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diff --git a/18900-8.txt b/18900-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c2dfe3 --- /dev/null +++ b/18900-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10294 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by +John C. Van Dyke + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Text-Book of the History of Painting + +Author: John C. Van Dyke + +Release Date: July 23, 2006 [EBook #18900] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PAINTING *** + + + + +Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: VELASQUEZ. HEAD OF ÆSOP, MADRID.] + + + A TEXT-BOOK + + OF THE + + HISTORY OF PAINTING + + + + BY + + JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. + + PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE AND AUTHOR OF + "ART FOR ART'S SAKE," "THE MEANING OF PICTURES," ETC. + + + + LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. + 91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK + LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA + 1909 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY + LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. + + * * * * * + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The object of this series of text-books is to provide concise +teachable histories of art for class-room use in schools and colleges. +The limited time given to the study of art in the average educational +institution has not only dictated the condensed style of the volumes, +but has limited their scope of matter to the general features of art +history. Archæological discussions on special subjects and æsthetic +theories have been avoided. The main facts of history as settled by +the best authorities are given. If the reader choose to enter into +particulars the bibliography cited at the head of each chapter will be +found helpful. Illustrations have been introduced as sight-help to the +text, and, to avoid repetition, abbreviations have been used wherever +practicable. The enumeration of the principal extant works of an +artist, school, or period, and where they may be found, which follows +each chapter, may be serviceable not only as a summary of individual +or school achievement, but for reference by travelling students in +Europe. + +This volume on painting, the first of the series, omits mention of +such work in Arabic, Indian, Chinese, and Persian art as may come +properly under the head of Ornament--a subject proposed for separate +treatment hereafter. In treating of individual painters it has been +thought best to give a short critical estimate of the man and his rank +among the painters of his time rather than the detailed facts of his +life. Students who wish accounts of the lives of the painters should +use Vasari, Larousse, and the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ in connection +with this text-book. + +Acknowledgments are made to the respective publishers of Woltmann and +Woermann's History of Painting, and the fine series of art histories +by Perrot and Chipiez, for permission to reproduce some few +illustrations from these publications. + +JOHN C. VAN DYKE. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY + +INTRODUCTION + +CHAPTER I. + +EGYPTIAN PAINTING + +CHAPTER II. + +CHALDÆO-ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN, PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING + +CHAPTER III. + +GREEK, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMAN PAINTING + +CHAPTER IV. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIÆVAL PERIOD, 200-1250 + +CHAPTER V. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--GOTHIC PERIOD, 1250-1400 + +CHAPTER VI. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500 + +CHAPTER VII. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500, _Continued_ + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600 + +CHAPTER IX. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_ + +CHAPTER X. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_ + +CHAPTER XI. + +ITALIAN PAINTING--THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK, 1600-1894 + +CHAPTER XII. + +FRENCH PAINTING--SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES + +CHAPTER XIII. + +FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY, _Continued_ + +CHAPTER XV. + +SPANISH PAINTING + +CHAPTER XVI. + +FLEMISH PAINTING + +CHAPTER XVII. + +DUTCH PAINTING + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +GERMAN PAINTING + +CHAPTER XIX. + +BRITISH PAINTING + +CHAPTER XX. + +AMERICAN PAINTING + +POSTSCRIPT + +INDEX + + * * * * * + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Velasquez, Head of Æsop, Madrid _Frontispiece_ + +1 Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Ti, Saccarah + +2 Portrait of Queen Taia + +3 Offerings to the Dead. Wall painting + +4 Vignette on Papyrus + +5 Enamelled Brick, Nimroud + +6 " " Khorsabad + +7 Wild Ass. Bas-relief + +8 Lions Frieze, Susa + +9 Painted Head from Edessa + +10 Cypriote Vase Decoration + +11 Attic Grave Painting + +12 Muse of Cortona + +13 Odyssey Landscape + +14 Amphore, Lower Italy + +15 Ritual Scene, Palatine Wall painting + +16 Portrait, Fayoum, Graf Collection + +17 Chamber in Catacombs, with wall decorations + +18 Catacomb Fresco, S. Cecilia + +19 Christ as Good Shepherd, Ravenna mosaic + +20 Christ and Saints, fresco, S. Generosa + +21 Ezekiel before the Lord. MS. illumination + +22 Giotto, Flight into Egypt, Arena Chap. + +23 Orcagna, Paradise (detail), S. M. Novella + +24 Lorenzetti, Peace (detail), Sienna + +25 Fra Angelico, Angel, Uffizi + +26 Fra Filippo, Madonna, Uffizi + +27 Botticelli, Coronation of Madonna, Uffizi + +28 Ghirlandajo, Visitation, Louvre + +29 Francesca, Duke of Urbino, Uffizi + +30 Signorelli, The Curse (detail), Orvieto + +31 Perugino, Madonna, Saints, and Angels, Louvre + +32 School of Francia, Madonna, Louvre + +33 Mantegna, Gonzaga Family Group, Mantua + +34 B. Vivarini, Madonna and Child, Turin + +35 Giovanni Bellini, Madonna, Venice Acad. + +36 Carpaccio, Presentation (detail), Venice Acad. + +37 Antonello da Messina, Unknown Man, Louvre + +38 Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from Cross, Pitti + +39 Andrea del Sarto, Madonna of St. Francis, Uffizi + +40 Michael Angelo, Athlete, Sistine Chap., Rome + +41 Raphael, La Belle Jardinière, Louvre + +42 Giulio Romano, Apollo and Muses, Pitti + +43 Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, Louvre + +44 Luini, Daughter of Herodias, Uffizi + +45 Sodoma, Ecstasy of St. Catherine, Sienna + +46 Correggio, Marriage of St. Catherine, Louvre + +47 Giorgione, Ordeal of Moses, Uffizi + +48 Titian, Venus Equipping Cupid, Borghese, Rome + +49 Tintoretto, Mercury and Graces, Ducal Pal., Venice + +50 Veronese, Venice Enthroned, Ducal Pal., Venice + +51 Lotto, Three Ages, Pitti + +52 Bronzino, Christ in Limbo, Uffizi + +53 Baroccio, Annunciation + +54 Annibale Caracci, Entombment of Christ, Louvre + +55 Caravaggio, The Card Players, Dresden + +56 Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, Louvre + +57 Claude Lorrain, Flight into Egypt, Dresden + +58 Watteau, Gilles, Louvre + +59 Boucher, Pastoral, Louvre + +60 David, The Sabines, Louvre + +61 Ingres, Oedipus and Sphinx, Louvre + +62 Delacroix, Massacre of Scio, Louvre + +63 Gérôme, Pollice Verso + +64 Corot, Landscape + +65 Rousseau, Charcoal Burner's Hut, Fuller Collection + +66 Millet, The Gleaners, Louvre + +67 Cabanel, Phædra + +68 Meissonier, Napoleon in 1814 + +69 Sanchez-Coello, Daughter of Philip II., Madrid + +70 Murillo, St. Anthony of Padua, Dresden + +71 Ribera, St. Agnes, Dresden + +72 Fortuny, Spanish Marriage + +73 Madrazo, Unmasked + +74 Van Eycks, St. Bavon Altar-piece, Berlin + +75 Memling (?), St. Lawrence, Nat. Gal., Lon. + +76 Massys, Head of Virgin, Antwerp + +77 Rubens, Portrait of Young Woman + +78 Van Dyck, Portrait of Cornelius van der Geest + +79 Teniers the Younger, Prodigal Son, Louvre + +80 Alfred Stevens, On the Beach + +81 Hals, Portrait of a Lady + +82 Rembrandt, Head of a Woman, Nat. Gal., Lon. + +83 Ruisdael, Landscape + +84 Hobbema, The Water Wheel, Amsterdam Mus. + +85 Israels, Alone in the World + +86 Mauve, Sheep + +87 Lochner, Sts. John, Catharine, Matthew, London + +88 Wolgemut, Crucifixion, Munich + +89 Dürer, Praying Virgin, Augsburg + +90 Holbein, Portrait, Hague Mus. + +91 Piloty, Wise and Foolish Virgins + +92 Leibl, In Church + +93 Menzel, A Reader + +94 Hogarth, Shortly after Marriage, Nat. Gal., Lon. + +95 Reynolds, Countess Spencer and Lord Althorp + +96 Gainsborough, Blue Boy + +97 Constable, Corn Field, Nat. Gal., Lon. + +98 Turner, Fighting Téméraire, Nat. Gal., Lon. + +99 