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diff --git a/19022.txt b/19022.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac2736e --- /dev/null +++ b/19022.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7538 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Science of Fingerprints, by +Federal Bureau of Investigation +John Edgar Hoover + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Science of Fingerprints + Classification and Uses + +Author: Federal Bureau of Investigation +John Edgar Hoover + +Release Date: August 10, 2006 [EBook #19022] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS *** + + + + +Produced by Jason Isbell, Linda Cantoni, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +THE SCIENCE + +OF + +FINGERPRINTS + + +Classification and Uses + + +UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE + +FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION + +John Edgar Hoover, _Director_ + + + + +_INTRODUCTION_ + + +This booklet concerning the study of fingerprints has been prepared by +the Federal Bureau of Investigation for the use of interested law +enforcement officers and agencies, particularly those which may be +contemplating the inauguration of fingerprint identification files. It +is based on many years' experience in fingerprint identification work +out of which has developed the largest collection of classified +fingerprints in the world. Inasmuch as this publication may serve as a +general reference on classification and other phases of fingerprint +identification work, the systems utilized in the Identification +Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation are set forth fully. +The problem of pattern interpretation, in particular, is discussed in +detail. + +Criminal identification by means of fingerprints is one of the most +potent factors in obtaining the apprehension of fugitives who might +otherwise escape arrest and continue their criminal activities +indefinitely. This type of identification also makes possible an +accurate determination of the number of previous arrests and +convictions which, of course, results in the imposition of more +equitable sentences by the judiciary, inasmuch as the individual who +repeatedly violates the law finds it impossible to pose successfully +as a first, or minor, offender. In addition, this system of +identification enables the prosecutor to present his case in the light +of the offender's previous record. It also provides the probation +officers, parole board, and the Governor with definite information +upon which to base their judgment in dealing with criminals in their +jurisdictions. + +From earliest times fingerprinting, because of its peculiar +adaptability to the field, has been associated in the lay mind with +criminal identification to the detriment of the other useful phases of +the science. However, the Civil File of the Identification Division of +the Federal Bureau of Investigation contains three times as many +fingerprints as the Criminal File. These civil fingerprints are an +invaluable aid in identifying amnesia victims, missing persons and +unknown deceased. In the latter category the victims of major +disasters may be quickly and positively identified if their +fingerprints are on file, thus providing a humanitarian benefit not +usually associated with fingerprint records. + +The regular contributors who voluntarily submit fingerprints to the +Federal Bureau of Investigation play a most important role in the +drama of identification. Their action expands the size of the +fingerprint files, thereby increasing the value of the files to all +law enforcement agencies. Mutual cooperation and efficiency are +resultant by-products. + +The use of fingerprints for identification purposes is based upon +distinctive ridge outlines which appear on the bulbs on the inside of +the end joints of the fingers and thumbs. These ridges have definite +contours and appear in several general pattern types, each with +general and specific variations of the pattern, dependent on the shape +and relationship of the ridges. The outlines of the ridges appear most +clearly when inked impressions are taken upon paper, so that the +ridges are black against a white background. This result is achieved +by the ink adhering to the friction ridges. Impressions may be made +with blood, dirt, grease or any other foreign matter present on the +ridges, or the saline substance emitted by the glands through the +ducts or pores which constitute their outlets. The background or +medium may be paper, glass, porcelain, wood, cloth, wax, putty, +silverware, or any smooth, nonporous material. + +Of all the methods of identification, fingerprinting alone has proved +to be both infallible and feasible. Its superiority over the older +methods, such as branding, tattooing, distinctive clothing, +photography, and body measurements (Bertillon system), has been +demonstrated time after time. While many cases of mistaken +identification have occurred through the use of these older systems, +to date the fingerprints of no two individuals have been found to be +identical. + +The background and history of the science of fingerprints constitute +an eloquent drama of human lives, of good and of evil. Nothing, I +think, has played a part more exciting than that enacted by the +fascinating loops, whorls, and arches etched on the fingers of a human +being. + +[Signature: J. Edgar Hoover] + +J. EDGAR HOOVER, +_Director._ + + + + +_CONTENTS_ + + +_Chapter_ _Page_ + + I. The Identification Division of the FBI 1 + + II. Types of Patterns and Their Interpretation 5 + + III. Questionable Patterns 71 + + IV. The Classification Formula and Extensions 87 + + V. Classification of Scarred Patterns--Amputation--Missing at + Birth 98 + + VI. Filing Sequence 103 + + VII. Searching and Referencing 109 + +VIII. How To Take Inked Fingerprints 114 + + IX. Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints 118 + + X. Problems and Practices in Fingerprinting the Dead 131 + + XI. Establishment of a Local Fingerprint Identification Bureau 160 + + XII. Latent Impressions 173 + +XIII. Powdering and Lifting Latent Impressions 175 + + XIV. Chemical Development of Latent Impressions 177 + + XV. The Use of the Fingerprint Camera 184 + + XVI. Preparation of Fingerprint Charts for Court Testimony 190 + +XVII. Unidentified Latent Fingerprint File 194 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +_The Identification Division of the FBI_ + + +The FBI Identification Division was established in 1924 when the +records of the National Bureau of Criminal Investigation and the +Leavenworth Penitentiary Bureau were consolidated in Washington, D.C. +The original collection of only 810,000 fingerprint cards has expanded +into many millions. The establishment of the FBI Identification +Division resulted from the fact that police officials of the Nation +saw the need for a centralized pooling of all fingerprint cards and +all arrest records. + +The Federal Bureau of Investigation offers identification service free +of charge for official use to all law enforcement agencies in this +country and to foreign law enforcement agencies which cooperate in the +International Exchange of Identification Data. Through this +centralization of records it is now possible for an officer to have +available a positive source of information relative to the past +activities of an individual in his custody. It is the Bureau's present +policy to give preferred attention to all arrest fingerprint cards +since it is realized that speed is essential in this service. + +In order that the FBI Identification Division can provide maximum +service to all law enforcement agencies, it is essential that standard +fingerprint cards and other forms furnished by the FBI be utilized. +Fingerprints must be clear and distinct and complete name and +descriptive data required on the form should be furnished in all +instances. Fingerprints should be submitted promptly since delay might +result in release of a fugitive prior to notification to the law +enforcement agency seeking his apprehension. + +When it is known to a law enforcement agency that a subject under +arrest is an employee of the U.S. Government or a member of the Armed +Forces, a notation should be placed in the space for "occupation" on +the front of the fingerprint card. Data such as location of agency or +military post of assignment may be added beside the space reserved for +the photograph on the reverse side of the card. + +Many instances have been observed where an individual is fingerprinted +by more than one law enforcement agency for the same arrest. This +duplicate submission of fingerprints can be eliminated by placing a +notation on the first set of fingerprints sent to the FBI requesting +copies of the record for other interested law enforcement agencies, +thereby eliminating submission of fingerprints by the latter agencies. + +If a photograph is available at the time fingerprints are submitted to +the FBI Identification Division, it should be identified on the +reverse side with the individual's complete name, name of the +department submitting, the department's number, and it should be +securely pasted in the space provided on the fingerprint card. If a +photograph is to be submitted at a later date, it should be held until +the identification record or "no record" reply from the FBI is +received in order that FBI number or fingerprint classification can be +added to the reverse side of the photograph for assistance of the +Identification Division in relating it to the proper record. + +The FBI number, if known, and any request for special handling, such +as collect wire or telephone reply, should be indicated on the +fingerprint card in the appropriate space. Such notations eliminate +the need for an accompanying letter of instructions. + +As indicated, the FBI's service is given without cost to regularly +constituted law enforcement agencies and officers. Supplies of +fingerprint cards and self-addressed, franked envelopes will be +forwarded upon the request of any law enforcement officer. The +following types of cards and forms are available: Criminal (Form +FD-249), used for both arrest and institution records; Applicant (Form +FD-258); Personal Identification (Form FD-353); Death Sheet (Form +R-88); Disposition Sheet (Form R-84); Wanted Notice (Form 1-12); +Record of Additional Arrest (Form 1-1). An order form for +identification supplies appears each month with the insert to the FBI +Law Enforcement Bulletin. + +In addition to its criminal identification activities, the Bureau's +Identification Division maintains several auxiliary services. Not the +least of these is the system whereby fugitives are identified through +the comparison of fingerprints which are received currently. When a +law enforcement officer desires the apprehension of a fugitive and the +fingerprints of that individual are available, it is necessary only +that he inform the Bureau of this fact so a wanted notice may be +placed in the fugitive's record. This insures immediate notification +when the fugitive's fingerprints are next received. + +The fugitive service is amplified by the Bureau's action in +transmitting a monthly bulletin to all law enforcement agencies which +forward fingerprints for its files. In this bulletin are listed the +names, descriptions, and fingerprint classifications of persons wanted +for offenses of a more serious character. This information facilitates +prompt identifications of individuals arrested for any offense or +otherwise located by those receiving the bulletin. + +Missing-persons notices are posted in the Identification files so that +any incoming record on the missing person will be noted. Notices are +posted both by fingerprint card and by name, or by name alone if +fingerprints are not available. The full name, date, and place of +birth, complete description and photograph of a missing person should +be forwarded, along with fingerprints, if available. Upon receipt of +pertinent information, the contributing agency is advised immediately. +A section on missing persons is carried as an insert in the Law +Enforcement Bulletin. + +The FBI Identification Division has arranged with the identification +bureaus of many foreign countries to exchange criminal identifying +data in cases of mutual interest. Fingerprints and arrest records of +persons arrested in this country are routed to the appropriate foreign +bureaus in cases when the interested agency in the United States has +reason to believe an individual in custody may have a record in or be +wanted by the other nation. Similarly, fingerprints are referred to +the Federal Bureau of Investigation by foreign bureaus when it seems a +record may be disclosed by a search of the Bureau's records. Numerous +identifications, including a number of fugitives, have been effected +in this manner, and it is believed that the complete development of +this project will provide more effective law enforcement throughout +the world. When the facts indicate an individual may have a record in +another country, and the contributor submits an extra set of his +fingerprints, they are transmitted by this Bureau to the proper +authorities. + +In very rare cases persons without hands are arrested. A file on +footprints is maintained in the Identification Division on such +individuals. + +In view of the fact that many individuals in the underworld are known +only by their nicknames, the Identification Division has for years +maintained a card-index file containing in alphabetical order the +nicknames appearing on fingerprint cards. When requesting a search of +the nickname file, it is desired that all possible descriptive data be +furnished. + +The Latent Fingerprint Section handles latent print work. Articles of +evidence submitted by law enforcement agencies are processed for the +development of latent impressions in the Latent Fingerprint Section. +In addition, photographs, negatives, and lifts of latents are +scrutinized for prints of value for identification purposes. +Photographs of the prints of value are always prepared for the FBI's +files and are available for comparisons for an indefinite period. +Should the law enforcement agency desire additional comparisons it +needs only advise the FBI Identification Division, attention Latent +Fingerprint Section, and either name or submit the prints of the new +suspect. It is not necessary to resubmit the evidence. When necessary, +a fingerprint expert will testify in local court as to his findings. +Should a department have any special problems involving the +development or preservation of fingerprints at a crime scene, the +experts are available for suggestions. In connection with the Latent +Fingerprint Section there is maintained a general appearance file of +many confidence game operators. Searches in this file will be made +upon request. In furnishing data on a suspect, the agency should make +sure that complete descriptive data is sent in. Photographs and other +material on individuals who may be identical with those being sought +will be furnished to the interested departments. + +During the years many persons have voluntarily submitted their +fingerprints to the Identification Division for possible use in the +case of an emergency. These cards are not filed with the criminal +fingerprints but are maintained separately. Such prints should be +taken on the standard fingerprint form entitled "Personal +Identification" (Form FD-353). No answer is given to Personal +Identification fingerprint cards. + +The fingerprint records of the FBI Identification Division are used +liberally not only by police agencies to obtain previous fingerprint +histories and to ascertain whether persons arrested are wanted +elsewhere, but by prosecutors to whom the information from the +Bureau's files may prove to be valuable in connection with the +prosecution of a case. These records are likewise of frequent value to +the judge for his consideration in connection with the imposition of +sentence. Obviously, the ends of justice may be served most equitably +when the past fingerprint record of the person on trial can be made +known to the court, or information may be furnished to the effect that +the defendant is of hitherto unblemished reputation. + +It should be emphasized that FBI identification records are for the +_OFFICIAL_ use of law enforcement and governmental agencies and misuse +of such records by disseminating them to unauthorized persons may +result in cancellation of FBI identification services. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +_Types of Patterns and Their Interpretation_ + + +_Types of patterns_ + +Fingerprints may be resolved into three large general groups of +patterns, each group bearing the same general characteristics or +family resemblance. The patterns may be further divided into +sub-groups by means of the smaller differences existing between the +patterns in the same general group. These divisions are as follows: + + I. ARCH + + _a._ Plain arch. + _b._ Tented arch. + + II. LOOP + + _a._ Radial loop. + _b._ Ulnar loop. + + III. WHORL + + _a._ Plain whorl. + _b._ Central pocket loop. + _c._ Double loop. + _d._ Accidental whorl. + +Illustrations 1 to 10 are examples of the various types of fingerprint +patterns. + +[Illustration: 1. Plain arch.] + +[Illustration: 2. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 3. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 4. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 5. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 6. Central pocket loop.] + +[Illustration: 7. Plain whorl.] + +[Illustration: 8. Double loop.] + +[Illustration: 9. Double loop.] + +[Illustration: 10. Accidental.] + + +_Interpretation_ + +Before pattern definition can be understood, it is necessary to +understand the meaning of a few technical terms used in fingerprint +work. + +The _pattern area_ is the only part of the finger impression with +which we are concerned in regard to interpretation and classification. +It is present in all patterns, of course, but in many arches and +tented arches it is impossible to define. This is not important, +however, as the only patterns in which we need to define the pattern +area for classification purposes are loops and whorls. In these two +pattern types the pattern area may be defined as follows: + +_The pattern area is that part of a loop or whorl in which appear the +cores, deltas, and ridges with which we are concerned in classifying._ + +_The pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed by type lines._ + +_Type lines may be defined as the two innermost ridges which start +parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to surround the pattern area._ + +Figure 11 is a typical loop. Lines A and B, which have been emphasized +in this sketch, are the type lines, starting parallel, diverging at +the line C and surrounding the pattern area, which is emphasized in +figure 12 by eliminating all the ridges within the pattern area. + +Figures 72 through 101 should be studied for the location of type +lines. + +[Illustration: 11] + +[Illustration: 12] + +[Illustration: 13] + +[Illustration: 14] + +[Illustration: 15] + +[Illustration: 16] + +[Illustration: 17] + +[Illustration: 18] + +Type lines are not always two continuous ridges. In fact, they are +more often found to be broken. When there is a definite break in a +type line, the ridge immediately _outside_ of it is considered as its +continuation, as shown by the emphasized ridges in figure 13. + +Sometimes type lines may be very short. Care must be exercised in +their location. Notice the right type line in figure 14. + +When locating type lines it is necessary to keep in mind the +distinction between a divergence and a bifurcation (fig. 15). + +_A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more +branches._ + +_A divergence is the spreading apart of two lines which have been +running parallel or nearly parallel._ + +According to the narrow meaning of the words in fingerprint parlance, +a single ridge may bifurcate, but it may not be said to diverge. +Therefore, with one exception, the two forks of a bifurcation may +never constitute type lines. The exception is when the forks run +parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. In such a case the two +forks become the two innermost ridges required by the definition. In +illustration 16, the ridges marked "A--A" are type lines even though +they proceed from a bifurcation. In figure 17, however, the ridges +A--A are not the type lines because the forks of the bifurcation do +not run parallel with each other. Instead, the ridges marked "T" are +the type lines. + +Angles are never formed by a single ridge but by the abutting of one +ridge against another. Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used +as a type line. In figure 18, ridges A and B join at an angle. Ridge B +does not run parallel with ridge D; ridge A does not diverge. Ridges C +and D, therefore, are the type lines. + +_Focal points_--Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are +enclosed the focal points which are used to classify them. These +points are called delta and core. + +_The delta is that point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the +center of the divergence of the type lines._ + +It may be: + + - A bifurcation + + - An abrupt ending ridge + + - A dot + + - A short ridge + + - A meeting of two ridges + + - A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to + the center and in front of the divergence of the type lines. + +The concept of the delta may perhaps be clarified by further +exposition. Webster furnishes the following definition: "(1) Delta is +the name of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet (equivalent to +the English D) from the Phoenician name for the corresponding letter. +The Greeks called the alluvial deposit at the mouth of the Nile, from +its shape, the Delta of the Nile. (2) A tract of land shaped like the +letter "delta," especially when the land is alluvial, and enclosed +within two or more mouths of a river, as the Delta of the Ganges, of +the Nile, of the Mississippi" (fig. 19). + +When the use of the word "delta" in physical geography is fully +grasped, its fitness as applied in fingerprint work will become +evident. Rivers wear away their banks and carry them along in their +waters in the form of a fine sediment. As the rivers unite with seas +or lakes, the onward sweep of the water is lessened, and the sediment, +becoming comparatively still, sinks to the bottom where there is +formed a shoal which gradually grows, as more and more is +precipitated, until at length a portion of the shoal becomes higher +than the ordinary level of the stream. There is a similarity between +the use of the word "delta" in physical geography and in fingerprints. +The island formed in front of the diverging sides of the banks where +the stream empties at its mouth corresponds to the delta in +fingerprints, which is the first obstruction of any nature at the +point of divergence of the type lines in front of or nearest the +center of the divergence. + +[Illustration: 19] + +[Illustration: 20] + +In figure 20, the dot marked "delta" is considered as the delta +because it is the first ridge or part of a ridge nearest the point of +divergence of the two type lines. If the dot were not present, point B +on ridge C, as shown in the figure, would be considered as the delta. +This would be equally true whether the ridges were connected with one +of the type lines, both type lines, or disconnected altogether. In +figure 20, with the dot as the delta, the first ridge count is ridge +C. If the dot were not present, point B on ridge C would be considered +as the delta and the first count would be ridge D. The lines X--X and +Y--Y are the type lines, not X--A and Y--Z. + +In figures 21 to 24, the heavy lines A--A and B--B are type lines with +the delta at point D. + +[Illustration: 21] + +[Illustration: 22] + +[Illustration: 23] + +[Illustration: 24] + +[Illustration: 25] + +[Illustration: 26] + +Figure 25 shows ridge A bifurcating from the lower type line inside +the pattern area. Bifurcations are also present within this pattern at +points B and C. The bifurcation at the point marked "delta" is the +only one which fulfills all conditions necessary for its location. It +should be understood that the diverging type lines must be present in +all delta formations and that wherever one of the formations mentioned +in the definition of a delta may be, it must be located midway between +two diverging type lines at or just in front of where they diverge in +order to satisfy the definition and qualify as a delta. + +When there is a choice between two or more possible deltas, the +following rules govern: + + - _The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does + not open toward the core._ + +In figure 26, the bifurcation at E is closer to the core than the +bifurcation at D. However, E is not immediately in front of the +divergence of the type lines and it _does not_ open toward the core. +A--A and B--B are the only possible type lines in this sketch and it +follows, therefore, that the bifurcation at D must be called the +delta. The first ridge count would be ridge C. + + - _When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another + type of delta, the bifurcation is selected._ + +A problem of this type is shown in figure 27. The dot, A, and the +bifurcation are equally close to the divergence of the type lines, but +the bifurcation is selected as the delta. The ridges marked "T" are +the type lines. + +[Illustration: 27] + +[Illustration: 28] + + - _When there are two or more possible deltas which conform + to the definition, the one nearest the core is chosen._ + +Prints are sometimes found wherein a single ridge enters the pattern +area with two or more bifurcations opening toward the core. Figure 28 +is an example of this. Ridge A enters the pattern area and bifurcates +at points X and D. The bifurcation at D, which is the closer to the +core, is the delta and conforms to the rule for deltas. A--A and B--B +are the type lines. A bifurcation which does not conform to the +definition should not be considered as a delta irrespective of its +distance from the core. + + - _The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge + running between the type lines toward the core, but at the + nearer end only._ + +The location of the delta in this case depends entirely upon the point +of origin of the ridge running between the type lines toward the core. +If the ridge is entirely within the pattern area, the delta is located +at the end nearer the point of divergence of the type lines. Figure 29 +is an example of this kind. + +[Illustration: 29] + +[Illustration: 30] + +If the ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence +of the type lines, however, the delta must be located at the end +nearer the core. Ridge A in figure 30 is of this type. + +In figure 31, A--A and B--B are the type lines, with the dot as the +delta. The bifurcations cannot be considered as they do not open +toward the core. + +[Illustration: 31] + +[Illustration: 32] + +In figure 32, the dot cannot be the delta because line D cannot be +considered as a type line. It does not run parallel to type line A--A +at any point. The same reason prevents line E from being a type line. +The end of ridge E is the only possible delta as it is a point on the +ridge nearest to the center of divergence of the type lines. The other +type line is, of course, B--B. + +The delta is the point from which to start in ridge counting. In the +loop type pattern the ridges intervening between the delta and the +core are counted. The core is the second of the two focal points. + +_The core_, as the name implies, is the approximate center of the +finger impression. It will be necessary to concern ourselves with the +core of the loop type only. The following rules govern the selection +of the core of a loop: + + - _The core is placed upon or within the innermost + sufficient recurve._ + + - _When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending + ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders of the loop, + the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from + the delta._ + + - _When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven + number of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is + placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the + looping ridge or not._ + + - _When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even + number of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is + placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center + rods, the two center rods being treated as though they were + connected by a recurving ridge._ + +_The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the recurving ridge +definitely turns inward or curves._ + +Figures 33 to 38 reflect the focal points of a series of loops. In +figure 39, there are two rods, but the rod marked "A" does not rise as +high as the shoulder line X, so the core is at B. + +[Illustration: 33] + +[Illustration: 34] + +Figures 40 to 45 illustrate the rule that a recurve must have no +appendage abutting upon it at a right angle between the shoulders and +on the outside. If such an appendage is present between the shoulders +of a loop, that loop is considered spoiled and the next loop outside +will be considered to locate the core. In each of the figures, the +point C indicates the core. Appendages will be further explained in +the section concerning loops. + +[Illustration: 35] + +[Illustration: 36] + +[Illustration: 37] + +[Illustration: 38] + +[Illustration: 39] + +[Illustration: 40] + +Figures 46 to 48 reflect interlocking loops at the center, while +figure 49 has two loops side by side at the center. In all these cases +the two loops are considered as one. In figure 46, when the shoulder +line X--X is drawn it is found to cross exactly at the point of +intersection of the two loops. The two loops are considered one, with +one rod, the core being placed at C. In figure 47, the shoulder line +X--X is above the point of intersection of the two loops. The two are +considered as one, with two rods, the core being at C. In figure 48, +the shoulder line X--X is below the point of intersection of the +loops. Again the two are treated as one, with two rods, the core being +placed at C. In figure 49, the two are treated as one, with two rods, +the core being placed at C. + +[Illustration: 41] + +[Illustration: 42] + +[Illustration: 43] + +[Illustration: 44] + +[Illustration: 45] + +[Illustration: 46] + +[Illustration: 47] + +[Illustration: 48] + +[Illustration: 49] + +[Illustration: 50] + +[Illustration: 51] + +[Illustration: 52] + +In figure 50, the delta is formed by a bifurcation which is not +connected with either of the type lines. The first ridge count in this +instance is ridge C. If the bifurcation were not present, the delta +would be a point on ridge C and the first ridge count would be ridge +D. In figure 51, the ridge which bifurcates is connected with the +lower type line. The delta in this would be located on the +bifurcation as designated and the first ridge count would be ridge C. +Figure 52 reflects the same type of delta shown in the previous figure +in that the ridge is bifurcating from a type line and then bifurcates +again to form the delta. + +_A white space must intervene between the delta and the first ridge +count._ If no such interval exists, the first ridge must be +disregarded. In figures 53 and 54, the first ridge beyond the delta is +counted. In figure 55, it is not counted because there is no interval +between it and the delta. Notice that the ridge running from the delta +toward the core is in a straight line between them. If it were not, of +course, an interval would intervene as in figures 53 and 54. + +[Illustration: 53] + +[Illustration: 54] + +[Illustration: 55] + + +_The loop_ + +In fingerprints, as well as in the usual application of the word +"loop," there cannot be a loop unless there is a recurve or turning +back on itself of one or more of the ridges. Other conditions have to +be considered, however. A pattern must possess several requisites +before it may be properly classified as a loop. This type of pattern +is the most numerous of all and constitutes about 65 percent of all +prints. + +_A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of +the ridges enter on either side of the impression, recurve, touch or +pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core, and terminate +or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from +whence such ridge or ridges entered._ + + +_Essentials of a loop_ + + - A sufficient recurve. + + - A delta. + + - A ridge count across a looping ridge. + +_A sufficient recurve may be defined as that part of a recurving ridge +between the shoulders of a loop. It must be free of any appendages +abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a right angle._ + +_Appendages_--Some explanation is necessary of the importance attached +to appendages. Much care must be exercised in interpreting appendages +because they sometimes change the shape of the recurving ridge to +which they are connected. For example, a loop with an appendage +abutting upon its recurve between the shoulders and at right angles, +as in illustration 56, will appear sometimes as in illustration 57 +with the recurve totally destroyed. For further examples see figures +161 to 184. + +[Illustration: 56] + +[Illustration: 57] + +The same is true of a whorl recurve, as in figures 58 and 59. + +It is necessary, therefore, to consider and classify figures 56 and 58 +as if they actually appeared as in figures 57 and 59. + +In figure 60, there is a ridge marked "A" which enters on one side of +the impression and, after recurving, passes an imaginary line drawn +from the core C to delta D, and terminates on the same side of the +impression from which it entered, marked "B", thus fulfilling all the +conditions required in the definition of a loop. X and Y are the type +lines. It will be noted in figure 61 that there is a ridge which +enters on one side of the impression, recurves, and passes an +imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core. It does not terminate +on the side from which it entered but has a tendency to do so. In this +case, all the requirements of the loop have been met, and consequently +it is classified as such. + +[Illustration: 58] + +[Illustration: 59] + +[Illustration: 60] + +Figure 62 shows a ridge entering on one side of the impression, +recurving, and passing beyond an imaginary line drawn from the delta +to the core, although opposite from the pattern shown in figure 61. +After passing the imaginary line, the recurving ridge does not +terminate on the side of the impression from which it entered, but it +has a tendency to do so, and the pattern is, therefore, a loop. + +In figure 63, a ridge enters on one side of the impression and then +recurves, containing two rods within it, each of which rises as high +as the shoulder of the loop. From our study of cores, we know that the +top of the rod more distant from the delta is the core, but the +recurving ridge does not pass the imaginary line. For that reason the +pattern is not classified as a loop, but is given the preferential +classification of a tented arch due to the lack of one of the loop +requisites. The proper location of the core and delta is of extreme +importance, for an error in the location of either might cause this +pattern to be classified as a loop. + +Figure 64 reflects a similar condition. + +[Illustration: 61] + +[Illustration: 62] + +[Illustration: 63] + +[Illustration: 64] + +[Illustration: 65] + +[Illustration: 66] + +In figure 65, there is a looping ridge A which enters on one side of +the impression. The ridges B and C are the type lines. As determined +by rules already stated, the location of the core and the location of +the delta are shown, and if an imaginary line were placed on the core +and delta, the recurving ridge A would cross it. This is another +figure showing a ridge which does not terminate on the side of the +impression from which it entered but tends to do so, and, therefore, +is considered as a loop. + +In figure 66, we have a print which is similar in many respects to the +one described in the preceding paragraph, but here the recurving ridge +A continues and tends to terminate on the _opposite_ side of the +impression from which it entered. For this reason the pattern is not a +loop, but a tented arch. The recurving ridge must touch or pass the +imaginary line between delta and core and at least tend to pass out +toward the side from which it entered, so that a ridge count of at +least one can be obtained. + +[Illustration: 67] + +Figure 67 shows a ridge which enters on one side of the impression +and, after flowing toward the center, turns or loops on itself and +terminates on the same side from whence it entered. This pattern would +be classified as a loop. This pattern should be distinguished from the +pattern appearing in figure 139. Careful study of the pattern in +figure 67 reveals that the core is located at C and the delta D. The +imaginary line between these points will be crossed by the ridge +forming a loop. In figure 139, the core is located on the recurve and +an imaginary line between the delta and the core does not cross a +looping ridge. Figure 139 is thus classified as a tented arch, as will +be seen later. + +Figure 68 shows at the center of the print a ridge which forms a +pocket. It will be noticed that ridge A does not begin on the edge of +the print, but this is of no significance. The ridge A within the +pattern area recurves or loops, passing the imaginary line between the +delta and the core, and tends to terminate toward the same side of the +impression from whence it entered. This is a loop pattern possessing +all of the requirements. + +In figures 69 and 70, it will be observed that there is a ridge +entering on one side of the pattern which recurves and then turns back +on itself. These patterns are different from any others which have +been shown in this respect but are classified as loops. In each of the +patterns the core and delta are marked "C" and "D". The reader should +trace the type lines in order to ascertain why the delta is located at +point D, and then apply the delta rule. + +[Illustration: 68] + +[Illustration: 69] + +Figure 71 is an example of loops as they appear on the rolled +impression portion of a fingerprint card. + +[Illustration: 70] + +[Illustration: 71] + +Right Hand +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1. Thumb | 2. Index | 3. Middle | 4. Ring | 5. Little + | finger | finger | finger | finger +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Left Hand +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 6. Thumb | 7. Index | 8. Middle | 9. Ring | 10. Little + | finger | finger | finger | finger +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +_Ridge counting_ + +_The number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is +known as the ridge count._ The technical employees of the Federal +Bureau of Investigation count each ridge which _crosses or touches_ an +imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core. Neither delta nor +core is counted. A red line upon the reticule of the fingerprint glass +is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is a +bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary line +would be drawn, two ridges are counted. Where the line crosses an +island, both sides are counted. Fragments and dots are counted as +ridges only if they appear to be as thick and heavy as the other +ridges in the immediate pattern. Variations in inking and pressure +must, of course, be considered. + +Figures 72 to 97 and figures 98 to 101 show various loop patterns. The +reader should examine each one carefully in order to study the cores +and deltas and to verify the count which has been placed below each +pattern. + +[Illustration: 72. 