of Spirit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">per Cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">by measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Claret</td>
+  <td class="tdright">17,11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">16,32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,08</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">15,10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Malmsey Madeira</td>
+  <td class="tdright">16,40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Lunel</td>
+  <td class="tdright">15,52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Sheraaz</td>
+  <td class="tdright">15,52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Syracuse</td>
+  <td class="tdright">15,28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Sauterne</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Burgundy</td>
+  <td class="tdright">16,60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">15,22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">11,95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Hock</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,37</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (old in cask)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">8,68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,08</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Nice</td>
+  <td class="tdright">14,62</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Barsac</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,86</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Tent</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Champagne (Still)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Sparkling)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Red)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (ditto)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">11,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,61</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Red Hermitage</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Vin de Grave</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">13,37</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Frontignac</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Cote Rotie</td>
+  <td class="tdright">12,32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Gooseberry Wine</td>
+  <td class="tdright">11,84</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Currant Wine</td>
+  <td class="tdright">20,55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Orange Wine aver.</td>
+  <td class="tdright">11,26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Tokay</td>
+  <td class="tdright">9,88</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Elder Wine</td>
+  <td class="tdright">9,87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Cyder highest aver.</td>
+  <td class="tdright">9,87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto lowest ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">5,21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Perry average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">7,26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Mead</td>
+  <td class="tdright">7,32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale (Burton)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">8,88</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Edinburgh)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">6,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto (Dorchester)</td>
+  <td class="tdright">5,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Average</td>
+  <td class="tdright">6,87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Brown Stout</td>
+  <td class="tdright">6,80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">London Porter aver.</td>
+  <td class="tdright">4,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Do. Small Beer, do.</td>
+  <td class="tdright">1,28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Brandy</td>
+  <td class="tdright">53,39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Rum</td>
+  <td class="tdright">53,68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Gin</td>
+  <td class="tdright">51,60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Scotch Whiskey</td>
+  <td class="tdright">54,32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Irish ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdright">53,99</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="bottom"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Constitution_of_Home-made_Wine" id="Constitution_of_Home-made_Wine"></a>CONSTITUTION OF HOME-MADE WINES.</p>
+
+<p>Besides grapes, the most valuable of the articles of which wine is made,
+there are a considerable number of fruits from which a vinous liquor is
+obtained. Of such, we have in this country the gooseberry, the currant,
+the elderberry, the cherry, &amp;c. which ferment well, and affords what are
+called <i>home-made wines</i>.</p>
+
+<p>They differ chiefly from foreign wines in containing a much larger
+quantity of acid. Dr. Macculloch<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> has remarked that the acid in
+home-made wines is principally the malic acid; while in grape wines it
+is the tartaric acid.</p>
+
+<p>The great deficiency in these wines, independent of the flavour, which
+chiefly originates, not from the juice, but from the seeds and husks of
+the fruits, is the excess of acid, which is but imperfectly concealed by
+the addition of sugar. This is owing, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>chiefly, as Dr. Macculloch
+remarks, to the tartaric acid existing in the grape juice in the state
+of super-tartrate of potash, which is in part decomposed during the
+fermentation, and the rest becomes gradually precipitated; whilst the
+malic acid exists in the currant and gooseberry juice in the form of
+malate of potash; which salt does not appear to suffer a decomposition
+during the fermentation of the wine; and, by its greater solubility, is
+retained in the wine. Hence Dr. Macculloch recommends the addition of
+super-tartrate of potash, in the manufacture of British wines. They also
+contain a much larger proportion of mucilage than wines made from
+grapes. The juice of the gooseberry contains some portion of tartaric
+acid; hence it is better suited for the production of what is called
+<i>English Champagne</i>, than any other fruit of this country.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Dried bilberries are imported from Germany, under the
+fallacious name of <i>berry-dye</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The gypsum had the property of clarifying wines, was known
+to the ancients. "The Greeks and Romans put gypsum in their new wines,
+stirred it often round, then let it stand for some time; and when it had
+settled, decanted the clear liquor. (<i>Geopon</i>, lib. vii. p. 483, 494.)
+They knew that the wine acquired, by this addition, a certain sharpness,
+which it afterwards lost; but that the good effects of the gypsum were
+lasting."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Sawdust for this purpose is chiefly supplied by the
+ship-builders, and forms a regular article of commerce of the brewers'
+druggists.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Tatler, vol. viii. p. 110, edit. 1797. 8vo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Dr. Reece's Gazette of Health, No. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Supplement to the Pharmacop&oelig;ias, p. 245.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Chemical Essays, vol. viii. p. 369.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Medical Trans. vol. ii. p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This book, which has run through many editions, may be
+supposed to have done some mischief.&mdash;In the Vintner's Guide, 4th edit.
+1770, p. 67, a lump of sugar of lead, of the size of a walnut, and a
+table-spoonful of sal enixum, are directed to be added to a tierce
+(forty-two gallons) of muddy wine, <i>to cure it of its muddiness</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Beckman's History of Inventions, vol. i. p. 398.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Pliny, lib. xiv. cap. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Philosophical Magazine, 1819, No. 257, p. 229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Journ. Pharm. iv. 56 (Feb. 1818.) and Thomson's Annals,
+Sept. 1818, p. 232.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Of a Specific Gravity. 825.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Philosophical Trans. 1811, p. 345; 1813, p. 87; Journal of
+Science and the Arts, No. viii. p. 290.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Macculloch on Wine. This is by far the best treatise
+published in this country on the Manufacture of Home-made Wines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Bread" id="Adulteration_of_Bread"></a><i>Adulteration of Bread.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>This is one of the sophistications of the articles of food most commonly
+practised in this metropolis, where the goodness of bread is estimated
+entirely by its whiteness. It is therefore usual to add a certain
+quantity of alum to the dough; this improves the look of the bread very
+much, and renders it whiter and firmer. Good, white, and porous bread,
+may certainly be manufactured from good wheaten flour alone; but to
+produce the degree of whiteness rendered <ins class="correction" title="Spelled indipensable in original.">indispensable</ins> by the caprice of
+the consumers in London, it is necessary (unless the very best flour is
+employed,) that the dough should be <i>bleached</i>; and no substance has
+hitherto been found to answer this purpose better than alum.</p>
+
+<p>Without this salt it is impossible to make bread, from the kind of flour
+usually employed by the London bakers, so white, as that which is
+commonly sold in the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p><p>If the alum be omitted, the bread has a slight yellowish grey hue&mdash;as
+may be seen in the instance of what is called <i>home-made bread</i>, of
+private families. Such bread remains longer moist than bread made with
+alum; yet it is not so light, and full of eyes, or porous, and it has
+also a different taste.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of alum requisite to produce the required whiteness and
+porosity depends entirely upon the genuineness of the flour, and the
+quality of the grain from which the flour is obtained. The mealman makes
+different sorts of flour from the same kind of grain. The best flour is
+mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry cooks, and the inferior
+sorts in the making of bread. The bakers' flour is very often made of
+the worst kinds of damaged foreign wheat, and other cereal grains mixed
+with them in grinding the wheat into flour. In this capital, no fewer
+than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are brought into market. They
+are called fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse
+middlings, and twenty-penny flour. Common garden beans, and pease, are
+also frequently ground up among the London bread flour.</p>
+
+<p>I have been assured by several bakers, on whose testimony I can rely,
+that the small profit attached to the bakers' trade, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>and the bad
+quality of the flour, induces the generality of the London bakers to use
+alum in the making of their bread.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest quantity of alum that can be employed with effect to
+produce a white, light, and porous bread, from an inferior kind of
+flour, I have my own baker's authority to state, is from three to four
+ounces to a sack of flour, weighing 240 pounds. The alum is either mixed
+well in the form of powder, with a quantity of flour previously made
+into a liquid paste with water, and then incorporated with the dough; or
+the alum is dissolved in the water employed for mixing up the whole
+quantity of the flour for making the dough.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose that the baker intends to convert five bushels, or a sack
+of flour, into loaves with the least adulteration practised. He pours
+the flour into the kneading trough, and sifts it through a fine wire
+sieve, which makes it lie very light, and serves to separate any
+impurities with which the flour may be mixed. Two ounces of alum are
+then dissolved in about a quart of boiling water, and the solution
+poured into <i>the seasoning-tub</i>. Four or five pounds of salt are
+likewise put into the tub, and a pailful of hot-water. When this mixture
+has cooled down to the temperature of about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>84&deg;, three or four pints of
+yeast are added; the whole is mixed, strained through the seasoning
+sieve, emptied into a hole in the flour, and mixed up with the requisite
+portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter. Some dry flour is
+then sprinkled over the top, and it is covered up with cloths.</p>
+
+<p>In this situation it is left about three hours. It gradually swells and
+breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface. An additional
+quantity of warm water, in which one ounce of alum is dissolved, is now
+added, and the dough is made up into a paste as before; the whole is
+then covered up. In this situation it is left for a few hours.</p>
+
+<p>The whole is then intimately kneaded with more water for upwards of an
+hour. The dough is cut into pieces with a knife, and penned to one side
+of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled over it, and it is left in
+this state for about four hours. It is then kneaded again for
+half-an-hour. The dough is now cut into pieces and weighed, in order to
+furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf. The loaves are left in the
+oven about two hours and a half. When taken out, they are carefully
+covered <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>up, to prevent as much as possible the loss of weight.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following account of making a sack, of five bushels of flour into
+bread, is taken <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>from Dr. P. Markham's Considerations on the Ingredients
+used in the Adulteration of Bread Flour, and Bread, p. 21:</p>
+
+
+<table class="left" border="0" width="50%" summary="Making a Sack, of Five Bushels of Flour, into Bread">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">5 bushels of flour,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">8 ounces of alum,<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">4 lbs. of salt,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">1/2 a gallon of yeast, mixed with about</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">3 gallons of water.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><hr class="minor" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdright">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" valign="bottom">The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained from the bushel of wheat, weighs</td>
+  <td class="tdright">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Fine pollard</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">4-1/4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Coarse pollard</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Bran</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">2-3/4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdright">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdright">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">The whole together</td>
+  <td class="tdright">59</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" valign="bottom">To which add the loss of weight in manufacturing a bushel of wheat</td>
+  <td class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdright">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">Produces the original weight</td>
+  <td class="tdright">61</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdright">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><hr class="minor" /></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p><p>The theory of the bleaching property of alum, as manifested in the
+panification of an inferior kind of flour, is by no means well
+understood; and indeed it is really surprising that the effect should be
+produced by so small a quantity of that substance, two or three ounces
+of alum being sufficient for a sack of flour<ins title="Original has comma.">.</ins></p>
+
+<p>From experiments in which I have been employed, with the assistance of
+skilful bakers, I am authorised to state, that without the addition of
+alum, it does not appear possible to make white, light, and porous
+bread, such as is used in this metropolis, unless the flour be of the
+very best quality.</p>
+
+<p>Another substance employed by fraudulent bakers, is subcarbonate of
+ammonia. With this salt, they realise the important consideration of
+producing light and porous bread, from spoiled, or what is technically
+called <i>sour flour</i>. This salt which becomes wholly converted into a
+gaseous state during the operation of baking, causes the dough to swell
+up into air bubbles, which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>carry before them the stiff dough, and thus
+it renders the dough porous; the salt itself is, at the same time,
+totally volatilised during the operation of baking. Thus not a vestige
+of carbonate of ammonia remains in the bread. This salt is also largely
+employed by the biscuit and ginger-bread bakers.</p>
+
+<p>Potatoes are likewise largely, and perhaps constantly, used by
+fraudulent bakers, as a cheap ingredient, to enhance their profit. The
+potatoes being boiled, are triturated, passed through a sieve, and
+incorporated with the dough by kneading. This adulteration does not
+materially injure the bread. The bakers assert, that the bad quality of
+the flour renders the addition of potatoes advantageous as well to the
+baker as to the purchaser, and that without this admixture in the
+manufacture of bread, it would be impossible to carry on the trade of a
+baker. But the grievance is, that the same price is taken for a potatoe
+loaf, as for a loaf of genuine bread, though it must cost the baker
+less.</p>
+
+<p>I have witness, that five bushels of flour, three ounces of alum, six
+pounds of salt, one bushel of potatoes boiled into a stiff paste, and
+three quarts of yeast, with the requisite quantity of water, produce a
+white, light, and highly palatable bread.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p><p>Such are the artifices practised in the preparation of bread,<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and it
+must be allowed, on contrasting them with those sophistications
+practised by manufacturers of other articles of food, that they are
+comparatively unimportant. However, some medical men have no hesitation
+in attributing many diseases incidental to children to the use of eating
+adulterated bread; others again will not admit these allegations: they
+persuade themselves that the small quantity of alum added to the bread
+(perhaps upon an average, from eight to ten grains to a quartern loaf,)
+is absolutely harmless.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Edmund Davy, Professor of Chemistry, at the Cork Institution, has
+communicated the following important facts to the public concerning the
+manufacture of bread.</p>
+
+<p>"The carbonate of magnesia of the shops, when well mixed with flour, in
+the proportion of from twenty to forty grains to a pound of flour,
+materially improves it for the purpose of making bread.</p>
+
+<p>"Loaves made with the addition of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>carbonate of magnesia, rise well in
+the oven; and after being baked, the bread is light and spongy, has a
+good taste, and keeps well. In cases when the new flour is of an
+indifferent quality, from twenty to thirty grains of carbonate of
+magnesia to a pound of the flour will considerably improve the bread.
+When the flour is of the worst quality, forty grains to a pound of flour
+seem necessary to produce the same effect.</p>
+
+<p>"As the improvement in the bread from new flour depends upon the
+carbonate of magnesia, it is necessary that care should be taken to mix
+it intimately with the flour, previous to the making of the dough.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Davy made a great number of comparative experiments with other
+substances, mixed in different proportions with new bread flour. The
+fixed alkalies, both in their pure and carbonated state, when used in
+small quantity, to a certain extent were found to improve the bread made
+from new flour; but no substance was so efficacious in this respect as
+carbonate of magnesia.</p>
+
+<p>"The greater number of his experiments were performed on the worst new
+<i>seconds</i> flour Mr. Davy could procure. He also made some trials on
+<i>seconds</i> and <i>firsts</i> of different quality. In some cases the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>results
+were more striking and satisfactory than in others; but in every
+instance the improvement of the bread, by carbonate of magnesia, was
+obvious.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Davy observes, that a pound of carbonate of magnesia would be
+sufficient to mix with two hundred and fifty-six pounds of new flour, or
+at the rate of thirty grains to the pound. And supposing a pound of
+carbonate of magnesia to cost half-a-crown, the additional expense would
+be only half a farthing in the pound of flour.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Davy conceives that not the slightest danger can be apprehended
+from the use of such an innocent substance, as the carbonate of
+magnesia, in such small proportion as is necessary to improve bread from
+new flour."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Detecting_Alum_in_Bread" id="Detecting_Alum_in_Bread"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF ALUM IN BREAD.</p>
+
+<p>Pour upon two ounces of the suspected bread, half a pint of boiling
+distilled water; boil the mixture for a few minutes, and filter it
+through unsized paper. Evaporate the fluid, to about one fourth of its
+original bulk, and let gradually fall into the clear fluid a solution of
+muriate of barytes. If a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span><i>copious</i> white precipitate ensues, which does
+not disappear by the addition of <i>pure</i> nitric acid, the presence of
+alum may be suspected. Bread, made without alum, produces, when assayed
+in this manner, merely a very slight precipitate, which originates from
+a minute portion of sulphate of magnesia contained in all common salt of
+commerce; and bread made with salt freed from sulphate of magnesia,
+produces an infusion with water, which does not become disturbed by the
+barytic test.</p>
+
+<p>Other means of detecting all the constituent parts of alum, namely, the
+alumine, sulphuric acid, and potash, so as to render the presence of the
+alum unequivocal, will readily suggest itself to those who are familiar
+with analytical chemistry; namely: one of the readiest means is, to
+decompose the vegetable matter of the bread, by the action of chlorate
+of potash, in a platina crucible, at a red heat, and then to assay the
+residuary mass&mdash;by means of muriate of barytes, for sulphuric acid; by
+ammonia, for alumine; and by muriate of platina, for potash<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>. The
+above method of detecting <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>the presence of alum, must therefore be taken
+with some limitation.</p>
+
+<p>There is no unequivocal test for detecting in a <i>ready manner</i> the
+presence of alum in bread, on account of the impurity of the common salt
+used in the making of bread. If we could, in the ordinary way of bread
+making, employ common salt, absolutely free from foreign saline
+substances, the mode of detecting the presence of alum, or at least one
+of its constituent parts, namely, the sulphuric acid, would be very
+easy. Some conjecture may, nevertheless, be formed of the presence, or
+absence, of alum, by assaying the infusion of bread in the manner
+stated, p. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, and comparing the assay with the results afforded by an
+infusion of home-made or household bread, known to be genuine, and
+actually assayed in a similar manner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Goodness_of_Bread-Corn_Bread-Flour" id="Goodness_of_Bread-Corn_Bread-Flour"></a>EASY METHOD OF JUDGING OF THE GOODNESS OF BREAD CORN, AND BREAD-FLOUR.</p>
+
+<p>Millers judge of the goodness of bread corn by the quantity of bran
+which the grain produces.</p>
+
+<p>Such grains as are full and plump, that have a bright and shining
+appearance, without <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>any shrivelling and shrinking in the covering of
+the skin, are the best; for wrinkled grains have a greater quantity of
+skin, or bran, than such as are sound or plump.</p>
+
+<p>Pastry-cooks and bakers judge of the goodness of flour in the manner in
+which it comports itself in kneading. The best kind of wheaten flour
+assumes, at the instant it is formed into paste by the addition of
+water, a very gluey, ductile, and elastic paste, easy to be kneaded, and
+which may be elongated, flattened, and drawn in every direction, without
+breaking.</p>
+
+<p>For the following fact we are indebted to Mr. Hatchet.</p>
+
+<p>"Grain which has been heated or burnt in the stack, may in the following
+manner be rendered fit for being made into bread:</p>
+
+<p>"The wheat must be put into a vessel capable of holding at least three
+times the quantity, and the vessel filled with boiling water; the grain
+should then be occasionally stirred, and the hollow decayed grains,
+which float, may be removed. When the water has become cold, or in about
+half an hour, it is drawn off. Then rince the corn with cold water, and,
+having completely drained it, spread it thinly on the floor of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>kiln,
+and thus thoroughly dry it, stirring and turning it frequently during
+this part of the process."<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The sack of marketable flour is by law obliged to weigh
+240 pounds, which is the produce of five bushels of wheat, and is upon
+an average supposed to make eighty quartern loaves of bread; and
+consequently sixteen of such loaves are made from each bushel of good
+wheat. It is admitted, however, that two or three loaves more than the
+above quantity can be made from the sack of flour, when it is the
+<i>genuine produce</i> of <i>good wheat</i>; that is, in the proportion of about
+sixteen and a half loaves from each bushel of sound grain, and, it may
+be presumed, sixteen from a bushel of medium corn. The expense, in
+London, of making the sack of flour into bread, and disposing of it, is
+about nine shillings.
+</p><p>
+A bushel of wheat, upon an average, weighs sixty-one pounds; when
+ground, the meal weighs 60-3/4 lbs.; which, on being dressed, produces
+46-3/4 lbs. of flour, of the sort called <i>seconds</i>; which alone is used
+for the making of bread in London and throughout the greater part of
+this country; and of pollard and bran 12-3/4 lbs., which quantity, when
+bolted, produces 3 lbs. of fine flour, this, when sifted, produces in
+good second flour 1-1/4 lb.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Whilst correcting this sheet for the press, the printer
+transmits to me the following lines:
+</p><p>
+"On Saturday last, George Wood, a baker, was convicted before T. Evance,
+Esq. Union Hall, of having in his possession a quantity of alum for the
+adulteration of bread, and fined in the penalty of 5<i>l.</i> and costs,
+under 55 Geo. III. c. 99."&mdash;<i>The Times</i>, Oct. 1819.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> There are instances of convictions on record, of bakers
+having used gypsum, chalk, and pipe clay, in the manufacture of bread.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See a Practical Treatise on the Use and Application of
+Chemical Tests, illustrated by experiments, 3d edit. p<ins title="Period missing in original.">.</ins> 270, 231, 177, &amp;
+196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Phil. Trans. for 1817, part i.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Beer" id="Adulteration_of_Beer"></a><i>Adulteration of Beer.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Malt liquors, and particularly porter, the favourite beverage of the
+inhabitants of London, and of other large towns, is amongst those
+articles, in the manufacture of which the greatest frauds are frequently
+committed.</p>
+
+<p>The statute prohibits the brewer from using any ingredients in his
+brewings, except malt and hops; but it too often happens that those who
+suppose they are drinking a nutritious beverage, made of these
+ingredients only, are entirely deceived<ins title="Original has comma.">.</ins> The beverage may, in fact, be
+neither more nor less than a compound of the most deleterious
+substances; and it is also clear that all ranks of society are alike
+exposed to the nefarious fraud. The proofs of this statement will be
+shewn hereafter.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>The author<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> of a Practical Treatise on <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>Brewing, which has run
+through eleven editions, after having stated the various ingredients for
+brewing porter, observes, "that however much they may surprise, however
+pernicious or disagreeable they may appear, he has always found them
+requisite in the brewing of porter, and he thinks they must invariably
+be used by those who wish to continue the taste, flavour, and appearance
+of the beer.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> And though several Acts of Parliament have been passed
+to prevent porter brewers from using many of them, yet the author can
+affirm, from experience, he could never produce the present flavoured
+porter without them.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The intoxicating qualities of porter are to be
+ascribed to the various drugs intermixed with it. It is evident some
+porter is more heady than other, and it arises from the greater or less
+quantity of stupifying ingredients. Malt, to produce intoxication, must
+be used in such large quantities as would very much diminish, if not
+totally exclude, the brewer's profit."</p>
+
+<p>The practice of adulterating beer appears <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>to be of early date. By an
+Act so long ago as Queen Anne, the brewers are prohibited from mixing
+<i>cocculus indicus</i>, or any unwholesome ingredients, in their beer, under
+severe penalties: but few instances of convictions under this act are to
+be met with in the public records for nearly a century. To shew that
+they have augmented in our own days, we shall exhibit an abstract from
+documents laid lately before Parliament.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>These will not only amply prove, that unwholesome ingredients are used
+by fraudulent brewers, and that very deleterious substances are also
+vended both to brewers and publicans for adulterating beer, but that the
+ingredients mixed up in the brewer's enchanting cauldron are placed
+above all competition, even with the potent charms of Macbeth's witches:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span><span class="i0">"Root of hemlock, digg'd i' the dark,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;+<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For a charm of pow'rful trouble,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Like a hell-broth boil and bubble;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Double, double, toil and trouble,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fire burn, and cauldron bubble."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by
+narcotic substances, appears to have flourished during the period of the
+late French war; for, if we examine the importation lists of drugs, it
+will be noticed that the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a
+given time prior to that period, will bear no comparison with the
+quantity imported in the same space of time during the war, although an
+additional duty was laid upon this commodity. Such has been the amount
+brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds the
+quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch. The
+price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings
+to seven shillings the pound.</p>
+
+<p>It was at the period to which we have alluded, that the preparation of
+an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new saleable
+commodity, in the price-currents of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span><i>brewers'-druggists</i>. It was at the
+same time, also, that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, fell upon the
+idea of brewing beer from various drugs, without any malt and hops. This
+chemist did not turn brewer himself; but he struck out the more
+profitable trade of teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome
+fee. From that time forwards, written directions, and recipe-books for
+using the chemical preparations to be substituted for malt and hops,
+were respectively sold; and many adepts soon afterwards appeared every
+where, to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice, first pointed out
+by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity of
+brewers'-chemists took its rise. They made it their chief business to
+send travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting
+the price and quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use
+of brewers only. Their trade spread far and wide, but it was amongst the
+country brewers chiefly that they found the most customers; and it is
+amongst them, up to the present day, as I am assured by some of these
+operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that the greatest quantities of
+unlawful ingredients are sold.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p><p>The Act of Parliament<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> prohibits chemists, grocers, and druggists,
+from supplying illegal ingredients to brewers under a heavy penalty, as
+is obvious from the following abstract of the Act.</p>
+
+<p>"No druggist, vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other
+person, shall sell or deliver to any licensed brewer, dealer in or
+retailer of beer, knowing him to be such, or shall sell or deliver to
+any person on account of or in trust for any such brewer, dealer or
+retailer, any liquor called by the name of or sold as colouring, from
+whatever material the same may be made, or any material or preparation
+other than unground brown malt for darkening the colour of worts or
+beer, or any liquor or preparation made use of for darkening the colour
+of worts or beer, or any molasses, honey, vitriol, quassia, cocculus
+Indian, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper or opium, or any extract or
+preparation of molasses, or any article or preparation to be used in
+worts or beer for or as a substitute for malt or hops; and if any
+druggist shall offend in any of these particulars, such liquor
+preparation, molasses, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>&amp;c. shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any
+officer of excise, and the person so offending shall for each offence
+forfeit 500<i>l.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of druggists and grocers, prosecuted by the
+Court of Excise, and convicted of supplying unlawful ingredients to
+brewers.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><i><a name="List_of_Druggists_and_Grocers" id="List_of_Druggists_and_Grocers"></a>List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted from 1812 to
+1819, for supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for adulterating
+Beer.</i><a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[54]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>John Dunn and another, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>George Rugg and others, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Hodgkinson and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to
+brewers, 100<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>William Hiscocks and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 200<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p><p>G. Hornby; for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>W. Wilson, for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>George Andrews, grocer, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 25<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Guy Knowles, for selling substitute for hops, costs.</p>
+
+<p>Kernot and Alsop, for selling cocculus india, &amp;c. 25<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Joseph Moss, for selling various drugs, 300<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Ph. Whitcombe, John <ins class="correction" title="Original has Dun.">Dunn</ins>, and Arthur Waller, druggists, for having
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid and concealed.</p>
+
+<p>Isaac Hebberd, for having liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid
+and concealed.</p>
+
+<p>Ph. Whitcombe, John Dunn, and <ins class="correction" title="Original has Authur.">Arthur</ins> Waller, druggists, for making
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer.</p>
+
+<p>John Lord, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Smith Carr, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Fox, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Cooper, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Bickering, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p><p>John Howard, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>James Reynolds, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Hammond, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>J. Mackway, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>T. Renton, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.</p>
+
+<p>R. Adamson, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.</p>
+
+<p>W. Weaver, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer, 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>J. Moss, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer.</p>
+
+<p>Alex. Braden, for selling liquorice, 20<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>J. Draper, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20<i>l.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Porter" id="Porter"></a>PORTER.</p>
+
+<p>The method of brewing porter has not been the same at all times as it is
+at present.</p>
+
+<p>At first, the only essential difference in the methods of brewing this
+liquor and that of other kinds of beer, was, that porter was brewed from
+brown malt only; and this gave to it both the colour and flavour
+required. Of late years it has been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>brewed from mixtures of pale and
+brown malt.</p>
+
+<p>These, at some establishments, are mashed separately, and the worts from
+each are afterwards mixed together. The proportion of pale and brown
+malt, used for brewing porter, varies in different breweries; some
+employ nearly two parts of pale malt and one part of brown malt; but
+each brewer appears to have his own proportion; which the intelligent
+manufacturer varies, according to the nature and qualities of the malt.
+Three pounds of hops are, upon an average, allowed to every barrel,
+(thirty-six gallons) of porter.</p>
+
+<p>When the price of malt, on account of the great increase in the price of
+barley during the late war, was very high, the London brewers discovered
+that a larger quantity of wort of a given strength could be obtained
+from pale malt than from brown malt. They therefore increased the
+quantity of the former and diminished that of the latter. This produced
+beer of a paler colour, and of a less bitter flavour. To remedy these
+disadvantages, they invented an artificial colouring substance, prepared
+by boiling brown sugar till it acquired a very dark brown colour; a
+solution of which was employed to darken the colour <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>of the beer. Some
+brewers made use of the infusion of malt instead of sugar colouring. To
+impart to the beer a bitter taste, the fraudulent brewer employed
+quassia wood and wormwood as a substitute for hops.</p>
+
+<p>But as the colouring of beer by means of sugar became in many instances
+a pretext for using illegal ingredients, the Legislature, apprehensive
+from the mischief that might, and actually did, result from it, passed
+an Act prohibiting the use of burnt sugar, in July 1817; and nothing but
+malt and hops is now allowed to enter into the composition of beer: even
+the use of isinglass for clarifying beer, is contrary to law.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had the beer-colouring Act been repealed, than other persons
+obtained a patent for effecting the purpose of imparting an artificial
+colour to porter, by means of brown malt, specifically prepared for that
+purpose only. The beer, coloured by the new method, is more liable to
+become spoiled, than when coloured by the process formerly practised.
+The colouring malt does not contain any considerable portion of
+saccharine matter. The grain is by mere torrefaction converted into a
+gum-like substance, wholly soluble in water, which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>renders the beer
+more liable to pass into the acetous fermentation than the common brown
+malt is capable of doing; because the latter, if prepared from good
+barley, contains a portion of saccharine matter, of which the patent
+malt is destitute.</p>
+
+<p>But as brown malt is generally prepared from the worst kind of barley,
+and as the patent malt can only be made from good grain, it may become,
+on that account, an useful article to the brewer (at least, it gives
+colour and body to the beer;) but it cannot materially economise the
+quantity of malt necessary to produce good porter. Some brewers of
+eminence in this town have assured me, that the use of this mode of
+colouring beer is wholly unnecessary; and that porter of the requisite
+colour may be brewed better without it; hence this kind of malt is not
+used in their establishments. The quantity of gum-like matter which it
+contains, gives too much ferment to the beer, and renders it liable to
+spoil. Repeated experiments, made on a large scale, have settled this
+fact.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Strength_of_Porter" id="Strength_of_Porter"></a>STRENGTH AND SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PORTER.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of all kinds of beer, like that of wine, depends on the
+quantity of spirit contained in a given bulk of the liquor.</p>
+
+<p>The reader need scarcely be told, that of no article there are more
+varieties than of porter. This, no doubt, arises from the different mode
+of manufacturing the beer, although the ingredients are the same. This
+difference is more striking in the porter manufactured among country
+brewers, than it is in the beer brewed by the eminent London porter
+brewers. The totality of the London porter exhibits but very slight
+differences, both with respect to strength or quantity of spirit, and
+solid extractive matter, contained in a given bulk of it. The spirit may
+be stated, upon an average, to be 4,50 per cent. in porter retailed at
+the publicans; the solid matter, is from twenty-one to twenty-three
+pounds per barrel of thirty-six gallons. The country-brewed porter is
+seldom well fermented, and seldom contains so large a quantity of
+spirit; it usually abounds in mucilage; hence it becomes turbid when
+mixed with alcohol. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>Such beer cannot keep, without becoming sour.</p>
+
+<p>It has been matter of frequent complaint, that <span class="smcap lowercase">ALL</span> the porter
+now brewed, is not what porter was formerly. This idea may be true with
+some exceptions. My professional occupations have, during these
+twenty-eight years, repeatedly obliged me to examine the strength of
+London porter, brewed by different brewers; and, from the minutes made
+on that subject, I am authorised to state, that the porter now brewed by
+the eminent London brewers, is unquestionably stronger than that which
+was brewed at different periods during the late French war. Samples of
+brown stout with which I have been obligingly favoured, whilst writing
+this Treatise, by Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co<ins title="Period missing in original.">.</ins>&mdash;Messrs. Truman,
+Hanbury, and Co.&mdash;Messrs. Henry Meux and Co.&mdash;and other eminent brewers
+of this capital&mdash;afforded, upon an average, 7,25 per cent. of alcohol,
+of 0,833 specific gravity; and porter, from the same houses, yielded
+upon an average 5,25 per cent. of alcohol, of the same specific
+gravity;<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>beer received from the brewers was taken from the
+same store from which the publicans are supplied.</p>
+
+<p>It is nevertheless singular to observe, that from fifteen samples of
+beer of the same denominations, procured from different retailers, the
+proportions of spirit fell considerably short of the above quantities.
+Samples of brown stout, procured from the retailers, afforded, upon an
+average, 6,50 per cent. of alcohol; and the average strength of the
+porter was 4,50 per cent. Whence can this difference between the beer
+furnished by the brewer, and that retailed by the publican, arise? We
+shall not be at a loss to answer this question, when we find that so
+many retailers of porter have been prosecuted and convicted for mixing
+table beer with their strong beer; this is prohibited by law, as becomes
+obvious by the following words of the Act.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p><p>"If any common or other brewer, innkeeper, victualler, or retailer of
+beer or ale, shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer, ale, or
+worts, with table beer, worts, or water, in any tub or measure, he shall
+forfeit 50<i>l.</i>" The difference between strong and table beer, is thus
+settled by Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>"All beer or ale<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> above the price of eighteen shillings per barrel,
+exclusive of ale duties now payable (viz. ten shillings per barrel,) or
+that may be hereafter payable in respect thereof, shall be deemed strong
+beer or ale; and all beer of the price of eighteen shillings the barrel
+or under, exclusive of the duty payable (viz. two shillings per barrel)
+in respect thereof, shall be deemed table beer within the meaning of
+this and all other Acts now in force, or that may hereafter be passed in
+relation to beer or ale or any duties thereon."</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="List_of_Publicans_Prosecuted" id="List_of_Publicans_Prosecuted"></a><i>List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted from 1815 to 1818, for
+adulterating Beer with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer
+with their Strong Beer.</i><a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[58]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>William Atterbury, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 40<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Richard Dean, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Jay, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>James Atkinson, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 20<i>l<ins title="Period missing in original.">.</ins></i></p>
+
+<p>Samuel Langworth, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Hannah Spencer, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 150<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p><p>&mdash;&mdash; Hoeg, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 5<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Richard Craddock, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>James Harris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+receiving stale beer, and mixing it with strong beer, 42<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Scoons, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing stale beer with strong beer, verdict 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Diones Geer and another, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c.
+and for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Charles Coleman, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 35<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>William Orr, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Gardiner, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Morris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 20<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Harbur<ins title="Comma missing in original.">,</ins> for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &amp;c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Corrie, for mixing strong beer with table beer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p><p>John Cape, for mixing strong beer with table beer.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Gudge, for mixing strong beer with small beer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Illegal_Beer" id="Illegal_Beer"></a>ILLEGAL SUBSTANCES USED FOR ADULTERATING BEER.</p>
+
+<p>We have stated already (p. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>) that nothing is allowed by law to enter
+into the composition of beer, but malt and hops.</p>
+
+<p>The substances used by fraudulent brewers for adulterating beer, are
+chiefly the following:</p>
+
+<p>Quassia, which gives to beer a bitter taste, is substituted for hops;
+but hops possesses a more agreeable aromatic flavour, and there is also
+reason to believe that they render beer less liable to spoil by keeping;
+a property which does not belong to quassia. It requires but little
+discrimination to distinguish very clearly the peculiar bitterness of
+quassia in adulterated porter. Vast quantities of the shavings of this
+wood are sold in a half-torrefied and ground state to disguise its
+obvious character, and to prevent its being recognised among the waste
+materials of the brewers. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>Wormwood<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> has likewise been used by
+fraudulent brewers.</p>
+
+<p>The adulterating of hops is prohibited by the Legislature.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>"If any person shall put any drug or ingredient whatever into hops to
+alter the colour or scent thereof, every person so offending, convicted
+by the oath of one witness before one justice of peace for the county or
+place where the offence was committed, shall forfeit 5<i>l.</i> for every
+hundred weight."</p>
+
+<p>Beer rendered bitter by quassia never keeps well, unless it be kept in a
+place possessing a temperature considerably lower than the temperature
+of the surrounding atmosphere; and this is not well practicable in large
+establishments.</p>
+
+<p>The use of boiling the wort of beer with hops, is partly to communicate
+a peculiar aromatic flavour which the hop contains, partly to cover the
+sweetness of undecomposed saccharine matter, and also to separate, by
+virtue of the gallic acid and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>tannin it contains, a portion of a
+peculiar vegetable mucilage somewhat resembling gluten, which is still
+diffused through the beer. The compound thus produced, separates in
+small flakes like those of curdled soap; and by these means the beer is
+rendered less liable to spoil. For nothing contributes more to the
+conversion of beer, or any other vinous fluid, into vinegar, than
+mucilage. Hence, also, all full-bodied and clammy ales, abounding in
+mucilage, and which are generally ill fermented, do not keep as perfect
+ale ought to do. Quassia is, therefore, unfit as a substitute for hops;
+and even English hops are preferable to those imported from the
+Continent; for nitrate of silver and acetate of lead produce a more
+abundant precipitate from an infusion of English hops, than can be
+obtained from a like infusion by the same agents from foreign hops.</p>
+
+<p>One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear <i>a fine
+frothy head</i>, as it is technically termed: because professed judges of
+this beverage, would not pronounce the liquor excellent, although it
+possessed all other good qualities of porter, without this requisite.</p>
+
+<p>To impart to porter this property of frothing when poured from one
+vessel into <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>another, or to produce what is also termed a <i>cauliflower
+head</i>, the mixture called <i>beer-heading</i>, composed of common green
+vitriol (sulphate of iron,) alum, and salt, is added. This addition to
+the beer is generally made by the publicans.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> It is unnecessary to
+genuine beer, which of itself possesses the property of bearing a strong
+white froth, without these additions; and it is only in consequence of
+table beer being mixed with strong beer, that the frothing property of
+the porter is lost. From experiments I have tried on this subject, I
+have reason to believe that the sulphate of iron, added for that
+purpose, does not possess the power ascribed to it. But the publicans
+frequently, when they fine a butt of beer, by means of isinglass,
+adulterate the porter at the same time with table beer, together with a
+quantity of molasses and a small portion of extract of gentian root, to
+keep up the peculiar flavour of the porter; and it is to the molasses
+chiefly, which gives a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>spissitude to the beer, that the frothing
+property must be ascribed; for, without it, the sulphate of iron does
+not produce the property of frothing in diluted beer.</p>
+
+<p>Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, are
+employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of late, a
+concentrated tincture of these articles, to be used for a similar
+purpose, and possessing a powerful effect, has appeared in the
+price-currents of brewers' druggists. Ginger root, coriander seed, and
+orange peels, are employed as flavouring substances chiefly by the ale
+brewers.</p>
+
+<p>From these statements, and the seizures that have been made of illegal
+ingredients at various breweries, it is obvious that the adulterations
+of beer are not imaginary. It will be noticed, however, that some of the
+sophistications are comparatively harmless, whilst others are effected
+by substances deleterious to health.</p>
+
+<p>The following list exhibits some of the unlawful substances seized at
+different breweries and at chemical laboratories.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Ingredients_seized" id="Ingredients_seized"></a><i>List of Illegal Ingredients, seized from 1812 to 1818, at various
+Breweries and Brewers' Druggists.</i><a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[62]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<table class="left" width="50%" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Illegal Ingredients Seized 1812-1818">
+<tr>
+  <td>1812, July. Josiah Nibbs, at Tooting, Surrey.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Multum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">84</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Cocculus indicus</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Colouring</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">4</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">galls.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Honey</td>
+  <td class="tdright">about</td>
+  <td class="tdright">180</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Hartshorn Shavings</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Juice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ginger</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdmedindent">Penalty 300<i>l.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3">1813, June 13. Sarah Willis, at West Ham, Essex.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Cocculus indicus</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lb.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Juice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Hartshorn Shavings</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Penalty 200<i>l.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>August 3. Cratcherode Whiffing, Limehouse.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Grains of Paradise</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">44</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Quassia</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Liquorice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ginger</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Caraway Seeds</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Copperas</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Penalty 200<i>l.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3">Nov. 25. Elizabeth Hasler, at Stratford.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Cocculus indicus</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">12</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Multum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Grains of Paradise</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Juice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Penalty 200<i>l.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3">Dec. 14. John Abbott, at Canterbury, Kent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Copperas, &amp;c.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">14</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Penalty 500<i>l.</i>, and Crown's costs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Proof of using drugs at various times.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3">1815, Feb. 15. Mantel and Cook, Castle-street,<br /> Bloomsbury-square.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><p>Proof of mixing strong with table beer, and using colouring and other things.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Compromised for 300<i>l.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span><p>1817. From Peter Stevenson, an old Servant to Dunn<br /> and Waller, St. John-street, brewers' druggists.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Cocculus Indicus Extract</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">6</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Multum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">560</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Capsicum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">88</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Copperas</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">310</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Quassia</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">150</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Colouring and Drugs</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">84</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Mixed Drugs</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">240</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Liquorice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">420</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Hartshorn Shavings</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Liquorice Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">175</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">126</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Caraway Seeds</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ginger</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">110</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ginger Root</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">176</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Condemned, not being claimed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3">July 30. Luke Lyons, Shadwell.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Capsicum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lb</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Liquorice Root Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Coriander Seed</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Copperas</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Orange Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Liquorice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1/2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Beer Colouring</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">24</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">galls</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdmedindent">Not tried. (7th May, 1818.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>Aug. 6. John Gray, at West Ham.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Multum</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">4</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Spanish Liquorice</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Liquorice Root Powder</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">113</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ginger</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">116</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Honey</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><p>Penalty, 300<i>l.</i>, and costs; including mixing strong beer with table, and paying table-beer duty for strong beer, &amp;c.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="minspaced" />
+
+<p>Numerous other seizures of illegal substances, made at breweries, might
+be advanced, were it necessary to enlarge this subject to a greater
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. James West, from the excise office, being asked in the Committee of
+the House of Commons, appointed, 1819, to examine and report on the
+petition of several inhabitants of London, complaining of the high price
+and inferior quality of beer, produced the following seized
+articles:&mdash;"One bladder of honey, one bladder of extract of cocculus
+indicus, ground guinea pepper or capsicum, vitriol or copperas, orange
+powder, quassia, ground beer-heading, hard multum, another kind of
+multum or beer preparation, liquorice powder, and ground grains of
+paradise."</p>
+
+<p>Witness being asked "Where did you seize these things?" Answer, "Some of
+them were seized from brewers, and some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>of them from brewers'
+druggists, within these two years past.<ins class="correction" title="End quote missing in original.">"</ins> (May 8, 1818.)</p>
+
+<p>Another fraud frequently committed, both by brewers and publicans, (as
+is evident from the Excise Report,) is the practice of adulterating
+strong beer with small beer&mdash;This fraud is prohibited by law, since both
+the revenue and the public suffer by it.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> "The duty upon strong beer
+is ten shillings a barrel; and upon table beer it is two shillings. The
+revenue suffers, because a larger quantity of beer is sold as strong
+beer; that is, at a price exceeding the price of table beer, without the
+strong beer duty being paid. In the next place, the brewer suffers,
+because the retailer gets table or mild beer, and retails it as strong
+beer." The following are the words of the Act, prohibiting the brewers
+mixing table beer with strong beer.</p>
+
+<p>"If any common brewer shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer,
+or strong worts with table beer or table worts, or with water in any
+guile or fermenting tun after the declaration of the quantity of such
+guile shall have been made; or if he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>shall at any time mix or suffer to
+be mixed strong beer or strong worts with table beer worts or with
+water, in any vat, cask, tub, measures or utensil, not being an entered
+guile or fermenting tun, he shall forfeit 200 pounds."<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>With respect to the persons who commit this offence, Mr. Carr,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> the
+Solicitor of the Excise, observes, that "they are generally brewers who
+carry on the double trade of brewing both strong and table beer. It is
+almost impossible to prevent them from mixing one with the other; and
+frauds of very great extent have been detected, and the parties punished
+for that offence. One brewer at Plymouth evaded duties to the amount of
+32,000 pounds; and other brewers, who brew party guiles of beer,
+carrying on the two trades of ale and table beer brewers, where the
+trade is a victualling brewer, which is different from the common
+brewer, he being a person who sells only wholesale; the victualling
+brewer being a brewer and also a seller by retail."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><p>"In the neighbourhood of London," Mr. Carr continues, "more
+particularly, I speak from having had great experience, from the
+informations and evidence which I have received, that the retailers
+carry on a most extensive fraud upon the public, in purchasing stale
+table beer, or the bottoms of casks. There are a class of men who go
+about and sell such beer at table-beer price to public victuallers, who
+mix it in their cellars. If they receive beer from their brewers which
+is mild, they purchase stale beer; and if they receive stale beer, they
+purchase common table beer for that purpose; and many of the
+prosecutions are against retailers for that offence." The following may
+serve in proof of this statement.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Strong_Beer_with_Table_Beer" id="Strong_Beer_with_Table_Beer"></a><i>List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+adulterating Strong Beer with Table Beer.</i><a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[66]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Thomas Manton and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 300<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Mark Morrell and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+20<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Jones and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 125<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Robert Stroad, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 200<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>William Cobbett, brewer, mixing strong and table beer, 100<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Richard Withers, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 75<i>l.</i>
+and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Cowel, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, 50<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Mitchell, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, absconded.</p>
+
+<p>George Lloyd and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+25<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>James Edmunds and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+for a long period, verdict 600<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Hoffman, brewer, for mixing strong <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>and table beer, and using
+molasses, 130<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel Langworth, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer,
+10<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Hannah Spencer, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer, verdict
+150<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Joseph Smith and others, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer.</p>
+
+<p>Philip George, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Joshua Row, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Drew, jun. and another, for mixing strong beer with table, 50<i>l.</i>
+and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Cape, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 250<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Williams and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Old_Beer" id="Old_Beer"></a>OLD, OR ENTIRE; AND NEW, OR MILD BEER.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to state, that every publican has two sorts of beer sent
+to him from the brewer; the one is called <i>mild</i>, which is beer sent out
+fresh as it is brewed; the other is called <i>old</i>; that is, such as is
+brewed on purpose for keeping, and which has been kept in store a
+twelve-month or eighteen months. The origin of the beer called
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span><i>entire</i>, is thus related by the editor of the Picture of London:
+"Before the year 1730, the malt liquors in general used in London were
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and it was customary to call for a pint, or
+tankard, of half-and-half, <i>i.e.</i> half of ale and half of beer, half of
+ale and half of two-penny. In course of time it also became the practice
+to call for a pint or tankard of <i>three-threads</i>, meaning a third of
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and thus the publican had the trouble to go to
+three casks, and turn three cocks, for a pint of liquor. To avoid this
+inconvenience and waste, a brewer of the name of Harwood conceived the
+idea of making a liquor, which should partake of the same united
+flavours of ale, beer, and two-penny; he did so, and succeeded, calling
+it <i>entire</i>, or entire butt, meaning that it was drawn entirely from one
+cask or butt; and as it was a very hearty and nourishing liquor, and
+supposed to be very suitable for porters and other working people, it
+obtained the name of <i>porter</i>." The system is now altered, and porter is
+very generally compounded of two kinds, or rather the same liquor in two
+different states, the due admixture of which is palatable, though
+neither is good alone. One is <i>mild</i> porter, and the other <i>stale</i>
+porter; the former is that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>which has a slightly bitter flavour; the
+latter has been kept longer. This mixture the publican adapts to the
+palates of his several customers, and effects the mixture very readily,
+by means of a machine, containing small pumps worked by handles. In
+these are four pumps, but only three spouts, because two of the pumps
+throw out at the same spout: one of these two pumps draws the mild, and
+the other the stale porter, from the casks down in the cellar; and the
+publican, by dexterously changing his hold works either pump, and draws
+both kinds of beer at the same spout. An indifferent observer supposes,
+that since it all comes from one spout, it is entire butt beer, as the
+publican professes over his door, and which has been decided by vulgar
+prejudice to be only good porter, though the difference is not easily
+distinguished. I have been informed by several eminent brewers, that of
+late, a far greater quantity is consumed of mild than of stale beer.</p>
+
+<p>The entire beer of the modern brewer, according to the statement of C.
+Barclay,<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Esq. "consists of some beer brewed expressly for the
+purpose of keeping: it likewise <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>contains a portion of returns from
+publicans; a portion of beer from the bottoms of vats; the beer that is
+drawn off from the pipes, which convey the beer from one vat to another,
+and from one part of the premises to another. This beer is collected and
+put into vats. Mr. Barclay also states that it contains a certain
+portion of brown stout, which is twenty shillings a barrel dearer than
+common beer; and some bottling beer, which is ten shillings a barrel
+dearer;<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and that all these beers, united, are put into vats, and
+that it depends upon various circumstances, how long they may remain in
+those vats before they become perfectly bright. When bright, this beer
+is sent out to the publicans, for their <i>entire</i> beer, and there is
+sometimes a small quantity of mild beer mixed with it."</p>
+
+<p>The present entire beer, therefore, is a very heterogeneous mixture,
+composed of all the waste and spoiled beer of the publicans&mdash;the bottoms
+of butts&mdash;the leavings of the pots&mdash;the drippings of the machines <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>for
+drawing the beer&mdash;the remnants of beer that lay in the leaden pipes of
+the brewery, with a portion of brown stout, bottling beer, and mild
+beer.</p>
+
+<p>The old or <i>entire</i> beer we have examined, as obtained from Messrs.
+Barclay's, and other eminent London brewers, is unquestionably a good
+compound; but it does no longer appear to be necessary, among fraudulent
+brewers, to brew beer on purpose for keeping, or to keep it twelve or
+eighteen months. A more easy, expeditious, and economical method has
+been discovered to convert any sort of beer into entire beer, merely by
+the admixture of a portion of sulphuric acid. An imitation of the age of
+eighteen months is thus produced in an instant. This process is
+technically called to bring beer <i>forward</i>, or to make it <i>hard</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The practice is a bad one. The genuine, old, or entire beer, of the
+honest brewer, is quite a different compound; it has a rich, generous,
+full-bodied taste, without being acid, and a vinous odour: but it may,
+perhaps, not be generally known that this kind of beer always affords a
+less proportion of alcohol than is produced from mild beer. The practice
+of bringing beer <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span><i>forward</i>, it is to be understood, is resorted to only
+by fraudulent brewers<ins title="Original has comma.">.</ins><a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>If, on the contrary, the brewer has too large a stock of old beer on his
+hands, recourse is had to an opposite practice of converting stale,
+half-spoiled, or sour beer, into mild beer, by the simple admixture of
+an alkali, or an alkaline earth. Oyster-shell powder and subcarbonate of
+potash, or soda, are usually employed for that purpose. These substances
+neutralise the excess of acid, and render sour beer somewhat palatable.