Burne-Jones, Flamma Vestalis + +100 Leighton, Helen of Troy + +101 Watts, Love and Death + +102 West, Peter Denying Christ, Hampton Court + +103 Gilbert Stuart, Washington, Boston Mus. + +104 Hunt, Lute Player + +105 Eastman Johnson, Churning + +106 Inness, Landscape + +107 Winslow Homer, Undertow + +108 Whistler, The White Girl + +109 Sargent, "Carnation Lily, Lily Rose" + +110 Chase, Alice, Art Institute, Chicago + + * * * * * + + + + +GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. + + +(This includes the leading accessible works that treat of painting in +general. For works on special periods or schools, see the +bibliographical references at the head of each chapter. For +bibliography of individual painters consult, under proper names, +Champlin and Perkins's _Cyclopedia_, as given below.) + + +Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, New York. + +Adeline, _Lexique des Termes d'Art_. + +_Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Paris. + +Larousse, _Grand Dictionnaire Universel_, Paris. + +_L'Art, Revue hebdomadaire illustrée_, Paris. + +Bryan, _Dictionary of Painters_. _New edition_. + +Brockhaus, _Conversations-Lexikon_. + +Meyer, _Allgemeines Künstler-Lexikon_, Berlin. + +Muther, _History of Modern Painting_. + +Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_. + +Bayet, _Précis d'Histoire de l'Art_. + +Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres de toutes les Écoles_. + +Eastlake, _Materials for a History of Oil Painting_. + +Lübke, _History of Art, trans. by Clarence Cook_. + +Reber, _History of Ancient Art_. + +Reber, _History of Mediæval Art_. + +Schnasse, _Geschichte der Bildenden Künste_. + +Girard, _La Peinture Antique_. + +Viardot, _History of the Painters of all Schools_. + +Williamson (Ed.), _Handbooks of Great Masters_. + +Woltmann and Woermann, _History of Painting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HISTORY OF PAINTING. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The origin of painting is unknown. The first important records of this +art are met with in Egypt; but before the Egyptian civilization the +men of the early ages probably used color in ornamentation and +decoration, and they certainly scratched the outlines of men and +animals upon bone and slate. Traces of this rude primitive work still +remain to us on the pottery, weapons, and stone implements of the +cave-dwellers. But while indicating the awakening of intelligence in +early man, they can be reckoned with as art only in a slight +archæological way. They show inclination rather than accomplishment--a +wish to ornament or to represent, with only a crude knowledge of how +to go about it. + +The first aim of this primitive painting was undoubtedly +decoration--the using of colored forms for color and form only, as +shown in the pottery designs or cross-hatchings on stone knives or +spear-heads. The second, and perhaps later aim, was by imitating the +shapes and colors of men, animals, and the like, to convey an idea of +the proportions and characters of such things. An outline of a +cave-bear or a mammoth was perhaps the cave-dweller's way of telling +his fellows what monsters he had slain. We may assume that it was +pictorial record, primitive picture-written history. This early method +of conveying an idea is, in intent, substantially the same as the +later hieroglyphic writing and historical painting of the Egyptians. +The difference between them is merely one of development. Thus there +is an indication in the art of Primitive Man of the two great +departments of painting existent to-day. + +1. DECORATIVE PAINTING. + +2. EXPRESSIVE PAINTING. + +Pure Decorative Painting is not usually expressive of ideas other than +those of rhythmical line and harmonious color. It is not our subject. +This volume treats of Expressive Painting; but in dealing with that it +should be borne in mind that Expressive Painting has always a more or +less decorative effect accompanying it, and that must be spoken of +incidentally. We shall presently see the intermingling of both kinds +of painting in the art of ancient Egypt--our first inquiry. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +EGYPTIAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Brugsch, _History of Egypt under the + Pharaohs_; Budge, _Dwellers on the Nile_; Duncker, _History + of Antiquity; Egypt Exploration Fund Memoirs_; Ely, _Manual + of Archæology_; Lepsius, _Denkmaler aus Aegypten und + Aethiopen_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_; + Maspero, _Guide du Visiteur au Musée de Boulaq_; Maspero, + _Egyptian Archæology_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art + in Ancient Egypt_; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the + Ancient Egyptians_. + + +LAND AND PEOPLE: Egypt, as Herodotus has said, is "the gift of the +Nile," one of the latest of the earth's geological formations, and yet +one of the earliest countries to be settled and dominated by man. It +consists now, as in the ancient days, of the valley of the Nile, +bounded on the east by the Arabian mountains and on the west by the +Libyan desert. Well-watered and fertile, it was doubtless at first a +pastoral and agricultural country; then, by its riverine traffic, a +commercial country, and finally, by conquest, a land enriched with the +spoils of warfare. + +Its earliest records show a strongly established monarchy. Dynasties +of kings called Pharaohs succeeded one another by birth or conquest. +The king made the laws, judged the people, declared war, and was +monarch supreme. Next to him in rank came the priests, who were not +only in the service of religion but in that of the state, as +counsellors, secretaries, and the like. The common people, with true +Oriental lack of individuality, depending blindly on leaders, were +little more than the servants of the upper classes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--HUNTING IN THE MARSHES. TOMB OF TI, SACCARAH. +(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)] + +The Egyptian religion existing in the earliest days was a worship of +the personified elements of nature. Each element had its particular +controlling god, worshipped as such. Later on in Egyptian history the +number of gods was increased, and each city had its trinity of godlike +protectors symbolized by the propylæa of the temples. Future life was +a certainty, provided that the Ka, or spirit, did not fall a prey to +Typhon, the God of Evil, during the long wait in the tomb for the +judgment-day. The belief that the spirit rested in the body until +finally transported to the aaln fields (the Islands of the Blest, +afterward adopted by the Greeks) was one reason for the careful +preservation of the body by mummifying processes. Life itself was not +more important than death. Hence the imposing ceremonies of the +funeral and burial, the elaborate richness of the tomb and its wall +paintings. Perhaps the first Egyptian art arose through religious +observance, and certainly the first known to us was sepulchral. + +ART MOTIVES: The centre of the Egyptian system was the monarch and his +supposed relatives, the gods. They arrogated to themselves the chief +thought of life, and the aim of the great bulk of the art was to +glorify monarchy or deity. The massive buildings, still standing +to-day in ruins, were built as the dwelling-places of kings or the +sanctuaries of gods. The towers symbolized deity, the sculptures and +paintings recited the functional duties of presiding spirits, or the +Pharaoh's looks and acts. Almost everything about the public buildings +in painting and sculpture was symbolic illustration, picture-written +history--written with a chisel and brush, written large that all might +read. There was no other safe way of preserving record. There were no +books; the papyrus sheet, used extensively, was frail, and the +Egyptians evidently wished their buildings, carvings, and paintings to +last into eternity. So they wrought in and upon stone. The same +hieroglyphic character of their papyrus writings appeared cut and +colored on the palace walls, and above them and beside them the +pictures ran as vignettes explanatory of the text. In a less +ostentatious way the tombs perpetuated history in a similar manner, +reciting the domestic scenes from the life of the individual, as the +temples and palaces the religious and monarchical scenes. + +In one form or another it was all record of Egyptian life, but this +was not the only motive of their painting. The temples and palaces, +designed to shut out light and heat, were long squares of heavy stone, +gloomy as the cave from which their plan may have originated. Carving +and color were used to brighten and enliven the interior. The battles, +the judgment scenes, the Pharaoh playing at draughts with his wives, +the religious rites and ceremonies, were all given with brilliant +arbitrary color, surrounded oftentimes by bordering bands of green, +yellow, and blue. Color showed everywhere from floor to ceiling. Even +the explanatory hieroglyphic texts ran in colors, lining the walls and +winding around the cylinders of stone. The lotus capitals, the frieze +and architrave, all glowed with bright hues, and often the roof +ceiling was painted in blue and studded with golden stars. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTRAIT OF QUEEN TAIA. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +All this shows a decorative motive in Egyptian painting, and how +constantly this was kept in view may be seen at times in the +arrangement of the different scenes, the large ones being placed in +the middle of the wall and the smaller ones going at the top and +bottom, to act as a frieze and dado. There were, then, two leading +motives for Egyptian painting; (1) History, monarchical, religious, or +domestic; and (2) Decoration. + +TECHNICAL METHODS: Man in the early stages of civilization comprehends +objects more by line than by color or light. The figure is not +studied in itself, but in its sun-shadow or silhouette. The Egyptian +hieroglyph represented objects by outlines or arbitrary marks and +conveyed a simple meaning without circumlocution. The Egyptian +painting was substantially an enlargement of the hieroglyph. There was +no attempt to place objects in the setting which they hold in nature. +Perspective and light-and-shade were disregarded. Objects, of whatever +nature, were shown in flat profile. In the human figure the shoulders +were square, the hips slight, the legs and arms long, the feet and +hands flat. The head, legs, and arms were shown in profile, while the +chest and eye were twisted to show the flat front view. There are only +one or two full-faced figures among the remains of Egyptian painting. +After the outline was drawn the enclosed space was filled in with +plain color. In the absence of high light, or composed groups, +prominence was given to an important figure, like that of the king, by +making it much larger than the other figures. This may be seen in any +of the battle-pieces of Rameses II., in which the monarch in his +chariot is a giant where his followers are mere pygmies. In the +absence of perspective, receding figures of men or of horses were +given by multiplied outlines of legs, or heads, placed before, or +after, or raised above one another. Flat water was represented by +zigzag lines, placed as it were upon a map, one tree symbolized a +forest, and one fortification a town. + +These outline drawings were not realistic in any exact sense. The face +was generally expressionless, the figure, evidently done from memory +or pattern, did not reveal anatomical structure, but was nevertheless +graceful, and in the representation of animals the sense of motion was +often given with much truth. The color was usually an attempt at +nature, though at times arbitrary or symbolic, as in the case of +certain gods rendered with blue, yellow, or green skins. The +backgrounds were always of flat color, arbitrary in hue, and +decorative only. The only composition was a balance by numbers, and +the processional scenes rose tier upon tier above one another in long +panels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD, WALL PAINTING, EIGHTEENTH +DYNASTY. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)] + +Such work would seem almost ludicrous did we not keep in mind its +reason for existence. It was, first, symbolic story-telling art, and +secondly, architectural decoration. As a story-teller it was effective +because of its simplicity and directness. As decoration, the repeated +expressionless face and figure, the arbitrary color, the absence of +perspective were not inappropriate then nor are they now. Egyptian +painting never was free from the decorative motive. Wall painting was +little more than an adjunct of architecture, and probably grew out of +sculpture. The early statues were colored, and on the wall the chisel, +like the flint of Primitive Man, cut the outline of the figure. At +first only this cut was filled with color, producing what has been +called the koil-anaglyphic. In the final stage the line was made by +drawing with chalk or coal on prepared stucco, and the color, mixed +with gum-water (a kind of distemper), was applied to the whole +enclosed space. Substantially the same method of painting was used +upon other materials, such as wood, mummy cartonnage, papyrus; and in +all its thousands of years of existence Egyptian painting never +advanced upon or varied to any extent this one method of work. + +HISTORIC PERIODS: Egyptian art may be traced back as far as the Third +or Fourth Memphitic dynasty of kings. The date is uncertain, but it is +somewhere near 3,500 B.C. The seat of empire, at that time, was +located at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and it is among the remains of this + +Memphitic Period that the earliest and best painting is found. In +fact, all Egyptian art, literature, language, civilization, seem at +their highest point of perfection in the period farthest removed from +us. In that earliest age the finest portrait busts were cut, and the +painting, found chiefly in the tombs and on the mummy-cases, was the +attempted realistic with not a little of spirited individuality. The +figure was rather short and squat, the face a little squarer than the +conventional type afterward adopted, the action better, and the +positions, attitudes, and gestures more truthful to local +characteristics. The domestic scenes--hunting, fishing, tilling, +grazing--were all shown in the one flat, planeless, shadowless method +of representation, but with better drawing and color and more variety +than appeared later on. Still, more or less conventional types were +used, even in this early time, and continued to be used all through +Egyptian history. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--VIGNETTE ON PAPYRUS, LOUVRE. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +The Memphitic Period comes down to the eleventh dynasty. In the +fifteenth dynasty comes the invasion of the so-called Hyksos, or +Shepherd Kings. Little is known of the Hyksos, and, in painting, the +next stage is the + +Theban Period, which, culminated in Thebes, in Upper Egypt, with +Rameses II., of the nineteenth dynasty. Painting had then changed +somewhat both in subject and character. The time was one of great +temple and palace building, and, though the painting of _genre_ +subjects in tombs and sepulchres continued, the general body of art +became more monumental and subservient to architecture. Painting was +put to work on temple and palace-walls, depicting processional scenes, +either religious or monarchical, and vast in extent. The figure, too, +changed slightly. It became longer, slighter, with a pronounced nose, +thick lips, and long eye. From constant repetition, rather than any +set rule or canon, this figure grew conventional, and was reproduced +as a type in a mechanical and unvarying manner for hundreds of years. +It was, in fact, only a variation from the original Egyptian type seen +in the tombs of the earliest dynasties. There was a great quantity of +art produced during the Theban Period, and of a graceful, decorative +character, but it was rather monotonous by repetition and filled with +established mannerisms. The Egyptian really never was a free worker, +never an artist expressing himself; but, for his day, a skilled +mechanic following time-honored example. In the + +Saitic Period the seat of empire was once more in Lower Egypt, and art +had visibly declined with the waning power of the country. All +spontaneity seemed to have passed out of it, it was repetition of +repetition by poor workmen, and the simplicity and purity of the +technic were corrupted by foreign influences. With the Alexandrian +epoch Egyptian art came in contact with Greek methods, and grew +imitative of the new art, to the detriment of its own native +character. Eventually it was entirely lost in the art of the +Greco-Roman world. It was never other than conventional, produced by a +method almost as unvarying as that of the hieroglyphic writing, and in +this very respect characteristic and reflective of the unchanging +Orientals. Technically it had its shortcomings, but it conveyed the +proper information to its beholders and was serviceable and graceful +decoration for Egyptian days. + + EXTANT PAINTINGS: The temples, palaces, and tombs of Egypt + still reveal Egyptian painting in almost as perfect a state + as when originally executed; the Ghizeh Museum has many fine + examples; and there are numerous examples in the museums at + Turin, Paris, Berlin, London, New York, and Boston. An + interesting collection belongs to the New York Historical + Society, and some of the latest "finds" of the Egypt + Exploration Fund are in the Boston Museum. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +CHALDÆO-ASSYRIAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Babelon, _Manual of Oriental + Antiquities_; Botta, _Monument de Ninive_; Budge, + _Babylonian Life and History_; Duncker, _History of + Antiquity_; Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_; Layard, + _Discoveries Among Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_; Lenormant, + _Manual of the Ancient History of the East_; Loftus, + _Travels in Chaldæa and Susiana_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient + Egypt and Assyria_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in + Chaldæa and Assyria_; Place, _Ninive et l'Assyrie_; Sayce, + _Assyria: Its Palaces, Priests, and People_. + + +TIGRIS-EUPHRATES CIVILIZATION: In many respects the civilization along +the Tigris-Euphrates was like that along the Nile. Both valleys were +settled by primitive peoples, who grew rapidly by virtue of favorable +climate and soil, and eventually developed into great nations headed +by kings absolute in power. The king was the state in Egypt, and in +Assyria the monarch was even more dominant and absolute. For the +Pharaohs shared architecture, painting, and sculpture with the gods; +but the Sargonids seem to have arrogated the most of these things to +themselves alone. + +Religion was perhaps as real in Assyria as in Egypt, but it was less +apparent in art. Certain genii, called gods or demons, appear in the +bas-reliefs, but it is not yet settled whether they represent gods or +merely legendary heroes or monsters of fable. There was no great +demonstration of religion by form and color, as in Egypt. The +Assyrians were Semites, and religion with them was more a matter of +the spirit than the senses--an image in the mind rather than an image +in metal or stone. The temple was not eloquent with the actions and +deeds of the gods, and even the tomb, that fruitful source of art in +Egypt, was in Chaldæa undecorated and in Assyria unknown. No one knows +what the Assyrians did with their dead, unless they carried them back +to the fatherland of the race, the Persian Gulf region, as the native +tribes of Mesopotamia do to this day. + +ART MOTIVES: As in Egypt, there were two motives for art--illustration +and decoration. Religion, as we have seen, hardly obtained at all. The +king attracted the greatest attention. The countless bas-reliefs, cut +on soft stone slabs, were pages from the history of the monarch in +peace and war, in council, in the chase, or in processional rites. +Beside him and around him his officers came in for a share of the +background glory. Occasionally the common people had representations +of their lives and their pursuits, but the main subject of all the +valley art was the king and his doings. Sculpture and painting were +largely illustrations accompanying a history written in the +ever-present cuneiform characters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENAMELLED BRICK. NIMROUD. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +But, while serving as history, like the picture-writings of the +Egyptians, this illustration was likewise decoration, and was designed +with that end in view. Rows upon rows of partly colored bas-reliefs +were arranged like a dado along the palace-wall, and above them +wall-paintings, or glazed tiles in patterns, carried out the color +scheme. Almost all of the color has now disappeared, but it must have +been brilliant at one time, and was doubtless in harmony with the +architecture. Both painting and sculpture were subordinate to and +dependent upon architecture. Palace-building was the chief pursuit, +and the other arts were called in mainly as adjuncts--ornamental +records of the king who built. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ENAMELLED BRICK. KHORSABAD. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +THE TYPE, FORM, COLOR: There were only two distinct faces in Assyrian +art--one with and one without a beard. Neither of them was a portrait +except as attributes or inscriptions designated. The type was +unendingly repeated. Women appeared in only one or two isolated cases, +and even these are doubtful. The warrior, a strong, coarse-membered, +heavily muscled creation, with a heavy, expressionless, Semitic face, +appeared everywhere. The figure was placed in profile, with eye and +bust twisted to show the front view, and the long feet projected one +beyond the other, as in the Nile pictures. This was the Assyrian ideal +of strength, dignity, and majesty, established probably in the early +ages, and repeated for centuries with few characteristic variations. +The figure was usually given in motion, walking, or riding, and had +little of that grace seen in Egyptian painting, but in its place a +great deal of rude strength. In modelling, the human form was not so +knowingly rendered as the animal. The long Eastern clothing probably +prevented the close study of the figure. This failure in anatomical +exactness was balanced in part by minute details in the dress and +accessories, productive of a rich ornamental effect. + +Hard stone was not found in the Mesopotamian regions. Temples were +built of burnt brick, bas-reliefs were made upon alabaster slabs and +heightened by coloring, and painting was largely upon tiles, with +mineral paints, afterward glazed by fire. These glazed brick or tiles, +with figured designs, were fixed upon the walls, arches, and +archivolts by bitumen mortar, and made up the first mosaics of which +we have record. There was a further painting upon plaster in +distemper, of which some few traces remain. It did not differ in +design from the bas-reliefs or the tile mosaics. + +The subjects used were the Assyrian type, shown somewhat slighter in +painting than in sculpture, animals, birds, and other objects; but +they were obviously not attempts at nature. The color was arbitrary, +not natural, and there was little perspective, light-and-shade, or +relief. Heavy outline bands of color appeared about the object, and +the prevailing hues were yellow and blue. There was perhaps less +symbolism and more direct representation in Assyria than in Egypt. +There was also more feeling for perspective and space, as shown in +such objects as water and in the mountain landscapes of the late +bas-reliefs; but, in the main, there was no advance upon Egypt. There +was a difference which was not necessarily a development. Painting, as +we know the art to-day, was not practised in Chaldæa-Assyria. It was +never free from a servitude to architecture and sculpture; it was +hampered by conventionalities; and the painter was more artisan than +artist, having little freedom or individuality. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WILD ASS. BAS-RELIEF, BRITISH MUSEUM. (FROM +PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)] + +HISTORIC PERIODS: Chaldæa, of unknown antiquity, with Babylon its +capital, is accounted the oldest nation in the Tigris-Euphrates +valley, and, so far as is known, it was an original nation producing +an original art. Its sculpture (especially in the Tello heads), and +presumably its painting, were more realistic and individual than any +other in the valley. Assyria coming later, and the heir of Chaldæa, +was the + +Second Empire: There are two distinct periods of this Second Empire, the +first lasting from 1,400 B.C., down to about 900 B.C., and in art +showing a great profusion of bas-reliefs. The second closed about 625 +B.C., and in art produced much glazed-tile work and a more elaborate +sculpture and painting. After this the Chaldæan provinces gained the +ascendency again, and Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, became the first +city of Asia. But the new Babylon did not last long. It fell before +Cyrus and the Persians 536 B.C. Again, as in Egypt, the earliest art +appears the purest and the simplest, and the years of Chaldæo-Assyrian +history known to us carry a record of change rather than of progress in +art. + + ART REMAINS: The most valuable collections of + Chaldæo-Assyrian art are to be found in the Louvre and the + British Museum. The other large museums