12 counts.] + +[Illustration: 73. 2 counts.] + +[Illustration: 74. 16 counts.] + +[Illustration: 75. 7 counts.] + +[Illustration: 76. 4 counts.] + +[Illustration: 77. 7 counts.] + +[Illustration: 78. 15 counts.] + +[Illustration: 79. 16 counts.] + +[Illustration: 80. 9 counts.] + +[Illustration: 81. 3 counts.] + +[Illustration: 82. 9 counts.] + +[Illustration: 83. 20 counts.] + +[Illustration: 84. 6 counts.] + +[Illustration: 85. 2 counts.] + +[Illustration: 86. 8 counts.] + +[Illustration: 87. 14 counts.] + +[Illustration: 88. 5 counts.] + +[Illustration: 89. 12 counts.] + +[Illustration: 90. 12 counts.] + +[Illustration: 91. 3 counts.] + +[Illustration: 92. 16 counts.] + +[Illustration: 93. 14 counts.] + +[Illustration: 94. 16 counts.] + +[Illustration: 95. 18 counts.] + +[Illustration: 96. 2 counts.] + +[Illustration: 97. 1 count.] + +[Illustration: 98. 1 count.] + +[Illustration: 99. 2 counts.] + +[Illustration: 100. 8 counts.] + +[Illustration: 101. 13 counts.] + +Figure 102 is a sketch reflecting the various types of ridges which +the classifier will encounter when engaging in counting loop patterns. + +In figure 103, the lighter lines are caused by the splitting or +fraying of the ridges. Sometimes ingrained dirt will cause a similar +condition between the ridges. These lines are not considered ridges +and should not be counted. + +In figure 104, the dot is not the delta because it is not as thick and +heavy as the other ridges and might not be present if the finger were +not perfectly inked and printed. + +When the core is located on a spike which touches the inside of the +innermost recurving ridge, the recurve is included in the ridge count +only when the delta is located below a line drawn at right angles to +the spike. + +Figures 105 and 106 are examples of this rule. + +If the delta is located in areas A, the recurving ridge is counted. + +If the delta is located in areas B, the recurving ridge is not +counted. + +[Illustration: 102] + + LOOP + 25 RIDGE COUNTS + + 1. SHORT RIDGE + 2. } + 3. } BIFURCATION + 4. } + 5. } BIFURCATION + 6. RIDGE + 7. ENDING RIDGE + 8. } + 9. } BIFURCATION + 10. RIDGE + 11. ENDING RIDGE + 12. RIDGE + 13. SHORT RIDGE + 14. } + 15. } BIFURCATION + 16. } + 17. } ISLAND + 18. } + 19. } BIFURCATION + 20. ENDING RIDGE + 21. DOT + 22. RIDGE + 23. } + 24. } ISLAND + 25. ENDING RIDGE + +[Illustration: 103] + +[Illustration: 104] + +[Illustration: 105] + +[Illustration: 106] + + +_Radial and ulnar loops_ + +The terms "radial" and "ulnar" are derived from the radius and ulna +bones of the forearm. Loops which flow in the direction of the ulna +bone (toward the little finger) are called ulnar loops and those which +flow in the direction of the radius bone are called radial loops. + +For test purposes, fingers of the right hand may be placed on the +corresponding print of the right hand appearing in figure 71, and it +will be noticed that the side of each finger which is nearer to the +thumb on the hand is also nearer to the thumb on the fingerprint card. +Place the fingers of the _left_ hand on the corresponding prints of +the _left_ hand shown in figure 71. It will be noticed that the +arrangement of the prints on the card is the _reverse_ of the +arrangement of the fingers on the hand. _The classification of loops +is based on the way the loops flow on the hand (not the card), so that +on the fingerprint card for the left hand, loops flowing toward the +thumb impression are ulnar, and loops flowing toward the little finger +impression are radial._ + + +_The plain arch_ + +_In plain arches the ridges enter on one side of the impression and +flow or tend to flow out the other with a rise or wave in the center._ +The plain arch is the most simple of all fingerprint patterns, and it +is easily distinguished. Figures 107 to 118 are examples of the plain +arch. It will be noted that there may be various ridge formations such +as ending ridges, bifurcations, dots and islands involved in this type +of pattern, but they all tend to follow the general ridge contour; +i.e., they enter on one side, make a rise or wave in the center, and +flow or tend to flow out the other side. + +[Illustration: 107] + +[Illustration: 108] + +[Illustration: 109] + +[Illustration: 110] + +Figures 119 and 120 are examples of plain arches which approximate +tented arches. Also, figure 121 is a plain arch approximating a tented +arch as the rising ridge cannot be considered an upthrust because it +is a continuous, and not an ending, ridge. (See following explanation +of the tented arch.) + +[Illustration: 111] + +[Illustration: 112] + +[Illustration: 113] + +[Illustration: 114] + +[Illustration: 115] + +[Illustration: 116] + +[Illustration: 117] + +[Illustration: 118] + +[Illustration: 119] + +[Illustration: 120] + +[Illustration: 121] + + +_The tented arch_ + +In the tented arch, most of the ridges enter upon one side of the +impression and flow or tend to flow out upon the other side, as in the +plain arch type; however, the ridge or ridges at the center do not. +There are three types of tented arches: + + - The type in which ridges at the center form a definite + angle; i.e., 90 deg. or less. + + - The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an + upthrust. An upthrust is an ending ridge of any length + rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane; + i.e., 45 deg. or more. + + - The type approaching the loop type, possessing two of the + basic or essential characteristics of the loop, but lacking + the third. + +Figures 122 to 133 are examples of the tented arch. + +[Illustration: 122] + +[Illustration: 123] + +[Illustration: 124] + +[Illustration: 125] + +[Illustration: 126] + +[Illustration: 127] + +[Illustration: 128] + +[Illustration: 129] + +[Illustration: 130] + +[Illustration: 131] + +[Illustration: 132] + +[Illustration: 133] + +Figures 122 to 124 are of the type possessing an angle. + +Figures 125 to 129 reflect the type possessing an upthrust. + +Figures 130 to 133 show the type approaching the loop but lacking one +characteristic. + +Tented arches and some forms of the loop are often confused. It should +be remembered by the reader that the _mere converging of two ridges +does not form a recurve, without which there can be no loop_. On the +other hand, there are many patterns which at first sight resemble +tented arches but which on close inspection are found to be loops, as +where one looping ridge will be found in an almost vertical position +within the pattern area, entirely free from and passing in front of +the delta. + +Figure 134 is a tented arch. The ridge marked "A--A" in the sketch +enters on one side of the impression and flows to the other with an +acute rise in the center. Ridge C strikes into A at point B and should +not be considered as a bifurcating ridge. The ridges marked "D--D" +would form a tented arch if the rest of the pattern were absent. + +[Illustration: 134] + +[Illustration: 135] + +Figure 135 is a sketch of a pattern reflecting a ridge, A--B, entering +on one side of the impression, recurving, and making its exit on the +other side of the impression. The reader should study this sketch +carefully. It should be borne in mind that there must be a ridge +entering on one side of the impression and recurving in order to make +its exit on the same side from which it entered, or having a tendency +to make its exit on that side, before a pattern can be considered for +possible classification as a loop. This pattern is a tented arch of +the upthrust type. The upthrust is C. There is also an angle at E. D +cannot be termed as a delta, as the ridge to the left of D cannot be +considered a type line because it does not diverge from the ridge to +the right of D but turns and goes in the same direction. + +In connection with the types of tented arches, the reader is referred +to the third type. This form of tented arch, the one which approaches +the loop, may have _any combination of two of the three basic loop +characteristics, lacking the third_. These three loop characteristics +are, to repeat: + + - _A sufficient recurve._ + + - _A delta._ + + - _A ridge count across a looping ridge._ + +It must be remembered that a recurve must be free of any appendage +abutting upon it at a right angle between the shoulders, and a true +ridge count is obtained only by crossing a looping ridge freely, with +a white space intervening between the delta and the ridge to be +counted. + +[Illustration: 136] + +[Illustration: 137] + +Figures 136 and 137 are tented arches having loop formations within +the pattern area but with deltas upon the loops, by reason of which it +is impossible to secure a ridge count. The type lines run parallel +from the left in figures 136 and 137. These tented arches have two of +the loop characteristics, recurve and delta, but lack the third, the +ridge count. + +In figure 138, the reader will note the similarity to the figures 136 +and 137. The only difference is that in this figure the type lines are +running parallel from the right. It will be noted from these three +patterns that the spaces between the type lines at their divergence +show nothing which could be considered as delta formations except the +looping ridges. Such patterns are classified as tented arches because +the ridge count necessary for a loop is lacking. + +[Illustration: 138] + +[Illustration: 139] + +[Illustration: 140] + +[Illustration: 141] + +Figure 139 is an example of a tented arch. In this pattern, if the +looping ridge approached the vertical it could possibly be a one-count +loop. Once studied, however, the pattern presents no real difficulty. +There are no ridges intervening between the delta, which is formed by +a bifurcation, and the core. It will be noted that the core, in this +case, is at the center of the recurve, unlike those loops which are +broadside to the delta and in which the core is placed upon the +shoulder. This pattern has a recurve and a separate delta, but it +still lacks the ridge count necessary to make it a loop. + +Figures 140 and 141 are examples of tented arches. These two figures +are similar in many ways. Each of these prints has three abrupt ending +ridges but lacks a recurve; however, in figure 141 a delta is present +in addition to the three abrupt ending ridges. This condition does not +exist in figure 140, where the lower ending ridge is the delta. + +When interpreting a pattern consisting of two ending ridges and a +delta but lacking a recurve, do not confuse the ridge count of the +tented arch with that of the ridge count for the loop. The ridge count +of the tented arch is merely a convention of fingerprinting, a fiction +designed to facilitate a scientific classification of tented arches, +and has no connection with a loop. To obtain a true ridge count there +must be a looping ridge which is crossed freely by an imaginary line +drawn between the delta and the core. The ridge count referred to as +such in connection with the tented arches possessing ending ridges and +no recurve is obtained by imagining that the ending ridges are joined +by a recurve only for the purpose of locating the core and obtaining a +ridge count. If this point is secure in the mind of the classifier, +little difficulty will be encountered. + +Figures 140 and 141, then, are tented arches because they have two of +the characteristics of a loop, delta and ridge count, but lack the +third, the recurve. + +[Illustration: 142] + +[Illustration: 143] + +Figure 142 is a loop formation connected with the delta but having no +ridge count across a looping ridge. By drawing an imaginary line from +the core, which is at the top of the rod in the center of the pattern, +to the delta, it will be noted that there is no recurving ridge +passing between this rod and the delta; and, therefore, no ridge count +can result. This pattern is classified as a tented arch. There must be +a white space between the delta and the first ridge counted, or it may +not be counted. Figure 143 is also a tented arch because no ridge +count across a looping ridge can be obtained, the bifurcations being +connected to each other and to the loop in a straight line between +delta and core. The looping ridge is not crossed freely. No white +space intervenes between the delta and the loop. These patterns are +tented arches because they possess two of the characteristics of a +loop, a delta and a recurve, but lack the third, a ridge count across +a looping ridge. + +Figure 144 is a tented arch combining two of the types. There is an +angle formed by ridge _a_ abutting upon ridge _b_. There are also the +elements of the type approaching a loop, as it has a delta and ridge +count but lacks a recurve. + +[Illustration: 144] + +[Illustration: 145] + +[Illustration: 146] + +Figures 145 to 148 are tented arches because of the angles formed by +the abutting ridges at the center of the patterns. + +Figure 149 is a tented arch because of the upthrust present at the +center of the pattern. The presence of the slightest upthrust at the +center of the impression is enough to make a pattern a tented arch. + +[Illustration: 147] + +[Illustration: 148] + +[Illustration: 149] + +[Illustration: 150] + +An upthrust must be an ending ridge. If continuous as in figure 150, +no angle being present, the pattern is classified as a plain arch. + +Figures 151 to 153 are plain arches. Figure 154 is a tented arch. + +Figure 155 is a plain arch because it is readily seen that the +apparent upthrust A is a continuation of the curving ridge B. Figure +156 is a tented arch because ridge A is an independent upthrust, and +not a continuation of ridge B. + +[Illustration: 151] + +[Illustration: 152] + +[Illustration: 153] + +[Illustration: 154] + +[Illustration: 155] + +[Illustration: 156] + +Figures 157 and 158 are plain arches. Figure 158 cannot be said to be +a looping ridge, because by definition a loop must pass out or tend to +pass out upon the side from which it entered. This apparent loop +passes out upon the opposite side and cannot be said to tend to flow +out upon the same side. + +[Illustration: 157] + +[Illustration: 158] + +In figures 159 and 160, there are ending ridges rising at about the +same degree from the horizontal plane. + +Figure 159, however, is a plain arch, while 160 is a tented arch. This +differentiation is necessary because, if the first pattern were +printed crookedly upon the fingerprint card so that the ending ridge +was nearer the horizontal plane, there would be no way to ascertain +the true horizontal plane of the pattern (if the fissure of the finger +did not appear). In other words, there would be no means of knowing +that there was sufficient rise to be called an upthrust, so that it is +safe to classify the print as a plain arch only. In figure 160, +however, no matter how it is printed, the presence of a sufficient +rise could always be ascertained because of the space intervening +between the ending ridge and the ridge immediately beneath it, so that +it is safe to classify such a pattern as a tented arch. The test is, +_if the ridges on both sides of the ending ridge follow its direction +or flow trend, the print may be classified as a plain arch. If, +however, the ridges on only one side follow its direction, the print +is a tented arch_. + +[Illustration: 159] + +[Illustration: 160] + +An upthrust, then, must not only be an ending ridge rising at a +sufficient degree from the horizontal plane, but there must also be a +space between the ending ridge and the ridge immediately beneath it. +_This, however, is not necessary for a short upthrust or spike, or any +upthrust which rises perpendicularly._ + +In connection with the proper classification to be assigned to those +borderline loop-tented arch cases where an appendage or spike is +thrusting out from the recurve, it is necessary to remember that _an +appendage or a spike abutting upon a recurve at right angles in the +space between the shoulders of a loop on the outside is considered to +spoil the recurve_. + +If the appending ridge flows off the looping ridge smoothly in such a +way that it forms a bifurcation and not an abutment of two ridges at a +right angle, the recurve is considered as remaining intact. The test +is to trace the looping ridge toward the appendage, and if, when it is +reached, the tracing may be continued as readily upon the appendage as +upon the looping ridge, with no sudden, sharp change of direction, the +recurve is sufficient. Figures 161 to 184 should be studied with this +in mind. + +[Illustration: 161. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 162. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 163. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 164. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 165. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 166. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 167. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 168. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 169. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 170. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 171. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 172. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 173. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 174. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 175. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 176. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 177. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 178. Tented arch.] + +[Illustration: 179. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 180. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 181. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 182. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 183. Loop.] + +[Illustration: 184. Loop.] + +Figures 185 to 190 show additional examples of tented arches. + +[Illustration: 185] + +[Illustration: 186] + +[Illustration: 187] + +[Illustration: 188] + +[Illustration: 189] + +[Illustration: 190] + +The reason that figure 185 is given the classification of a tented +arch is because of the presence of all the loop requirements with the +exception of one, which is the recurve. In this pattern appear three +ending ridges. The lowest ending ridge provides the delta, and the +other two by the convention explained previously, provide the ridge +count. It is a tented arch, then, of the type approaching the loop, +with two of the characteristics, but lacking the third, a recurve. +Figures 186 and 187 are tented arches of the same type. A close +examination of these prints will reveal that when the imaginary line +is drawn between delta and core no ridge count across a looping ridge +can be obtained. It must be remembered that the core of a loop may not +be placed below the shoulder line. Lacking one of the three +characteristics of a loop, these patterns must be classified as tented +arches. When figure 188 is examined, it will be noticed that the +recurve is spoiled by the appendage abutting upon it between the +shoulders at a right angle, so it must also be classified with the +tented arches. In figure 189, the only possible delta must be placed +upon the looping ridge, thus preventing a ridge count although delta +and recurve are present. Figure 190 is assigned the classification of +a tented arch. One of the requirements of a loop type is that the +ridge enters on one side, recurves, and makes its exit on the side +from which it entered. This, of course, makes it necessary that the +ridge pass between the delta and the core. It will be noted from this +figure that although this ridge passes between the delta and the core, +it does not show any tendency to make its exit on the side from which +it entered, and therefore the loop classification is precluded, and it +is a tented arch. + + +_The whorl_ + +The patterns to which numerical values are assigned in deriving the +"primary" in the extension of the Henry System of fingerprint +classification used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation are the +whorl-type patterns, which occur in about 30 percent of all +fingerprints. + +_The whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are +present with a recurve in front in each._ Figures 191 to 193 reflect +the minimum requirements for the whorl. + +[Illustration: 191] + +[Illustration: 192] + +[Illustration: 193] + +It is important to note that the above definition is very general; +however, this pattern may be subdivided for extension purposes in +large groups where whorls are predominant. Even though this extension +may be used, all types of whorls are grouped together under the +general classification of "Whorl" and are designated by the letter +"W". + +The aforementioned subdivisions are as follows: The Plain Whorl, The +Central Pocket Loop, The Double Loop, and The Accidental. + + +_The plain whorl_ + +The "plain whorl" consists of the simplest form of whorl construction +and is the most common of the whorl subdivisions. It is designated by +the symbol "W" for both general classification and extension purposes. + +_The plain whorl has two deltas and at least one ridge making a +complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant +of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch +or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern +area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected +with it in the line of flow cannot be construed as a circuit. An +appendage connected at that point is considered to spoil the recurve +on that side._ + +Figures 194 to 211 are typical examples of the plain whorl type. +Figure 212 is, however, a loop, as the circuit is spoiled on one side +by an appendage. + +[Illustration: 194] + +[Illustration: 195] + +[Illustration: 196] + +[Illustration: 197] + +[Illustration: 198] + +[Illustration: 199] + +[Illustration: 200] + +[Illustration: 201] + +[Illustration: 202] + +[Illustration: 203] + +[Illustration: 204] + +[Illustration: 205] + +[Illustration: 206] + +[Illustration: 207] + +[Illustration: 208] + +[Illustration: 209] + +[Illustration: 210] + +[Illustration: 211] + +[Illustration: 212] + + +_Central pocket loop_ + +Within the whorl group, the subclassification type "central pocket +loop" is used for extension purposes only. In general classification +it is designated by the letter "W". Figures 213 to 236 are central +pocket loops. + +_The central pocket loop type of whorl has two deltas and at least one +ridge making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, +or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two +deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the +inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage +connected with it in the line of flow and on the delta side cannot be +construed as a circuit. An appendage connected at that point is +considered to spoil the recurve on that side._ + +_In lieu of a recurve in front of the delta in the inner pattern area, +an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow will suffice._ + +It is necessary that the inner line of flow be fixed artificially. +_The inner line of flow is determined by drawing an imaginary line +between the inner delta and the center of the innermost recurve or +looping ridge._ + +In the central pocket loop, one or more of the simple recurves of the +plain loop type usually recurve a second time to form a pocket within +the loop. The second recurve, however, need not be a continuation +of--or even connected with--the first. It may be an independent ridge. + +If no second recurve is present, an obstruction at right angles to the +inner line of flow is acceptable in lieu of it. An obstruction may be +either curved or straight. A dot, of course, may not be considered an +obstruction. + +_The definition does not require a recurve to cross the line of flow +at right angles. The angle test needs to be applied to obstructions +only._ + +The recurve or obstruction of the central pocket loop, as that of the +plain whorl, must be free of any appendage connected to it at the +point crossed by the line of flow and on the delta side. An appendage +at that point is considered to spoil the recurve or obstruction. + +[Illustration: 213] + +[Illustration: 214] + +[Illustration: 215] + +[Illustration: 216] + +[Illustration: 217] + +[Illustration: 218] + +[Illustration: 219] + +[Illustration: 220] + +[Illustration: 221] + +[Illustration: 222] + +[Illustration: 223] + +[Illustration: 224] + +[Illustration: 225] + +[Illustration: 226] + +[Illustration: 227] + +[Illustration: 228] + +[Illustration: 229] + +[Illustration: 230] + +[Illustration: 231] + +[Illustration: 232] + +[Illustration: 233] + +[Illustration: 234] + +[Illustration: 235] + +[Illustration: 236] + +Figures 237 and 238 are also central pocket loops despite the +appendages connected to the recurves, because they are not connected +at the point crossed by the line of flow. + +Figure 239, although possessing a recurve, is classified as a loop +because the second delta is located on the only recurving ridge. + +[Illustration: 237] + +[Illustration: 238] + +[Illustration: 239] + +[Illustration: 240] + +[Illustration: 241] + +[Illustration: 242] + +Figures 240 to 244, although possessing one delta and a delta +formation, are classified as loops because the obstructions do not +cross the line of flow at right angles. + +[Illustration: 243] + +[Illustration: 244] + +[Illustration: 245] + +[Illustration: 246] + +[Illustration: 247] + +[Illustration: 248] + +Figures 245 to 254 have two deltas and one or more recurves, but they +are classified as loops because each recurve is spoiled by an +appendage connected to it at the point crossed by the line of flow. + +[Illustration: 249] + +[Illustration: 250] + +[Illustration: 251] + +[Illustration: 252] + +[Illustration: 253] + +[Illustration: 254] + + +_Double loop_ + +Within the whorl group, the subclassification type "double loop" is +used for extension purposes only. In general classification it is +designated by the letter "W". + +_The double loop consists of two separate loop formations, with two +separate and distinct sets of shoulders, and two deltas._ + +The word "separate," as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two +loops may be connected by an appending ridge provided that it does not +abut at right angles between the shoulders of the loop formation. The +appendage rule for the loop applies also to the double loop. An +appendage abutting upon a loop at right angles between the shoulders +is considered to spoil the loop, while an appendage which flows off +smoothly is considered to leave the recurve intact. + +The fact that there must be two separate loop formations eliminates +from consideration as a double loop the "S" type core, the +interlocking type core, and the formation with one loop inside +another. + +The loops of a double loop do not have to conform to the requirements +of the loop. In other words, no ridge count is necessary. + +It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal length, nor +that the two loops be of the same size. Neither is it material from +which side the loops enter. + +The distinction between twinned loops and lateral pocket loops made by +Henry and adopted by other authors has been abandoned by the Federal +Bureau of Investigation because of the difficulty in locating and +tracing the loops. Both types have been consolidated under the +classification "double loop." + +Figures 255 to 266 are double loops. + +[Illustration: 255] + +[Illustration: 256] + +[Illustration: 257] + +[Illustration: 258] + +[Illustration: 259] + +[Illustration: 260] + +[Illustration: 261] + +[Illustration: 262] + +[Illustration: 263] + +[Illustration: 264] + +[Illustration: 265] + +[Illustration: 266] + +Figure 267 is a plain whorl. It is not classified as a double loop as +one side of one loop forms the side of the other. Figure 268 is a +plain loop. It is not a double loop because all of the recurves of the +loop on the right are spoiled by appendages. + +[Illustration: 267] + +[Illustration: 268] + + +_Accidental_ + +Within the whorl group the subdivision type "accidental" is used for +extension purposes only. In general classification it is designated by +the letter "W" and for extension purposes by the letter "X". + +_The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two +different types of pattern, with the exception of the plain arch, with +two or more deltas; or a pattern which possesses some of the +requirements for two or more different types; or a pattern which +conforms to none of the definitions._ It may be a combination of loop +and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and central pocket loop, double +loop and central pocket loop, or other such combinations. The plain +arch is excluded as it is rather the absence of pattern than a +pattern. Underneath every pattern there are ridges running from one +side to the other, so that if it were not excluded every pattern but +the plain arch would be an accidental whorl. + +This subclassification also includes those exceedingly unusual +patterns which may not be placed by definition into any other classes. + +Figures 269 to 271 are accidentals combining a loop with a tented +arch. Figures 272 to 276 combine a loop and a plain whorl or central +pocket loop. Figure 277 combines a loop and a double loop. Figure 278 +combines a loop and a plain arch, so it is classified as a loop. +Figure 279 combines a loop and a tented arch. + +[Illustration: 269] + +[Illustration: 270] + +[Illustration: 271] + +[Illustration: 272] + +[Illustration: 273] + +[Illustration: 274] + +[Illustration: 275] + +[Illustration: 276] + +[Illustration: 277] + +Some whorls may be found which contain ridges conforming to more than +one of the whorl subdivisions described. In such cases, the order of +preference (if any practical distinction need be made) should be: (1) +accidental, (2) double loop, (3) central pocket loop, (4) plain whorl. + +[Illustration: 278] + +[Illustration: 279] + +[Illustration: 280] + +[Illustration: 281] + + +_Whorl tracing_ + +The technique of whorl tracing depends upon the establishment of the +focal points--the deltas. Every whorl has two or more. When the deltas +have been located, the ridge emanating from the lower side or point of +the extreme left delta is traced until the point nearest or opposite +the extreme right delta is reached. The number of ridges intervening +between the tracing ridge and the right delta are then counted. If the +ridge traced passes inside of (above) the right delta, and three or +more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the delta, the +tracing is designated as an "inner"--I (fig. 280). If the ridge traced +passes outside (below) the right delta, and three or more ridges +intervene between the tracing ridge and the right delta, the tracing +is designated as an "outer"--O (fig. 281). All other tracings are +designated as "meeting"--M (figs. 282 to 287). + +[Illustration: 282] + +[Illustration: 283] + +[Illustration: 284] + +[Illustration: 285] + +[Illustration: 286] + +[Illustration: 287] + +Tracing begins from the left delta. In no instance is a tracing to +begin on a type line. In figure 288, tracing begins at the short ridge +which is the left delta. It is true that inasmuch as the short ridge +ends immediately the type line is next followed, but this is only +because the type line is the next lower ridge. Its status as a type +line is independent and has no bearing on the fact that it is being +traced. This point is illustrated further in figure 289. This pattern +shows an inner tracing. It will be noted that the delta is at the +point on the first recurve nearest to the center of the divergence of +the type lines. It will be further noted that tracing begins at the +point of delta on the left and continues toward the right, passing +inside of the right delta, with three ridges intervening between the +tracing ridge and the right delta. This shows the tracing to be an +inner tracing. If, in this case, the type line were traced (which +would be the incorrect procedure), only two ridges would intervene +between the tracing ridge and the right delta, resulting in an +erroneous meeting tracing. Figure 290 is another example of the +application of this rule. This illustration is also an inner whorl. + +When the ridge traced ends abruptly, and it is determined that the +ridge definitely ends, the tracing drops down to the point on the next +lower ridge immediately beneath the point where the ridge above ends, +continuing from there. Figure 291, therefore, is an outer whorl. + +[Illustration: 288] + +[Illustration: 289] + +In this connection it should be noted that the rule for dropping to +the next lower line applies only when the ridge _definitely_ ends. +Short breaks in a ridge which may be due to improper inking, the +presence of foreign matter on the ridges, enlarged pores, disease, or +worn ridges should not be considered as definite ridge endings. The +determination of what constitutes a definite ending will depend, of +course, upon the good judgment of the classifier. When the question +arises as to whether a break encountered in the ridge tracing is a +definite ending, or whether there has been interference with a natural +impression, the whole pattern should be examined to ascertain whether +such breaks are general throughout the pattern. If they are found to +be common, consideration should then be given to the possibility that +the break is not a definite ridge ending. Appropriate reference +tracing should be done in all such cases. + +[Illustration: 290] + +[Illustration: 291] + +Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates, the rule for tracing requires +that the lower limb or branch proceeding from the bifurcation be +followed. This is illustrated in 292. + +[Illustration: 292] + +Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only +the extreme deltas are considered, the tracing beginning at the +extreme left delta and proceeding toward the extreme right delta, as +illustrated in figure 293. + +In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is +sometimes presented. The rule is, _when the tracing passes inside of +the right delta, stop at the nearest point to the right delta on the +upward trend_, as in figure 294. If no upward trend is present, +continue tracing until a point opposite the right delta, or the delta +itself, is reached (figs. 295 and 296). + +[Illustration: 293] + +[Illustration: 294] + +[Illustration: 295] + +[Illustration: 296] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +_Questionable Patterns_ + + +No matter how definite fingerprint rules and pattern definitions are +made, there will always be patterns concerning which there is doubt as +to the classification they should be given. The primary reason for +this is the fact that probably no two fingerprints will ever appear +which are exactly alike. Other reasons are differences in the degree +of judgment and interpretation of the individual classifying +fingerprints, the difference in the amount of pressure used by the +person taking the prints, and the amount or kind of ink used. Nothing +can be done