+By this process the beer becomes very liable to spoil.</p>
+
+<p>It is the worst expedient that the brewer can practise: the beer thus
+rendered <i>mild</i>, soon loses its vinous taste; it becomes vapid; and
+speedily assumes a muddy grey colour, and an exceedingly disagreeable
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>These sophistications may be considered, at first, as minor crimes
+practised by fraudulent brewers, when compared with the methods employed
+by them for rendering beer noxious to health by substances absolutely
+injurious.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p><p>To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious vegetable
+substance, called <i>cocculus indicus</i>, and the extract of this poisonous
+berry, technically called <i>black extract</i>, or, by some, <i>hard multum</i>,
+are employed. Opium, tobacco, nux vomica, and extract of poppies, have
+also been used.</p>
+
+<p>This fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by
+unprincipled brewers; and it is a lamentable reflection to behold so
+great a number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of this crime; nor is
+it less deplorable to find the names of druggists, eminent in trade,
+implicated in the fraud, by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers
+for fraudulent purposes.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Illegal_Ingredients" id="Illegal_Ingredients"></a><i>List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+receiving and using illegal Ingredients in their Brewings.</i><a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[70]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Richard Gardner, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 100<i>l.</i>,
+judgment by default.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Webb and another, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 500<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Henry Wyatt, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, verdict 400<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Harbart, retailer, for receiving adulterating ingredients, verdict
+150<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Philip Blake and others, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 250<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>James Sneed, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 25<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Rewell and another, brewers, ditto, verdict 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Swain and another, ditto, for using adulterating ingredients,
+verdict 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p><p>John Ing, brewer, ditto, stayed on defendant's death.</p>
+
+<p>John Hall, ditto, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 5<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Webb, retailer, for using adulterating ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>Ralph Fogg and another, brewers, for receiving and using adulterating
+ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>John Gray, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 300<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Bowman, for using liquid in bladder, supposed to be extract of
+cocculus, 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Richard Bowman, brewer, for ditto, 100<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>Septimus Stephens<ins title="Original has semi-colon.">,</ins> brewer, for ditto, verdict 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>James Rogers and another, brewer, for ditto, 220<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>George Moore, brewer, for using colouring, 300<i>l.</i> and costs.</p>
+
+<p>John Morris, for using adulterating ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>Webb and Ball, for using ginger, Guinea pepper, and brown powder, (name
+unknown), 1st 100<i>l.</i> 2nd 500<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Henry Clarke, for using molasses, 150<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Kewell and Burrows, for using cocculus india, multum, &amp;c. 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Allatson and Abraham, for using cocculus india, multum, and porter
+flavour, 630<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Swain and Sewell, for using cocculus india, Guinea-opium, &amp;c. 200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p><p>John Ing, for using cocculus india, hard colouring, and honey, <i>dead</i>.</p>
+
+<p>William Dean, for using molasses, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Cowell, for using Spanish-liquorice, and mixing table beer with
+strong beer, 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Mitchell, for using cocculus india, vitriol, and Guinea pepper,
+<i>left the country</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lloyd and Man, for using extract of cocculus, 25<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>John Gray, for using ginger, hartshorn shavings, and molasses, 300<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Jon Hoffman, for using molasses, Spanish juice, and mixing table with
+strong beer, 130<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>Rogers and Boon, for using extract of cocculus, multum, porter flavour,
+&amp;c. 220<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Betteley, for using wormwood, coriander seed, and Spanish juice,
+200<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>William Lane, brewer, for using wormwood instead of hops, 5<i>l.</i> and
+costs.</p>
+
+<hr class="minspaced" />
+
+<p>That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken in beer,
+cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no doubt; and there
+is reasons to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance (and
+cocculus indicus is a powerful narcotic<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>), <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>daily taken into the
+stomach, together with an intoxicating liquor, is highly more
+efficacious than it would be without the liquor. The effect may be
+gradual; and a strong constitution, especially if it be assisted with
+constant and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences
+perhaps for many years; but it never fails to shew its baneful effects
+at last. Independent of this, it is a well-established fact, that porter
+drinkers are very liable to <ins class="correction" title="Original has apolexy.">apoplexy</ins> and palsy, without taking this
+narcotic poison.</p>
+
+<p>If we judge from the preceding lists of prosecutions and convictions
+furnished by the Solicitor of the Excise<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>, it will be evident that
+many wholesale brewers, as well as retail dealers, stand very
+conspicuous among those offenders. But the reader will likewise notice,
+that there are no convictions, in any instance, against any of the
+eleven <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>great London porter brewers<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> for any illegal practice. The
+great London brewers, it appears, believe that the publicans alone
+adulterate the beer. That many of the latter have been convicted of this
+fraud, the Report of the Board of Excise amply shews.&mdash;See p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement relating to this subject, we transcribe from a
+Parliamentary document:<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Perkins being asked, whether he believed that any of the inferior
+brewers adulterated beer, answered, "I am satisfied there are some
+instances of that."</p>
+
+<p><i>Question.</i>&mdash;"Do you believe publicans do?" <i>Answer.</i>&mdash;"I believe they
+do." <i>Q.</i>&mdash;"To a great extent?" <i>A.</i>&mdash;"Yes." <i>Q.</i>&mdash;"Do you believe they
+adulterate the beer you sell them?" <i>A.</i>&mdash;"I am satisfied <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>there are
+some instances of that."&mdash;Mr. J. Martineau<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> being asked the following</p>
+
+<p><i>Question.</i><a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>&mdash;"In your judgment is any of the beer of the metropolis,
+as retailed to the publican, mixed with any deleterious ingredients?"</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i>&mdash;"In retailing beer, in some instances, it has been."</p>
+
+<p><i>Question.</i>&mdash;"By whom, in your opinion, has that been done?"</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i>&mdash;"In that case by the publicans who vend it."</p>
+
+<p>On this point, it is but fair, to the minor brewers, to record also the
+answers of some officers of the revenue, when they were asked whether
+they considered it more difficult to detect nefarious practices in large
+breweries than in small ones.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. J. Rogers being thus questioned in the Committee of the House of
+Commons,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> "Supposing the large brewers to use deleterious or any
+illegal ingredients to such an amount as could be of any importance to
+their concern, do you think it would, or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>would not, be more easy to
+detect it in those large breweries, than in small ones?" his answer was,
+"more difficult to detect it in the large ones:" and witness being asked
+to state the reason why, answered, "Their premises are so much larger,
+and there is so much more strength, that a cart load or two is got rid
+of in a minute or two." Witness "had known, in five minutes, twenty
+barrels of molasses got rid of as soon as the door was shut."</p>
+
+<p>Another witness, W. Wells, an excise officer,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> in describing the
+contrivances used to prevent detection, stated, that at a brewer's, at
+Westham, the adulterating substances "were not kept on the premises, but
+in the brewer's house; not the principal, but the working brewers; it
+not being considered, when there, as liable to seizure: the brewer had a
+very large jacket made expressly for that purpose, with very large
+pockets; and, on brewing mornings, he would take his pockets full of the
+different ingredients. Witness supposed that such a man's jacket,
+similar to what he had described, would convey quite sufficient for any
+brewery in England, as to <i>cocculus indicus</i>."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p><p>That it may be more difficult for the officers of the excise to detect
+fraudulent practices in large breweries than in small ones, may be true
+to a certain extent: but what eminent London porter brewer would stake
+his reputation on the chance of so paltry a gain, in which he would
+inevitably be at the mercy of his own man? The eleven great porter
+brewers of this metropolis are persons of so high respectability, that
+there is no ground for the slightest suspicion that they would attempt
+any illegal practices, which they were aware could not possibly escape
+detection in their extensive establishments. And let it be remembered,
+that none of them have been detected for any unlawful practices,<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>
+with regard to the processes of their manufacture, or the adulteration
+of their beer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Detecting_Adulteration_of_Beer" id="Detecting_Adulteration_of_Beer"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATION OF BEER.</p>
+
+<p>The detection of the adulteration of beer with deleterious vegetable
+substances is beyond the reach of chemical analysis. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>presence of
+sulphate of iron (p. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>) may be detected by evaporating the beer to
+perfect dryness, and burning away the vegetable matter obtained, by the
+action of chlorate of pot-ash in a red-hot crucible. The sulphate of
+iron will be left behind among the residue in the crucible, which when
+dissolved in water, may be assayed, for the constituent parts of the
+salt, namely, iron and sulphuric acid: for the former, by tincture of
+galls, ammonia, and prussiate of potash; and for the latter, by muriate
+of barytes.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>Beer, which has been rendered fraudulently <i>hard</i> (see p. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>) by the
+admixture of sulphuric acid, affords a white precipitate (sulphate of
+barytes), by dropping into it a solution of acetate or muriate of
+barytes; and this precipitate, when collected by filtering the mass, and
+after having been dried, and heated red-hot for a few minutes in a
+platina crucible, does not disappear by the addition of nitric, or
+muriatic acid. Genuine old beer may produce a precipitate; but the
+precipitate which it affords, after <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>having been made red-hot in a
+platina crucible, instantly becomes re-dissolved with effervescence by
+pouring on it some pure nitric or muriatic acid; in that case the
+precipitate is malate (not sulphate) of barytes, and is owing to a
+portion of malic acid having been formed in the beer.</p>
+
+<p>But with regard to the vegetable materials deleterious to health, it is
+extremely difficult, in any instance, to detect them by chemical
+agencies; and in most cases it is quite impossible, as in that of
+cocculus indicus in beer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Ascertaining_Quantity_of_Spirit" id="Ascertaining_Quantity_of_Spirit"></a>METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF SPIRIT CONTAINED IN PORTER, ALE,
+OR OTHER KINDS OF MALT LIQUORS.</p>
+
+<p>Take any quantity of the beer, put it into a glass retort, furnished
+with a receiver, and distil, with a gentle heat, as long as any spirit
+passes over into the receiver; which may be known by heating from time
+to time a small quantity of the obtained fluid in a tea-spoon over a
+candle, and bringing into contact with the vapour of it the flame of a
+piece of paper. If the vapour of the distilled fluid catches fire, the
+distillation must be continued until the vapour ceases to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>set on
+fire by the contact of a flaming body. To the distilled liquid thus
+obtained, which is the spirit of the beer, combined with water, add, in
+small quantities at a time, pure subcarbonate of potash (previously
+freed from water by having been exposed to a red heat,) till the last
+portion of this salt added, remains undissolved in the fluid. The spirit
+will thus become separated from the water, because the subcarbonate of
+potash abstracts from it the whole of the water which it contained; and
+this combination sinks to the bottom, and the spirit alone floats on the
+top. If this experiment be made in a glass tube, about half or
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and graduated into 50 or 100
+equal parts, the relative per centage of spirit in a given quantity of
+beer may be seen by mere inspection.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Per_Centage_of_Alcohol" id="Per_Centage_of_Alcohol"></a><i>Quantity of Alcohol contained in Porter, Ale, and other kinds of Malt
+Liquors.</i><a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[81]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Quantity of Alcohol contained in Porter, Ale, and other kinds of Malt Liquors">
+<tr>
+  <th>One hundred parts,<br /> by Measure, contained.</th>
+  <th>Parts of Alcohol,<br /> by Measure.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, home-brewed</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">8,30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, Burton, three Samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">6,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, Burton<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">8,88</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, Edinburgh<a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">6,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, Dorchester<a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">5,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, common London-brewed, six samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">5,82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ale, Scotch, three samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">5,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Porter, London, eight samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">4,00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto, Ditto<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">4,20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto, Ditto<a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">4,45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto, Ditto, bottled.</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">4,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Brown Stout, four samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto, Ditto<a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">6,80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Small Beer, six samples</td>
+  <td class="tdindent">0,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Ditto, Ditto<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></td>
+  <td class="tdindent">1,28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> See pages <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Ibid. p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons, to whom
+the petition of several inhabitants of London and its vicinity,
+complaining of the high price and inferior quality of beer, was
+referred, to examine the matter thereof, and to report the same, with
+their observations thereupon, to the House. Printed by order of the
+House of Commons, April, 1819."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> 56 Geo. III. c. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of
+Commons, appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer.&mdash;See
+pages 18, 29, 30, 31, 36, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> The average specific gravity of different samples of brown
+stout, obtained direct from the breweries of Messrs. Barclay, Perkins,
+and Co. Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Co. Messrs. Henry Meux and Co. and
+from several other eminent London brewers, amounted to 1,022; and the
+average specific gravity of porter, from the same breweries, 1,018.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> 2 Geo. III. c. 14, &sect; 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> 59 Geo. III. c. 53, &sect; 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of
+Commons, appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 19,
+29, 36, 37, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons for
+reporting on the Price and Quality of Beer, 1819, p. 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> 7 Geo. II. c. 19, &sect; 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, &amp;c. p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.
+</p><p>
+"Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, and is penetrating to the
+palate."&mdash;<i>S. Child on Brewing.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of
+Commons, appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See Mr. Carr's evidence in the Minutes of the House of
+Commons, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> 42 George III, c. 38, &sect; 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Copied from the minutes of the Committee of the House of
+Commons, appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer, 1819, p.
+29, 36, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See the Parliamentary Minutes, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Mr. Barclay has not specified the relative proportions of
+brown stout and of bottling beer which are introduced at such an
+augmentation of expense.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Mr. Child, in his Treatise on Brewing, p. 23 directs, <i>to
+make new beer older, use oil of vitriol</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of
+Commons appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 29,
+36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> The deleterious effect of Cocculus Indicus (the fruit of
+the memispermum cocculus) is owing to a peculiar bitter principle
+contained in it; which, when swallowed in minute quantities, intoxicates
+and acts as poison. It may be obtained from cocculus indicus berries in
+a detached state:&mdash;chemists call it picrotoxin, from <ins class="greekcorr" title="pikros">&#960;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#8057;&#962;</ins>,
+bitter; and <ins class="greekcorr" title="toxikon">&#964;&#959;&#958;&#953;&#954;&#8057;&#957;</ins> poison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 28, 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.&mdash;Truman, Hanbury and
+Co.&mdash;Reid and Co.&mdash;Whitbread and Co.&mdash;Combe, Delafield, and Co.&mdash;Henry
+Meux, and Co.&mdash;Calvert and Co.&mdash;Goodwin and Co.&mdash;Elliot and Co.&mdash;Taylor
+and Co.&mdash;Cox, and Camble and Co.
+</p><p>
+See the Minutes, before quoted, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> A partner in the brewery of Messrs. Whitbread and Co.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Minutes, before quoted, p. 22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> See a Treatise on the Use and Application of Chemical
+Tests, 3d edition; Tests for Sulphuric Acid, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Repository of Arts, No. 2, p. 74.&mdash;1816.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Copied from Professor Brande's Paper in the Philosophical
+Transactions, 1811, p. 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Result of our own Experiments, see p. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Professor Brande's Experiments.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Counterfeit_Tea-Leaves" id="Counterfeit_Tea-Leaves"></a><i>Counterfeit Tea-Leaves.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The late detections that have been made respecting the illicit
+establishments for the manufacture of imitation tea leaves, arrested,
+not long ago, the attention of the public; and the parties by whom these
+manufactories were conducted, together with the numerous venders of the
+factitious tea, did not escape the hand of justice. In proof of this
+statement, it is only necessary to consult the London newspapers (the
+Times and the Courier) from March to July 1818; which show to what
+extent this nefarious traffic has been carried on; and they report also
+the prosecutions and convictions of numerous individuals who have been
+guilty of the fraud. The following are some of those prosecutions and
+convictions.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Hatton Garden.</span>&mdash;On Saturday an information came to be heard at
+this office, before Thomas Leach, Esq. the sitting magistrate, against a
+man of the name of Edmund Rhodes, charged with having, on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>12th of
+August last, dyed, fabricated, and manufactured, divers large
+quantities, viz. one hundred weight of sloe leaves, one hundred weight
+of ash leaves, one hundred weight of elder leaves, and one hundred
+weight of the leaves of a certain other tree, in imitation of tea,
+contrary to the statute of the 17th of Geo. III.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> whereby the said
+Edmund Rhodes had, for every pound of such leaves so manufactured,
+forfeited the sum of 5<i>l.</i> making the total of the penalties amount to
+2,000<i>l.</i> The second count in the information charged the said Rhodes
+with having in his possession the above quantity of sloe, ash, elder,
+and other leaves, under the like penalty of 2,000<i>l.</i> The third count
+charged him with having, on the said 12th of August last, in his
+possession, divers quantities, exceeding six pounds weight of each
+respective kind of leaves; viz. fifty pounds weight of green sloe
+leaves, fifty pounds weight of green leaves of ash, fifty pounds weight
+of green leaves of elder, and fifty pounds weight of the green leaves of
+a certain other tree; not having proved that such leaves were gathered
+with the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>consent of the owners of the trees and shrubs from which they
+were taken, and that such leaves were gathered for some other use, and
+not for the purpose of manufacturing the same in imitation of tea;
+whereby he had forfeited for each pound weight, the sum of 5<i>l.</i>
+amounting in the whole to 1,000<i>l.</i>; and, in default of payment, in each
+case, subjected himself to be committed to the house of correction for
+not more than twelve months, nor less than six months.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Denton, who appeared for the defendant, who was absent, said that he
+was a very poor man, with a family of five children, and was only the
+servant of the real manufacturer, and an ignorant man from the country,
+put into the premises to carry on the business, without knowing what the
+leaves were intended for. By direction of Mr. Mayo, who conducted the
+prosecution, several barrels and bags, filled with the imitation tea,
+were then brought into the office, and a sample from each handed round.
+To the eye they seemed a good imitation of tea.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 500<i>l.</i> on the second
+count.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against Palmer.</i>&mdash;This was an action by the
+Attorney-General against the defendant, Palmer, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>charging him with
+having in his possession a quantity of sloe-leaves and white-thorn
+leaves, fabricated into an imitation of tea.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dauncey stated the case to the jury, and observed that the
+defendant, Mr. Palmer, was a grocer. It would appear that a regular
+manufactory was established in Goldstone-street. The parties by whom the
+manufactory was conducted, was a person of the name of Proctor, and
+another person named J. Malins. They engaged others to furnish them with
+leaves, which, after undergoing a certain process, were sold to and
+drank by the public as tea. The leaves, in order to be converted into an
+article resembling black tea, were first boiled, then baked upon an iron
+plate; and, when dry, rubbed with the hand, in order to produce that
+curl which the genuine tea had. This was the most wholesome part of the
+operation; for the colour which was yet to be given to it, was produced
+by logwood. The green tea was manufactured in a manner more destructive
+to the constitution of those by whom it was drank. The leaves, being
+pressed and dried, were laid upon sheets of copper, where they received
+their colour from an article known by the name of Dutch pink. The
+article used in producing the appearance of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>fine green bloom,
+observable on the China tea, was, however, decidedly a dead poison! He
+alluded to verdigris, which was added to the Dutch pink in order to
+complete the operation. This was the case which he had to bring before
+the jury; and hence it would appear, that, at the moment they were
+supposing they were drinking a pleasant and nutritious beverage, they
+were, in fact, in all probability, drinking the produce of the hedges
+round the metropolis, prepared for the purposes of deception in the most
+noxious manner. He trusted he should be enabled to trace to the
+possession of the defendant eighty pounds weight of the commodity he had
+been describing.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Jones deposed, that he knew Proctor, and was employed by him at
+the latter end of April, 1817, to gather black and white thorn leaves.
+Sloe leaves were the black thorn. Witness also knew John Malins, the son
+of William Malins, a coffee-roaster; he did not at first know the
+purpose for which the leaves were gathered, but afterwards learnt they
+were to make imitation tea. Witness did not gather more than one hundred
+and a half weight of these leaves; but he employed another person, of
+the name of John Bagster, to gather them. He had two-pence per pound for
+them. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>They were first boiled, and the water squeezed from them in a
+press. They were afterwards placed over a slow-fire upon sheets of
+copper to dry; while on the copper they were rubbed with the hand to
+curl them. At the time of boiling there was a little <i>verdigris</i> put
+into the water (this applied to green tea only.) After the leaves were
+dried, they were sifted, to separate the thorns and stalks. After they
+were sifted, more verdigris and some Dutch pink were added. The
+verdigris gave the leaves that green bloom observable on genuine tea.</p>
+
+<p>The black tea went through a similar course as the green, except the
+application of Dutch pink: a little verdigris was put in the boiling,
+and to this was added a small quantity of logwood to dye it, and thus
+the manufacture was complete. The drying operation took place on sheets
+of iron. Witness knew the defendant, Edward Palmer; he took some of the
+mixture he had been describing, to his shop. The first time he took some
+was in May, 1817. In the course of that month, or the beginning of June,
+he took four or five seven-pound parcels; when he took it there, it was
+taken up to the top of the house. Witness afterwards carried some to
+Russell-street, which was taken <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>to the top of the house, about one
+hundred weight and three quarters; from this quantity he carried
+fifty-three pounds weight to the house of the defendant's porter, by the
+desire of Mr. Malins; it was in paper parcels of seven pounds each.</p>
+
+<p>John Bagster proved that he had been employed by Malins and Proctor, to
+gather sloe and white-thorn leaves: they were taken to Jones's house,
+and from thence to <ins class="correction" title="Original has Malin's.">Malins'</ins> coffee-roasting premises; witness received
+two-pence per pound for them; he saw the manufacturing going on, but did
+not know much about it: witness saw the leaves on sheets of copper, in
+Goldstone-street.</p>
+
+<p>This was the case for the Crown.&mdash;Verdict for the Crown, 840<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against John Prentice.</i>&mdash;This was an information
+similar to the last, in which the defendant submitted to a verdict for
+the Crown.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against Lawson Holmes.</i>&mdash;In this case the
+defendant submitted to a verdict for the Crown.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against John Orkney.</i>&mdash;Thomas Jones proved that
+the defendant was a grocer, and in the month of May last he carried to
+his shop seven pounds of imitation tea, by the order of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>John Malins,
+for which he received the money, viz. 15<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> or 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per
+pound.</p>
+
+<p>The jury found a verdict for the Crown.&mdash;Penalties 70<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against James Gray.</i>&mdash;The defendant submitted to a
+verdict for the Crown.&mdash;Penalties 120<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against H. Gilbert, and Powel.</i>&mdash;These defendants
+submitted to a verdict.&mdash;Penalties 140<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against William Clarke.</i>&mdash;This defendant also
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against George David Bellis.</i>&mdash;This defendant
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against John Horner.</i>&mdash;The defendant in this case
+was a grocer; it was proved by Jones that he received twenty pounds of
+imitation tea.&mdash;Verdict for the Crown.&mdash;Penalties 210<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against William Dowling.</i>&mdash;This was a grocer.
+Jones proved that he delivered seven pounds of imitation tea at Mr.
+Dowling's house, and received the money for it, namely 15<i>s.</i>
+9<i>d.</i>&mdash;Penalties 70<i>l.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Detecting_Adulterations_of_Tea-Leaves" id="Detecting_Adulterations_of_Tea-Leaves"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF TEA.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of tea may be evinced by comparing the botanical
+characters of the leaves of the two respective trees, and by submitting
+them to the action of a few chemical tests.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the tea-leaf is slender and narrow, as shewn in this
+sketch, the edges are deeply serrated, and the end or extremity is
+acutely pointed. The texture of the leaf is very delicate, its surface
+smooth and glossy, and its colour is a lively pale green.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<img src="images/image2.png" alt="Tea leaves" width="50%" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The sloe-leaf (and also the white-thorn leaf,) as shewn in this sketch,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>is more rounded, and the leaf is obtusely pointed. The serratures or
+jags on the edges are not so deep, the surface of the leaf is more
+uneven, the texture not so delicate, and the colour is a dark olive
+green.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<img src="images/image3.png" alt="Sloe leaves" width="50%" />
+</div>
+
+<p>These characters of course can be observed only after the dried leaves
+have been suffered to macerate in water for about twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves of some sorts of tea may differ in size, but the shape is the
+same in all of them; because all the different kinds of tea imported
+from China, are the produce of one species of plant, and the difference
+between the green and souchong, or black tea, depends chiefly upon the
+climate, soil, culture, age, and mode of drying the leaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p><p>Spurious black tea,<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> slightly moistened, when rubbed on a sheet of
+white paper, immediately produces a blueish-black stain; and speedily
+affords, when thrown into cold water, a blueish-black tincture, which
+instantly becomes reddened by letting fall into it, a drop or two of
+sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Two ounces of the suspected leaves, should be infused in half-a-pint of
+cold, soft water, and suffered to stand for about an hour. Genuine tea
+produces an amber-coloured infusion, which does not become reddened by
+sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) which I have
+examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper (a poisonous
+substance,) and not by means of verdigris, or copperas.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>latter
+substances would instantly turn the tea black; because both these
+metallic salts being soluble in water, are acted on by the astringent
+matter of the leaves, whether genuine or spurious, and convert the
+infusion into ink.</p>
+
+<p>Tea, rendered poisonous by carbonate of copper, speedily imparts to
+liquid ammonia a fine sapphire blue tinge. It is only necessary to shake
+up in a stopped vial, for a few minutes, a tea-spoonful of the suspected
+leaves, with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, diluted with
+half its bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue
+colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present.</p>
+
+<p>Green tea, coloured with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water
+impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, immediately acquires a black
+colour. Genuine green tea suffers no change from the action of these
+tests.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of copper may be further rendered obvious, by mixing one
+part of the suspected tea-leaves, reduced to powder, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>with two or three
+parts of nitrate of potash, (or with two parts of chlorate of potash,)
+and projecting this mixture by small portions at a time, into a platina,
+or porcelain-ware crucible, kept red-hot in a coal fire; the whole
+vegetable matter of the tea leaves will thus become destroyed, and the
+oxide of copper left behind, in combination with the potash, of the
+nitrate of potash (or salt-petre,) or with the muriate of potash, if
+chlorate of potash has been employed.</p>
+
+<p>If water, acidulated with nitric acid, be then poured into the crucible
+to dissolve the mass, the presence of the copper may be rendered
+manifest by adding to the solution, liquid ammonia, in such quantity
+that the pungent odour of it predominates.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Also, 2 Geo. I, c. 30, &sect; 5; and 4 Geo. II, c. 14, &sect; 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> The examination of twenty-seven samples of imitation tea
+of different qualities, from the most costly, to the most common, which
+it fell to my lot to undertake, induces me to point out the marks of
+sophistications here detailed, as the most simple and expeditious.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Mr. Twining, an eminent tea-merchant, asserts, that "the
+leaves of spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas and sheep's
+dung.<ins class="correction" title="End quote missing in original.">"</ins>&mdash;See Encyclop. Britan. vol. xviii. p. 331. 1797. See also the
+History of the Tea Plant, p<ins title="Original has two periods.">.</ins> 48; and p. <a href="#Page_167">167</a> of this Treatise.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Counterfeit_Coffee" id="Counterfeit_Coffee"></a><i>Counterfeit Coffee.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The fraud of counterfeiting ground coffee by means of pigeon's beans and
+pease, is another subject which, not long ago, arrested the attention of
+the public: and from the numerous convictions of grocers prosecuted for
+the offence, it is evident that this practice has been carried on for a
+long time, and to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement exhibits some of the prosecutions, instituted by
+the Solicitor of the Excise, against persons convicted of the fraud of
+manufacturing spurious, and adulterating genuine coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Brady, a grocer, (<i>See p. <a href="#Page_182">182</a></i>) prosecuted and convicted of
+selling <i>sham-coffee</i>, said, "I have sold it for twenty years." Some of
+the persons prosecuted by the Solicitor of the Excise for this fraud, we
+might, at first sight, be inclined to believe, were inconscious that the
+adulterating of genuine coffee with spurious substances was illegal; but
+this ignorance affords no excuse, as the Act of the 43 Geo. III. cap.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>129, explicitly states: "If after the first day of September, 1803, any
+burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans, or other grain, or vegetable
+substance or substances prepared or manufactured for the purpose of
+being in imitation of or in any respect to resemble coffee or cocoa, or
+to serve as a substitute for coffee or cocoa, or alleged or pretended by
+the possessor or vender thereof so to be, <i>shall be made</i>, or kept for
+sale, or shall be <i>offered</i> or <i>exposed to sale</i>, or shall be <i>found</i> in
+the custody or possession of any <i>dealer</i> or dealers in or <i>seller</i> or
+sellers of <i>coffee</i>, or if any burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans,
+or other grain, or vegetable substance or substances not being coffee,
+shall be called by the preparer, manufacturer, possessor, or vender
+thereof, by the name of <i>English</i> or <i>British</i> coffee, or <i>any other
+name</i> of coffee, or by the name of <i>American</i> cocoa, or <i>English</i> or
+<i>British</i> cocoa, or any other name of cocoa, the same respectively shall
+be forfeited, together with the packages containing the same, and shall
+and may be seized by any officer or officers of Excise; and the person
+or persons preparing, manufacturing, or selling the same, or having the
+same in his, her, or their custody or possession, or the dealer or
+dealers in or seller or sellers of coffee or cocoa, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>whose custody
+the same shall be found, shall forfeit and lose the sum of one hundred
+pounds."</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The Attorney-General against William Malins.</i>&mdash;This was an information
+filed by the Attorney-General against the defendant, charging him, he
+being a dealer in coffee, with having in his possession a large quantity
+of imitation coffee, made from scorched pease and beans, resembling
+coffee, and intended to be sold as such, contrary to the statute of the
+43d of the King, whereby he became liable to pay a fine of 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>J. Lawes deposed that he had lived servant with the defendant; he
+constantly roasted pease and beans, and ground them into powder. When so
+ground, the powder very much resembled coffee. Sometimes the sweepings
+of the coffee were thrown in among the pease and beans. Witness carried
+out this powder to several grocers in different parts of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Jones lived with the defendant. His occupation was roasting and
+grinding pease and beans. They looked, when ground, the same as coffee.
+Witness had seen Mr. John Malins sweep up the refuse coffee, and mix it
+with the pease and beans. He had taken out this mixture to grocers.</p>
+
+<p>J. Richardson, an excise-officer, deposed, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>that, in December 1817, he
+went to the premises of the defendant, and there seized four sacks, five
+tubs, and nine pounds in paper, of a powder made to resemble coffee. The
+quantity ground was 1,567 pounds; it had all the appearance of coffee;
+and a little coffee being mixed with it, any common person might be
+deceived. He also seized two sacks, containing 279 pounds of whole pease
+and beans roasted. Among the latter were some grains of coffee. The
+witness here produced samples of the articles seized.</p>
+
+<p>John Lawes deposed, that the articles exhibited were such as he was in
+the habit of manufacturing while in Mr. Malins' employment.</p>
+
+<p>The jury found a verdict for the Crown.&mdash;Penalty 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Chaloner.</i>&mdash;Mr. Chaloner, a dealer in tea and coffee,
+was charged on the oaths of Charles Henry Lord and John Pearson, both
+Excise officers, with having in his possession, on the 17th of March,
+nine pounds of spurious coffee, consisting of burnt pease, beans, and
+gravel or sand, and a portion of coffee, and with selling some of the
+same; also with having in his possession seventeen pounds of vegetable
+powder, and an article imitating <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>coffee, which contained not a particle
+of genuine coffee.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 90<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Peether.</i>&mdash;This was an information against Mr. Thomas
+Peether, tea and coffee dealer, charging him with having in his
+possession a quantity of imitation coffee (or vegetable powder) on the
+25th of April last.</p>
+
+<p>The case being proved by the evidence of several witnesses, the
+defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Topping.</i>&mdash;This was an information against Mr. John
+Lewis Topping, a dealer in tea and coffee, charging him with having
+thirty-seven pounds of vegetable powder in his possession. The article
+seized was produced to the commissioners of the Excise.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Samuel Hallett.</i>&mdash;The defendant, Hallett, a grocer and
+dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having seven pounds of
+imitation coffee in his possession.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Henry Lord, an officer of the Excise, being sworn, stated, that
+he and Spencer, an officer, went, on the 28th of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>February last, to the
+shop of the defendant, and asked for an ounce of coffee, at three
+halfpence per ounce. He received the same, and having paid for it, left
+the shop. He examined the article, and found it was part coffee, and
+part imitation coffee, or what the defendant called vegetable powder,
+which is nothing more nor less than burnt pease and beans ground in a
+mill.</p>
+
+<p>Spencer, the officer of the Excise, corroborated the above evidence, and
+stated, that the sham-coffee seized at the defendant's house was shown
+to Mr. Joseph Hubbard, grocer, and tea and coffee dealer, in
+High-street, in the Borough of Southwark.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hubbard being sworn, stated, that he had examined the sham-coffee
+seized by the officers in the defendant's shop. The one ounce purchased
+by Lord, he knew to be nothing else than black pigeon's beans; there was
+no coffee amongst it.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Fox.</i>&mdash;Mr. Edward Fox, grocer, and dealer in tea and
+coffee, was charged with having a large quantity of sham-coffee in his
+possession, and with selling the same for genuine coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Spencer, an officer of the Excise, stated, that on the 21st of
+February he and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>Lord, another officer, went to the defendant's shop and
+purchased an ounce of coffee, for which he paid three halfpence. They
+examined it, and he was satisfied it was not genuine coffee; they
+purchased another ounce (which he produced to the commissioners of the
+Excise, who examined it); they were convinced it consisted partly of
+coffee and beans and pease.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant, in his defence said, that the poor people wanted a
+low-price article; and by mixing the vegetable powder and coffee
+together, he was able to sell it at three halfpence an ounce; he had
+sold it for years; he did it as a matter of accommodation to the poor,
+who could not give a higher price; he did not sell it for genuine
+coffee.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commissioner.</i>&mdash;"Then you have been defrauding the public for many
+years, and injuring the revenue by your illicit practices: the poor have
+an equal right to be supplied with as genuine an article as the rich."</p>
+
+<p>He was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Brady.</i>&mdash;The defendant, Mr. Alexander Brady, grocer,
+and dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having, on the 28th of
+February last, in his possession eighteen pounds of sham-coffee, and
+selling the same for genuine coffee.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p><p>Lord and Pearson, Excise officers, stated, that they purchased an ounce
+of coffee of the defendant, on the 28th of February, and upon examining
+it they discovered that it was made up of pease and beans, ground with a
+small quantity of coffee. They also found eighteen pounds of vegetable
+powder mixed with coffee, in a state prepared for sale, wrapped in
+papers.</p>
+
+<p>One of the commissioners tasted some of the eighteen pounds of
+sham-coffee produced by the officers, and declared that it was a most
+infamous stuff, and unfit for human food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defendant.</i>&mdash;"Why, I have sold it for twenty years."</p>
+
+<p><i>Commissioner.</i>&mdash;"Then you have been for twenty years acting most
+dishonestly, defrauding the revenue; and the health of the poor must
+have suffered very much by taking such an unwholesome article. Your
+having dealt in this article so long aggravates your case; you have for
+twenty years been selling burnt beans and pease for genuine coffee.&mdash;You
+are convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i>"</p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Bowser.</i>&mdash;The excise officers stated, that on the 28th
+of February they went to his shop: he was a grocer, dealer in tea and
+coffee; they seized seven pounds and a half of vegetable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>powder, which
+contained very little coffee, if any; and also a quarter of a pound of
+coffee mixed with vegetable powder.</p>
+
+<p>The defendant pleaded guilty to the charge, and prayed the court to
+mitigate the penalty. He was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p class="section"><i>The King against Thomas Owen.</i>&mdash;The defendant, an extensive dealer in
+tea and coffee, appeared to an information charging him with having in
+his possession, and selling, a quantity of deleterious ingredients, and
+mixing them with coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Henry Lord deposed, that on the 26th of February, he found, at
+the shop of the defendant, nineteen pounds of a composition consisting
+of beans and pease ground, and prepared so as to imitate coffee. He also
+discovered two pounds and a half of a mixture of coffee and vegetable
+powder. On the same day he proceeded to another shop of the defendant,
+and he there found five pounds more of the same stuff.</p>
+
+<p>Samples of the composition, in its mixed and unmixed state, were
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lawes addressed the commissioners on behalf of the defendant, in
+mitigation of punishment; for he did not mean to deny the offence. His
+client was a very young <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>man, and had been most unfortunate in business.
+He was not aware until lately of the existence of any law by which it
+could be punished.</p>
+
+<p>The Commissioners observed, that they had a double duty to perform,
+namely, to protect the revenue from fraud, and to prevent the public
+from being imposed upon and injured by ingredients served to them
+instead of the food they intended to purchase. The fraud upon the
+revenue was, in the estimation of the court, the least part of the
+offence. Under all the circumstances, however, the court was inclined to
+be lenient to the defendant.</p>
+
+<p>He was convicted in the penalty of 50<i>l.</i> for each quantity of
+sham-coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Greely and Mr. William Dando were fined 20<i>l.</i> each; and Mr. Hirling
+and Mr. Terry were <ins class="correction" title="Original has find.">fined</ins> 90<i>l.</i> each for selling spurious coffee.</p>
+
+<p class="section">The adulteration of ground coffee, with pease and beans, is beyond the
+reach of chemical analysis; but it may, perhaps, not be amiss on this
+occasion to give to our readers a piece of advice given by a retired
+grocer to a friend, at no distant period:&mdash;"Never, my good fellow," he
+said, "purchase from a grocer any thing which passes through his mill.
+You know not what <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>you get instead of the article you expect to
+receive&mdash;coffee, pepper, and all-spice, are all mixed with substances
+which detract from their own natural qualities."&mdash;Persons keeping mills
+of their own can at all times prevent these impositions.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Brandy_Rum_and_Gin" id="Adulteration_of_Brandy_Rum_and_Gin"></a><i>Adulteration of Brandy, Rum, and Gin.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>By the Excise laws at present existing in this country, the various
+degrees of strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, whiskey, and other
+spiritous liquors, chiefly composed of little else than spirit of wine,
+are determined by the quantity of alcohol of a given specific gravity
+contained in the spiritous liquors of a supposed unknown strength. The
+great public importance of this subject in this country, where the
+consumption of spiritous liquors adds a vast sum to the public revenue,
+has been the means of instituting many very interesting series of
+experiments on this subject. The instrument used for that purpose by the
+Customs and officers of Excise, is called <i>Sikes</i>'s hydrometer,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>
+which has now <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>superseded the instrument called <i>Clark</i>'s hydrometer,
+heretofore in use.</p>
+
+<p>The specific gravity or strength of the legal standard spirit of the
+Excise, is technically called <i>proof</i> or <i>proof spirit</i>. "This liquor
+(not being spirit sweetened, or having any ingredient dissolved in it,
+to defeat the strength thereof,) at the temperature of 57&deg; Faht. weighs
+exactly 12/13th parts of an equal measure of distilled water;" and with
+this spirit the strength of all other spiritous liquors are compared
+according to law.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of spirit stronger than <i>proof</i> or <i>over proof</i>, as it is
+termed by the revenue officers, is indicated by the bulk of water
+necessary to reduce a given volume of it, to the legal standard spirit,
+denominated <i>proof</i>&mdash;namely; if one gallon of water be required to bring
+twenty gallons of brandy, rum, or any other spirit, to proof, that
+spirit is said to be <i>1 to 20 over proof</i>. If one gallon of water be
+required to bring 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor to <i>proof</i>, it
+is said to be 1 to 15, 1 to 10, 1 to 5, and 1 to 2, <i>over proof</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, or other spiritous liquors,
+weaker than <i>proof</i>, or under <i>proof</i>, is estimated by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>quantity of
+water which would be necessary to abstract or bring the spirit up to
+proof.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if from twenty gallons of brandy one gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 20 under proof.
+If from 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor, 1 gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 15, 1 in 10, 1 in
+5, and 1 in 2 under proof.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to understand this absurd language, which is in use
+amongst the officers of Excise and dealers in spirit, in order to know
+what is meant in commerce by the strength of spiritous liquors of
+different denominations. And hence, for the business of the exciseman, a
+table has been constructed, expressing the strength or specific gravity
+of mixtures of different proportions of spirit and water, at different
+degrees of temperature; and according to this table the duty on spirit
+is now levied.</p>
+
+<p>Brandy and rum is seizable, if sold by, or found in the possession of,
+the dealer, unless it possesses a certain strength.<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The following
+are the words of the Act:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p><p>"No distiller, rectifier,<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> compounder or dealer, shall serve or send
+out any foreign spirits, of a lower strength than that of 1 in 6 under
+hydrometer proof,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> nor have in his possession any foreign spirits
+mixed together, except shrub, cherry or raspberry brandy, of lower
+strength than as aforesaid, upon pain of such spirits being forfeited;
+and such spirits, with the casks and vessels containing the same, may be
+seized by any officer of Excise."</p>
+
+<p>We have, therefore, a ready check against the frauds of the dishonest
+dealers, in spiritous liquors. If the spirit merchant engages to deliver
+a liquor of a certain strength, the hydrometer is by far the most easy
+and expeditious check that can be adopted to guard against frauds of
+receiving a weaker liquor for a stronger one; and to those individuals
+who are in the habit of purchasing large quantities of brandy, rum, or
+other spiritous liquors, the hydrometer renders the greatest service.
+For it is by no means an uncommon occurrence to meet with brandy, rum,
+and other spiritous liquors, of a specific gravity very much below the
+pretended strength which the liquor ought to possess.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p><p>The following advice, given to his readers,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> by the author of a
+Treatise on Brewing and Distilling, may serve to put the unwary on their
+guard against some of the frauds practised by mercenary dealers.</p>
+
+<p>"It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not taken
+notice of in this directory, to put one-third or one-fourth part of
+proof molasses brandy, proportionably, to what rum they dispose of;
+which cannot be distinguished, but by an extraordinary palate, and does
+not at all lessen the body or proof of the goods; but makes them about
+two shillings a gallon cheaper; and must be well mixed and incorporated
+together in your retailing cask; but you should keep some of the best
+rum, not adulterated, to please some customers, whose judgment and
+palate must be humoured."</p>
+
+<p>"When you are to draw a sample of goods to shew a person that has
+judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods into a phial to be tasted,
+or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, because the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>proof
+will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong; but draw the
+pattern of goods rather into a glass from the cock, to run very small,
+or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot and pour it
+into your glass, extending your pot as high above the glasses as you can
+without wasting it, which makes the goods carry a better head
+abundantly, than if the same goods were to be put and tried in a phial."</p>
+
+<p>"You must be so prudent as to make a distinction of the persons you have
+to deal with; what goods you sell to gentlemen for their own use, who
+require a great deal of attendance, and as much for time of payment, you
+must take a considerably greater price than of others; what goods you
+sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest, or at least some
+hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than common profit;
+what goods you sell to the poor, especially medicinally, (as many of
+your goods are sanative,) be as compassionate as the cases require."</p>
+
+<p>"All brandies, whether French, Spanish, or English; being proof goods,
+will admit of one point of <i>liquor</i><a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> to each gallon, to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>be made up
+and incorporated therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling smaller
+quantities; and all persons that insist upon having proof goods, which
+not one in twenty understands, you must supply out of what goods are not
+so reduced, though at a higher price."</p>
+
+<p>Such is the advice given by Mr. Shannon.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of judging by the taste of spiritous liquors is deceitful. A
+false strength is given to a weak liquor, by infusing in it acrid
+vegetable substances, or by adding to it a tincture of grains of
+paradise and Guinea pepper. These substances impart to weak brandy or
+rum, an extremely hot and pungent taste.</p>
+
+<p>Brandy and rum is also frequently sophisticated with British molasses,
+or sugar-spirit, coloured with burnt sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The flavour which characterises French brandy, and which is owing to a
+small portion of a peculiar essential oil contained in it, is imitated
+by distilling British molasses-spirit over wine lees;<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> but the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>spirit, prior to being distilled over wine lees, is previously
+deprived, in part, of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by
+rectification over fresh burnt charcoal and quick-lime. Other
+brandy-merchants employ a spirit obtained from raisin wine, which is
+suffered to pass into an incipient ascescency. The spirit thus procured
+partakes strongly of the flavour which is characteristic to foreign
+brandy.</p>
+
+<p>Oak saw-dust, and a spiritous tincture of raisin stones, are likewise
+used to impart to new brandy and rum a <i>ripe taste</i>, resembling brandy
+or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a somewhat oily consistence, so as
+to form a durable froth at its surface, when strongly agitated in a
+vial. The colouring substances are burnt sugar, or molasses; the latter
+gives to imitative brandy a luscious taste, and fulness <i>in the mouth</i>.
+These properties are said to render it particularly fit for the retail
+London customers.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the method of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>compounding or <i>making up</i>, as it is
+technically called, <i>brandy</i><a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> for retail:</p>
+
+
+
+<table class="left" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Compounding Brandy for Retail Sale">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">Gallons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"To ten puncheons of brandy</td>
+  <td class="tdright">1081</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Add flavoured raisin spirit</td>
+  <td class="tdright">118</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Tincture of grains of paradise</td>
+  <td class="tdright">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Cherry laurel water</td>
+  <td class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Spirit of almond cakes</td>
+  <td class="tdright">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">1207</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>"Add also 10 handfuls of oak saw-dust; and give it <i>complexion</i> with
+burnt sugar."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Detecting_Adulterations_of_Brandy" id="Detecting_Adulterations_of_Brandy"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF BRANDY, RUM, AND MALT SPIRIT.</p>
+
+<p>The false strength of brandy or rum is rendered obvious by diluting the
+suspected liquor with water; the acrimony of the capsicum, and grains of
+paradise, or pepper, may then be readily discovered by the taste.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of brandy with British molasses, or sugar-spirit,
+becomes evident <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>by rubbing a portion of the suspected brandy between
+the palms of the hands; the spirit, as it evaporates, leaves the
+disagreeable flavour which is peculiar to all British spirits. Or the
+liquor may be deprived of its alcohol, by heating a portion in a spoon
+over a candle, till the vapour ceases to catch fire on the approach of a
+lighted taper. The residue thus obtained, of genuine French brandy,
+possesses a vinous odour, still resembling the original flavour of the
+brandy, whilst the residue, produced from sophisticated brandy, has a
+peculiarly disagreeable smell, resembling gin, or the breath of habitual
+drunkards.</p>
+
+<p>Arrack is coarsely imitated by adding to rum a small quantity of
+pyroligneous acid and some flowers (acid) of benzoe. The compound thus
+produced, however, must be pronounced a bad one. The author of a very
+popular Cookery Book,<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> directs two scruples of benzoic acid to be
+dissolved in one quart of rum, to make "<i>mock arrack</i>."</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead">MALT SPIRIT.</p>
+
+<p>Malt spirit, or gin, the favourite liquor of the lower order of people,
+which is characterised by the peculiar flavour of juniper berries, over
+which the raw spirit is distilled, is usually obtained from a mixture of
+malt and barley: sometimes both molasses and corn are employed,
+particularly if there be a scarcity of grain. But the flavour of
+whiskey, which is made from barley and oats, is owing to the malted
+grain being dried with peat, the smoke of which gives it the
+characteristic taste.</p>
+
+<p>The malt distiller is not allowed to furnish, under a heavy penalty, any
+crude or raw spirit to the rectifier or manufacturer of gin, of a
+greater strength than seven per cent. over proof. The rectifier who
+receives the spirit from the malt distiller is not allowed, under a
+certain penalty, to sweeten the liquor with sugar or other substances;
+nor is he permitted to send out the spirit to his customers but of a
+certain strength, as is obvious from the following words of the Act:</p>
+
+<p>"No rectifier or compounder shall sell or send out any British brandy,
+British <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>rectified spirits, British compounds, or other British spirits,
+of greater strength than that of one in five under hydrometer proof<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>:
+and if he shall sell and send out any such spirits of a greater strength
+than that of one in five under hydrometer proof, such spirits, with the
+casks or vessels containing the same, shall be forfeited, and may be
+seized by any officer of Excise; and he shall also forfeit treble the
+value of such spirit, or 50<i>l.</i> at the election of the King's
+attorney-general, or the person who shall sue for the same; the single
+value of such spirits to be estimated at the highest London Price.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>"</p>
+
+<p>If we examine gin, as retailed, we shall soon be convinced that it is a
+custom, pretty prevalent amongst dealers, to weaken this liquor
+considerably with water, and to sweeten it with sugar. This fraud may
+readily be detected by evaporating a quantity of the liquor in a
+table-spoon over a candle, to dryness; the sugar will thus be rendered
+obvious, in the form of a gum-like substance, when the spirit is
+volatilised.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred and twenty gallons of genuine gin, as obtained from the
+wholesale <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>manufactories, are usually <i>made up</i> by fraudulent retailers,
+into a saleable commodity, with fourteen gallons of water and twenty-six
+pounds of sugar. Now this dilution of the liquor produces a turbidness;
+because the oil of juniper and other flavouring substances which the
+spirit holds in solution, become precipitated by virtue of the water,
+and thus cause the liquor to assume an opaline colour: and the spirit
+thus weakened, cannot readily be rendered clear again by subsidence.
+Several expedients are had recourse to, to clarify the liquor in an
+expeditious manner; some of which are harmless; others are criminal,
+because they render the liquor poisonous.</p>
+
+<p>One of the methods, which is innocent, consists in adding to the
+weakened liquor, first, a portion of alum dissolved in water, and then a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash. The whole is stirred together, and
+left undisturbed for twenty-four hours. The precipitated alumine thus
+produced from the alum, by virtue of the sub-carbonate of potash, acts
+as a strainer upon the milky liquor, and carries down with it the finely
+divided oily matter which produced the blue colour of the diluted
+liquor. Roach, or Roman alum, is also employed, without any other
+addition, for clarifying spiritous liquors.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+<p class="section">"<i>To reduce unsweetened Gin.</i><a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<table class="left" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="To reduce unsweetened Gin">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"A tun of fine gin</td>
+  <td class="tdright">252</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">gallons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"Water</td>
+  <td class="tdright">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"Which added together make</td>
+  <td class="tdright">288</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">gallons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"The <i>doctor is now put</i> on,<br />
+      and it is further reduced<br />
+      with water</td>
+  <td class="tdright" valign="bottom">19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">"Which gives <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Total</span></td>
+  <td class="tdright">307</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">gallons of gin.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>"This done, let 1 lb. of alum be just covered with water, and dissolved
+by boiling; rummage the whole well together, and pour in the alum, and
+the whole will be fine in a few hours."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section">"<i>To prepare and sweeten British Gin.</i><a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Get from your distiller an empty puncheon or cask, which will contain
+about 133 gallons. Then take a cask of clear rectified spirits, 120
+gallons, of the usual strength as rectifiers sell their goods at, put
+the 120 gallons of spirits into your empty cask.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p><p>"Then take a quarter of an ounce of oil of vitriol, half an ounce of
+oil of almonds, a quarter of an ounce of oil of turpentine, one ounce of
+oil of juniper berries, half a pint of spirit of wine, and half a pound
+of lump sugar. Beat or rub the above in a mortar. When well rubbed
+together, have ready prepared half a gallon of lime water, one gallon of
+rose water; mix the whole in either a pail, or cask, with a stick, till
+every particle shall be dissolved; then add to the foregoing,
+twenty-five pounds of sugar dissolved in about nine gallons of rain or
+Thames water, or water that has been boiled, mix the whole well
+together, and stir them carefully with a stick in the 133 gallons cask.</p>
+
+<p>"To <i>force down</i> the same, take and boil eight ounces of alum in three
+quarts of water, for three quarters of an hour; take it from the fire,
+and dissolve by degrees six or seven ounces of salt of tartar. When the
+same is milk-warm pour it into your gin, and stir it well together, as
+before, for five minutes, the same as you would a butt of beer newly
+fined. Let your cask stand as you mean to draw it. At every time you
+purpose to sweeten again, that cask must be well washed out; and take
+great care never to shake your cask all the while it is drawing."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p><p>Another method of fining spiritous liquors, consists in adding to it,
+first, a solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a solution of alum.