of Europe have + collections in this department, but all of them combined are + little compared with the treasures that still lie buried in + the mounds of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Excavations have + been made at Mugheir, Warka, Khorsabad, Kouyunjik, and + elsewhere, but many difficulties have thus far rendered + systematic work impossible. The complete history of + Chaldæo-Assyria and its art has yet to be written. + + +PERSIAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker, + Lenormant, Ely; Dieulafoy, _L'Art Antique de la Perse_; + Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_; Justi, _Geschichte des + alten Persiens_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in + Persia_. + + +HISTORY AND ART MOTIVES: The Medes and Persians were the natural +inheritors of Assyrian civilization, but they did not improve their +birthright. The Medes soon lost their power. Cyrus conquered them, and +established the powerful Persian monarchy upheld for two hundred years +by Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes. Substantially the same conditions +surrounded the Persians as the Assyrians--that is, so far as art +production was concerned. Their conceptions of life were similar, and +their use of art was for historic illustration of kingly doings and +ornamental embellishment of kingly palaces. Both sculpture and +painting were accessories of architecture. + +Of Median art nothing remains. The Persians left the record, but it +was not wholly of their own invention, nor was it very extensive or +brilliant. It had little originality about it, and was really only an +echo of Assyria. The sculptors and painters copied their Assyrian +predecessors, repeating at Persepolis what had been better told at +Nineveh. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LIONS' FRIEZE, SUSA. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)] + +TYPES AND TECHNIC: The same subjects, types, and technical methods in +bas-relief, tile, and painting on plaster were followed under Darius +as under Shalmanezer. But the imitation was not so good as the +original. The warrior, the winged monsters, the animals all lost +something of their air of brutal defiance and their strength of +modelling. Heroes still walked in procession along the bas-reliefs and +glazed tiles, but the figure was smaller, more effeminate, the hair +and beard were not so long, the drapery fell in slightly indicated +folds at times, and there was a profusion of ornamental detail. Some +of this detail and some modifications in the figure showed the +influence of foreign nations other than the Greek; but, in the main, +Persian art followed in the footsteps of Assyrian art. It was the last +reflection of Mesopotamian splendor. For with the conquest of Persia +by Alexander the book of expressive art in that valley was closed, +and, under Islam, it remains closed to this day. + + ART REMAINS: Persian painting is something about which + little is known because little remains. The Louvre contains + some reconstructed friezes made in mosaics of stamped brick + and square tile, showing figures of lions and a number of + archers. The coloring is particularly rich, and may give + some idea of Persian pigments. Aside from the chief museums + of Europe the bulk of Persian art is still seen half-buried + in the ruins of Persepolis and elsewhere. + + +PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker, Ely, + Girard, Lenormant; Cesnola, _Cyprus_; Cesnola, _Cypriote + Antiquities in Metropolitan Museum of Art_; Kenrick, + _Phoenicia_; Movers, _Die Phonizier_; Perrot and Chipiez, + _History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus_; Perrot and + Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, Syria and Asia + Minor_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Phrygia, + Lydia, etc._; Renan, _Mission de Phénicie_. + + +THE TRADING NATIONS: The coast-lying nations of the Eastern +Mediterranean were hardly original or creative nations in a large +sense. They were at different times the conquered dependencies of +Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and their lands were but bridges over +which armies passed from east to west or from west to east. Located on +the Mediterranean between the great civilizations of antiquity they +naturally adapted themselves to circumstances, and became the +middlemen, the brokers, traders, and carriers of the ancient world. +Their lands were not favorable to agriculture, but their sea-coasts +rendered commerce easy and lucrative. They made a kingdom of the sea, +and their means of livelihood were gathered from it. There is no +record that the Egyptians ever traversed the Mediterranean, the +Assyrians were not sailors, the Greeks had not yet arisen, and so +probably Phoenicia and her neighbors had matters their own way. +Colonies and trading stations were established at Cyprus, Carthage, +Sardinia, the Greek islands, and the Greek mainland, and not only +Eastern goods but Eastern ideas were thus carried to the West. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PAINTED HEAD FROM EDESSA. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +Politically, socially, and religiously these small middle nations were +inconsequential. They simply adapted their politics or faith to the +nation that for the time had them under its heel. What semi-original +religion they possessed was an amalgamation of the religions of other +nations, and their gods of bronze, terra-cotta, and enamel were +irreverently sold in the market like any other produce. + +ART MOTIVES AND METHODS: Building, carving, and painting were +practised among the coastwise nations, but upon no such extensive +scale as in either Egypt or Assyria. The mere fact that they were +people of the sea rather than of the land precluded extensive or +concentrated development. Politically Phoenicia was divided among +five cities, and her artistic strength was distributed in a similar +manner. Such art as was produced showed the religious and decorative +motives, and in its spiritless materialistic make-up, the commercial +motive. It was at the best a hybrid, mongrel art, borrowed from many +sources and distributed to many points of the compass. At one time it +had a strong Assyrian cast, at another an Egyptian cast, and after +Greece arose it accepted a retroactive influence from there. + +It is impossible to characterize the Phoenician type, and even the +Cypriote type, though more pronounced, varies so with the different +influences that it has no very striking individuality. Technically +both the Phoenician and Cypriote were fair workmen in bronze and +stone, and doubtless taught many technical methods to the early +Greeks, besides making known to them those deities afterward adopted +under the names of Aphrodite, Adonis, and Heracles, and familiarizing +them with the art forms of Egypt and Assyria. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--CYPRIOTE VASE DECORATION. (FROM PERROT AND +CHIPIEZ.)] + +As for painting, there was undoubtedly figured decoration upon walls +of stone and plaster, but there is not enough left to us from all the +small nations like Phoenicia, Judea, Cyprus, and the kingdoms of +Asia Minor, put together, to patch up a disjointed history. The first +lands to meet the spoiler, their very ruins have perished. All that +there is of painting comes to us in broken potteries and color traces +on statuary. The remains of sculpture and architecture are of course +better preserved. None of this intermediate art holds much rank by +virtue of its inherent worth. It is its influence upon the West--the +ideas, subjects, and methods it imparted to the Greeks--that gives it +importance in art history. + + ART REMAINS: In painting chiefly the vases in the + Metropolitan Museum, New York, the Louvre, British and + Berlin Museums. These give a poor and incomplete idea of the + painting in Asia Minor, Phoenicia and her colonies. The + terra-cottas, figurines in bronze, and sculptures can be + studied to more advantage. The best collection of Cypriote + antiquities is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. A new + collection of Judaic art has been recently opened in the + Louvre. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GREEK PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Baumeister, _Denkmäler des klassischen + Altertums_--article "_Malerei_;" Birch, _History of Ancient + Pottery_; Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Künstler_; + Collignon, _Mythologie figurée de la Grèce_; Collignon, + _Manuel d'Archaeologie Grecque_; Cros et Henry, + _L'Encaustique et les autres procédés de Peinture chez les + Anciens_; Girard, _La Peinture Antique_; Murray, _Handbook + of Greek Archæology_; Overbeck, _Antiken Schriftquellen zur + geschichte der bildenen Kunste bie den Griechen_; Perrot and + Chipiez, _History of Art in Greece_; Woerman, _Die + Landschaft in der Kunst der antiken Volker_; _see also books + on Etruscan and Roman painting_. + + +GREECE AND THE GREEKS: The origin of the Greek race is not positively +known. It is reasonably supposed that the early settlers in Greece +came from the region of Asia Minor, either across the Hellespont or +the sea, and populated the Greek islands and the mainland. When this +was done has been matter of much conjecture. The early history is +lost, but art remains show that in the period before Homer the Greeks +were an established race with habits and customs distinctly +individual. Egyptian and Asiatic influences are apparent in their art +at this early time, but there is, nevertheless, the mark of a race +peculiarly apart from all the races of the older world. + +The development of the Greek people was probably helped by favorable +climate and soil, by commerce and conquest, by republican institutions +and political faith, by freedom of mind and of body; but all these +together are not sufficient to account for the keenness of intellect, +the purity of taste, and the skill in accomplishment which showed in +every branch of Greek life. The cause lies deeper in the fundamental +make-up of the Greek mind, and its eternal aspiration toward mental, +moral, and physical ideals. Perfect mind, perfect body, perfect +conduct in this world were sought-for ideals. The Greeks aspired to +completeness. The course of education and race development trained +them physically as athletes and warriors, mentally as philosophers, +law-makers, poets, artists, morally as heroes whose lives and actions +emulated those of the gods, and were almost perfect for this world. + +ART MOTIVES: Neither the monarchy nor the priesthood commanded the +services of the artist in Greece, as in Assyria and Egypt. There was +no monarch in an oriental sense, and the chosen leaders of the Greeks +never, until the late days, arrogated art to themselves. It was +something for all the people. + +In religion there was a pantheon of gods established and worshipped +from the earliest ages, but these gods were more like epitomes of +Greek ideals than spiritual beings. They were the personified virtues +of the Greeks, exemplars of perfect living; and in worshipping them +the Greek was really worshipping order, conduct, repose, dignity, +perfect life. The gods and heroes, as types of moral and physical +qualities, were continually represented in an allegorical or legendary +manner. Athene represented noble warfare, Zeus was majestic dignity +and power, Aphrodite love, Phoebus song, Niké triumph, and all the +lesser gods, nymphs, and fauns stood for beauties of nature or of +life. The great bulk of Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting +was put forth to honor these gods or heroes, and by so doing the +artist repeated the national ideals and honored himself. The first +motive of Greek art, then, was to praise Hellas and the Hellenic view +of life. In part it was a religious motive, but with little of that +spiritual significance and belief which ruled in Egypt, and later on +in Italy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--ATTIC GRAVE PAINTING. (FROM BAUMEISTER.)] + +A second and ever-present motive in Greek painting was decoration. +This appears in the tomb pottery of the earliest ages, and was carried +on down to the latest times. Vase painting, wall painting, tablet and +sculpture painting were all done with a decorative motive in view. +Even the easel or panel pictures had some decorative effect about +them, though they were primarily intended to convey ideas other than +those of form and color. + +SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The gods and heroes, their lives and adventures, +formed the early subjects of Greek painting. Certain themes taken +from the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were as frequently shown as, +afterward, the Annunciations in Italian painting. The traditional +subjects, the Centaurs and Lapiths, the Amazon war, Theseus and +Ariadne, Perseus and Andromeda, were frequently depicted. Humanity and +actual Greek life came in for its share. Single figures, still-life, +_genre_, caricature, all were shown, and as painting neared the +Alexandrian age a semi-realistic portraiture came into vogue. + +The materials employed by the Greeks and their methods of work are +somewhat difficult to ascertain, because there are few Greek pictures, +except those on the vases, left to us. From the confusing accounts of +the ancient writers, the vases, some Greek slabs in Italy, and the +Roman paintings imitative of the Greek, we may gain a general idea. +The early Greek work was largely devoted to pottery and tomb +decoration, in which much in manner and method was borrowed from Asia, +Phoenicia, and Egypt. Later on, painting appeared in flat outline on +stone or terra-cotta slabs, sometimes representing processional +scenes, as in Egypt, and doubtless done in a hybrid fresco-work +similar to the Egyptian method. Wall paintings were done in fresco and +distemper, probably upon the walls themselves, and also upon panels +afterward let into the wall. Encaustic painting (color mixed with wax +upon the panel and fused with a hot spatula) came in with the +Sikyonian school. It is possible that the oil medium and canvas were +known, but not probable that either was ever used extensively. + +There is no doubt about the Greeks being expert draughtsmen, though +this does not appear until late in history. They knew the outlines +well, and drew them with force and grace. That they modelled in strong +relief is more questionable. Light-and-shade was certainly employed in +the figure, but not in any modern way. Perspective in both figures and +landscape was used; but the landscape was at first symbolic and +rarely got beyond a decorative background for the figure. Greek +composition we know little about, but may infer that it was largely a +series of balances, a symmetrical adjustment of objects to fill a +given space with not very much freedom allowed to the artist. In +atmosphere, sunlight, color, and those peculiarly sensuous charms that +belong to painting, there is no reason to believe that the Greeks +approached the moderns. Their interest was chiefly centred in the +human figure. Landscape, with its many beauties, was reserved for +modern hands to disclose. Color was used in abundance, without doubt, +but it was probably limited to the leading hues, with little of that +refinement or delicacy known in painting to-day. + +ART HISTORY: For the history of Greek painting we have to rely upon +the words of Aristotle, Plutarch, Pliny, Quintilian, Lucian, Cicero, +Pausanias. Their accounts appear to be partly substantiated by the +vase paintings, and such few slabs and Roman frescos as remain to us. +There is no consecutive narrative. The story of painting originating +from a girl seeing the wall-silhouette of her lover and filling it in +with color, and the conjecture of painting having developed from +embroidery work, have neither of them a foundation in fact. The +earliest settlers of Greece probably learned painting from the +Phoenicians, and employed it, after the Egyptian, Assyrian, and +Phoenician manner, on pottery, terra-cotta slabs, and rude +sculpture. It developed slower than sculpture perhaps; but were there +anything of importance left to judge from, we should probably find +that it developed in much the same manner as sculpture. Down to 500 +B.C. there was little more than outline filled in with flat +monochromatic paint and with a decorative effect similar, perhaps, to +that of the vase paintings. After that date come the more important +names of artists mentioned by the ancient writers. It is difficult to +assign these artists to certain periods or schools, owing to the +insufficient knowledge we have about them. The following +classifications and assignments may, therefore, in some instances, be +questioned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MUSE OF CORTONA, CORTONA MUSEUM.] + +OLDER ATTIC SCHOOL: The first painter of rank was Polygnotus (fl. +475-455 B.C.), sometimes called the founder of Greek painting, because +perhaps he was one of the first important painters in Greece proper. +He seems to have been a good outline draughtsman, producing figures in +profile, with little attempt at relief, perspective, or +light-and-shade. His colors were