about faulty inking or pressure once the prints are taken. +The patterns which are questionable merely because they seem to have +characteristics of two or more types can be classified by strict +adherence to the definitions in deducing a preference. The following +section is devoted to such patterns with an explanation of each. + +[Illustration: 297] + +[Illustration: 298] + +Figure 297 has two loop formations. The one on the left, however, has +an appendage abutting upon the shoulders of its recurve at a right +angle. The left portion of the impression, therefore, is of the tented +arch type. The combination of two different types of patterns would be +classified in the whorl group (accidental), but this impression has +only the one delta. The right portion of the pattern detail contains a +true loop which fulfills all the loop requirements, i.e., a sufficient +recurve, a delta, and a ridge count across a looping ridge. In the +choice existing between a tented arch and a loop, preference is given +to the loop classification and this impression would be classified as +a loop. + +[Illustration: 299] + +[Illustration: 300] + +[Illustration: 301] + +[Illustration: 302] + +Figure 298, at a glance, seems to fulfill the requirements of a whorl +(two deltas and a ridge making a complete circuit). The part of the +circuit in front of the right delta, however, cannot be construed as a +recurving ridge because of the appendage abutting upon it in the line +of flow. This pattern, therefore, is a one-count loop. + +Figure 299 is a very difficult and unusual pattern. It has +characteristics of three types, the whorl, the loop, and the tented +arch. It is given the preference of an accidental type of whorl (loop +over a tented arch). This pattern should be referenced both as a loop +and as a tented arch. + +Figure 300 is shown for the purpose of explaining that in the whorl, +as this print is, appendages at the top of the recurve will not spoil +or affect the recurve. Hence, the impression is a good whorl of the +central pocket loop type and needs no reference. + +Figure 301 is classified as a whorl of the double loop type. There are +present two distinct loops and two deltas (the right delta is not +present as the impression was not rolled sufficiently). The pattern is +unusual because the loops are side by side and flowing in the same +direction. The tracing is an inner tracing. + +Figure 302 should present no difficulty. It is classified as a plain +arch for its ridge construction follows the rule of a plain arch, +i.e., "enter one side and flow or tend to flow to the other." + +Figure 303 is a plain arch. The dot at the center is not elongated +enough to be considered an upthrust. A dot, even though as thick and +heavy as the surrounding ridges, is not considered for any purpose but +ridge counting or fixing a delta. + +Figure 304 is a pattern somewhat similar to the previous illustration. +As indicated before, dots are considered as ridges only in ridge +counting and fixing a delta. This pattern, therefore, must be +classified as a plain arch, rather than a tented arch with two ending +ridges and a delta formation. + +Figure 305, although showing an appendage upon each recurve on the +left side, is classified as a whorl of the central pocket loop type, +with two deltas and a recurve in front of each. To spoil the recurve +of a whorl the appendage must be connected to the recurve at the point +of contact with the line of flow. + +[Illustration: 303] + +[Illustration: 304] + +[Illustration: 305] + +[Illustration: 306] + +In figure 306, the impression has two equally good loop formations. As +it has but one delta, it cannot be classified as a whorl of the double +loop type nor as a loop since it would be difficult to make a +preferential choice between the two looping ridges. It is arbitrarily +given the classification of a tented arch. + +In figure 307, the difficulty lies in locating the delta. The only +ridges answering the definition of type lines (ridges running parallel +and then diverging to enclose the pattern area) have three ending +ridges between them. The type lines, the delta, and the core are +located as indicated. The pattern is classified as a six-count loop. + +Figure 308 is classified as a tented arch, although it appears at +first glance to be a loop. Closer inspection shows that the looping +ridge does not tend to go out the side from which it entered but +rather seems to proceed downward ending in an abutment forming a +definite angle of 90 deg.. + +[Illustration: 307] + +[Illustration: 308] + +[Illustration: 309] + +[Illustration: 310] + +[Illustration: 311] + +In figure 309, an impression is shown which at first appears to be a +loop. Closer inspection will show that one of the elements of the loop +type is missing, namely, a ridge count across a looping ridge; for it +is to be borne in mind that the recurve of the innermost loop should +be free of appendages abutting between the shoulders at right angles. +The core, in this illustration, therefore, is placed where the +appendage of the innermost loop touches the next ridge which is a good +recurve. If an imaginary line is placed between delta and core, it +will be seen that there are no intervening ridges; hence, there is no +ridge count. + +Figure 310 is a pattern which contains two elements of a loop but +lacks the third. It is classified as a tented arch. Thus an impression +having a delta and a recurve, but not having a ridge count across a +looping ridge, falls into this classification. + +It will be noticed that although this pattern has the resemblance of a +plain arch, the center of the impression actually contains a partially +formed loop. A recurving ridge enters from the right side and exits in +the same direction. A delta also appears just below the recurve. In +attempting to obtain a ridge count, it is seen that the imaginary +line drawn between the delta and the core runs directly along the +ridge emanating from the former and which is joined onto the side of +the recurving ridge. For this reason, no ridge count is possible. + +[Illustration: 312] + +Figure 311 is a tented arch. There are three loop formations, each one +of which is spoiled by an appendage abutting upon its recurve between +the shoulders at a right angle. It cannot be classified as an +accidental as the patterns are all of the same type, i.e., tented +arches. An accidental type of whorl is a combination of two or more +_different_ types of patterns exclusive of the plain arch. + +Figure 312 is a loop. It cannot be classified as a whorl of the double +loop type because the formation above the lower loop is too pointed +and it also has an appendage abutting upon it at a right angle. + +Figure 313 at first glance appears to be a whorl of the double loop +type. Upon closer inspection, however, it will be noticed that there +are no delta formations other than on the recurves. There are, then, +two tented arch formations. As two patterns of the same type cannot +form an accidental whorl, the impression must be classified as a +tented arch. + +[Illustration: 313] + +[Illustration: 314] + +Figure 314 is an accidental whorl, combining a loop and a tented arch. +The tented arch is directly beneath the innermost loop, and is of the +upthrust type. + +Figure 315 consists of a loop over a dot with an apparent second +delta. This pattern must be classified as a loop, as a dot may not be +considered an upthrust unless elongated vertically. + +[Illustration: 315] + +[Illustration: 316] + +[Illustration: 317] + +Even though a dot may be as thick and heavy as the surrounding ridges, +it may be considered only in ridge counting or fixing a delta. + +Figure 316 at first glance appears to be an accidental whorl, but on +closer inspection it proves to be a loop. Although there are three +delta formations present, it should be observed that recurving ridges +appear in front of only one (D-1). + +Figure 317 has the general appearance of a loop. The looping ridge A, +at the center, has an appendage B abutting upon its recurve. The +abutment is at right angles and therefore spoils the recurve. The +pattern is a tented arch. + +Figure 318 is a tented arch which approaches both the loop and the +whorl type patterns. It cannot be considered a whorl, however, as the +recurve on the left is spoiled by an appendage (figs. 58 and 59). Nor +can it be a loop because there is no ridge count across a looping +ridge. The pattern, then, is a tented arch of the type possessing two +of the basic characteristics of the loop and lacking the third. The +delta and the sufficient recurve are present but the ridge count is +missing. + +Figure 319 seems at first glance to be a double loop. It will be +noted, however, that the inner delta formation would be located upon +the only looping ridge of the upper loop formation. Since the delta +would be located on the only recurve, this recurving ridge is +eliminated from consideration. The pattern is classified as a loop. + +Figure 320 is a loop of two counts, with the delta at B. There is a +ridge making a complete circuit present, but point A cannot be used as +a delta because it answers the definition of a type line. It should be +considered a delta only if it presented an angular formation. Placing +the delta upon the recurve would spoil that recurve. + +[Illustration: 318] + +[Illustration: 319] + +Figure 321 shows two separate looping ridge formations appearing side +by side and upon the same side of the delta. The core in such case is +placed upon the nearer shoulder of the farther looping ridge from the +delta, the two looping ridges being considered as one loop with two +rods rising as high as the shoulder. The ridge count would be four +(fig. 49). + +Figure 322 is an accidental whorl. It is classified thus because it +contains elements of three different patterns, the loop, the double +loop, and the accidental. In such case the order of preference +governs. The delta at the left is point A. The delta at the right is +point C. This point becomes the delta since it is the point nearest +the center of the divergence of the type lines. Point B is eliminated +from consideration as a delta since type lines may not proceed from a +bifurcation unless they flow parallel after the bifurcation and before +diverging. + +[Illustration: 320] + +[Illustration: 321] + +[Illustration: 322] + +Figure 323 is a loop. There are two delta formations but the dots +cannot be considered as obstructions crossing the line of flow at +right angles. This precludes the classification of the central pocket +loop type of whorl. + +Figure 324 is a loop, the two recurving ridges have appendages and are +considered spoiled. The pattern cannot, therefore, be a whorl even +though two delta formations are present. + +[Illustration: 323] + +[Illustration: 324] + +Figure 325 is classified as a tented arch. If examined closely the +pattern will be seen to have an appendage abutting at a right angle +between the shoulders of each possible recurve. Thus no sufficient +recurve is present. + +Figure 326 is a plain arch. There is present no angle which approaches +a right angle. Points A, B, and X are merely bifurcations rather than +an abutment of two ridges at an angle. + +[Illustration: 325] + +[Illustration: 326] + +Figure 327 is a tented arch, not because of the dot, however, as it +cannot be considered an upthrust. The tented arch is formed by the +angle made when the curving ridge above the dot abuts upon the ridge +immediately under and to the left of the dot. + +[Illustration: 327] + +[Illustration: 328] + +Figure 328 consists of two separate looping ridge formations in +juxtaposition upon the same side of a common delta. This pattern +cannot be called a double loop as there is no second delta formation. +In order to locate the core, the two looping ridges should be treated +as one loop with two rods in the center. The core is thus placed on +the far rod (actually on the left shoulder of the far loop), resulting +in a ridge count of four (fig. 49). + +[Illustration: 329] + +[Illustration: 330] + +Figure 329 is a loop of three counts. It cannot be classified as a +whorl as the only recurve is spoiled by the appendage abutting upon it +at the point of contact with the line of flow. + +Figure 330 is a plain arch as there is no upthrust (an upthrust must +be an ending ridge), no backward looping turn, and no two ridges +abutting upon each other at a sufficient angle. + +Figure 331 is a plain arch. The ending ridge at the center does not +rise at a sufficient angle to be considered an upthrust, and it does +not quite meet the ridge toward which it is flowing and therefore +forms no angle. + +Figure 332 is a plain arch. There are two ending ridges, but no +separate delta formation is present. + +[Illustration: 331] + +[Illustration: 332] + +[Illustration: 333] + +[Illustration: 334] + +Figure 333 is a plain arch. The rising ridge at the center is curved +at the top forming no angle, and does not constitute an upthrust +because it is not an ending ridge. + +Figure 334 is a whorl of the double loop type. Two loops and two +deltas are present. It is unusual because the loops are juxtaposed +instead of one flowing over the other, and one delta is almost +directly over the other. The tracing is a meeting tracing. + +Figure 335 is a tented arch. Although there is a looping ridge, no +ridge count can be obtained. The core is placed upon the end of the +ridge abutting upon the inside of the loop, and so the imaginary line +crosses no looping ridge, which is necessary. + +Figure 336 is a plain arch. The ending ridge at the center cannot be +considered an upthrust because it does not deviate from the general +direction of flow of the ridges on either side. No angle is present as +the ending ridge does not abut upon the curving ridge which envelopes +it. + +[Illustration: 335] + +[Illustration: 336] + +[Illustration: 337] + +[Illustration: 338] + +[Illustration: 339] + +Figure 337 is a plain arch because the dot cannot be considered a +delta as it is not as thick and heavy as the surrounding ridges. + +Figure 338 is a tented arch consisting of two ending ridges and a +delta. The short ending ridge is considered a ridge because it is +slightly elongated and not a mere dot. + +In figure 339, the only question involved is where to stop tracing. +The rule is: _when tracing on a ridge with an upward trend, stop at +the point on the upward trend which is nearest to the right delta_. X +is the point in this pattern. + +In figure 340, the question involved is also one of tracing. In this +pattern, the tracing is not on a ridge with an upward trend. The +tracing, therefore, is continued until a point nearest to the right +delta, or the right delta itself, is reached. This tracing is a +meeting tracing. + +[Illustration: 340] + +There are a few constantly recurring patterns which, though not +questionable or doubtful as they appear, present a peculiarly +difficult problem in classifying. The patterns referred to are usually +double loops, though accidental whorls and loops sometimes present the +same problems. The difficulty arises when a loop is so elongated that +the recurve does not appear until near the edge of a fully rolled +impression or an impression that is rolled unusually far, as in +figures 341 to 344. + +[Illustration: 341] + +[Illustration: 342] + +[Illustration: 343] + +[Illustration: 344] + +Figure 341, if classified as it appears, would be an accidental whorl. +Figures 342 and 343 would be double loops, and illustration 344, a +loop. It will be observed that these prints are rolled more fully than +normal. If, however, the next time the prints are taken, they are not +rolled quite so far, the patterns would require a very different +classification, and would show no indication of any need for +referencing to their true classification. The result would be a +failure to establish an identification with the original prints. The +only way in which such an error may be avoided is to classify such +impressions as they would appear if not so fully rolled, and to +conduct a reference search in the classification which would be given +to the prints when rolled to the fullest extent. Applying this rule, +illustration 341 is a tented arch, referenced to a whorl. Figures 342 +and 343 are loops, referenced to whorls. Figure 344 is a plain arch, +referenced to a loop. + +No set rule can possibly be devised to enable a classifier to know +with certainty where to draw the line when it is doubtful which +classification should be given such a print. Individual judgment is +the only standard. The test is: _if the pattern, in the opinion of the +classifier, is rolled to only a normal width, it should be classified +as it appears. If it seems to be rolled to a width beyond the normal +degree, it should be classified as if rolled only to the normal +degree_. Age, weight, size of fingers (as seen in the plain +impressions), heaviness of the ridges, and experience of the +technician in taking fingerprints are all factors in arriving at the +correct conclusion. The necessity for exercising the utmost care in +dealing with this type of pattern cannot be too highly emphasized. + +[Illustration: 345] + +[Illustration: 346] + +The patterns in figures 345 and 346 also have a second loop near the +edge of the impression. In these two patterns, however, the second +loop is very near the delta and consequently will almost invariably +appear even though not rolled to the fullest extent. The foregoing +rule is not applied to this type of impression. Both are classified as +a whorl and referenced to a loop to take care of the rare contingency +of nonappearance. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +_The Classification Formula and Extensions_ + + +_The classification formula_ + +At this point it is necessary to mention that when prints are +classified, markings are indicated at the bottom of each finger block +to reflect the type. The following symbols are used: + + - Under the index fingers the appropriate capital letters + should be placed for every pattern except the ulnar loop. + + - Under all other fingers, the appropriate small letter + should be placed for every pattern except the ulnar loop and + the whorl as follows: + + Arch a + Tented Arch t + Radial Loop r + + - Ulnar loops in any finger are designated by a diagonal + line slanting in the direction of the loop. + + - Whorls in any finger are designated by the letter "W". The + classification formula may be composed of the following + divisions: + + 1. Primary + 2. Secondary + 3. Subsecondary + 4. Major + 5. Final + 6. Key + +The positions in the classification line for these divisions when +completely applied are as illustrated: + +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Divisions Classification Classification Classification + + 20 M 1 U IOI 10 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + L 1 U IOI + + Second subsecondary + classification +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Divisions Classification Classification Classification + + SLM + --- + MMS + 4 O 5 U IOI 10 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + I 17 U IOI + +THE PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION: For the purpose of obtaining the primary +classification, numerical values are assigned to each of the ten +finger spaces as shown in figure 347. Wherever a whorl appears it +assumes the value of the space in which it is found. Spaces in which +types of patterns other than whorls are present are disregarded in +computing the primary. + +The values are assigned as follows: + + Fingers No. 1 and No. 2 16 + + Fingers No. 3 and No. 4 8 + + Fingers No. 5 and No. 6 4 + + Fingers No. 7 and No. 8 2 + + Fingers No. 9 and No. 10 1 + +[Illustration: 347] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | +-----------------------------|-------------| +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 29 + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | 19 +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT LITTLE + | | MIDDLE | | + |N 16| |N 8| +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +D 16| |D 8| |D 4 +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + W | W | \ | W | \ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT |4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE +N 4| | MIDDLE | | + | |N 2| |N 1 +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + |D 2| |D 1| +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + W | W | / | / | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In figure 347, it will be observed that the odd fingers (Nos. 1, 3, 5, +7, 9) contain the letter D, and the even fingers (Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) +contain the letter N. The D indicates that the values of these fingers +relate to the denominator, the N that they relate to the numerator. +The summation of the numerical values of the whorl type patterns, if +any, appearing in fingers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, plus one, is the denominator +of the primary. The summation of the values of the whorls, if any, in +fingers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, plus one, is the numerator of the primary. +Where no whorl appears in a set of impressions, the primary, +therefore, would be 1 over 1. The 1 that is assigned to the numerator +and the denominator when no whorls appear is also added, for +consistency, to the value of the whorls when they do appear. It will +be understood why it was originally assigned to the no-whorl group +when it is considered how easily a zero might be confused with an O, +which is the symbol used for an outer whorl tracing. + +To obtain the primary for the prints in figure 347, the number of +whorls appearing in the odd fingers is ascertained to be 2. Their +positions are noted (1 in No. 1 and 1 in No. 7) and the values +assigned to whorls appearing in those fingers are added together (16 +plus 2 = 18). To this sum the arbitrary 1 is added, giving us the +total of 19, which constitutes the denominator for this set of prints. +To get the numerator, it is ascertained that there are 3 whorls +appearing in the even fingers (2, 4 and 6), the values of which are +added together (16 plus 8 plus 4 = 28). To this sum the 1 is added, +giving a numerator of 29, and a complete primary of 29 over 19. + +By the word "whorl" is meant all types of whorls, including plain +whorls, central pocket loops, double loops and accidentals. The +tracing of the whorl does not enter into the determination of the +primary. + +The method of obtaining the primary can probably be shown best by +illustrations. For example, assume that there is a whorl in the right +index finger only. The value of a whorl in this finger is 16. When 1 +over 1 is added the resulting primary is 17 over 1. If a whorl appears +in the right thumb and right index finger, the value is 16 over 16 +plus 1 over 1 giving a primary of 17 over 17. If whorls appear in both +index fingers, the value is 16 over 2 plus 1 over 1 giving a primary +of 17 over 3. When whorls appear in both thumbs and both index +fingers, the primary is 21 over 19 and is obtained by the addition 16 +plus 4 plus 1 over 16 plus 2 plus 1. If whorls appear in all 10 +fingers, the primary is 32 over 32 (16 plus 8 plus 4 plus 2 plus 1 +plus 1 over 16 plus 8 plus 4 plus 2 plus 1 plus 1). It will be noted +that the primary classifications extend from 1 over 1 in the no-whorl +group to 32 over 32 in the all-whorl group, providing 1,024 possible +combinations. This does not mean that there are 1,024 even +subdivisions of prints according to these primaries. Just as there is +a preponderance of loops when the types of patterns are considered, +there is also a preponderance of certain primaries, notably: the 1 +over 1 primary, or no-whorl group; the 17 denominator; the 19 +denominator; the 28 denominator, of which the 31 over 28 group is the +largest; and the 32 denominator, including 2 large primary groups +namely, 31 over 32 and 32 over 32. As a matter of fact, the 1 over 1 +group, as a whole, contains over 25 percent of the total number of +prints filed in the FBI. On the other hand, there are a number of +primaries which rarely appear. It follows, therefore, that when a +print is classified in one of these larger groups it is necessary to +complete the classification to a greater extent than is necessary in +the more unusual primaries, so that the group to be searched is small +enough for convenience. + +In connection with the counting of whorl values to obtain the primary, +it might be noted that when the whorls outnumber the other patterns +more speed can be achieved by counting those patterns and subtracting +rather than by adding the whorls. This procedure should not be +followed until enough experience is acquired so that it may be noted +at a glance where whorls are not present. + +The experienced classifier can tell in what fingers whorls are present +by a glance at a primary classification. For example, a primary of 5 +over 17 could mean that there are whorls in the thumbs only. + +[Illustration: 348] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | +-----------------------------|-------------| +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 9 R + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | 2 R +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT LITTLE + | | MIDDLE | | + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + \ | R | \ | W | \ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT M|4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + 18| 10| MIDDLE I| I| 13 + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + / | R | / | W | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +THE SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION: After the primary classification, the +fingerprints are subdivided further by using a secondary +classification. Before going into detail, it should be noted that +after the primary is obtained the entire remaining portion of the +classification formula is based upon the arrangement of the +impressions appearing in the right hand as the numerator over the +impressions appearing in the left hand as the denominator. The +arrangement of the even over the uneven fingers is discarded after the +primary is obtained. The secondary classification appears just to the +right of the fractional numerals which represent the primary. It is +shown in the formula by capital letters representing the basic types +of patterns appearing in the index fingers of each hand, that of the +right hand being the numerator and that of the left hand being the +denominator (fig. 348). There are five basic types of patterns which +can appear. + + 1. Arch A + 2. Tented Arch T + 3. Radial Loop R + 4. Ulnar Loop U + 5. Whorl W + +[Illustration: 349] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | +-----------------------------|-------------| +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 1 R + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | 1 aU +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT LITTLE + | | MIDDLE | | + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + \ | R | \ | \ | \ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT M|4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + 18| 10| MIDDLE I| I| 13 + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + a | / | / | / | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (SMALL-LETTER GROUP): Prints with an arch or +tented arch in any finger or a radial loop in any except the index +fingers constitute the small-letter group of the secondary +classification. Such "small letters," with the exception of those +appearing in the index fingers, are brought up into the classification +formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to the +index fingers (fig. 349). A dash is used to indicate the absence of +each small letter between the index fingers and another small letter +or between two small letters, as + +1 aUa-t 1 aU-t. +------- and ------ +1 R-a 1 U-a + +Thus, if a radial loop appears in the right thumb, the small letter +"r" would be brought up in the numerator column of the classification +formula and placed just to the left of the capital letter representing +the index finger. Similarly, if an arch or tented arch or a radial +loop would appear in the middle, ring, or little finger of the hand, +the small letter representing such a pattern would be placed on the +classification line to the right of the secondary in the numerator +column if the letter is present in the right hand, and in the +denominator column if in the left hand. When two or more small letters +of the same type occur immediately adjacent to each other, they are +indicated thus: + +1 rU-2a 1 aTa-a. +------- and ------- +1 tU3a 1 tA2at + +The small-letter groups are of vital importance to the classification +system, as they are of relatively infrequent occurrence, constituting +approximately 7 to 10 percent of all patterns. Generally speaking, +since these patterns are of such rare occurrence, their very presence +often enables the classifier to dispense with the usual subsecondary +classification and the major division which in the majority of cases +are used in the larger groups. + +THE SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (GROUPING OF LOOPS AND WHORLS): In +classifying prints it is necessary to subdivide the secondary groups. +This is accomplished by grouping according to the ridge counts of +loops and the ridge tracings of whorls. The first of the groups filed +in order, which it will be necessary to so subdivide, would ordinarily +be the + +1 R +--- +1 R + +group where no small letters appear. The Federal Bureau of +Investigation, however, has found it necessary to extend this division +to many of the small-letter groups which become cumbersome. The +subsecondary is placed on the classification line just to the right of +the secondary. Ridge counts are translated into small and large, +represented by symbols I and O. The whorl tracings are brought up as +I, M, or O denoting inner, meeting or outer ridge tracings of the +whorl types. Only six fingers may be involved in the subsecondary--numbers +2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9. + +A ridge count of 1 to 9, inclusive, in the index fingers is brought up +into the subsecondary formula as I. A count of 10 or more is brought +up as O. In the middle fingers a count of from 1 to 10, inclusive, is +brought up as I, and 11 or more is O. In the ring fingers a count of +from 1 to 13 is brought up as I, and 14 or more is O. A loop +subsecondary could appear in the classification formula as + +OIO. +--- +IIO + +Analyzing this example of a subsecondary, one will know that in the +index, middle, and ring fingers of the right hand there are counts of +over 9, under 11, and over 13, while in the left hand there are in the +index, middle, and ring fingers, counts of under 10, under 11, over +13, respectively. The subsecondary classification, therefore, relates +to the groupings of the prints, and no difficulty should be +experienced in ascertaining whether the I and O arrangement in the +subsecondary relates to loops or whorls when analyzing a +classification, because this information can be obtained from the +primary classification. Figure 350 is an example illustrating the +subsecondary in addition to other divisions of the classification +formula. + +[Illustration: 350] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | +-----------------------------|-------------| +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 26 5 R OOO 12 + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | 12 W MOI +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT LITTLE + | | MIDDLE | | + 26| 12| 0| 17| 12 +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + \ | R | W | \ | \ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT |4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + | | MIDDLE | | + I| M | 18| I| 15 +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + W | W | / | W | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The chart, figure 351, will illustrate the manner in which the ridge +counts are translated into the symbols I and O so they may be grouped +and sequenced with the whorl tracings I, M and O. + +THE MAJOR DIVISION: The major division is placed just to the left of +the primary in the classification formula. Where whorls appear in the +thumbs the major division reflects the whorl tracings just as the +subsecondary does. For example, a major division of I over M in the +primary 5 over 17 would reflect an inner-traced whorl over a +meeting-traced whorl in the thumbs. Where loops appear in the thumbs, +however, a table is used to translate the ridge counts into the small, +medium, or large groups, designated by the letters S, M, L. An +expanding table is used for the right thumb when large-count loops +appear in the left thumb, as shown in the chart (fig. 351). This table +is used because it affords a more equitable distribution of prints as +a whole, for filing purposes within the groups indicated. + +[Illustration: 351. Classification Chart] + + --RIGHT HAND-- +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +R THUMB |R INDEX |R MIDDLE |R RING |R LITTLE +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +WHEN LEFT THUMB| 1-9 = I | 1-10 = I | 1-13 = I | +IS 16 OR LESS |10 AND OVER = O|11 AND OVER = O|14 AND OVER = O| +1-11 = S | | | | +12-16 = M | | | | +17 AND OVER = L| | | | +--------------------RIDGE COUNT OF SECOND SUBSECONDARY--------------------- +WHEN LEFT THUMB| 1-5 = S | 1-8 = S | 1-10 = S | +IS 17 OR OVER | 6-12 = M | 9-14 = M |11-18 = M | + 1-17 = S |13 AND OVER = L|15 AND OVER = L|19 AND OVER = L| +19-22 = M | | | | +23 AND OVER = L| | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + --LEFT HAND-- +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +L THUMB |L INDEX |L MIDDLE |L RING |L LITTLE +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1-11 = S | | | | +12-16 = M |<------------------VALUES SAME AS ABOVE-------------------> +17 AND OVER = L| | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Table for major divisions of loops: + +_Left thumb denominator_ _Right thumb numerator_ + + { 1 to 11, inclusive, S (small). +1 to 11, inclusive, S (small) { 12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium). + { 17 or more ridges, L (large). + + + { 1 to 11, inclusive, S (small). +12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium) { 12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium). + { 17 or more ridges, L (large). + + { 1 to 17, inclusive, S (small). +17 or more ridges, L (large) { 18 to 22, inclusive, M (medium). + { 23 or more ridges, L (large). + +The fingerprint card appearing in figure 352 shows a major division of +L over L, which is obtained by counting the ridges (24 in the right +thumb and 18 in the left thumb) which, according to the table, is +translated into L in both thumbs. + +THE FINAL: It is, of course, desirable to have a definite sequence or +order of filing the prints within the subdivided groups. This order is +attained through the use of the final, which is based upon the ridge +count of the loop in the right little finger. It is indicated at the +extreme right of the numerator in the classification. Note figure 352. +If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the +left little finger may be used. It is then indicated at the extreme +right of the denominator (fig. 353). If no loops appear in the little +fingers, a whorl may be used to obtain a final, counting from left +delta to core if in the right hand and from right delta to core if in +the left hand. If there are two or more cores (usually applies to +accidental whorls), the ridge count is made from left delta (right +hand) or right delta (left hand) to the core which is the least +number of ridges distant from that delta. An exception is made in the +case of the double loop. The double loop is counted from the delta to +the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a double loop are +horizontal, the nearest core is used. Should both little fingers be a +or t, no final is used. The use of a whorl in a little finger for a +final is required only in connection with a large group or collection +of prints, such as the 32 over 32 primary. + +[Illustration: 352] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | LLL +-----------------------------|-------------| LMM +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 24 L I R O O O 17 + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | L I R O O O +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT 24|2. RIGHT 13|3. RIGHT 31|4. RIGHT 21|5. RIGHT 17 + THUMB | INDEX | MIDDLE | RING | LITTLE + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + \ | R | \ | \ | \ +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT 18|2. LEFT 16|3. LEFT 13|4. LEFT 18|5. LEFT 20 + THUMB | INDEX | MIDDLE | RING | LITTLE + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + / | R | / | / | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +THE KEY: The key is obtained by counting the ridges of the first loop +appearing on the fingerprint card (beginning with the right thumb), +exclusive of the little fingers which are never considered for the key +as they are reserved for the final. The key, no matter where found, is +always placed to the extreme left of the numerator of the +classification formula (fig. 353). + + +_Extensions_ + +THE SECOND SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION: When a group of fingerprints +becomes so large that it is cumbersome and unwieldy, even though fully +extended, it can be subdivided further by using a second subsecondary +division, which is brought up into the classification formula +directly above the subsecondary, and for which the symbols S, M and L +are used. The following table is used: + +_Index_ _Middle_ _Ring_ + +1 to 5, inclusive, S. 1 to 8, inclusive, S. 1 to 10, inclusive, S. +6 to 12, inclusive, M. 9 to 14, inclusive, M. 11 to 18, inclusive, M. +13 or more, L. 15 or more, L. 19 or more, L. + +If this table is referred to, a study of figure 352 will demonstrate +the use of the second subsecondary. + +[Illustration: 353] + + LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK| |SEX ++--------------+ | |__________ +|FBI No. | | |RACE ++--------------+ |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME| +-----------------------------|----------------------------------+---------- +SIGNATURE OF PERSON |CONTRIBUTOR |ALIASES |HT. |WT. +FINGERPRINTED |AND ADDRESS | |(IN.)