+This practice is highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead
+produced, remains dissolved in the liquor, which it thus renders
+poisonous. Unfortunately, this method of clarifying spiritous liquors, I
+have good reason to believe, is more frequently practised than the
+preceding method, because its action is more rapid; and it imparts to
+the liquor a fine <i>complexion</i>, or great refractive power; hence some
+vestiges of lead may often be detected in malt spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The weakened spirit is then sweetened with sugar, and, to cover the raw
+taste of the malt spirit, <i>false strength</i> is given to it with grains of
+paradise, Guinea pepper, capsicum, and other acrid and aromatic
+substances.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Detecting_Lead_in_Spirits" id="Detecting_Lead_in_Spirits"></a>METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF LEAD IN SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of lead may be detected in spiritous liquors, as stated <ins class="correction" title="Word missing in original.">on</ins>
+pages <a href="#Page_70">70</a> and <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. The cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges
+of copper. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>contamination, I have been informed, is accidental, and
+originates from the metallic vessels employed in the manufacture of the
+liquor.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Ascertaining_Alcohol_in_Spirits" id="Ascertaining_Alcohol_in_Spirits"></a>METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF ALCOHOL IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF
+SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of real alcohol in any spiritous liquors may readily be
+ascertained by simple distillation, which process separates the alcohol
+from the water and foreign matters contained in the liquor. Put any
+quantity of brandy, rum, or malt spirit diluted with about one-fourth
+its bulk of water, into a retort fitted to a capacious receiver, and
+distil with a gentle heat. The strongest spirit distils over first into
+the receiver, and the strength of the obtained products decreases, till
+at last it contains so much water as no longer to be inflammable by the
+approach of a lighted taper, when held in a spoon over a candle (see p.
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.) If the process be continued, the distilled product becomes milky,
+scarcely spiritous to the smell, and of an acidulous taste. The
+distilling operation may then be discontinued. If the first, fourth or
+third <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>part of the distilled product has been set apart, it will be
+found a moderately strong alcohol, and the remainder one more diluted.
+If the whole distilled spirit be mixed with perfectly dry subcarbonate
+of potash, the alcohol will float at the top of the potash, as stated,
+p. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>; it will separate into two distinct fluids. If the decanted
+alcohol be redistilled carefully with a very gentle heat, over a small
+portion of dry quick lime, or muriate of lime, it will be obtained
+extremely pure, and of a specific gravity of about 825, at 60&deg; of
+temperature. Its flavour will vary according to the kind of spiritous
+liquor from which it is obtained.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Per_Centage_of_Alcohol_in_Spirits" id="Per_Centage_of_Alcohol_in_Spirits"></a><i>Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol (of 825 specific gravity)
+contained in various kinds of spiritous Liquors.</i><a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-weight: normal;">[101]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<table class="left" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Percentage of alcohol in liquors">
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">Proportion of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">Alcohol per Cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">by Measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Brandy, Cogniac, average proportion of 4 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">52,75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto, Bourdeaux, ditto ditto</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">54,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto, Cette</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">53,00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto, Naples, average of 3 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">53,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto, Spanish average of 6 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">52,28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Rum</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">53,68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto, Leeward, average of 9 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">53,00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Scotch Whiskey, average of 6 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">53,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Irish Ditto, average of 4 samples</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">54,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Arrack, Batavia</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">49,50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Dutch Geneva</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">52,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Gin (Hodges's,<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>) 3 samples, procured from retail dealers</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">48,25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdindent">Ditto (Ditto,)<a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> procured from the manufacturer</td>
+  <td class="tdcenter">52,35</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> George III. c. xxviii. May 1818&mdash;"An Act for establishing
+the use of Sikes's hydrometer in ascertaining the strength of spirit,
+instead of Clark's hydrometer."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Sixteen and a half per cent. proof, according to Sikes's
+hydrometer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> 30 Geo. III c. 37, &sect; 31.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> According to Clarke's hydrometer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with
+Brewing and Distilling, p. 167; and Shannon on Brewing and Distilling,
+p. 232, 233.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> This operation forms part of the business of the so-called
+brewers' druggists. It forms the article in their Price Currents, called
+<i>Spirit Flavour</i>.
+</p><p>
+Wine lees are imported in this country for that purpose: they pay the
+same duty as foreign wines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with
+Brewing and Distilling, p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Apicius Redivivus, 2d edition, p. 480.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Clark's hydrometer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> 30 Geo. III. c. 37, &sect; 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Shannon on Brewing and Distilling, p. 198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Ibid. p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Repository of Arts, p. 350, Dec. 1819.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Own experiment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Cheese" id="Poisonous_Cheese"></a><i>Poisonous Cheese.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Several instances have come under my notice in which Gloucester cheese
+has been contaminated with red lead, and has produced serious
+consequences on being taken into the stomach. In one poisonous sample
+which it fell to my lot to investigate, the evil had been caused by the
+sophistication of the anotta, employed for colouring cheese. This
+substance was found to contain a portion of red lead; a method of
+sophistication which has lately been confirmed by the following fact,
+communicated to the public by Mr. J. W. Wright, of Cambridge.<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>"As a striking example of the extent to which adulterated articles of
+food may be unconsciously diffused, and of the consequent difficulty of
+detecting the real fabricators of them, it may not be uninteresting <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>to
+relate to your readers, the various steps by which the fraud of a
+poisonous adulteration of cheese was traced to its source.</p>
+
+<p>"Your readers ought here to be told, that several instances are on
+record, that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, and that this contamination has produced serious
+consequences. In the instance now alluded to, and probably in all other
+cases, the deleterious mixture had been caused ignorantly, by the
+adulteration of the anotta employed for colouring the cheese. This
+substance, in the instance I shall relate, was found to contain a
+portion of red lead; a species of adulteration which subsequent
+experiments have shewn to be by no means uncommon. Before I proceed
+further to trace this fraud to its source, I shall briefly relate the
+circumstance which gave rise to its detection.</p>
+
+<p>"A gentleman, who had occasion to reside for some time in a city in the
+West of England, was one night seized with a distressing but
+indescribable pain in the region of the abdomen and of the stomach,
+accompanied with a feeling of tension, which occasioned much
+restlessness, anxiety, and repugnance to food. He began to apprehend the
+access of an inflammatory <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>disorder; but in twenty-four hours the
+symptoms entirely subsided. In four days afterwards he experienced an
+attack precisely similar; and he then recollected, that having, on both
+occasions, arrived from the country late in the evening, he had ordered
+a plate of toasted Gloucester cheese, of which he had partaken heartily;
+a dish which, when at home, regularly served him for supper. He
+attributed his illness to the cheese. The circumstance was mentioned to
+the mistress of the inn, who expressed great surprise, as the cheese in
+question was not purchased from a country dealer, but from a highly
+respectable shop in London. He, therefore, ascribed the before-mentioned
+effects to some peculiarity in his constitution. A few days afterwards
+he partook of the same cheese; and he had scarcely retired to rest, when
+a most violent cholic seized him, which lasted the whole night and part
+of the ensuing day. The cook was now directed henceforth not to serve up
+any toasted cheese, and he never again experienced these distressing
+symptoms. Whilst this matter was a subject of conversation in the house,
+a servant-maid mentioned that a kitten had been violently sick after
+having eaten the rind cut off from the cheese <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>prepared for the
+gentleman's supper. The landlady, in consequence of this statement,
+ordered the cheese to be examined by a chemist in the vicinity, who
+returned for answer, that the cheese was contaminated with lead! So
+unexpected an answer arrested general attention, and more particularly
+as the suspected cheese had been served up for several other customers.</p>
+
+<p>"Application was therefore made by the London dealer to the farmer who
+manufactured the cheese: he declared that he had bought the anotta of a
+mercantile traveller, who had supplied him and his neighbours for years
+with that commodity, without giving occasion to a single complaint. On
+subsequent inquiries, through a circuitous channel, unnecessary to be
+detailed here at length, on the part of the manufacturer of the cheese,
+it was found, that as the supplies of anotta had been defective and of
+inferior quality, recourse had been had to the expedient of colouring
+the commodity with vermilion. Even this admixture could not be
+considered deleterious. But on further application being made to the
+druggist who sold the article, the answer was, that the vermilion had
+been mixed with a portion of red lead; and the deception was held to be
+perfectly innocent, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>as frequently practised on the supposition, that
+the vermilion would be used only as a pigment for house-painting. Thus
+the druggist sold his vermilion in the regular way of trade, adulterated
+with red lead to increase his profit, without any suspicion of the use
+to which it would be applied; and the purchaser who adulterated the
+<ins class="correction" title="Original has annotta.">anotta</ins>, presuming that the vermilion was genuine, had no hesitation in
+heightening the colour of his spurious anotta with so harmless an
+adjunct. Thus, through the circuitous and diversified operations of
+commerce, a portion of deadly poison may find admission into the
+necessaries of life, in a way which can attach no criminality to the
+parties through whose hands it has successively passed."</p>
+
+<p>This dangerous sophistication may be detected by macerating a portion of
+the suspected cheese in water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
+acidulated with muriatic acid; which will instantly cause the cheese to
+assume a brown or black colour, if the minutest portion of lead be
+present.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Repository of Arts, vol. viii. No. 47, p. 262.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Counterfeit_Pepper" id="Counterfeit_Pepper"></a><i>Counterfeit Pepper.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Black pepper is the fruit of a shrubby creeping plant, which grows wild
+in the East Indies, and is cultivated, with much advantage, for the sake
+of its berries, in Java and Malabar. The berries are gathered before
+they are ripe, and are dried in the sun. They become black and
+corrugated on the surface.</p>
+
+<p>This factitious pepper-corns have of late been detected mixed with
+genuine pepper, is a fact sufficiently known.<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Such an adulteration
+may prove, in many instances of household economy, exceedingly vexatious
+and prejudicial to those who ignorantly make use of the spurious
+article. I have examined large packages of both black and white pepper,
+by order of the Excise, and have found them to contain about 16 per
+cent. of this artificial compound. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>spurious pepper is made up of
+oil cakes (the residue of lintseed, from which the oil has been
+pressed,) common clay, and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed in a
+mass, and granulated by being first pressed through a sieve, and then
+rolled in a cask. The mode of detecting the fraud is easy. It is only
+necessary to throw a sample of the suspected pepper into a bowl of
+water; the artificial pepper-corns fall to powder, whilst the true
+pepper remains whole.</p>
+
+<p>Ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a portion of
+genuine pepper, a quantity of pepper dust, or the sweepings from the
+pepper warehouses, mixed with a little Cayenne pepper. The sweepings are
+known, and purchased in the market, under the name of P. D. signifying
+pepper dust. An inferior sort of this vile refuse, or the sweepings of
+P. D. is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation of D. P. D.
+denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper dust.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of pepper, and the making and selling commodities in
+imitation of pepper, are prohibited, under a severe penalty. The
+following are the words of the Act:<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p><p>"And whereas commodities made in imitation of pepper have of late been
+sold and found in the possession of various dealers in pepper, and other
+persons in Great Britain; be it therefore enacted, that from and after
+the said 5th day of July, 1819, if any commodity or substance shall be
+prepared by any person in imitation of pepper, shall be mixed with
+pepper, or sold or delivered as and for, or as a substitute for, pepper,
+or if any such commodity or substance, alone or mixed, shall be kept for
+sale, sold, or delivered, or shall be offered or exposed to sale, or
+shall be in the custody or possession of any dealer or seller of pepper,
+the same, together with all pepper with which the same shall be mixed,
+shall be forfeited, with the packages containing the same, and shall and
+may be seized by any officer of excise; and the person preparing,
+manufacturing, mixing as aforesaid, selling, exposing to sale, or
+delivering the same, or having the same in his, her, or their custody or
+possession, shall forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="White_Pepper" id="White_Pepper"></a>WHITE PEPPER.</p>
+
+<p>The common white pepper is factitious, being prepared from the black
+pepper in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>the following manner:&mdash;The pepper is first steeped in sea
+water and urine, and then exposed to the heat of the sun for several
+days, till the rind or outer bark loosens; it is then taken out of the
+steep, and, when dry, it is rubbed with the hand till the rind falls
+off. The white fruit is then dried, and the remains of the rind blown
+away like chaff. A great deal of the peculiar flavour and pungent hot
+taste of the pepper is taken off by this process. White pepper is always
+inferior in flavour and quality to the black pepper.</p>
+
+<p>However, there is a sort of native white pepper, produced on a species
+of the pepper plant, which is much better than the factitious, and
+indeed little inferior to the common black pepper.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Thomson's Annals of Chemistry, 1816; also Repository of
+Arts, vol. i. 1816, p. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> George III. c. 53, &sect; 21, 1819.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Cayenne_Pepper" id="Poisonous_Cayenne_Pepper"></a><i>Poisonous Cayenne Pepper.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Cayenne pepper is an indiscriminate mixture of the powder of the dried
+pods of many species of capsicum, but especially of the capsicum
+frutescens, or bird pepper, which is the hottest of all.</p>
+
+<p>This annual plant, a native of South America, is cultivated in large
+quantities in our West-India islands, and even frequently in our
+gardens, for the beauty of its pods, which are long, pointed, and
+pendulous, at first of a green colour, and, when ripe, of a bright
+orange red. They are filled with a dry loose pulp, and contain many
+small, flat, kidney-shaped seeds. The taste of capsicum is extremely
+pungent and acrimonious, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire.</p>
+
+<p>The principle on which its pungency depends, is soluble in water and in
+alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to prevent it becoming
+bleached on exposure to light. This fraud may be readily detected by
+shaking up part of it in a stopped <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>vial containing water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which will cause it speedily to assume a
+dark muddy black colour. Or the vegetable matter of the pepper may be
+destroyed, by throwing a mixture of one part of the suspected pepper and
+three of nitrate of potash (or two of chlorate of potash) into a red-hot
+crucible, in small quantities at a time. The mass left behind may then
+be digested in weak nitric acid, and the solution assayed for lead by
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Pickles" id="Poisonous_Pickles"></a><i>Poisonous Pickles.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Vegetable substances, preserved in the state called pickles, by means of
+the antiseptic power of vinegar, whose sale frequently depends greatly
+upon a fine lively green colour; and the consumption of which, by
+sea-faring people in particular, is prodigious, are sometimes
+intentionally coloured by means of copper. Gerkins, French beans,
+samphires, the green pods of capsicum, and many other pickled vegetable
+substances, oftener than is perhaps expected, are met with impregnated
+with this metal. Numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued
+from the use of these stimulants of the palate, to which the fresh and
+pleasing hue has been imparted according to the deadly <i>formul&aelig;</i> laid
+down in some modern cookery books, such as boiling the pickles with
+half-pence, or suffering them to stand for a considerable period in
+brazen vessels.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p><p>Dr. Percival<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> has given an account of "a young lady who amused
+herself, while her hair was dressing, with eating samphire pickles
+impregnated with copper. She soon complained of pain in the stomach;
+and, in five days, vomiting commenced, which was incessant for two days.
+After this, her stomach became prodigiously distended; and, in nine days
+after eating the pickles, death relieved her from her suffering."</p>
+
+<p>Among many recipes which modern authors of cookery books have given for
+imparting a green colour to pickles, the following are particularly
+deserving of censure; and it is to be hoped that they will be suppressed
+in future editions of the works.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>To Pickle Gerkins.</i><a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>&mdash;"Boil the vinegar in a bell-metal or copper
+pot; pour it boiling hot on your cucumbers."</p>
+
+<p>"<i>To make greening.</i><a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>&mdash;"Take a bit of verdigris, the bigness of a
+hazel-nut, finely powdered; half-a-pint of distilled vinegar, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>and a bit
+of alum powder, with a little bay salt. Put all in a bottle, shake it,
+and let it stand till clear. Put a small tea-spoonful into codlings, or
+whatever you wish to green."</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. E. Raffald<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> directs, "to render pickles green, boil them with
+halfpence, or allow them to stand for twenty-four hours in copper or
+brass pans."</p>
+
+<p>To detect the presence of copper, it is only necessary to mince the
+pickles, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk of
+water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles contain the minutest
+quantity of copper, the ammonia assumes a blue colour.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Medical Transactions, vol. iv. p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The Ladies' Library, vol. ii. p. 203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Modern Cookery, or the English Housewife&mdash;2d edition, p.
+94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The English Housekeeper, p. 352, 354.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Vinegar" id="Adulteration_of_Vinegar"></a><i>Adulteration of Vinegar.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Vinegar, as prepared in this country, from malt, should be of a pale
+brown colour, perfectly transparent, of a pleasant, somewhat pungent,
+acid taste, and fragrant odour, but without any acrimony. From the
+mucilaginous impurities which malt vinegar always contains, it is apt,
+on exposure to air, to become turbid and ropy, and at last vapid. The
+inconvenience is best obviated by keeping the vinegar in bottles
+completely filled and well corked; and it is of advantage to boil it in
+the bottles a few minutes before they are corked.</p>
+
+<p>Vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to give it
+more acidity. The presence of this acid is detected, if, on the addition
+of a solution of acetate of barytes, a white precipitate is formed,
+which is insoluble in nitric acid, after having been made red-hot in the
+fire. (See p. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.) With the same intention, of making the vinegar
+appear stronger, different acrid vegetable substances are infused in it.
+This fraud is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>difficult of detection; but when tasted with attention,
+the pungency of such vinegar will be found to depend rather on acrimony
+than acidity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Distilled_Vinegar" id="Distilled_Vinegar"></a>Distilled vinegar, which is employed for various purposes of domestic
+economy, is frequently distilled, not in glass, as it ought to be, but
+in common stills with a pewter pipe, whence it cannot fail to acquire a
+metallic impregnation.</p>
+
+<p>One ounce, by measure, should dissolve at least thirteen grains of white
+marble.</p>
+
+<p>It should not form a precipitate on the addition of a solution of
+acetate of barytes, or of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
+The former circumstance shews, that it is adulterated with sulphuric
+acid; and the latter indicates a metal.</p>
+
+<p>The metallic impregnation is best rendered obvious by sulphuretted
+hydrogen, in the manner stated, page <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. The distilled vinegar of
+commerce usually contains tin, and not lead, as has been asserted.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Cream" id="Adulteration_of_Cream"></a><i>Adulteration of Cream.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Cream is often adulterated with rice powder or arrow root. The former is
+frequently employed for that purpose by pastry cooks, in fabricating
+creams and custards, for tarts, and other kinds of pastry. The latter is
+often used in the London dairies. Arrow-root is preferable to rice
+powder; for, when converted with milk into a thick mucilage by a gentle
+ebullition, it imparts to cream, previously diluted with milk, a
+consistence and apparent richness, by no means unpalatable, without
+materially impairing the taste of the cream.</p>
+
+<p>The arrow-root powder is mixed up with a small quantity of cold skimmed
+milk into a perfect, smooth, uniform mixture; more milk is then added,
+and the whole boiled for a few minutes, to effect the solution of the
+arrow-root: this compound, when perfectly cold, is mixed up with the
+cream. From 220 to 260 grains, (or three large tea-spoonfuls) of
+arrow root are added to one pint of milk; and one part of this solution
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>is mixed with three of cream. It is scarcely necessary to state that
+this sophistication is innocuous.</p>
+
+<p>The fraud may be detected by adding to a <ins class="correction" title="No hyphen in original.">tea-spoonful</ins> of the
+sophisticated cream a few drops of a solution of <ins class="correction" title="Spelled jodine in original.">iodine</ins> in spirit of
+wine, which instantly produces with it a dark blue colour. Genuine cream
+acquires, by the addition of this test, a faint yellow tinge.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Confectionery" id="Poisonous_Confectionery"></a><i>Poisonous Confectionery.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>In the preparation of sugar plums, comfits, and other kinds of
+confectionery, especially those sweetmeats of inferior quality,
+frequently exposed to sale in the open streets, for the allurement of
+children, the grossest abuses are committed. The white comfits, called
+sugar pease, are chiefly composed of a mixture of sugar, starch, and
+Cornish clay (a species of very white pipe-clay;) and the red sugar
+drops are usually coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion. The
+pigment is generally adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of
+sweetmeats are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with
+preparations of copper. The following account of Mr. Miles<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> may be
+advanced in proof of this statement.</p>
+
+<p>"Some time ago, while residing in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>house of a confectioner, I
+noticed the colouring of the green fancy sweetmeats being done by
+dissolving sap-green in brandy. Now sap-green itself, as prepared from
+the juice of the buckthorn berries, is no doubt a harmless substance;
+but the manufacturers of this colour have for many years past produced
+various tints, some extremely bright, which there can be no doubt are
+effected by adding preparations of copper.</p>
+
+<p>"The sweetmeats which accompany these lines you will find exhibit
+vestiges of being contaminated with copper.&mdash;The practice of colouring
+these articles of confectionery should, therefore, be banished: the
+proprietors of which are not aware of the deleterious quality of the
+substances employed by them."</p>
+
+<p>The foreign conserves, such as small green limes, citrons, hop-tops,
+plums, angelica roots, &amp;c. imported into this country, and usually sold
+in round chip boxes, are frequently impregnated with copper.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of confitures by means of clay, may be detected by
+simply dissolving the comfits in a large quantity of boiling water. The
+clay, after suffering the mixture to stand undisturbed for a few days,
+will fall to the bottom of the vessel; and on decanting the clear fluid,
+and suffering <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>the sediment to become dry gradually, it may be obtained
+in a separate state. If the adulteration has been effected by means of
+clay, the obtained precipitate, on exposure to a red heat in the bowl of
+a common tobacco-pipe, acquires a brick hardness.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of copper may be detected by pouring over the comfits
+liquid ammonia, which speedily acquires a blue colour, if this metal be
+present. The presence of lead is rendered obvious by water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen, acidulated with muriatic acid (see p. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,)
+which assumes a dark brown or black colour, if lead be present.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Philosoph. Mag. No. 258, vol. 54. 1819, p. 317.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Catsup" id="Poisonous_Catsup"></a><i>Poisonous Catsup.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>This article is very often subjected to one of the most reprehensible
+modes of adulteration ever devised. Quantities are daily to be met with,
+which, on a chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.
+Indeed, this condiment is often nothing else than the residue left
+behind after the process employed for obtaining distilled vinegar,
+subsequently diluted with a decoction of the outer green husk of the
+walnut, and seasoned with all-spice, Cayenne pepper, pimento, onions,
+and common salt.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of copper which we have, more than once, detected in this
+sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account of its cheapness, is
+much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life, has exceeded the
+proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in domestic
+economy.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of Mr. <ins class="correction" title="Original has Lewi .">Lewis</ins><a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> on <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>this subject, will be
+sufficient to cause the public to be on their guard.</p>
+
+<p>"Being in the habit of frequently purchasing large quantities of pickles
+and other culinary sauces, for the use of my establishment, and also for
+foreign trade, it fell lately to my lot to purchase from a manufacturer
+of those commodities a quantity of walnut catsup, apparently of an
+excellent quality; but, to my great surprise, I had reason to believe
+that the article might be contaminated with some deleterious substance,
+from circumstances which happened in my business as a tavern keeper, but
+which are unnecessary to be detailed here; and it was this that induced
+me to make inquiry concerning the compounding of the suspected articles.</p>
+
+<p>"The catsup being prepared by boiling in a copper, as is usually
+practised, the outer green shell of walnuts, after having been suffered
+to turn black on exposure to air, in combination with common salt, with
+a portion of pimento and pepper-dust, in common vinegar, strengthened
+with some vinegar extract, left behind as residue in the still of
+vinegar manufacturers; I therefore suspected that the catsup might be
+impregnated with some copper. To convince myself of this opinion. I
+boiled down to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>dryness a quart of it in a stone pipkin, which yielded
+to me a dark brown mass. I put this mass into a crucible, and kept it in
+a coal fire, red-hot, till it became reduced to a porous black charcoal;
+on urging the heat with a pair of bellows, and stirring the mass in the
+crucible with the stem of a tobacco-pipe, it became, after two hours'
+exposure to an intense heat, converted into a greyish-white ash; but no
+metal could be discriminated amongst it. I now poured upon it some aqua
+fortis, which dissolved nearly the whole of it, with an effervescence;
+and produced, after having been suffered to stand, to let the insoluble
+portion subside, a bright grass-green solution, of a strong metallic
+taste; after immersing into this solution the blade of a knife, it
+became instantly covered with a bright coat of copper.</p>
+
+<p>"The walnut catsup was therefore evidently strongly impregnated with
+copper. On informing the manufacturer of this fact, he assured me that
+the same method of preparing the liquor was generally pursued, and that
+he had manufactured the article in a like manner for upwards of twenty
+years.</p>
+
+<p>"Such is the statement I wish to communicate; and if you will allow it a
+place <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>in your Literary Chronicle, it may perhaps tend to put the unwary
+on their guard against the practice of preparing this sauce by boiling
+it in a copper, which certainly may contaminate the liquor, and render
+it poisonous."</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Literary Chronicle, No. 24, p. 379.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Custard" id="Poisonous_Custard"></a><i>Poisonous Custard.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The leaves of the cherry laurel, <i>prunus lauro-cerasus</i>, a poisonous
+plant, have a nutty flavour, resembling that of the kernels of
+peach-stones, or of bitter almonds, which to most palates is grateful.
+These leaves have for many years been in use among cooks, to communicate
+an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, creams,
+<i>blanc-mange</i>, and other delicacies of the table.</p>
+
+<p>It has been asserted, that the laurel poison in custards and other
+articles of <ins class="correction" title="Original has cookry.">cookery</ins> is, on account of its being used in very small
+quantities, quite harmless. To refute this assertion, numerous instances
+might be cited; and, among them, a recent one, in which four children
+suffered most severely from partaking of custard flavoured with the
+leaves of this poisonous plant.</p>
+
+<p>"Several children at a boarding-school, in the vicinity of Richmond,
+having partaken of some custard flavoured with the leaves of the cherry
+laurel, as is frequently <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>practised by cooks, four of the poor innocents
+were taken severely ill in consequence. Two of them, a girl six years of
+age, and a boy of five years old, fell into a profound sleep, out of
+which they could not be roused.</p>
+
+<p>"Notwithstanding the various medical exertions used, the boy remained in
+a stupor ten hours; and the girl nine hours; the other two, one of which
+was six years old, a girl, and a girl of seven years, complained of
+severe pains in the epigastric region. They all recovered, after three
+days' illness. I am anxious to communicate to you this fact, being
+convinced that your publication is read at all the scholastic
+establishments in this part of the country. I hope you will allow these
+lines a corner in your Literary Chronicle, where they may contribute to
+put the unwary on their guard, against the deleterious effects of
+flavouring culinary dishes with that baneful herb, the Cherry Laurel.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20em;">"I am, with respect, your's, Sir,</p>
+<p class="right">"<span class="smcap">Thomas Lidiard</span>."<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p class="section"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p><p>What person of sense or prudence, then, would trust to the discretion of
+an ignorant cook, in mixing so dangerous an ingredient in his puddings
+and creams? Who but a maniac would choose to season his victuals with
+poison?</p>
+
+<p>The water distilled from cherry laurel leaves is frequently mixed with
+brandy and other spiritous liquors, to impart to them the flavour of the
+cordial called <i>noyeau</i>, (see also page <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>This fluid, though long in frequent use as a flavouring substance, was
+not known to be poisonous until the year 1728; when the sudden death of
+two women, in Dublin, after drinking some of the common distilled cherry
+laurel water, demonstrated its deleterious nature.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Literary Chronicle, No. 22, p. 348.&mdash;1819.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Anchovy_Sauce" id="Poisonous_Anchovy_Sauce"></a><i>Poisonous Anchovy Sauce.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Several samples which we have examined of this fish sauce have been
+found contaminated with lead.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of preparation of this fish sauce, consists in rubbing down the
+broken anchovy in a mortar: and this triturated mass, being of a dark
+brown colour, receives, without much risk of detection, a certain
+quantity of Venetian red, added for the purpose of colouring it, which,
+if genuine, is an innocent colouring substance; but instances have
+occurred of this pigment having been adulterated with orange lead, which
+is nothing else than a better kind of minium, or red oxide of lead. The
+fraud may be detected, as stated p. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The conscientious oilmen, less anxious with respect to colour,
+substitute for this poison the more harmless pigment, called Armenian
+bole.</p>
+
+<p>The following recipe for making this fish sauce is copied from Gray's
+Supplement to the Pharmacop&oelig;ias, p. 241.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p><p>"Anchovies, 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. and a half; pulp through a fine hair sieve;
+boil the bones with common salt, 7 oz. in water 6 lbs.; strain; add
+flour 7 oz. and the pulp of the fish; boil; pass the whole through the
+sieve; colour with Venetian red to your fancy. It should produce one
+gallon."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Lozenges" id="Adulteration_of_Lozenges"></a><i>Adulteration of Lozenges.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Lozenges, particularly those into the composition of which substances
+enter that are not soluble in water, as ginger, cremor tartar, magnesia,
+&amp;c., are often sophisticated. The adulterating ingredient is usually
+pipe-clay, of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar. The
+following detection of this fraud was lately made by Dr. T. Lloyd.<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Some ginger lozenges having lately fallen into my hands, I was not a
+little surprised to observe, accidentally, that when thrown into a coal
+fire, they suffered but little change. If one of the lozenges was laid
+on a shovel, previously made red-hot, it speedily took fire; but,
+instead of burning with a blaze and becoming converted into a charcoal,
+it took fire, and burnt with a feeble flame for scarcely half a minute,
+and there remained behind a stony hard substance, retaining the form of
+the lozenge. This unexpected result led me to examine <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>these lozenges,
+which were bought at a respectable chemist's shop in the city; and I
+soon became convinced, that, in the preparation of them, a considerable
+quantity of common pipe-clay had been substituted for sugar. On making a
+complaint about this fraud at the shop where the article was sold, I was
+informed that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the
+one at three-pence the ounce, and the other at six-pence per ounce; and
+that the article furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity:
+the latter were distinguished by the epithet <i>verum</i>, they being
+composed of sugar and ginger only; but the former were manufactured
+partly of white Cornish clay, with a portion of sugar only, with ginger
+and Guinea pepper. I was likewise informed, that of Tolu lozenges,
+peppermint lozenges and ginger pearls, and several other sorts of
+lozenges, two kinds were kept; that the <i>reduced</i> articles, as they were
+called, were manufactured for those very clever persons in their own
+conceit, who are fond of haggling, and insist on buying better bargains
+than other people, shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so
+that they can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap; and, secondly for
+those persons, who being but bad paymasters, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>yet, as the manufacturer,
+for his own credit's sake, cannot charge more than the usual price of
+the articles, he thinks himself therefore authorised to adulterate it in
+value, to make up for the risk he runs, and the long credit he must
+give."</p>
+
+<p>The comfits called ginger pearls, are frequently adulterated with clay.
+These frauds may be detected in the manner stated, page <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Literary Gazette, No. 146.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Olive_Oil" id="Poisonous_Olive_Oil"></a><i>Poisonous Olive Oil.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>This commodity is sometimes contaminated with lead, because the fruit
+which yields the oil is submitted to the action of the press between
+leaden plates; and it is, moreover, a practice (particularly in Spain)
+to suffer the oil to become clear in leaden cisterns, before it is
+brought to market for sale. The French and Italian olive oil is usually
+free from this impregnation.</p>
+
+<p>Olive oil is sometimes mixed with oil of poppy seeds: but, by exposing
+the mixture to the freezing temperature, the olive oil freezes, while
+that of the poppy seeds remains fluid; and as oils which freeze with
+most difficulty are most apt to become rancid, olive oil is deteriorated
+by the mixture of poppy oil.</p>
+
+<p>Good olive oil should have a pale yellow colour, somewhat inclining to
+green; a bland taste, without smell; and should congeal at 38&deg;
+Fahrenheit. In this country, it is frequently met with rancid.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p><p>The presence of lead is detected by shaking, in a stopped vial, one part
+of the suspected oil, with two or three parts of water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen. This agent will render the oil of a dark brown or
+black colour, if any metal, deleterious to health, be present. The
+practice of keeping this oil in pewter or leaden cisterns, as is often
+the case, is objectionable; because the oil acts upon the metal. The
+dealers in this commodity assert, that it prevents the oil from becoming
+rancid: and hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure to remain
+immersed in the oil.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Mustard" id="Adulteration_of_Mustard"></a><i>Adulteration of Mustard.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Genuine mustard, either in powder, or in the state of a paste ready for
+use, is perhaps rarely to be met with in the shops. The article sold
+under the name of <i>genuine Durham mustard</i>, is usually a mixture of
+mustard and common wheaten flour, with a portion of Cayenne pepper, and
+a large quantity of bay salt, made with water into a paste, ready for
+use. Some manufacturers adulterate their mustard with radish-seed and
+pease flour.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been stated, that a fine yellow colour is given to mustard
+by means of turmeric. We doubt the truth of this assertion. The presence
+of the minutest quantity of turmeric may instantly be detected, by
+adding to the mustard a few drops of a solution of potash, or any other
+alkali, which changes the bright yellow colour, to a brown or deep
+orange tint.</p>
+
+<p>Two ounces and a half of Cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 lbs. of bay salt, 8 lbs.
+of mustard flour, and 1-1/2 lbs. of wheaten flour, made <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>into a stiff
+paste, with the requisite quantity of water, in which the bay-salt is
+previously dissolved, forms the so-called <i>genuine Durham mustard</i>, sold
+in pots. The salt and Cayenne pepper contribute materially to the
+keeping of ready-made mustard.</p>
+
+<p>There is therefore nothing deleterious in the usual practice of
+adulterating this commodity of the table. The fraud only tends to
+deteriorate the quality and flavour of the genuine article itself.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Adulteration_of_Lemon_Acid" id="Adulteration_of_Lemon_Acid"></a><i>Adulteration of Lemon Acid.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is well known to every one, that the expressed juice of lemons is
+extremely apt to spoil, on account of the sugar, mucilage, and
+extractive matter which it contains; and hence various means have been
+practised, with the intention of rendering it less perishable, and less
+bulky. The juice has been evaporated to the consistence of rob; but this
+always gives an unpleasant empyreumatic taste, and does not separate the
+foreign matters, so that it is still apt to spoil when agitated on board
+of ship in tropical climates. It has been exposed to frost, and part of
+the water removed under the form of ice; but this is liable to all the
+former objections; and, besides, where lemons are produced in sufficient
+quantity, there is not a sufficient degree of cold. The addition of a
+portion of spirit to the inspissated juice, separates the mucilage, but
+not the extractive matter and the sugar. By means, however, of
+separating the foreign matters <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>associated with it, in the juice, by
+chemical processes unnecessary to be detailed here, citric acid is now
+manufactured, perfectly pure, and in a crystallised form, and is sold
+under the name of concrete lemon acid. In this state it is extremely
+convenient, both for domestic and medicinal purposes. One drachm, when
+dissolved in one ounce of water, is equal in strength to a like bulk of
+fresh lemon juice. To communicate the lemon flavour, it is only
+necessary to rub a lump of sugar on the rind of a lemon to become
+impregnated with a portion of the essential oil of the fruit, and to add
+the sugar to the lemonade, negus, punch, shrub, jellies or culinary
+sauces, prepared with the pure citric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Fraudulent dealers often substitute the cheaper tartareous acid, for
+citric acid. The negus and lemonade made by the pastry-cooks, and the
+liquor called punch, sold at taverns in this metropolis, is usually made
+with tartareous acid.</p>
+
+<p>To discriminate citric acid from tartareous acid, it is only necessary
+to add a concentrated solution of the suspected acid, to a concentrated
+solution of muriate of potash, taking care that the solution of the acid
+is in excess. If a precipitate ensues, the fraud is obvious, because
+citric acid does <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>not produce a precipitate with a solution of muriate
+or potash.</p>
+
+<p>Or, by adding to a saturated solution of tartrate of potash, a saturated
+solution of the suspected acid, in excess, which produces with it an
+almost insoluble precipitate in minute <ins class="correction" title="Original has glanular.">granular</ins> crystals. Pure citric
+acid produces no such effect when added in excess to tartrate of
+potash.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Mushrooms" id="Poisonous_Mushrooms"></a><i>Poisonous Mushrooms.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Mushrooms have been long used in sauces and other culinary preparations;
+yet there are numerous instances on record of the deleterious effects of
+some species of these <i>fungi</i>, almost all of which are fraught with
+poison.<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> Pliny already exclaims against the luxury of his countrymen
+in this article, and wonders what extraordinary pleasure there can be in
+eating such dangerous food.<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>But if the palate must be indulged with these treacherous luxuries, or,
+as Seneca calls them, "voluptuous poison,"<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> it is highly necessary
+that the mild eatable mushrooms, should be gathered by persons skilful
+enough to distinguish the good from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>the false, or poisonous, which is
+not always the case; nor are the characters which distinguish them
+strongly marked.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement is published by Mr. Glen, surgeon, of
+Knightsbridge:</p>
+
+<p>"A poor man, residing in Knightsbridge, took a walk in Hyde Park, with
+the intention of gathering some mushrooms. He collected a considerable
+number, and, after stewing them, began to eat them. He had finished the
+whole, with the exception of about six or eight, when, about eight or
+ten minutes from the commencement of his meal, he was suddenly seized
+with a dimness, or mist before his eyes, a giddiness of the head, with a
+general trembling and sudden loss of power;&mdash;so much so, that he nearly
+fell off the chair; to this succeeded loss of recollection: he forgot
+where he was, and all the circumstances of his case. This deprivation
+soon went off, and he so far rallied as to be able, though with
+difficulty, to get up, with the intention of going to Mr. Glen for
+assistance&mdash;a distance of about five hundred yards: he had not proceeded
+more than half way, when his memory again failed him; he lost his road,
+although previously well acquainted with it. He was met by a friend, who
+with difficulty learned his state, and conducted him <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>to Mr. Glen's
+house. His countenance betrayed great anxiety: he reeled about, like a
+drunken man, and was greatly inclined to sleep; his pulse was low and
+feeble. Mr. Glen immediately gave him an emetic draught. The poison had
+so diminished the sensibility of the stomach, that vomiting did not take
+place for near twenty minutes, although another draught had been
+exhibited. During this interval his drowsiness increased to such a
+degree, that he was only kept awake by obliging him to walk round the
+room with assistance; he also, at this time, complained of distressing
+pains in the calves of his legs.&mdash;Full vomiting was at length produced.
+After the operation of the emetic, he expressed himself generally
+better, but still continued drowsy. In the evening Mr. Glen found him
+doing well."</p>
+
+<p>The following case is recorded in the Medical Transactions, vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p>"A middle-aged man having gathered what he called champignons, they were
+stewed, and eaten by himself and his wife; their child also, about four
+years old, ate a little of them, and the sippets of bread which were put
+into the liquor. Within five minutes after eating them, the man began to
+stare in an unusual manner, and was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>unable to shut his eyes. All
+objects appeared to him coloured with a variety of colours. He felt a
+palpitation in what he called his stomach; and was so giddy, that he
+could hardly stand. He seemed to himself swelled all over his body. He
+hardly knew what he did or said; and sometimes was unable to speak at
+all. These symptoms continued in a greater or less degree for
+twenty-four hours; after which, he felt little or no disorder. Soon
+after he perceived himself ill, one scruple of white vitriol was given
+him, and repeated two or three times, with which he vomited plentifully.</p>
+
+<p>"The woman, aged thirty-nine, felt all the same symptoms, but in a
+higher degree. She totally lost her voice and her senses, and was either
+stupid, or so furious that it was necessary she should be held. The
+white vitriol was offered to her, of which she was capable of taking but
+very little; however, after four or five hours, she was much recovered:
+but she continued many days far from being well, and from enjoying her
+former health and strength. She frequently fainted for the first week
+after; and there was, during a month longer, an uneasy sense of heat and
+weight in her breast, stomach, and bowels, with great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>flatulence. Her
+head was, at first waking, much confused; and she often experienced
+palpitations, tremblings, and other hysteric affections, to all which
+she had ever before been a stranger.</p>
+
+<p>"The child had some convulsive agitations of his arms, but was otherwise
+little affected. He was capable of taking half a scruple of ipecacuanha,
+with which he vomited, and was soon perfectly recovered."</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="Mushroom_Catsup" id="Mushroom_Catsup"></a>MUSHROOM CATSUP.</p>
+
+<p>The edible mushroom is the basis of the sauce called mushroom catsup; a
+great proportion of which is prepared by gardeners who grow the fungi.
+The mushrooms employed for preparing this sauce are generally those
+which are in a putrefactive state, and not having found a ready sale in
+the market; for no vegetable substance is liable to so rapid a
+spontaneous decomposition as mushrooms. In a few days after the fungus
+has been removed from the dung-bed on which it grows, it becomes the
+habitation of myriads of insects; and, if even the saleable mushroom be
+attentively examined, it will frequently be found to swarm with life.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Fungi plerique veneno turgent. Linn. Am&aelig;n. Acad.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <ins class="correction" title="Original has Qv&aelig;.">Qu&aelig;</ins> voluptas tanta ancipitis cibi?&mdash;Plin. Nat. Hist.
+xxii. 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Sen. Ep. 95.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Poisonous_Soda_Water" id="Poisonous_Soda_Water"></a><i>Poisonous Soda Water.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated both with
+copper and lead; these metals being largely employed in the construction
+of the apparatus for preparing the carbonated water,<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and the great
+excess of carbonic acid which the water contains, particularly enables
+it to act strongly on the metallic substances of the apparatus; a truth,
+of which the reader will find no difficulty in convincing himself, by
+suffering a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas to pass through the
+water.&mdash;See p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Some manufacturers have been hence induced to construct
+the apparatus for manufacturing soda water wholly either of earthenware
+or of glass. Mr. Johnston, of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who
+pointed out to the public the absolute necessity of this precaution.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Food_poisoned_by_Copper_Vessels" id="Food_poisoned_by_Copper_Vessels"></a><i>Food poisoned by Copper Vessels.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated with copper, in
+consequence of the employment of cooking utensils made of that metal. By
+the use of such vessels in dressing food, we are daily liable to be
+poisoned; as almost all acid vegetables, as well as sebaceous or pinguid
+substances, employed in culinary preparations, act upon copper, and
+dissolve a portion of it; and too many examples are met with of fatal
+consequences having ensued from eating food which had been dressed in
+copper vessels not well cleaned from the oxide of copper which they had
+contracted by being exposed to the action of air and moisture.</p>
+
+<p>The inexcusable negligence of persons who make use of copper vessels has
+been productive of mortality, so much more terrible, as they have
+exerted their action on a great number of persons at once. The annals of
+medicine furnish too many examples in support of this assertion, to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>render it necessary to insist more upon it here.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper,
+observes, that "our food receives its quantity of poison in the kitchen
+by the use of copper pans and dishes. The brewer mingles poison in our
+beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. The sugar-baker employs copper
+pans; the pastry-cook bakes our tarts in copper moulds; the confectioner
+uses copper vessels: the oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass
+vessels, and verdigris is plentifully formed by the action of the
+vinegar upon the metal.</p>
+
+<p>"Though, after all, a single dose be not mortal, yet a quantity of
+poison, however small, when taken at every meal, must produce more fatal
+effects than are generally apprehended; and different constitutions are
+differently affected by minute quantities of substances that act
+powerfully on the system."</p>
+
+<p>The author of a tract, entitled, "Serious Reflections on the Dangers
+attending the Use of Copper Vessels," asserts that a numerous and
+frightful train of diseases is occasioned by the poisonous effects of
+pernicious matter received into the stomach insensibly with our
+victuals.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p><p>Dr. Johnston<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> gives an account of the melancholy catastrophe of
+three men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence
+of eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops
+frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>The following case<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> is related by Sir George Baker, M. D.</p>
+
+<p>"Some cyder, which had been made in a gentleman's family, being thought
+too sour, was boiled with honey in a brewing vessel, the rim of which
+was capped with lead. All who drank this liquor were seized with a bowel
+colic, more or less violently. One of the servants died very soon in
+convulsions; several others were cruelly tortured a long time. The
+master of the family, in particular, notwithstanding all the assistance
+which art could give him, never recovered his health; but died
+miserably, after having almost three years languished under a most
+tedious and incurable malady."</p>
+
+<p>Too much care and attention cannot be taken in preserving all culinary
+utensils of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>copper, in a state unexceptionably fit for their destined
+purpose. They should be frequently tinned, and kept thoroughly clean,
+nor should any food ever be suffered to remain in them for a longer time
+than is absolutely necessary to their preparation for the table. But the
+sure preventive of its pernicious effect, is, to banish copper utensils
+from the kitchen altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The following wholesome advice on this subject is given to cooks by the
+author of an excellent cookery book.<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Stew-pans and soup-kettles should be examined every time they are used;
+these, and their covers, must be kept perfectly clean and well tinned,
+not only on the inside, but about a couple of inches on the outside; so
+much mischief arises from their getting out of repair; and, if not kept
+nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain; the broths and soups will
+look green and dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and will be
+spoiled both for the eye and palate, and your credit will be lost; and
+as the health, and even the life, of the family depends upon this; the
+cook may be sure her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>employer had rather pay the tin-man's bill than
+the doctor's."</p>
+
+<p>The senate of Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited copper vessels, and
+ordered that none but such as were made of iron should be used in their
+fleet and armies.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Johnston's Essay on Poison, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Medical Transactions, vol. i. p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Apicius Redivivus, p. 91.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Food_Poisoned_by_Leaden_Vessels" id="Food_Poisoned_by_Leaden_Vessels"></a><i>Food Poisoned by Leaden Vessels.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>Various kinds of food used in domestic economy, are liable to become
+impregnated with lead.</p>
+
+<p>The glazing of the common cream-coloured earthen ware, which is composed
+of an oxide of lead, readily yields to the action of vinegar and saline
+compounds; and therefore jars and pots of this kind of stone ware, are
+wholly unfit to contain jellies of fruits, marmalade, and similar
+conserves. Pickles should in no case be deposited in cream-coloured
+glazed earthenware.</p>
+
+<p>The custom which still prevails in some parts of this country of keeping
+milk in leaden vessels for the use of the dairy, is very improper.</p>
+
+<p>"In Lancashire<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> the dairies are furnished with milk-pans made of
+lead: and when Mr. Parks expostulated with some individuals on the
+danger of this practice, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>he was told that <i>leaden</i> milk-pans throw up
+the cream much better than vessels of any other kind.</p>
+
+<p>"In some parts of the north of England it is customary for the
+inn-keepers to prepare mint-salad by bruising and grinding the vegetable
+in a large wooden bowl with a <i>ball of lead</i> of twelve or fourteen
+pounds weight. In this operation the mint is cut, and portions of the
+lead are ground off at every revolution of the ponderous instrument. In
+the same county, it is a common practice to have brewing-coppers
+constructed with the bottom of copper and the whole sides of lead."</p>
+
+<p>The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured earthenware, and the salting
+and preserving of meat in leaden pans, are no less objectionable. All
+kinds of food which contain free vegetable acids, or saline
+preparations, attack utensils covered with a glaze, in the composition
+of which lead enters as a component part. The leaden beds of presses for
+squeezing the fruit in cyder countries, have produced incalculable
+mischief. These consequences never follow, when the lead is combined
+with tin; because this metal, being more eager for oxidation, prevents
+the solution of the lead.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p><p>When we consider the various unsuspected means by which the poisons of
+lead and copper gain admittance into the human body, a very common but
+dangerous instance presents itself: namely, the practice of painting
+toys, made for the amusement of children, with poisonous substances,
+viz. red lead, verdigris, &amp;c. Children are apt to put every thing,
+especially what gives them pleasure, into their mouths; the painting of
+toys with colouring substances that are poisonous, ought therefore to be
+abolished; a practice which lies the more open to censure, as it is of
+no real utility.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnotehead">FOOTNOTES:</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Park's Chemical Essays, vol. v. p. 193.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+  <li>A
+  <ul>
+    <li>Adulteration of anchovy sauce,   <span class="smcap lowercase">PAGE</span> <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">beer, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">brandy, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">bread, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">catsup, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">cayenne pepper, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">cheese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">coffee, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">confectionery, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">cream, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">custard, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">gin, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">lemon acid, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">lozenges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">malt spirits, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">mustard, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">olive oil, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">pepper, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">pickles, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">porter, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">rum, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">soda water, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">tea, black, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">green, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">vinegar, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">distilled, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">wine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+    <li>Age of beer, how fraudulently imitated, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+    <li>Alcohol, quantity contained in different kinds of wine, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">malt liquors, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">spiritous liquors, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>Ale, Burton, quantity of spirit which it contains, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Dorchester,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Edinburgh,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Home-brewed&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>Alum, bleaching property in the panification of bread flour, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">method of detecting it in bread, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">for brightening muddy wines, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">clarifying spiritous liquors, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+          <li class="sub3">adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+    <li>Arrack, imitation of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Batavia, quantity of alcohol contained in it, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+    <li>Arrow root, sophistication of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>B
+  <ul>
+    <li>Bakers, their methods of judging of the goodness of bread flour, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+    <li>Beer, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">act prohibiting it, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">with narcotic substances, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">with opium, tobacco, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">colouring of, act prohibiting it, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">heading, composition and use of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">hard, what is meant by it, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">fraudulent method of producing it, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">half-spoiled, fraudulent practice of recovering it, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">illegal substances used for adulterating it, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">old, what is meant by it, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of spirit contained in different kinds, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">strong, adulteration of with small beer, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+          <li class="sub3">act prohibiting it, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">how defined by law, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">strength of different kinds, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+    <li>Bilberries, employed for colouring port wine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+    <li>Bittern, for adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+    <li>Black Extract, for adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+    <li>Bland, Mr. tragical catastrophe of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+    <li>Bouquet of high-flavoured wines, how produced, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>Brandy, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">and method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">complexion of, what is meant by it, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>Brandy flavour of, how imitated, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">imitative, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">method of compounding for retail trade, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity contained in different sorts of wine, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">of alcohol contained in different kinds of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">legal strength, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">how discovered by the Excise, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">false strength, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">flavour, imitative, how produced, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+    <li>Brazil wood, application of for colouring wine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+    <li>Bread, adulteration of with alum    <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+          <li class="sub3">methods of detecting it, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">with potatoes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">goodness of, how estimated in this metropolis, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">how rendered white and firm, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">corn, method of judging its goodness, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">flour, different sorts of from the same kind of grain, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> adulteration of with bean flour, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> process of making five bushels into bread, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> made from new corn, improvement of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> method of judging of goodness, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+    <li>Brewers, list of, prosecuted for using illegal substances in their brewings, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">convicted of adulterating their strong beer with table beer, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">Druggists, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+          <li class="sub3">prosecuted for supplying illegal ingredients to brewers for adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+    <li>Breweries, illegal substances seized at various, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+    <li>Brown Stout, quantity of spirit contained in it, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>C<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Calcavella, quantity of brandy which it contains, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+    <li>Carbonate of ammonia, used by fraudulent bakers, <a href="#Page_104">105</a></li>
+    <li>Catsup, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+    <li>Claret, quantity of brandy which it contains, <a href="#Page_94">95</a></li>
+    <li>Clary, used for flavouring wine, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>Cheese, poisonous, and method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+    <li>Chemists, are not permitted to sell illegal ingredients to brewers for adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>list of, convicted of this fraud, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+    <li>Cherry-laurel water, dangerous application of for flavouring creams, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">used in the manufacture of spurious wines, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">in the manufacture of brandy, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+    <li>Citric Acid, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem"> method of detecting, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+    <li>Cocculus indicus, nefarious application of in the brewing of beer, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">early law prohibiting its application, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">brewers prosecuted for using it, <a href="#Page_151">152</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">seizures made of at different breweries, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">narcotic property of, to what owing, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">extract of, application in brewing, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+    <li><a name="Coffee" id="Coffee"></a>Coffee, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">law in force against it, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">grocers lately convicted of selling spurious, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+    <li>Confectionery, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">methods of detecting it, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+    <li>Conserves, contamination of with copper, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">should never be deposited in vessels glazed with lead, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+    <li>Constantia, quantity of spirit which it contains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+    <li>Copperas, or salt of steel, publicans convicted of mixing it with their beer, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">seizures of, at various breweries, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+    <li>Cream, adulteration of, and mode of detecting it, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+    <li>Custards, flavoured with cherry laurel leaves, dangerous effects from it, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+    <li>Cyder, melancholy catastrophe of persons drinking such as was contaminated with lead, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>E<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Elder-berries are used for colouring port wine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">flowers are used for flavouring insipid white wines, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>Entire beer, origin of its name, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">composition of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+    <li>Extract of cocculus indicus is used by fraudulent brewers, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>F<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>False strength, how given to wine and spiritous liquors, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>how given to vinegar, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+    <li>Flavour of French brandy, how imitated, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+    <li>Flour, new, of an indifferent quality, how rendered fit for being made into good and wholesome bread, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">different sorts, from the same kind of grain, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">sour, practice of converting it into bread, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+    <li>Food, rendered poisonous by copper vessels, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">by leaden vessels, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+    <li>Frothy head of porter, how artificially produced, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>G<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Geneva, Dutch, quantity of alcohol which it contains, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+    <li>Gin, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of alcohol contained in different sorts, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">dangerous method of clarifying, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">legal exactment of its saleable strength, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem"><i>proof</i>, what is meant by this term, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">strength of, how ascertained by the Excise, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">sweetened, fraudulent practice of composing it for sale, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">unsweetened,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">false strength, how given, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>H<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Hermitage, quantity of brandy which it contains, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+    <li>Hops, adulteration of, prohibited by law, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">its chemical action upon beer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+    <li>Hydrometer, legal, now in use for ascertaining the strength of spiritous liquors, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+    <li>Hyson tea, spurious. See <a href="#Tea_leaves">Tea leaves</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>I<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Imitation arrack, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">tea. See <a href="#Tea_leaves">Tea leaves</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">coffee. See <a href="#Coffee">Coffee</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>L<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Leaden pumps and water reservoirs, dangerous effects to be apprehended from them, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+    <li>Lisbon, quantity of spirit which it contains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>Lozenges, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+    <li>Lemon acid, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>M<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Madeira, quantity of brandy which it contains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+    <li>Malaga, quantity of brandy contained in it, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+    <li>Malt, patent, for colouring porter, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">disadvantages of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">liquors, dangerous adulteration of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">strength of different kinds. See Porter, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">spirits, adulterations of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">characteristic flavour, to what owing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">nefarious practices of compounding them for sale, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">false strength, how given, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">act restricting the strength of it, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+    <li>Meat, salted, should not be preserved in leaden vessels, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+    <li>Milk, improper practice of keeping it in leaden vessels, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+    <li>Mint salad, pernicious custom of preparing it, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+    <li>Multum, a substance employed for adulterating beer, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">seizures of, at various breweries, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+    <li>Mushroom, poisonous, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Catsup, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+    <li>Mustard, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>O<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Oak-wood saw-dust, is used in the manufacture of spurious port wine, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">in the manufacture of spurious brandy, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+    <li>Orris-root, is used for flavouring insipid wines, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>Olive oil, contamination of, with lead, and method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>P<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Pickles, contamination of with copper, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">improper vessels for keeping them, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+    <li>Pepper, black, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">law in force against it, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+    <li>Poisonous Cheese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>Cayenne pepper, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">catsup, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">custard, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">olive oil, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">mushroom, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">pickles, <a href="#Page_217">207</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">soda water, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+    <li>Porter, origin of its name, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">adulteration of with wormwood, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">act prohibiting it, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">average strength of, as furnished to the publican, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> ditto, as sent out by the retailers, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">illegal substances for adulterating it, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">brewers, convicted of adulterating their porter with illegal ingredients, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+    <li>Porter, frothy head of, how produced, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">method of ascertaining the strength of different kinds, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of alcohol contained in London porter, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>Port wine, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+    <li>Publicans, prosecuted for adulterating their strong beer with table beer, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>Q<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Quassia, fraudulent substitution of, for hops, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">disadvantages of its application, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">seizures of, at various breweries, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>R<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Raisin wine, quantity of brandy which it contains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+    <li>Rum, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">false strength, how given to it, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">is seizable, if sold, unless of a certain strength, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of alcohol contained in it, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>S<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Soda Water, poisonous, and method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+    <li>Spiritous Liquors, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">dangerous practice of fining them with noxious ingredients, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of alcohol contained in different kinds, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>Sweetmeats, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+    <li>Sweet-brier, use of it for flavouring wines, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>T<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Tarts of fruits, should not be baked in earthenware vessels glazed with lead, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+    <li><a name="Tea_leaves" id="Tea_leaves"></a>Tea leaves, adulteration of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">law in force against it, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">poisonous sophistication of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">coloring of, with verdigris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">black, spurious, process of manufacturing it, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">green, imitation of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+    <li>Tea dealers, convicted for selling adulterated tea, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+    <li>Toys, improper practice of painting them with poisonous colours, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>V<br />
+  <ul>
+    <li>Vidonia, quantity of brandy contained in it, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+    <li>Vin de Grave,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto, <a href="#Page_94">95</a></li>
+    <li>Vinegar, adulteration of, and method of detecting it, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">distilled, and method of ascertaining its strength, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /><br /></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+  <li>W<br/>
+  <ul>
+    <li>Water, characters of good, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">chemical constitution of those used in domestic economy and the arts, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">danger of keeping it in leaden reservoirs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">hard, how softened and rendered fit for washing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">New River, constitution of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">substances contained in potable, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">how detected, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">substances usually contained in spring, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">taste and salubrious quality, to what owing, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Thames, constitution of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">48</a></li>
+    <li>Wine, adulteration of with alum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">British port, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">champaigne, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">bottles, improper practice of cleaning them, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">bottle corks, practice of staining them red, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>Wine doctors, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">quantity of alcohol contained in various kinds, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">dangerous practice of fining them, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2"> to prevent them turning sour, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">art of flavouring them, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">home-made, chemical constitution of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">improvement from age, to what owing, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Southampton port, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">strength of, on what it depends, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">specific differences of different kinds, to what owing, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">test, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">white, manufacture of, from red grapes, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+    <li>Whiskey, Irish, flavour, to what owing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+        <li class="sub2">strength of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+      <li class="subitem">Scotch, ditto, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+    <li>Wormwood, substitution of, for hops, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h4>THE END.</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="notebox">
+<h2><a name="TRANSCRIBERS_NOTES" id="TRANSCRIBERS_NOTES"></a>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h2>
+
+<p>Unusual spellings, variations in spellings, and variations in
+hyphenation have been left as in the original.  Examples include:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>inpregnating<br />
+transparant<br />
+coculus/cocculus<br />
+inconscious<br />
+orris/oris root<br /></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>page iii&mdash;comma added after "beer" in "beer, pepper, and other
+articles of diet"</p>
+
+<p>page x&mdash;changed period to comma after "Ale" in "Method of
+ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter, Ale, &amp;c."</p>
+
+<p>page 61&mdash;changed "where" to "were" in "When men were unable to
+detect the poisonous matters"</p>
+
+<p>page 62&mdash;corrected spelling of "snd" to "and" in "by Hyppocrates,
+Galen, and Vitruvius"</p>
+
+<p>page 78&mdash;added "t" to "yeas" and added period at end of "before it
+is cold, add some yeast and ferment."</p>
+
+<p>page 98&mdash;corrected spelling of "indipensable" to "indispensable" in
+"degree of whiteness rendered indispensable by the caprice of the
+consumers"</p>
+
+<p>page 104&mdash;changed comma to period after "sufficient for a sack of
+flour"</p>
+
+<p>page 113&mdash;changed comma to period after "made of these ingredients
+only, are entirely deceived"</p>
+
+<p>page 120&mdash;corrected "Authur" to "Arthur" in "Arthur Waller" and
+corrected "Dun" to "Dunn" in "John Dunn"</p>
+
+<p>page 126&mdash;added period after "Co" in "Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and
+Co"</p>
+
+<p>page 129&mdash;added period after "l" in "strong beer, 20l"</p>
+
+<p>page 130&mdash;added comma after "Harbur" in "John Harbur, for using
+salt of steel"</p>
+
+<p>page 140&mdash;added ending quote mark after "of them from brewers'
+druggists, within these two years past."</p>
+
+<p>page 149&mdash;changed comma to period after "resorted to only by
+fraudulent brewers"</p>
+
+<p>page 152&mdash;changed semi-colon after "Stephens" in "Septimus
+Stephens, brewer"</p>
+
+<p>page 154&mdash;corrected spelling of "apolexy" to "apoplexy" in
+"drinkers are very liable to apoplexy"</p>
+
+<p>page 169&mdash;corrected spelling of "Malin's" to "Malins'" in "Malins'
+coffee-roasting premises"</p>
+
+<p>page 185&mdash;corrected spelling of "find" to "fined" in "were fined
+20l. each"</p>
+
+<p>page 202&mdash;added the word "on" in "as stated on pages 70 and 86"</p>
+
+<p>page 210&mdash;corrected spelling of "annotta" to "anotta" in "who
+adulterated the anotta"</p>
+
+<p>page 223&mdash;added hyphen in "tea-spoonful" and corrected spelling of
+"jodine" to "iodine" in "few drops of a solution of iodine"</p>
+
+<p>page 227&mdash;added "s" at end of "Mr. Lewi "</p>
+
+<p>page 231&mdash;corrected spelling of "cookry" to "cookery" in "articles
+of cookery"</p>
+
+<p>page 245&mdash;corrected spelling of "glanular" to "granular" in
+"insoluble precipitate in minute granular crystals"</p>
+
+<p>Footnote 46&mdash;added period after "p" in "3d edit. p. 270"</p>
+
+<p>Footnote 87&mdash;added missing end quote after "with copperas and
+sheep's dung." and removed extraneous period after "48" in "Plant,
+p. 48;"</p>
+
+<p>Footnote 115&mdash;corrected spelling of "Qv&aelig;" to "Qu&aelig;" in "Qu&aelig; voluptas
+tanta ancipitis cibi?"</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,
+and Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19031-h.htm or 19031-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/0/3/19031/
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/19031-h/images/image1.png b/19031-h/images/image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f5eee0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-h/images/image1.png
diff --git a/19031-h/images/image2.png b/19031-h/images/image2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0db145
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-h/images/image2.png
diff --git a/19031-h/images/image3.png b/19031-h/images/image3.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fcbb48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031-h/images/image3.png
diff --git a/19031.txt b/19031.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e2a356
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6561 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and
+Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons
+       Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer,
+       Wine, Spiritous Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionery,
+       Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, Pickles, and
+       Other Articles Employed in Domestic Economy
+
+Author: Fredrick Accum
+
+Release Date: August 12, 2006 [EBook #19031]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+TREATISE
+
+ON
+
+ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,
+
+_AND CULINARY POISONS_.