local tones, but probably more like +nature and more varied than anything in Egyptian painting. Landscapes, +buildings, and the like, were given in a symbolic manner. Portraiture +was a generalization, and in figure compositions the names of the +principal characters were written near them for purposes of +identification. The most important works of Polygnotus were the wall +paintings for the Assembly Room of the Knidians at Delphi. The +subjects related to the Trojan War and the adventures of Ulysses. + +Opposed to this flat, unrelieved style was the work of a follower, +Agatharchos of Samos (fl. end of fifth century B.C.). He was a +scene-painter, and by the necessities of his craft was led toward +nature. Stage effect required a study of perspective, variation of +light, and a knowledge of the laws of optics. The slight outline +drawing of his predecessor was probably superseded by effective masses +to create illusion. This was a distinct advance toward nature. +Apollodorus (fl. end of fifth century B.C.) applied the principles of +Agatharchos to figures. According to Plutarch, he was the first to +discover variation in the shade of colors, and, according to Pliny, +the first master to paint objects as they appeared in nature. He had +the title of _skiagraphos_ (shadow-painter), and possibly gave a +semi-natural background with perspective. This was an improvement, but +not a perfection. It is not likely that the backgrounds were other +than conventional settings for the figure. Even these were not at once +accepted by the painters of the period, but were turned to profit in +the hands of the followers. + +After the Peloponnesian Wars the art of painting seems to have +flourished elsewhere than in Athens, owing to the Athenian loss of +supremacy. Other schools sprang up in various districts, and one to +call for considerable mention by the ancient writers was the + +IONIAN SCHOOL, which in reality had existed from the sixth century. +The painters of this school advanced upon the work of Apollodorus as +regards realistic effect. Zeuxis, whose fame was at its height during +the Peloponnesian Wars, seems to have regarded art as a matter of +illusion, if one may judge by the stories told of his work. The tale +of his painting a bunch of grapes so like reality that the birds came +to peck at them proves either that the painter's motive was deception, +or that the narrator of the tale picked out the deceptive part of his +picture for admiration. He painted many subjects, like Helen, +Penelope, and many _genre_ pieces on panel. Quintilian says he +originated light-and-shade, an achievement credited by Plutarch to +Apollodorus. It is probable that he advanced light-and-shade. + +In illusion he seems to have been outdone by a rival, Parrhasios of +Ephesus. Zeuxis deceived the birds with painted grapes, but Parrhasios +deceived Zeuxis with a painted curtain. There must have been knowledge +of color, modelling, and relief to have produced such an illusion, but +the aim was petty and unworthy of the skill. There was evidently an +advance technically, but some decline in the true spirit of art. +Parrhasios finally suffered defeat at the hands of Timanthes of +Kythnos, by a Contest between Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of +Achilles. Timanthes's famous work was the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, of +which there is a supposed Pompeian copy. + +SIKYONIAN SCHOOL: This school seems to have sprung up after the +Peloponnesian Wars, and was perhaps founded by Eupompos, a +contemporary of Parrhasios. His pupil Pamphilos brought the school to +maturity. He apparently reacted from the deception motive of Zeuxis +and Parrhasios, and taught academic methods of drawing, composing, and +painting. He was also credited with bringing into use the encaustic +method of painting, though it was probably known before his time. His +pupil, Pausias, possessed some freedom of creation in _genre_ and +still-life subjects. Pliny says he had great technical skill, as shown +in the foreshortening of a black ox by variations of the black tones, +and he obtained some fame by a figure of Methè (Intoxication) drinking +from a glass, the face being seen through the glass. Again the +motives seem trifling, but again advancing technical power is shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ODYSSEY LANDSCAPE, VATICAN. (FROM WOLTMANN AND +WOERMANN.)] + +THEBAN-ATTIC SCHOOL: This was the fourth school of Greek painting. +Nikomachus (fl. about 360 B.C.), a facile painter, was at its head. +His pupil, Aristides, painted pathetic scenes, and was perhaps as +remarkable for teaching art to the celebrated Euphranor (fl. 360 B.C.) +as for his own productions. Euphranor had great versatility in the +arts, and in painting was renowned for his pictures of the Olympian +gods at Athens. His successor, Nikias (fl. 340-300 B.C.), was a +contemporary of Praxiteles, the sculptor, and was possibly influenced +by him in the painting of female figures. He was a technician of +ability in composition, light-and-shade, and relief, and was praised +for the roundness of his figures. He also did some tinting of +sculpture, and is said to have tinted some of the works of +Praxiteles. + +LATE PAINTERS: Contemporary with and following these last-named +artists were some celebrated painters who really belong to the +beginning of the Hellenistic Period (323 B.C.). At their head was +Apelles, the painter of Philip and Alexander, and the climax of Greek +painting. He painted many gods, heroes, and allegories, with much +"gracefulness," as Pliny puts it. The Italian Botticelli, seventeen +hundred years after him, tried to reproduce his celebrated Calumny, +from Lucian's description of it. His chief works were his Aphrodite +Anadyomene, carried to Rome by Augustus, and the portrait of Alexander +with the Thunder-bolt. He was undoubtedly a superior man technically. +Protogenes rivalled him, if we are to believe Petronius, by the foam +on a dog's mouth and the wonder in the eye of a startled pheasant. +Aëtion, the painter of Alexander's Marriage to Roxana, was not able to +turn the aim of painting from this deceptive illusion. After +Alexander, painting passed still further into the imitative and the +theatrical, and when not grandiloquent was infinitely little over +cobbler-shops and huckster-stalls. Landscape for purposes of +decorative composition, and floor painting, done in mosaic, came in +during the time of the Diadochi. There were no great names in the +latter days, and such painters as still flourished passed on to Rome, +there to produce copies of the works of their predecessors. + +It is hard to reconcile the unworthy motive attributed to Greek +painting by the ancient writers with the high aim of Greek sculpture. +It is easier to think (and it is more probable) that the writers knew +very little about art, and that they missed the spirit of Greek +painting in admiring its insignificant details. That painting +technically was at a high point of perfection as regards the figure, +even the imitative Roman works indicate, and it can hardly be doubted +that in spirit it was at one time equally strong. + + EXTANT REMAINS: There are few wall or panel pictures of + Greek times in existence. Four slabs of stone in the Naples + Museum, with red outline drawings of Theseus, Silenos, and + some figures with masks, are probably Greek work from which + the color has scaled. A number of Roman copies of Greek + frescos and mosaics are in the Vatican, Capitoline, and + Naples Museums. All these pieces show an imitation of late + Hellenistic art--not the best period of Greek development. + + THE VASES: The history of Greek painting in its remains is + traced with some accuracy in the decorative figures upon the + vases. The first ware--dating before the seventh century + B.C.