| + | | |_____|____ + | | |DATE OF +-----------------------------| | |BIRTH +RESIDENCE OF PERSON | | |__________ +FINGERPRINTED | | |HAIR |EYES + | | | | +-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------- +OCCUPATION |ARREST NUMBER|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK + | | +-----------------------------|-------------| +SCARS AND MARKS |PLACE OF | + |BIRTH | 22 M 11 U OOO + |-------------|CLASS__________________________ +-----------------------------|CITIZENSHIP | L 6 U OMI 13 +SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL |DATE | _ | +TAKING FINGERPRINTS | ||_|CHECK IF | + | | NO CRIMINAL|REF.___________________________ + | | RECORD IS | + | | DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT LITTLE + 22| 11| MIDDLE 19| O| O + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + \ | \ | \ | W | W +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT M|4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + 18| 10| MIDDLE I| I| 13 + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + / | / | W | W | / +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +WCDX EXTENSION: In the extension used in the Federal Bureau of +Investigation for the large whorl groups, the type of whorl is +designated by the symbols W, C, D, or X for the index fingers and w, +c, d, or x for all other fingers, according to its classification as +defined in figure 354. These symbols are used for subclassification +purposes only and are brought up into the classification formula +directly above the subsecondary in their respective positions, the +right hand being the numerator, the left hand being the denominator. + +SPECIAL LOOP EXTENSION: In the all-loop group + +(1R-U) +------ +(1R-U), + +the following special loop extension may be used, utilizing the ridge +counts in fingers Nos. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and, if necessary, No. 10: + + _Ridge Counts_ _Value_ + + 1 to 4, inclusive 1 + 5 to 8, inclusive 2 + 9 to 12, inclusive 3 + 13 to 16, inclusive 4 + 17 to 20, inclusive 5 + 21 to 24, inclusive 6 + 25 and over 7 + +The resulting values in this extension are brought up into the +classification formula directly above the subsecondary in their +respective positions, the right hand being the numerator, the left +hand being the denominator. + +In addition to the extensions already mentioned, fingerprint groups +may be divided into male and female, and by age (either by year or by +arbitrarily setting an age limit, beyond which a print bearing such an +age would be filed separately in a "Reference" or a "Presumptive Dead" +file). + +In the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, all prints +bearing an age of 55 through 74 are filed in the "Reference" group and +all prints bearing an age of 75 years or more are filed in the +"Presumptive Dead" file. Persons 75 years of age or older, in regard +to crime, may be considered as generally inactive and thus are filed +as "Presumptive Dead." Such a group provides for removing from the +other files the cards concerning those of whom no notice is ever +received as to death. + +A separate file should be maintained for deceased persons, for +possible future reference. + +A separate file should be maintained for all prints bearing +amputations and which have an unequivocal statement or marking from +the contributor to that effect. + +Permanent scars also may be utilized for this purpose, giving three +more groupings: those prints having permanent scars in the right hand, +those having a scar in the left, and those in which scars appear in +both hands. A separate file may be maintained for mutilated prints +whether or not the permanent-scar division is used. This is usually +composed of prints so badly mutilated, or so mutilated about the cores +and deltas, that intentional mutilation is suspected. + +[Illustration: 354] + ++--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +| WHORL | |CENTRAL POCKET| | DUAL LOOP | | ACCIDENTAL | +| -W- | | LOOP | | -D- | | -X- | +| | | | | | | | +|[Illustration]| |[Illustration]| |[Illustration]| |[Illustration]| ++--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +PATTERN HAVING PATTERN HAVING TWO SEPARATE TWO OR MORE +ONE CORE. LINE ONE CORE. LINE AND DISTINCT DIFFERENT TYPES +DRAWN FROM DRAWN FROM LOOPS IN ONE PATTERN. +DELTA TO DELTA DELTA TO DELTA ANY UNUSUAL +CUTS ONE OR CUTS NO PATTERN NOT +MORE RECURVES RECURVES DEFINED IN + OTHER + CLASSIFICATIONS + + + + +CHAPTER V + +_Classification of Scarred Patterns--Amputations--Missing at Birth_ + + +_Classification of scarred patterns_ + +Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all +scarred patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the +following rules should be observed: + + - When an impression is so scarred that neither the general + type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be + determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should + be given both the general type value and the + subclassification value of the corresponding finger of the + other hand. + + - When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars + about the core so that the _general type_ cannot be + determined with _reasonable accuracy_, but the ridges allow + reasonably accurate subclassifications by ridge tracings or + counting, the impression should be given the primary value + of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the + subclassification value as indicated by the ridges of + partially scarred impressions. + + - When an impression is partially scarred and the general + type of pattern can be determined with reasonable accuracy, + but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall + within the proper subsecondary classification, the + impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value + of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the + corresponding finger is of the same general type. If the + corresponding finger is not of the same general type, the + scarred impression should be given the probable value and + referenced to all other possibilities. + + - When an impression is so scarred that neither the general + type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be + determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that + the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly + scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary value of + whorls with meeting tracings. + +In figure 355, the pattern is entirely obliterated. It could have been +a small whorl, a small ulnar or radial loop, an arch, or a tented +arch. If the opposite finger were an arch or tented arch or whorl, +this impression would be classified as arch, tented arch, or whorl +(with the same tracing). If the opposite finger were a small-count +loop, this would be classified as a loop of the same count. If the +opposite finger were a large-count loop, this impression would be +given the count of the opposite finger even though it could never have +had that count. If the opposite finger were scarred in the same +fashion or were amputated or missing, both impressions would be +classified as whorls with meeting tracings. + +In figure 356, the general type of the pattern could have been loop +(ulnar if in the right hand) or whorl. If the opposite finger were a +whorl this would be classified as a whorl, and with the same tracing. +If a radial loop were opposite, this would be classified as an ulnar +loop (if in the right hand). The ridge count can be obtained with a +fair degree of accuracy. If an arch or tented arch were opposite, this +impression would be classified as a loop because it looks as if it had +been a loop. + +[Illustration: 355] + +[Illustration: 356] + +[Illustration: 357] + +[Illustration: 358] + +In figure 357, the ridge count cannot be determined accurately but it +would be classified as a loop, no matter what the opposite finger +might be. If the opposite finger were a loop with a count of from 6 to +17, this impression would be given that count. If the count of the +opposite loop were less or more than 6 to 17, the count for this +finger would be given I or O in the subsecondary classification +depending upon whether the opposite finger was I or O, but would not +be given less than 6 nor more than 17 counts as its possibility is +limited to those counts. + +A pattern with a scar similar to either scar in figures 358 and 359 +would always be given a loop as it could be seen readily that there +was no possibility of its having been any other type of pattern. + +[Illustration: 359] + + +_Classification of amputations and fingers missing at birth_ + +When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be +filed separately from those having no amputations in order to +facilitate searching. It is to be noted that before it may be filed in +the amputation group, the card must contain a definite and unequivocal +statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a certain +finger or fingers have been amputated or were missing at birth. This +prevents the appearance on later cards of impressions of fingers +thought to have been amputated but which in reality were merely +injured and bandaged when previous prints were submitted. + +If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical +with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count, +or tracing, and referenced to every other possible classification. + +If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications +identical with the fingers opposite, with no additional references. + +If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the +classification of whorls with meeting tracings. + +When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth +is classified, the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in +that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite +fingers and are filed in the amputation group. As these fingers are +missing from a prenatal cause, they would have always received the +identical classification of the opposite finger on any previous +occasion. + +If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the +classification will be + +M 32 W MMM. +----------- +M 32 W MMM + +If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should +be taken as they, too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A +footprint file is maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in +instances where the subject has all fingers amputated or missing at +birth. + +Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and +careful consideration should be given to them. The question often +arises as to the appropriate groups in which they should be filed, +i.e., amputations or nonamputations. As no definite rule may be +applied, it is a matter of experience and judgment as to their +preferred classification. + +In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or +more than half of the pattern area missing, it is given the +classification of the opposite finger. It will be filed in the +amputation group under the classification of the opposite finger and +reference searches should be conducted in all possible classifications +in the nonamputation groups. If two or more of the fingers are +amputated in this manner, they are given the classification of the +opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning +amputations. + +Generally, a "tip amputation," or one which has less than half of the +first joint amputated, will always be printed in the future. +Therefore, a partially amputated finger with less than half of the +pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is referenced to +the opposite finger. It will be filed in the nonamputation group and +reference searches should be conducted under the classification of the +opposite finger, and in the amputation group. It must be referenced +this way even though it never could have originally had the +classification of the opposite finger. + + +_Classification of bandaged or imprinted fingers_ + +As noted in the chapter pertaining to "Problems in the Taking of Inked +Fingerprints," an indication to the effect "recently injured, +bandaged" is not sufficient to file a fingerprint card. It is obvious +that a fingerprint card bearing these notations cannot be properly +classified or filed. If the injury is temporary, and if possible, +these prints should not be taken until after healing. + +If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure +inked impressions by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are +given classifications identical with the classifications of the +fingers opposite. If only one finger is lacking, reference searches +should be conducted in every possible classification. If more than one +finger is lacking, they should be given the classifications of the +opposite fingers, but no reference searches should be conducted. If +there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified +as whorls with meeting tracings. + +If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of +the ridges of the finger itself and indicated on the print, this +classification should be, insofar as it is possible, utilized. For +example, a missing impression labeled "ulnar loop of about 8 counts" +by the individual taking the prints, should be searched in the +subsecondary as both I and O but should not be referenced as a pattern +other than a loop. If the finger is used as the final, or key, it +should be searched enough counts on each side of 8 to allow for +possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked +eye. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +_Filing Sequence_ + + +The sequence must be arranged properly at all times to make possible +the most accurate work. Prints are sequenced and filed in this order, +according to: + +I. _Primary:_ + +1 32. +- to -- +1 32 + +In the primary classification the denominator remains constant until +all numerator figures have been exhausted from 1 to 32. All prints +with the primary 1 over 1 are filed together. These are followed by 2 +over 1, 3 over 1, 4 over 1, etc., until 32 over 1 is reached. The next +primary is 1 over 2, then 2 over 2, etc., until 32 over 2 is reached. +Eventually, through the use of each denominator figure and the +elimination of each numerator over each denominator, the 32 over 32 +primary will be reached. + +Even in the smaller collections of fingerprints, it will be found that +the groups which are arranged under the individual primaries filed in +sequence, from 1 over 1 to 32 over 32, will be too voluminous for +expeditious searching. + +II. _Secondary:_ + +A. Secondary small-letter group: + +A rW3r. +- to ---- +A rW3r + +Most intricate of all the individual sequences is the small-letter +sequence. It is less difficult if the following method is used: + +1. Sequence according to the patterns in the index fingers, grouped + +A W. +- to - +A W + +When small letters are present, there are 25 possible combinations +which can appear in the index fingers. They are as follows: + + A T R U W + - - - - - + A A A A A + + A T R U W + - - - - - + T T T T T + + A T R U W + - - - - - + R R R R R + + A T U R W + - - - - - + U U U U U + + A T U R W + - - - - - + W W W W W + +2. Within each group sequence: + + a. The denominator, by-- + + (1) Count of the small letters (lesser preceding the greater). + + (2) Position of the small letters (those to the left preceding those + to the right). + + (3) Type of small letter (sequence a, t, r). + + b. The numerator, by-- + + (1) Count. + + (2) Position. + + (3) Type. + + Thus + + A T + - precedes - + A A + + A A + --- precedes --- + rAt A3t + + A A + -- precedes -- + aA Aa + + A A + -- precedes -- + At Ar + + aA aAa + --- precedes --- + aAr aAr + + rA Ar + ---- precedes ---- + aA2a aA2a + + aAtat aAtar + ----- precedes ----- + tA3r tA3r + +The following table represents the full sequence of the denominator of +the group having A over A in the index fingers. The full sequence as +listed may be used as the numerator for each denominator as set out +below. Following the group with A over A in the index fingers is the +group with T over A in the index fingers, the sequence being the same +otherwise. Then R over A, U over A, A over T to rW3r over rW3r. + + A tAra aA2at tA2tr + aA tArt aA2ar tAtra + tA tA2r aAata tAtrt + rA rA2a aAa2t tAt2r + Aa rAat aAatr tAr2a + At rAar aAara tArat + Ar rAta aAart tArar + aAa rA2t aAa2r tArta + aAt rAtr aAt2a tAr2t + aAr rAra aAtat tArtr + tAa rArt aAtar tA2ra + tAt rA2r aA2ta tA2rt + tAr A3a aA3t tA3r + rAa A2at aA2tr rA3a + rAt A2ar aAtra rA2at + rAr Aata aAtrt rA2ar + A2a Aa2t aAt2r rAata + Aat Aatr aAr2a rAa2t + Aar Aara aArat rAatr + Ata Aart aArar rAara + A2t Aa2r aArta rAart + Atr At2a aAr2t rAa2r + Ara Atat aArtr rAt2a + Art Atar aA2ra rAtat + A2r A2ta aA2rt rAtar + aA2a A3t aA3r rA2ta + aAat A2tr tA3a rA3t + aAar Atra tA2at rA2tr + aAta Atrt tA2ar rAtra + aA2t At2r tAata rAtrt + aAtr Ar2a tAa2t rAt2r + aAra Arat tAatr rAr2a + aArt Arar tAara rArat + aA2r Arta tAart rArar + tA2a Ar2t tAa2r rArta + tAat Artr tAt2a rAr2t + tAar A2ra tAtat rArtr + tAta A2rt tAtar rA2ra + tA2t A3r tA2ta rA2rt + tAtr aA3a tA3t rA3r + +B. Secondary loop and whorl group: + +R W. +- to - +R W + +When no small letters are present, there are 9 possible combinations +which can appear in the index fingers. They are as follows: + + R U W + - - - + R R R + + R U W + - - - + U U U + + R U W + - - - + W W W + +At this point it is well to note that it may be preferable in some +instances where small files are concerned to use only a portion of the +classification formula in the filing sequence. In such cases, only +those parts of the filing sequence which are necessary should be used +along with the final and key. + +III. _Subsecondary:_ + +III OOO. +--- to --- +III OOO + +The sequence of the subsecondary is as follows: + + III IIM IIO IMI IMM IMO IOI + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + III III III III III III III + + IOM IOO MII MIM MIO MMI MMM + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + III III III III III III III + + MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM OIO + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + III III III III III III III + + OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO OOO, + --- --- --- --- --- --- etc., to --- + III III III III III III OOO + +each numerator in turn becoming the denominator for the complete +sequence of numerators as listed above. + +IV. _Major:_ + +The following sequence is used when loops appear in both thumbs: + + S M L S M L S M L + - - - - - - - - - + S S S M M M L L L + +When whorls appear in both thumbs the sequence is: + + I M O I M O I M O + - - - - - - - - - + I I I M M M O O O + +When a whorl appears in the right thumb and a loop in the left, the +sequence is: + + I M O I M O I M O + - - - - - - - - - + S S S M M M L L L + +When a loop appears in the right thumb and a whorl in the left, the +sequence is: + + S M L S M L S M L + - - - - - - - - - + I I I M M M O O O + +V. _Second Subsecondary:_ + +SSS LLL. +--- to --- +SSS LLL + +The sequence for filing the second subsecondary is as follows: + + SSS SSM SSL SMS SMM SML + --- --- --- --- --- --- + SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS + + SLS SLM SLL MSS MSM MSL + --- --- --- --- --- --- + SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS + + MMS MMM MML MLS MLM MLL + --- --- --- --- --- --- + SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS + + LSS LSM LSL LMS LMM LML + --- --- --- --- --- --- + SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS + + LLS LLM LLL, LLL, + --- --- --- etc., to --- + SSS SSS SSS LLL + +each group of the numerator becoming in turn the denominator for the +complete sequence of numerators as listed above. + +VI. _W C D X Extensions:_ + +W xX3x. +- to ---- +W xX3x + +The sequence is as follows: Prints with _c_, _d_, or _x_ in any finger +other than the index fingers constitute the small-letter group. A +sample of the sequence follows: + + W cWc xWd Wdx + cW cWd xWx Wxc + dW cWx W2c Wxd + xW dWc Wcd W2x + Wc dWd Wcx cW2c + Wd dWx Wdc cWcd + Wx xWc W2d cWcx + +As may be readily seen, the sequence proceeds in the same fashion as +the a, t, r, small-letter sequence. + +VII. Special Loop Extension used by the _Federal Bureau of +Investigation:_ + +111 777. +--- to --- +111 777 + +The following is a partial sequence for filing this extension: + + 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 + + 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 777. + --- --- --- --- --- --- --- etc., to --- + 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 777 + +No matter how many of these divisions may be used, the order should +remain the same; and no matter how many of these divisions are used, +each individual group should be sequenced by: + +VIII. _Final:_ + +Filed in numerical sequence from 1 out. For example, assume that there +are 15 prints in a group having a final of 14. All of these should be +filed together and followed by those prints in the same group having a +final of 15, etc. + +IX. _Key:_ + +All prints appearing in a designated final group are arranged by key +in numerical sequence from 1 out. For example, assume that there are 5 +prints in a group having a key of 14. All of these should be filed +together and followed by those prints in the same group having a key +of 15, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +_Searching and Referencing_ + + +_Searching_ + +When searching a print through the fingerprint files in order to +establish an identification, it should be remembered that the +fingerprint cards are filed in such a way that all those prints having +the same classification are together. Thus, the print being searched +is compared only with the groups having a comparable classification, +rather than with the whole file. + +After locating the proper group classification, the searcher should +fix in his mind the one or two most outstanding characteristics of the +patterns of the current print and look for them among the prints in +file. If a print is found which has a characteristic resembling one +upon the current print, the two prints should be examined closely to +determine if identical. To avoid making an erroneous identification, +the searcher should be exceedingly careful to ascertain that the +prints being compared are identical in all respects before identifying +one against the other. + +To establish identity, it is necessary to locate several points of +identity among the characteristics of the prints. The number of +identical characteristics is left to the discretion of the individual +but he should be absolutely certain that the prints are identical +before treating them as such. Characteristics need not appear within +the pattern area, since any ridge formation is acceptable. Quite often +excellent ridge detail appears in the second joint of the finger. The +characteristics used to establish an identification are shown in +figure 102. + +The final and the key may be considered control figures for searching +prints. They limit the number of prints it is necessary to search in a +group to those prints having finals and keys closely related to the +final and key of the print being searched. + +Due to the possibility of visual misinterpretation, distortion by +pressure, or poor condition of the ridge detail of the prints in file, +it is advisable to allow a margin for such discrepancies. Except in +cases where the ridge count of the final and/or key is questionable on +the print being searched, the following procedure is used: + +Of the prints within any group classification, only those prints are +examined which have a final within 2 ridge counts on each side of the +final of the print being searched. For example, if the print to be +searched has a final of 17, all prints bearing a final 15 through 19 +will be compared with it. + +Within the final of any group classification, only those prints are +examined which have a key within 2 ridge counts on each side of the +key of the print being searched. For example, if the print to be +searched has a key of 20, all prints bearing a key of 18 through 22 +will be compared with it. + +In figure 352, it will be noted that there are 17 ridge counts +appearing in the right little finger and this number is used as the +final. It will also be noted that there is a loop of 24 ridge counts +in the right thumb and this number is used as the key inasmuch as it +is the first loop. In this example, the print is searched in the group +classification which has finals ranging from 15 through 19. Within +this group of finals the prints which have keys ranging from 22 +through 26 are examined. + + +_Referencing_ + +Too much stress cannot be placed upon the necessity of referencing +questionable patterns, whether it be in the interpretation of the type +of pattern, the ridge count, or the tracing. + +The factors which make it necessary are: variation in individual +judgment and eyesight, the amount of ink used, the amount of pressure +used in taking the prints, the difference in width of the rolled +impressions, skin diseases, worn ridges due to age or occupations, +temporary and permanent scars, bandaged fingers, crippled hands, and +amputation. + +_For the highest degree of accuracy, all rolled impressions should be +checked by the plain impressions_, which generally are not distorted +by pressure. This also helps prevent error caused by the reversal or +mixing of the rolled impressions out of their proper order. For the +same reason, as much of the counting and tracing should be done in the +plain impressions as it is possible to do. + +If there is any doubt as to which of two or more classifications +should be assigned to a given pattern, it is given the preferred +classification and reference searches are conducted in all other +possible classifications. For example, if on a print with the +preferred classification + +1 A +---- +1 Aa + +it is questionable whether the left middle finger should be a plain +arch, a tented arch, or a radial loop, the print is searched in the + +1 A +---- +1 Aa + +group, and reference searches are conducted in the + +1 A +---- +1 At + +and + +1 A +---- +1 Ar + +groups. For further illustration, a print is given a preferred primary +classification of + +1, +- +1 + +although the ridge detail on the right thumb is so formed as to +resemble a whorl. The search is completed first in the preferred + +1 +- +1 + +primary classification and a reference search is then conducted in the + +1 +-- +17 + +primary. + +All ridge counts that are "line counts," i.e., when one more or one +less count would change the designation of the loop from I to O or +from S to M, etc., must be searched in both groups. For example, in a +print classified + +16 M 1 U III 10, +--------------- + M 1 U III + +if the ridge count of the right middle finger is 10 and the count in +the right thumb is 16 (as indicated by the key), the print would be +searched first as classified, then reference searches would be +conducted in the following groups: + + M 1 U IOI, L 1 U III, L 1 U IOI + --------- --------- and --------- + M 1 U III M 1 U III M 1 U III + +When there is doubt concerning the tracing of a whorl, it should be +treated in the same fashion. For example, if in the classification + +O 5 U +------ +I 17 U + +doubt existed as to whether the tracing of the right thumb might not +be a meeting tracing, the print would be searched as classified, and a +reference search would be conducted in + +M 5 U. +------ +I 17 U + +If there is no doubt concerning the ridge count used for the final, it +is enough to search out of the group only those prints containing a +final within 2 ridge counts on each side of the final on the print +being searched. When, however, there is doubt concerning the ridge +count of the final, the print should be searched 2 ridge counts on +each side of the two extremes of possibility. For example, if it were +possible for a final to be 6, 7, 8, or 9 ridge counts, the print +should be searched through that part of the group bearing finals of +from 4 through 11. + +The above explanation pertaining to the final also applies to the key. + +All prints bearing amputations should be referenced to the necessary +files containing prints other than amputations for reference searches. + +In instances where only one finger is amputated, reference searches +are conducted in all possible classifications, including all possible +ridge counts or tracings. For example, a print containing the +classification: + + AMP + + 4 S 1 U III 6 + ------------- + S 1 U III + +with the right index finger amputated, the left index finger being an +ulnar loop, would be searched first in the amputation group for the +classification, then reference searches would be conducted in the +following groups in the nonamputation files: + + S 1 U III S 1 T II S 17 W III + --------- --------- ---------- + S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III + + S 1 U OII S 1 R III S 17 W MII + --------- --------- ---------- + S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III + + S 1 A II S 1 R OII S 17 W OII + --------- --------- ---------- + S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III + +All prints bearing unprinted or badly crippled fingers are filed in +the nonamputation files, and reference searches are conducted in the +amputation group. + +For the purpose of determining if it is feasible to conduct reference +searches in all possible classifications, the method of referencing +amputations is applied to completely scarred patterns (Chapter titled +"Scarred Patterns--Amputations--Missing at Birth"). For example, a +print bearing the preferred classification: + + 13 O 17 W OOO 14 + ---------------- + L 17 U OOI + +with the left middle finger completely scarred, the right middle +finger being an ulnar loop with a ridge count of 13, would be searched +first in the group for that classification, then reference searches +would be conducted in the following groups: + + O 17 W OOO O 17 W O 19 W OOO + ---------- ------- ---------- + L 17 U OII L 17 Ur L 17 U OOI + + O 17 W O 19 W OOO + ------- ---------- + L 17 Ua L 17 U OII + + O 17 W O 19 W OOO + ------- ---------- + L 17 Ut L 17 U OMI + +The referencing of partial scars is a problem in which many factors +are present. A full explanation of the scars, their preferred +classifications and their references is made in the chapter, +"Classification of Scarred Patterns--Amputations--Missing at Birth." + +When the age extension is utilized and a "Reference" group and a +"Presumptive Dead" file are maintained, it is suggested that a general +allowance of 5 years be considered to allow for a discrepancy in +prints bearing the ages of 50 years or older. + +In the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation the various age +groups are as follows: + +1-54 "Regular" file. +55-74 "Reference" file. +75 and over "Presumptive Dead" file. + +Reference searches for the preceding groups are conducted in the +following manner: + +50-54 Referenced to "Reference" file. +70-74 Referenced to "Presumptive Dead" file and "Regular" file. +75-79 Referenced to "Reference" file and "Regular" file. +80 and older Referenced to "Regular" file only. + +If no age is given, it should be searched first in the regular file +and reference searches should be conducted in the "Reference" group +and the "Presumptive Dead" file. + +When separate male and female files are maintained, there may be doubt +as to the sex of a subject due to a discrepancy between the sex +indicated and the name and the description and picture. In such case +try to determine the sex from the description and the size of the +prints, then reference the print to the other file. A Photostat copy +can be made and placed in the other file until the true sex can be +determined. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +_How To Take Inked Fingerprints_ + + +The equipment required for taking fingerprints consists of an inking +plate, a cardholder, printer's ink (heavy black paste), and a roller. +This equipment is simple and inexpensive. + +In order to obtain clear, distinct fingerprints, it is necessary to +spread the printer's ink in a thin even coating on a small inking +plate. A roller similar to that used by printers in making galley +proofs is best adapted for use as a spreader. Its size is a matter +determined by individual needs and preferences; however, a roller +approximately 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter has been found to +be very satisfactory. These rollers may be obtained from a fingerprint +supply company or a printing supply house. + +[Illustration: 360. Fingerprint stand.] + +An inking plate may be made from a hard, rigid, scratch-resistant +metal plate 6 inches wide by 14 inches long or by inlaying a block of +wood with a piece of glass one-fourth of an inch thick, 6 inches wide, +and 14 inches long. The glass plate by itself would be suitable, but +it should be fixed to a base in order to prevent breakage. The inking +surface should be elevated to a sufficient height to allow the +subject's forearm to assume a horizontal position when the fingers are +being inked. For example, the inking plate may be placed on the edge +of a counter or a table of counter height. In such a position, the +operator has greater assurance of avoiding accidental strain or +pressure on the fingers and should be able to procure more uniform +impressions. The inking plate should also be placed so that the +subject's fingers which are not being printed can be made to "swing" +off the table to prevent their interfering with the inking process. A +fingerprint stand such as that shown in figure 360 may be purchased +from fingerprint supply companies. The stand is made of hardwood and +measures approximately 2 feet in length, 1 foot in height and width. +This stand contains a cardholder and a chrome strip which is used as +the inking plate. Two compartments used to store blank fingerprint +cards and supplies complete the stand. This equipment should be +supplemented by a cleansing fluid and necessary cloths so that the +subject's fingers may be cleaned before rolling and the inking plate +cleaned after using. Denatured alcohol and commercially available +cleaning fluids are suitable for this purpose. + +[Illustration: 361. Fingerprints properly taken.] + + PERSONAL |ROE RICHARD RANDOLPH |SEX + IDENTIFICATION | | MALE + |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME|-------------- + |----------------------------------|RACE +-------------------------| | W +FINGERPRINTS SUBMITTED BY| |-------------- + | |HT. |WT. + |----------------------------------|(Inches)| + |SIGNATURE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED | 71 | 170 + | |-------------- + | 1655 Grant Avenue |DATE OF BIRTH + |----------------------------------|6/6/42 +-------------------------| Chicago, Illinois |-------------- +FINGERPRINTED BY |--------------------------------- |HAIR |EYES + |RESIDENCE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED |BR |BR + |------------------------------------------------- +-------------------------|DATE FINGERPRINTED|LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK +PERSON TO BE NOTIFIED IN |8/12/62 | +CASE OF EMERGENCY |------------------|CLASS +NAME Thomas L. Roe |PLACE OF BIRTH | ------------------------- + -------------------- |Omaha, Neb. | +ADDRESS 1655 Grant Avenue|------------------| + ----------------- |CITIZENSHIP | + Chicago, Illinois|American |REF. +-------------------------|------------------| -------------------------- +See Reverse Side for |SCARS AND MARKS | +Further Instructions |Appendectomy | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT + | | MIDDLE | | LITTLE +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT MIDDLE|4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + | | | | +[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +LEFT FOUR FINGERS |LEFT |RIGHT |RIGHT FOUR FINGERS +TAKEN SIMULTANEOUSLY |THUMB |THUMB |TAKEN SIMULTANEOUSLY + | | | +[Illustration] |[Illustration]|[Illustration]|[Illustration] + +The fingerprints should be taken on 8- by 8-inch cardstock, as this +size has generally been adopted by law enforcement because of facility +in filing and desirability of uniformity. Figure 361 shows +fingerprints properly taken on one of the standard personnel +identification cards from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. From +this illustration, it is evident there are two types of impressions +involved in the process of taking fingerprints. The upper 10 prints +are taken individually--thumb, index, middle, ring, and little fingers +of each hand in the order named. These are called "rolled" +impressions, the fingers being rolled from side to side in order to +obtain all available ridge detail. The smaller impressions at the +bottom of the card are taken by simultaneously printing all of the +fingers of each hand and then the thumb without rolling. These are +called "plain" or "fixed" impressions and are used as a check upon the +sequence and accuracy of the rolled impressions. Rolled impressions +must be taken carefully in order to insure that an accurate +fingerprint classification can be obtained by examination of the +various patterns. It is also necessary that each focal point (cores +and all deltas) be clearly printed in order that accurate ridge counts +and tracings may be obtained. + +In preparing to take a set of fingerprints, a small daub of ink should +be placed on the inking glass or slab and thoroughly rolled until a +very thin, even film covers the entire surface. The subject should +stand in front of and at forearm's length from the inking plate. In +taking the rolled impressions, the side of the bulb of the finger is +placed upon the inking plate and the finger is rolled to the other +side until it faces the opposite direction. Care should be exercised +so the bulb of each finger is inked evenly from the tip to below the +first joint. By pressing the finger lightly on the card and rolling in +exactly the same manner, a clear rolled impression of the finger +surface may be obtained. It is better to ink and print each finger +separately beginning with the right thumb and then, in order, the +index, middle, ring, and little fingers. (Stamp pad ink, printing ink, +ordinary writing ink, or other colored inks are not suitable for use +in fingerprint work as they are too light or thin and do not dry +quickly.) + +If consideration is given the anatomical or bony structure of the +forearm when taking rolled impressions, more uniform impressions will +be obtained. The two principal bones of the forearm are known as the +radius and the ulna, the former being on the thumb side and the latter +on the little finger side of the arm. As suggested by its name, the +radius bone revolves freely about the ulna as a spoke of a wheel about +the hub. In order to take advantage of the natural movement in making +finger impressions, the hand should be rotated from the awkward to the +easy position. This requires that the thumbs be rolled toward and the +fingers away from the center of the subject's body. This process +relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed upon the completion of +rolling so that they may be lifted easily from the card without danger +of slipping which smudges and blurs the prints. Figures 362 and 363 +show the proper method of holding a finger for inking and printing a +rolled impression. + +The degree of pressure to be exerted in inking and taking rolled +impressions is important, and this may best be determined through +experience and observation. It is quite important, however, that the +subject be cautioned to relax and refrain from trying to help the +operator by exerting pressure as this prevents the operator from +gaging the amount needed. A method which is helpful in effecting the +relaxation of a subject's hand is that of instructing him to look at +some distant object and not to look at his hands. The person taking +the fingerprints should stand to the left of the subject when printing +the right hand, and to the right of the subject when printing the left +hand. In any case, the positions of both subject and operator should +be natural and relaxed if the best fingerprints are to be obtained. + +To obtain "plain" impressions, all the fingers of the right hand +should be pressed lightly upon the inking plate, then pressed +simultaneously upon the lower right hand corner of the card in the +space provided. The left hand should be similarly printed, and the +thumbs of both hands should be inked and printed, without rolling, in +the space provided. Figures 364 and 365 show the correct method of +taking plain impressions of the fingers and thumbs. + +[Illustration: 362. Proper method of holding finger.] + +[Illustration: 363. Proper method of printing rolled impressions.] + +[Illustration: 364. Proper method of taking plain impressions of +fingers.] + +[Illustration: 365. Proper method of taking plain impressions of +thumbs.