+
+
+EXHIBITING
+
+The Fraudulent Sophistications of
+
+BREAD, BEER, WINE, SPIRITOUS LIQUORS, TEA, COFFEE, CREAM, CONFECTIONERY,
+VINEGAR, MUSTARD, PEPPER, CHEESE, OLIVE OIL, PICKLES,
+
+AND OTHER ARTICLES EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
+
+
+AND
+
+METHODS OF DETECTING THEM.
+
+
+_By Fredrick Accum_,
+
+OPERATIVE CHEMIST, AND MEMBER OF THE PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES AND SOCIETIES
+OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN EUROPE.
+
+
+Philadelphia:
+PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY AB'M SMALL
+1820.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This Treatise, as its title expresses, is intended to exhibit easy
+methods of detecting the fraudulent adulterations of food, and of other
+articles, classed either among the necessaries or luxuries of the table;
+and to put the unwary on their guard against the use of such commodities
+as are contaminated with substances deleterious to health.
+
+Every person is aware that bread, beer, wine, and other substances
+employed in domestic economy, are frequently met with in an adulterated
+state: and the late convictions of numerous individuals for
+counterfeiting and adulterating tea, coffee, bread, beer, pepper, and
+other articles of diet, are still fresh in the memory of the public.
+
+To such perfection of ingenuity has the system of counterfeiting and
+adulterating various commodities of life arrived in this country, that
+spurious articles are every where to be found in the market, made up so
+skilfully, as to elude the discrimination of the most experienced
+judges.
+
+But of all possible nefarious traffic and deception, practised by
+mercenary dealers, that of adulterating the articles intended for human
+food with ingredients deleterious to health, is the most criminal, and,
+in the mind of every honest man, must excite feelings of regret and
+disgust. Numerous facts are on record, of human food, contaminated with
+poisonous ingredients, having been vended to the public; and the annals
+of medicine record tragical events ensuing from the use of such food.
+
+The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, is proof against prohibitions
+and penalties; and the possible sacrifice of a fellow-creature's life,
+is a secondary consideration among unprincipled dealers.
+
+However invidious the office may appear, and however painful the duty
+may be, of exposing the names of individuals, who have been convicted of
+adulterating food; yet it was necessary, for the verification of my
+statement, that cases should be adduced in their support; and I have
+carefully avoided citing any, except those which are authenticated in
+Parliamentary documents and other public records.
+
+To render this Treatise still more useful, I have also animadverted on
+certain material errors, sometimes unconsciously committed through
+accident or ignorance, in private families, during the preparation of
+various articles of food, and of delicacies for the table.
+
+In stating the experimental proceedings necessary for the detection of
+the frauds which it has been my object to expose, I have confined myself
+to the task of pointing out such operations only as may be performed by
+persons unacquainted with chemical science; and it has been my purpose
+to express all necessary rules and instructions in the plainest
+language, divested of those recondite terms of science, which would be
+out of place in a work intended for general perusal.
+
+The design of the Treatise will be fully answered, if the views here
+given should induce a single reader to pursue the object for which it
+is published; or if it should tend to impress on the mind of the Public
+the magnitude of an evil, which, in many cases, prevails to an extent so
+alarming, that we may exclaim with the sons of the Prophet,
+
+     "_THERE IS DEATH IN THE POT._"
+
+For the abolition of such nefarious practices, it is the interest of all
+classes of the community to co-operate.
+
+FREDRICK ACCUM.
+
+LONDON.
+1820.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD           _Page_ 13
+
+
+EFFECT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WATER EMPLOYED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY       33
+
+_Characters of Good Water_ 37
+
+_Chemical Constitution of the Waters used in Domestic Economy and
+the Arts_                                                             40
+
+_Rain Water_                                                          40
+_Snow Water_                                                          41
+_Spring Water_                                                        42
+_River Water_                                                         44
+
+_Substances usually contained in Common Water, and Tests by which
+they are detected_                                                    48
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of each of the different
+Substances usually contained in Common Water_                         54
+
+_Deleterious Effects of keeping Water for Domestic Economy, in
+Leaden Reservoirs_                                                    60
+
+_Method of detecting Lead, when contained in common Water_            69
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF WINE                                                  74
+
+_Method of detecting the Deleterious Adulterations of Wine_           86
+
+_Specific Differences, and Component Parts of Wine_                   89
+
+_Easy process of ascertaining the Quantity of Brandy contained in
+various sorts of Wine_                                                92
+
+_Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol
+contained in various kinds of Wine and other fermented Liquors_       94
+
+_Constitution of Home-made Wines_                                     96
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BREAD                                                 98
+
+_Method of detecting the Presence of Alum in Bread_                  108
+
+_Easy Method of judging of the Goodness of Bread-Corn and
+Bread-Flour_                                                         110
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BEER                                                 113
+
+_List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted for
+supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for Adulterating Beer_      119
+
+_Porter_                                                             121
+
+_Strength and Specific Differences of different kinds of Porter_     125
+
+_List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Beer
+with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer with their
+Strong Beer_                                                         129
+
+_Illegal Substances used for adulterating Beer_                      131
+
+_Ingredients seized at various Breweries and Brewers' Druggists,
+for adulterating Beer_                                               136
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for adulterating Strong
+Beer with Table Beer_                                                143
+
+_Old, or Entire Beer; and New or Mild Beer_                          144
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted for receiving and using
+illegal Ingredients in their Brewings_                               151
+
+_Method of detecting the Adulteration of Beer_                       158
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter,
+Ale, &c._                                                            160
+
+_Per Centage of Alcohol contained in Porter, and other kinds of
+Malt Liquors_                                                        162
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT TEA-LEAVES                                               163
+
+_Methods of detecting the Adulterations of Tea-Leaves_               171
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT COFFEE                                                   176
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF BRANDY, RUM, AND GIN                                 187
+
+_Method of detecting the Adulterations of Brandy, Rum, and Malt
+Spirit_                                                              195
+
+_Method of detecting the Presence of Lead in Spiritous Liquors_      202
+
+_Method of ascertaining the Quantity of Alcohol contained in
+different kinds of Spiritous Liquors_                                203
+
+_Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol contained in various
+kinds of Spiritous Liquors_                                          205
+
+
+POISONOUS CHEESE, _and method of detecting it_                       206
+
+
+COUNTERFEIT PEPPER, _and Method of detecting it_                     211
+
+_White Pepper, and method of manufacturing it_                       213
+
+
+POISONOUS CAYENNE PEPPER, _and method of detecting it_               215
+
+
+POISONOUS PICKLES, _and method of detecting them_                    217
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF VINEGAR, _and method of detecting it_                220
+
+_Distilled Vinegar_                                                  221
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF CREAM, _and method of detecting it_                  222
+
+
+POISONOUS CONFECTIONERY, _and method of detecting it_                224
+
+
+POISONOUS CATSUP, _and method of detecting it_                       227
+
+
+POISONOUS CUSTARDS                                                   231
+
+
+POISONOUS ANCHOVY SAUCE, _and method of detecting it_                234
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF LOZENGES, _and method of detecting them_             236
+
+
+POISONOUS OLIVE OIL, _and method of detecting it_                    239
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF MUSTARD                                              241
+
+
+ADULTERATION OF LEMON ACID, _and method of detecting it_             243
+
+
+POISONOUS MUSHROOMS                                                  246
+
+_Mushroom catsup_                                                    250
+
+
+POISONOUS SODA WATER, _and method of detecting it_                   251
+
+
+FOOD POISONED BY COPPER VESSELS, _and method of detecting it_        252
+
+
+FOOD POISONED BY LEADEN VESSELS, _and method of detecting it_        257
+
+
+INDEX                                                                261
+
+
+
+
+A
+
+TREATISE
+
+ON
+
+ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD,
+
+AND
+
+CULINARY POISONS.
+
+
+
+
+PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
+
+
+Of all the frauds practised by mercenary dealers, there is none more
+reprehensible, and at the same time more prevalent, than the
+sophistication of the various articles of food.
+
+This unprincipled and nefarious practice, increasing in degree as it has
+been found difficult of detection, is now applied to almost every
+commodity which can be classed among either the necessaries or the
+luxuries of life, and is carried on to a most alarming extent in every
+part of the United Kingdom.
+
+It has been pursued by men, who, from the magnitude and apparent
+respectability of their concerns, would be the least obnoxious to public
+suspicion; and their successful example has called forth, from among the
+retail dealers, a multitude of competitors in the same iniquitous
+course.
+
+To such perfection of ingenuity has this system of adulterating food
+arrived, that spurious articles of various kinds are every where to be
+found, made up so skilfully as to baffle the discrimination of the most
+experienced judges.
+
+Among the number of substances used in domestic economy which are now
+very generally found sophisticated, may be distinguished--tea, coffee,
+bread, beer, wine, spiritous liquors, salad oil, pepper, vinegar,
+mustard, cream, and other articles of subsistence.
+
+Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which
+is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are some
+substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine.
+
+Some of these spurious compounds are comparatively harmless when used
+as food; and as in these cases merely substances of inferior value are
+substituted for more costly and genuine ingredients, the sophistication,
+though it may affect our purse, does not injure our health. Of this kind
+are the manufacture of factitious pepper, the adulterations of mustard,
+vinegar, cream, &c. Others, however, are highly deleterious; and to this
+class belong the adulterations of beer, wines, spiritous liquors,
+pickles, salad oil, and many others.
+
+There are particular chemists who make it a regular trade to supply
+drugs or nefarious preparations to the unprincipled brewer of porter or
+ale; others perform the same office to the wine and spirit merchant; and
+others again to the grocer and the oilman. The operators carry on their
+processes chiefly in secresy, and under some delusive firm, with the
+ostensible denotements of a fair and lawful establishment.
+
+These illicit pursuits have assumed all the order and method of a
+regular trade; they may severally claim to be distinguished as an _art
+and mystery_; for the workmen employed in them are often wholly ignorant
+of the nature of the substances which pass through their hands, and of
+the purposes to which they are ultimately applied.
+
+To elude the vigilance of the inquisitive, to defeat the scrutiny of the
+revenue officer, and to ensure the secresy of these mysteries, the
+processes are very ingeniously divided and subdivided among individual
+operators, and the manufacture is purposely carried on in separate
+establishments. The task of proportioning the ingredients for use is
+assigned to one individual, while the composition and preparation of
+them may be said to form a distinct part of the business, and is
+entrusted to another workman. Most of the articles are transmitted to
+the consumer in a disguised state, or in such a form that their real
+nature cannot possibly be detected by the unwary. Thus the extract of
+_coculus indicus_, employed by fraudulent manufacturers of malt-liquors
+to impart an intoxicating quality to porter or ales, is known in the
+market by the name of _black extract_, ostensibly destined for the use
+of tanners and dyers. It is obtained by boiling the berries of the
+coculus indicus in water, and converting, by a subsequent evaporation,
+this decoction into a stiff black tenacious mass, possessing, in a high
+degree, the narcotic and intoxicating quality of the poisonous berry
+from which it is prepared. Another substance, composed of extract of
+quassia and liquorice juice, used by fraudulent brewers to economise
+both malt and hops, is technically called _multum_.[1]
+
+The quantities of coculus indicus berries, as well as of black extract,
+imported into this country for adulterating malt liquors, are enormous.
+It forms a considerable branch of commerce in the hands of a few
+brokers: yet, singular as it may seem, no inquiry appears to have been
+hitherto made by the officers of the revenue respecting its application.
+Many other substances employed in the adulteration of beer, ale, and
+spiritous liquors, are in a similar manner intentionally disguised; and
+of the persons by whom they are purchased, a great number are totally
+unacquainted with their nature or composition.
+
+An extract, said to be innocent, sold in casks, containing from half a
+cwt. to five cwt. by the brewers' druggists, under the name of
+_bittern_, is composed of calcined sulphate of iron (copperas), extract
+of coculus indicus berries, extract of quassia, and Spanish liquorice.
+
+It would be very easy to adduce, in support of these remarks, the
+testimony of numerous individuals, by whom I have been professionally
+engaged to examine certain mixtures, said to be perfectly innocent,
+which are used in very extensive manufactories of the above description.
+Indeed, during the long period devoted to the practice of my
+profession, I have had abundant reason to be convinced that a vast
+number of dealers, of the highest respectability, have vended to their
+customers articles absolutely poisonous, which they themselves
+considered as harmless, and which they would not have offered for sale,
+had they been apprised of the spurious and pernicious nature of the
+compounds, and of the purposes to which they were destined.
+
+For instance, I have known cases in which brandy merchants were not
+aware that the substance which they frequently purchase under the
+delusive name of _flash_, for strengthening and clarifying spiritous
+liquors, and which is held out as consisting of burnt sugar and
+isinglass only, in the form of an extract, is in reality a compound of
+sugar, with extract of capsicum; and that to the acrid and pungent
+qualities of the capsicum is to be ascribed the heightened flavour of
+brandy and rum, when coloured with the above-mentioned matter.
+
+In other cases the ale-brewer has been supplied with ready-ground
+coriander seeds, previously mixed with a portion of _nux vomica_ and
+quassia, to give a bitter taste and narcotic property to the beverage.
+
+The retail venders of mustard do not appear to be aware that mustard
+seed alone cannot produce, when ground, a powder of so intense and
+brilliant a colour as that of the common mustard of commerce. Nor would
+the powder of real mustard, when mixed with salt and water, without the
+addition of a portion of pulverised capsicum, keep for so long a time as
+the mustard usually offered for sale.
+
+Many other instances of unconscious deceptions might be mentioned, which
+were practised by persons of upright and honourable minds.
+
+It is a painful reflection, that the division of labour which has been
+so instrumental in bringing the manufactures of this country to their
+present flourishing state, should have also tended to conceal and
+facilitate the fraudulent practices in question; and that from a
+correspondent ramification of commerce into a multitude of distinct
+branches, particularly in the metropolis and the large towns of the
+empire, the traffic in adulterated commodities should find its way
+through so many circuitous channels, as to defy the most scrutinising
+endeavour to trace it to its source.
+
+It is not less lamentable that the extensive application of chemistry to
+the useful purposes of life, should have been perverted into an
+auxiliary to this nefarious traffic. But, happily for the science, it
+may, without difficulty, be converted into a means of detecting the
+abuse; to effect which, very little chemical skill is required; and the
+course to be pursued forms the object of the following pages.
+
+The baker asserts that he does not put alum into bread; but he is well
+aware that, in purchasing a certain quantity of flour, he must take a
+sack of _sharp whites_ (a term given to flour contaminated with a
+quantity of alum), without which it would be impossible for him to
+produce light, white, and porous bread, from a half-spoiled material.
+
+The wholesale mealman frequently purchases this spurious commodity,
+(which forms a separate branch of business in the hands of certain
+individuals,) in order to enable himself to sell his decayed and
+half-spoiled flour.
+
+Other individuals furnish the baker with alum mixed up with salt, under
+the obscure denomination of _stuff_. There are wholesale manufacturing
+chemists, whose sole business is to crystallise alum, in such a form as
+will adapt this salt to the purpose of being mixed in a crystalline
+state with the crystals of common salt, to disguise the character of
+the compound. The mixture called _stuff_, is composed of one part of
+alum, in minute crystals, and three of common salt. In many other trades
+a similar mode of proceeding prevails. Potatoes are soaked in water to
+augment their weight.
+
+The practice of sophisticating the necessaries of life, being reduced to
+systematic regularity, is ranked by public opinion among other
+mercantile pursuits; and is not only regarded with less disgust than
+formerly, but is almost generally esteemed as a justifiable way to
+wealth.
+
+It is really astonishing that the penal law is not more effectually
+enforced against practices so inimical to the public welfare. The man
+who robs a fellow subject of a few shillings on the high-way, is
+sentenced to death; while he who distributes a slow poison to a whole
+community, escapes unpunished.
+
+It has been urged by some, that, under so vast a system of finance as
+that of Great Britain, it is expedient that the revenue should be
+collected in large amounts; and therefore that the severity of the law
+should be relaxed in favour of all mercantile concerns in proportion to
+their extent: encouragement must be given to large capitalists; and
+where an extensive brewery or distillery yields an important
+contribution to the revenue, no strict scrutiny need be adopted in
+regard to the quality of the article from which such contribution is
+raised, provided the excise do not suffer by the fraud.
+
+But the principles of the constitution afford no sanction to this
+preference, and the true interests of the country require that it should
+be abolished; for a tax dependent upon deception must be at best
+precarious, and must be, sooner or later, diminished by the irresistible
+diffusion of knowledge. Sound policy requires that the law should be
+impartially enforced in all cases; and if its penalties were extended to
+abuses of which it does not now take cognisance, there is no doubt that
+the revenue would be abundantly benefited.
+
+Another species of fraud, to which I shall at present but briefly
+advert, and which has increased to so alarming an extent, that it loudly
+calls for the interference of government, is the adulteration of drugs
+and medicines.
+
+Nine-tenths of the most potent drugs and chemical preparations used in
+pharmacy, are vended in a sophisticated state by dealers who would be
+the last to be suspected. It is well known, that of the article Peruvian
+bark, there is a variety of species inferior to the genuine; that too
+little discrimination is exercised by the collectors of this precious
+medicament; that it is carelessly assorted, and is frequently packed in
+green hides; that much of it arrives in Spain in a half-decayed state,
+mixed with fragments of other vegetables and various extraneous
+substances; and in this state is distributed throughout Europe.
+
+But as if this were not a sufficient deterioration, the public are often
+served with a spurious compound of mahogany saw-dust and oak wood,
+ground into powder mixed with a proportion of good quinquina, and sold
+as genuine bark powder.
+
+Every chemist knows that there are mills constantly at work in this
+metropolis, which furnish bark powder at a much cheaper rate than the
+substance can be procured for in its natural state. The price of the
+best genuine bark, upon an average, is not lower than twelve shillings
+the pound; but immense quantities of powder bark are supplied to the
+apothecaries at three or four shillings a pound.
+
+It is also notorious that there are manufacturers of spurious rhubarb
+powder, ipecacuanha powder,[2] James's powder; and other simple and
+compound medicines of great potency, who carry on their diabolical trade
+on an amazingly large scale. Indeed, the quantity of medical
+preparations thus sophisticated exceeds belief. Cheapness, and not
+genuineness and excellence, is the grand desideratum with the
+unprincipled dealers in drugs and medicines.
+
+Those who are familiar with chemistry may easily convince themselves of
+the existence of the fraud, by subjecting to a chemical examination
+either spirits of hartshorn, magnesia, calcined magnesia, calomel, or
+any other chemical preparation in general demand.
+
+Spirit of hartshorn is counterfeited by mixing liquid caustic ammonia
+with the distilled spirit of hartshorn, to increase the pungency of its
+odour, and to enable it to bear an addition of water.
+
+The fraud is detected by adding spirit of wine to the sophisticated
+spirit; for, if no considerable coagulation ensues, the adulteration is
+proved. It may also be discovered by the hartshorn spirit not producing
+a brisk effervescence when mixed with muriatic or nitric acid.
+
+Magnesia usually contains a portion of lime, originating from hard water
+being used instead of soft, in the preparation of this medicine.
+
+To ascertain the purity of magnesia, add to a portion of it a little
+sulphuric acid, diluted with ten times its bulk of water. If the
+magnesia be completely soluble, and the solution remains transparent, it
+may be pronounced _pure_; but not otherwise. Or, dissolve a portion of
+the magnesia in muriatic acid, and add a solution of sub-carbonate of
+ammonia. If any lime be present, it will form a precipitate; whereas
+pure magnesia will remain in solution.
+
+Calcined magnesia is seldom met with in a pure state. It may be assayed
+by the same tests as the common magnesia. It ought not to effervesce at
+all, with dilute sulphuric acid; and, if the magnesia and acid be put
+together into one scale of a balance, no diminution of weight should
+ensue on mixing them together. Calcined magnesia, however, is very
+seldom so pure as to be totally dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid;
+for a small insoluble residue generally remains, consisting chiefly of
+silicious earth, derived from the alkali employed in the preparation of
+it. The solution in sulphuric acid, when largely diluted, ought not to
+afford any precipitation by the addition of oxalate of ammonia.
+
+The genuineness of calomel may be ascertained by boiling, for a few
+minutes, one part, with 1/32 part of muriate of ammonia in ten parts of
+distilled water. When carbonate of potash is added to the filtered
+solution, no precipitation will ensue if the calomel be pure.
+
+Indeed, some of the most common and cheap drugs do not escape the
+adulterating hand of the unprincipled druggist. Syrup of buckthorn, for
+example, instead of being prepared from the juice of buckthorn berries,
+(_rhamnus catharticus_,) is made from the fruit of the blackberry
+bearing alder, and the dogberry tree. A mixture of the berries of the
+buckthorn and blackberry bearing alder, and of the dogberry tree, may be
+seen publicly exposed for sale by some of the venders of medicinal
+herbs. This abuse may be discovered by opening the berries: those of
+buckthorn have almost always four seeds; of the alder, two; and of the
+dogberry, only one. Buckthorn berries, bruised on white paper, stain it
+of a green colour, which the others do not.
+
+Instead of worm-seed (_artemisia santonica_,) the seeds of tansy are
+frequently offered for sale, or a mixture of both.
+
+A great many of the essential oils obtained from the more expensive
+spices, are frequently so much adulterated, that it is not easy to meet
+with such as are at all fit for use: nor are these adulterations easily
+discoverable. The grosser abuses, indeed, may be readily detected. Thus,
+if the oil be adulterated with alcohol, it will turn milky on the
+addition of water; if with expressed oils, alcohol will dissolve the
+volatile, and leave the other behind; if with oil of turpentine, on
+dipping a piece of paper in the mixture, and drying it with a gentle
+heat, the turpentine will be betrayed by its smell. The more subtile
+artists, however, have contrived other methods of sophistication, which
+elude all trials. And as all volatile oils agree in the general
+properties of solubility in spirit of wine, and volatility in the heat
+of boiling water, &c. it is plain that they may be variously mixed with
+each other, or the dearer sophisticated with the cheaper, without any
+possibility of discovering the abuse by any of the before-mentioned
+trials. Perfumers assert that the smell and taste are the only certain
+tests of which the nature of the thing will admit. For example, if a
+bark should have in every respect the appearance of good cinnamon, and
+should be proved indisputably to be the genuine bark of the cinnamon
+tree; yet if it want the cinnamon flavour, or has it but in a low
+degree, we reject it: and the case is the same with the essential oil of
+cinnamon. It is only from use and habit, or comparisons with specimens
+of known quality, that we can judge of the goodness, either of the drugs
+themselves, or of their oils.
+
+Most of the arrow-root, the fecula of the Maranta arudinacea, sold by
+druggists, is a mixture of potatoe starch and arrow-root.
+
+The same system of adulteration extends to articles used in various
+trades and manufactures. For instance, linen tape, and various other
+household commodities of that kind, instead of being manufactured of
+linen thread only, are made up of linen and cotton. Colours for
+painting, not only those used by artists, such as ultramarine,[3]
+carmine,[4] and lake;[5] Antwerp blue,[6] chrome yellow,[7] and Indian
+ink;[8] but also the coarser colours used by the common house-painter
+are more or less adulterated. Thus, of the latter kind, white lead[9] is
+mixed with carbonate or sulphate of barytes; vermilion[10] with red
+lead.
+
+Soap used in house-keeping is frequently adulterated with a
+considerable portion of fine white clay, brought from St. Stephens, in
+Cornwall. In the manufacture of printing paper, a large quantity of
+plaster of Paris is added to the paper stuff, to increase the weight of
+the manufactured article. The selvage of cloth is often dyed with a
+permanent colour, and artfully stitched to the edge of cloth dyed with a
+fugitive dye. The frauds committed in the tanning of skins, and in the
+manufacture of cutlery and jewelry, exceed belief.
+
+The object of all unprincipled modern manufacturers seems to be the
+sparing of their time and labour as much as possible, and to increase
+the quantity of the articles they produce, without much regard to their
+quality. The ingenuity and perseverance of self-interest is proof
+against prohibitions, and contrives to elude the vigilance of the most
+active government.
+
+The eager and insatiable thirst for gain, which seems to be a leading
+characteristic of the times, calls into action every human faculty, and
+gives an irresistible impulse to the power of invention; and where lucre
+becomes the reigning principle, the possible sacrifice of even a fellow
+creature's life is a secondary consideration. In reference to the
+deterioration of almost all the necessaries and comforts of existence,
+it may be justly observed, in a civil as well as a religious sense, that
+"_in the midst of life we are in death_."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _The Times_, May 18, 1818. The King _v._ Richard Bowman. The
+defendant was a brewer, living in Wapping-street, Wapping, and was
+charged with having in his possession a drug called _multum_, and a
+quantity of copperas.
+
+The articles were produced by Thomas Gates, an excise officer, who had,
+after a search, found them on the defendant's premises. The Court
+sentenced the defendant to pay a fine of 200_l._
+
+The King _v._ Luke Lyons. The defendant is a brewer, and was brought up
+under an indictment charging him with having made use of various
+deleterious drugs in his brewery, among which were capsicum, copperas,
+&c. The defendant was ordered to pay the fines of 20_l._ upon the first
+count, 200_l._ upon the third, and 200_l._ upon the seventh count in the
+indictment.
+
+The King _v._ Thomas Evans. The charge against this defendant was, that
+he had in his possession forty-seven barrels of stale unpalatable beer.
+On, the 11th of March, John Wilson, an excise officer, went to the
+storehouse, and found forty-seven casks containing forty-three barrels
+and a half of sour unwholesome beer. Several samples of the beer were
+produced, all of them of a different colour, and filled with sediment. A
+fine of 30_l._ was ordered to be paid by the defendant.
+
+[2] Of this root, several varieties are imported. The white sort, which
+has no wrinkles, and no perceptible bitterness in taste, and which,
+though taken in a large dose, has scarcely any effect at all, after
+being pulverised by fraudulent druggists, and mixed with a portion of
+emetic tartar, is sold, at a low price, for the powder of genuine
+ipecacuanha root.
+
+[3] Genuine ultramarine should become deprived of its colour when thrown
+into concentrated nitric acid.
+
+[4] Genuine carmine should be totally soluble in liquid ammonia.
+
+[5] Genuine madder and carmine lakes should be totally soluble by
+boiling in a concentrated solution of soda or potash.
+
+[6] Genuine Antwerp blue should not become deprived of its colour when
+thrown into liquid chlorine.
+
+[7] Genuine chrome yellow should not effervesce with nitric acid.
+
+[8] The best Indian ink breaks, splintery, with a smooth glossy
+fracture, and feels soft, and not gritty, when rubbed against the teeth.
+
+[9] Genuine white lead should be completely soluble in nitric acid, and
+the solution should remain transparent when mingled with a solution of
+sulphate of soda.
+
+[10] Genuine vermilion should become totally volatilised on being
+exposed to a red heat; and it should not impart a red colour to spirit
+of wine, when digested with it.
+
+
+
+
+REMARKS
+
+ON THE
+
+Effect of different Kinds of Waters
+
+IN THEIR APPLICATION TO
+
+DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS;
+
+AND
+
+METHODS OF ASCERTAINING THEIR PURITY.
+
+
+It requires not much reflection to become convinced that the waters
+which issue from the recesses of the earth, and form springs, wells,
+rivers, or lakes, often materially differ from each other in their taste
+and other obvious properties. There are few people who have not observed
+a difference in the waters used for domestic purposes and in the arts;
+and the distinctions of _hard_ and _soft_ water are familiar to every
+body.
+
+Water perfectly pure is scarcely ever met with in nature.
+
+It must also be obvious, that the health and comfort of families, and
+the conveniences of domestic life, are materially affected by the supply
+of good and wholesome water. Hence a knowledge of the quality and
+salubrity of the different kinds of waters employed in the common
+concerns of life, on account of the abundant daily use we make of them
+in the preparation of food, is unquestionably an object of considerable
+importance, and demands our attention.
+
+The effects produced by the foreign matters which water may contain, are
+more considerable, and of greater importance, than might at first be
+imagined. It cannot be denied, that such waters as are _hard_, or loaded
+with earthy matter, have a decided effect upon some important functions
+of the human body. They increase the distressing symptoms under which
+those persons labour who are afflicted with what is commonly called
+gravel complaints; and many other ailments might be named, that are
+always aggravated by the use of waters abounding in saline and earthy
+substances.
+
+The purity of the waters employed in some of the arts and manufactures,
+is an object of not less consequence. In the process of brewing malt
+liquors, soft water is preferable to hard. Every brewer knows that the
+largest possible quantity of the extractive matter of the malt is
+obtained in the least possible time, and at the smallest cost, by means
+of soft water.
+
+In the art of the dyer, hard water not only opposes the solution of
+several dye stuffs, but it also alters the natural tints of some
+delicate colours; whilst in others again it precipitates the earthy and
+saline matters with which it is impregnated, into the delicate fibres of
+the stuff, and thus impedes the softness and brilliancy of the dye.
+
+The bleacher cannot use with advantage waters impregnated with earthy
+salts; and a minute portion of iron imparts to the cloth a yellowish
+hue.
+
+To the manufacturer of painters' colours, water as pure as possible is
+absolutely essential for the successful preparation of several delicate
+pigments. Carmine, madder lake, ultramarine, and Indian yellow, cannot
+be prepared without perfectly pure water.
+
+For the steeping or raiting of flax, soft water is absolutely necessary;
+in hard water the flax may be immersed for months, till its texture be
+injured, and still the ligneous matter will not be decomposed, and the
+fibres properly separated.
+
+In the culinary art, the effects of water more or less pure are
+likewise obvious. Good and pure water softens the fibres of animal and
+vegetable matters more readily than such as is called _hard_. Every cook
+knows that dry or ripe pease, and other farinaceous seeds, cannot
+_readily_ be boiled soft in hard water; because the farina of the seed
+is not perfectly soluble in water loaded with earthy salts.
+
+Green esculent vegetable substances are more tender when boiled in soft
+water than in hard water; although hard water imparts to them a better
+colour. The effects of hard and soft water may be easily shown in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Let two separate portions of tea-leaves be macerated, by precisely the
+same processes, in circumstances all alike, in similar and separate
+vessels, the one containing hard and the other soft water, either hot or
+cold, the infusion made with the soft water will have by far the
+strongest taste, although it possesses less colour than the infusion
+made with the hard water. It will strike a more intense black with a
+solution of sulphate of iron, and afford a more abundant precipitate,
+with a solution of animal jelly, which at once shews that soft water has
+extracted more tanning matter, and more gallic acid, from the
+tea-leaves, than could be obtained from them under like circumstances by
+means of hard water.
+
+Many animals which are accustomed to drink soft water, refuse hard
+water. Horses in particular prefer the former. Pigeons refuse hard water
+when they have been accustomed to soft water.
+
+
+CHARACTERS OF GOOD WATER.
+
+A good criterion of the purity of water fit for domestic purposes, is
+its softness. This quality is at once obvious by the touch, if we only
+wash our hands in it with soap. Good water should be beautifully
+transparent; a slight opacity indicates extraneous matter. To judge of
+the perfect transparency of water, a quantity of it should be put into a
+deep glass vessel, the larger the better, so that we can look down
+perpendicularly into a considerable mass of the fluid; we may then
+readily discover the slightest degree of muddiness much better than if
+the water be viewed through the glass placed between the eye and the
+light. It should be perfectly colourless, devoid of odour, and its
+taste soft and agreeable. It should send out air-bubbles when poured
+from one vessel into another; it should boil pulse soft, and form with
+soap an uniform opaline fluid, which does not separate after standing
+for several hours.
+
+It is to the presence of common air and carbonic acid gas that common
+water owes its taste, and many of the good effects which it produces on
+animals and vegetables. Spring water, which contains more air, has a
+more lively taste than river water.
+
+Hence the insipid or vapid taste of newly boiled water, from which these
+gases are expelled: fish cannot live in water deprived of those elastic
+fluids.
+
+100 cubic inches of the New River water, with which part of this
+metropolis is supplied, contains 2,25 of carbonic acid, and 1,25 of
+common air. The water of the river Thames contains rather a larger
+quantity of common air, and a smaller portion of carbonic acid.
+
+If water not fully saturated with common air be agitated with this
+elastic fluid, a portion of the air is absorbed; but the two chief
+constituent gases of the atmosphere, the oxygen and nitrogen, are not
+equally affected, the former being absorbed in preference to the latter.
+
+According to Mr. Dalton, in agitating water with atmospheric air,
+consisting of 79 of nitrogen, and 21 of oxygen, the water absorbs 1/64
+of 79/100 nitrogen gas = 1,234, and 1/27 of 21/100 oxygen gas = 778,
+amounting in all to 2,012.
+
+Water is freed from foreign matter by distillation: and for any chemical
+process in which accuracy is requisite, distilled water must be used.
+
+Hard waters may, in general, be cured in part, by dropping into them a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash; or, if the hardness be owing only
+to the presence of super-carbonate of lime, mere boiling will greatly
+remedy the defect; part of the carbonic acid flies off, and a neutral
+carbonate of lime falls down to the bottom; it may then be used for
+washing, scarcely curdling soap. But if the hardness be owing in part to
+sulphate of lime, boiling does not soften it at all.
+
+When spring water is used for washing, it is advantageous to leave it
+for some time exposed to the open air in a reservoir with a large
+surface. Part of the carbonic acid becomes thus dissipated, and part of
+the carbonate of lime falls to the bottom. Mr. Dalton[11] has observed
+that the more any spring is drawn from, the softer the water becomes.
+
+
+CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE WATERS USED IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE
+ARTS.
+
+
+_Rain Water_,
+
+Collected with every precaution as it descends from the clouds, and at a
+distance from large towns, or any other object capable of impregnating
+the atmosphere with foreign matters, approaches more nearly to a state
+of purity than perhaps any other natural water. Even collected under
+these circumstances, however, it invariably contains a portion of common
+air and carbonic acid gas. The specific gravity of rain water scarcely
+differs from that of distilled water; and from the minute portions of
+the foreign ingredients which it generally contains, it is very _soft_,
+and admirably adapted for many culinary purposes, and various processes
+in different manufactures and the arts.
+
+Fresh-fallen _snow_, melted without the contact of air, appears to be
+nearly free from air. Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, however, affirm, that it
+contains nearly the usual proportion of air.
+
+Water from melted _ice_ does not contain so much air. _Dew_ has been
+supposed to be saturated with air.
+
+Snow water has long laid under the imputation of occasioning those
+strumous swellings in the neck which deform the inhabitants of many of
+the Alpine vallies; but this opinion is not supported by any
+well-authenticated indisputable facts, and is rendered still more
+improbable, if not entirely overturned, by the frequency of the disease
+in Sumatra[12], where ice and snow are never seen.
+
+In high northern latitudes, thawed snow forms the constant drink of the
+inhabitants during winter; and the vast masses of ice which float on the
+polar seas, afford an abundant supply of fresh water to the mariner.
+
+
+_Spring Water_,
+
+Includes well-water and all others that arise from some depth below the
+surface of the earth, and which are used at the fountain-head, or at
+least before they have run any considerable distance exposed to the air.
+Indeed, springs may be considered as rain water which has passed through
+the fissures of the earth, and, having accumulated at the bottom of
+declivities, rises again to the surface forming springs and wells. As
+wells take their origin at some depth from the surface, and below the
+influence of the external atmosphere, their temperature is in general
+pretty uniform during every vicissitude of season, and always several
+degrees lower than the atmosphere. They differ from one another
+according to the nature of the strata through which they issue; for
+though the ingredients usually existing in them are in such minute
+quantities as to impart to the water no striking properties, and do not
+render it unfit for common purposes, yet they modify its nature very
+considerably. Hence the water of some springs is said to be _hard_, of
+others _soft_, some _sweet_, others _brackish_, according to the nature
+and degree of the inpregnating ingredients.
+
+Common springs are insensibly changed into mineral or medicinal springs,
+as their foreign contents become larger or more unusual; or, in some
+instances, they derive medicinal celebrity from the absence of those
+ingredients usually occurring in spring-water; as, for example, is the
+case with the Malvern spring, which is nearly pure water.
+
+Almost all spring-waters possess the property termed _hardness_ in a
+greater or less degree; a property which depends chiefly upon the
+presence of super-carbonate, or of sulphate of lime, or of both; and the
+quantity of these earthy salts varies very considerably in different
+instances. Mr. Dalton[13] has shewn that one grain of sulphate of lime,
+contained in 2000 grains of water, converts it into the hardest spring
+water that is commonly met with.
+
+The waters of deep wells are usually much harder than those of springs
+which overflow the mouth of the well; but there are some exceptions to
+this rule.
+
+The purest springs are those which occur in primitive rocks, or beds of
+gravel, or filter through sand or silicious strata. In general, large
+springs are purer than small ones: and our old wells contain finer water
+than those that are new, as the soluble parts through which the water
+filters in channels under ground become gradually washed away.
+
+
+_River Water_,
+
+Is a term applied to every running stream or rivulet exposed to the air,
+and always flowing in an open channel. It is formed of spring water,
+which, by exposure, becomes more pure, and of running land or surface
+water, which, although turbid from particles of the alluvial soil
+suspended in it, is otherwise very pure. It is purest when it runs over
+a gravelly or rocky bed, and when its course is swift. It is generally
+soft, and more free from earthy salts than spring water; but it usually
+contains less common air and carbonic acid gas; for, by the agitation of
+a long current, and exposed to the temperature of the atmosphere, part
+of its carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the lime held in solution by
+it is in part precipitated, the loss of which contributes to the
+softness of the water. Its specific gravity thereby becomes less, the
+taste not so harsh, but less fresh and agreeable; and out of a hard
+spring is often made a stream of sufficient purity for most of the
+purposes where a soft water is required.
+
+The water called in this metropolis _New River Water_, contains a minute
+portion of muriate of lime, carbonate of lime, and muriate of soda.
+
+Some streams, however, that arise from clean silicious beds, and flow in
+a sandy or stony channel, are from the outset remarkably pure; such as
+the mountain lakes and rivulets in the rocky districts of Wales, the
+source of the beautiful waters of the Dee, and numberless other rivers
+that flow through the hollow of every valley. Switzerland has long been
+celebrated for the purity and excellence of its waters, which pour in
+copious streams from the mountains, and give rise to the finest rivers
+in Europe.
+
+Some rivers, however, that do not take their rise from a rocky soil, and
+are indeed at first considerably charged with foreign matter, during a
+long course, even over a richly cultivated plain, become remarkably pure
+as to saline contents; but often fouled with mud containing much animal
+and vegetable matter, which are rather suspended than held in true
+solution. Such is the water of the river Thames, which, taken up at
+London at low water mark, is very soft and good; and, after rest, it
+contains but a very small portion of any thing that could prove
+pernicious, or impede any manufacture. It is also excellently fitted for
+sea-store; but it then undergoes a remarkable spontaneous change, when
+preserved in wooden casks. No water carried to sea becomes putrid sooner
+than that of the Thames. But the mode now adopted in the navy of
+substituting iron tanks for wooden casks, tends greatly to obviate this
+disadvantage.
+
+Whoever will consider the situation of the Thames, and the immense
+population along its banks for so many miles, must at once perceive the
+prodigious accumulation of animal matters of all kinds, which by means
+of the common sewers constantly make their way into it. These matters
+are, no doubt, in part the cause of the putrefaction which it is well
+known to undergo at sea, and of the carburetted and sulphuretted
+hydrogen gases which are evolved from it. When a wooden cask is opened,
+after being kept a month or two, a quantity of carburetted and
+sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and the water is so black and offensive
+as scarcely to be borne. Upon racking it off, however, into large
+earthen vessels, and exposing it to the air, it gradually deposits a
+quantity of black slimy mud, becomes clear as crystal, and remarkably
+sweet and palatable.
+
+It might, at first sight, be expected that the water of the Thames,
+after having received all the contents of the sewers, drains, and water
+courses, of a large town, should acquire thereby such impregnation with
+foreign matters, as to become very impure; but it appears, from the most
+accurate experiments that have been made, that those kinds of impurities
+have no perceptible influence on the salubrious quality of a mass of
+water so immense, and constantly kept in motion by the action of the
+tides.
+
+Some traces of animal matter may, however, be detected in the water of
+the Thames; for if nitrate of lead be dropped into it,[14] "you will
+find that it becomes milky, and that a white powder falls to the bottom,
+which dissolves without effervescence in nitric acid. It is, therefore,
+(says Dr. Thomson) a combination of oxide of lead with some animal
+matter."
+
+
+SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER, AND TESTS BY WHICH THEY
+ARE DETECTED.
+
+To acquire a knowledge of the general nature of common water, it is only
+necessary to add to it a few chemical tests, which will quickly indicate
+the presence or absence of the substances that may be expected.
+
+Almost the only salts contained in common waters are the carbonates,
+sulphates, and muriates of soda, lime, and magnesia; and sometimes a
+very minute portion of iron may also be detected in them.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a wine-glass with distilled water, and add to it a few drops of a
+solution of soap in alcohol, the water will remain transparent.
+
+This test is employed for ascertaining the presence of earthy salts in
+waters. Hence it produces no change when mingled with distilled or
+perfectly pure water; but when added to water containing earthy salts, a
+white flocculent matter becomes separated, which speedily collects on
+the surface of the fluid. Now, from the quantity of flocculent matter
+produced, in equal quantities of water submitted to the test, a
+tolerable notion may be formed of the degrees of hardness of different
+kinds of water, at least so far as regards the fitness of the water for
+the ordinary purposes of domestic economy. This may be rendered obvious
+in the following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a number of wine-glasses with different kinds of pump or well
+water, and let fall into each glass a few drops of the solution of soap
+in alcohol. A turbidness will instantly ensue, and a flocculent matter
+collect on the surface of the fluid, if the mixture be left undisturbed.
+The quantity of flocculent matter will be in the ratio of the quantity
+of earthy salts contained in the water.
+
+It is obvious that the action of this test is not discriminative, with
+regard to the chemical nature of the earthy salt present in the water.
+It serves only to indicate the _presence_ or _absence_ of those kinds of
+substances which occasion that quality in water which is usually called
+_hardness_, and which is always owing to salts with an earthy base.
+
+If we wish to know the nature of the different acids and earths
+contained in the water, the following test may be employed.[15]
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add about twenty drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia, to half a
+wine-glass of the water; if a white precipitate ensues, we conclude that
+the water contains lime.
+
+By means of this test, one grain of lime may be detected in 24,250 of
+water.
+
+If this test occasion a white precipitate in water taken fresh from the
+pump or spring, and not after the water has been boiled and suffered to
+grow cold, the lime is dissolved in the water by an excess of carbonic
+acid; and if it continues to produce a precipitate in the water which
+has been concentrated by boiling, we then are sure that the lime is
+combined with a fixed acid.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+To detect the presence of iron, add to a wine-glassful of the water a
+few drops of an infusion of nut-galls; or better, suffer a nut-gall to
+be suspended in it for twenty-four hours, which will cause the water to
+acquire a blueish black colour, if iron be present.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add a few grains of muriate of barytes, to half a wine-glass of the
+water to be examined; if it produces a turbidness which does not
+disappear by the admixture of a few drops of muriatic acid, the presence
+of sulphuric acid is rendered obvious.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver occasions a milkiness
+with the water, which vanishes again by the copious addition of liquid
+ammonia, we have reason to believe that the water contains a salt, one
+of the constituent parts of which is muriatic acid.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If lime water or barytic water occasions a precipitate which again
+vanishes by the admixture of muriatic acid, then carbonic acid is
+present in the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If a solution of phosphate of soda produces a milkiness with the water,
+after a previous addition to it of a similar quantity of neutral
+carbonate of ammonia, we may then expect magnesia. The application of
+this test is best made in the following manner:
+
+Concentrate a quantity of the water to be examined to about 1/20 part of
+its bulk, and drop into about half a wine-glassful, about five grains of
+neutral carbonate of ammonia. No magnesia becomes yet precipitated if
+this earth be present; but on adding a like quantity of phosphate of
+soda, the magnesia falls down, as an insoluble salt. It is essential
+that the carbonate of ammonia be neutral.
+
+This test was first pointed out by Dr. Wollaston.
+
+The presence of oxygen gas loosely combined in water may readily be
+discovered in the following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Fill a vial with water, and add to it a small quantity of green sulphate
+of iron. If the water be entirely free of oxygen, and if the vessel be
+well stopped and completely filled, the solution is transparent; but if
+otherwise, it soon becomes slightly turbid, from the oxide of iron
+attracting the oxygen, and a small portion of it, in this more highly
+oxidated state, leaving the acid and being precipitated. Or, according
+to a method pointed out by Driessen, the water is to be boiled for two
+hours in a flask filled with it, and immersed in a vessel of water kept
+boiling, with the mouth of the flask under the surface of the water: it
+is to be inverted in quicksilver, taking care that no air-bubble adheres
+to the side of the flask, and being tinged with infusion of litmus, a
+little nitrous gas is to be introduced: if the oxygen gas has been
+sufficiently expelled from the water, the purple colour of the litmus
+does not change; while, if oxygen be present, it immediately becomes
+red.[16]
+
+If we examine the different waters which are used for the ordinary
+purposes of life, and judge of them by the above tests, we shall find
+them to differ considerably from each other. Some contain a large
+quantity of saline and earthy matters, whilst others are nearly pure.
+The differences are produced by the great solvent power which water
+exercises upon most substances. Wells should never be lined with bricks,
+which render soft water hard; or, if bricks be employed, they should be
+bedded in and covered with cement.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE RELATIVE QUANTITY OF EACH OF THE DIFFERENT
+SUBSTANCES USUALLY CONTAINED IN COMMON WATER.
+
+To ascertain the quantity of earthy and saline matter contained in
+water, the following is the most simple and easy method.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Put any measured quantity of the water into a platina, or silver
+evaporating basin, the weight of which is known, and evaporate the water
+upon a steam bath, at a temperature of about 180 deg., nearly to dryness;
+and, lastly, remove the basin to a sand bath, and let the mass be
+evaporated to perfect dryness. The weight of the platina basin being
+already known, we have only to weigh it carefully. When the solid saline
+contents of the water is attached to it, the increase of weight gives
+the quantity of solid matter contained in a given quantity of the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Pour upon the saline contents a quantity of distilled water equal to
+that in which the obtained salts were originally dissolved. If the whole
+saline matter become dissolved in this water, there is reason to believe
+that the saline matter has not been altered during the evaporation of
+the water. But if a portion remain undissolved, as is usually the case,
+then we may conclude that some of the salts have mutually decomposed
+each other, when brought into a concentrated state by the evaporation,
+and that salts have been formed which did not originally exist in the
+water before its evaporation.
+
+We have already mentioned that almost the only salts contained in common
+waters, are the carbonates, sulphates, and muriates, of soda, lime, and
+magnesia; and sometimes a very minute portion of iron. Having determined
+the different acids and bases present, in the manner stated at p. 49, we
+may easily ascertain the relative weight of each.
+
+The following formula suggested by Dr. Murray,[17] is fully as accurate
+a means of analysing waters as any other, and it is easy of execution.
+The weight of the saline ingredients of a given quantity of water being
+determined, we may proceed to the accurate analysis of it in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Measure out a determinate volume of the water (as 500 or 1000 cubic
+inches,) and evaporate it gradually, in an unglazed open vessel defended
+from dust, to one third of its original bulk; then divide this
+evaporated liquid into three equal portions.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Drop into the first portion, muriate of barytes; wash the precipitate,
+collect it, dry it at a red heat upon platina foil, and weigh it; digest
+it in nitric acid, dry it, and weigh it again. The loss of weight
+indicates the quantity of carbonate of barytes which the precipitate
+contained. The residual weight is sulphate of barytes; the carbonic acid
+in the water is equivalent to 0,22 of the weight of the carbonate of
+barytes; the sulphuric acid to 0,339 of the weight of the sulphate of
+barytes.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Precipitate the second portion of the concentrated water, by the
+addition of nitrate of silver; wash the precipitate, dry it, and fuse it
+on a piece of foil platina, previously weighed. By weighing the foil
+containing the fused chloride of silver, the weight of the precipitate
+may be ascertained. The fourth part of this weight is equivalent to the
+weight of the muriatic acid contained in the portion of water
+precipitated.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Precipitate the third portion of the water by the addition of oxalate of
+ammonia; wash and dry the precipitate; expose it to a red heat, on a
+platina foil, or in a capsule of platina; pour on it some dilute
+sulphuric acid; digest for some time, then evaporate to dryness, expose
+the capsule to a pretty strong heat, and, lastly, weigh the sulphate of
+lime thus produced: 0.453 of its weight indicate the quantity of lime in
+the portion of water precipitated.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add to the same third portion of the water thus freed from lime, a
+portion of a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, and then add
+phosphoric acid, drop by drop, as long as any precipitate falls down.
+Wash the precipitate, dry it, and expose it to a red heat in a platina
+capsule: it is phosphate of magnesia. 0.357 of the weight of this salt
+is equivalent to the weight of the magnesia contained in the water.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+If the water contain a minute portion of iron, a quantity of it equal to
+one of the three preceding portions, must be taken and mixed with a
+solution of benzoate of ammonia. The precipitate being washed, dried,
+and exposed to a red heat, and weighed, nine-tenths of its weight
+indicate the weight of protoxide of iron contained in the water.
+
+In this manner the quantity of all the substances contained in the water
+will be ascertained, except there be any soda. To know the amount of it,
+the following method, pointed out by Dr. Murray, answers very well.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Evaporate a portion of the water to one third of its bulk. Precipitate
+the carbonic and sulphuric acids by the addition of muriate of barytes,
+taking care not to add any excess of the tests.
+
+Precipitate the lime by oxalate of ammonia, and the magnesia by
+carbonate of ammonia and phosphoric acid. (Page 52.) Then evaporate the
+liquid thus treated to dryness. A quantity of common salt will remain:
+let this be exposed to a red heat; 0.4 of its weight indicate the sodium
+contained in the bulk of water employed; and 0.4 sodium are equivalent
+to 0.53 of soda.
+
+It seems hardly requisite to mention some other substances that
+occasionally make their appearance in the waters used for domestic
+purposes. A fine divided sand is a common constituent, which is easily
+obtained in a separate state. We have only to evaporate a portion of the
+water to dryness, and redissolve the saline residue in distilled water.
+The silicious sand remains undissolved, and betrays itself by its
+insolubility in acids, and its easy fusibility into a transparant glass,
+with soda, before the blow-pipe.
+
+
+DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF KEEPING WATER FOR DOMESTIC ECONOMY IN LEADEN
+RESERVOIRS.
+
+The deleterious effect of lead, when taken into the stomach, is at
+present so universally known, that it is quite unnecessary to adduce
+any argument in proof of its dangerous tendency.
+
+The ancients were, upwards of 2000 years ago, as well aware of the
+pernicious quality of this metal as we are at the present day; and
+indeed they appeared to have been much more apprehensive of its effects,
+and scrupulous in the application of it to purposes of domestic economy.
+
+Their precautions may have been occasionally carried to an unnecessary
+length. This was the natural consequence of the imperfect state of
+experimental knowledge at that period. When men were unable to detect
+the poisonous matters--to be over scrupulous in the use of such water,
+was an error on the right side.
+
+The moderns, on the other hand, in part, perhaps, from an ill-founded
+confidence, and inattention to a careful and continued examination of
+its effects, have fallen into an opposite error.
+
+There can be no doubt that the mode of preserving water intended for
+food or drink in leaden reservoirs, is exceedingly improper; and
+although pure water exercises no sensible action upon metallic lead,
+provided air be excluded, the metal is certainly acted on by the water
+when air is admitted: this effect is so obvious, that it cannot escape
+the notice of the least attentive observer.
+
+The white line which may be seen at the surface of the water preserved
+in leaden cisterns, where the metal touches the water and where the air
+is admitted, is a carbonate of lead, formed at the expense of the metal.
+This substance, when taken into the stomach, is highly deleterious to
+health. This was the reason which induced the ancients to condemn leaden
+pipes for the conveyance of water; it having been remarked that persons
+who swallowed the sediment of such water, became affected with disorders
+of the bowels.[18]
+
+Leaden water reservoirs were condemned in ancient times by Hyppocrates,
+Galen, and Vitruvius, as dangerous: in addition to which, we may depend
+on the observations of Van Swieten, Tronchin, and others, who have
+quoted numerous unhappy examples of whole families poisoned by water
+which had remained in reservoirs of lead. Dr. Johnston, Dr. Percival,
+Sir George Baker, and Dr. Lamb, have likewise recorded numerous
+instances where dangerous diseases ensued from the use of water
+impregnated with lead.
+
+Different potable waters have unequal solvent powers on this metal. In
+some places the use of leaden pumps has been discontinued, from the
+expense entailed upon the proprietors by the constant want of repair.
+Dr. Lamb[19] states an instance where the proprietor of a well ordered
+his plumber to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the
+metal usually employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because
+he had observed that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it
+corroded the lead very soon.
+
+The following instance is related by Sir George Baker:[20]
+
+"A gentleman was the father of a numerous offspring, having had
+one-and-twenty children, of whom eight died young, and thirteen survived
+their parents. During their infancy, and indeed _until they had quitted
+the place of their usual residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy_;
+being particularly subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The
+father, during many years, was paralytic; the mother, for a long time,
+was subject to colics and bilious obstructions.
+
+"After the death of the parents, the family sold the house which they
+had so long inhabited. The purchaser found it necessary to repair the
+pump. This was made of lead; which, upon examination was found to be so
+corroded, that several perforations were observed in the cylinder, in
+which the bucket plays; and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to
+the thinness of common brown paper, and was full of holes, like a
+sieve."
+
+I have myself seen numerous instances where leaden cisterns have been
+completely corroded by the action of water with which they were in
+contact: and there is, perhaps, not a plumber who cannot give testimony
+of having experienced numerous similar instances in the practice of his
+trade.
+
+I have been frequently called upon to examine leaden cisterns, which had
+become leaky on account of the action of the water which they contained;
+and I could adduce an instance of a legal controversy having taken place
+to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a
+plumber, originating from a similar cause--the plumber being accused of
+having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to be
+owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. Water containing
+a large quantity of common air and carbonic acid gas, always acts very
+sensibly on metallic lead.
+
+Water, which has no sensible action, in its natural state, upon lead,
+may acquire the capability of acting on it by heterogeneous matter,
+which it may accidentally receive. Numerous instances have shewn that
+vegetable matter, such as leaves, falling into leaden cisterns filled
+with water, imparted to the water a considerable solvent power of action
+on the lead, which, in its natural state it did not possess. Hence the
+necessity of keeping leaden cisterns clean; and this is the more
+necessary, as their situations expose them to accidental impurities. The
+noted saturnine colic of Amsterdam, described by Tronchin, originated
+from such a circumstance; as also the case related by Van Swieten,[21]
+of a whole family afflicted with the same complaint, from such a
+cistern. And it is highly probable that the case of disease recorded by
+Dr. Duncan,[22] proceeded more from some foulness in the cistern, than
+from the solvent power of the water. In this instance the officers of
+the packet boat used water for their drink and cooking out of a leaden
+cistern, whilst the sailors used the water taken from the same source,
+except that theirs was kept in wooden vessels. The consequence was, that
+all the officers were seized with the colic, and all the men continued
+healthy.
+
+The carelessness of the bulk of mankind, Dr. Lambe very justly observes,
+to these things, "is so great, that to repeat them again and again
+cannot be wholly useless."
+
+Although the great majority of persons who daily use water kept in
+leaden cisterns receive no sensible injury, yet the apparent salubrity
+must be ascribed to the great slowness of its operation, and the
+minuteness of the dose taken, the effects of which become modified by
+different causes and different constitutions, and according to the
+predisposition to diseases inherent in different individuals. The
+supposed security of the multitude who use the water with impunity,
+amounts to no more than presumption, in favour of any individual, which
+may or may not be confirmed by experience.
+
+Independent of the morbid susceptibility of impressions which
+distinguish certain habits, there is, besides, much variety in the
+original constitution of the human frame, of which we are totally
+ignorant.
+
+"The susceptibility or proneness to disease of each individual, must be
+esteemed peculiar to himself. Confiding to the experience of others is a
+ground of security which may prove fallacious; and the danger can with
+certainty be obviated only by avoiding its source. And considering the
+various and complicated changes of the human frame, under different
+circumstances and at different ages, it is neither impossible nor
+improbable that the substances taken into the system at one period, and
+even for a series of years, with apparent impunity may, notwithstanding,
+at another period, be eventually the occasion of disease and of death.
+
+"The experience of a single person, or of many persons, however
+numerous, is quite incompetent to the decision of a question of this
+nature.
+
+"The pernicious effects of an intemperate use of spiritous liquors is
+not less certain because we often see habitual drunkards enjoy a state
+of good health, and arrive at old age: and the same may be said of
+individuals who indulge in vices of all kinds, evidently destructive to
+life; many of whom, in spite of their bad habits, attain to a vigorous
+old age."[23]
+
+In confirmation of these remarks, we adduce the following account of the
+effect of water contaminated by lead, given by Sir G. Baker:
+
+"The most remarkable case on the subject that now occurs to my memory,
+is that of Lord Ashburnham's family, in Sussex; to which, spring water
+was supplied, from a considerable distance, in leaden pipes. In
+consequence, his Lordship's servants were every year tormented with
+colic, and some of them died. An eminent physician, of Battle, who
+corresponded with me on the subject, sent up some gallons of that water,
+which were analysed by Dr. Higgins, who reported that the water had
+contained more than the common quantity of carbonic acid; and that he
+found in it lead in solution, which he attributed to the carbonic acid.
+In consequence of this, Lord Ashburnham substituted wooden for leaden
+pipes; and from that time his family have had no particular complaints
+in their bowels."
+
+_Richmond, Sept. 27, 1802._
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING LEAD, WHEN CONTAINED IN WATER.
+
+One of the most delicate tests for detecting lead, is water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which instantly imparts to the fluid
+containing the minutest quantity of lead, a brown or blackish tinge.
+
+This test is so delicate that distilled water, when condensed by a
+leaden pipe in a still tub, is affected by it. To shew the action of
+this test, the following experiments will serve.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Pour into a wine-glass containing distilled water, an equal quantity of
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas: no change will take
+place; but if a 1/4 of a grain of acetate of lead (sugar of lead of
+commerce), or any other preparation of lead, be added, the mixture will
+instantly turn brown and dark-coloured.
+
+To apply this test, one part of the suspected water need merely to be
+mingled with a like quantity of water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen. Or better, a larger quantity, a gallon for example, of the
+water may be concentrated by evaporation to about half a pint, and then
+submitted to the action of the test.
+
+Another and more efficient mode of applying this test, is, to pass a
+current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the suspected water in the
+following manner.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Take a bottle (_a_) or Florence flask, adapt to the mouth of it a cork
+furnished with a glass tube (_b_), bent at right angles; let one leg of
+the tube be immersed in the vial (_c_) containing the water to be
+examined; as shewn in the following sketch. Then take one part of
+sulphuret of antimony of commerce, break it into pieces of half the size
+of split pease, put it into the flask, and pour upon it four parts of
+common concentrated muriatic acid (spirit of salt of commerce).
+Sulphuretted hydrogen gas will become disengaged from the materials in
+abundance, and pass through the water in the vial (_c_). Let the
+extrication of the gas be continued for about five minutes; and if the
+minutest quantity of lead be present, the water will acquire a
+dark-brown or blackish tinge. The extrication of the gas is facilitated
+by the application of a gentle heat.
+
+The action of the sulphuretted hydrogen test, when applied in this
+manner, is astonishingly great; for one part of acetate of lead may be
+detected by means of it, in 20000 parts of water.[24]
+
+Another test for readily detecting lead in water, is sulphuretted
+chyazate of potash, first pointed out as such by Mr. Porret. A few drops
+of this re-agent, added to water containing lead, occasion a white
+precipitate, consisting of small brilliant scales of a considerable
+lustre.
+
+Sulphate of potash, or sulphate of soda, is likewise a very delicate
+test for detecting minute portions of lead. Dr. Thomson[25] discovered,
+by means of it, one part of lead in 100000 parts of water; and this
+acute Philosopher considers it as the most unequivocal test of lead that
+we possess. Dr. Thomson remarks that "no other precipitate can well be
+confounded with it, except sulphate of barytes; and there is no
+probability of the presence of barytes existing in common water."
+
+Carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, may also be used as agents to
+detect the presence of lead. By means of these salts Dr. Thomson was
+enabled to detect the presence of a smaller quantity of lead in
+distilled water, than by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. But the
+reader must here be told, that the use of these tests cannot be
+entrusted to an unskilful hand; because the alkaline carbonates throw
+down also lime and magnesia, two substances which are frequently found
+in common water; the former tests, namely, water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and nascent sulphuretted hydrogen, are
+therefore preferable.
+
+It is absolutely essential that the water impregnated with sulphuretted
+hydrogen, when employed as a test for detecting very minute quantities
+of lead, be fresh prepared; and if sulphate of potash, or sulphate of
+soda, be used as tests, they should be perfectly pure. Sulphate of
+potash is preferable to sulphate of soda. It is likewise advisable to
+act with these tests upon water concentrated by boiling. The water to
+which the test has been added does sometimes appear not to undergo any
+change, at first; it is therefore necessary to suffer the mixture to
+stand for a few hours; after which time the action of the test will be
+more evident. Mr. Silvester[26] has proposed gallic acid as a delicate
+test for detecting lead.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Dalton, Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 55.
+
+[12] Marsden's History of Sumatra.
+
+[13] Manchester Memoirs vol. x. 1819.
+
+[14] Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge Wells is chiefly
+supplied for Domestic Purposes, by Dr. Thomson; forming an Appendix to
+an Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells, by Dr. Scudamore.
+
+[15] It is absolutely essential that the tests should be pure.
+
+[16] Philosophical Magazine, vol. xv. p. 252.
+
+[17] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii. p. 259.
+
+[18] Sir G. Baker, Med. Trans. vol. i. p. 280.
+
+[19] Lamb on Spring Water.
+
+[20] Medical Trans. vol. i. p. 420.
+
+[21] Van Swieten ad Boerhaave, Aphorisms, 1060. Comment.
+
+[22] Medical Comment. Dec. 2, 1794.
+
+[23] Lambe on Spring Water.
+
+[24] See An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Tunbridge Wells, by Dr.
+Scudamore, p. 55.
+
+The application of the sulphuretted hydrogen test requires some
+precautions in those cases where other metals besides lead may be
+expected; because silver, quicksilver, tin, copper, and several other
+metals, are affected by it, as well as lead; but there is no chance of
+these metals being met with in common water.--See _Chemical Tests_,
+third edition, p. 207.
+
+[25] Analysis of Tunbridge Wells Water, by Dr. Scudamore, p. 55.
+
+[26] Nicholson's Journal, p. 33, 310.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Wine._
+
+
+It is sufficiently obvious, that few of those commodities, which are the
+objects of commerce, are adulterated to a greater extent than wine. All
+persons moderately conversant with the subject, are aware, that a
+portion of alum is added to young and meagre red wines, for the purpose
+of brightening their colour; that Brazil wood, or the husks of
+elderberries and bilberries,[27] are employed to impart a deep rich
+purple tint to red Port of a pale, faint colour; that gypsum is used to
+render cloudy white wines transparent;[28] that an additional
+astringency is imparted to immature red wines by means of oak-wood
+sawdust,[29] and the husks of filberts; and that a mixture of spoiled
+foreign and home-made wines is converted into the wretched compound
+frequently sold in this town by the name of _genuine old Port_.
+
+Various expedients are resorted to for the purpose of communicating
+particular flavours to insipid wines. Thus a _nutty_ flavour is produced
+by bitter almonds; factitious Port wine is flavoured with a tincture
+drawn from the seeds of raisins; and the ingredients employed to form
+the _bouquet_ of high-flavoured wines, are sweet-brier, oris-root,
+clary, cherry laurel water, and elder-flowers.
+
+The flavouring ingredients used by manufacturers, may all be purchased
+by those dealers in wine who are initiated in the mysteries of the
+trade; and even a manuscript recipe book for preparing them, and the
+whole mystery of managing all sorts of wines, may be obtained on payment
+of a considerable fee.
+
+The sophistication of wine with substances not absolutely noxious to
+health, is carried to an enormous extent in this metropolis. Many
+thousand pipes of spoiled cyder are annually brought hither from the
+country, for the purpose of being converted into factitious Port wine.
+The art of manufacturing spurious wine is a regular trade of great
+extent in this metropolis.
+
+"There is, in this city, a certain fraternity of chemical operators, who
+work underground in holes, caverns, and dark retirements, to conceal
+their mysteries from the eyes and observation of mankind. These
+subterraneous philosophers are daily employed in the transmutation of
+liquors; and by the power of magical drugs and incantations, raising
+under the streets of London the choicest products of the hills and
+valleys of France. They can squeeze Bourdeaux out of the sloe, and draw
+Champagne from an apple. Virgil, in that remarkable prophecy,
+
+     _Incultisque ruhens pendebit sentibus uva._
+
+                                        Virg. Ecl. iv. 29.
+
+     The ripening grape shall hang on every thorn.
+
+seems to have hinted at this art, which can turn a plantation of
+northern hedges into a vineyard. These adepts are known among one
+another by the name of _Wine-brewers_; and, I am afraid, do great
+injury, not only to her Majesty's customs, but to the bodies of many of
+her good subjects."[30]
+
+The following are a few of the recipes employed in the manufacture of
+spurious wine:
+
+     To make _British Port Wine_.[31]--"Take of British grape wine, or
+     good cyder, 4 gallons; of the juice of red beet root two quarts;
+     brandy, two quarts; logwood 4 ounces; rhatany root, bruised, half a
+     pound: first infuse the logwood and rhatany root in brandy, and a
+     gallon of grape wine or cyder for one week; then strain off the
+     liquor, and mix it with the other ingredients; keep it in a cask
+     for a month, when it will be fit to bottle."
+
+
+     _British Champagne._--"Take of white sugar, 8 pounds; the whitest
+     brown sugar, 7 pounds, crystalline lemon acid, or tartaric acid, 1
+     ounce and a quarter, pure water, 8 gallons; white grape wine, two
+     quarts, or perry, 4 quarts; of French brandy, 3 pints."
+
+     "Put the sugar in the water, skimming it occasionally for two
+     hours, then pour it into a tub and dissolve in it the acid; before
+     it is cold, add some yeast and ferment. Put it into a clean cask
+     and add the other ingredients. The cask is then to be well bunged,
+     and kept in a cool place for two or three months; then bottle it
+     and keep it cool for a month longer, when it will be fit for use.
+     If it should not be perfectly clear after standing in the cask two
+     or three months, it should be rendered so by the use of isinglass.
+     By adding 1 lb. of fresh or preserved strawberries, and 2 ounces of
+     powdered cochineal, the PINK _Champagne may be made_."
+
+
+     _Southampton Port._[32]--"Take cyder, 36 gallons; elder wine, 11
+     gallons; brandy, 5 gallons; damson wine, 11 gallons; mix."
+
+The particular and separate department in this factitious wine trade,
+called _crusting_, consists in lining the interior surface of empty
+wine-bottles, in part, with a red crust of super-tartrate of potash, by
+suffering a saturated hot solution of this salt, coloured red with a
+decoction of Brazil-wood, to crystallize within them; and after this
+simulation of maturity is perfected, they are filled with the compound
+called Port wine.
+
+Other artisans are regularly employed in staining the lower extremities
+of bottle-corks with a fine red colour, to appear, on being drawn, as if
+they had been long in contact with the wine.
+
+The preparation of an astringent extract, to produce, from spoiled
+home-made and foreign wines, a "genuine old Port," by mere admixture; or
+to impart to a weak wine a rough austere taste, a fine colour, and a
+peculiar flavour; forms one branch of the business of particular
+wine-coopers: while the mellowing and restoring of spoiled white wines,
+is the sole occupation of men who are called _refiners of wine_.
+
+We have stated that a crystalline crust is formed on the interior
+surface of bottles, for the purpose of misleading the unwary into a
+belief that the wine contained in them is of a certain age. A
+correspondent operation is performed on the wooden cask; the whole
+interior of which is stained artificially with a crystalline crust of
+super-tartrate of potash, artfully affixed in a manner precisely similar
+to that before stated. Thus the wine-merchant, after bottling off a
+pipe of wine, is enabled to impose on the understanding of his
+customers, by taking to pieces the cask, and exhibiting the beautiful
+dark coloured and fine crystalline crust, as an indubitable proof of the
+age of the wine; a practice by no means uncommon, to flatter the vanity
+of those who pride themselves in their acute discrimination of wines.
+
+These and many other sophistications, which have long been practised
+with impunity, are considered as legitimate by those who pride
+themselves for their skill in the art of _managing_, or, according to
+the familiar phrase, _doctoring_ wines. The plea alleged in exculpation
+of them, is, that, though deceptive, they are harmless: but even
+admitting this as a palliation, yet they form only one department of an
+art which includes other processes of a tendency absolutely criminal.
+
+Several well-authenticated facts have convinced me that the adulteration
+of wine with substances deleterious to health, is certainly practised
+oftener than is, perhaps, suspected; and it would be easy to give some
+instances of very serious effects having arisen from wines contaminated
+with deleterious substances, were this a subject on which I meant to
+speak. The following statement is copied from the Monthly Magazine for
+March 1811, p. 188.
+
+"On the 17th of January, the passengers by the Highflyer coach, from the
+north, dined, as usual, at Newark. A bottle of Port wine was ordered; on
+tasting which, one of the passengers observed that it had an unpleasant
+flavour, and begged that it might be changed. The waiter took away the
+bottle, poured into a fresh decanter half the wine which had been
+objected to, and filled it up from another bottle. This he took into the
+room, and the greater part was drank by the passengers, who, after the
+coach had set out towards Grantham, were seized with extreme sickness;
+one gentleman in particular, who had taken more of the wine than the
+others, it was thought would have died, but has since recovered. The
+half of the bottle of wine sent out of the passengers' room, was put
+aside for the purpose of mixing negus. In the evening, Mr. Bland, of
+Newark, went into the hotel, and drank a glass or two of wine and water.
+He returned home at his usual hour, and went to bed; in the middle of
+the night he was taken so ill, as to induce Mrs. Bland to send for his
+brother, an apothecary in the town; but before that gentleman arrived,
+he was dead. An inquest was held, and the jury, after the fullest
+enquiry, and the examination of the surgeons by whom the body was
+opened, returned a verdict of--_Died by Poison._"
+
+The most dangerous adulteration of wine is by some preparations of lead,
+which possess the property of stopping the progress of acescence of
+wine, and also of rendering white wines, when muddy, transparent. I have
+good reason to state that lead is certainly employed for this purpose.
+The effect is very rapid; and there appears to be no other method known,
+of rapidly recovering ropy wines. Wine merchants persuade themselves
+that the minute quantity of lead employed for that purpose is perfectly
+harmless, and that no atom of lead remains in the wine. Chemical
+analysis proves the contrary; and the practice of clarifying spoiled
+white wines by means of lead, must be pronounced as highly deleterious.
+
+Lead, in whatever state it be taken into the stomach, occasions terrible
+diseases; and wine, adulterated with the minutest quantity of it,
+becomes a slow poison. The merchant or dealer who practises this
+dangerous sophistication, adds the crime of murder to that of fraud, and
+deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death among those
+consumers who contribute to his emolument. If to debase the current
+coin of the realm be denounced as a capital offence, what punishment
+should be awarded against a practice which converts into poison a liquor
+used for sacred purposes.
+
+Dr. Watson[33] relates, that the method of adulterating wine with lead,
+was at one time a common practice in Paris.
+
+Dr. Warren[34] states an instance of thirty-two persons having become
+severely ill, after drinking white wine that had been adulterated with
+lead. One of them died, and one became paralytic.
+
+In Graham's Treatise on Wine-Making,[35] under the article of _Secrets_,
+belonging to the mysteries of vintners, p. 31, lead is recommended to
+prevent wine from becoming acid. The following lines are copied from Mr.
+Graham's work:
+
+
+    "_To hinder Wine from turning._
+
+    "Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into your cask, pretty
+    warm, and stop it close."
+
+
+    "_To soften Grey Wine._
+
+    "Put in a little vinegar wherein litharge has been well steeped, and
+    boil some honey, to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and
+    put a quart of it into a tierce of wine, and this will mend it."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The ancients knew that lead rendered harsh wines milder, and preserved
+it from acidity, without being aware that it was pernicious: it was
+therefore long used with confidence; and when its effects were
+discovered, they were not ascribed to that metal, but to some other
+cause.[36] When the Greek and Roman wine merchants wished to try whether
+their wine was spoiled, they immersed in it a plate of lead;[37] if the
+colour of the lead were corroded, they concluded that their wine was
+spoiled. Wine may become accidentally impregnated with lead.
+
+It is well known that bottles in which wine has been kept, are usually
+cleaned by means of shot, which by its rolling motion detaches the
+super-tartrate of potash from the sides of the bottles. This practice,
+which is generally pursued by wine-merchants, may give rise to serious
+consequences, as will become evident from the following case:[38]
+
+"A gentleman who had never in his life experienced a day's illness, and
+who was constantly in the habit of drinking half a bottle of Madeira
+wine after his dinner, was taken ill, three hours after dinner, with a
+severe pain in the stomach and violent bowel colic, which gradually
+yielded within twelve hours to the remedies prescribed by his medical
+adviser. The day following he drank the remainder of the same bottle of
+wine which was left the preceding day, and within two hours afterwards
+he was again seized with the most violent colliquative pains, headach,
+shiverings, and great pain over the whole body. His apothecary becoming
+suspicious that the wine he had drank might be the cause of the
+disease, ordered the bottle from which the wine had been decanted to be
+brought to him, with a view that he might examine the dregs, if any were
+left. The bottle happening to slip out of the hand of the servant,
+disclosed a row of shot wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up
+circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, they crumbled into
+dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black lead with which the
+shot is glazed) being alone left unacted on, whilst the remainder of the
+metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had become contaminated with
+_lead and arsenic_, the shot being a compound of these metals, which no
+doubt had produced the mischief."
+
+
+TEST FOR DETECTING THE DELETERIOUS ADULTERATIONS OF WINE.
+
+A ready re-agent for detecting the presence of lead, or any other
+deleterious metal in wine, is known by the name of the _wine test_. It
+consists of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, acidulated
+with muriatic acid. By adding one part of it, to two of wine, or any
+other liquid suspected to contain lead, a dark coloured or black
+precipitate will fall down, which does not disappear by an addition of
+muriatic acid; and this precipitate, dried and fused before the blowpipe
+on a piece of charcoal, yields a globule of metallic lead. This test
+does not precipitate iron; the muriatic acid retains iron in solution
+when combined with sulphuretted hydrogen; and any acid in the wine has
+no effect in precipitating any of the sulphur of the test liquor. Or a
+still more efficacious method is, to pass a current of sulphuretted
+hydrogen gas through the wine, in the manner described, p. 70, having
+previously acidulated the wine with muriatic acid.
+
+The wine test sometimes employed is prepared in the following
+manner:--Mix equal parts of finely powdered sulphur and of slacked
+quick-lime, and expose it to a red heat for twenty minutes. To
+thirty-six grains of this sulphuret of lime, add twenty-six grains of
+super-tartrate of potassa; put the mixture into an ounce bottle, and
+fill up the bottle with water that has been previously boiled, and
+suffered to cool. The liquor, after having been repeatedly shaken, and
+allowed to become clear, by the subsidence of the undissolved matter,
+may then be poured into another phial, into which about twenty drops of
+muriatic acid have been previously put. It is then ready for use. This
+test, when mingled with wine containing lead or copper, turns the wine
+of a dark-brown or black colour. But the mere application of
+sulphuretted hydrogen gas to wine, acidulated by muriatic acid, is a far
+more preferable mode of detecting lead in wine.
+
+M. Vogel[39] has lately recommended acetate of lead as a test for
+detecting extraneous colours in red wine. He remarks, that none of the
+substances that can be employed for colouring wine, such as the berries
+of the Vaccinium Mirtillus (bilberries), elderberries, and Campeach
+wood, produce with genuine red wine, a greenish grey precipitate, which
+is the colour that is procured by this test by means of genuine red
+wines.
+
+Wine coloured with the juice of the bilberries, or elderberries, or
+Campeach wood, produces, with acetate of lead, a deep blue precipitate;
+and Brazil-wood, red saunders, and the red beet, produce a colour which
+is precipitated red by acetate of lead. Wine coloured by beet root is
+also rendered colourless by lime water; but the weakest acid brings back
+the colour. As the colouring matter of red wines resides in the skin of
+the grape, M. Vogel prepared a quantity of skins, and reduced them to
+powder. In this state he found that they communicated to alcohol a deep
+red colour: a paper stained with this colour was rendered red by acids
+and green by alkalies.
+
+M. Vogel made a quantity of red wine from black grapes, for the purpose
+of his experiments; and this produced the genuine greyish green
+precipitate with acetate of lead. He also found the same coloured
+precipitate in two specimens of red wine, the genuineness of which could
+not be suspected; the one from Chateau-Marguaux, and the other from the
+neighbourhood of Coblentz.
+
+
+SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES, AND COMPONENT PARTS OF WINE.
+
+Every body knows that no product of the arts varies so much as wine;
+that different countries, and sometimes the different provinces of the
+same country, produce different wines. These differences, no doubt, must
+be attributed chiefly to the climate in which the vineyard is
+situated--to its culture--the quantity of sugar contained in the grape
+juice--the manufacture of the wine; or the mode of suffering its
+fermentation to be accomplished. If the grapes be gathered unripe, the
+wine abounds with acid; but if the fruit be gathered ripe, the wine will
+be rich. When the proportion of sugar in the grape is sufficient, and
+the fermentation complete, the wine is perfect and generous. If the
+quantity of sugar be too large, part of it remains undecomposed, as the
+fermentation is languid, and the wine is sweet and luscious; if, on the
+contrary, it contains, even when full ripe, only a small portion of
+sugar, the wine is thin and weak; and if it be bottled before the
+fermentation be completed, part of the sugar remains undecomposed, the
+fermentation will go on slowly in the bottle, and, on drawing the cork,
+the wine sparkles in the glass; as, for example, Champagne. Such wines
+are not sufficiently mature. When the must is separated from the husk of
+the red grape before it is fermented, the wine has little or no colour:
+these are called _white_ wines. If, on the contrary, the husks are
+allowed to remain in the must while the fermentation is going on, the
+alcohol dissolves the colouring matter of the husks, and the wine is
+coloured: such are called _red_ wines. Hence white wines are often
+prepared from red grapes, the liquor being drawn off before it has
+acquired the red colour; for the skin of the grape only gives the
+colour. Besides in these principal circumstances, wines vary much in
+flavour.
+
+All wines contain one common and identical principle, from which their
+similar effects are produced; namely, _brandy_ or _alcohol_. It is
+especially by the different proportions of brandy contained in wines,
+that they differ most from one another. When wine is distilled, the
+alcohol readily separates. The spirit thus obtained is well known under
+the name of _brandy_.
+
+All wines contain also a free acid; hence they turn blue tincture of
+cabbage, red. The acid found in the greatest abundance in grape wines,
+is tartaric acid. Every wine contains likewise a portion of
+super-tartrate of potash, and extractive matter, derived from the juice
+of the grape. These substances deposit slowly in the vessel in which
+they are kept. To this is owing the improvement of wine from age. Those
+wines which effervesce or froth, when poured into a glass, contain also
+carbonic acid, to which their briskness is owing. The peculiar flavour
+and odour of different kinds of wines probably depend upon the presence
+of a _volatile oil_, so small in quantity that it cannot be separated.
+
+
+EASY METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF BRANDY CONTAINED IN VARIOUS
+SORTS OF WINE.
+
+The strength of all wines depends upon the quantity of alcohol or brandy
+which they contain. Mr. Brande, and Gay-Lussac, have proved, by very
+decisive experiments, that all wines contain brandy or alcohol ready
+formed. The following is the process discovered by Mr. Brande, for
+ascertaining the quantity of spirit, or brandy, contained in different
+sorts of wine.
+
+
+EXPERIMENT.
+
+Add to eight parts, by measure, of the wine to be examined, one part of
+a concentrated solution of sub-acetate of lead: a dense insoluble
+precipitate will ensue; which is a combination of the test liquor with
+the colouring, extractive, and acid matter of the wine. Shake the
+mixture for a few minutes, pour the whole upon a filtre, and collect the
+filtered fluid. It contains the brandy or spirit, and water of the wine,
+together with a portion of the sub-acetate of lead. Add, in small
+quantities at a time, to this fluid, warm, dry, and pure sub-carbonate
+of potash (_not salt of tartar, or sub-carbonate of potash of
+commerce_), which has previously been freed from water by heat, till the
+last portion added remains undissolved. The brandy or spirit contained
+in the fluid will become separated; for the sub-carbonate of potash
+abstracts from it the whole of the water with which it was combined; the
+brandy or spirit of wine forming a distinct stratum, which floats upon
+the aqueous solution of the alkaline salt. If the experiment be made in
+a glass tube, from one-half inch to two inches in diameter, and
+graduated into 100 equal parts, the _per centage_ of spirit, in a given
+quantity of wine, may be read off by mere inspection. In this manner the
+strength of any wine may be examined.
+
+
+_Tabular View, exhibiting the Per Centage of Brandy or Alcohol[40]
+contained in various kinds of Wines, and other fermented Liquors._[41]
+
+               Proportion of Spirit
+                          per Cent.
+                        by measure.
+     Lissa                   26,47
+     Ditto                   24,35
+       Average               25,41
+     Raisin Wine             26,40
+     Ditto                   25,77
+     Ditto                   23,30
+       Average               25,12
+     Marcella                26,03
+     Ditto                   25,05
+       Average               25,09
+     Madeira                 24,42
+     Ditto                   23,93
+     Ditto (Sercial)         21,40
+     Ditto                   19,24
+       Average               22,27
+     Port                    25,83
+     Ditto                   24,29
+     Ditto                   23,71
+     Ditto                   23,39
+     Ditto                   22,30
+     Ditto                   21,40
+     Ditto                   19,96
+       Average               22,96
+     Sherry                  19,81
+     Ditto                   19,83
+     Ditto                   18,79
+     Ditto                   18,25
+       Average               19,17
+     Teneriffe               19,79
+     Colares                 19,75
+     Lachryma Christi        19,70
+     Constantia (White)      19,75
+     Ditto (Red)             18,92
+     Lisbon                  18,94
+     Malaga (1666)           18,94
+     Bucellas                18,49
+     Red Madeira             22,30
+     Ditto                   18,40
+       Average               20,35
+     Cape Muschat            18,25
+     Cape Madeira            22,94
+     Ditto                   20,50
+     Ditto                   18,11
+       Average               20,51
+     Grape Wine              18,11
+     Calcavella              19,20
+     Ditto                   18,10
+       Average               18,65
+     Vidonia                 19,25
+     Alba Flora              17,26
+     Malaga                  17,26
+     Hermitage (White)       17,43
+     Roussillon              19,00
+     Ditto                   17,20
+       Average               18,13
+     Claret                  17,11
+     Ditto                   16,32
+     Ditto                   14,08
+     Ditto                   12,91
+       Average               15,10
+     Malmsey Madeira         16,40
+     Lunel                   15,52
+     Sheraaz                 15,52
+     Syracuse                15,28
+     Sauterne                14,22
+     Burgundy                16,60
+     Ditto                   15,22
+     Ditto                   14,53
+     Ditto                   11,95
+       Average               14,57
+     Hock                    14,37
+     Ditto                   13,00
+     Ditto (old in cask)      8,68
+       Average               12,08
+     Nice                    14,62
+     Barsac                  13,86
+     Tent                    13,30
+     Champagne (Still)       13,80
+     Ditto (Sparkling)       12,80
+     Ditto (Red)             12,56
+     Ditto (ditto)           11,30
+       Average               12,61
+     Red Hermitage           12,32
+     Vin de Grave            13,94
+     Ditto                   12,80
+       Average               13,37
+     Frontignac              12,79
+     Cote Rotie              12,32
+     Gooseberry Wine         11,84
+     Currant Wine            20,55
+     Orange Wine aver.       11,26
+     Tokay                    9,88
+     Elder Wine               9,87
+     Cyder highest aver.      9,87
+     Ditto lowest  ditto      5,21
+     Perry average            7,26
+     Mead                     7,32
+     Ale (Burton)             8,88
+     Ditto (Edinburgh)        6,20
+     Ditto (Dorchester)       5,50
+       Average                6,87
+     Brown Stout              6,80
+     London Porter aver.      4,20
+     Do. Small Beer, do.      1,28
+     Brandy                  53,39
+     Rum                     53,68
+     Gin                     51,60
+     Scotch Whiskey          54,32
+     Irish   ditto           53,99
+
+
+CONSTITUTION OF HOME-MADE WINES.
+
+Besides grapes, the most valuable of the articles of which wine is made,
+there are a considerable number of fruits from which a vinous liquor is
+obtained. Of such, we have in this country the gooseberry, the currant,
+the elderberry, the cherry, &c. which ferment well, and affords what are
+called _home-made wines_.
+
+They differ chiefly from foreign wines in containing a much larger
+quantity of acid. Dr. Macculloch[42] has remarked that the acid in
+home-made wines is principally the malic acid; while in grape wines it
+is the tartaric acid.
+
+The great deficiency in these wines, independent of the flavour, which
+chiefly originates, not from the juice, but from the seeds and husks of
+the fruits, is the excess of acid, which is but imperfectly concealed by
+the addition of sugar. This is owing, chiefly, as Dr. Macculloch
+remarks, to the tartaric acid existing in the grape juice in the state
+of super-tartrate of potash, which is in part decomposed during the
+fermentation, and the rest becomes gradually precipitated; whilst the
+malic acid exists in the currant and gooseberry juice in the form of
+malate of potash; which salt does not appear to suffer a decomposition
+during the fermentation of the wine; and, by its greater solubility, is
+retained in the wine. Hence Dr. Macculloch recommends the addition of
+super-tartrate of potash, in the manufacture of British wines. They also
+contain a much larger proportion of mucilage than wines made from
+grapes. The juice of the gooseberry contains some portion of tartaric
+acid; hence it is better suited for the production of what is called
+_English Champagne_, than any other fruit of this country.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] Dried bilberries are imported from Germany, under the fallacious
+name of _berry-dye_.
+
+[28] The gypsum had the property of clarifying wines, was known to the
+ancients. "The Greeks and Romans put gypsum in their new wines, stirred
+it often round, then let it stand for some time; and when it had
+settled, decanted the clear liquor. (_Geopon_, lib. vii. p. 483, 494.)
+They knew that the wine acquired, by this addition, a certain sharpness,
+which it afterwards lost; but that the good effects of the gypsum were
+lasting."
+
+[29] Sawdust for this purpose is chiefly supplied by the ship-builders,
+and forms a regular article of commerce of the brewers' druggists.
+
+[30] Tatler, vol. viii. p. 110, edit. 1797. 8vo.
+
+[31] Dr. Reece's Gazette of Health, No. 7.
+
+[32] Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias, p. 245.
+
+[33] Chemical Essays, vol. viii. p. 369.
+
+[34] Medical Trans. vol. ii. p. 80.
+
+[35] This book, which has run through many editions, may be supposed to
+have done some mischief.--In the Vintner's Guide, 4th edit. 1770, p. 67,
+a lump of sugar of lead, of the size of a walnut, and a table-spoonful
+of sal enixum, are directed to be added to a tierce (forty-two gallons)
+of muddy wine, _to cure it of its muddiness_.
+
+[36] Beckman's History of Inventions, vol. i. p. 398.
+
+[37] Pliny, lib. xiv. cap. 20.
+
+[38] Philosophical Magazine, 1819, No. 257, p. 229.
+
+[39] Journ. Pharm. iv. 56 (Feb. 1818.) and Thomson's Annals, Sept. 1818,
+p. 232.
+
+[40] Of a Specific Gravity. 825.
+
+[41] Philosophical Trans. 1811, p. 345; 1813, p. 87; Journal of Science
+and the Arts, No. viii. p. 290.
+
+[42] Macculloch on Wine. This is by far the best treatise published in
+this country on the Manufacture of Home-made Wines.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Bread._
+
+
+This is one of the sophistications of the articles of food most commonly
+practised in this metropolis, where the goodness of bread is estimated
+entirely by its whiteness. It is therefore usual to add a certain
+quantity of alum to the dough; this improves the look of the bread very
+much, and renders it whiter and firmer. Good, white, and porous bread,
+may certainly be manufactured from good wheaten flour alone; but to
+produce the degree of whiteness rendered indispensable by the caprice of
+the consumers in London, it is necessary (unless the very best flour is
+employed,) that the dough should be _bleached_; and no substance has
+hitherto been found to answer this purpose better than alum.
+
+Without this salt it is impossible to make bread, from the kind of flour
+usually employed by the London bakers, so white, as that which is
+commonly sold in the metropolis.
+
+If the alum be omitted, the bread has a slight yellowish grey hue--as
+may be seen in the instance of what is called _home-made bread_, of
+private families. Such bread remains longer moist than bread made with
+alum; yet it is not so light, and full of eyes, or porous, and it has
+also a different taste.
+
+The quantity of alum requisite to produce the required whiteness and
+porosity depends entirely upon the genuineness of the flour, and the
+quality of the grain from which the flour is obtained. The mealman makes
+different sorts of flour from the same kind of grain. The best flour is
+mostly used by the biscuit bakers and pastry cooks, and the inferior
+sorts in the making of bread. The bakers' flour is very often made of
+the worst kinds of damaged foreign wheat, and other cereal grains mixed
+with them in grinding the wheat into flour. In this capital, no fewer
+than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are brought into market. They
+are called fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse
+middlings, and twenty-penny flour. Common garden beans, and pease, are
+also frequently ground up among the London bread flour.
+
+I have been assured by several bakers, on whose testimony I can rely,
+that the small profit attached to the bakers' trade, and the bad
+quality of the flour, induces the generality of the London bakers to use
+alum in the making of their bread.
+
+The smallest quantity of alum that can be employed with effect to
+produce a white, light, and porous bread, from an inferior kind of
+flour, I have my own baker's authority to state, is from three to four
+ounces to a sack of flour, weighing 240 pounds. The alum is either mixed
+well in the form of powder, with a quantity of flour previously made
+into a liquid paste with water, and then incorporated with the dough; or
+the alum is dissolved in the water employed for mixing up the whole
+quantity of the flour for making the dough.
+
+Let us suppose that the baker intends to convert five bushels, or a sack
+of flour, into loaves with the least adulteration practised. He pours
+the flour into the kneading trough, and sifts it through a fine wire
+sieve, which makes it lie very light, and serves to separate any
+impurities with which the flour may be mixed. Two ounces of alum are
+then dissolved in about a quart of boiling water, and the solution
+poured into _the seasoning-tub_. Four or five pounds of salt are
+likewise put into the tub, and a pailful of hot-water. When this mixture
+has cooled down to the temperature of about 84 deg., three or four pints of
+yeast are added; the whole is mixed, strained through the seasoning
+sieve, emptied into a hole in the flour, and mixed up with the requisite
+portion of it to the consistence of a thick batter. Some dry flour is
+then sprinkled over the top, and it is covered up with cloths.
+
+In this situation it is left about three hours. It gradually swells and
+breaks through the dry flour scattered on its surface. An additional
+quantity of warm water, in which one ounce of alum is dissolved, is now
+added, and the dough is made up into a paste as before; the whole is
+then covered up. In this situation it is left for a few hours.