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +_Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints_ + + +From time to time various problems arise concerning the taking of +inked impressions. It is believed that these problems can be divided +into four phases: + + - Mechanical operation + + - Temporary disabilities + + - Permanent disabilities + + - General + + +_Mechanical operation_ + +In order to take good fingerprints, the necessary equipment should be +maintained in a neat and orderly manner at all times. + +Poor impressions are usually caused by one of the following faults: + +1. The use of poor, thin, or colored ink, resulting in impressions +which are too light and faint, or in which the ink has run, +obliterating the ridges. The best results will be obtained by using +heavy black printer's ink, a paste which should not be thinned before +using. This ink will dry quickly and will not blur or smear with +handling. + +2. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of +foreign substances and perspiration, causing the appearance of false +markings and the disappearance of characteristics. Windshield cleaner, +gasoline, benzine, and alcohol are good cleansing agents, but any +fluid may be used. In warm weather each finger should be wiped dry of +perspiration before printing. + +3. Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to +ink the whole area from tip to below the first fissure. The result of +this is that the focal points of the impressions (the deltas or cores) +do not appear. The whole finger surface from joint to tip and from +side to side should appear. + +4. The use of too much ink, obliterating or obscuring the ridges. If +printer's ink is used, just a touch of the tube end to the inking +plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be spread to +a thin, even film by rolling. + +5. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be +counted or traced. + +6. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, +and false-appearing patterns. The fingers should be held lightly +without too much pressure. The subject should be warned not to try to +help but to remain passive. + +The illustrations numbered 366 through 377 show the results of these +faults and show also the same fingers taken in the proper manner. + + +_Illegible inked prints_ + +A brief review of the problems of classifying and filing a fingerprint +card in the FBI will help to clarify the FBI's policy concerning the +processing of "bad" inked fingerprints. + +The criminal fingerprint file contains the fingerprints of millions of +individuals. The complete classification formula is used. To obtain +it, each inked finger must show all the essential characteristics. +Because of the immense volume of prints it has become necessary to +extend the normal classification formula. + +To illustrate this point: + + dWdwc + xCdwc + O 32 W OOO 18 + I 32 W III + +In order to subdivide the 32 over 32 primary still further, the ridge +count of the whorl of the right little finger is used to obtain a +final classification. The extension above the normal classification +formula indicates that each whorl is classified as to the type; +namely, plain whorl (W), double loop (D), central pocket loop (C), and +accidental (X). Accordingly, it is not enough for the FBI +Identification Division to ascertain the general whorl pattern type, +but the deltas and core must show in order to obtain the ridge +tracing, the type of whorl, and also, in some instances, the ridge +count. The complete WCDX extension is outlined in Chapter VI. + +Figures 366 to 377 are some examples of improperly and properly taken +inked fingerprints. + +An examination of figure 372 shows that it is a whorl. In order to +classify the ridge tracing accurately, however, so that the +fingerprint card can be placed in the correct classification, the left +delta must show. The approximate ridge tracing for the whorl in figure +372 would be MEETING. An examination of the properly taken fingerprint +in figure 373 indicates that the correct ridge tracing is INNER. It +follows that the pattern in figure 372 would not have been placed in +the proper place in file. + +[Illustration: 366. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 367. Proper.] + +[Illustration: 368. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 369. Proper.] + +[Illustration: 370. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 371. Proper.] + +[Illustration: 372. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 373. Proper.] + +The correct whorl tracing is needed to obtain the complete +subsecondary and the major classifications. + +It may be noted that both deltas are present in figure 374. This would +enable the technical expert to ascertain the correct ridge tracing, +OUTER. In the core of the whorl, however, there is a heavy amount of +ink which makes it impossible to determine the type of whorl with any +degree of accuracy. If one were to hazard a guess, it would appear to +be a plain whorl. Actually, the correct type of whorl, a double loop, +is clearly visible in figure 375. + +It can be ascertained that the pattern in figure 376 is a loop, but an +accurate ridge count cannot be obtained because the left delta does +not appear. The approximate ridge count of this loop is 14 to 16. +This approximation is sufficient for a fingerprint expert to place +this loop in the "O" group of any finger of the subsecondary. The +correct ridge count of this loop is 19, and it appears in illustration +377. The approximate ridge count is not sufficient to place this print +properly in the large files of the FBI because in certain general +complete classification formulas the accurate ridge count is needed to +obtain an extension. These extensions use a smaller grouping of ridge +counts to form a valuation table, and in this way, differ from the +larger grouping of ridge counts which form the basis of the +subsecondary classification. These extensions are called the second +subsecondary and the special loop extension and are outlined in +chapter VI. + +[Illustration: 374. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 375. Proper.] + +[Illustration: 376. Improper.] + +[Illustration: 377. Proper.] + +There are two additional points which illustrate the FBI's need for +the delta, ridges, and core to show clearly in loops. The first point +is set forth: the ridge count of the loop may be needed to obtain the +key classification. The key classification is an actual ridge count, +and no valuation table is used to obtain a subdivision. The key +classification is used as an integral part of the fingerprint filing +system. The second point is as follows: the ridge count may be needed +to obtain the final classification. The final classification is an +actual ridge count, and no valuation table is used to obtain a +subdivision. The final classification is used as an integral part of +the fingerprint filing system. + +The following are just a few examples to illustrate the completeness +of the classification formula used in the FBI fingerprint file: + +12 M 9 R OIO 11 + + S 1 R IOI + +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final + +6 17 aW IIO 9 + + 1 U OII +Key Primary Small letter Subsecondary Final + Secondary + +8 S 1 Ua II 6 + S 1 U III + +Key Major Primary Small letter (Subsecondary Final + Secondary Extension) + + SML (Second + SML Subsecondary) +5 0 5 U IOO 14 + + I 17 U IOO + +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final + + 245 (Special Loop + 332 Extension) +14 M 1 U IOO 16 + + S 1 U OII + +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final + +15 I 29 W IOO 19 + + I 28 W OOI + +Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final + +These several examples should help to illustrate the FBI's extended +classification formulas for classifying and filing fingerprints. The +larger collection of fingerprints must of necessity call for a more +detailed analysis of all fingerprint characteristic details. The +closer examination to obtain further fingerprint subdivisions is +dependent on ten legible inked impressions. + +The identification officer will understand the problems of accurately +classifying and filing fingerprint cards. He knows there is little +value in placing a fingerprint card in the FBI's files with only an +approximate or an inaccurate classification. + +Every fingerprint card filed in the FBI's file is of value to the +particular law enforcement agency which forwarded it, as well as to +all other law enforcement agencies which rely on its being correctly +classified and filed. + + +_Temporary disabilities_ + +There are temporary disabilities affecting an individual's hand which +are sometimes beyond the control of the identification officer. These +can be fresh cuts, or wounds, bandaged fingers or finger, occupational +(carpenters, bricklayers, etc.) blisters, and excessive perspiration. +Children, whose ridges are small and fine, would also come under this +heading. Extreme care should be exercised in fingerprinting the +aforementioned. + +An indication on the fingerprint card to the effect "fresh cut, +bandaged" is not sufficient to file the fingerprint card. It is +obvious that a fingerprint card bearing these notations cannot be +properly classified and filed. The same situation would occur if there +were a blister on an individual's finger. The blister temporarily +disfigures the ridge detail. When an injury is temporary, the prints, +if at all possible, should not be taken until after the injury has +healed. + +Occupational problems (bricklayers, carpenters, etc.) are definitely a +challenge to the identification officer. In some instances, by means +of softening agents (oils and creams), it is possible to obtain +legible inked impressions. It is further suggested that in these cases +a very small amount of ink should be used on the inking plate. + +Excessive perspiration can be controlled to some extent by the +identification officer. Excessive perspiration causes the inked +impressions to be indistinct. It is suggested in these cases to wipe +the finger with a cloth and then immediately ink the finger and roll +it on the fingerprint card. This process should be followed with each +finger. It is also suggested that possibly the fingers could be wiped +with alcohol, benzine, or similar fluid which would act as a drying +agent. + +In all the above situations, if it is not possible to accurately +classify and file the fingerprint card, the name appearing on the card +will be searched in the alphabetical files and then returned to the +law-enforcement agency. + + +_Permanent disabilities_ + +Another phase involves permanent disabilities which can in most cases +be controlled by the identification officer. These can be lack of +fingers (born without), amputations, crippled fingers (bent, broken), +deformities (webbed, extra fingers), and old age. + +With respect to lack of fingers, it should be noted that some +individuals are born without certain fingers. The notation "missing" +is not satisfactory because it does not sufficiently explain the +correct situation. It is suggested that "missing at birth" or some +similar notation be made in the individual fingerprint block on the +card. A proper notation concerning this situation will prevent the +fingerprint card from being returned. Figures 378 and 379 illustrate +temporary and permanent disabilities. + +[Illustration: 378. Temporary disability.] + +[Illustration: 379. Permanent disability.] + +Concerning amputations, it is suggested that a proper notation to this +effect appear in the individual fingerprint block or blocks. It is +suggested that if a portion of the first joint of a finger is +amputated, the finger should be inked and printed. A notation +concerning this fact should be made on the fingerprint card in the +individual fingerprint block. + +In those cases where all of the fingers are amputated, the inked +footprints should be obtained. + +The handling of crippled fingers and certain deformities can be +discussed in a group because they generally present the same problems. +It is not sufficient in all cases to indicate "broken," "bent," +"crippled." If the fingers are bent or crippled so that they are +touching the palm and cannot be moved, a notation to this effect +should be on the fingerprint card in the proper individual fingerprint +block. However, it is believed that these extreme cases are rare. It +is suggested that the special inking devices used for taking the +prints of deceased individuals be used in taking inked impressions of +bent or crippled fingers. + +[Illustration: 380. The spatula, roller, and curved holder used for +taking the inked prints of bent or crippled fingers.] + +This equipment, which will be discussed more fully in the section on +printing deceased persons, consists of spatula, small roller, and a +curved holder for the individual finger block. Figure 380 shows the +spatula, roller, and curved holder. It should be further noted in +figure 380 that there are a strip of the entire hand of the +fingerprint card and also individual finger blocks cut from the +fingerprint card. Each of these types can be used in connection with +the curved holder. + +Each crippled finger is taken as a separate unit and then the finger +block pasted on a fingerprint card. In figure 381, note the use of the +spatula for applying the ink to a bent or crippled finger; and in +figure 382, observe the use of the curved holder for taking the +"rolled" impression of a bent or crippled finger. + +Old age has been placed under permanent disability only for discussion +purposes. The problem is not encountered frequently in taking the +fingerprints of individuals who are arrested. The situation of +crippled fingers due to old age may be met, and it can be handled as +previously suggested. In most cases the problems arise because of the +very faint ridges of the individual. It is believed that in the +majority of cases, legibly inked prints can be taken by using a very +small amount of ink on the inking plate and by using little pressure +in the rolling of the fingers. + +[Illustration: 381. The use of the spatula in the application of ink +to the finger.] + +[Illustration: 382. The use of the curved holder for taking the +"rolled" impression.] + + +_Deformities_ + +If a subject has more than 10 fingers, as occasionally happens, the +thumbs and the next 4 fingers to them should be printed, and any +fingers left over should be printed on the other side of the card with +a notation made to the effect that they are extra fingers. When a +person with more than 10 fingers has an intentional amputation +performed, it is invariably the extra finger on the little finger side +which is amputated. + +[Illustration: 383] + +It also happens, not infrequently, that a subject will have two or +more fingers webbed or grown together, as in figures 383 and 384, +making it impossible to roll such fingers on the inside. Such fingers +should be rolled, however, as completely as possible, and a notation +made to the effect that they are joined. + +Split thumbs, i.e., thumbs having two nail joints, as in figure 385, +are classified as if the joint toward the outside of the hand were not +present. In other words the inner joint is used, and no consideration +whatever is given to the outer joint. + +[Illustration: 384] + +[Illustration: 385] + + +_General_ + +These problems have dealt with the mechanical or operational +processes. However, there are other problems dealing with the +completing of the descriptive information. The fingerprint card may be +returned because of the lack of information in the spaces provided, +such as name, sex, race, height, weight, etc. Any discrepancies in +this information may necessitate the return of the fingerprint card. + +The success and value of the FBI's fingerprint files to all law +enforcement agencies are dependent, in a large measure, on the legibly +inked fingerprints taken by law enforcement agencies. + +Figure 386 shows an enlarged portion of the bulb of a finger revealing +the microscopic structure of the friction skin. The epidermis consists +of two main layers, namely, the stratum corneum, which covers the +surface, and the stratum mucosum, which is just beneath the covering +surface. The stratum mucosum is folded under the surface so as to form +ridges which will run lengthwise and correspond to the surface +ridges. However, these are twice as numerous since the deeper ridges +which correspond to the middle of the surface ridges alternate with +smaller ones which correspond to the furrows. The sweat pores run in +single rows along the ridges and communicate through the sweat ducts +with the coil sweat glands which are below the entire epidermis. The +friction ridges result from the fusion in rows of separate epidermic +elements, such as the dot shown on the left. Generally speaking, when +an individual bruises or slightly cuts the outer layer or stratum +corneum of the bulb of the finger, the ridges will not be permanently +defaced. However, if a more serious injury is inflicted on the bulb of +the finger, thereby damaging the stratum mucosum, the friction skin +will heal, but not in its original formation. The serious injury will +result in a permanent scar appearing on the bulb of the finger. + +[Illustration: 386] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +_Problems and Practices in Fingerprinting the Dead_ + + +Each year new graves are opened in potter's fields all over the United +States. Into many of them are placed the unknown dead--those who have +lived anonymously or who, through accident or otherwise, lose their +lives under such circumstances that identification seems impossible. +In a majority of such cases, after the burial of the body, no single +item or clue remains to effect subsequent identification. As a result, +active investigation usually ceases and the cases are forgotten, +unless, of course, it is definitely established that a murder has been +committed. + +Reliance is too often placed on visual inspection in establishing the +identity of the deceased. This includes having the remains viewed by +individuals seeking to locate a lost friend or relative. The body is +often decomposed. If death was caused by burning, the victim may be +unrecognizable. As a result of many fatal accidents the deceased is +often mutilated, particularly about the face, so that visual +identification is impossible. Yet, in many cases, the only attempt at +identification is by having persons view the remains and the personal +effects. + +The recorded instances of erroneous visual identifications are +numerous. In one case a body, burned beyond recognition, was +identified by relatives as that of a 21-year-old man; yet fingerprints +later proved that the corpse was that of a 55-year-old man. + +Fingerprints have frequently been instrumental in establishing the +correct identity of persons killed in airplane crashes and incorrectly +"identified" by close relatives. + +In one instance a woman found dead in a hotel room was "positively" +identified by several close friends. The body was shipped to the +father of the alleged deceased in another state where again it was +"identified" by close friends. Burial followed. Approximately one +month later the persons who had first identified the body as that of +their friend were sitting in a tavern when the "dead" woman walked +into the room. Authorities were immediately advised of the error; they +in turn advised the authorities in the neighboring state of the +erroneous identification and steps were taken immediately to rectify +the mistake. After permission had been granted by the State Health +Board to exhume the body of the dead woman, fingerprints were taken +and copies were forwarded to the FBI Identification Division. The +finger impressions were searched through the fingerprint files and the +true identity of the deceased was established. + +During a 12-month period, the FBI Identification Division received +the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead. Of these, 1,298, or almost 76 +percent, were identified. The remaining 410 were not identified simply +because fingerprints of these individuals were not in the FBI files. +It should be noted that in these 1,708 cases, it was possible to +secure legible fingerprints of the deceased in the usual manner by +inking the fingers in those instances in which decomposition had not +injured the ridge detail. + +[Illustration: 387. Field equipment for disaster identification.] + +In addition to the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead, the +Identification Division received the fingers and/or the hands of 85 +unknown dead individuals. In these cases, decomposition was so far +advanced that it was not possible to secure inked fingerprints in the +regular manner. Of these, 68 bodies, or 80 percent of the group, were +identified. Of the 17 unidentified, the fingerprints of 14 were not in +the FBI files. In three cases decomposition was so far advanced that +all ridge detail had been destroyed. + +In order to emphasize what can be accomplished, it is pointed out that +in those cases in which hands and fingers were submitted, the time +which elapsed from death until the specimens were received ranged from +a week to 3 years. Incredible as it may seem, it has been possible to +secure identifiable impressions 3 years after death. + +These statistics of achievement in the field of identifying unknown +dead re-emphasize the fact that in all cases involving the +identification of a deceased person, fingerprints should be used as +the medium for establishing a conclusive and positive identification. + +Generally speaking, in the course of their work fingerprint operators +find it necessary to take the impressions of three classes of deceased +persons. + +They are: + + - Those who have died recently, in which cases the task is + relatively simple. + + - Those dead for a longer period, in which cases difficulty + is experienced due to pronounced stiffening of the fingers, + the early stages of decomposition, or both. + + - Those cases in which extreme difficulty is encountered + because of maceration, desiccation, or advanced decay of the + skin. + +These problems will be considered separately. + + +_1. Fingerprinting the Newly Dead._ + +When the fingers are flexible it is often possible to secure inked +fingerprint impressions of a deceased person through the regular +inking process on a standard fingerprint card. Experience has proved +that this task can be made easier if the deceased is laid face down +and palms down on a table (fig. 388). + +In all cases where inked impressions are to be made, care should be +exercised to see that the fingers are clean and dry before inking. If +necessary, wash the digits with soap and water and dry thoroughly. + +In the event difficulty is encountered in trying to procure +fingerprints by the regular method, it may prove more convenient to +cut the 10 "squares" numbered for the rolled impressions from a +fingerprint card. After the finger is inked, the square is rolled +around the finger without letting it slip. Extreme caution should be +exercised to see that each square bears the correct fingerprint +impression. After all the inked impressions are properly taken, the +ten squares bearing the impressions are pasted or stapled to a +standard fingerprint card in their proper positions, i.e., right +thumb, right index, right middle, etc. Whenever possible the "plain" +or "simultaneous" impressions should also be taken. + +In some cases it will be found necessary to obtain or improvise a tool +similar to a broad-bladed putty knife or spatula to be used as an +inking instrument. The ink is rolled evenly and thinly on the knife or +spatula and applied to the finger by passing the inked knife or +spatula around it. The tool, of course, replaces the usual glass +inking slab or plate, the use of which is extremely difficult or +awkward when printing a deceased person. + + +_2. Fingerprinting the Dead, Where Stiffening of the Fingers and/or +Early Decomposition Are Present._ + +This second group consists of cases in which the hands of the deceased +are clenched, or the finger tips are wrinkled, or decomposition has +begun, and/or where there are combinations of these three conditions. +Cases of this sort may necessitate cutting off the skin. Legal +authority is necessary before cutting a corpse. Such authority may be +granted by state law or by an official having authority to grant such +a right. + +[Illustration: 388] + +In cases where rigor mortis (stiffening of the muscles) has set in and +the fingers are tightly clenched, the fingers may be forcibly +straightened by "breaking the rigor." This is done by holding the hand +of the deceased person firmly with one hand, grasping the finger to be +straightened with the four fingers of the other hand and placing the +thumb, which is used as a lever, on the knuckle of the finger and +forcing it straight (fig. 389). The inking tool and "squares," as +previously explained, are then used to secure the fingerprint. + +In the event the rigor cannot be completely overcome, it will be most +helpful to improvise or secure a spoon-shaped tool for holding the cut +squares or cut strips while printing the fingers, similar to the tool +mentioned briefly in the discussion of crippled fingers. This tool, +somewhat resembling a gouge without the sharp edge, should have a +handle, a concave end, and a frame or clamp to hold the cardboard +squares or strips. In Figure 390, one type of tool is illustrated. +This tool eliminates the necessity of rolling the deceased's finger, +since the "square" assumes the concave shape of the tool, and the +gentle pressure applied to the inked finger when it is brought in +contact with the square results in a "rolled" impression without +actually rolling the finger. + +[Illustration: 389] + +Another problem encountered in this second group includes cases in +which the tips of the fingers are fairly pliable and intact, yet due +to the presence of wrinkles in the skin, complete impressions cannot +be obtained. This condition can be corrected by the injection of a +tissue builder, procurable from a dealer in undertaker's supplies. If +this is not available, glycerin or water may be used. + +The method is simple. Injection of the tissue builder, glycerin, or +water, is accomplished by the use of a hypodermic syringe. The +hypodermic needle is injected at the joint of the finger up into the +tip of the finger, care being used to keep the needle below the skin +surface (fig. 391). The solution is injected until the finger "bulbs" +are rounded out, after which they are inked and printed. + +Occasionally, in stubborn cases, entry of the needle at the joint and +injection of the fluid will not completely fill the finger bulb. It +may be necessary, therefore, to inject the fluid at other points of +the finger such as the extreme tip or sides, until suitable results +are achieved (fig. 392). The tissue builder has a distinct advantage +over glycerin or water, inasmuch as the builder hardens after a short +time and is not lost, whereas glycerin and water sometimes seep out +when pressure is applied in printing. To offset seepage at the point +where the hypodermic needle is injected, whenever possible, tie a +piece of string tightly around the finger just above the point of +entry of the needle. + +When the tissue builder is purchased, a solvent for cleaning the +hypodermic syringe and needle should be acquired, inasmuch as the +builder will harden in the syringe and needle. + +[Illustration: 390] + +[Illustration: 391] + +[Illustration: 392] + +Those cases in which decomposition in its early stage is present +belong in this group also. Frequently, the outer layer of skin has +begun to peel from the fingers. A careful examination should be made +to determine if the peeling skin is intact or if a part of it has been +lost. If the skin is in one piece, an effort should be made to secure +prints just as though it were attached normally to the finger. Or, if +it is deemed advisable, the skin may be peeled off in one piece, +placed over the finger of the operator, and inked and printed as +though it were his own finger. + +Occasionally the first layer of skin is missing. There remains the +dermis or second layer of skin which is also of value for +identification purposes. This second layer would be dealt with as +though it were the outside skin, using the techniques described above. +The ridge detail of the second layer of skin is less pronounced than +that of the outer skin, however, and more attention and care are +needed in order to obtain suitable impressions. + +So far this discussion has dealt with the taking of impressions of +fingers when the flesh is fairly firm and the ridge detail intact. A +different problem arises when the fingers are in various stages of +decay. The techniques of treating the fingers in such cases vary +greatly, depending upon the condition of the fingers with respect to +decomposition, desiccation, or maceration. + + +_3. Fingerprinting the Dead in Difficult Cases._ + +In cases involving badly decomposed bodies the first thing to do is to +examine the fingers to see if all are present. If they are not, an +effort should be made to determine whether the missing finger or +fingers or even a hand was amputated during the person's lifetime, or +whether the loss was due to other causes such as destruction by animal +or marine life. Deductions from this examination should be noted on +the fingerprint record. This point is made in view of the fact that in +the fingerprint files of the FBI and some police departments, the +fingerprint cards reflecting amputations are filed separately. Noting +amputations may lessen to a great extent a search through the +fingerprint files. + +In making the initial examination, attention should be given to the +removal of dirt, silt, grease and other foreign matter from the +fingers. Soap and water are good cleansing agents. So is xylene, a +chemical which will readily clean grease and fatty matter from the +fingers. Good results can be achieved by utilizing a child's +soft-bristled toothbrush in cases where the skin is fairly firm. The +brushing should be done lightly and the strokes should follow the +ridge design in order to clean not only the ridges but the depressions +as well. In the event that the skin is not firm enough to use the +toothbrush, a cotton swab may be used. The fingers should be wiped +very lightly with either soap and water or xylene, always following +the ridge contours. + +At this point the fingers are again examined to determine the +condition they are in, based upon the circumstances in which the body +was found. Study and actual experience have shown that there are three +general types of conditions to be considered: Decomposition or +putrefaction, prevalent in bodies found in brush or buried in earth; +desiccation or mummification (that is, dried out), noted in bodies +which have been found in the open (ridge detail not in contact with +the ground) in dry protected places, or bodies subjected to severe +heat; and the group involving maceration (water soaking), which +ordinarily results from being immersed in water. + +The degree of decomposition, desiccation, or maceration varies from a +comparatively early stage to an extremely advanced stage. Accordingly, +each case must be considered individually. For example, what is done +successfully in one case of desiccation may not show favorable results +in another. Hence, the techniques outlined below point out generally +what can be done, and has been done, with success. + +[Illustration: 393] + +When a body is found, the hands usually will be tightly clenched. The +first problem will be to straighten the fingers. If rigor mortis has +set in and an effort to straighten the fingers as previously explained +fails, the difficulty can be overcome easily. Using a scalpel, make a +deep cut at the second joint on the inner side of each of the four +fingers. They can now be straightened with the application of force +(fig. 393). The thumb, if it is cramped or bent, can generally be +straightened by making a deep cut between the thumb and the index +finger. These incisions are made for the obvious purpose of examining +the fingers to determine if there is any ridge detail. Before this +fact can be definitely ascertained it may be necessary to cleanse the +pattern areas with soap and water or xylene, as previously explained. + +[Illustration: 394] + + +_Advanced decomposition_ + +If the case is one involving decomposition, the operator is confronted +with the problem of dealing with flesh which is rotted or putrefied. +The flesh may be soft or flabby and very fragile. If this is so, an +examination is made of the finger tips to see if the outer skin is +present. If the outer skin is present and intact, it may be possible, +using extreme care, to ink and print in the regular manner. Sometimes, +the outer skin, although present, will be too soft and fragile to ink +and roll in the regular way. In such cases, when the ridge detail is +discernible, the skin, if it is easily removed from the finger, or the +finger itself may be cut off at the second joint and placed in a 10- +to 15-percent