+
+The whole is then intimately kneaded with more water for upwards of an
+hour. The dough is cut into pieces with a knife, and penned to one side
+of the trough; some dry flour is sprinkled over it, and it is left in
+this state for about four hours. It is then kneaded again for
+half-an-hour. The dough is now cut into pieces and weighed, in order to
+furnish the requisite quantity for each loaf. The loaves are left in the
+oven about two hours and a half. When taken out, they are carefully
+covered up, to prevent as much as possible the loss of weight.[43]
+
+The following account of making a sack, of five bushels of flour into
+bread, is taken from Dr. P. Markham's Considerations on the Ingredients
+used in the Adulteration of Bread Flour, and Bread, p. 21:
+
+     5 bushels of flour,
+     8 ounces of alum,[44]
+     4 lbs. of salt,
+     1/2 a gallon of yeast, mixed with about
+     3 gallons of water.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+                                                    lbs.
+     The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained }
+     from the bushel of wheat, weighs           }    48
+
+                                lbs.
+         Fine pollard          4-1/4
+         Coarse pollard        4
+         Bran                  2-3/4
+                               ------                11
+                                                     --
+     The whole together                              59
+
+     To which add the loss of weight in }
+     manufacturing a bushel of wheat    }             2
+                                                     --
+         Produces the original weight                61
+                                                     --
+
+The theory of the bleaching property of alum, as manifested in the
+panification of an inferior kind of flour, is by no means well
+understood; and indeed it is really surprising that the effect should be
+produced by so small a quantity of that substance, two or three ounces
+of alum being sufficient for a sack of flour.
+
+From experiments in which I have been employed, with the assistance of
+skilful bakers, I am authorised to state, that without the addition of
+alum, it does not appear possible to make white, light, and porous
+bread, such as is used in this metropolis, unless the flour be of the
+very best quality.
+
+Another substance employed by fraudulent bakers, is subcarbonate of
+ammonia. With this salt, they realise the important consideration of
+producing light and porous bread, from spoiled, or what is technically
+called _sour flour_. This salt which becomes wholly converted into a
+gaseous state during the operation of baking, causes the dough to swell
+up into air bubbles, which carry before them the stiff dough, and thus
+it renders the dough porous; the salt itself is, at the same time,
+totally volatilised during the operation of baking. Thus not a vestige
+of carbonate of ammonia remains in the bread. This salt is also largely
+employed by the biscuit and ginger-bread bakers.
+
+Potatoes are likewise largely, and perhaps constantly, used by
+fraudulent bakers, as a cheap ingredient, to enhance their profit. The
+potatoes being boiled, are triturated, passed through a sieve, and
+incorporated with the dough by kneading. This adulteration does not
+materially injure the bread. The bakers assert, that the bad quality of
+the flour renders the addition of potatoes advantageous as well to the
+baker as to the purchaser, and that without this admixture in the
+manufacture of bread, it would be impossible to carry on the trade of a
+baker. But the grievance is, that the same price is taken for a potatoe
+loaf, as for a loaf of genuine bread, though it must cost the baker
+less.
+
+I have witness, that five bushels of flour, three ounces of alum, six
+pounds of salt, one bushel of potatoes boiled into a stiff paste, and
+three quarts of yeast, with the requisite quantity of water, produce a
+white, light, and highly palatable bread.
+
+Such are the artifices practised in the preparation of bread,[45] and it
+must be allowed, on contrasting them with those sophistications
+practised by manufacturers of other articles of food, that they are
+comparatively unimportant. However, some medical men have no hesitation
+in attributing many diseases incidental to children to the use of eating
+adulterated bread; others again will not admit these allegations: they
+persuade themselves that the small quantity of alum added to the bread
+(perhaps upon an average, from eight to ten grains to a quartern loaf,)
+is absolutely harmless.
+
+Dr. Edmund Davy, Professor of Chemistry, at the Cork Institution, has
+communicated the following important facts to the public concerning the
+manufacture of bread.
+
+"The carbonate of magnesia of the shops, when well mixed with flour, in
+the proportion of from twenty to forty grains to a pound of flour,
+materially improves it for the purpose of making bread.
+
+"Loaves made with the addition of carbonate of magnesia, rise well in
+the oven; and after being baked, the bread is light and spongy, has a
+good taste, and keeps well. In cases when the new flour is of an
+indifferent quality, from twenty to thirty grains of carbonate of
+magnesia to a pound of the flour will considerably improve the bread.
+When the flour is of the worst quality, forty grains to a pound of flour
+seem necessary to produce the same effect.
+
+"As the improvement in the bread from new flour depends upon the
+carbonate of magnesia, it is necessary that care should be taken to mix
+it intimately with the flour, previous to the making of the dough.
+
+"Mr. Davy made a great number of comparative experiments with other
+substances, mixed in different proportions with new bread flour. The
+fixed alkalies, both in their pure and carbonated state, when used in
+small quantity, to a certain extent were found to improve the bread made
+from new flour; but no substance was so efficacious in this respect as
+carbonate of magnesia.
+
+"The greater number of his experiments were performed on the worst new
+_seconds_ flour Mr. Davy could procure. He also made some trials on
+_seconds_ and _firsts_ of different quality. In some cases the results
+were more striking and satisfactory than in others; but in every
+instance the improvement of the bread, by carbonate of magnesia, was
+obvious.
+
+"Mr. Davy observes, that a pound of carbonate of magnesia would be
+sufficient to mix with two hundred and fifty-six pounds of new flour, or
+at the rate of thirty grains to the pound. And supposing a pound of
+carbonate of magnesia to cost half-a-crown, the additional expense would
+be only half a farthing in the pound of flour.
+
+"Mr. Davy conceives that not the slightest danger can be apprehended
+from the use of such an innocent substance, as the carbonate of
+magnesia, in such small proportion as is necessary to improve bread from
+new flour."
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF ALUM IN BREAD.
+
+Pour upon two ounces of the suspected bread, half a pint of boiling
+distilled water; boil the mixture for a few minutes, and filter it
+through unsized paper. Evaporate the fluid, to about one fourth of its
+original bulk, and let gradually fall into the clear fluid a solution of
+muriate of barytes. If a _copious_ white precipitate ensues, which does
+not disappear by the addition of _pure_ nitric acid, the presence of
+alum may be suspected. Bread, made without alum, produces, when assayed
+in this manner, merely a very slight precipitate, which originates from
+a minute portion of sulphate of magnesia contained in all common salt of
+commerce; and bread made with salt freed from sulphate of magnesia,
+produces an infusion with water, which does not become disturbed by the
+barytic test.
+
+Other means of detecting all the constituent parts of alum, namely, the
+alumine, sulphuric acid, and potash, so as to render the presence of the
+alum unequivocal, will readily suggest itself to those who are familiar
+with analytical chemistry; namely: one of the readiest means is, to
+decompose the vegetable matter of the bread, by the action of chlorate
+of potash, in a platina crucible, at a red heat, and then to assay the
+residuary mass--by means of muriate of barytes, for sulphuric acid; by
+ammonia, for alumine; and by muriate of platina, for potash[46]. The
+above method of detecting the presence of alum, must therefore be taken
+with some limitation.
+
+There is no unequivocal test for detecting in a _ready manner_ the
+presence of alum in bread, on account of the impurity of the common salt
+used in the making of bread. If we could, in the ordinary way of bread
+making, employ common salt, absolutely free from foreign saline
+substances, the mode of detecting the presence of alum, or at least one
+of its constituent parts, namely, the sulphuric acid, would be very
+easy. Some conjecture may, nevertheless, be formed of the presence, or
+absence, of alum, by assaying the infusion of bread in the manner
+stated, p. 109, and comparing the assay with the results afforded by an
+infusion of home-made or household bread, known to be genuine, and
+actually assayed in a similar manner.
+
+
+EASY METHOD OF JUDGING OF THE GOODNESS OF BREAD CORN, AND BREAD-FLOUR.
+
+Millers judge of the goodness of bread corn by the quantity of bran
+which the grain produces.
+
+Such grains as are full and plump, that have a bright and shining
+appearance, without any shrivelling and shrinking in the covering of
+the skin, are the best; for wrinkled grains have a greater quantity of
+skin, or bran, than such as are sound or plump.
+
+Pastry-cooks and bakers judge of the goodness of flour in the manner in
+which it comports itself in kneading. The best kind of wheaten flour
+assumes, at the instant it is formed into paste by the addition of
+water, a very gluey, ductile, and elastic paste, easy to be kneaded, and
+which may be elongated, flattened, and drawn in every direction, without
+breaking.
+
+For the following fact we are indebted to Mr. Hatchet.
+
+"Grain which has been heated or burnt in the stack, may in the following
+manner be rendered fit for being made into bread:
+
+"The wheat must be put into a vessel capable of holding at least three
+times the quantity, and the vessel filled with boiling water; the grain
+should then be occasionally stirred, and the hollow decayed grains,
+which float, may be removed. When the water has become cold, or in about
+half an hour, it is drawn off. Then rince the corn with cold water, and,
+having completely drained it, spread it thinly on the floor of a kiln,
+and thus thoroughly dry it, stirring and turning it frequently during
+this part of the process."[47]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[43] The sack of marketable flour is by law obliged to weigh 240 pounds,
+which is the produce of five bushels of wheat, and is upon an average
+supposed to make eighty quartern loaves of bread; and consequently
+sixteen of such loaves are made from each bushel of good wheat. It is
+admitted, however, that two or three loaves more than the above quantity
+can be made from the sack of flour, when it is the _genuine produce_ of
+_good wheat_; that is, in the proportion of about sixteen and a half
+loaves from each bushel of sound grain, and, it may be presumed, sixteen
+from a bushel of medium corn. The expense, in London, of making the sack
+of flour into bread, and disposing of it, is about nine shillings.
+
+A bushel of wheat, upon an average, weighs sixty-one pounds; when
+ground, the meal weighs 60-3/4 lbs.; which, on being dressed, produces
+46-3/4 lbs. of flour, of the sort called _seconds_; which alone is used
+for the making of bread in London and throughout the greater part of
+this country; and of pollard and bran 12-3/4 lbs., which quantity, when
+bolted, produces 3 lbs. of fine flour, this, when sifted, produces in
+good second flour 1-1/4 lb.
+
+[44] Whilst correcting this sheet for the press, the printer transmits
+to me the following lines:
+
+"On Saturday last, George Wood, a baker, was convicted before T. Evance,
+Esq. Union Hall, of having in his possession a quantity of alum for the
+adulteration of bread, and fined in the penalty of 5_l._ and costs,
+under 55 Geo. III. c. 99."--_The Times_, Oct. 1819.
+
+[45] There are instances of convictions on record, of bakers having used
+gypsum, chalk, and pipe clay, in the manufacture of bread.
+
+[46] See a Practical Treatise on the Use and Application of Chemical
+Tests, illustrated by experiments, 3d edit. p. 270, 231, 177, & 196.
+
+[47] Phil. Trans. for 1817, part i.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Beer._
+
+
+Malt liquors, and particularly porter, the favourite beverage of the
+inhabitants of London, and of other large towns, is amongst those
+articles, in the manufacture of which the greatest frauds are frequently
+committed.
+
+The statute prohibits the brewer from using any ingredients in his
+brewings, except malt and hops; but it too often happens that those who
+suppose they are drinking a nutritious beverage, made of these
+ingredients only, are entirely deceived. The beverage may, in fact, be
+neither more nor less than a compound of the most deleterious
+substances; and it is also clear that all ranks of society are alike
+exposed to the nefarious fraud. The proofs of this statement will be
+shewn hereafter.[48]
+
+The author[49] of a Practical Treatise on Brewing, which has run
+through eleven editions, after having stated the various ingredients for
+brewing porter, observes, "that however much they may surprise, however
+pernicious or disagreeable they may appear, he has always found them
+requisite in the brewing of porter, and he thinks they must invariably
+be used by those who wish to continue the taste, flavour, and appearance
+of the beer.[50] And though several Acts of Parliament have been passed
+to prevent porter brewers from using many of them, yet the author can
+affirm, from experience, he could never produce the present flavoured
+porter without them.[51] The intoxicating qualities of porter are to be
+ascribed to the various drugs intermixed with it. It is evident some
+porter is more heady than other, and it arises from the greater or less
+quantity of stupifying ingredients. Malt, to produce intoxication, must
+be used in such large quantities as would very much diminish, if not
+totally exclude, the brewer's profit."
+
+The practice of adulterating beer appears to be of early date. By an
+Act so long ago as Queen Anne, the brewers are prohibited from mixing
+_cocculus indicus_, or any unwholesome ingredients, in their beer, under
+severe penalties: but few instances of convictions under this act are to
+be met with in the public records for nearly a century. To shew that
+they have augmented in our own days, we shall exhibit an abstract from
+documents laid lately before Parliament.[52]
+
+These will not only amply prove, that unwholesome ingredients are used
+by fraudulent brewers, and that very deleterious substances are also
+vended both to brewers and publicans for adulterating beer, but that the
+ingredients mixed up in the brewer's enchanting cauldron are placed
+above all competition, even with the potent charms of Macbeth's witches:
+
+     "Root of hemlock, digg'd i' the dark,
+       +       +       +       +       +
+       +       +       +       +       +
+     For a charm of pow'rful trouble,
+     Like a hell-broth boil and bubble;
+     Double, double, toil and trouble,
+     Fire burn, and cauldron bubble."
+
+The fraud of imparting to porter and ale an intoxicating quality by
+narcotic substances, appears to have flourished during the period of the
+late French war; for, if we examine the importation lists of drugs, it
+will be noticed that the quantities of cocculus indicus imported in a
+given time prior to that period, will bear no comparison with the
+quantity imported in the same space of time during the war, although an
+additional duty was laid upon this commodity. Such has been the amount
+brought into this country in five years, that it far exceeds the
+quantity imported during twelve years anterior to the above epoch. The
+price of this drug has risen within these ten years from two shillings
+to seven shillings the pound.
+
+It was at the period to which we have alluded, that the preparation of
+an extract of cocculus indicus first appeared, as a new saleable
+commodity, in the price-currents of _brewers'-druggists_. It was at the
+same time, also, that a Mr. Jackson, of notorious memory, fell upon the
+idea of brewing beer from various drugs, without any malt and hops. This
+chemist did not turn brewer himself; but he struck out the more
+profitable trade of teaching his mystery to the brewers for a handsome
+fee. From that time forwards, written directions, and recipe-books for
+using the chemical preparations to be substituted for malt and hops,
+were respectively sold; and many adepts soon afterwards appeared every
+where, to instruct brewers in the nefarious practice, first pointed out
+by Mr. Jackson. From that time, also, the fraternity of
+brewers'-chemists took its rise. They made it their chief business to
+send travellers all over the country with lists and samples exhibiting
+the price and quality of the articles manufactured by them for the use
+of brewers only. Their trade spread far and wide, but it was amongst the
+country brewers chiefly that they found the most customers; and it is
+amongst them, up to the present day, as I am assured by some of these
+operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that the greatest quantities of
+unlawful ingredients are sold.
+
+The Act of Parliament[53] prohibits chemists, grocers, and druggists,
+from supplying illegal ingredients to brewers under a heavy penalty, as
+is obvious from the following abstract of the Act.
+
+"No druggist, vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other
+person, shall sell or deliver to any licensed brewer, dealer in or
+retailer of beer, knowing him to be such, or shall sell or deliver to
+any person on account of or in trust for any such brewer, dealer or
+retailer, any liquor called by the name of or sold as colouring, from
+whatever material the same may be made, or any material or preparation
+other than unground brown malt for darkening the colour of worts or
+beer, or any liquor or preparation made use of for darkening the colour
+of worts or beer, or any molasses, honey, vitriol, quassia, cocculus
+Indian, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper or opium, or any extract or
+preparation of molasses, or any article or preparation to be used in
+worts or beer for or as a substitute for malt or hops; and if any
+druggist shall offend in any of these particulars, such liquor
+preparation, molasses, &c. shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any
+officer of excise, and the person so offending shall for each offence
+forfeit 500_l._"
+
+The following is a list of druggists and grocers, prosecuted by the
+Court of Excise, and convicted of supplying unlawful ingredients to
+brewers.
+
+
+_List of Druggists and Grocers, prosecuted and convicted from 1812 to
+1819, for supplying illegal Ingredients to Brewers for adulterating
+Beer._[54]
+
+John Dunn and another, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500_l._
+
+George Rugg and others, druggists, for selling adulterating ingredients
+to brewers, verdict 500_l._
+
+John Hodgkinson and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to
+brewers, 100_l._ and costs.
+
+William Hiscocks and others, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 200_l._ and costs.
+
+G. Hornby; for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+W. Wilson, for selling adulterating ingredients to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+George Andrews, grocer, for selling adulterating ingredients to a
+brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+Guy Knowles, for selling substitute for hops, costs.
+
+Kernot and Alsop, for selling cocculus india, &c. 25_l._
+
+Joseph Moss, for selling various drugs, 300_l._
+
+Ph. Whitcombe, John Dunn, and Arthur Waller, druggists, for having
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid and concealed.
+
+Isaac Hebberd, for having liquor for darkening the colour of beer, hid
+and concealed.
+
+Ph. Whitcombe, John Dunn, and Arthur Waller, druggists, for making
+liquor for darkening the colour of beer.
+
+John Lord, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and costs.
+
+John Smith Carr, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Edward Fox, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+John Cooper, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40_l._ and costs.
+
+Joseph Bickering, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 40_l._ and
+costs.
+
+John Howard, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+James Reynolds, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs.
+
+Thomas Hammond, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._ and
+costs.
+
+J. Mackway, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._
+
+T. Renton, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.
+
+R. Adamson, grocer, for selling molasses to a brewer, costs, and taking
+out a license.
+
+W. Weaver, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer, 200_l._
+
+J. Moss, for selling Spanish liquorice to a brewer.
+
+Alex. Braden, for selling liquorice, 20_l._
+
+J. Draper, for selling molasses to a brewer, 20_l._
+
+
+PORTER.
+
+The method of brewing porter has not been the same at all times as it is
+at present.
+
+At first, the only essential difference in the methods of brewing this
+liquor and that of other kinds of beer, was, that porter was brewed from
+brown malt only; and this gave to it both the colour and flavour
+required. Of late years it has been brewed from mixtures of pale and
+brown malt.
+
+These, at some establishments, are mashed separately, and the worts from
+each are afterwards mixed together. The proportion of pale and brown
+malt, used for brewing porter, varies in different breweries; some
+employ nearly two parts of pale malt and one part of brown malt; but
+each brewer appears to have his own proportion; which the intelligent
+manufacturer varies, according to the nature and qualities of the malt.
+Three pounds of hops are, upon an average, allowed to every barrel,
+(thirty-six gallons) of porter.
+
+When the price of malt, on account of the great increase in the price of
+barley during the late war, was very high, the London brewers discovered
+that a larger quantity of wort of a given strength could be obtained
+from pale malt than from brown malt. They therefore increased the
+quantity of the former and diminished that of the latter. This produced
+beer of a paler colour, and of a less bitter flavour. To remedy these
+disadvantages, they invented an artificial colouring substance, prepared
+by boiling brown sugar till it acquired a very dark brown colour; a
+solution of which was employed to darken the colour of the beer. Some
+brewers made use of the infusion of malt instead of sugar colouring. To
+impart to the beer a bitter taste, the fraudulent brewer employed
+quassia wood and wormwood as a substitute for hops.
+
+But as the colouring of beer by means of sugar became in many instances
+a pretext for using illegal ingredients, the Legislature, apprehensive
+from the mischief that might, and actually did, result from it, passed
+an Act prohibiting the use of burnt sugar, in July 1817; and nothing but
+malt and hops is now allowed to enter into the composition of beer: even
+the use of isinglass for clarifying beer, is contrary to law.
+
+No sooner had the beer-colouring Act been repealed, than other persons
+obtained a patent for effecting the purpose of imparting an artificial
+colour to porter, by means of brown malt, specifically prepared for that
+purpose only. The beer, coloured by the new method, is more liable to
+become spoiled, than when coloured by the process formerly practised.
+The colouring malt does not contain any considerable portion of
+saccharine matter. The grain is by mere torrefaction converted into a
+gum-like substance, wholly soluble in water, which renders the beer
+more liable to pass into the acetous fermentation than the common brown
+malt is capable of doing; because the latter, if prepared from good
+barley, contains a portion of saccharine matter, of which the patent
+malt is destitute.
+
+But as brown malt is generally prepared from the worst kind of barley,
+and as the patent malt can only be made from good grain, it may become,
+on that account, an useful article to the brewer (at least, it gives
+colour and body to the beer;) but it cannot materially economise the
+quantity of malt necessary to produce good porter. Some brewers of
+eminence in this town have assured me, that the use of this mode of
+colouring beer is wholly unnecessary; and that porter of the requisite
+colour may be brewed better without it; hence this kind of malt is not
+used in their establishments. The quantity of gum-like matter which it
+contains, gives too much ferment to the beer, and renders it liable to
+spoil. Repeated experiments, made on a large scale, have settled this
+fact.
+
+
+STRENGTH AND SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PORTER.
+
+The strength of all kinds of beer, like that of wine, depends on the
+quantity of spirit contained in a given bulk of the liquor.
+
+The reader need scarcely be told, that of no article there are more
+varieties than of porter. This, no doubt, arises from the different mode
+of manufacturing the beer, although the ingredients are the same. This
+difference is more striking in the porter manufactured among country
+brewers, than it is in the beer brewed by the eminent London porter
+brewers. The totality of the London porter exhibits but very slight
+differences, both with respect to strength or quantity of spirit, and
+solid extractive matter, contained in a given bulk of it. The spirit may
+be stated, upon an average, to be 4,50 per cent. in porter retailed at
+the publicans; the solid matter, is from twenty-one to twenty-three
+pounds per barrel of thirty-six gallons. The country-brewed porter is
+seldom well fermented, and seldom contains so large a quantity of
+spirit; it usually abounds in mucilage; hence it becomes turbid when
+mixed with alcohol. Such beer cannot keep, without becoming sour.
+
+It has been matter of frequent complaint, that ALL the porter
+now brewed, is not what porter was formerly. This idea may be true with
+some exceptions. My professional occupations have, during these
+twenty-eight years, repeatedly obliged me to examine the strength of
+London porter, brewed by different brewers; and, from the minutes made
+on that subject, I am authorised to state, that the porter now brewed by
+the eminent London brewers, is unquestionably stronger than that which
+was brewed at different periods during the late French war. Samples of
+brown stout with which I have been obligingly favoured, whilst writing
+this Treatise, by Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.--Messrs. Truman,
+Hanbury, and Co.--Messrs. Henry Meux and Co.--and other eminent brewers
+of this capital--afforded, upon an average, 7,25 per cent. of alcohol,
+of 0,833 specific gravity; and porter, from the same houses, yielded
+upon an average 5,25 per cent. of alcohol, of the same specific
+gravity;[55] this beer received from the brewers was taken from the
+same store from which the publicans are supplied.
+
+It is nevertheless singular to observe, that from fifteen samples of
+beer of the same denominations, procured from different retailers, the
+proportions of spirit fell considerably short of the above quantities.
+Samples of brown stout, procured from the retailers, afforded, upon an
+average, 6,50 per cent. of alcohol; and the average strength of the
+porter was 4,50 per cent. Whence can this difference between the beer
+furnished by the brewer, and that retailed by the publican, arise? We
+shall not be at a loss to answer this question, when we find that so
+many retailers of porter have been prosecuted and convicted for mixing
+table beer with their strong beer; this is prohibited by law, as becomes
+obvious by the following words of the Act.[56]
+
+"If any common or other brewer, innkeeper, victualler, or retailer of
+beer or ale, shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer, ale, or
+worts, with table beer, worts, or water, in any tub or measure, he shall
+forfeit 50_l._" The difference between strong and table beer, is thus
+settled by Parliament.
+
+"All beer or ale[57] above the price of eighteen shillings per barrel,
+exclusive of ale duties now payable (viz. ten shillings per barrel,) or
+that may be hereafter payable in respect thereof, shall be deemed strong
+beer or ale; and all beer of the price of eighteen shillings the barrel
+or under, exclusive of the duty payable (viz. two shillings per barrel)
+in respect thereof, shall be deemed table beer within the meaning of
+this and all other Acts now in force, or that may hereafter be passed in
+relation to beer or ale or any duties thereon."
+
+
+_List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted from 1815 to 1818, for
+adulterating Beer with illegal Ingredients, and for mixing Table Beer
+with their Strong Beer._[58]
+
+William Atterbury, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 40_l._
+
+Richard Dean, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+John Jay, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+James Atkinson, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 20_l._
+
+Samuel Langworth, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 50_l._
+
+Hannah Spencer, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 150_l._
+
+---- Hoeg, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+table beer with strong beer, 5_l._
+
+Richard Craddock, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing table beer with strong beer, 100_l._
+
+James Harris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+receiving stale beer, and mixing it with strong beer, 42_l._ and costs.
+
+Thomas Scoons, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing stale beer with strong beer, verdict 200_l._
+
+Diones Geer and another, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c.
+and for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400_l._
+
+Charles Coleman, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 35_l._ and costs.
+
+William Orr, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50_l._
+
+John Gardiner, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for
+mixing strong and table beer, 100_l._
+
+John Morris, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 20_l._
+
+John Harbur, for using salt of steel, salt, molasses, &c. and for mixing
+strong and table beer, 50_l._
+
+John Corrie, for mixing strong beer with table beer.
+
+John Cape, for mixing strong beer with table beer.
+
+Joseph Gudge, for mixing strong beer with small beer.
+
+
+ILLEGAL SUBSTANCES USED FOR ADULTERATING BEER.
+
+We have stated already (p. 113) that nothing is allowed by law to enter
+into the composition of beer, but malt and hops.
+
+The substances used by fraudulent brewers for adulterating beer, are
+chiefly the following:
+
+Quassia, which gives to beer a bitter taste, is substituted for hops;
+but hops possesses a more agreeable aromatic flavour, and there is also
+reason to believe that they render beer less liable to spoil by keeping;
+a property which does not belong to quassia. It requires but little
+discrimination to distinguish very clearly the peculiar bitterness of
+quassia in adulterated porter. Vast quantities of the shavings of this
+wood are sold in a half-torrefied and ground state to disguise its
+obvious character, and to prevent its being recognised among the waste
+materials of the brewers. Wormwood[59] has likewise been used by
+fraudulent brewers.
+
+The adulterating of hops is prohibited by the Legislature.[60]
+
+"If any person shall put any drug or ingredient whatever into hops to
+alter the colour or scent thereof, every person so offending, convicted
+by the oath of one witness before one justice of peace for the county or
+place where the offence was committed, shall forfeit 5_l._ for every
+hundred weight."
+
+Beer rendered bitter by quassia never keeps well, unless it be kept in a
+place possessing a temperature considerably lower than the temperature
+of the surrounding atmosphere; and this is not well practicable in large
+establishments.
+
+The use of boiling the wort of beer with hops, is partly to communicate
+a peculiar aromatic flavour which the hop contains, partly to cover the
+sweetness of undecomposed saccharine matter, and also to separate, by
+virtue of the gallic acid and tannin it contains, a portion of a
+peculiar vegetable mucilage somewhat resembling gluten, which is still
+diffused through the beer. The compound thus produced, separates in
+small flakes like those of curdled soap; and by these means the beer is
+rendered less liable to spoil. For nothing contributes more to the
+conversion of beer, or any other vinous fluid, into vinegar, than
+mucilage. Hence, also, all full-bodied and clammy ales, abounding in
+mucilage, and which are generally ill fermented, do not keep as perfect
+ale ought to do. Quassia is, therefore, unfit as a substitute for hops;
+and even English hops are preferable to those imported from the
+Continent; for nitrate of silver and acetate of lead produce a more
+abundant precipitate from an infusion of English hops, than can be
+obtained from a like infusion by the same agents from foreign hops.
+
+One of the qualities of good porter, is, that it should bear _a fine
+frothy head_, as it is technically termed: because professed judges of
+this beverage, would not pronounce the liquor excellent, although it
+possessed all other good qualities of porter, without this requisite.
+
+To impart to porter this property of frothing when poured from one
+vessel into another, or to produce what is also termed a _cauliflower
+head_, the mixture called _beer-heading_, composed of common green
+vitriol (sulphate of iron,) alum, and salt, is added. This addition to
+the beer is generally made by the publicans.[61] It is unnecessary to
+genuine beer, which of itself possesses the property of bearing a strong
+white froth, without these additions; and it is only in consequence of
+table beer being mixed with strong beer, that the frothing property of
+the porter is lost. From experiments I have tried on this subject, I
+have reason to believe that the sulphate of iron, added for that
+purpose, does not possess the power ascribed to it. But the publicans
+frequently, when they fine a butt of beer, by means of isinglass,
+adulterate the porter at the same time with table beer, together with a
+quantity of molasses and a small portion of extract of gentian root, to
+keep up the peculiar flavour of the porter; and it is to the molasses
+chiefly, which gives a spissitude to the beer, that the frothing
+property must be ascribed; for, without it, the sulphate of iron does
+not produce the property of frothing in diluted beer.
+
+Capsicum and grains of paradise, two highly acrid substances, are
+employed to give a pungent taste to weak insipid beer. Of late, a
+concentrated tincture of these articles, to be used for a similar
+purpose, and possessing a powerful effect, has appeared in the
+price-currents of brewers' druggists. Ginger root, coriander seed, and
+orange peels, are employed as flavouring substances chiefly by the ale
+brewers.
+
+From these statements, and the seizures that have been made of illegal
+ingredients at various breweries, it is obvious that the adulterations
+of beer are not imaginary. It will be noticed, however, that some of the
+sophistications are comparatively harmless, whilst others are effected
+by substances deleterious to health.
+
+The following list exhibits some of the unlawful substances seized at
+different breweries and at chemical laboratories.
+
+
+_List of Illegal Ingredients, seized from 1812 to 1818, at various
+Breweries and Brewers' Druggists._[62]
+
+1812, July. Josiah Nibbs, at Tooting, Surrey.
+
+     Multum                      84 lbs.
+     Cocculus indicus            12
+     Colouring                    4 galls.
+     Honey                about 180 lbs.
+     Hartshorn Shavings          14
+     Spanish Juice               46
+     Orange Powder               17
+     Ginger                      56
+
+Penalty 300_l._
+
+
+1813, June 13. Sarah Willis, at West Ham, Essex.
+
+     Cocculus indicus             1 lb.
+     Spanish Juice               12
+     Hartshorn Shavings           6
+     Orange Powder                1
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+August 3. Cratcherode Whiffing, Limehouse.
+
+     Grains of Paradise         44 lbs.
+     Quassia                    10
+     Liquorice                  64
+     Ginger                     80
+     Caraway Seeds              40
+     Orange Powder              14
+     Copperas                    4
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+Nov. 25. Elizabeth Hasler, at Stratford.
+
+     Cocculus indicus           12 lbs.
+     Multum                     26
+     Grains of Paradise         12
+     Spanish Juice              30
+     Orange Powder               3
+
+Penalty 200_l._
+
+
+Dec. 14. John Abbott, at Canterbury, Kent.
+
+     Copperas, &c.              14 lbs.
+     Orange powder               2
+
+Penalty 500_l._, and Crown's costs.
+
+Proof of using drugs at various times.
+
+
+1815, Feb. 15. Mantel and Cook, Castle-street, Bloomsbury-square.
+
+Proof of mixing strong with table beer, and using colouring and other
+things.
+
+Compromised for 300_l._
+
+
+1817. From Peter Stevenson, an old Servant to Dunn and Waller, St.
+John-street, brewers' druggists.
+
+     Cocculus Indicus Extract     6 lbs.
+     Multum                     560
+     Capsicum                    88
+     Copperas                   310
+     Quassia                    150
+     Colouring and Drugs         84
+     Mixed Drugs                240
+     Spanish Liquorice          420
+     Hartshorn Shavings          77
+     Liquorice Powder           175
+     Orange powder              126
+     Caraway Seeds              100
+     Ginger                     110
+     Ginger Root                176
+
+Condemned, not being claimed.
+
+
+July 30. Luke Lyons, Shadwell.
+
+     Capsicum                     1 lb
+     Liquorice Root Powder        2
+     Coriander Seed               2
+     Copperas                     1
+     Orange Powder                8
+     Spanish Liquorice          1/2
+     Beer Colouring              24 galls
+
+Not tried. (7th May, 1818.)
+
+
+Aug. 6. John Gray, at West Ham.
+
+     Multum                     4 lbs.
+     Spanish Liquorice         21
+     Liquorice Root Powder    113
+     Ginger                   116
+     Honey                     11
+
+Penalty, 300_l._, and costs; including mixing strong beer with table,
+and paying table-beer duty for strong beer, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Numerous other seizures of illegal substances, made at breweries, might
+be advanced, were it necessary to enlarge this subject to a greater
+extent.
+
+Mr. James West, from the excise office, being asked in the Committee of
+the House of Commons, appointed, 1819, to examine and report on the
+petition of several inhabitants of London, complaining of the high price
+and inferior quality of beer, produced the following seized
+articles:--"One bladder of honey, one bladder of extract of cocculus
+indicus, ground guinea pepper or capsicum, vitriol or copperas, orange
+powder, quassia, ground beer-heading, hard multum, another kind of
+multum or beer preparation, liquorice powder, and ground grains of
+paradise."
+
+Witness being asked "Where did you seize these things?" Answer, "Some of
+them were seized from brewers, and some of them from brewers'
+druggists, within these two years past." (May 8, 1818.)
+
+Another fraud frequently committed, both by brewers and publicans, (as
+is evident from the Excise Report,) is the practice of adulterating
+strong beer with small beer--This fraud is prohibited by law, since both
+the revenue and the public suffer by it.[63] "The duty upon strong beer
+is ten shillings a barrel; and upon table beer it is two shillings. The
+revenue suffers, because a larger quantity of beer is sold as strong
+beer; that is, at a price exceeding the price of table beer, without the
+strong beer duty being paid. In the next place, the brewer suffers,
+because the retailer gets table or mild beer, and retails it as strong
+beer." The following are the words of the Act, prohibiting the brewers
+mixing table beer with strong beer.
+
+"If any common brewer shall mix or suffer to be mixed any strong beer,
+or strong worts with table beer or table worts, or with water in any
+guile or fermenting tun after the declaration of the quantity of such
+guile shall have been made; or if he shall at any time mix or suffer to
+be mixed strong beer or strong worts with table beer worts or with
+water, in any vat, cask, tub, measures or utensil, not being an entered
+guile or fermenting tun, he shall forfeit 200 pounds."[64]
+
+With respect to the persons who commit this offence, Mr. Carr,[65] the
+Solicitor of the Excise, observes, that "they are generally brewers who
+carry on the double trade of brewing both strong and table beer. It is
+almost impossible to prevent them from mixing one with the other; and
+frauds of very great extent have been detected, and the parties punished
+for that offence. One brewer at Plymouth evaded duties to the amount of
+32,000 pounds; and other brewers, who brew party guiles of beer,
+carrying on the two trades of ale and table beer brewers, where the
+trade is a victualling brewer, which is different from the common
+brewer, he being a person who sells only wholesale; the victualling
+brewer being a brewer and also a seller by retail."
+
+"In the neighbourhood of London," Mr. Carr continues, "more
+particularly, I speak from having had great experience, from the
+informations and evidence which I have received, that the retailers
+carry on a most extensive fraud upon the public, in purchasing stale
+table beer, or the bottoms of casks. There are a class of men who go
+about and sell such beer at table-beer price to public victuallers, who
+mix it in their cellars. If they receive beer from their brewers which
+is mild, they purchase stale beer; and if they receive stale beer, they
+purchase common table beer for that purpose; and many of the
+prosecutions are against retailers for that offence." The following may
+serve in proof of this statement.
+
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+adulterating Strong Beer with Table Beer._[66]
+
+Thomas Manton and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 300_l._
+
+Mark Morrell and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+20_l._ and costs.
+
+Robert Jones and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 125_l._
+
+Robert Stroad, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 200_l._ and
+costs.
+
+William Cobbett, brewer, mixing strong and table beer, 100_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Thomas Richard Withers, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 75_l._
+and costs.
+
+John Cowel, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, 50_l._ and costs.
+
+John Mitchell, brewer, for mixing table beer with strong, absconded.
+
+George Lloyd and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+25_l._ and costs.
+
+James Edmunds and another, brewers, for mixing table beer with strong,
+for a long period, verdict 600_l._
+
+John Hoffman, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, and using
+molasses, 130_l._ and costs.
+
+Samuel Langworth, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer,
+10_l._ and costs.
+
+Hannah Spencer, brewer, for mixing strong with stale table beer, verdict
+150_l._
+
+Joseph Smith and others, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer.
+
+Philip George, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 200_l._
+
+Joshua Row, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, verdict 400_l._
+
+John Drew, jun. and another, for mixing strong beer with table, 50_l._
+and costs.
+
+John Cape, brewer, for mixing strong and table beer, 250_l._ and costs.
+
+John Williams and another, brewers, for mixing strong and table beer,
+verdict 200_l._
+
+
+OLD, OR ENTIRE; AND NEW, OR MILD BEER.
+
+It is necessary to state, that every publican has two sorts of beer sent
+to him from the brewer; the one is called _mild_, which is beer sent out
+fresh as it is brewed; the other is called _old_; that is, such as is
+brewed on purpose for keeping, and which has been kept in store a
+twelve-month or eighteen months. The origin of the beer called
+_entire_, is thus related by the editor of the Picture of London:
+"Before the year 1730, the malt liquors in general used in London were
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and it was customary to call for a pint, or
+tankard, of half-and-half, _i.e._ half of ale and half of beer, half of
+ale and half of two-penny. In course of time it also became the practice
+to call for a pint or tankard of _three-threads_, meaning a third of
+ale, beer, and two-penny; and thus the publican had the trouble to go to
+three casks, and turn three cocks, for a pint of liquor. To avoid this
+inconvenience and waste, a brewer of the name of Harwood conceived the
+idea of making a liquor, which should partake of the same united
+flavours of ale, beer, and two-penny; he did so, and succeeded, calling
+it _entire_, or entire butt, meaning that it was drawn entirely from one
+cask or butt; and as it was a very hearty and nourishing liquor, and
+supposed to be very suitable for porters and other working people, it
+obtained the name of _porter_." The system is now altered, and porter is
+very generally compounded of two kinds, or rather the same liquor in two
+different states, the due admixture of which is palatable, though
+neither is good alone. One is _mild_ porter, and the other _stale_
+porter; the former is that which has a slightly bitter flavour; the
+latter has been kept longer. This mixture the publican adapts to the
+palates of his several customers, and effects the mixture very readily,
+by means of a machine, containing small pumps worked by handles. In
+these are four pumps, but only three spouts, because two of the pumps
+throw out at the same spout: one of these two pumps draws the mild, and
+the other the stale porter, from the casks down in the cellar; and the
+publican, by dexterously changing his hold works either pump, and draws
+both kinds of beer at the same spout. An indifferent observer supposes,
+that since it all comes from one spout, it is entire butt beer, as the
+publican professes over his door, and which has been decided by vulgar
+prejudice to be only good porter, though the difference is not easily
+distinguished. I have been informed by several eminent brewers, that of
+late, a far greater quantity is consumed of mild than of stale beer.
+
+The entire beer of the modern brewer, according to the statement of C.
+Barclay,[67] Esq. "consists of some beer brewed expressly for the
+purpose of keeping: it likewise contains a portion of returns from
+publicans; a portion of beer from the bottoms of vats; the beer that is
+drawn off from the pipes, which convey the beer from one vat to another,
+and from one part of the premises to another. This beer is collected and
+put into vats. Mr. Barclay also states that it contains a certain
+portion of brown stout, which is twenty shillings a barrel dearer than
+common beer; and some bottling beer, which is ten shillings a barrel
+dearer;[68] and that all these beers, united, are put into vats, and
+that it depends upon various circumstances, how long they may remain in
+those vats before they become perfectly bright. When bright, this beer
+is sent out to the publicans, for their _entire_ beer, and there is
+sometimes a small quantity of mild beer mixed with it."
+
+The present entire beer, therefore, is a very heterogeneous mixture,
+composed of all the waste and spoiled beer of the publicans--the bottoms
+of butts--the leavings of the pots--the drippings of the machines for
+drawing the beer--the remnants of beer that lay in the leaden pipes of
+the brewery, with a portion of brown stout, bottling beer, and mild
+beer.
+
+The old or _entire_ beer we have examined, as obtained from Messrs.
+Barclay's, and other eminent London brewers, is unquestionably a good
+compound; but it does no longer appear to be necessary, among fraudulent
+brewers, to brew beer on purpose for keeping, or to keep it twelve or
+eighteen months. A more easy, expeditious, and economical method has
+been discovered to convert any sort of beer into entire beer, merely by
+the admixture of a portion of sulphuric acid. An imitation of the age of
+eighteen months is thus produced in an instant. This process is
+technically called to bring beer _forward_, or to make it _hard_.
+
+The practice is a bad one. The genuine, old, or entire beer, of the
+honest brewer, is quite a different compound; it has a rich, generous,
+full-bodied taste, without being acid, and a vinous odour: but it may,
+perhaps, not be generally known that this kind of beer always affords a
+less proportion of alcohol than is produced from mild beer. The practice
+of bringing beer _forward_, it is to be understood, is resorted to only
+by fraudulent brewers.[69]
+
+If, on the contrary, the brewer has too large a stock of old beer on his
+hands, recourse is had to an opposite practice of converting stale,
+half-spoiled, or sour beer, into mild beer, by the simple admixture of
+an alkali, or an alkaline earth. Oyster-shell powder and subcarbonate of
+potash, or soda, are usually employed for that purpose. These substances
+neutralise the excess of acid, and render sour beer somewhat palatable.
+By this process the beer becomes very liable to spoil.
+
+It is the worst expedient that the brewer can practise: the beer thus
+rendered _mild_, soon loses its vinous taste; it becomes vapid; and
+speedily assumes a muddy grey colour, and an exceedingly disagreeable
+taste.
+
+These sophistications may be considered, at first, as minor crimes
+practised by fraudulent brewers, when compared with the methods employed
+by them for rendering beer noxious to health by substances absolutely
+injurious.
+
+To increase the intoxicating quality of beer, the deleterious vegetable
+substance, called _cocculus indicus_, and the extract of this poisonous
+berry, technically called _black extract_, or, by some, _hard multum_,
+are employed. Opium, tobacco, nux vomica, and extract of poppies, have
+also been used.
+
+This fraud constitutes by far the most censurable offence committed by
+unprincipled brewers; and it is a lamentable reflection to behold so
+great a number of brewers prosecuted and convicted of this crime; nor is
+it less deplorable to find the names of druggists, eminent in trade,
+implicated in the fraud, by selling the unlawful ingredients to brewers
+for fraudulent purposes.
+
+
+_List of Brewers prosecuted and convicted from 1813 to 1819, for
+receiving and using illegal Ingredients in their Brewings._[70]
+
+Richard Gardner, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 100_l._,
+judgment by default.
+
+Stephen Webb and another, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 500_l._
+
+Henry Wyatt, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, verdict 400_l._
+
+John Harbart, retailer, for receiving adulterating ingredients, verdict
+150_l._
+
+Philip Blake and others, brewers, for using adulterating ingredients,
+and mixing strong and table beer, verdict 250_l._
+
+James Sneed, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 25_l._ and costs.
+
+John Rewell and another, brewers, ditto, verdict 100_l._
+
+John Swain and another, ditto, for using adulterating ingredients,
+verdict 200_l._
+
+John Ing, brewer, ditto, stayed on defendant's death.
+
+John Hall, ditto, for receiving adulterating ingredients, 5_l._ and
+costs.
+
+John Webb, retailer, for using adulterating ingredients.
+
+Ralph Fogg and another, brewers, for receiving and using adulterating
+ingredients.
+
+John Gray, brewer, for using adulterating ingredients, 300_l._ and
+costs.
+
+Richard Bowman, for using liquid in bladder, supposed to be extract of
+cocculus, 100_l._
+
+Richard Bowman, brewer, for ditto, 100_l._ and costs.
+
+Septimus Stephens, brewer, for ditto, verdict 50_l._
+
+James Rogers and another, brewer, for ditto, 220_l._ and costs.
+
+George Moore, brewer, for using colouring, 300_l._ and costs.
+
+John Morris, for using adulterating ingredients.
+
+Webb and Ball, for using ginger, Guinea pepper, and brown powder, (name
+unknown), 1st 100_l._ 2nd 500_l._
+
+Henry Clarke, for using molasses, 150_l._
+
+Kewell and Burrows, for using cocculus india, multum, &c. 100_l._
+
+Allatson and Abraham, for using cocculus india, multum, and porter
+flavour, 630_l._
+
+Swain and Sewell, for using cocculus india, Guinea-opium, &c. 200_l._
+
+John Ing, for using cocculus india, hard colouring, and honey, _dead_.
+
+William Dean, for using molasses, 50_l._
+
+John Cowell, for using Spanish-liquorice, and mixing table beer with
+strong beer, 50_l._
+
+John Mitchell, for using cocculus india, vitriol, and Guinea pepper,
+_left the country_.
+
+Lloyd and Man, for using extract of cocculus, 25_l._
+
+John Gray, for using ginger, hartshorn shavings, and molasses, 300_l._
+
+Jon Hoffman, for using molasses, Spanish juice, and mixing table with
+strong beer, 130_l._
+
+Rogers and Boon, for using extract of cocculus, multum, porter flavour,
+&c. 220_l._
+
+---- Betteley, for using wormwood, coriander seed, and Spanish juice,
+200_l._
+
+William Lane, brewer, for using wormwood instead of hops, 5_l._ and
+costs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That a minute portion of an unwholesome ingredient, daily taken in beer,
+cannot fail to be productive of mischief, admits of no doubt; and there
+is reasons to believe that a small quantity of a narcotic substance (and
+cocculus indicus is a powerful narcotic[71]), daily taken into the
+stomach, together with an intoxicating liquor, is highly more
+efficacious than it would be without the liquor. The effect may be
+gradual; and a strong constitution, especially if it be assisted with
+constant and hard labour, may counteract the destructive consequences
+perhaps for many years; but it never fails to shew its baneful effects
+at last. Independent of this, it is a well-established fact, that porter
+drinkers are very liable to apoplexy and palsy, without taking this
+narcotic poison.
+
+If we judge from the preceding lists of prosecutions and convictions
+furnished by the Solicitor of the Excise[72], it will be evident that
+many wholesale brewers, as well as retail dealers, stand very
+conspicuous among those offenders. But the reader will likewise notice,
+that there are no convictions, in any instance, against any of the
+eleven great London porter brewers[73] for any illegal practice. The
+great London brewers, it appears, believe that the publicans alone
+adulterate the beer. That many of the latter have been convicted of this
+fraud, the Report of the Board of Excise amply shews.--See p. 129.
+
+The following statement relating to this subject, we transcribe from a
+Parliamentary document:[74]
+
+Mr. Perkins being asked, whether he believed that any of the inferior
+brewers adulterated beer, answered, "I am satisfied there are some
+instances of that."
+
+_Question._--"Do you believe publicans do?" _Answer._--"I believe they
+do." _Q._--"To a great extent?" _A._--"Yes." _Q._--"Do you believe they
+adulterate the beer you sell them?" _A._--"I am satisfied there are
+some instances of that."--Mr. J. Martineau[75] being asked the following
+
+_Question._[76]--"In your judgment is any of the beer of the metropolis,
+as retailed to the publican, mixed with any deleterious ingredients?"
+
+_Answer._--"In retailing beer, in some instances, it has been."
+
+_Question._--"By whom, in your opinion, has that been done?"
+
+_Answer._--"In that case by the publicans who vend it."
+
+On this point, it is but fair, to the minor brewers, to record also the
+answers of some officers of the revenue, when they were asked whether
+they considered it more difficult to detect nefarious practices in large
+breweries than in small ones.
+
+Mr. J. Rogers being thus questioned in the Committee of the House of
+Commons,[77] "Supposing the large brewers to use deleterious or any
+illegal ingredients to such an amount as could be of any importance to
+their concern, do you think it would, or would not, be more easy to
+detect it in those large breweries, than in small ones?" his answer was,
+"more difficult to detect it in the large ones:" and witness being asked
+to state the reason why, answered, "Their premises are so much larger,
+and there is so much more strength, that a cart load or two is got rid
+of in a minute or two." Witness "had known, in five minutes, twenty
+barrels of molasses got rid of as soon as the door was shut."
+
+Another witness, W. Wells, an excise officer,[78] in describing the
+contrivances used to prevent detection, stated, that at a brewer's, at
+Westham, the adulterating substances "were not kept on the premises, but
+in the brewer's house; not the principal, but the working brewers; it
+not being considered, when there, as liable to seizure: the brewer had a
+very large jacket made expressly for that purpose, with very large
+pockets; and, on brewing mornings, he would take his pockets full of the
+different ingredients. Witness supposed that such a man's jacket,
+similar to what he had described, would convey quite sufficient for any
+brewery in England, as to _cocculus indicus_."
+
+That it may be more difficult for the officers of the excise to detect
+fraudulent practices in large breweries than in small ones, may be true
+to a certain extent: but what eminent London porter brewer would stake
+his reputation on the chance of so paltry a gain, in which he would
+inevitably be at the mercy of his own man? The eleven great porter
+brewers of this metropolis are persons of so high respectability, that
+there is no ground for the slightest suspicion that they would attempt
+any illegal practices, which they were aware could not possibly escape
+detection in their extensive establishments. And let it be remembered,
+that none of them have been detected for any unlawful practices,[79]
+with regard to the processes of their manufacture, or the adulteration
+of their beer.
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATION OF BEER.
+
+The detection of the adulteration of beer with deleterious vegetable
+substances is beyond the reach of chemical analysis. The presence of
+sulphate of iron (p. 134) may be detected by evaporating the beer to
+perfect dryness, and burning away the vegetable matter obtained, by the
+action of chlorate of pot-ash in a red-hot crucible. The sulphate of
+iron will be left behind among the residue in the crucible, which when
+dissolved in water, may be assayed, for the constituent parts of the
+salt, namely, iron and sulphuric acid: for the former, by tincture of
+galls, ammonia, and prussiate of potash; and for the latter, by muriate
+of barytes.[80]
+
+Beer, which has been rendered fraudulently _hard_ (see p. 148) by the
+admixture of sulphuric acid, affords a white precipitate (sulphate of
+barytes), by dropping into it a solution of acetate or muriate of
+barytes; and this precipitate, when collected by filtering the mass, and
+after having been dried, and heated red-hot for a few minutes in a
+platina crucible, does not disappear by the addition of nitric, or
+muriatic acid. Genuine old beer may produce a precipitate; but the
+precipitate which it affords, after having been made red-hot in a
+platina crucible, instantly becomes re-dissolved with effervescence by
+pouring on it some pure nitric or muriatic acid; in that case the
+precipitate is malate (not sulphate) of barytes, and is owing to a
+portion of malic acid having been formed in the beer.
+
+But with regard to the vegetable materials deleterious to health, it is
+extremely difficult, in any instance, to detect them by chemical
+agencies; and in most cases it is quite impossible, as in that of
+cocculus indicus in beer.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF SPIRIT CONTAINED IN PORTER, ALE,
+OR OTHER KINDS OF MALT LIQUORS.
+
+Take any quantity of the beer, put it into a glass retort, furnished
+with a receiver, and distil, with a gentle heat, as long as any spirit
+passes over into the receiver; which may be known by heating from time
+to time a small quantity of the obtained fluid in a tea-spoon over a
+candle, and bringing into contact with the vapour of it the flame of a
+piece of paper. If the vapour of the distilled fluid catches fire, the
+distillation must be continued until the vapour ceases to be set on
+fire by the contact of a flaming body. To the distilled liquid thus
+obtained, which is the spirit of the beer, combined with water, add, in
+small quantities at a time, pure subcarbonate of potash (previously
+freed from water by having been exposed to a red heat,) till the last
+portion of this salt added, remains undissolved in the fluid. The spirit
+will thus become separated from the water, because the subcarbonate of
+potash abstracts from it the whole of the water which it contained; and
+this combination sinks to the bottom, and the spirit alone floats on the
+top. If this experiment be made in a glass tube, about half or
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and graduated into 50 or 100
+equal parts, the relative per centage of spirit in a given quantity of
+beer may be seen by mere inspection.
+
+
+_Quantity of Alcohol contained in Porter, Ale, and other kinds of Malt
+Liquors._[81]
+
+     One hundred parts, by Measure,      Parts of Alcohol,
+          contained.                        by Measure.
+
+     Ale, home-brewed                           8,30
+     Ale, Burton, three Samples                 6,25
+     Ale, Burton[82]                            8,88
+     Ale, Edinburgh[82]                         6,20
+     Ale, Dorchester[82]                        5,50
+     Ale, common London-brewed,     }
+             six samples            }           5,82
+     Ale, Scotch, three samples                 5,75
+     Porter, London, eight samples              4,00
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           4,20
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           4,45
+     Ditto, Ditto, bottled.                     4,75
+     Brown Stout, four samples                  5
+     Ditto, Ditto[83]                           6,80
+     Small Beer, six samples                    0,75
+     Ditto, Ditto[84]                           1,28
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] See pages 119, &c.
+
+[49] Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 7.
+
+[50] Child, on Brewing Porter, p. 16.
+
+[51] Ibid. p. 16.
+
+[52] "Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons, to whom the
+petition of several inhabitants of London and its vicinity, complaining
+of the high price and inferior quality of beer, was referred, to examine
+the matter thereof, and to report the same, with their observations
+thereupon, to the House. Printed by order of the House of Commons,
+April, 1819."
+
+[53] 56 Geo. III. c. 2.
+
+[54] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer.--See pages 18,
+29, 30, 31, 36, 43.
+
+[55] The average specific gravity of different samples of brown stout,
+obtained direct from the breweries of Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.
+Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Co. Messrs. Henry Meux and Co. and from
+several other eminent London brewers, amounted to 1,022; and the average
+specific gravity of porter, from the same breweries, 1,018.
+
+[56] 2 Geo. III. c. 14, Sec. 2.
+
+[57] 59 Geo. III. c. 53, Sec. 25.
+
+[58] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 19, 29, 36,
+37, 43.
+
+[59] See Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons for reporting
+on the Price and Quality of Beer, 1819, p. 29.
+
+[60] 7 Geo. II. c. 19, Sec. 2.
+
+[61] See List of Publicans prosecuted and convicted for mixing table
+beer with strong beer, &c. p. 129.
+
+"Alum gives likewise a smack of age to beer, and is penetrating to the
+palate."--_S. Child on Brewing._
+
+[62] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 38.
+
+[63] See Mr. Carr's evidence in the Minutes of the House of Commons, p.
+32.
+
+[64] 42 George III, c. 38, Sec. 12.
+
+[65] See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32.
+
+[66] Copied from the minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons,
+appointed for examining the price and quality of Beer, 1819, p. 29, 36,
+43.
+
+[67] See the Parliamentary Minutes, p. 94.
+
+[68] Mr. Barclay has not specified the relative proportions of brown
+stout and of bottling beer which are introduced at such an augmentation
+of expense.
+
+[69] Mr. Child, in his Treatise on Brewing, p. 23 directs, _to make new
+beer older, use oil of vitriol_.
+
+[70] Copied from the Minutes of the Committee of the House of Commons
+appointed for examining the price and quality of beer, p. 29, 36.
+
+[71] The deleterious effect of Cocculus Indicus (the fruit of the
+memispermum cocculus) is owing to a peculiar bitter principle contained
+in it; which, when swallowed in minute quantities, intoxicates and acts
+as poison. It may be obtained from cocculus indicus berries in a
+detached state:--chemists call it picrotoxin, from +pichros+, bitter;
+and +toxichon+ poison.
+
+[72] See Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 28, 36.
+
+[73] Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.--Truman, Hanbury and Co.--Reid
+and Co.--Whitbread and Co.--Combe, Delafield, and Co.--Henry Meux, and
+Co.--Calvert and Co.--Goodwin and Co.--Elliot and Co.--Taylor and
+Co.--Cox, and Camble and Co.
+
+See the Minutes, before quoted, p. 32.
+
+[74] _Ibid._ p. 58.
+
+[75] A partner in the brewery of Messrs. Whitbread and Co.
+
+[76] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 104.
+
+[77] Minutes, before quoted, p. 22.
+
+[78] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 40.
+
+[79] Minutes of the House of Commons, p. 32
+
+[80] See a Treatise on the Use and Application of Chemical Tests, 3d
+edition; Tests for Sulphuric Acid, &c.
+
+[81] Repository of Arts, No. 2, p. 74.--1816.
+
+[82] Copied from Professor Brande's Paper in the Philosophical
+Transactions, 1811, p. 345.
+
+[83] Result of our own Experiments, see p. 127.
+
+[84] Professor Brande's Experiments.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Tea-Leaves._
+
+
+The late detections that have been made respecting the illicit
+establishments for the manufacture of imitation tea leaves, arrested,
+not long ago, the attention of the public; and the parties by whom these
+manufactories were conducted, together with the numerous venders of the
+factitious tea, did not escape the hand of justice. In proof of this
+statement, it is only necessary to consult the London newspapers (the
+Times and the Courier) from March to July 1818; which show to what
+extent this nefarious traffic has been carried on; and they report also
+the prosecutions and convictions of numerous individuals who have been
+guilty of the fraud. The following are some of those prosecutions and
+convictions.
+
+HATTON GARDEN.--On Saturday an information came to be heard at
+this office, before Thomas Leach, Esq. the sitting magistrate, against a
+man of the name of Edmund Rhodes, charged with having, on the 12th of
+August last, dyed, fabricated, and manufactured, divers large
+quantities, viz. one hundred weight of sloe leaves, one hundred weight
+of ash leaves, one hundred weight of elder leaves, and one hundred
+weight of the leaves of a certain other tree, in imitation of tea,
+contrary to the statute of the 17th of Geo. III.[85] whereby the said
+Edmund Rhodes had, for every pound of such leaves so manufactured,
+forfeited the sum of 5_l._ making the total of the penalties amount to
+2,000_l._ The second count in the information charged the said Rhodes
+with having in his possession the above quantity of sloe, ash, elder,
+and other leaves, under the like penalty of 2,000_l._ The third count
+charged him with having, on the said 12th of August last, in his
+possession, divers quantities, exceeding six pounds weight of each
+respective kind of leaves; viz. fifty pounds weight of green sloe
+leaves, fifty pounds weight of green leaves of ash, fifty pounds weight
+of green leaves of elder, and fifty pounds weight of the green leaves of
+a certain other tree; not having proved that such leaves were gathered
+with the consent of the owners of the trees and shrubs from which they
+were taken, and that such leaves were gathered for some other use, and
+not for the purpose of manufacturing the same in imitation of tea;
+whereby he had forfeited for each pound weight, the sum of 5_l._
+amounting in the whole to 1,000_l._; and, in default of payment, in each
+case, subjected himself to be committed to the house of correction for
+not more than twelve months, nor less than six months.
+
+Mr. Denton, who appeared for the defendant, who was absent, said that he
+was a very poor man, with a family of five children, and was only the
+servant of the real manufacturer, and an ignorant man from the country,
+put into the premises to carry on the business, without knowing what the
+leaves were intended for. By direction of Mr. Mayo, who conducted the
+prosecution, several barrels and bags, filled with the imitation tea,
+were then brought into the office, and a sample from each handed round.
+To the eye they seemed a good imitation of tea.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 500_l._ on the second
+count.
+
+_The Attorney-General against Palmer._--This was an action by the
+Attorney-General against the defendant, Palmer, charging him with
+having in his possession a quantity of sloe-leaves and white-thorn
+leaves, fabricated into an imitation of tea.
+
+Mr. Dauncey stated the case to the jury, and observed that the
+defendant, Mr. Palmer, was a grocer. It would appear that a regular
+manufactory was established in Goldstone-street. The parties by whom the
+manufactory was conducted, was a person of the name of Proctor, and
+another person named J. Malins. They engaged others to furnish them with
+leaves, which, after undergoing a certain process, were sold to and
+drank by the public as tea. The leaves, in order to be converted into an
+article resembling black tea, were first boiled, then baked upon an iron
+plate; and, when dry, rubbed with the hand, in order to produce that
+curl which the genuine tea had. This was the most wholesome part of the
+operation; for the colour which was yet to be given to it, was produced
+by logwood. The green tea was manufactured in a manner more destructive
+to the constitution of those by whom it was drank. The leaves, being
+pressed and dried, were laid upon sheets of copper, where they received
+their colour from an article known by the name of Dutch pink. The
+article used in producing the appearance of the fine green bloom,
+observable on the China tea, was, however, decidedly a dead poison! He
+alluded to verdigris, which was added to the Dutch pink in order to
+complete the operation. This was the case which he had to bring before
+the jury; and hence it would appear, that, at the moment they were
+supposing they were drinking a pleasant and nutritious beverage, they
+were, in fact, in all probability, drinking the produce of the hedges
+round the metropolis, prepared for the purposes of deception in the most
+noxious manner. He trusted he should be enabled to trace to the
+possession of the defendant eighty pounds weight of the commodity he had
+been describing.
+
+Thomas Jones deposed, that he knew Proctor, and was employed by him at
+the latter end of April, 1817, to gather black and white thorn leaves.
+Sloe leaves were the black thorn. Witness also knew John Malins, the son
+of William Malins, a coffee-roaster; he did not at first know the
+purpose for which the leaves were gathered, but afterwards learnt they
+were to make imitation tea. Witness did not gather more than one hundred
+and a half weight of these leaves; but he employed another person, of
+the name of John Bagster, to gather them. He had two-pence per pound for
+them. They were first boiled, and the water squeezed from them in a
+press. They were afterwards placed over a slow-fire upon sheets of
+copper to dry; while on the copper they were rubbed with the hand to
+curl them. At the time of boiling there was a little _verdigris_ put
+into the water (this applied to green tea only.) After the leaves were
+dried, they were sifted, to separate the thorns and stalks. After they
+were sifted, more verdigris and some Dutch pink were added. The
+verdigris gave the leaves that green bloom observable on genuine tea.
+
+The black tea went through a similar course as the green, except the
+application of Dutch pink: a little verdigris was put in the boiling,
+and to this was added a small quantity of logwood to dye it, and thus
+the manufacture was complete. The drying operation took place on sheets
+of iron. Witness knew the defendant, Edward Palmer; he took some of the
+mixture he had been describing, to his shop. The first time he took some
+was in May, 1817. In the course of that month, or the beginning of June,
+he took four or five seven-pound parcels; when he took it there, it was
+taken up to the top of the house. Witness afterwards carried some to
+Russell-street, which was taken to the top of the house, about one
+hundred weight and three quarters; from this quantity he carried
+fifty-three pounds weight to the house of the defendant's porter, by the
+desire of Mr. Malins; it was in paper parcels of seven pounds each.
+
+John Bagster proved that he had been employed by Malins and Proctor, to
+gather sloe and white-thorn leaves: they were taken to Jones's house,
+and from thence to Malins' coffee-roasting premises; witness received
+two-pence per pound for them; he saw the manufacturing going on, but did
+not know much about it: witness saw the leaves on sheets of copper, in
+Goldstone-street.
+
+This was the case for the Crown.--Verdict for the Crown, 840_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Prentice._--This was an information
+similar to the last, in which the defendant submitted to a verdict for
+the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against Lawson Holmes._--In this case the
+defendant submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Orkney._--Thomas Jones proved that
+the defendant was a grocer, and in the month of May last he carried to
+his shop seven pounds of imitation tea, by the order of John Malins,
+for which he received the money, viz. 15_s._ 9_d._ or 2_s._ 3_d._ per
+pound.
+
+The jury found a verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 70_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against James Gray._--The defendant submitted to a
+verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 120_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against H. Gilbert, and Powel._--These defendants
+submitted to a verdict.--Penalties 140_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Clarke._--This defendant also
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against George David Bellis._--This defendant
+submitted to a verdict for the Crown.
+
+_The Attorney-General against John Horner._--The defendant in this case
+was a grocer; it was proved by Jones that he received twenty pounds of
+imitation tea.--Verdict for the Crown.--Penalties 210_l._
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Dowling._--This was a grocer.
+Jones proved that he delivered seven pounds of imitation tea at Mr.
+Dowling's house, and received the money for it, namely 15_s._
+9_d._--Penalties 70_l._
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF TEA.
+
+The adulteration of tea may be evinced by comparing the botanical
+characters of the leaves of the two respective trees, and by submitting
+them to the action of a few chemical tests.
+
+The shape of the tea-leaf is slender and narrow, as shewn in this
+sketch, the edges are deeply serrated, and the end or extremity is
+acutely pointed. The texture of the leaf is very delicate, its surface
+smooth and glossy, and its colour is a lively pale green.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The sloe-leaf (and also the white-thorn leaf,) as shewn in this sketch,
+is more rounded, and the leaf is obtusely pointed. The serratures or
+jags on the edges are not so deep, the surface of the leaf is more
+uneven, the texture not so delicate, and the colour is a dark olive
+green.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+These characters of course can be observed only after the dried leaves
+have been suffered to macerate in water for about twenty-four hours.
+
+The leaves of some sorts of tea may differ in size, but the shape is the
+same in all of them; because all the different kinds of tea imported
+from China, are the produce of one species of plant, and the difference
+between the green and souchong, or black tea, depends chiefly upon the
+climate, soil, culture, age, and mode of drying the leaves.
+
+Spurious black tea,[86] slightly moistened, when rubbed on a sheet of
+white paper, immediately produces a blueish-black stain; and speedily
+affords, when thrown into cold water, a blueish-black tincture, which
+instantly becomes reddened by letting fall into it, a drop or two of
+sulphuric acid.
+
+Two ounces of the suspected leaves, should be infused in half-a-pint of
+cold, soft water, and suffered to stand for about an hour. Genuine tea
+produces an amber-coloured infusion, which does not become reddened by
+sulphuric acid.
+
+All the samples of spurious green tea (nineteen in number) which I have
+examined, were coloured with carbonate of copper (a poisonous
+substance,) and not by means of verdigris, or copperas.[87] The latter
+substances would instantly turn the tea black; because both these
+metallic salts being soluble in water, are acted on by the astringent
+matter of the leaves, whether genuine or spurious, and convert the
+infusion into ink.
+
+Tea, rendered poisonous by carbonate of copper, speedily imparts to
+liquid ammonia a fine sapphire blue tinge. It is only necessary to shake
+up in a stopped vial, for a few minutes, a tea-spoonful of the suspected
+leaves, with about two table-spoonsful of liquid ammonia, diluted with
+half its bulk of water. The supernatant liquid will exhibit a fine blue
+colour, if the minutest quantity of copper be present.
+
+Green tea, coloured with carbonate of copper, when thrown into water
+impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, immediately acquires a black
+colour. Genuine green tea suffers no change from the action of these
+tests.
+
+The presence of copper may be further rendered obvious, by mixing one
+part of the suspected tea-leaves, reduced to powder, with two or three
+parts of nitrate of potash, (or with two parts of chlorate of potash,)
+and projecting this mixture by small portions at a time, into a platina,
+or porcelain-ware crucible, kept red-hot in a coal fire; the whole
+vegetable matter of the tea leaves will thus become destroyed, and the
+oxide of copper left behind, in combination with the potash, of the
+nitrate of potash (or salt-petre,) or with the muriate of potash, if
+chlorate of potash has been employed.
+
+If water, acidulated with nitric acid, be then poured into the crucible
+to dissolve the mass, the presence of the copper may be rendered
+manifest by adding to the solution, liquid ammonia, in such quantity
+that the pungent odour of it predominates.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[85] Also, 2 Geo. I, c. 30, Sec. 5; and 4 Geo. II, c. 14, Sec. 11.
+
+[86] The examination of twenty-seven samples of imitation tea of
+different qualities, from the most costly, to the most common, which it
+fell to my lot to undertake, induces me to point out the marks of
+sophistications here detailed, as the most simple and expeditious.
+
+[87] Mr. Twining, an eminent tea-merchant, asserts, that "the leaves of
+spurious tea are boiled in a copper, with copperas and sheep's
+dung."--See Encyclop. Britan. vol. xviii. p. 331. 1797. See also the
+History of the Tea Plant, p. 48; and p. 167 of this Treatise.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Coffee._
+
+
+The fraud of counterfeiting ground coffee by means of pigeon's beans and
+pease, is another subject which, not long ago, arrested the attention of
+the public: and from the numerous convictions of grocers prosecuted for
+the offence, it is evident that this practice has been carried on for a
+long time, and to a considerable extent.
+
+The following statement exhibits some of the prosecutions, instituted by
+the Solicitor of the Excise, against persons convicted of the fraud of
+manufacturing spurious, and adulterating genuine coffee.
+
+Alexander Brady, a grocer, (_See p. 182_) prosecuted and convicted of
+selling _sham-coffee_, said, "I have sold it for twenty years." Some of
+the persons prosecuted by the Solicitor of the Excise for this fraud, we
+might, at first sight, be inclined to believe, were inconscious that the
+adulterating of genuine coffee with spurious substances was illegal; but
+this ignorance affords no excuse, as the Act of the 43 Geo. III. cap.
+129, explicitly states: "If after the first day of September, 1803, any
+burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans, or other grain, or vegetable
+substance or substances prepared or manufactured for the purpose of
+being in imitation of or in any respect to resemble coffee or cocoa, or
+to serve as a substitute for coffee or cocoa, or alleged or pretended by
+the possessor or vender thereof so to be, _shall be made_, or kept for
+sale, or shall be _offered_ or _exposed to sale_, or shall be _found_ in
+the custody or possession of any _dealer_ or dealers in or _seller_ or
+sellers of _coffee_, or if any burnt, scorched, or roasted pease, beans,
+or other grain, or vegetable substance or substances not being coffee,
+shall be called by the preparer, manufacturer, possessor, or vender
+thereof, by the name of _English_ or _British_ coffee, or _any other
+name_ of coffee, or by the name of _American_ cocoa, or _English_ or
+_British_ cocoa, or any other name of cocoa, the same respectively shall
+be forfeited, together with the packages containing the same, and shall
+and may be seized by any officer or officers of Excise; and the person
+or persons preparing, manufacturing, or selling the same, or having the
+same in his, her, or their custody or possession, or the dealer or
+dealers in or seller or sellers of coffee or cocoa, in whose custody
+the same shall be found, shall forfeit and lose the sum of one hundred
+pounds."
+
+_The Attorney-General against William Malins._--This was an information
+filed by the Attorney-General against the defendant, charging him, he
+being a dealer in coffee, with having in his possession a large quantity
+of imitation coffee, made from scorched pease and beans, resembling
+coffee, and intended to be sold as such, contrary to the statute of the
+43d of the King, whereby he became liable to pay a fine of 100_l._
+
+J. Lawes deposed that he had lived servant with the defendant; he
+constantly roasted pease and beans, and ground them into powder. When so
+ground, the powder very much resembled coffee. Sometimes the sweepings
+of the coffee were thrown in among the pease and beans. Witness carried
+out this powder to several grocers in different parts of the town.
+
+Thomas Jones lived with the defendant. His occupation was roasting and
+grinding pease and beans. They looked, when ground, the same as coffee.
+Witness had seen Mr. John Malins sweep up the refuse coffee, and mix it
+with the pease and beans. He had taken out this mixture to grocers.
+
+J. Richardson, an excise-officer, deposed, that, in December 1817, he
+went to the premises of the defendant, and there seized four sacks, five
+tubs, and nine pounds in paper, of a powder made to resemble coffee. The
+quantity ground was 1,567 pounds; it had all the appearance of coffee;
+and a little coffee being mixed with it, any common person might be
+deceived. He also seized two sacks, containing 279 pounds of whole pease
+and beans roasted. Among the latter were some grains of coffee. The
+witness here produced samples of the articles seized.
+
+John Lawes deposed, that the articles exhibited were such as he was in
+the habit of manufacturing while in Mr. Malins' employment.
+
+The jury found a verdict for the Crown.--Penalty 100_l._
+
+_The King against Chaloner._--Mr. Chaloner, a dealer in tea and coffee,
+was charged on the oaths of Charles Henry Lord and John Pearson, both
+Excise officers, with having in his possession, on the 17th of March,
+nine pounds of spurious coffee, consisting of burnt pease, beans, and
+gravel or sand, and a portion of coffee, and with selling some of the
+same; also with having in his possession seventeen pounds of vegetable
+powder, and an article imitating coffee, which contained not a particle
+of genuine coffee.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 90_l._
+
+_The King against Peether._--This was an information against Mr. Thomas
+Peether, tea and coffee dealer, charging him with having in his
+possession a quantity of imitation coffee (or vegetable powder) on the
+25th of April last.
+
+The case being proved by the evidence of several witnesses, the
+defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Topping._--This was an information against Mr. John
+Lewis Topping, a dealer in tea and coffee, charging him with having
+thirty-seven pounds of vegetable powder in his possession. The article
+seized was produced to the commissioners of the Excise.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Samuel Hallett._--The defendant, Hallett, a grocer and
+dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having seven pounds of
+imitation coffee in his possession.
+
+Charles Henry Lord, an officer of the Excise, being sworn, stated, that
+he and Spencer, an officer, went, on the 28th of February last, to the
+shop of the defendant, and asked for an ounce of coffee, at three
+halfpence per ounce. He received the same, and having paid for it, left
+the shop. He examined the article, and found it was part coffee, and
+part imitation coffee, or what the defendant called vegetable powder,
+which is nothing more nor less than burnt pease and beans ground in a
+mill.
+
+Spencer, the officer of the Excise, corroborated the above evidence, and
+stated, that the sham-coffee seized at the defendant's house was shown
+to Mr. Joseph Hubbard, grocer, and tea and coffee dealer, in
+High-street, in the Borough of Southwark.
+
+Mr. Hubbard being sworn, stated, that he had examined the sham-coffee
+seized by the officers in the defendant's shop. The one ounce purchased
+by Lord, he knew to be nothing else than black pigeon's beans; there was
+no coffee amongst it.
+
+The defendant was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Fox._--Mr. Edward Fox, grocer, and dealer in tea and
+coffee, was charged with having a large quantity of sham-coffee in his
+possession, and with selling the same for genuine coffee.
+
+Henry Spencer, an officer of the Excise, stated, that on the 21st of
+February he and Lord, another officer, went to the defendant's shop and
+purchased an ounce of coffee, for which he paid three halfpence. They
+examined it, and he was satisfied it was not genuine coffee; they
+purchased another ounce (which he produced to the commissioners of the
+Excise, who examined it); they were convinced it consisted partly of
+coffee and beans and pease.
+
+The defendant, in his defence said, that the poor people wanted a
+low-price article; and by mixing the vegetable powder and coffee
+together, he was able to sell it at three halfpence an ounce; he had
+sold it for years; he did it as a matter of accommodation to the poor,
+who could not give a higher price; he did not sell it for genuine
+coffee.
+
+_Commissioner._--"Then you have been defrauding the public for many
+years, and injuring the revenue by your illicit practices: the poor have
+an equal right to be supplied with as genuine an article as the rich."
+
+He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Brady._--The defendant, Mr. Alexander Brady, grocer,
+and dealer in tea and coffee, was charged with having, on the 28th of
+February last, in his possession eighteen pounds of sham-coffee, and
+selling the same for genuine coffee.
+
+Lord and Pearson, Excise officers, stated, that they purchased an ounce
+of coffee of the defendant, on the 28th of February, and upon examining
+it they discovered that it was made up of pease and beans, ground with a
+small quantity of coffee. They also found eighteen pounds of vegetable
+powder mixed with coffee, in a state prepared for sale, wrapped in
+papers.
+
+One of the commissioners tasted some of the eighteen pounds of
+sham-coffee produced by the officers, and declared that it was a most
+infamous stuff, and unfit for human food.
+
+_Defendant._--"Why, I have sold it for twenty years."
+
+_Commissioner._--"Then you have been for twenty years acting most
+dishonestly, defrauding the revenue; and the health of the poor must
+have suffered very much by taking such an unwholesome article. Your
+having dealt in this article so long aggravates your case; you have for
+twenty years been selling burnt beans and pease for genuine coffee.--You
+are convicted in the penalty of 50_l._"
+
+_The King against Bowser._--The excise officers stated, that on the 28th
+of February they went to his shop: he was a grocer, dealer in tea and
+coffee; they seized seven pounds and a half of vegetable powder, which
+contained very little coffee, if any; and also a quarter of a pound of
+coffee mixed with vegetable powder.
+
+The defendant pleaded guilty to the charge, and prayed the court to
+mitigate the penalty. He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._
+
+_The King against Thomas Owen._--The defendant, an extensive dealer in
+tea and coffee, appeared to an information charging him with having in
+his possession, and selling, a quantity of deleterious ingredients, and
+mixing them with coffee.
+
+Charles Henry Lord deposed, that on the 26th of February, he found, at
+the shop of the defendant, nineteen pounds of a composition consisting
+of beans and pease ground, and prepared so as to imitate coffee. He also
+discovered two pounds and a half of a mixture of coffee and vegetable
+powder. On the same day he proceeded to another shop of the defendant,
+and he there found five pounds more of the same stuff.
+
+Samples of the composition, in its mixed and unmixed state, were
+produced.
+
+Mr. Lawes addressed the commissioners on behalf of the defendant, in
+mitigation of punishment; for he did not mean to deny the offence. His
+client was a very young man, and had been most unfortunate in business.
+He was not aware until lately of the existence of any law by which it
+could be punished.
+
+The Commissioners observed, that they had a double duty to perform,
+namely, to protect the revenue from fraud, and to prevent the public
+from being imposed upon and injured by ingredients served to them
+instead of the food they intended to purchase. The fraud upon the
+revenue was, in the estimation of the court, the least part of the
+offence. Under all the circumstances, however, the court was inclined to
+be lenient to the defendant.
+
+He was convicted in the penalty of 50_l._ for each quantity of
+sham-coffee.
+
+Mr. Greely and Mr. William Dando were fined 20_l._ each; and Mr. Hirling
+and Mr. Terry were fined 90_l._ each for selling spurious coffee.
+
+The adulteration of ground coffee, with pease and beans, is beyond the
+reach of chemical analysis; but it may, perhaps, not be amiss on this
+occasion to give to our readers a piece of advice given by a retired
+grocer to a friend, at no distant period:--"Never, my good fellow," he
+said, "purchase from a grocer any thing which passes through his mill.
+You know not what you get instead of the article you expect to
+receive--coffee, pepper, and all-spice, are all mixed with substances
+which detract from their own natural qualities."--Persons keeping mills
+of their own can at all times prevent these impositions.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Brandy, Rum, and Gin._
+
+
+By the Excise laws at present existing in this country, the various
+degrees of strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, whiskey, and other
+spiritous liquors, chiefly composed of little else than spirit of wine,
+are determined by the quantity of alcohol of a given specific gravity
+contained in the spiritous liquors of a supposed unknown strength. The
+great public importance of this subject in this country, where the
+consumption of spiritous liquors adds a vast sum to the public revenue,
+has been the means of instituting many very interesting series of
+experiments on this subject. The instrument used for that purpose by the
+Customs and officers of Excise, is called _Sikes_'s hydrometer,[88]
+which has now superseded the instrument called _Clark_'s hydrometer,
+heretofore in use.
+
+The specific gravity or strength of the legal standard spirit of the
+Excise, is technically called _proof_ or _proof spirit_. "This liquor
+(not being spirit sweetened, or having any ingredient dissolved in it,
+to defeat the strength thereof,) at the temperature of 57 deg. Faht. weighs
+exactly 12/13th parts of an equal measure of distilled water;" and with
+this spirit the strength of all other spiritous liquors are compared
+according to law.
+
+The strength of spirit stronger than _proof_ or _over proof_, as it is
+termed by the revenue officers, is indicated by the bulk of water
+necessary to reduce a given volume of it, to the legal standard spirit,
+denominated _proof_--namely; if one gallon of water be required to bring
+twenty gallons of brandy, rum, or any other spirit, to proof, that
+spirit is said to be _1 to 20 over proof_. If one gallon of water be
+required to bring 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor to _proof_, it
+is said to be 1 to 15, 1 to 10, 1 to 5, and 1 to 2, _over proof_.
+
+The strength of brandy, rum, arrack, gin, or other spiritous liquors,
+weaker than _proof_, or under _proof_, is estimated by the quantity of
+water which would be necessary to abstract or bring the spirit up to
+proof.
+
+Thus, if from twenty gallons of brandy one gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 20 under proof.
+If from 15, 10, 5, or 2 gallons of the liquor, 1 gallon of water must be
+abstracted to bring it to proof, it is said to be 1 in 15, 1 in 10, 1 in
+5, and 1 in 2 under proof.
+
+It is necessary to understand this absurd language, which is in use
+amongst the officers of Excise and dealers in spirit, in order to know
+what is meant in commerce by the strength of spiritous liquors of
+different denominations. And hence, for the business of the exciseman, a
+table has been constructed, expressing the strength or specific gravity
+of mixtures of different proportions of spirit and water, at different
+degrees of temperature; and according to this table the duty on spirit
+is now levied.
+
+Brandy and rum is seizable, if sold by, or found in the possession of,
+the dealer, unless it possesses a certain strength.[89] The following
+are the words of the Act:
+
+"No distiller, rectifier,[90] compounder or dealer, shall serve or send
+out any foreign spirits, of a lower strength than that of 1 in 6 under
+hydrometer proof,[91] nor have in his possession any foreign spirits
+mixed together, except shrub, cherry or raspberry brandy, of lower
+strength than as aforesaid, upon pain of such spirits being forfeited;
+and such spirits, with the casks and vessels containing the same, may be
+seized by any officer of Excise."
+
+We have, therefore, a ready check against the frauds of the dishonest
+dealers, in spiritous liquors. If the spirit merchant engages to deliver
+a liquor of a certain strength, the hydrometer is by far the most easy
+and expeditious check that can be adopted to guard against frauds of
+receiving a weaker liquor for a stronger one; and to those individuals
+who are in the habit of purchasing large quantities of brandy, rum, or
+other spiritous liquors, the hydrometer renders the greatest service.
+For it is by no means an uncommon occurrence to meet with brandy, rum,
+and other spiritous liquors, of a specific gravity very much below the
+pretended strength which the liquor ought to possess.
+
+The following advice, given to his readers,[92] by the author of a
+Treatise on Brewing and Distilling, may serve to put the unwary on their
+guard against some of the frauds practised by mercenary dealers.
+
+"It is a custom among retailing distillers, which I have not taken
+notice of in this directory, to put one-third or one-fourth part of
+proof molasses brandy, proportionably, to what rum they dispose of;
+which cannot be distinguished, but by an extraordinary palate, and does
+not at all lessen the body or proof of the goods; but makes them about
+two shillings a gallon cheaper; and must be well mixed and incorporated
+together in your retailing cask; but you should keep some of the best
+rum, not adulterated, to please some customers, whose judgment and
+palate must be humoured."
+
+"When you are to draw a sample of goods to shew a person that has
+judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods into a phial to be tasted,
+or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, because the proof
+will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong; but draw the
+pattern of goods rather into a glass from the cock, to run very small,
+or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot and pour it
+into your glass, extending your pot as high above the glasses as you can
+without wasting it, which makes the goods carry a better head
+abundantly, than if the same goods were to be put and tried in a phial."
+
+"You must be so prudent as to make a distinction of the persons you have
+to deal with; what goods you sell to gentlemen for their own use, who
+require a great deal of attendance, and as much for time of payment, you
+must take a considerably greater price than of others; what goods you
+sell to persons where you believe there is a manifest, or at least some
+hazard of your money, you may safely sell for more than common profit;
+what goods you sell to the poor, especially medicinally, (as many of
+your goods are sanative,) be as compassionate as the cases require."
+
+"All brandies, whether French, Spanish, or English; being proof goods,
+will admit of one point of _liquor_[93] to each gallon, to be made up
+and incorporated therewith in your cask, for retail, or selling smaller
+quantities; and all persons that insist upon having proof goods, which
+not one in twenty understands, you must supply out of what goods are not
+so reduced, though at a higher price."
+
+Such is the advice given by Mr. Shannon.
+
+The mode of judging by the taste of spiritous liquors is deceitful. A
+false strength is given to a weak liquor, by infusing in it acrid
+vegetable substances, or by adding to it a tincture of grains of
+paradise and Guinea pepper. These substances impart to weak brandy or
+rum, an extremely hot and pungent taste.
+
+Brandy and rum is also frequently sophisticated with British molasses,
+or sugar-spirit, coloured with burnt sugar.
+
+The flavour which characterises French brandy, and which is owing to a
+small portion of a peculiar essential oil contained in it, is imitated
+by distilling British molasses-spirit over wine lees;[94] but the
+spirit, prior to being distilled over wine lees, is previously
+deprived, in part, of its peculiar disagreeable flavour, by
+rectification over fresh burnt charcoal and quick-lime. Other
+brandy-merchants employ a spirit obtained from raisin wine, which is
+suffered to pass into an incipient ascescency. The spirit thus procured
+partakes strongly of the flavour which is characteristic to foreign
+brandy.
+
+Oak saw-dust, and a spiritous tincture of raisin stones, are likewise
+used to impart to new brandy and rum a _ripe taste_, resembling brandy
+or rum long kept in oaken casks, and a somewhat oily consistence, so as
+to form a durable froth at its surface, when strongly agitated in a
+vial. The colouring substances are burnt sugar, or molasses; the latter
+gives to imitative brandy a luscious taste, and fulness _in the mouth_.
+These properties are said to render it particularly fit for the retail
+London customers.
+
+The following is the method of compounding or _making up_, as it is
+technically called, _brandy_[95] for retail:
+
+                                                 Gallons
+     "To ten puncheons of brandy                    1081
+     Add flavoured raisin spirit                     118
+     Tincture of grains of paradise                    4
+     Cherry laurel water                               2
+     Spirit of almond cakes                            2
+                                                 -------
+                                                    1207
+
+"Add also 10 handfuls of oak saw-dust; and give it _complexion_ with
+burnt sugar."
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATIONS OF BRANDY, RUM, AND MALT SPIRIT.
+
+The false strength of brandy or rum is rendered obvious by diluting the
+suspected liquor with water; the acrimony of the capsicum, and grains of
+paradise, or pepper, may then be readily discovered by the taste.
+
+The adulteration of brandy with British molasses, or sugar-spirit,
+becomes evident by rubbing a portion of the suspected brandy between
+the palms of the hands; the spirit, as it evaporates, leaves the
+disagreeable flavour which is peculiar to all British spirits. Or the
+liquor may be deprived of its alcohol, by heating a portion in a spoon
+over a candle, till the vapour ceases to catch fire on the approach of a
+lighted taper. The residue thus obtained, of genuine French brandy,
+possesses a vinous odour, still resembling the original flavour of the
+brandy, whilst the residue, produced from sophisticated brandy, has a
+peculiarly disagreeable smell, resembling gin, or the breath of habitual
+drunkards.
+
+Arrack is coarsely imitated by adding to rum a small quantity of
+pyroligneous acid and some flowers (acid) of benzoe. The compound thus
+produced, however, must be pronounced a bad one. The author of a very
+popular Cookery Book,[96] directs two scruples of benzoic acid to be
+dissolved in one quart of rum, to make "_mock arrack_."
+
+
+MALT SPIRIT.
+
+Malt spirit, or gin, the favourite liquor of the lower order of people,
+which is characterised by the peculiar flavour of juniper berries, over
+which the raw spirit is distilled, is usually obtained from a mixture of
+malt and barley: sometimes both molasses and corn are employed,
+particularly if there be a scarcity of grain. But the flavour of
+whiskey, which is made from barley and oats, is owing to the malted
+grain being dried with peat, the smoke of which gives it the
+characteristic taste.
+
+The malt distiller is not allowed to furnish, under a heavy penalty, any
+crude or raw spirit to the rectifier or manufacturer of gin, of a
+greater strength than seven per cent. over proof. The rectifier who
+receives the spirit from the malt distiller is not allowed, under a
+certain penalty, to sweeten the liquor with sugar or other substances;
+nor is he permitted to send out the spirit to his customers but of a
+certain strength, as is obvious from the following words of the Act:
+
+"No rectifier or compounder shall sell or send out any British brandy,
+British rectified spirits, British compounds, or other British spirits,
+of greater strength than that of one in five under hydrometer proof[97]:
+and if he shall sell and send out any such spirits of a greater strength
+than that of one in five under hydrometer proof, such spirits, with the
+casks or vessels containing the same, shall be forfeited, and may be
+seized by any officer of Excise; and he shall also forfeit treble the
+value of such spirit, or 50_l._ at the election of the King's
+attorney-general, or the person who shall sue for the same; the single
+value of such spirits to be estimated at the highest London Price.[98]"
+
+If we examine gin, as retailed, we shall soon be convinced that it is a
+custom, pretty prevalent amongst dealers, to weaken this liquor
+considerably with water, and to sweeten it with sugar. This fraud may
+readily be detected by evaporating a quantity of the liquor in a
+table-spoon over a candle, to dryness; the sugar will thus be rendered
+obvious, in the form of a gum-like substance, when the spirit is
+volatilised.
+
+One hundred and twenty gallons of genuine gin, as obtained from the
+wholesale manufactories, are usually _made up_ by fraudulent retailers,
+into a saleable commodity, with fourteen gallons of water and twenty-six
+pounds of sugar. Now this dilution of the liquor produces a turbidness;
+because the oil of juniper and other flavouring substances which the
+spirit holds in solution, become precipitated by virtue of the water,
+and thus cause the liquor to assume an opaline colour: and the spirit
+thus weakened, cannot readily be rendered clear again by subsidence.
+Several expedients are had recourse to, to clarify the liquor in an
+expeditious manner; some of which are harmless; others are criminal,
+because they render the liquor poisonous.
+
+One of the methods, which is innocent, consists in adding to the
+weakened liquor, first, a portion of alum dissolved in water, and then a
+solution of sub-carbonate of potash. The whole is stirred together, and
+left undisturbed for twenty-four hours. The precipitated alumine thus
+produced from the alum, by virtue of the sub-carbonate of potash, acts
+as a strainer upon the milky liquor, and carries down with it the finely
+divided oily matter which produced the blue colour of the diluted
+liquor. Roach, or Roman alum, is also employed, without any other
+addition, for clarifying spiritous liquors.
+
+
+"_To reduce unsweetened Gin._[99]
+
+     "A tun of fine gin                     252 gallons
+     "Water                                  36
+                                          -----
+     "Which added together make             288 gallons
+
+     "The _doctor is now put_ on,
+     and it is further reduced
+     with water                              19
+                                          -----
+     "Which gives        Total              307 gallons of gin.
+
+"This done, let 1 lb. of alum be just covered with water, and dissolved
+by boiling; rummage the whole well together, and pour in the alum, and
+the whole will be fine in a few hours."
+
+
+"_To prepare and sweeten British Gin._[100]
+
+"Get from your distiller an empty puncheon or cask, which will contain
+about 133 gallons. Then take a cask of clear rectified spirits, 120
+gallons, of the usual strength as rectifiers sell their goods at, put
+the 120 gallons of spirits into your empty cask.
+
+"Then take a quarter of an ounce of oil of vitriol, half an ounce of
+oil of almonds, a quarter of an ounce of oil of turpentine, one ounce of
+oil of juniper berries, half a pint of spirit of wine, and half a pound
+of lump sugar. Beat or rub the above in a mortar. When well rubbed
+together, have ready prepared half a gallon of lime water, one gallon of
+rose water; mix the whole in either a pail, or cask, with a stick, till
+every particle shall be dissolved; then add to the foregoing,
+twenty-five pounds of sugar dissolved in about nine gallons of rain or
+Thames water, or water that has been boiled, mix the whole well
+together, and stir them carefully with a stick in the 133 gallons cask.
+
+"To _force down_ the same, take and boil eight ounces of alum in three
+quarts of water, for three quarters of an hour; take it from the fire,
+and dissolve by degrees six or seven ounces of salt of tartar. When the
+same is milk-warm pour it into your gin, and stir it well together, as
+before, for five minutes, the same as you would a butt of beer newly
+fined. Let your cask stand as you mean to draw it. At every time you
+purpose to sweeten again, that cask must be well washed out; and take
+great care never to shake your cask all the while it is drawing."
+
+Another method of fining spiritous liquors, consists in adding to it,
+first, a solution of sub-acetate of lead, and then a solution of alum.
+This practice is highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead
+produced, remains dissolved in the liquor, which it thus renders
+poisonous. Unfortunately, this method of clarifying spiritous liquors, I
+have good reason to believe, is more frequently practised than the
+preceding method, because its action is more rapid; and it imparts to
+the liquor a fine _complexion_, or great refractive power; hence some
+vestiges of lead may often be detected in malt spirit.
+
+The weakened spirit is then sweetened with sugar, and, to cover the raw
+taste of the malt spirit, _false strength_ is given to it with grains of
+paradise, Guinea pepper, capsicum, and other acrid and aromatic
+substances.
+
+
+METHOD OF DETECTING THE PRESENCE OF LEAD IN SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.
+
+The presence of lead may be detected in spiritous liquors, as stated on
+pages 70 and 86. The cordial called shrub frequently exhibits vestiges
+of copper. This contamination, I have been informed, is accidental, and
+originates from the metallic vessels employed in the manufacture of the
+liquor.
+
+
+METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF ALCOHOL IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF
+SPIRITOUS LIQUORS.
+
+The quantity of real alcohol in any spiritous liquors may readily be
+ascertained by simple distillation, which process separates the alcohol
+from the water and foreign matters contained in the liquor. Put any
+quantity of brandy, rum, or malt spirit diluted with about one-fourth
+its bulk of water, into a retort fitted to a capacious receiver, and
+distil with a gentle heat. The strongest spirit distils over first into
+the receiver, and the strength of the obtained products decreases, till
+at last it contains so much water as no longer to be inflammable by the
+approach of a lighted taper, when held in a spoon over a candle (see p.
+160.) If the process be continued, the distilled product becomes milky,
+scarcely spiritous to the smell, and of an acidulous taste. The
+distilling operation may then be discontinued. If the first, fourth or
+third part of the distilled product has been set apart, it will be
+found a moderately strong alcohol, and the remainder one more diluted.
+If the whole distilled spirit be mixed with perfectly dry subcarbonate
+of potash, the alcohol will float at the top of the potash, as stated,
+p. 161; it will separate into two distinct fluids. If the decanted
+alcohol be redistilled carefully with a very gentle heat, over a small
+portion of dry quick lime, or muriate of lime, it will be obtained
+extremely pure, and of a specific gravity of about 825, at 60 deg. of
+temperature. Its flavour will vary according to the kind of spiritous
+liquor from which it is obtained.
+
+
+_Table exhibiting the Per Centage of Alcohol (of 825 specific gravity)
+contained in various kinds of spiritous Liquors._[101]
+
+                                                         Proportion of
+                                                       Alcohol per Cent.
+                                                          by Measure.
+
+Brandy, Cogniac, average proportion of 4 samples               52,75
+Ditto, Bourdeaux, ditto    ditto                               54,50
+Ditto, Cette                                                   53,00
+Ditto, Naples, average of 3 samples                            53,25
+Ditto, Spanish average of 6 samples                            52,28
+Rum                                                            53,68
+Ditto, Leeward, average of 9 samples                           53,00
+Scotch Whiskey, average of 6 samples                           53,50
+Irish   Ditto,  average of 4 samples                           54,25
+Arrack, Batavia                                                49,50
+Dutch Geneva                                                   52,25
+Gin (Hodges's,[102]) 3 samples, procured from retail dealers   48,25
+Ditto (Ditto,)[102] procured from the manufacturer             52,35
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[88] George III. c. xxviii. May 1818--"An Act for establishing the use
+of Sikes's hydrometer in ascertaining the strength of spirit, instead of
+Clark's hydrometer."
+
+[89] Sixteen and a half per cent. proof, according to Sikes's
+hydrometer.
+
+[90] 30 Geo. III c. 37, Sec. 31.
+
+[91] According to Clarke's hydrometer.
+
+[92] Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with Brewing
+and Distilling, p. 167; and Shannon on Brewing and Distilling, p. 232,
+233.
+
+[93] Water.
+
+[94] This operation forms part of the business of the so-called brewers'
+druggists. It forms the article in their Price Currents, called _Spirit
+Flavour_.
+
+Wine lees are imported in this country for that purpose: they pay the
+same duty as foreign wines.
+
+[95] Observations on Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with Brewing
+and Distilling, p. 167.
+
+[96] Apicius Redivivus, 2d edition, p. 480.
+
+[97] Clark's hydrometer.
+
+[98] 30 Geo. III. c. 37, Sec. 6.
+
+[99] Shannon on Brewing and Distilling, p. 198.
+
+[100] Ibid. p. 199.
+
+[101] Repository of Arts, p. 350, Dec. 1819.
+
+[102] Own experiment.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Cheese._
+
+
+Several instances have come under my notice in which Gloucester cheese
+has been contaminated with red lead, and has produced serious
+consequences on being taken into the stomach. In one poisonous sample
+which it fell to my lot to investigate, the evil had been caused by the
+sophistication of the anotta, employed for colouring cheese. This
+substance was found to contain a portion of red lead; a method of
+sophistication which has lately been confirmed by the following fact,
+communicated to the public by Mr. J. W. Wright, of Cambridge.[103]
+
+"As a striking example of the extent to which adulterated articles of
+food may be unconsciously diffused, and of the consequent difficulty of
+detecting the real fabricators of them, it may not be uninteresting to
+relate to your readers, the various steps by which the fraud of a
+poisonous adulteration of cheese was traced to its source.
+
+"Your readers ought here to be told, that several instances are on
+record, that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, and that this contamination has produced serious
+consequences. In the instance now alluded to, and probably in all other
+cases, the deleterious mixture had been caused ignorantly, by the
+adulteration of the anotta employed for colouring the cheese. This
+substance, in the instance I shall relate, was found to contain a
+portion of red lead; a species of adulteration which subsequent
+experiments have shewn to be by no means uncommon. Before I proceed
+further to trace this fraud to its source, I shall briefly relate the
+circumstance which gave rise to its detection.
+
+"A gentleman, who had occasion to reside for some time in a city in the
+West of England, was one night seized with a distressing but
+indescribable pain in the region of the abdomen and of the stomach,
+accompanied with a feeling of tension, which occasioned much
+restlessness, anxiety, and repugnance to food. He began to apprehend the
+access of an inflammatory disorder; but in twenty-four hours the
+symptoms entirely subsided. In four days afterwards he experienced an
+attack precisely similar; and he then recollected, that having, on both
+occasions, arrived from the country late in the evening, he had ordered
+a plate of toasted Gloucester cheese, of which he had partaken heartily;
+a dish which, when at home, regularly served him for supper. He
+attributed his illness to the cheese. The circumstance was mentioned to
+the mistress of the inn, who expressed great surprise, as the cheese in
+question was not purchased from a country dealer, but from a highly
+respectable shop in London. He, therefore, ascribed the before-mentioned
+effects to some peculiarity in his constitution. A few days afterwards
+he partook of the same cheese; and he had scarcely retired to rest, when
+a most violent cholic seized him, which lasted the whole night and part
+of the ensuing day. The cook was now directed henceforth not to serve up
+any toasted cheese, and he never again experienced these distressing
+symptoms. Whilst this matter was a subject of conversation in the house,
+a servant-maid mentioned that a kitten had been violently sick after
+having eaten the rind cut off from the cheese prepared for the
+gentleman's supper. The landlady, in consequence of this statement,
+ordered the cheese to be examined by a chemist in the vicinity, who
+returned for answer, that the cheese was contaminated with lead! So
+unexpected an answer arrested general attention, and more particularly
+as the suspected cheese had been served up for several other customers.
+
+"Application was therefore made by the London dealer to the farmer who
+manufactured the cheese: he declared that he had bought the anotta of a
+mercantile traveller, who had supplied him and his neighbours for years
+with that commodity, without giving occasion to a single complaint. On
+subsequent inquiries, through a circuitous channel, unnecessary to be
+detailed here at length, on the part of the manufacturer of the cheese,
+it was found, that as the supplies of anotta had been defective and of
+inferior quality, recourse had been had to the expedient of colouring
+the commodity with vermilion. Even this admixture could not be
+considered deleterious. But on further application being made to the
+druggist who sold the article, the answer was, that the vermilion had
+been mixed with a portion of red lead; and the deception was held to be
+perfectly innocent, as frequently practised on the supposition, that
+the vermilion would be used only as a pigment for house-painting. Thus
+the druggist sold his vermilion in the regular way of trade, adulterated
+with red lead to increase his profit, without any suspicion of the use
+to which it would be applied; and the purchaser who adulterated the
+anotta, presuming that the vermilion was genuine, had no hesitation in
+heightening the colour of his spurious anotta with so harmless an
+adjunct. Thus, through the circuitous and diversified operations of
+commerce, a portion of deadly poison may find admission into the
+necessaries of life, in a way which can attach no criminality to the
+parties through whose hands it has successively passed."
+
+This dangerous sophistication may be detected by macerating a portion of
+the suspected cheese in water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
+acidulated with muriatic acid; which will instantly cause the cheese to
+assume a brown or black colour, if the minutest portion of lead be
+present.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[103] Repository of Arts, vol. viii. No. 47, p. 262.
+
+
+
+
+_Counterfeit Pepper._
+
+
+Black pepper is the fruit of a shrubby creeping plant, which grows wild
+in the East Indies, and is cultivated, with much advantage, for the sake
+of its berries, in Java and Malabar. The berries are gathered before
+they are ripe, and are dried in the sun. They become black and
+corrugated on the surface.
+
+This factitious pepper-corns have of late been detected mixed with
+genuine pepper, is a fact sufficiently known.[104] Such an adulteration
+may prove, in many instances of household economy, exceedingly vexatious
+and prejudicial to those who ignorantly make use of the spurious
+article. I have examined large packages of both black and white pepper,
+by order of the Excise, and have found them to contain about 16 per
+cent. of this artificial compound. The spurious pepper is made up of
+oil cakes (the residue of lintseed, from which the oil has been
+pressed,) common clay, and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed in a
+mass, and granulated by being first pressed through a sieve, and then
+rolled in a cask. The mode of detecting the fraud is easy. It is only
+necessary to throw a sample of the suspected pepper into a bowl of
+water; the artificial pepper-corns fall to powder, whilst the true
+pepper remains whole.
+
+Ground pepper is very often sophisticated by adding to a portion of
+genuine pepper, a quantity of pepper dust, or the sweepings from the
+pepper warehouses, mixed with a little Cayenne pepper. The sweepings are
+known, and purchased in the market, under the name of P. D. signifying
+pepper dust. An inferior sort of this vile refuse, or the sweepings of
+P. D. is distinguished among venders by the abbreviation of D. P. D.