solution of formaldehyde for approximately an hour to +harden it. Skin placed in a formaldehyde solution usually turns a +grayish white and becomes firm. However, it will be brittle and may +split if not handled carefully. The skin is placed in the solution +only until it hardens sufficiently, after which it is removed and +carefully wiped dry with a piece of cloth. Then the skin, placed over +the operator's own thumb or index finger and held in place by his +other hand, is inked and rolled as though the operator were printing +his own finger. If a legible print is not obtainable in this manner, +the operator should examine the underside of the skin. + +[Illustration: 395] + +In many instances, where the ridge detail on the outer surface has +been destroyed or is not discernible, the ridge detail is clearly +visible on the underside (fig. 394). If this is the case, the skin is +inverted (turned inside out) very carefully to prevent splitting or +breaking and then is inked and printed in the usual way. It must be +borne in mind, however, that when the underside of the skin is printed +the resulting impression will be in reverse color and position; that +is, the ink is actually adhering to what would be furrows of the +pattern when viewed from the proper or outer side. If it is deemed +inadvisable to try to invert or turn the skin inside out for fear of +damaging it, a photograph of the inner ridge detail is made and the +negative is printed to give an "as is" position photograph for proper +classification and comparison purposes. In order to secure good +photographs of the ridge detail it may be advisable to trim the skin, +flatten it out between two pieces of glass, and photograph it in that +position (fig. 395). + +When the entire finger is placed in the solution during the hardening +process, the skin, in absorbing the formalin solution, may swell and +come loose from the finger. Should this occur, the skin must be +removed carefully and the procedure outlined above followed. If, +however, the skin still adheres to the finger and is not too wrinkled, +ink is applied and prints made. Should the skin be too wrinkled to +secure a satisfactory impression, consideration is given to the +injection of the tissue builder under the skin as previously +mentioned, in order to distend the pattern area. If successful, the +finger is inked and printed. This, of course, can be done only when +the skin is intact. + +Should part of the skin be destroyed to the extent that tissue builder +cannot be injected effectively, while examination discloses that the +pattern area is present but wrinkled, cut off the entire pattern area +from the joint to the tip of the finger (fig. 396). Care must be +exercised to insure getting the complete fingerprint pattern as well +as cutting deep enough to avoid injury to the skin. + +[Illustration: 396] + +After excision, the flesh is carefully and meticulously removed from +the inside by scraping, cutting, and trimming until only the skin +remains, or until the specimen is so thin it can be flattened out to +remove most of the wrinkles. If the skin is fairly pliable, the +operator should attempt to place it over one of his own fingers and +try several prints. If the prints secured are not suitable, the piece +of skin (exert care to avoid breaking or splitting) is flattened out +between two pieces of glass and photographed (figs. 397, 398, 399). + +[Illustration: 397. Inked print made from the finger of deceased +before treatment.] + +[Illustration: 398. Inked print made after skin was removed and +treated.] + +[Illustration: 399. Photograph of ridge detail of skin flattened +between two pieces of glass.] + +The foregoing outline covers the procedures followed in cases +involving decomposition in which the outer skin is still present. In +many instances of decomposition the outer skin has been destroyed or +is in such a condition as to be of no value. It must be emphasized +again that the second layer of skin possesses the same ridge detail as +the outer layer and this, though finer and less pronounced, is just as +effective for identification purposes. + +If, from examination, it is apparent that the outer layer of skin is +missing and the second layer is intact, the finger should be cleansed, +dried, inked, and printed in the usual manner. If the specimen is +wrinkled but pliable it may be possible to inject tissue builder, as +previously mentioned, to round out the finger, then ink and print it. + +Occasionally, some of the outer skin is still attached but is of no +value. This skin should be removed by carefully picking or prying it +off with a scalpel in such a manner as not to destroy or injure the +ridge detail of the second layer. After the outer fragments have been +removed, the second layer is cleaned, inked, and printed. In the event +the resultant impressions are not suitable for classification and +identification purposes, the most likely reason for it is that the +ridge detail is too fine to print even though there are few if any +wrinkles in it. If this is the case, the finger should be cut off at +the second joint and photographed. Should wrinkles which cannot be +removed by injecting tissue builder, and which also preclude the +taking of suitable photographs, be present, the pattern area is cut +off with a scalpel from the first joint to the tip. The flesh is then +cut and scraped out as previously described, until the specimen is +thin enough to flatten out between two pieces of glass which may be +held together by scotch tape. The skin is then photographed. + +Occasionally, even after the flattening process it will be noted in +the ground glass of the camera that the skin may be seen plainly but +the ridge detail is very poor. This difficulty may be due to the poor +contrast of the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting. If so, +it can be overcome by scraping the skin to transparency and then +photographing it by transmitted light (i.e., passing light through the +skin). Sometimes, due to the condition of the skin, even though it is +tissue thin, it will not be transparent. This can be overcome by +soaking the skin in xylene for a few minutes and then photographing it +by transmitted light while it is still impregnated with the xylene. If +the substance dries too fast to permit proper photographing, the skin +should be photographed while immersed in the xylene. (See subtopic of +this chapter pertaining to "general photography.") Of course, after +the skin has been photographed the negative should be printed to give +a reverse position so that the print will be comparable with inked +impressions on fingerprint cards. + + +_Desiccation and charring_ + +The problem confronting the fingerprint examiner in treating fingers +which are desiccated or dried and shriveled is that of distending and +softening the skin. Desiccated fingers are generally found to have the +outer layer of skin intact and the ridge detail fairly clear. However, +due to the shrinking, numerous wrinkles will be present, and as the +drying process continues the skin and flesh harden until the fingers +become almost as hard as stone. + +It is sometimes possible to distend or swell the flesh by utilizing a +1- to 3-percent solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, +sometimes referred to as caustic potash. As a matter of caution, this +process should be tried with one finger before using it for the +remaining fingers. This point of caution is made because of the +reaction of the potassium or sodium hydroxide, which is actually one +of destruction. While absorption and swelling of the flesh occur, the +disintegrating action of the fluid may result in total destruction of +the flesh. + +The finger to be distended is cut from the hand at the second joint +and placed in the hydroxide. When it has resumed its normal size by +the absorption of the solution, it is inked and printed. There is no +set time for this process. The procedure may require a few hours or as +much as several days until suitable results are obtained. + +After the finger has been in the solution for about 30 minutes, it +should be removed and examined in order to note the extent of the +swelling and the reaction of the flesh to the solution. If no material +change is noted, the finger is returned to the solution. A close watch +is maintained and the finger is examined from time to time. + +The solution may cause thin layers of skin to peel from the finger. +Should this occur, the loose skin is carefully scraped off and the +finger rinsed in water for a few minutes. It is then returned to the +hydroxide for continuation of the process. + +If, during the course of an inspection, it is seen that the flesh is +becoming too soft, the finger should be placed in a 1- to 3-percent +solution of formaldehyde or alcohol for several minutes in order to +harden it. + +If, after several hours in the hydroxide, the finger has not reached +its normal size, it should be placed in water for an hour or two. This +has a tendency to hasten the swelling. When the finger is removed, it +will be noted that a film has coated the surface. This coating is +carefully scraped off and the finger is replaced in the hydroxide +solution for an hour or so, again scraped if coated, soaked in clean +water, etc. This process of alternating from solution to water, +scraping, and replacing in hydroxide is continued until desirable +results are obtained. The finger is then inked and printed. + +The above process will so saturate the finger with solution that it +may be too wet to print properly. Accordingly, the finger may be +dipped into acetone for several seconds, removed, and be permitted to +dry, after which it is inked and printed. + +The complete process may take from several hours to as much as 10 days +to secure suitable results. If the final results of the above +procedure are satisfactory with the one finger being tested, the +remaining fingers are given the same treatment. Care must be taken to +identify each finger properly as to right index, right middle, etc., +to avoid any mixup. + +In the event that the reaction of the solution on the first finger +treated is not satisfactory and the operator feels that it would be +futile to continue the process, the finger should be removed from the +solution immediately, washed carefully in water, and placed in +formaldehyde to harden sufficiently for it to be handled without +causing injury to the ridges. The pattern area is cut off in such a +manner that sufficient surrounding surface permits the skin to be +trimmed. Then from the cut side the skin is carefully scraped and cut +to remove the excess flesh. While the cutting and scraping are being +done, from time to time the skin should be soaked in xylene and +massaged for purposes of softening to remove wrinkles. When the skin +is thin enough and sufficiently pliable, the operator places the skin +on his own finger, inks and prints it in the usual manner. + +If the results are satisfactory, the same procedure is followed with +the remaining fingers. In the event the resultant inked prints are not +suitable, the skin should be scraped until it is sufficiently thin to +be flattened between two pieces of glass and photographed. + +Here again it is pointed out that should there be a poor contrast +between the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting, the skin is +scraped as thin as possible without tearing and it is then +photographed by transmitted light. + +There are also included, as cases of desiccation, bodies which have +been burned or subjected to severe heat. Often there are cases where +the skin has become loose but is hard and crisp, or where the finger +has been severely burned and is reduced almost to carbon, yet is firm. +In these instances the ridge detail usually has not been destroyed. + +When a body which has been severely burned is located, the problems of +identification should be anticipated. Accordingly, before the body is +removed, a careful examination of the fingers should be made in order +to determine if the removal would, in any way, cause damage to the +fingers. Should it be felt that because of the condition of the body +removal would cause injury to the ridge detail, securing of +fingerprints at the scene, or possibly the cutting off of the hands or +fingers to avoid destruction of the skin, should be considered. An +examination of the fingers may disclose that the outer skin is +hardened and is partially loosened from the flesh. It is sometimes +possible, by twisting back and forth, to remove this outer skin +intact. If this is done, the operator may place the skin on his own +finger, ink and print in the usual way. + +If the skin is intact on the finger and is not wrinkled, of course +there is no problem and the usual method is employed to secure +impressions. + +Should wrinkles be present and the skin pliable, tissue builder is +injected into the bulbs, which are then inked and printed. + +In the event the wrinkles cannot be removed in this fashion, the +pattern area is cut off and the excess flesh scraped out as before. +While the scraping and cutting are being accomplished, the skin should +be soaked and massaged in xylene to soften. The skin is then placed on +the operator's finger, inked and printed. Should prints made in this +manner be unsatisfactory, the next recourse is photography. + +In some instances the fingers of burned bodies will be charred. Such +cases require very careful handling as there is a probability of +destroying or disturbing the ridge detail through mistreatment. In +these instances the procedure is determined by the degree of charring. +In extreme cases the only method of recording is by photographing, +using side lighting to secure the proper contrast of ridges and +depressions. Obviously, no attempt should be made to ink and roll as +the pressure necessary to secure the prints would cause the skin to +crumble. + +In instances where the charring has not reached the extreme stage the +procedures previously set forth should be applied; that is, treatment +of the skin by cleaning, softening, inking and printing, or, finally, +by photographing (fig. 400). + +[Illustration: 400. Photograph of charts used in actual case to +establish the identity of a charred body, victim of murder. Chart A +shows skin removed from one of the fingers treated and photographed. +Chart B shows an inked impression of the same finger during victim's +life.] + + +_Water-soaked fingers_ + +The third and final type of case which may confront the identification +officer concerns the problem of maceration, that is, long immersion of +the fingers in water. + +One of the cardinal rules for securing legible impressions is that the +fingers must be dry. Accordingly, in these cases it becomes a matter +of drying the fingers in addition to contending with other +difficulties. Usually the skin on the fingers absorbs water, swells +and loosens from the flesh within a few hours after immersion. + +If an examination discloses the skin to be water-soaked, wrinkled and +pliable, but intact, the first step is to cleanse the skin carefully +as previously described. Next, wipe the fingertip with alcohol, +benzine or acetone, waiting a few seconds for it to dry. The skin is +pulled or drawn tight across the pattern area so that a large wrinkle +is formed on the back of the finger, then the bulb is inked and +printed. + +If the skin is broken and hanging loose, but its pattern area is +intact, it should be removed from the finger, cleansed and placed in +alcohol or benzine (not acetone) for about a minute, then stretched +carefully over the operator's finger so as to remove any wrinkles. It +may then be printed. + +Sometimes the skin is intact on the finger but so wrinkled and hard +that it is not possible to draw it tight for inking. In this case it +may be advisable to inject tissue builder to round out the bulbs for +inking and printing. Should this fail, the ridge detail is +photographed on the finger; or the skin is cut off, flattened between +two pieces of glass and then photographed. Here, again, it must be +pointed out that when the ridge detail does not show on the surface of +the outer skin the underside should be examined, for many times the +detail can be seen clearly. Should this be true, of course, the +underside is photographed. + +In cases where it is noted that the outer skin is gone and the finger +is not saturated with water, it is possible to dry the surface +sufficiently for inking and printing purposes by rolling the finger on +a blotter. If this fails, the finger is wiped off with a piece of +cloth which has been saturated with alcohol, benzine or acetone, after +which it may be inked and printed. + + +_Drying the fingers_ + +In many instances it will be found that the outer skin is gone and the +fingers themselves are saturated with water. A quick method of drying +out the fingers is to place them in full strength acetone for +approximately 30 minutes. The fingers are then placed in xylene for +about an hour or until the xylene has overcome the reaction of the +acetone. After removal from the xylene the fingers should be placed on +a blotter until the surface of the fingers appears dry. They are then +ready to be inked and printed. + +It will be noted in this procedure that when the fingers are removed +from the acetone they dry and harden in a matter of seconds. The +purpose of the xylene is to resoften the fingers. After this +treatment, should the resulting inked impressions be unsuitable for +classification purposes, the ridge detail should be photographed. + + +_X-ray photography_ + +The use of X-ray photographs (radiography) has been advocated by some +for purposes of recording the ridge details in decomposed, desiccated, +or macerated cases. Briefly, the procedure involves the covering of +the fingers with heavy salts such as bismuth or lead carbonate, in a +thin, even film over the pattern area and then, by the use of the +X-ray, reproducing the ridge detail. This procedure necessitates the +use of X-ray equipment and a technician skilled in making radiographs. +It is, therefore, an expensive operation. The results of the +radiograph in no way compensate for the expense, time, and skill +required inasmuch as in those cases where many wrinkles and creases +appear in the fingers, especially desiccated specimens, the results +have been very poor. In instances where there are no wrinkles or only +a few, and where the creases are not too deep, the ridge detail is +reproduced very well in the radiograph. In these cases, however, it is +usually possible to secure impressions by inking and rolling in the +regular way or, should this fail, ordinary photography will certainly +give satisfactory results. For economical and practical purposes the +use of the X-ray is not recommended. + + +_General photography_ + +In the foregoing instances in which it has been impossible to obtain +suitable inked impressions it will be noted that the last resort has +always been photography. In all probability in advanced cases of +decomposition, desiccation, and maceration it may not be possible to +secure inked impressions which can be properly classified. Hence, it +will be necessary to photograph the ridge detail. Accordingly, there +are outlined below several methods of photographing the ridges which +have been used with success. + +In photographing the ridge detail on fingers it has been determined to +be most practicable to photograph the finger natural, or 1/1, size +inasmuch as comparisons will usually be made with inked impressions +which are natural size. Any camera built or adjusted to taking 1/1 +size pictures, and with which the lighting may be arranged to best +advantage, may be used. + +There is a wide choice of film which can be used for this purpose. The +so-called soft films are all good for photographing ridge detail on +fingers. Process film is not recommended inasmuch as the film presents +too much of a contrast. Consequently, if it is used, some of the ridge +detail will be lost, especially if wrinkles are present in the skin. + +Lighting is accomplished by the use of gooseneck lamps, floodlights, +or a spotlight. If a fingerprint camera is used, its lights may be +sufficient. + +The manner of lighting may be by direct light, side light, transmitted +light or reflected light, depending upon the prevailing condition of +the finger or skin. + +Direct light is used in those cases in which the ridge detail is +fairly clear and there are no wrinkles present; or, if wrinkles are +present, they are not deep enough to interfere with photographing the +ridges. + +Side lighting is used when there are no wrinkles of any consequence +and the ridge detail is clear but because of discoloration the ridges +are not readily seen in the ground glass as there is lack of contrast +between ridges and depressions. Accordingly, the lights, instead of +being focused directly on the skin or finger, are placed to the side +of the object so that the light is directed across the skin or finger, +thus highlighting the ridges and shading the depressions. + +In side lighting, two lights may be used. Better results are often +obtained, however, by using only one light, such as a spotlight, the +beam of which can be controlled to best advantage. + +Transmitted light is used in cases in which the skin has peeled off or +in which the dermis has been removed, cut, and scraped thin so that +light will go through. The prepared skin is placed between two pieces +of glass pressed together in order to flatten the skin or dermis and +remove creases. By trimming some of the surplus skin or dermis, +especially at the top, it may be more easily flattened. After the +glass is properly mounted in front of the camera, the lights are +placed behind it and light is directed through the skin. The ridge +detail is brought into focus on the ground glass. Before the picture +is actually taken it is suggested that the ground glass be checked by +first using one light and then two lights to see which is more +effective. + +There will be instances in which the second layer of skin, cut and +scraped thin enough to flatten out, fails when dry to have a +sufficient contrast between ridges and depressions for purposes of +photographing. The same piece of skin when soaked in xylene will show +a marked contrast, which it loses on drying. This difficulty is +overcome by photographing the skin while in solution, which can be +done by placing the skin in a test tube or a small bottle of a size to +keep the skin upright and the ridges toward the camera. The test tube +or bottle is then filled with xylene. + +If the skin is sufficiently thin, transmitted light may be used. +Should it be found, however, that transmitted light is not effective, +then direct light may be tried and the results checked in the ground +glass (fig. 401). + +When photographing a small curved surface such as a test tube, direct +lighting will usually create a high light. If the high light as shown +in the ground glass is over the ridge detail on the skin, a poor +photograph will result. If the high light cannot be removed by +rearranging the lights, then reflected light should be tried. + +In order to effect reflected light a large piece of white paper, +cardboard, or similar material is used. A hole is cut in the center of +the paper or cardboard. This must be big enough for the camera lens to +protrude through. The ends of the paper or board are curved toward the +skin or finger to be photographed. The lamps which are to be used are +placed facing the curved paper or cardboard in such fashion that the +light will strike the paper or board and be reflected by the curved +surface to the object. + +The lamps should be close enough to the paper or board to give the +maximum light. Care should be exercised, however, not to place them +too close, because of the fire hazard. + +Any arrangement of lamps and reflectors giving a similar effect as the +above should prove suitable. + +Fingers or skin which have a mottled, reddish-brown color because of +decomposition, exposure to severe heat, or diffusion with blood +present a problem of lack of contrast between ridges and depressions +for photographic purposes. This lack of contrast can be overcome to a +large extent by the use of a yellow or light red filter. Sometimes, in +those cases where the discoloration is due to the diffusion of blood +throughout the tissues, the blood can be washed out by saturating and +rinsing the specimen in a 10- to 20-percent solution of citric acid. +If, of course, the blood is not removed satisfactorily, the +photographing should be done with the filter. + +[Illustration: 401] + +As previously stated, the fingerprint camera can be readily adapted to +the use of photographing fingers or skin specimens for ridge detail. +Sometimes it is possible to photograph the skin or finger in the same +manner as one does a latent print. There will be instances, however, +in which the standard use of the fingerprint camera will not be +possible or effective, such as for side light, reflected light, and +sometimes transmitted light, or instances in which it is not possible +to get the finger or skin flush with the opening of the camera. In +these instances the lights of the camera are not used, so the +batteries should be removed and gooseneck lamps or other suitable +lighting equipment and ground glass utilized when the finger or skin +is prepared for photographing (fig. 402). + +The camera is opened either at the point where the lights are housed +or at the lens point, whichever is most effective. Then, opening the +shutter, the operator moves the camera either toward or away from the +finger or skin to the point where the ridge detail is sharpest in the +ground glass. The camera is held firmly, the ground glass is removed, +the film is inserted and the photograph taken. + +[Illustration: 402] + +With respect to exposure time, it is possible only to generalize and +point out that each case will have its own individual aspects. +Controlling features for consideration will be the type of film, the +type and size of lights, the method of lighting (direct, side, +transmitted or reflected) and also whether or not filters are used. +Accordingly, there may be a wide variation of exposure time in +different cases. + +The best approach for arriving at the proper exposure time is merely +to make a test exposure, develop the film, and from an examination +determine if it is underexposed or overexposed. Time the next exposure +accordingly, until satisfactory results are obtained. + +As has been mentioned previously, when photographing the ridges on +fingers or skin, the ridge detail will be in reverse position, the +opposite from an inked impression made from the same skin or finger. +(This is true except in those cases in which the underside of the +epidermis is photographed.) Accordingly, when the negative is +printed, it should be printed gloss side to sensitive side of paper to +give the position comparable to an inked print made from the same skin +or finger. In order to avoid error or confusion a notation should be +made on the photograph of each finger, or, if they are cut and mounted +on a fingerprint card, point out that the position has been reversed +and that the prints are in their correct position for classifying and +searching. Otherwise, it is possible that the right hand may be +mistaken for the left hand and vice versa. + +If the underside of the epidermis or outer skin is being photographed, +the negative should be printed in the normal manner, that is, emulsion +side of negative to sensitized side of paper. Here, reversal of +position is not necessary for when the ridge detail is viewed from the +underside it appears to be in the same position as the inked +impression normally is reflected on a fingerprint card. + +Care should be taken to see that each photograph is labeled correctly +to indicate the finger it represents, such as right thumb, right +index, right ring, etc. It is imperative that no error occurs in such +labeling, inasmuch as it is highly probable that the resultant +classification would be incorrect and failure to make an +identification might very easily follow. + + +_Deceased infants_ + +The foregoing has dealt with the securing of fingerprints of unknown +deceased persons for identification purposes. The basis for such +action is the presumptive possibility that the unknowns had been +fingerprinted previously and through this medium might be identified. + +Another type of problem, however, arises with the finding of a +deceased infant. It can be safely assumed that the possibility of +there being in existence a set of known fingerprints of the infant is +extremely remote. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that many +hospitals throughout the country, as part of the general routine of +recording a birth, secure the infant's footprints, it would follow +that there could be a remote possibility of identifying the deceased +infant through its footprints. The foregoing principles and procedures +would then apply in securing the foot impression of a deceased infant. +It is fully realized that in practically all cases involving the +finding of an abandoned infant corpse the infant is probably +illegitimate issue and delivery did not occur in a hospital, but there +have been instances where such was not the case. + +The importance of securing footprints of deceased infants killed in a +common disaster cannot be overemphasized. Such disasters may involve +the death of infants of lawful issue, and in many instances there are +hospital footprint records available which may prove of value as a +positive means of identification. + + +_Technical consideration_ + +The methods described are intended to record, either by printing with +ink or by photographing as legibly as possible, the ridge details of +the tips of the fingers of unknown dead for identification purposes. +The securing of the impressions enables the fingerprint examiner to +classify and search them through a file. This "search," of course, +means merely to make a comparison of the deceased's prints with the +prints of known individuals. + +It is well to bear in mind the fact that the dermis or epidermis may +have undergone certain physical changes and that in order for the +fingerprint examiner to make a proper comparison he must know the +changes which can and do occur. Otherwise, he may fail to make an +identification (fig. 403). + +[Illustration: 403. Epidermis or outer layer of skin commencing to +peel from dermis or second layer of skin, result of decomposition.] + +Consider first the epidermis or outer layer of skin in cases of +maceration (the skin is water soaked). There may be considerable +swelling. The ridges become broader and are more distinct. An inked +impression in such an instance may show a pattern larger in area than +a print made from the same finger when the person was alive. Also, if +the skin is on the finger but is loose, inking and rolling could +distort the impression so that some of the ridge formations would seem +to be in a different alignment from corresponding details in a print +made during life. When decomposition commences, what are really solid +ridges may be broken, giving rise to the possibility that there appear +to be more characteristics than there actually are (figs. 404 and +405). + +[Illustration: 404. Inked fingerprint made during life.] + +[Illustration: 405. Inked impression of same finger of deceased +showing effect of decomposition.] + +The existence of wrinkles may also cause the impression to acquire an +appearance of dissimilarity when compared with the original inked +print. + +With respect to cases of desiccation, there will probably be +shrinkage, hence, the impressions made may appear smaller than in life +and the ridges will be finer. In cases in which the epidermis has been +lost and there remains only the dermis or second layer, there will +usually be shrinkage with the same results. Here also, wrinkles, if +present, may cause a difference in appearance from the normal print. + +[Illustration: 406] + +In addition to shrinkage and wrinkles in cases involving the second +layer of skin, there is a radical change in the appearance of the +ridges themselves. The second or dermal layer of skin is composed of +what are called dermal papillae which have the appearance of minute +blunt pegs or nipples. The dermal papillae are arranged in double rows +(fig. 406). Each double row lies deep in a ridge of the surface or +epidermal layer and presents the same variations of ridge +characteristics as are on the outer layer of skin except that they are +double. Accordingly, when the second layer of skin is printed or +photographed, the ridge detail will appear in double. That is, the +ridges will appear as though they were split. This may well confuse +the fingerprint examiner in that what may be a loop having 10 ridge +counts may appear to be a loop having 20 ridge counts when the +impression is made from the second or dermal layer of skin. These +double rows of ridges are finer and not as sharp as the detail on the +outer skin, which adds to the difficulty of arriving at a correct +classification and making a proper comparison. + + +_FBI aid_ + +The above techniques and procedures have been dealt with upon the +basis that the law enforcement officers would, when a corpse has been +found, attempt to secure a set of finger impressions in an effort to +identify the unknown dead. If, however, the officer feels that the job +is too difficult or is beyond his scope, consideration should be given +to cutting off the hands or fingers of the deceased and forwarding +them to the Identification Division of the FBI for processing. If this +course is decided upon, it is reiterated that local statutes governing +the cutting of the dead must be complied with and proper authorization +must be secured. + +[Illustration: 407] + +In order to facilitate the transmission of such specimens to the FBI +the following suggestions are made: + +First, it is deemed most desirable, when possible, to have both of the +hands, severed at the wrist, forwarded in their entirety (fig. 407). +It is desired that the hands, rather than each separate finger, be +sent inasmuch as it eliminates the possibility of getting the fingers +mixed up or incorrectly labeled. If, however, it is not possible to +send the hands for some reason, then, of course, the fingers should be +cut off and forwarded. In cutting, the fingers should be cut off at +the palm beginning with the right thumb, then the right index, ring, +etc., just as though they were to be printed. As soon as each finger +is cut off it should be placed in an individual container, such as a +small glass jar, and immediately marked as to which particular finger +it is. + +In the event that the hands or fingers of more than one dead are being +transmitted, it is absolutely necessary that not only the fingers be +properly labeled but that each body also be given an identifying +number or symbol which must be indicated on the hands or fingers cut +from that body as well, in order to avoid the embarrassing situation +of identifying the hands and not knowing from which body they were +cut. + +In shipping, the hands, fingers, or skins may be placed in preserving +solutions such as 5-percent solution of formaldehyde, 5-percent +solution of alcohol, or embalming fluid. When hands or fingers are +desiccated (dried out), however, it is most desirable that they be +placed in airtight containers and sent without any preservative. If +glass containers are used, the specimens should be packed in such a +manner as to avoid breakage. Dry ice is a suitable preservative for +transmitting such specimens but it should not be used when shipping +will take more than 24 hours. + +In making up a package using dry ice, the hands or fingers, properly +tagged, should be placed in cellophane or paper bags. A material such +as sawdust, shavings or similar packing which acts as an insulation is +placed around the specimens. A sufficient amount of dry ice is then +placed in the package which is then packed tight with more sawdust or +shavings. The dry ice should not be in direct contact with the +cellophane or paper bags which contain the hands or fingers. + +A letter covering transmittal of the specimens should be prepared in +duplicate. It should, of course, indicate the sender. The names of any +probable victims, sex, race and approximate age of the deceased +should, if such information is available, be secured from the coroner +or medical examiner and be included in the letter. A copy of the +letter should be placed in the package. The original should be mailed +separately. Both letter and package should be addressed as follows: + + DIRECTOR + FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION + U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE + WASHINGTON 25, D.C. + + Attention: Identification Division--Latent Fingerprint Section. + +If the package contains glass jars it should be marked "Fragile" to +insure careful handling in transit. + +The package should be sent railway express, prepaid, or, where there +is need for speed, by air express, prepaid. When they are received by +the Identification Division, the specimens will undergo various +treatments which may necessitate further cutting, scraping, etc. In +all cases, regardless of condition, the specimens will be returned +after examination. + +All of the foregoing matter has dealt with instances in which it has +been assumed that all ten fingers are available, or a sufficient +number of the fingers of a deceased have been secured and impressions +suitable for searching through the fingerprint files of the FBI have +been recorded. + +There will be cases, however, where only a few, or possibly only one, +of the fingers has sufficient ridge detail for identification. In such +instances a search through the FBI files would be impractical. This, +however, does not preclude the possibility of making a positive +identification by the use of the one finger. Though a search through +the file is not possible, a comparison can be made with the +fingerprints of individuals who it is thought the deceased may be or, +in some instances, with the fingerprints of missing persons. + +In this connection, where one or only a few fingers are forwarded to +the FBI, the names of all possible victims should also be submitted. +The fingerprints of those individuals, if available, will then be +taken out of file and compared with the ridge detail on the finger of +the deceased in an endeavor to establish a positive identification. +Many such identifications have been effected. + +In conjunction with the usual services afforded authorized law +enforcement agencies, the services of an FBI fingerprint expert are +also made available in those cases where expert testimony is necessary +to establish the identity of the deceased through fingerprints, +providing, of course, such an identification has been made. + +Extreme caution should be exercised in the case of the chemicals +previously mentioned in this article. Acetone, alcohol, benzine, and +xylene are highly inflammable and should neither be used near open +flames nor while the operator is smoking. The fumes given off by +acetone, benzine, xylene, and formaldehyde are toxic and may cause +sickness. They should be used in a well-ventilated room only. It is +also suggested that the fingerprint examiner wear rubber gloves when +using acetone, benzine, xylene, formaldehyde, potassium hydroxide, or +sodium hydroxide. These chemicals will cause the skin to peel. Strong +concentrations may cause burns. + +In conclusion, it is pointed out that the procedures and techniques +which have been described are those currently being used by the +fingerprint experts of the FBI. These methods are fast and the results +have been most satisfactory. This Bureau does not claim, however, that +satisfactory results cannot be achieved through variations thereof or +different methods. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +_Establishment of a Local Fingerprint Identification Bureau_ + + +For the information and assistance of officials who desire to +establish a local fingerprint identification bureau, the following +suggestions are being made to indicate the principal materials +necessary to equip such a bureau: + + +_Fingerprinting equipment_ + +For the purpose of taking fingerprints there should be a stand with a +clamp for holding the fingerprint cards steady. This latter item is +necessary to prevent smudging the prints. A tube of printer's ink is +used. The ink is applied by a roller to a glass plate upon which the +fingers are inked before being rolled on the cards. The complete +equipment for the above process may be secured from a number of +commercial sources or it can be made. Figure 408 depicts an inking +stand. + + +_Fingerprint files_ + +It is suggested that the fingerprint card be white, light cardboard, 8 +by 8 inches, slightly glazed. This size is convenient, as it allows +all the space necessary for recording the classification of the prints +and general descriptive information concerning the individual. In the +event the new bureau desires to contribute copies of its fingerprints +to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the latter will, upon request, +gladly furnish fingerprint cards for the purpose together with +envelopes and instructions on how to take fingerprints. It is +suggested that the new bureau design its cards similar to those +furnished by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as these have been +designed after special study and have been found to be satisfactory +over a long period of time. Figures 409 and 410 show the fingerprint +side and reverse side of the criminal fingerprint card used by the +Federal Bureau of Investigation. + +In classifying and comparing fingerprints it is necessary to use a +magnifying or fingerprint glass. Such instruments can be obtained from +various commercial sources. Figure 411 shows the type of magnifying +glass used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. + +[Illustration: 408. Diagram of a FINGERPRINT INKING STAND] + +The fingerprint cards should be filed according to fingerprint +classification sequence in cabinets, preferably steel. It is further +suggested that the cabinets be three drawers high, with each drawer +divided into three rows for filing. Such cabinets or similar ones can +be obtained from various commercial sources. Figure 412 shows the type +of fingerprint cabinet used in the Federal Bureau of Investigation. + +In order to facilitate the location of classification groups, it is +suggested that guide cards be placed in the rows of fingerprint cards +at frequent intervals. These guide cards should be slightly longer +and heavier than the fingerprint cards and should have small tabs on +the top to hold classification identifying symbols. Figure 413 shows +the type of guide card used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. + +[Illustration: 409] + +LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK |TYPE OR PRINT |SEX |RACE + | | | + |LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME|--------|----- + | |HT. |WT. + | |(Inches)| + | | | + |----------------------------------|--------|----- + |CONTRIBUTOR AND |ALIASES |HAIR |EYES + |ADDRESS | | | + | | |-------------- +-------------------------| | |DATE OF BIRTH +SIGNATURE OF PERSON | | | +FINGERPRINTED | | |-------------- + | | |PLACE OF BIRTH + | | | + |------------------------------------------------- +-------------------------|YOUR NUMBER |LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK +SCARS AND |AMPUTATION | | +MARKS | |------------------|CLASS + | |PLACE FBI NUMBER | ------------------------- +-------------------------|HERE | +SIGNATURE OF DATE |------------------|REF. +OFFICIAL TAKING | _ CHECK IF NO | -------------------------- +FINGERPRINTS ||_| REPLY | + | IS DESIRED | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. RIGHT THUMB|2. RIGHT INDEX|3. RIGHT |4. RIGHT RING |5. RIGHT + | | MIDDLE | | LITTLE + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +1. LEFT THUMB |2. LEFT INDEX |3. LEFT MIDDLE|4. LEFT RING |5. LEFT LITTLE + | | | | + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +LEFT FOUR FINGERS TAKEN |LEFT |RIGHT |RIGHT FOUR FINGERS TAKEN +SIMULTANEOUSLY |THUMB |THUMB |SIMULTANEOUSLY + | | | + | | | + | | | + | | | + +A practice which has been of the utmost benefit in the Federal Bureau +of Investigation is as follows: When a fingerprint card is taken out +of its regular file for any reason, a substitute card is put in its +place, to remain until the return of the card. This substitute card, +or "charge-out" card, is of a different color from the fingerprint +card and slightly longer. On it are recorded the name, the +classification formula, and peculiar characteristics, such as scars +and peculiar pattern formations, appearing on the original card. By +indicating the date and reason for charging out the original card, the +Bureau is able to keep an accurate check on the whereabouts of all +prints at all times. It is suggested that the local bureaus adopt a +practice of this kind whenever a fingerprint card is drawn from the +files and it is known that it may be out for a period of time longer +than the remainder of the day on which it is drawn. Figure 414 shows +the type of charge-out card used in the FBI. + +[Illustration: 410] + + FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE + WASHINGTON, D.C. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + CURRENT ARREST OR RECEIPT +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + DATE ARRESTED | CHARGE OR OFFENCE |DISPOSITION OF SENTENCE + OR RECEIVED |(If code citation is used |(List final disposition only. + |it should be accompanied by|If not now available + |charge) |submit later on FBI Form R-54 + | |for completion of record.) + | | + | | +---------------|---------------------------| +OCCUPATION |RESIDENCE OF PERSON | + |FINGERPRINTED | + | | +-------------------------------------------| +If COLLECT wire reply or COLLECT telephone | +reply is desired, indicate here | + _ _ | +|_| Wire reply |_| Telephone reply | + | FOR INSTITUTIONS USE ONLY + ---------------- | + Telephone number | Sentence expires____________ +-------------------------------------------|------------------------------ + | INSTRUCTIONS + |1. FORWARD ARREST CARDS TO FBI + | IMMEDIATELY AFTER + | FINGERPRINTING FOR MOST + | EFFECTIVE SERVICE. + | + |2. TYPE or PRINT all + | information. + | + |3. Note amputations in proper + | finger squares. + | + Please Paste Photograph in This Space |4. REPLY WILL QUOTE ONLY + | NUMBER APPEARING IN THE +Since photograph may become detached | BLOCK MARKED "CONTRIBUTOR'S +indicate name, FBI number, and arrest | NO." +number on reverse side whether attached to | +fingerprint card or submitted later. |5. Indicate any additional + | copies for other agencies + | in space below--include + | their complete mailing + | address. +-------------------------------------------|------------------------------ + | SEND COPY TO: + | + | + | + | +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +FD-249 + +Each fingerprint card handled by the bureau should receive a +fingerprint number and these numbers can be assigned in consecutive +order. + +As the bureau increases in size, it will be found a source of much +convenience to have fingerprints of males and females kept in separate +files. + + +_Name files_ + +There will be times when it may be necessary to locate an individual's +fingerprints when no current fingerprints are available, but the name +with a police number or the classification is known. In order to +facilitate work of this nature, as well as to keep a complete record +and check on each set of fingerprints, it is necessary that the files +be indexed in a manner similar to that in which books in a library are +indexed. + +[Illustration: 411] + +[Illustration: 412] + +In this connection, for each fingerprint card there is prepared an +index card. On this the name of the individual is placed, with all +known aliases, the fingerprint classification formula, the police or +arrest number, the date of arrest or other action. It is desirable, +also, to have on this card such general information as age, height, +weight and race. Figure 415 shows the front of a suggested type of 3- +by 5-inch index card. + +[Illustration: 413] + +[Illustration: 414] + +| | | | | | | +| | | | | | | +| | | | | |FBI NUMBER |Followed ++--------+--------+----------+----------+-------+-------------+ +|ASSEMBLY| POST G | N-IDENTS | DOC. LAB | MISC. | | ++--------+--------+----------+----------+-------+ | + |Searched Thru| + +-------------+ + +................................. Classification.................... +MASTER PRINT NAME + +................................. Reference......................... +CURRENT PRINT NAME + ++--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+ +|1. Right Thumb|2. Right Index|3. Right Middle|4. Right Ring|5. Right | +| | | | |Little | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | ++--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+ +|6. Left Thumb |7. Left Index |8. Left Middle |9. Left Ring |10. Left | +| | | | |Little | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | ++--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+ + TYPE OF CURRENT PRINT |Number and Initials of + Criminal | Non-Criminal |Employee Charging Out: + | | +Date..................|Date...................|............................ + 16-58188-1 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + +Figure 416 shows the reverse side of the 3- by 5-inch index card. +These are filed alphabetically in special cabinets. An index card also +should be made for every alias which an individual has used. Figure +417 shows an electrically operated file cabinet in which the index +cards are filed. It is suggested that the alias cards be of a +different color from the one bearing the correct name, known as the +"Master." Each alias card also should have typed on it the correct +name of the individual, for purposes of reference and cross-checking. +For convenience and accuracy these files, as in the fingerprint files, +should also have suitable guide cards. + +[Illustration: 415] + + | | +______________________________________________|______________|____________ + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME | F.P. CLASS | IDENT NO. + | | | +______________________________________________|______|_______|____________ + ALIAS RACE SEX AGE + +__________________________________________________________________________ + ADDRESS | | | | | + | | | | | +__________|__________|________|________|______________|___________________ + HEIGHT WEIGHT EYES HAIR COMPLEXION OCCUPATION + | +______________________________________|___________________________________ + DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH SCARS AND MARKS +__________________________________________________________________________ + (SEE OTHER SIDE FOR ARREST RECORD) + +[Illustration: 416] + +DATE | NUMBER | CHARGE | DISPOSITION +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ +______|__________|__________|_________________ + | | | + +It is advisable to make use of charge-out cards when original index +cards are drawn from the files. Figure 418 shows a charge-out card. + +To supplant the 3- by 5-inch index cards mentioned above, many law +enforcement agencies have found it desirable to use a separate sheet, +sometimes referred to as a "History Sheet" or "Information Sheet," +containing the complete case history of the subject involved. These +separate sheets can be filed by fingerprint number sequence and +contain not only the data such as the known aliases, the fingerprint +classification formula, the arrest number, and other essential items +which are set out on the 3- by 5-inch cards as heretofore described, +but also contain a concise summary of the subject's arrest history, +particularly with reference to his criminal activities in the +particular city. They may also contain a summarized case history with +respect to each arrest or commitment, including such items as the date +and place of arrest, complete home address, relatives, the essential +facts concerning the prosecution of charges, and the ultimate +disposition. + +[Illustration: 417] + + +_Jacket folder file_ + +When an identification bureau receives prints of individuals on whom +it already has prints, it is not practical to keep more than one set +of prints per person in what may be called the active fingerprint +file. In these instances the better print should be designated a +"Master" print by having the word "Master" stamped thereon. It should +be given a number, to be known as the master number, which number +should also be placed on all other sets of prints which may be found +to be identical with the "Master" print. The "Master" print is placed +in the active files. The extra prints are placed together in a heavy +folder with their master number stamped thereon. This jacket folder is +then filed in a separate cabinet. Also, if copies of all information +regarding an individual, photographs, and FBI transcript of record are +kept in this folder, his complete record will always be assembled in +an easily accessible unit. The "Master" number should also be placed +on the index card and all the alias cards of the individual. Also, +each new alias and arrest number should be placed on the original +index card. The additional records are kept in folders which are +arranged in numerical order, beginning with Nos. 1, 2, 3, and so on. + +[Illustration: 418] + +1-154 |-----------| | GPO: 1962 OF--663475 + | | | + |-----------| |------------------------- + | | | POSTING + |-----------| |------------------------- + | | | + | | |DOB +-------------------------|-----------|-----------|------------------------- + | ASSEMBLY | MISC. | DESCRIPTION +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + NAME_____________________________________________________ + + __________________________________________________ + + NAME______________________________________________ + +___________________________________________________________________________ + (ARREST NUMBER) (DEPARTMENT) (CITY) (STATE) + +A further suggestion in connection with the maintenance of this folder +file, besides the use of a separate "Master" numbering system, is the +use of the arrest fingerprint number. As indicated previously, each +person arrested and fingerprinted is assigned a number. This number +appears on the fingerprint card, name-index card, and photograph. The +practice of handling every new arrest fingerprint card in the bureau +should include searching the fingerprint card in the fingerprint file +to ascertain if the subject has a previous record. If the subject does +not have a previous record, a new number should be assigned. In this +connection it is noted that only one copy of the fingerprint card +should be maintained in the file by fingerprint classification. To +indicate the new arrest on the old index card, the date of the new +arrest can be shown. Whether the bureau follows the "Master" numbering +system or the "previous arrest" numbering system should make very +little difference in the ultimate purpose. All extra copies of +fingerprint cards, complete record sheets, photographs, and all +information pertaining to the individual are filed away in the folder +file. This complete record is readily accessible at all times. It will +now be found that the bureau has a complete record of each individual +who has an arrest record on file, with provision made for accurate +cross-referencing and checking between names and fingerprints. + + +_Dispositions_ + +It is important to the bureau to have complete information concerning +the ultimate disposition on each arrest fingerprint card. If the +disposition of a charge is known at the time the person is +fingerprinted, this fact should be indicated in the space provided on +the fingerprint card. For example, in the case of an individual who is +arrested, fingerprinted, and turned over to the county jail, this +disposition can be indicated on the fingerprint card which is +forwarded to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The fingerprint card +should not be held by the bureau pending final disposition of the +charge. + +In those cases where the disposition is pending prosecutive or court +action, a separate 3- by 5-inch disposition file can be maintained. On +these cards information concerning the name, fingerprint number, race, +sex, charge, name of the arresting officers, and the fingerprint +classification should appear. These cards are filed in a +pending-disposition file. The 3- by 5-inch disposition cards are made +at the time the fingerprints of the person are taken. When the final +disposition is obtained it should be noted on the card. In those cases +where there is only one fingerprint card in the bureau, the +disposition can be noted on the name-index card or the reverse side of +the bureau's fingerprint card. In those cases where there is a +jacket-folder file for the individual this disposition card can then +be placed in the folder. + +"Disposition Sheets" (No. R-84) can be obtained from the Federal +Bureau of Investigation for forwarding this information so that the +files of the FBI will have complete information concerning the +arrests. At the time the final disposition is obtained, these +disposition sheets can be completed and forwarded to the Federal +Bureau of Investigation. + + +_Death notices_ + +When persons whose fingerprints are on file are reported as deceased, +the prints should be taken from the active file and assembled with +any other prints of the person concerned. These should be plainly +marked "Dead" and filed in a separate cabinet or section. All the +index cards on this individual should also be marked "Dead" and filed +in a separate section. These should be retained for possible future +reference. + +In this connection, "Death Notice" forms (No. R-88) can be obtained +from the Federal Bureau of Investigation so that information +concerning these deaths can be properly noted in its fingerprint file. + + +_Record of additional arrest_ + +It is not necessary for a bureau to send a regular fingerprint card to +the Identification Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation on +individuals who have been arrested repeatedly and whose previous +records are known to the local law enforcement agency. In such cases +the "Record of Additional Arrest" form should be used. + +Complete information must be given on this form. It is imperative that +the FBI number and the finger impressions be placed on this form. The +Identification Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation will +send no answer upon receipt of this form. + +The form will be placed in the FBI number folder on the individual and +later when a regular fingerprint card is received the arrest +information from all the forms will be compiled and included on the +subject's record as "supported by fingerprints." + +"Record of Additional Arrest" forms (No. 1-1) can be obtained from the +Federal Bureau of Investigation. + + +_Wanted notices_ + +All wanted notices containing fingerprints, including the wanted +notices inserted in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, should be filed +in the fingerprint file by classification formula, and the names +appearing on these wanted notices should be indexed and placed in the +name files. Concerning the small wanted notices inserted in the FBI +Law Enforcement Bulletin, a suggested procedure would be to paste each +individual notice on a blank 8- by 8-inch white card. The wanted +notices are filed by the fingerprint classification and the names +indexed and placed in the name file. When an apprehension notice is +received concerning the wanted notice, a proper notation should be +made on the name card and the wanted notice in the fingerprint file. +If these canceled wanted notices endanger the efficiency of the file, +it is suggested that the name-index card and the fingerprint-wanted +notice be destroyed. Should the bureau adopt this practice it is +suggested that the 8- by 8-inch cards be used again for other wanted +notices. In this manner it would be possible to use the blank card for +eight of these notices. + +The Federal Bureau of Investigation will make available to law +enforcement agencies a special "Wanted Notice" form (No. 1-12) in +order that they can place wanted notices against the fingerprints in +the files of the FBI. + + +_Photographs_ + +Arrangements should be made to procure a camera for taking photographs +of the persons fingerprinted. This is known as a "mugging" camera and +various types are on the market. It is believed that the photographs +should include a front and side view of the person. In most instances +a scale for indicating height can be made a part of the picture even +though only the upper portion of the individual photographed is taken. +Of course, if the scale is used, the person photographed should be +standing even though only the upper portion of the body appears in the +photograph. The necessary lights should be provided for obtaining +photographs. A standard set of scales should be obtained in order that +the correct weight can be ascertained. + +[Illustration: 419] + +The negatives and photographs can be filed by fingerprint number in a +separate file. In those cases where the individual has more than one +arrest all the photographs can be placed in the jacket-folder number +file. The negatives, in these instances, can remain in the photograph +file. + + +_Latent fingerprints_ + +To adequately develop the latent prints at crime scenes, it is +necessary that the proper equipment be provided. This equipment +includes latent fingerprint powders, brushes, lifting tape, +fingerprint camera, searchlight, and scissors. All of this equipment +can be obtained from commercial fingerprint supply companies. Figure +419 shows some of the equipment used by the FBI. The techniques of +developing latent fingerprints and their uses are more fully explained +in the following chapters. + +It is believed that by following the basic ideas outlined, the +officials of law enforcement agencies can be assured of best results +in establishing and maintaining a small identification bureau. For +further information, the Federal Bureau of Investigation will furnish +to duly constituted law enforcement officials any additional data +which may be of material assistance in the maintenance of such a +bureau. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +_Latent Impressions_ + + +Each ridge of the fingers, palms, and soles bears a row of sweat pores +which in the average person constantly exude perspiration. Also, the +ridges of the fingers and palms are in intermittent contact with other +parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various +objects, which may leave a film of grease or moisture on the ridges. +In touching an object, the film of moisture and/or grease may be +transferred to the object, thus leaving an outline of the ridges of +the fingers or palm thereon. This print is called a latent impression, +the word "latent" meaning hidden, that is, the print many times is not +readily visible. + +Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are +of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as +identification of them may solve the crime and result in successful +prosecution of the subject. Consequently, every effort should be made +to preserve and _identify_ them. + +Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt, or dust are +equally important to the investigator but, strictly speaking, are not +latent impressions. + +A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. +Points of entry and exit should be examined, along with surfaces or +objects disturbed or likely touched during the commission of the +crime. The examiner should wear a pair of light cloth gloves and +handle an object only insofar as is necessary and then only by edges +or surfaces which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of +the exact location of a print on an object and of the object itself +should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in +any trial resulting from the investigation. No one should handle an +object other than the examiner himself. + +Portable articles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may +be readily identified thereafter. + +The beam of a flashlight played over the surface of an object will +frequently show the location of latent impressions, although this is +not an infallible test for their presence. + +Evidence should be examined as soon as feasible after its discovery. + +Following the location of any latent prints at the scene of a crime, +the prints of all persons whose presence at the place under inspection +has been for legitimate purposes must be excluded from further +attention. It is advisable, therefore, during the initial stages of an +investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked +prints of all members of the household, the employees, and any police +or other officials who may have touched the objects on which the +latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are +referred to as elimination prints. + +Due to the fragmentary nature of most latent prints it is not possible +to derive a classification which makes a file search practicable. A +latent impression may be identified, however, by comparison with the +prints of a particular suspect. + +Inked fingerprints taken for comparison with latent impressions should +be as legible and as complete as possible, including the areas not +essential to classification, since identifications are often made with +these areas. Inked palm prints taken should likewise be complete and +clear and should include impressions of the finger joints. Persons not +experienced in latent print comparisons should not attempt to evaluate +latent fragments, since the area necessary for an identification may +be extremely small compared to that of an average inked fingerprint. + +Articles which are to be transported by mail or express should be so +packed that the surfaces bearing latent impressions are not in contact +with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by mounting the articles +on a piece of fiber board or plywood. The board should then be secured +in a box so that the objects will not touch or be shaken against the +sides in transit. The package should be plainly marked "Evidence," to +prevent inadvertent handling on opening. Cotton or cloth should never +be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent prints. + +Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single +protective wrapper, since contact with other surfaces does not harm +latents on such objects. Lifts, negatives and photographs are readily +enclosed with letters. + +An explanatory letter should accompany all evidence. If it is +necessary to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should +be placed in every package so that the recipient will know immediately +the import of the contents. All items of evidence should be marked and +described exactly in the accompanying letter so that they will not be +confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a +check on what the package should contain. + +In addition, the letter should include for record purposes a brief +outline of the crime, i.e., type, date and place of occurrence, and +names of victims and subjects. If suspects are named for comparison, +sufficient descriptive data should be set out to permit location of +their fingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, +comprises the individual's complete name, aliases, FBI number, date of +prior arrest or fingerprinting, fingerprint classification, date and +place of birth, and physical description. + +Evidence is preferably forwarded by registered mail or railway +express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt. + +Elimination or suspect fingerprints are best enclosed with the +evidence itself, with a notation as to the type of prints forwarded. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +_Powdering and Lifting Latent Impressions_ + + +The sole purpose in "developing" a latent impression is to make it +visible so that it may be preserved and compared. Various powders and +chemicals are used for this purpose. When a latent print is plainly +visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made to +develop it. + +No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in dust, +obviously greasy prints, or bloody prints, as this will almost surely +destroy them. Objects which have been wet or immersed in water may +still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination is +attempted, however, the object must be dried. + +Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to +grease or moisture in the ridges of a latent print, making it visible +against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which will +contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should +also be considered. + +A gray powder and a black powder are adequate for latent print work. +Many fingerprint powders of various colors and compositions are +available from fingerprint supply houses but none are superior to the +gray and black. + +A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for application +to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush +strokes should conform to the direction of the ridges. All excess +powder should be brushed from between the ridges. Too much powder and +too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners. + +Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. It is also used on +mirrors and metal surfaces which have been polished to a mirrorlike +finish, since these surfaces will photograph black with the +fingerprint camera. + +Black powder should be applied to white or light-colored surfaces. + +Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red +bronze powders, although of a glittering appearance, will photograph +dark and should consequently be used on light-colored surfaces. +Dragon's blood powder is a photographically neutral powder and may be +dusted on either a light or dark surface. + +On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be used, +it being necessary only to use a contrasting black or white background +when photographing. + +Prints should be lifted after photographing. Both rubber and +transparent tape are available for this purpose. Rubber lifting tape +is procurable in black or white 4" x 9" sheets and has the adhesive +surface protected with a celluloid cover. A black powder print should +obviously be lifted on white tape and a gray powder print on black +tape. + +Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be lifted on white tape, +aluminum on black. Dragon's blood may be lifted on either black or +white. + +After cutting a piece of tape sufficiently large to cover the entire +latent print, the celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side +applied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and firmly to +the surface, taking care not to shift its position. It is then peeled +gently from the surface and the piece of celluloid placed over the +print to protect it. The operator should handle the lift in such a +manner that he will leave no prints of his own on the adhesive +surface. A small paper identification tag bearing the initials of the +operator, date, and object from which lifted should be placed under +one corner of the celluloid, or this information may be written on the +back of the lift itself if it can be done in a permanent, legible +manner. + +If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print, a more +legible print may sometimes be obtained by lifting a second time (on a +new piece of tape, of course). + +It should be noted that a print lifted on rubber tape is in a reverse +position. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print on such a +lift, it will be necessary to print the negative from the reverse side +in order for the print to appear in its correct position for +comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted by +persons of inadequate knowledge and experience. + +Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in 1" to +2" widths for fingerprint work. The common variety of transparent tape +is not suitable due to the deterioration (drying) of the adhesive +surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct +position. Transparent lifts should be affixed to a smooth, grainless, +opaque background of a black or white color contrasting with the +powder used. Every effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under +such lifts. In no instance should a transparent lift ever be folded +back on itself or stuck to another piece of such tape as a backing, +since it is generally not possible to determine the correct position +of such a print. + +Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent fingers or +fingers and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, +should be lifted as units, that is, on a single piece of tape, as this +may facilitate the task of making comparisons. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +_Chemical Development of Latent Impressions_ + + +Chemical treatment in the development of latent finger impressions on +paper, cardboard, and newly finished or unpainted wood may involve a +slightly more complicated technique than that in which powders are +utilized, but the results justify the additional effort. + +It is very strongly recommended that powders not be applied to +articles of the above types. This recommendation is made for several +reasons. First, powders cannot be removed from paper and possibly may +interfere with some types of document examinations. In this +connection, they are likely to prevent restoration of the specimen to +a legible condition. Powders will not develop as many latent +impressions as chemicals on paper or cardboard. In some cases they +will obscure latent impressions subsequently developed chemically. + +Neither scientific training nor complete knowledge of the chemical +processes involved is necessary for one to become proficient in the +use of chemical developers, two of which will be discussed more fully. +These two, iodine and silver nitrate, are the most commonly used, +inasmuch as they are relatively inexpensive, readily procurable, +effective, and easy to apply. + +All specimens which are treated should be handled with tweezers or +gloves. + +When iodine crystals are subjected to a slight amount of heat they +vaporize rapidly, producing violet fumes. These fumes are absorbed by +fatty or oily matter with which they come in contact. If the specimen +treated bears latent impressions which contain oil or fat, the print +is developed or made visible by the absorption of the iodine fumes and +the ridges of the print appear yellowish-brown against the background. + +Iodine prints are not permanent and begin to fade once the fuming is +stopped. It is necessary, therefore, for the operator to have a camera +ready to photograph the prints immediately. + +Control of the fumes is achieved by using the crystals in an iodine +gun or fuming cabinet. The iodine gun may be assembled by the +individual examiner, by a druggist, or it may be purchased through a +fingerprint supply house. + +Material for making the iodine gun, as well as iodine crystals, may be +procured from a chemical supply house or through a druggist. The gun +itself consists essentially of two parts. One tube (the end of the gun +through which the breath is blown) contains a drying agent such as +calcium chloride, to remove moisture from the breath. Without this, +the moisture from the breath and saliva would condense at the end of +the gun, drip onto the specimen and cause stains which might prove +indelible. The second tube contains a small amount of iodine crystals +which are vaporized by the heat of the breath, augmented by the warmth +of the hand cupped around the tube containing the iodine. This vapor +is blown onto the specimen (fig. 420). Glass wool serves to hold the +calcium chloride and iodine in place. + +[Illustration: 420. Iodine fuming gun in use.] + +Due to the amount of physical exertion involved, the gun is generally +limited to the examination of a few small specimens. Where a large +number of specimens are to be treated, the fuming cabinet, a +box-shaped wooden receptacle with a glass front and top permitting the +operator to control the amount of fumes in the cabinet and observe the +development of the latent impressions, is used (fig. 421). The fumes +are generated by placing a small alcohol burner under an evaporating +dish containing the iodine crystals. This is set in a hole cut in the +bottom of the cabinet. As soon as the fumes begin to appear in +sufficient amounts, the burner is removed. The specimens may be hung +in the cabinet by wooden clothes pins fastened to a removable stick +which is supported by wooden strips affixed near the top edges of the +cabinet. The top of the cabinet is removable to permit access. +Diagrams for the construction of the iodine gun or fuming cabinet will +be furnished on request to members of the law enforcement profession. + +Many specimens bear small, greasy areas which, in addition to any +latent impressions of a greasy nature, will also appear +yellowish-brown after exposure to iodine fumes. All these stains will +eventually disappear if the specimen is placed in a current of air +from a fan or vent. All latent impressions on an object will not be +developed by the iodine process but only those containing fat or oil. +Due to this fact and the fact that iodine evaporates from the surface, +it is used prior to (it cannot be used afterward), and in conjunction +with, the silver nitrate process. + +[Illustration: 421. Iodine fuming cabinet in use.] + +No ill effects have been noted from contact with small amounts of +iodine vapor but prolonged or excessive contact will produce +irritation of the skin and respiratory passages. To prevent gradual +loss of the chemical through evaporation and the corrosion of +surrounding metal surfaces, iodine crystals should be kept in an +airtight container when not being used. + +The development of latent impressions with silver nitrate is dependent +on the fact that the sodium chloride (the same substance as common +table salt) present in the perspiration which forms the ridges in most +latent impressions reacts with the silver nitrate solution to form +silver chloride. Silver chloride is white but is unstable on exposure +to light and breaks down into its components, silver and chlorine. The +ridges of the fingerprints developed in this manner appear +reddish-brown against the background. Immersion in the silver nitrate +solution will wash traces of fat and oil from the paper; +consequently, it is necessary to fume the specimen for latents of such +a nature prior to treatment with silver nitrate. + +Once the requisite equipment is assembled, the steps in the process +are these: + +Dip the specimen in the solution, blot and dry it, expose to light, +and photograph latents when contrast is good. + +Chemically standardized solutions are not required for the successful +application of this process. It has been determined through long +practice that a 3-percent solution of silver nitrate is adequate for +the purpose, although concentrations up to 10 percent are sometimes +used. A solution of approximately 3 percent may be prepared by +dissolving 4 ounces of silver nitrate in 1 gallon of distilled water. +Smaller quantities of 3-percent solution are made by using the +components in the same proportion. For instance, one quart of water +will require 1 ounce of the crystals. For a 10-percent solution, use +13-1/3 ounces of crystals per gallon. + +An alcohol solution may be preferred. This is prepared by mixing 4 +ounces of silver nitrate crystals, 4 ounces of distilled water, and 1 +gallon of grain alcohol, 190 proof. The alcoholic solution dries +faster, and when treating paper bearing writing in ink, it is less +likely to cause the ink to run. On the other hand, the alcoholic +solution is much more expensive and there is some loss by evaporation +while in use. + +The solutions may be used several times before losing their strength +and when not in use should be kept in brown bottles in cupboards to +retard deterioration. If the strength of the solution is doubtful, the +operator should attempt to develop test latent impressions before +proceeding on evidence. + +Silver nitrate crystals and distilled water in small amounts are +obtainable from druggists or in large amounts from chemical supply +houses. Dealers in distilled water are located in many communities. + +Tap water should not be used in the preparation of the solution +because it generally contains chemicals which will partially +neutralize the silver nitrate. + +It is suggested that the solution be placed in a glass or enamelware +tray approximately 18 by 12 by 5 inches for use, a size used in +photographic development. Treatment with this solution is called +"silvering." The specimen is immersed in the solution so that the +surfaces are completely moistened, then taken out, placed between +blotters to remove the excess solution, and dried. The drying is +readily accomplished with an electric hair dryer. Blotters may be +dried and used several times before discarding. It is not necessary to +work in a dark room. Work in an illuminated room but not in direct +sunlight. Soaking the specimen in the solution does not aid +development and is actually undesirable as it requires a longer drying +time. The specimen should be reasonably dry before exposing to the +light, otherwise the latent prints may be developed while the paper +is still wet, thus necessitating drying in subdued light to prevent +darkening. + +Development of the latent impressions occurs rapidly when the specimen +is exposed to a blue or violet light source. A 1,000-watt blue or +daylight photographer's lamp, a mercury arc (most ultraviolet lamps +are of this type), or carbon arc is excellent for the purpose (fig. +422). If a weaker light is used, a stronger mixture of the solution +should be prepared. For instance, if a 300-watt bulb is used, the +10-percent solution would be preferable. Direct sunlight will cause +the latent impressions to appear very rapidly and if several specimens +are exposed at once it is not possible for a single operator to +properly control the development. Sunlight coming through a window +pane will serve for development. Where fingerprints containing sodium +chloride (normally exuded from the sweat pores in the ridges) have +been deposited, the silver chloride formed will darken against the +background. + +[Illustration: 422. Developing silver nitrate prints using 1,000-watt +bulb reflector.] + +As soon as the ridge detail of the prints is clearly visible, the +paper should be removed from the light. Continued exposure will darken +the paper and the contrast will be lost. + +Paper so treated should be kept in darkness; that is, in a heavy +envelope or drawer until ready to photograph. + +Immediate photographing, as in the case of iodine prints, is not +always essential, since the prints are permanent and become illegible +only through eventual clouding of the background. Prompt photographing +is recommended, however, as, in exceptional instances, silver-nitrate +prints have become illegible in a matter of hours. Darkening +ordinarily will occur slowly if the paper is preserved in absolute +darkness, and silver-nitrate prints so preserved more than 10 years +have been observed to be quite clear. + +Items such as cardboard cartons, newspapers, road maps, large pieces +of wrapping paper, or smooth, unpainted wood surfaces, too large for +dipping, may be treated by brushing the solution over the surface with +a paint brush (fig. 423). Brushing does not damage or destroy latent +impressions on surfaces of this type. Cardboard boxes may be slit down +the edges and flattened out to permit easy placement under the light. + +[Illustration: 423. Silver nitrate solution being applied with paint +brush.] + +Wet paper should be handled with extreme care to prevent tearing. In +treating very thin types of paper the solution is best applied with a +cotton swab or brush. + +Photographs, Photostats, and blueprints of any value should not be +treated with silver nitrate, since the developed prints or stains +cannot be removed without destroying them. + +In working with silver nitrate, wear rubber gloves or handle all +specimens with tweezers; avoid spilling it on clothing. It will cause +dark brown stains on clothing, skin, and fingernails. Such stains are +not easily removed. Areas of the skin subjected to prolonged contact +are deadened, will turn black and peel. + +If removal of silver nitrate prints (called "de-silvering") is +desired, this may be accomplished by placing the specimen in a +2-percent solution of mercuric nitrate in a tray similar to that used +for the silver nitrate. + +To prepare a small amount of this solution, dissolve two-thirds of an +ounce of mercuric nitrate crystals in 1 quart of distilled water and +add one-third of a fluid ounce of nitric acid. Shake well. This +solution, too, may be used several times before losing its strength +and is not necessarily discarded after each use. It is not necessary +to keep it in a dark bottle. + +The specimen bearing silver nitrate prints is immersed in this +solution until all traces of the prints disappear. It should then be +rinsed thoroughly in water to remove all mercuric nitrate. If this is +not done the paper deteriorates, becoming brittle and crumbly. A tray +of distilled water may be used for rinsing or a tray of ordinary tap +water changed several times during the rinsing. The specimen is then +laid out flat to dry. + +Wrinkles, such as are left in paper after ordinary drying, may be +prevented by ironing with a moderately hot iron. An electric iron with +a temperature control is desirable. If kept too hot it will scorch or +wrinkle the paper somewhat. The bottom of the iron should be clean so +that unremovable smudges will not be left on the paper. + +No ill effects have been noted from working in the 2-percent mercuric +nitrate solution with bare hands for very short periods, but it is a +caustic solution and it is suggested that the specimens be handled +with tweezers or that rubber gloves be worn if contact is prolonged. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +_The Use of the Fingerprint Camera_ + + +If a fingerprint is visible, an effort should be made to photograph it +before any attempt is made to develop it. In every case a print +developed with powder should be photographed before lifting. It +sometimes happens that the print does not lift properly although it +may be quite clear after development. + +The camera which is especially adapted to the purpose and which is +easiest to handle and operate is the fingerprint camera, one type of +which is shown in figure 424. This camera has several advantages in +photographing fingerprints: + + It photographs the prints in natural size. + It contains its own light source. + It has a fixed focus. + +Cameras of this type are available in models operated by batteries and +110-volt current. It is believed that the battery-operated type has +the greater utility, since house current may not be available at the +crime scene. When not in use the batteries should be removed as they +will eventually deteriorate and corrode the brass contacts in the +camera. + +[Illustration: 424. The fingerprint camera.] + +The camera is of the box type and has three button controls which will +open: (1) The metal flap covering the aperture, (2) the front portion +of the frame providing access to the self-contained light bulbs, and +(3) the camera in half, providing access to the batteries and the +shutter as shown below in figure 425. + +[Illustration: 425. Button controls permit access to bulbs, batteries, +and shutter.] + +A 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 film pack adapter or a 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 cut film holder +holds the film in the camera. The film pack adapter will hold a pack +of 12 sheets of film, and accordingly, will permit the taking of 12 +pictures. The cut film holder is a unit which holds two sheets of film +utilizing each side of the holder. + +It is pointed out that the FBI uses the film pack exclusively in view +of the fact that practically all latent examinations will necessitate +the taking of more than two pictures. Further, the film pack is made +so that it may be loaded into the adapter in the open light. Also, the +films are numbered 1 through 12, which is a valuable feature in that +in maintaining notes concerning the latent examinations it is a simple +matter to note by the number of the negative where the latent +impression was developed and photographed. Should it happen that +during a latent examination all twelve of the films are not used, the +film pack, with the slide in place, is taken into the darkroom and +only those films which have been exposed are removed and developed. +The unexposed films remain in the film pack adapter with the slide in +and may be used later. + +As was previously mentioned, the camera has a fixed focus; that is, +the camera will take a legible picture only when the latent print is +at the focal point, or exactly flush with the opening of the camera. +The latent print must not be inside the open end of the camera, nor +must it be beyond; otherwise, the picture will be blurred. + +[Illustration: 426. When object being photographed does not cover +camera opening, outside light is excluded with piece of cloth.] + +Since the camera has its own light source, any leakage of outside +light will cause overexposure of the film. Consequently, if the +surface of the object bearing the latent print which is to be +photographed is uneven or does not cover the entire front of the +camera opening, it will be necessary to use some opaque material such +as a focusing cloth or heavy dark material to cover the front of the +camera so as to exclude all outside light (fig. 426). If a latent +print on a pane of glass or an automobile window is being +photographed, it will be necessary to back up the latent so that there +will be no light leakage. Material showing a pattern or grain should +not be used for this purpose as any such pattern will photograph in +the background and possibly obliterate the ridges of the latent print. + +To insure an equal distribution of the light over the latents being +photographed, the impressions should be centered in the opening of the +camera. This is accomplished by opening the angular front section of +the camera after the metal plate covering the front has been opened, +and setting the aperture over the latent impressions so that they will +be as near the center as possible. Then, holding the camera firmly in +place, it is carefully closed (fig. 427). + +During exposure the camera must be held perfectly still. Any movement +of the camera or object will result in a fuzzy or double image. + +In photographing a small, movable object such as a bottle or tumbler, +the camera should not be placed on its end and an attempt made to +balance the object across the opening. Instead, the camera should be +placed on its side and the bottle or tumbler built up to the opening +so that there is no necessity for holding the object (fig. 428). There +will be, of course, instances where the camera will have to be held, +such as to the side of a wall, cabinet or automobile. Here an extreme +effort should be made to avoid moving the camera or permitting it to +slip during exposure. + +[Illustration: 427. Centering of latent in aperture insures equal +distribution of light over print.] + +Anticipating the possible use of the photographic negatives in a court +proceeding, it becomes of paramount importance to be able to identify +them. This is done by using what is called an identification tag. The +tag consists of a small piece of paper bearing the date, initials of +the examiner, and possibly a case number, and it should be +hand-written. The tag is placed near the latent prints being +photographed so that it will appear in the picture. It should be borne +in mind that concentration should be on the latent impressions, which +must be centered, and the identification tag should be to one side and +not covering any of the latent prints. Another method of +identification, if the surface permits, is to write the +above-mentioned data on the surface of the object bearing the latents +so that the information set out will also be a part of the picture. +Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of the +identification tag. The lack of such data, by discretion of the +court, may exclude the latents as evidence, in the absence of the +original specimen bearing the latents. + +[Illustration: 428. In photographing objects with curved or irregular +surfaces, camera should be laid flat and latent-bearing surface built +up to opening.] + +The following are suggested exposure times for Tri-X film (available +in 2-1/4" x 3-1/4" film packs) with battery-operated cameras having +lenses without diaphragms: + + Black powder print on white or light background--snapshot + Gray or white powder print on black or dark background--1 second + +These same exposure times can be used on some cameras having lenses +with diaphragms, provided the lens opening is set at f6.3. + +The above exposure times are for cameras with batteries in average +condition. If batteries become weak the exposures may be increased +slightly. + +In making snapshots the shutter mechanism should be manipulated as +rapidly as possible since slow motion will appreciably lengthen the +exposure. In making time exposures the camera shutter must be held +open for the desired time. Personnel with photographic experience may +desire to use cut film with the fingerprint camera. A few tests will +determine the optimum exposure times for any particular type of film. + +Briefly, the procedure for taking photographs of latents is as +follows: The film pack is placed into the film pack adapter with the +safety paper side of the film pack to the slide side of the adapter, +care being taken to see that all of the paper tabs are outside of the +adapter. The adapter is placed on the camera in its proper position by +opening a slide clamp attached to the camera, fitting the side of the +adapter into the slot away from the clamp and pushing it down flat +into the opening. Don't try to slide the adapter into the opening from +the top. The adapter is locked in position by closing the clamp. Next +the slide is removed and the tab marked "Safety Cover" pulled out as +far as it will come and torn off. The camera is placed in position and +the first exposure made; then the tab marked "1" is pulled and the +next film is in position for exposure. This procedure is followed with +each succeeding film until all have been exposed. + +When the last tab has been pulled out, the pack can be removed from +the adapter in daylight. If all of the films have not been exposed the +slide is replaced into the adapter and the film pack removed from it +in a darkroom, as previously stated. + +As a matter of regular policy, it is recommended that more than one +exposure be made of each latent, varying the normal exposure time to +insure satisfactory results, especially when the contrast is not a +good black on white or gray on black. + +Before starting to photograph, note the following: + + - Check shutter action. + + - Check bulbs, batteries, and lights. + + - Center latents in opening of camera. + + - Latent being photographed must be flush with opening of + camera. + + - Outside light must be excluded. + + - Include identification tag in photograph. + + - Remove slide and pull safety tab of film pack before + making exposure. + + - Hold camera still while making exposure. + + - Pull correct number tab after each exposure (be careful + not to pull more than one). + + - Do not use grained or uneven material as a backing when + photographing latents on transparent glass. + + - Mirrors, polished chrome, and nickel plate will photograph + black in the fingerprint camera. + +The foregoing has dealt with the standard use of the fingerprint +camera when the direct light afforded by the camera gives suitable +results. There will be cases, however, where the results from the use +of the direct light may not be adequate. Such cases may involve molded +or embedded prints, such as prints in putty, wax, soap, etc. Should +direct light give poor results, side lighting may prove effective. +This can be done by loosening two of the bulbs on one side so that +they will not light. The light given by the other two bulbs is +directed so as to pass at right angles, as much as possible, across +the ridges of the embedded latent print. Adjustment of the exposure +time must be made when this is done. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +_Preparation of Fingerprint Charts for Court Testimony_ + + +In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares +charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature +of his testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult for the +layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the full import of +an expert's testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some +graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified and +rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole +responsibility of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to +law enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a brief +explanation of the preparation of such charts follows, along with +suggestions and remarks based on long experience in these matters. + +To do the work conveniently, it will be necessary to have available, +in addition to the ordinary photographic developing and printing +materials, a projection enlarger which will enlarge preferably to at +least ten diameters. In the projection method of enlargement, the +image is printed directly from the original negative, and the +preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary. + +Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are: a +roll of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to outline the areas of +the fingerprints on the negatives to be used; some stiff cardboard +approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts; a +tube of rubber cement; and a bottle of translucent ink, other than +black or white. + +A light-box on which to view the negatives while blocking, and a +lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, +while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box +is basically a frosted pane of glass with a light beneath it to +produce soft, even, non-glaring illumination. If no light-box is +available, a clear window may be utilized in "blocking" the negatives. + +If the expert finds it necessary to have an outside source prepare his +photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during +the operation. + +The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical +should be photographed actual size. This procedure eliminates +guesswork in enlarging both to the same degree. Whatever areas of the +two prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of +identification are then outlined (blocked) on the negatives with the +masking tape, so that only those areas will show in the subsequent +enlargements. Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is +small, it is well to show the complete print. If the area is large, +however, as in a palm print, an area which will not make the chart too +bulky or unwieldy may be selected. + +In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light-box +by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, with the +side to be blocked up. This prevents constant shifting of the negative +while it is being prepared. The latent print should be blocked first. +Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Care should be +exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formations +shown and the ridge formations in the same upright or horizontal +positions. This may be facilitated by fixing a negative, bearing ruled +squares, between the negative being blocked and the glass to which it +is attached. + +If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on +a dark background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and +blocked in order that both prints may appear as black ridges on light +backgrounds. This is done by placing the original negative adjacent to +a new sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative contains +the same image as the original except that the color of the image has +been reversed. + +If the negative is a photograph of an opaque lift, the print appears +in reverse position; that is, as a mirror image, and the negative will +accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order +for it to appear in a position comparable to that of the inked print. + +Failure to present the prints in question in the same color and +position may possibly confuse the observer and nullify the purpose for +which the chart is made. + +The degree of enlargement is not important in itself, so long as the +ridges of the latent print are readily distinguishable by the eye. Ten +diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to +30 will serve. It should be remembered, however, that small +enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and that large ones +lose some of the contrast between ridges and background. A white +border of at least 1-1/2 inches or a width equal to about one-third +the enlarged area should be left for charting purposes. + +Any chart prepared must be technically correct; that is, the +corresponding ridge characteristics in the two prints must be +similarly numbered and indicated. + +Several ways of pointing out the similar ridge formations have been +observed, but the one which appears soundest is also simplest and +consists of merely marking the characteristics with lines and numbers. + +All of the ridge characteristics in the prints need not be charted. +Twelve characteristics are ample to illustrate an identification, but +it is neither claimed nor implied that this number is required. + +All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two +impressions have ridge characteristics of similar shapes which occupy +the same relative positions in the patterns. + +Methods involving superimposition of the prints are not recommended +because such a procedure is possible only in a very few instances, due +to the distortion of ridges in most prints through pressure and +twisting. Such a procedure is not necessarily a test of identity. + +Likewise, presenting charts with the shapes of the characteristics +drawn in the margin is not recommended. Individual ridge +characteristics may vary slightly in actual shape or physical position +due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking, condition of latent +print when developed, powder adhering to background, etc. +Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a +unit relationship and not on the microscopic appearances of single +characteristics. + +Since the enlarged photographs appear in black and white, an ink other +than black or white should be used to line the chart. Such an ink +should be preferably translucent so that it will be possible to see +the ridges which it traverses. A translucent carmine drawing ink +serves well. In placing the lines on the chart, they should be +arranged so that they do not cross or touch. + +The chart will present a clearer, neater, and more pleasing appearance +if it is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced (fig. +429). It is not necessary, however, to place the numbers evenly around +the photograph. + +[Illustration: 429. Chart illustrating method of fingerprint +identification.] + +Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of +print (latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of +numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the +characteristics in an orderly sequence; and, if the situation warrants +it, all of the points may be illustrated on a single side of the +photograph. + +A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a numbered +point on the margin. Care should be taken to draw the line exactly to +the characteristic point, not short of it, beyond it, or obscuring it. +Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is sometimes +possible to remove it with a cloth dampened in denatured alcohol, +without damaging the photograph. + +If the enlargement is great, that is, 25 or 30 diameters, it might be +well to draw a small circle around each characteristic and then draw +the line from the circle to the number, since the ridge will be much +thicker than the illustrating line. All lines and numbers should be +checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the +enlargements for _apparent discrepancies_ in the prints, which he +might be called upon to explain. + +The charted enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard with +rubber cement, which may be purchased in small tubes. After cementing +the photograph to the cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy +flat object which will cover the entire surface until dry to prevent +warping and wrinkling. After drying, trim the two enlargements to the +same square size with heavy scissors, a pen knife or scalpel, and +fasten them together, book-fashion, with strips of the photographic +tape used in blocking the negatives. Of course, if charts are large, +20 to 36 inches square, mounting is unnecessary and they will have to +be supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks or metal rings. + +Some courts do not permit numbering or lining of the photographs and +the enlargements alone in these cases will have to suffice. If there +is some question about admissibility of the charted enlargements, it +is well to prepare an extra uncharted set. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +_Unidentified Latent Fingerprint File_ + + +From time to time the FBI is requested to conduct surveys and +participate in conferences and in police schools on the problem of +fingerprint identification. + +As a result of its observations in the course of these activities it +has been found that many identification bureaus are not fully aware of +the importance which latent finger impressions can have in connection +with the ordinary handling of arrest fingerprint cards. + +Many bureaus and departments spend considerable time in developing +latent impressions in a particular case. If no immediate results are +forthcoming, the latent impressions are filed for future reference. + +Single fingerprint files have been maintained with success by some +departments. Many others do not attempt to keep a file because of +either limited personnel or lack of funds. In many departments, +however, where such a file is maintained, too often latent impressions +are simply filed with no regard to possible future use. Actually, +these impressions should be treated as evidence directly connecting +the subject with the crime. + +Active consideration should be given to the latent impressions until +they are identified or the case has been successfully prosecuted. It +is definitely felt that the following suggested procedure might have +some decided advantages. + +It is suggested that in all cases where latent impressions are +developed at the crime scene, or on an object used in connection with +the commission of a crime, the impressions be properly photographed +and lifted. The evidence, where possible and practicable, should be +properly packed, labeled, and stored for future use in court (fig. +430). + +Use care in wrapping the evidence to see that the latent impressions +on the objects are not destroyed. If the specimens are later used in +court, the impressions should still be clearly visible. In the same +manner, all evidence not of a bulky nature, such as photographic +negatives, photographs, and lifts of latent impressions, should be +similarly preserved for future court use. It is to be emphasized that +all material in one case should bear a case number. All specimens not +of a bulky nature can be placed in an envelope and filed by this case +number (fig. 431). + +The above procedure is the usual one followed by the majority of +identification bureaus in handling latent impressions. In order, +however, to keep the latents in an active state, the photographs of +all the latent impressions found in a particular case should be cut up +and pasted on a 3 by 5 card bearing the case number and title of the +case (fig. 432). + +[Illustration: 430. Evidence labeled and latents protected for storing +for future court use.] + +[Illustration: 431. Latent material in a case should be filed under a +single case number.] + +If numerous latents are developed, several cards should be used, all +having the same number and title. These cards are then filed by case +number in a regular filing cabinet. Before this step is taken, every +effort should be made to secure and compare the fingerprints of +individuals who may legitimately have placed their prints on the +objects which were examined. In addition, as part of the case report +bearing the same case number as the latent impressions, there should +be a notation pointing out that latent impressions were developed in +the case and that they are on file. + +[Illustration: 432. For ready current comparisons latents in a case +are placed on a 3 x 5 card bearing case title and number.] + + Case #2345 + + Unknown Subjects + Jones' Drug Co. + B&E + 3-15-47 + +Fingerprint comparisons in this unidentified file can be made on the +basis of fingerprints taken from day to day of individuals +fingerprinted for criminal identification purposes. A routine may be +set up whereby the fingerprints of individuals arrested each day will +be compared the following day with the latent fingerprints filed in +the unidentified latent file. It is most important that this procedure +be rigidly followed from day to day. It is to be borne in mind that +the comparisons are made whether the particular person is or is not a +suspect in a certain case. Special attention should be paid to +fingerprints of individuals charged with burglary, breaking and +entering, armed robbery, and other similar crimes. + +Should an identification be made of some latent prints, and others in +the same case remain unidentified, the 3 by 5 card should remain in +file until the case is fully closed, inasmuch as more than one person +may be involved in the crime. Of course, if all the latents are +identified, then the 3 by 5 card is removed and placed with the +negatives, lifts, etc. + +It may be deemed advisable to remove these latents from the file in +instances where the statute of limitations covering the crime has run. + +If the above procedure is rigidly followed, identification in many +instances will result--more than would be effected if the department +maintained only a single fingerprint file in which the latent prints +were merely filed away. Very often such a latent fingerprint file is a +source of information when all logical investigative leads have been +exhausted. + + _This resume of latent impressions has been prepared by the + Federal Bureau of Investigation in the belief that it may be + of possible interest to law enforcement officers desiring to + avail themselves of latent identification evidence in + connection with their investigative activities. It should be + borne in mind that the comments and expressions set out in + this book are not intended to convey the thought that the + Federal Bureau of Investigation believes the points + emphasized are the only ones of moment, or that other + methods of developing latent impressions are not equally + acceptable. The Federal Bureau of Investigation will be glad + to answer any questions on the foregoing which may occur to + any law enforcement officer who reads this material._ + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Science of Fingerprints, by +Federal Bureau of Investigation +John Edgar Hoover + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS *** + +***** This file should be named 19022.txt or 19022.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/0/2/19022/ + +Produced by Jason Isbell, Linda Cantoni, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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