+denoting, dust (dirt) of pepper dust.
+
+The adulteration of pepper, and the making and selling commodities in
+imitation of pepper, are prohibited, under a severe penalty. The
+following are the words of the Act:[105]
+
+"And whereas commodities made in imitation of pepper have of late been
+sold and found in the possession of various dealers in pepper, and other
+persons in Great Britain; be it therefore enacted, that from and after
+the said 5th day of July, 1819, if any commodity or substance shall be
+prepared by any person in imitation of pepper, shall be mixed with
+pepper, or sold or delivered as and for, or as a substitute for, pepper,
+or if any such commodity or substance, alone or mixed, shall be kept for
+sale, sold, or delivered, or shall be offered or exposed to sale, or
+shall be in the custody or possession of any dealer or seller of pepper,
+the same, together with all pepper with which the same shall be mixed,
+shall be forfeited, with the packages containing the same, and shall and
+may be seized by any officer of excise; and the person preparing,
+manufacturing, mixing as aforesaid, selling, exposing to sale, or
+delivering the same, or having the same in his, her, or their custody or
+possession, shall forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds."
+
+
+WHITE PEPPER.
+
+The common white pepper is factitious, being prepared from the black
+pepper in the following manner:--The pepper is first steeped in sea
+water and urine, and then exposed to the heat of the sun for several
+days, till the rind or outer bark loosens; it is then taken out of the
+steep, and, when dry, it is rubbed with the hand till the rind falls
+off. The white fruit is then dried, and the remains of the rind blown
+away like chaff. A great deal of the peculiar flavour and pungent hot
+taste of the pepper is taken off by this process. White pepper is always
+inferior in flavour and quality to the black pepper.
+
+However, there is a sort of native white pepper, produced on a species
+of the pepper plant, which is much better than the factitious, and
+indeed little inferior to the common black pepper.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] Thomson's Annals of Chemistry, 1816; also Repository of Arts, vol.
+i. 1816, p. 11.
+
+[105] George III. c. 53, Sec. 21, 1819.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Cayenne Pepper._
+
+
+Cayenne pepper is an indiscriminate mixture of the powder of the dried
+pods of many species of capsicum, but especially of the capsicum
+frutescens, or bird pepper, which is the hottest of all.
+
+This annual plant, a native of South America, is cultivated in large
+quantities in our West-India islands, and even frequently in our
+gardens, for the beauty of its pods, which are long, pointed, and
+pendulous, at first of a green colour, and, when ripe, of a bright
+orange red. They are filled with a dry loose pulp, and contain many
+small, flat, kidney-shaped seeds. The taste of capsicum is extremely
+pungent and acrimonious, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire.
+
+The principle on which its pungency depends, is soluble in water and in
+alcohol.
+
+It is sometimes adulterated with red lead, to prevent it becoming
+bleached on exposure to light. This fraud may be readily detected by
+shaking up part of it in a stopped vial containing water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which will cause it speedily to assume a
+dark muddy black colour. Or the vegetable matter of the pepper may be
+destroyed, by throwing a mixture of one part of the suspected pepper and
+three of nitrate of potash (or two of chlorate of potash) into a red-hot
+crucible, in small quantities at a time. The mass left behind may then
+be digested in weak nitric acid, and the solution assayed for lead by
+water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Pickles._
+
+
+Vegetable substances, preserved in the state called pickles, by means of
+the antiseptic power of vinegar, whose sale frequently depends greatly
+upon a fine lively green colour; and the consumption of which, by
+sea-faring people in particular, is prodigious, are sometimes
+intentionally coloured by means of copper. Gerkins, French beans,
+samphires, the green pods of capsicum, and many other pickled vegetable
+substances, oftener than is perhaps expected, are met with impregnated
+with this metal. Numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued
+from the use of these stimulants of the palate, to which the fresh and
+pleasing hue has been imparted according to the deadly _formulae_ laid
+down in some modern cookery books, such as boiling the pickles with
+half-pence, or suffering them to stand for a considerable period in
+brazen vessels.
+
+Dr. Percival[106] has given an account of "a young lady who amused
+herself, while her hair was dressing, with eating samphire pickles
+impregnated with copper. She soon complained of pain in the stomach;
+and, in five days, vomiting commenced, which was incessant for two days.
+After this, her stomach became prodigiously distended; and, in nine days
+after eating the pickles, death relieved her from her suffering."
+
+Among many recipes which modern authors of cookery books have given for
+imparting a green colour to pickles, the following are particularly
+deserving of censure; and it is to be hoped that they will be suppressed
+in future editions of the works.
+
+"_To Pickle Gerkins._[107]--"Boil the vinegar in a bell-metal or copper
+pot; pour it boiling hot on your cucumbers."
+
+"_To make greening._[108]--"Take a bit of verdigris, the bigness of a
+hazel-nut, finely powdered; half-a-pint of distilled vinegar, and a bit
+of alum powder, with a little bay salt. Put all in a bottle, shake it,
+and let it stand till clear. Put a small tea-spoonful into codlings, or
+whatever you wish to green."
+
+Mrs. E. Raffald[109] directs, "to render pickles green, boil them with
+halfpence, or allow them to stand for twenty-four hours in copper or
+brass pans."
+
+To detect the presence of copper, it is only necessary to mince the
+pickles, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk of
+water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles contain the minutest
+quantity of copper, the ammonia assumes a blue colour.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106] Medical Transactions, vol. iv. p. 80.
+
+[107] The Ladies' Library, vol. ii. p. 203.
+
+[108] Modern Cookery, or the English Housewife--2d edition, p. 94.
+
+[109] The English Housekeeper, p. 352, 354.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Vinegar._
+
+
+Vinegar, as prepared in this country, from malt, should be of a pale
+brown colour, perfectly transparent, of a pleasant, somewhat pungent,
+acid taste, and fragrant odour, but without any acrimony. From the
+mucilaginous impurities which malt vinegar always contains, it is apt,
+on exposure to air, to become turbid and ropy, and at last vapid. The
+inconvenience is best obviated by keeping the vinegar in bottles
+completely filled and well corked; and it is of advantage to boil it in
+the bottles a few minutes before they are corked.
+
+Vinegar is sometimes largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, to give it
+more acidity. The presence of this acid is detected, if, on the addition
+of a solution of acetate of barytes, a white precipitate is formed,
+which is insoluble in nitric acid, after having been made red-hot in the
+fire. (See p. 159.) With the same intention, of making the vinegar
+appear stronger, different acrid vegetable substances are infused in it.
+This fraud is difficult of detection; but when tasted with attention,
+the pungency of such vinegar will be found to depend rather on acrimony
+than acidity.
+
+Distilled vinegar, which is employed for various purposes of domestic
+economy, is frequently distilled, not in glass, as it ought to be, but
+in common stills with a pewter pipe, whence it cannot fail to acquire a
+metallic impregnation.
+
+One ounce, by measure, should dissolve at least thirteen grains of white
+marble.
+
+It should not form a precipitate on the addition of a solution of
+acetate of barytes, or of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen.
+The former circumstance shews, that it is adulterated with sulphuric
+acid; and the latter indicates a metal.
+
+The metallic impregnation is best rendered obvious by sulphuretted
+hydrogen, in the manner stated, page 69. The distilled vinegar of
+commerce usually contains tin, and not lead, as has been asserted.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Cream._
+
+
+Cream is often adulterated with rice powder or arrow root. The former is
+frequently employed for that purpose by pastry cooks, in fabricating
+creams and custards, for tarts, and other kinds of pastry. The latter is
+often used in the London dairies. Arrow-root is preferable to rice
+powder; for, when converted with milk into a thick mucilage by a gentle
+ebullition, it imparts to cream, previously diluted with milk, a
+consistence and apparent richness, by no means unpalatable, without
+materially impairing the taste of the cream.
+
+The arrow-root powder is mixed up with a small quantity of cold skimmed
+milk into a perfect, smooth, uniform mixture; more milk is then added,
+and the whole boiled for a few minutes, to effect the solution of the
+arrow-root: this compound, when perfectly cold, is mixed up with the
+cream. From 220 to 260 grains, (or three large tea-spoonfuls) of
+arrow root are added to one pint of milk; and one part of this solution
+is mixed with three of cream. It is scarcely necessary to state that
+this sophistication is innocuous.
+
+The fraud may be detected by adding to a tea-spoonful of the
+sophisticated cream a few drops of a solution of iodine in spirit of
+wine, which instantly produces with it a dark blue colour. Genuine cream
+acquires, by the addition of this test, a faint yellow tinge.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Confectionery._
+
+
+In the preparation of sugar plums, comfits, and other kinds of
+confectionery, especially those sweetmeats of inferior quality,
+frequently exposed to sale in the open streets, for the allurement of
+children, the grossest abuses are committed. The white comfits, called
+sugar pease, are chiefly composed of a mixture of sugar, starch, and
+Cornish clay (a species of very white pipe-clay;) and the red sugar
+drops are usually coloured with the inferior kind of vermilion. The
+pigment is generally adulterated with red lead. Other kinds of
+sweetmeats are sometimes rendered poisonous by being coloured with
+preparations of copper. The following account of Mr. Miles[110] may be
+advanced in proof of this statement.
+
+"Some time ago, while residing in the house of a confectioner, I
+noticed the colouring of the green fancy sweetmeats being done by
+dissolving sap-green in brandy. Now sap-green itself, as prepared from
+the juice of the buckthorn berries, is no doubt a harmless substance;
+but the manufacturers of this colour have for many years past produced
+various tints, some extremely bright, which there can be no doubt are
+effected by adding preparations of copper.
+
+"The sweetmeats which accompany these lines you will find exhibit
+vestiges of being contaminated with copper.--The practice of colouring
+these articles of confectionery should, therefore, be banished: the
+proprietors of which are not aware of the deleterious quality of the
+substances employed by them."
+
+The foreign conserves, such as small green limes, citrons, hop-tops,
+plums, angelica roots, &c. imported into this country, and usually sold
+in round chip boxes, are frequently impregnated with copper.
+
+The adulteration of confitures by means of clay, may be detected by
+simply dissolving the comfits in a large quantity of boiling water. The
+clay, after suffering the mixture to stand undisturbed for a few days,
+will fall to the bottom of the vessel; and on decanting the clear fluid,
+and suffering the sediment to become dry gradually, it may be obtained
+in a separate state. If the adulteration has been effected by means of
+clay, the obtained precipitate, on exposure to a red heat in the bowl of
+a common tobacco-pipe, acquires a brick hardness.
+
+The presence of copper may be detected by pouring over the comfits
+liquid ammonia, which speedily acquires a blue colour, if this metal be
+present. The presence of lead is rendered obvious by water impregnated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen, acidulated with muriatic acid (see p. 69,)
+which assumes a dark brown or black colour, if lead be present.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] Philosoph. Mag. No. 258, vol. 54. 1819, p. 317.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Catsup._
+
+
+This article is very often subjected to one of the most reprehensible
+modes of adulteration ever devised. Quantities are daily to be met with,
+which, on a chemical examination, are found to abound with copper.
+Indeed, this condiment is often nothing else than the residue left
+behind after the process employed for obtaining distilled vinegar,
+subsequently diluted with a decoction of the outer green husk of the
+walnut, and seasoned with all-spice, Cayenne pepper, pimento, onions,
+and common salt.
+
+The quantity of copper which we have, more than once, detected in this
+sauce, used for seasoning, and which, on account of its cheapness, is
+much resorted to by people in the lower walks of life, has exceeded the
+proportion of lead to be met with in other articles employed in domestic
+economy.
+
+The following account of Mr. Lewis[111] on this subject, will be
+sufficient to cause the public to be on their guard.
+
+"Being in the habit of frequently purchasing large quantities of pickles
+and other culinary sauces, for the use of my establishment, and also for
+foreign trade, it fell lately to my lot to purchase from a manufacturer
+of those commodities a quantity of walnut catsup, apparently of an
+excellent quality; but, to my great surprise, I had reason to believe
+that the article might be contaminated with some deleterious substance,
+from circumstances which happened in my business as a tavern keeper, but
+which are unnecessary to be detailed here; and it was this that induced
+me to make inquiry concerning the compounding of the suspected articles.
+
+"The catsup being prepared by boiling in a copper, as is usually
+practised, the outer green shell of walnuts, after having been suffered
+to turn black on exposure to air, in combination with common salt, with
+a portion of pimento and pepper-dust, in common vinegar, strengthened
+with some vinegar extract, left behind as residue in the still of
+vinegar manufacturers; I therefore suspected that the catsup might be
+impregnated with some copper. To convince myself of this opinion. I
+boiled down to dryness a quart of it in a stone pipkin, which yielded
+to me a dark brown mass. I put this mass into a crucible, and kept it in
+a coal fire, red-hot, till it became reduced to a porous black charcoal;
+on urging the heat with a pair of bellows, and stirring the mass in the
+crucible with the stem of a tobacco-pipe, it became, after two hours'
+exposure to an intense heat, converted into a greyish-white ash; but no
+metal could be discriminated amongst it. I now poured upon it some aqua
+fortis, which dissolved nearly the whole of it, with an effervescence;
+and produced, after having been suffered to stand, to let the insoluble
+portion subside, a bright grass-green solution, of a strong metallic
+taste; after immersing into this solution the blade of a knife, it
+became instantly covered with a bright coat of copper.
+
+"The walnut catsup was therefore evidently strongly impregnated with
+copper. On informing the manufacturer of this fact, he assured me that
+the same method of preparing the liquor was generally pursued, and that
+he had manufactured the article in a like manner for upwards of twenty
+years.
+
+"Such is the statement I wish to communicate; and if you will allow it a
+place in your Literary Chronicle, it may perhaps tend to put the unwary
+on their guard against the practice of preparing this sauce by boiling
+it in a copper, which certainly may contaminate the liquor, and render
+it poisonous."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[111] Literary Chronicle, No. 24, p. 379.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Custard._
+
+
+The leaves of the cherry laurel, _prunus lauro-cerasus_, a poisonous
+plant, have a nutty flavour, resembling that of the kernels of
+peach-stones, or of bitter almonds, which to most palates is grateful.
+These leaves have for many years been in use among cooks, to communicate
+an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, creams,
+_blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table.
+
+It has been asserted, that the laurel poison in custards and other
+articles of cookery is, on account of its being used in very small
+quantities, quite harmless. To refute this assertion, numerous instances
+might be cited; and, among them, a recent one, in which four children
+suffered most severely from partaking of custard flavoured with the
+leaves of this poisonous plant.
+
+"Several children at a boarding-school, in the vicinity of Richmond,
+having partaken of some custard flavoured with the leaves of the cherry
+laurel, as is frequently practised by cooks, four of the poor innocents
+were taken severely ill in consequence. Two of them, a girl six years of
+age, and a boy of five years old, fell into a profound sleep, out of
+which they could not be roused.
+
+"Notwithstanding the various medical exertions used, the boy remained in
+a stupor ten hours; and the girl nine hours; the other two, one of which
+was six years old, a girl, and a girl of seven years, complained of
+severe pains in the epigastric region. They all recovered, after three
+days' illness. I am anxious to communicate to you this fact, being
+convinced that your publication is read at all the scholastic
+establishments in this part of the country. I hope you will allow these
+lines a corner in your Literary Chronicle, where they may contribute to
+put the unwary on their guard, against the deleterious effects of
+flavouring culinary dishes with that baneful herb, the Cherry Laurel.
+
+"I am, with respect, your's, Sir,
+     "THOMAS LIDIARD."[112]
+
+What person of sense or prudence, then, would trust to the discretion of
+an ignorant cook, in mixing so dangerous an ingredient in his puddings
+and creams? Who but a maniac would choose to season his victuals with
+poison?
+
+The water distilled from cherry laurel leaves is frequently mixed with
+brandy and other spiritous liquors, to impart to them the flavour of the
+cordial called _noyeau_, (see also page 195.)
+
+This fluid, though long in frequent use as a flavouring substance, was
+not known to be poisonous until the year 1728; when the sudden death of
+two women, in Dublin, after drinking some of the common distilled cherry
+laurel water, demonstrated its deleterious nature.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[112] Literary Chronicle, No. 22, p. 348.--1819.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Anchovy Sauce._
+
+
+Several samples which we have examined of this fish sauce have been
+found contaminated with lead.
+
+The mode of preparation of this fish sauce, consists in rubbing down the
+broken anchovy in a mortar: and this triturated mass, being of a dark
+brown colour, receives, without much risk of detection, a certain
+quantity of Venetian red, added for the purpose of colouring it, which,
+if genuine, is an innocent colouring substance; but instances have
+occurred of this pigment having been adulterated with orange lead, which
+is nothing else than a better kind of minium, or red oxide of lead. The
+fraud may be detected, as stated p. 229.
+
+The conscientious oilmen, less anxious with respect to colour,
+substitute for this poison the more harmless pigment, called Armenian
+bole.
+
+The following recipe for making this fish sauce is copied from Gray's
+Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias, p. 241.
+
+"Anchovies, 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. and a half; pulp through a fine hair sieve;
+boil the bones with common salt, 7 oz. in water 6 lbs.; strain; add
+flour 7 oz. and the pulp of the fish; boil; pass the whole through the
+sieve; colour with Venetian red to your fancy. It should produce one
+gallon."
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Lozenges._
+
+
+Lozenges, particularly those into the composition of which substances
+enter that are not soluble in water, as ginger, cremor tartar, magnesia,
+&c., are often sophisticated. The adulterating ingredient is usually
+pipe-clay, of which a liberal portion is substituted for sugar. The
+following detection of this fraud was lately made by Dr. T. Lloyd.[113]
+
+"Some ginger lozenges having lately fallen into my hands, I was not a
+little surprised to observe, accidentally, that when thrown into a coal
+fire, they suffered but little change. If one of the lozenges was laid
+on a shovel, previously made red-hot, it speedily took fire; but,
+instead of burning with a blaze and becoming converted into a charcoal,
+it took fire, and burnt with a feeble flame for scarcely half a minute,
+and there remained behind a stony hard substance, retaining the form of
+the lozenge. This unexpected result led me to examine these lozenges,
+which were bought at a respectable chemist's shop in the city; and I
+soon became convinced, that, in the preparation of them, a considerable
+quantity of common pipe-clay had been substituted for sugar. On making a
+complaint about this fraud at the shop where the article was sold, I was
+informed that there were two kinds of ginger lozenges kept for sale, the
+one at three-pence the ounce, and the other at six-pence per ounce; and
+that the article furnished to me by mistake was the cheaper commodity:
+the latter were distinguished by the epithet _verum_, they being
+composed of sugar and ginger only; but the former were manufactured
+partly of white Cornish clay, with a portion of sugar only, with ginger
+and Guinea pepper. I was likewise informed, that of Tolu lozenges,
+peppermint lozenges and ginger pearls, and several other sorts of
+lozenges, two kinds were kept; that the _reduced_ articles, as they were
+called, were manufactured for those very clever persons in their own
+conceit, who are fond of haggling, and insist on buying better bargains
+than other people, shutting their eyes to the defects of an article, so
+that they can enjoy the delight of getting it cheap; and, secondly for
+those persons, who being but bad paymasters, yet, as the manufacturer,
+for his own credit's sake, cannot charge more than the usual price of
+the articles, he thinks himself therefore authorised to adulterate it in
+value, to make up for the risk he runs, and the long credit he must
+give."
+
+The comfits called ginger pearls, are frequently adulterated with clay.
+These frauds may be detected in the manner stated, page 225.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[113] Literary Gazette, No. 146.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Olive Oil._
+
+
+This commodity is sometimes contaminated with lead, because the fruit
+which yields the oil is submitted to the action of the press between
+leaden plates; and it is, moreover, a practice (particularly in Spain)
+to suffer the oil to become clear in leaden cisterns, before it is
+brought to market for sale. The French and Italian olive oil is usually
+free from this impregnation.
+
+Olive oil is sometimes mixed with oil of poppy seeds: but, by exposing
+the mixture to the freezing temperature, the olive oil freezes, while
+that of the poppy seeds remains fluid; and as oils which freeze with
+most difficulty are most apt to become rancid, olive oil is deteriorated
+by the mixture of poppy oil.
+
+Good olive oil should have a pale yellow colour, somewhat inclining to
+green; a bland taste, without smell; and should congeal at 38 deg.
+Fahrenheit. In this country, it is frequently met with rancid.
+
+The presence of lead is detected by shaking, in a stopped vial, one part
+of the suspected oil, with two or three parts of water impregnated with
+sulphuretted hydrogen. This agent will render the oil of a dark brown or
+black colour, if any metal, deleterious to health, be present. The
+practice of keeping this oil in pewter or leaden cisterns, as is often
+the case, is objectionable; because the oil acts upon the metal. The
+dealers in this commodity assert, that it prevents the oil from becoming
+rancid: and hence some retailers often suffer a pewter measure to remain
+immersed in the oil.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Mustard._
+
+
+Genuine mustard, either in powder, or in the state of a paste ready for
+use, is perhaps rarely to be met with in the shops. The article sold
+under the name of _genuine Durham mustard_, is usually a mixture of
+mustard and common wheaten flour, with a portion of Cayenne pepper, and
+a large quantity of bay salt, made with water into a paste, ready for
+use. Some manufacturers adulterate their mustard with radish-seed and
+pease flour.
+
+It has often been stated, that a fine yellow colour is given to mustard
+by means of turmeric. We doubt the truth of this assertion. The presence
+of the minutest quantity of turmeric may instantly be detected, by
+adding to the mustard a few drops of a solution of potash, or any other
+alkali, which changes the bright yellow colour, to a brown or deep
+orange tint.
+
+Two ounces and a half of Cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 lbs. of bay salt, 8 lbs.
+of mustard flour, and 1-1/2 lbs. of wheaten flour, made into a stiff
+paste, with the requisite quantity of water, in which the bay-salt is
+previously dissolved, forms the so-called _genuine Durham mustard_, sold
+in pots. The salt and Cayenne pepper contribute materially to the
+keeping of ready-made mustard.
+
+There is therefore nothing deleterious in the usual practice of
+adulterating this commodity of the table. The fraud only tends to
+deteriorate the quality and flavour of the genuine article itself.
+
+
+
+
+_Adulteration of Lemon Acid._
+
+
+It is well known to every one, that the expressed juice of lemons is
+extremely apt to spoil, on account of the sugar, mucilage, and
+extractive matter which it contains; and hence various means have been
+practised, with the intention of rendering it less perishable, and less
+bulky. The juice has been evaporated to the consistence of rob; but this
+always gives an unpleasant empyreumatic taste, and does not separate the
+foreign matters, so that it is still apt to spoil when agitated on board
+of ship in tropical climates. It has been exposed to frost, and part of
+the water removed under the form of ice; but this is liable to all the
+former objections; and, besides, where lemons are produced in sufficient
+quantity, there is not a sufficient degree of cold. The addition of a
+portion of spirit to the inspissated juice, separates the mucilage, but
+not the extractive matter and the sugar. By means, however, of
+separating the foreign matters associated with it, in the juice, by
+chemical processes unnecessary to be detailed here, citric acid is now
+manufactured, perfectly pure, and in a crystallised form, and is sold
+under the name of concrete lemon acid. In this state it is extremely
+convenient, both for domestic and medicinal purposes. One drachm, when
+dissolved in one ounce of water, is equal in strength to a like bulk of
+fresh lemon juice. To communicate the lemon flavour, it is only
+necessary to rub a lump of sugar on the rind of a lemon to become
+impregnated with a portion of the essential oil of the fruit, and to add
+the sugar to the lemonade, negus, punch, shrub, jellies or culinary
+sauces, prepared with the pure citric acid.
+
+Fraudulent dealers often substitute the cheaper tartareous acid, for
+citric acid. The negus and lemonade made by the pastry-cooks, and the
+liquor called punch, sold at taverns in this metropolis, is usually made
+with tartareous acid.
+
+To discriminate citric acid from tartareous acid, it is only necessary
+to add a concentrated solution of the suspected acid, to a concentrated
+solution of muriate of potash, taking care that the solution of the acid
+is in excess. If a precipitate ensues, the fraud is obvious, because
+citric acid does not produce a precipitate with a solution of muriate
+or potash.
+
+Or, by adding to a saturated solution of tartrate of potash, a saturated
+solution of the suspected acid, in excess, which produces with it an
+almost insoluble precipitate in minute granular crystals. Pure citric
+acid produces no such effect when added in excess to tartrate of
+potash.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Mushrooms._
+
+
+Mushrooms have been long used in sauces and other culinary preparations;
+yet there are numerous instances on record of the deleterious effects of
+some species of these _fungi_, almost all of which are fraught with
+poison.[114] Pliny already exclaims against the luxury of his countrymen
+in this article, and wonders what extraordinary pleasure there can be in
+eating such dangerous food.[115]
+
+But if the palate must be indulged with these treacherous luxuries, or,
+as Seneca calls them, "voluptuous poison,"[116] it is highly necessary
+that the mild eatable mushrooms, should be gathered by persons skilful
+enough to distinguish the good from the false, or poisonous, which is
+not always the case; nor are the characters which distinguish them
+strongly marked.
+
+The following statement is published by Mr. Glen, surgeon, of
+Knightsbridge:
+
+"A poor man, residing in Knightsbridge, took a walk in Hyde Park, with
+the intention of gathering some mushrooms. He collected a considerable
+number, and, after stewing them, began to eat them. He had finished the
+whole, with the exception of about six or eight, when, about eight or
+ten minutes from the commencement of his meal, he was suddenly seized
+with a dimness, or mist before his eyes, a giddiness of the head, with a
+general trembling and sudden loss of power;--so much so, that he nearly
+fell off the chair; to this succeeded loss of recollection: he forgot
+where he was, and all the circumstances of his case. This deprivation
+soon went off, and he so far rallied as to be able, though with
+difficulty, to get up, with the intention of going to Mr. Glen for
+assistance--a distance of about five hundred yards: he had not proceeded
+more than half way, when his memory again failed him; he lost his road,
+although previously well acquainted with it. He was met by a friend, who
+with difficulty learned his state, and conducted him to Mr. Glen's
+house. His countenance betrayed great anxiety: he reeled about, like a
+drunken man, and was greatly inclined to sleep; his pulse was low and
+feeble. Mr. Glen immediately gave him an emetic draught. The poison had
+so diminished the sensibility of the stomach, that vomiting did not take
+place for near twenty minutes, although another draught had been
+exhibited. During this interval his drowsiness increased to such a
+degree, that he was only kept awake by obliging him to walk round the
+room with assistance; he also, at this time, complained of distressing
+pains in the calves of his legs.--Full vomiting was at length produced.
+After the operation of the emetic, he expressed himself generally
+better, but still continued drowsy. In the evening Mr. Glen found him
+doing well."
+
+The following case is recorded in the Medical Transactions, vol. ii.
+
+"A middle-aged man having gathered what he called champignons, they were
+stewed, and eaten by himself and his wife; their child also, about four
+years old, ate a little of them, and the sippets of bread which were put
+into the liquor. Within five minutes after eating them, the man began to
+stare in an unusual manner, and was unable to shut his eyes. All
+objects appeared to him coloured with a variety of colours. He felt a
+palpitation in what he called his stomach; and was so giddy, that he
+could hardly stand. He seemed to himself swelled all over his body. He
+hardly knew what he did or said; and sometimes was unable to speak at
+all. These symptoms continued in a greater or less degree for
+twenty-four hours; after which, he felt little or no disorder. Soon
+after he perceived himself ill, one scruple of white vitriol was given
+him, and repeated two or three times, with which he vomited plentifully.
+
+"The woman, aged thirty-nine, felt all the same symptoms, but in a
+higher degree. She totally lost her voice and her senses, and was either
+stupid, or so furious that it was necessary she should be held. The
+white vitriol was offered to her, of which she was capable of taking but
+very little; however, after four or five hours, she was much recovered:
+but she continued many days far from being well, and from enjoying her
+former health and strength. She frequently fainted for the first week
+after; and there was, during a month longer, an uneasy sense of heat and
+weight in her breast, stomach, and bowels, with great flatulence. Her
+head was, at first waking, much confused; and she often experienced
+palpitations, tremblings, and other hysteric affections, to all which
+she had ever before been a stranger.
+
+"The child had some convulsive agitations of his arms, but was otherwise
+little affected. He was capable of taking half a scruple of ipecacuanha,
+with which he vomited, and was soon perfectly recovered."
+
+
+MUSHROOM CATSUP.
+
+The edible mushroom is the basis of the sauce called mushroom catsup; a
+great proportion of which is prepared by gardeners who grow the fungi.
+The mushrooms employed for preparing this sauce are generally those
+which are in a putrefactive state, and not having found a ready sale in
+the market; for no vegetable substance is liable to so rapid a
+spontaneous decomposition as mushrooms. In a few days after the fungus
+has been removed from the dung-bed on which it grows, it becomes the
+habitation of myriads of insects; and, if even the saleable mushroom be
+attentively examined, it will frequently be found to swarm with life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[114] Fungi plerique veneno turgent. Linn. Amaen. Acad.
+
+[115] Quae voluptas tanta ancipitis cibi?--Plin. Nat. Hist. xxii. 23.
+
+[116] Sen. Ep. 95.
+
+
+
+
+_Poisonous Soda Water._
+
+
+The beverage called soda water is frequently contaminated both with
+copper and lead; these metals being largely employed in the construction
+of the apparatus for preparing the carbonated water,[117] and the great
+excess of carbonic acid which the water contains, particularly enables
+it to act strongly on the metallic substances of the apparatus; a truth,
+of which the reader will find no difficulty in convincing himself, by
+suffering a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas to pass through the
+water.--See p. 70.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] Some manufacturers have been hence induced to construct the
+apparatus for manufacturing soda water wholly either of earthenware or
+of glass. Mr. Johnston, of Greek Street, Soho, was the first who pointed
+out to the public the absolute necessity of this precaution.
+
+
+
+
+_Food poisoned by Copper Vessels._
+
+
+Many kinds of viands are frequently impregnated with copper, in
+consequence of the employment of cooking utensils made of that metal. By
+the use of such vessels in dressing food, we are daily liable to be
+poisoned; as almost all acid vegetables, as well as sebaceous or pinguid
+substances, employed in culinary preparations, act upon copper, and
+dissolve a portion of it; and too many examples are met with of fatal
+consequences having ensued from eating food which had been dressed in
+copper vessels not well cleaned from the oxide of copper which they had
+contracted by being exposed to the action of air and moisture.
+
+The inexcusable negligence of persons who make use of copper vessels has
+been productive of mortality, so much more terrible, as they have
+exerted their action on a great number of persons at once. The annals of
+medicine furnish too many examples in support of this assertion, to
+render it necessary to insist more upon it here.
+
+Mr. Thiery, who wrote a thesis on the noxious quality of copper,
+observes, that "our food receives its quantity of poison in the kitchen
+by the use of copper pans and dishes. The brewer mingles poison in our
+beer, by boiling it in copper vessels. The sugar-baker employs copper
+pans; the pastry-cook bakes our tarts in copper moulds; the confectioner
+uses copper vessels: the oilman boils his pickles in copper or brass
+vessels, and verdigris is plentifully formed by the action of the
+vinegar upon the metal.
+
+"Though, after all, a single dose be not mortal, yet a quantity of
+poison, however small, when taken at every meal, must produce more fatal
+effects than are generally apprehended; and different constitutions are
+differently affected by minute quantities of substances that act
+powerfully on the system."
+
+The author of a tract, entitled, "Serious Reflections on the Dangers
+attending the Use of Copper Vessels," asserts that a numerous and
+frightful train of diseases is occasioned by the poisonous effects of
+pernicious matter received into the stomach insensibly with our
+victuals.
+
+Dr. Johnston[118] gives an account of the melancholy catastrophe of
+three men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence
+of eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops
+frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same
+cause.
+
+The following case[119] is related by Sir George Baker, M. D.
+
+"Some cyder, which had been made in a gentleman's family, being thought
+too sour, was boiled with honey in a brewing vessel, the rim of which
+was capped with lead. All who drank this liquor were seized with a bowel
+colic, more or less violently. One of the servants died very soon in
+convulsions; several others were cruelly tortured a long time. The
+master of the family, in particular, notwithstanding all the assistance
+which art could give him, never recovered his health; but died
+miserably, after having almost three years languished under a most
+tedious and incurable malady."
+
+Too much care and attention cannot be taken in preserving all culinary
+utensils of copper, in a state unexceptionably fit for their destined
+purpose. They should be frequently tinned, and kept thoroughly clean,
+nor should any food ever be suffered to remain in them for a longer time
+than is absolutely necessary to their preparation for the table. But the
+sure preventive of its pernicious effect, is, to banish copper utensils
+from the kitchen altogether.
+
+The following wholesome advice on this subject is given to cooks by the
+author of an excellent cookery book.[120]
+
+"Stew-pans and soup-kettles should be examined every time they are used;
+these, and their covers, must be kept perfectly clean and well tinned,
+not only on the inside, but about a couple of inches on the outside; so
+much mischief arises from their getting out of repair; and, if not kept
+nicely tinned, all your work will be in vain; the broths and soups will
+look green and dirty, and taste bitter and poisonous, and will be
+spoiled both for the eye and palate, and your credit will be lost; and
+as the health, and even the life, of the family depends upon this; the
+cook may be sure her employer had rather pay the tin-man's bill than
+the doctor's."
+
+The senate of Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited copper vessels, and
+ordered that none but such as were made of iron should be used in their
+fleet and armies.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[118] Johnston's Essay on Poison, p. 102.
+
+[119] Medical Transactions, vol. i. p. 213.
+
+[120] Apicius Redivivus, p. 91.
+
+
+
+
+_Food Poisoned by Leaden Vessels._
+
+
+Various kinds of food used in domestic economy, are liable to become
+impregnated with lead.
+
+The glazing of the common cream-coloured earthen ware, which is composed
+of an oxide of lead, readily yields to the action of vinegar and saline
+compounds; and therefore jars and pots of this kind of stone ware, are
+wholly unfit to contain jellies of fruits, marmalade, and similar
+conserves. Pickles should in no case be deposited in cream-coloured
+glazed earthenware.
+
+The custom which still prevails in some parts of this country of keeping
+milk in leaden vessels for the use of the dairy, is very improper.
+
+"In Lancashire[121] the dairies are furnished with milk-pans made of
+lead: and when Mr. Parks expostulated with some individuals on the
+danger of this practice, he was told that _leaden_ milk-pans throw up
+the cream much better than vessels of any other kind.
+
+"In some parts of the north of England it is customary for the
+inn-keepers to prepare mint-salad by bruising and grinding the vegetable
+in a large wooden bowl with a _ball of lead_ of twelve or fourteen
+pounds weight. In this operation the mint is cut, and portions of the
+lead are ground off at every revolution of the ponderous instrument. In
+the same county, it is a common practice to have brewing-coppers
+constructed with the bottom of copper and the whole sides of lead."
+
+The baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured earthenware, and the salting
+and preserving of meat in leaden pans, are no less objectionable. All
+kinds of food which contain free vegetable acids, or saline
+preparations, attack utensils covered with a glaze, in the composition
+of which lead enters as a component part. The leaden beds of presses for
+squeezing the fruit in cyder countries, have produced incalculable
+mischief. These consequences never follow, when the lead is combined
+with tin; because this metal, being more eager for oxidation, prevents
+the solution of the lead.
+
+When we consider the various unsuspected means by which the poisons of
+lead and copper gain admittance into the human body, a very common but
+dangerous instance presents itself: namely, the practice of painting
+toys, made for the amusement of children, with poisonous substances,
+viz. red lead, verdigris, &c. Children are apt to put every thing,
+especially what gives them pleasure, into their mouths; the painting of
+toys with colouring substances that are poisonous, ought therefore to be
+abolished; a practice which lies the more open to censure, as it is of
+no real utility.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121] Park's Chemical Essays, vol. v. p. 193.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A
+
+Adulteration of anchovy sauce, 234
+  beer, 113
+  brandy, 187
+  bread, 98
+  catsup, 227
+  cayenne pepper, 215
+  cheese, 206
+  coffee, 176
+  confectionery, 224
+  cream, 222
+  custard, 231
+  gin, 187
+  lemon acid, 243
+  lozenges, 236
+  malt spirits, 197
+  mustard, 241
+  olive oil, 239
+  pepper, 211
+  pickles, 217
+  porter, 113
+  rum, 187
+  soda water, 251
+  tea, black, 173
+    green, 173
+  vinegar, 173
+    distilled, 221
+  wine, 74
+
+Age of beer, how fraudulently imitated, 148
+
+Alcohol, quantity contained in different kinds of wine, 94
+  malt liquors, 126
+  spiritous liquors, 205
+
+Ale, Burton, quantity of spirit which it contains, 162
+  Dorchester,                 ditto       ditto, 162
+  Edinburgh,                  ditto       ditto, 162
+  Home-brewed                 ditto       ditto, 162
+
+Alum, bleaching property in the panification of bread flour, 104
+  method of detecting it in bread, 108
+  for brightening muddy wines, 74
+    clarifying spiritous liquors, 200
+      adulterating beer, 134
+
+Arrack, imitation of, 196
+  Batavia, quantity of alcohol contained in it, 205
+
+Arrow root, sophistication of, 29
+
+
+B
+
+Bakers, their methods of judging of the goodness of bread flour, 111
+
+Beer, adulteration of, 113
+    act prohibiting it, 114
+    method of detecting it, 158
+    with narcotic substances, 150
+    with opium, tobacco, &c., 150
+  colouring of, act prohibiting it, 123
+  heading, composition and use of, 134
+  hard, what is meant by it, 148
+    fraudulent method of producing it, 148
+  half-spoiled, fraudulent practice of recovering it, 149
+  illegal substances used for adulterating it, 131
+  old, what is meant by it, 144
+  quantity of spirit contained in different kinds, 160
+  strong, adulteration of with small beer, 140
+      act prohibiting it, 140
+    how defined by law, 128
+  strength of different kinds, 125
+
+Bilberries, employed for colouring port wine, 74
+
+Bittern, for adulterating beer, 18
+
+Black Extract, for adulterating beer, 150
+
+Bland, Mr. tragical catastrophe of, 81
+
+Bouquet of high-flavoured wines, how produced, 75
+
+Brandy, adulteration of, 187
+    and method of detecting it, 195
+  complexion of, what is meant by it, 195
+
+Brandy flavour of, how imitated, 193
+  imitative, manufacture of, 194
+  method of compounding for retail trade, 195
+  quantity contained in different sorts of wine, 94
+    of alcohol contained in different kinds of, 205
+  legal strength, 190
+    how discovered by the Excise, 188
+  false strength, 195
+  flavour, imitative, how produced, 193
+
+Brazil wood, application of for colouring wine, 74
+
+Bread, adulteration of with alum, 98
+      methods of detecting it, 108
+    with potatoes, 105
+  goodness of, how estimated in this metropolis, 98
+  how rendered white and firm, 99
+  corn, method of judging its goodness, 110
+  flour, different sorts of from the same kind of grain, 99
+     adulteration of with bean flour, 99
+     process of making five bushels into bread, 102
+     made from new corn, improvement of, 107
+     method of judging of goodness, 110
+
+Brewers, list of, prosecuted for using illegal substances in their
+        brewings, 151
+  convicted of adulterating their strong beer with table beer, 143
+    Druggists, 119
+      prosecuted for supplying illegal ingredients to brewers for
+        adulterating beer, 119
+
+Breweries, illegal substances seized at various, 136
+
+Brown Stout, quantity of spirit contained in it, 126
+
+
+C
+
+Calcavella, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Carbonate of ammonia, used by fraudulent bakers, 105
+
+Catsup, adulteration of, 227
+
+Claret, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Clary, used for flavouring wine, 75
+
+Cheese, poisonous, and method of detecting it, 206
+
+Chemists, are not permitted to sell illegal ingredients to brewers for
+        adulterating beer, 118
+  list of, convicted of this fraud, 119
+
+Cherry-laurel water, dangerous application of for flavouring creams,
+        &c., 231
+  used in the manufacture of spurious wines, 75
+    in the manufacture of brandy, 195
+
+Citric Acid, adulteration of, 244
+  method of detecting, 245
+
+Cocculus indicus, nefarious application of in the brewing of beer, 18
+  early law prohibiting its application, 115
+  brewers prosecuted for using it, 152
+  seizures made of at different breweries, 136
+  narcotic property of, to what owing, 153
+  extract of, application in brewing, 136
+
+Coffee, adulteration of, 176
+    law in force against it, 177
+  grocers lately convicted of selling spurious, 176
+
+Confectionery, adulteration of, 224
+  methods of detecting it, 225
+
+Conserves, contamination of with copper, 226
+  should never be deposited in vessels glazed with lead, 257
+
+Constantia, quantity of spirit which it contains, 94
+
+Copperas, or salt of steel, publicans convicted of mixing it with their
+        beer, 129
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 136
+
+Cream, adulteration of, and mode of detecting it, 222
+
+Custards, flavoured with cherry laurel leaves, dangerous effects from
+        it, 231
+
+Cyder, melancholy catastrophe of persons drinking such as was
+        contaminated with lead, 254
+
+
+E
+
+Elder-berries are used for colouring port wine, 74
+  flowers are used for flavouring insipid white wines, 75
+
+Entire beer, origin of its name, 144
+  composition of, 146
+
+Extract of cocculus indicus is used by fraudulent brewers, 136
+
+
+F
+
+False strength, how given to wine and spiritous liquors, 19, 192
+  how given to vinegar, 220
+
+Flavour of French brandy, how imitated, 194
+
+Flour, new, of an indifferent quality, how rendered fit for being made
+        into good and wholesome bread, 107
+  different sorts, from the same kind of grain, 99
+  sour, practice of converting it into bread, 105
+
+Food, rendered poisonous by copper vessels, 252
+  by leaden vessels, 257
+
+Frothy head of porter, how artificially produced, 133
+
+
+G
+
+Geneva, Dutch, quantity of alcohol which it contains, 205
+
+Gin, adulteration of, 187
+  quantity of alcohol contained in different sorts, 205
+  dangerous method of clarifying, 202
+  legal exactment of its saleable strength, 197
+  _proof_, what is meant by this term, 188
+  strength of, how ascertained by the Excise, 188
+  sweetened, fraudulent practice of composing it for sale, 200
+  unsweetened,           ditto            ditto, 200
+  false strength, how given, 202
+
+
+H
+
+Hermitage, quantity of brandy which it contains, 95
+
+Hops, adulteration of, prohibited by law, 132
+  its chemical action upon beer, 133
+
+Hydrometer, legal, now in use for ascertaining the strength of spiritous
+        liquors, 187
+
+Hyson tea, spurious. See Tea leaves
+
+
+I
+
+Imitation arrack, 196
+  tea. See Tea leaves
+  coffee. See Coffee
+
+
+L
+
+Leaden pumps and water reservoirs, dangerous effects to be apprehended
+        from them, 62
+
+Lisbon, quantity of spirit which it contains, 94
+
+Lozenges, adulteration of, 236
+
+Lemon acid, adulteration of, 243
+  method of detecting it, 244
+
+
+M
+
+Madeira, quantity of brandy which it contains, 94
+
+Malaga, quantity of brandy contained in it, 94
+
+Malt, patent, for colouring porter, 123
+    disadvantages of, 124
+  liquors, dangerous adulteration of, 115
+    strength of different kinds. See Porter, 126
+  spirits, adulterations of, 197
+    characteristic flavour, to what owing, 197
+    nefarious practices of compounding them for sale, 199
+    false strength, how given, 202
+    act restricting the strength of it, 197
+
+Meat, salted, should not be preserved in leaden vessels, 258
+
+Milk, improper practice of keeping it in leaden vessels, 257
+
+Mint salad, pernicious custom of preparing it, 258
+
+Multum, a substance employed for adulterating beer, 17
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 136
+
+Mushroom, poisonous, 246
+  Catsup, 250
+
+Mustard, adulteration of, 241
+
+
+O
+
+Oak-wood saw-dust, is used in the manufacture of spurious port wine, 75
+  in the manufacture of spurious brandy, 194
+
+Orris-root, is used for flavouring insipid wines, 75
+
+Olive oil, contamination of, with lead, and method of detecting it, 239
+
+
+P
+
+Pickles, contamination of with copper, 219
+  improper vessels for keeping them, 257
+
+Pepper, black, adulteration of, 211
+  law in force against it, 213
+
+Poisonous Cheese, 206
+  Cayenne pepper, 215
+  catsup, 227
+  custard, 231
+  olive oil, 239
+  mushroom, 246
+  pickles, 207
+  soda water, 251
+
+Porter, origin of its name, 121
+  adulteration of with wormwood, 132
+    act prohibiting it, 113
+  average strength of, as furnished to the publican, 126
+    ditto, as sent out by the retailers, 127
+  illegal substances for adulterating it, 131
+  brewers, convicted of adulterating their porter with illegal
+        ingredients, 151
+
+Porter, frothy head of, how produced, 133
+  method of ascertaining the strength of different kinds, 160
+  quantity of alcohol contained in London porter, 162
+
+Port wine, adulteration of, 74
+
+Publicans, prosecuted for adulterating their strong beer with table
+        beer, 129
+
+
+Q
+
+Quassia, fraudulent substitution of, for hops, 131
+  disadvantages of its application, 132
+  seizures of, at various breweries, 137
+
+
+R
+
+Raisin wine, quantity of brandy which it contains, 94
+
+Rum, adulteration of, 187
+  false strength, how given to it, 202
+  is seizable, if sold, unless of a certain strength, 189
+  quantity of alcohol contained in it, 205
+
+
+S
+
+Soda Water, poisonous, and method of detecting it, 251
+
+Spiritous Liquors, adulteration of, 187
+    dangerous practice of fining them with noxious ingredients, 202
+  quantity of alcohol contained in different kinds, 205
+
+Sweetmeats, adulteration of, 224
+
+Sweet-brier, use of it for flavouring wines, 75
+
+
+T
+
+Tarts of fruits, should not be baked in earthenware vessels glazed with
+        lead, 258
+
+Tea leaves, adulteration of, 171
+    method of detecting it, 171
+    law in force against it, 163
+  poisonous sophistication of, 173
+    method of detecting it, 174
+  coloring of, with verdigris, 168
+  black, spurious, process of manufacturing it, 168
+  green, imitation of, 169
+
+Tea dealers, convicted for selling adulterated tea, 169
+
+Toys, improper practice of painting them with poisonous colours, 259
+
+
+V
+
+Vidonia, quantity of brandy contained in it, 95
+
+Vin de Grave,      ditto      ditto, 95
+
+Vinegar, adulteration of, and method of detecting it, 220
+  distilled, and method of ascertaining its strength, 221
+
+
+W
+
+Water, characters of good, 37
+  chemical constitution of those used in domestic economy and the
+        arts, 33
+  danger of keeping it in leaden reservoirs, 60
+  hard, how softened and rendered fit for washing, 39
+  New River, constitution of, 38, 45
+  substances contained in potable, 48
+    how detected, 50
+  substances usually contained in spring, 42
+  taste and salubrious quality, to what owing, 33
+  Thames, constitution of, 46, 48
+
+Wine, adulteration of with alum, 74
+  British port, 77
+    champaigne, 77
+  bottles, improper practice of cleaning them, 85
+  bottle corks, practice of staining them red, 79
+
+Wine doctors, 80
+  quantity of alcohol contained in various kinds, 94, 95
+  dangerous practice of fining them, 83
+     to prevent them turning sour, 84
+  art of flavouring them, 75
+  home-made, chemical constitution of, 96
+  improvement from age, to what owing, 91
+  Southampton port, 78
+  strength of, on what it depends, 92
+  specific differences of different kinds, to what owing, 89
+  test, 86
+  white, manufacture of, from red grapes, 90
+
+Whiskey, Irish, flavour, to what owing, 197
+    strength of, 205
+  Scotch, ditto, 205
+
+Wormwood, substitution of, for hops, 132
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+Greek words in this text have been transliterated
+and placed between +marks+.
+
+The word "Pharmacopoeias" used an "oe" ligature in the original.
+
+Unusual spellings, variations in spellings, and variations in
+hyphenation have been left as in the original.  Examples include:
+
+     inpregnating
+     transparant
+     coculus/cocculus
+     inconscious
+     orris/oris root
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     page iii--comma added after "beer" in "beer, pepper, and other
+     articles of diet"
+
+     page x--changed period to comma after "Ale" in "Method of
+     ascertaining the Quantity of Spirit contained in Porter, Ale, &c."
+
+     page 61--changed "where" to "were" in "When men were unable to
+     detect the poisonous matters"
+
+     page 62--corrected spelling of "snd" to "and" in "by Hyppocrates,
+     Galen, and Vitruvius"
+
+     page 78--added "t" to "yeas" and added period at end of "before it
+     is cold, add some yeast and ferment."
+
+     page 98--corrected spelling of "indipensable" to "indispensable" in
+     "degree of whiteness rendered indispensable by the caprice of the
+     consumers"
+
+     page 104--changed comma to period after "sufficient for a sack of
+     flour"
+
+     page 113--changed comma to period after "made of these ingredients
+     only, are entirely deceived"
+
+     page 120--corrected "Authur" to "Arthur" in "Arthur Waller" and
+     corrected "Dun" to "Dunn" in "John Dunn"
+
+     page 126--added period after "Co" in "Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and
+     Co"
+
+     page 129--added period after "l" in "strong beer, 20l"
+
+     page 130--added comma after "Harbur" in "John Harbur, for using
+     salt of steel"
+
+     page 140--added ending quote mark after "of them from brewers'
+     druggists, within these two years past."
+
+     page 149--changed comma to period after "resorted to only by
+     fraudulent brewers"
+
+     page 152--changed semi-colon after "Stephens" in "Septimus
+     Stephens, brewer"
+
+     page 154--corrected spelling of "apolexy" to "apoplexy" in
+     "drinkers are very liable to apoplexy"
+
+     page 169--corrected spelling of "Malin's" to "Malins'" in "Malins'
+     coffee-roasting premises"
+
+     page 185--corrected spelling of "find" to "fined" in "were fined
+     20l. each"
+
+     page 202--added the word "on" in "as stated on pages 70 and 86"
+
+     page 210--corrected spelling of "annotta" to "anotta" in "who
+     adulterated the anotta"
+
+     page 222--added hyphen in "arrow-root"
+
+     page 223--added hyphen in "tea-spoonful" and corrected spelling of
+     "jodine" to "iodine" in "few drops of a solution of iodine"
+
+     page 227--added "s" at end of "Mr. Lewi "
+
+     page 231--corrected spelling of "cookry" to "cookery" in "articles
+     of cookery"
+
+     page 245--corrected spelling of "glanular" to "granular" in
+     "insoluble precipitate in minute granular crystals"
+
+     Footnote 46--added period after "p" in "3d edit. p. 270"
+
+     Footnote 87--added missing end quote after "with copperas and
+     sheep's dung." and removed extraneous period after "48" in "Plant,
+     p. 48;"
+
+     Footnote 115--corrected spelling of "Qvae" to "Quae" in "Quae voluptas
+     tanta ancipitis cibi?"
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Adulterations of Food,
+and Culinary Poisons, by Fredrick Accum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON ADULTERATIONS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19031.txt or 19031.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/0/3/19031/
+
+Produced by Ben Beasley, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/19031.zip b/19031.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8ba57c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/19031.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b43c244
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #19031 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19031)