--seems free from oriental influences in its designs. + The vase is reddish, the decoration is in tiers, bands, or + zig-zags, usually in black or brown, without the human + figure. The second kind of ware dates from about the middle + of the seventh century. It shows meander, wave, and other + designs, and is called the "geometrical" style. Later on + animals, rosettes, and vegetation appear that show Assyrian + influence. The decoration is profuse and the rude human + figure subordinate to it. The design is in black or + dark-brown, on a cream-colored slip. The third kind of ware + is the archaic or "strong" style. It dates from 500 B.C. to + the Peloponnesian Wars, and is marked by black figures upon + a yellow or red ground. White and purple are also used to + define flesh, hair, and white objects. The figure is stiff, + the action awkward, the composition is freer than before, + but still conventional. The subjects are the gods, + demi-gods, and heroes in scenes from their lives and + adventures. The fourth kind of ware dates down into the + Hellenistic age and shows red figures surrounded by a black + ground. The figure, the drawing, the composition are better + than at any other period and suggest a high excellence in + other forms of Greek painting. After Alexander, vase + painting seems to have shared the fate of wall and panel + painting. There was a striving for effect, with ornateness + and extravagance, and finally the art passed out entirely. + + There was an establishment founded in Southern Italy which + imitated the Greek and produced the Apulian ware, but the + Romans gave little encouragement to vase painting, and about + 65 B.C. it disappeared. Almost all the museums of the world + have collections of Greek vases. The British, Berlin, and + Paris collections are perhaps as complete as any. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--AMPHORE, LOWER ITALY.] + + +ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: See Bibliography of Greek Painting and + also Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_; Graul, _Die + Portratgemalde aus den Grabstatten des Faiyum_; Helbig, _Die + Wandgemalde Campaniens_; Helbig, _Untersuchungen uber die + Campanische Wandmalerei_; Mau, _Geschichte der Decorativen + Wandmalerei in Pompeii_; Martha, _L'Archéologie Étrusque et + Romaine_. + + +ETRUSCAN PAINTING: Painting in Etruria has not a great deal of +interest for us just here. It was largely decorative and sepulchral in +motive, and was employed in the painting of tombs, and upon vases and +other objects placed in the tombs. It had a native way of expressing +itself, which at first was neither Greek nor Oriental, and yet a +reminder of both. Technically it was not well done. Before 500 B.C. it +was almost childish in the drawing. After that date the figures were +better, though short and squat. Those on the vases usually show +outline drawing filled in with dull browns and yellows. Finally there +was a mingling of Etruscan with Greek elements, and an imitation of +Greek methods. It was at best a hybrid art, but of some importance +from an archæological point of view. + +ROMAN PAINTING: Roman art is an appendix to the art history of Greece. +It originated little in painting, and was content to perpetuate the +traditions of Greece in an imitative way. What was worse, it copied +the degeneracy of Greece by following the degenerate Hellenistic +paintings. In motive and method it was substantially the same work as +that of the Greeks under the Diadochi. The subjects, again, were often +taken from Greek story, though there were Roman historical scenes, +_genre_ pieces, and many portraits. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--RITUAL SCENE, PALATINE WALL PAINTING. (FROM +WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)] + +In the beginning of the Empire tablet or panel painting was rather +abandoned in favor of mural decoration. That is to say, figures or +groups were painted in fresco on the wall and then surrounded by +geometrical, floral, or architectural designs to give the effect of a +panel let into the wall. Thus painting assumed a more decorative +nature. Vitruvius says in effect that in the early days nature was +followed in these wall paintings, but later on they became ornate and +overdone, showing many unsupported architectural façades and +impossible decorative framings. This can be traced in the Roman and +Pompeian frescos. There were four kinds of these wall paintings. (1.) +Those that covered all the walls of a room and did away with dado, +frieze, and the like, such as figures with large landscape +backgrounds showing villas and trees. (2.) Small paintings separated +or framed by pilasters. (3.) Panel pictures let into the wall or +painted with that effect. (4.) Single figures with architectural +backgrounds. The single figures were usually the best. They had grace +of line and motion and all the truth to nature that decoration +required. Some of the backgrounds were flat tints of red or black +against which the figure was placed. In the larger pieces the +composition was rather rambling and disjointed, and the color harsh. +In light-and-shade and relief they probably followed the Greek +example. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PORTRAIT-HEAD. (FROM FAYOUM, GRAF COL.)] + +ROMAN PAINTERS: During the first five centuries Rome was between the +influences of Etruria and Greece. The first paintings in Rome of which +there is record were done in the Temple of Ceres by the Greek artists +of Lower Italy, Gorgasos and Damophilos (fl. 493 B.C.). They were +doubtless somewhat like the vase paintings--profile work, without +light, shade, or perspective. At the time and after Alexander Greek +influence held sway. Fabius Pictor (fl. about 300 B.C.) is one of the +celebrated names in historical painting, and later on Pacuvius, +Metrodorus, and Serapion are mentioned. In the last century of the +Republic, Sopolis, Dionysius, and Antiochus Gabinius excelled in +portraiture. Ancient painting really ends for us with the destruction +of Pompeii (79 A.D.), though after that there were interesting +portraits produced, especially those found in the Fayoum (Egypt).[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Scribner's Magazine, vol. v., p. 219, New Series.] + + EXTANT REMAINS: The frescos that are left to us to-day are + largely the work of mechanical decorators rather than + creative artists. They are to be seen in Rome, in the Baths + of Titus, the Vatican, Livia's Villa, Farnesina, + Rospigliosi, and Barberini Palaces, Baths of Caracalla, + Capitoline and Lateran Museums, in the houses of excavated + Pompeii, and the Naples Museum. Besides these there are + examples of Roman fresco and distemper in the Louvre and + other European Museums. Examples of Etruscan painting are to + be seen in the Vatican, Cortona, the Louvre, the British + Museum and elsewhere. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIÆVAL PERIOD. 200-1250. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bayet, _L'Art Byzantin_; Bennett, + _Christian Archæology_; Bosio, _La Roma Sotterranea_; + Burckhardt, _The Cicerone, an Art Guide to Painting in + Italy, ed. by Crowe_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _New History + of Painting in Italy_; De Rossi, _La Roma Sotterranea + Cristiana_; De Rossi, _Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana_; + Didron, _Christian Iconography_; Eastlake (Kügler's), + _Handbook of Painting--The Italian Schools_; Garrucci, + _Storia dell' Arte Cristiana_; Gerspach, _La Mosaïque_; + Lafenestre, _La Peinture Italienne_; Lanzi, _History of + Painting in Italy_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Les Manuscrits et + la Miniature_; Lindsay, _Sketches of the History of + Christian Art_; Martigny, _Dictionnaire des Antiques + Chrétiennes_; Pératé, _L'Archeologie Chretienne_; Reber, + _History of Mediæval Art_; Rio, _Poetry of Christian Art_; + Lethaby, _Medieval Art_; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of + Christian Antiquities_. + + +RISE OF CHRISTIANITY: Out of the decaying civilization of Rome sprang +into life that remarkable growth known as Christianity. It was not +welcomed by the Romans. It was scoffed at, scourged, persecuted, and, +at one time, nearly exterminated. But its vitality was stronger than +that of its persecutor, and when Rome declined, Christianity utilized +the things that were Roman, while striving to live for ideas that were +Christian. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CHAMBER IN CATACOMBS, SHOWING WALL +DECORATION.] + +There was no revolt, no sudden change. The Christian idea made haste +slowly, and at the start it was weighed down with many paganisms. The +Christians themselves in all save religious faith, were Romans, and +inherited Roman tastes, manners, and methods. But the Roman world, +with all its classicism and learning, was dying. The decline socially +and intellectually was with the Christians as well as the Romans. +There was good reason for it. The times were out of joint, and almost +everything was disorganized, worn out, decadent. The military life of +the Empire had begun to give way to the monastic and feudal life of +the Church. Quarrels and wars between the powers kept life at fever +heat. In the fifth century came the inpouring of the Goths and Huns, +and with them the sacking and plunder of the land. Misery and +squalor, with intellectual blackness, succeeded. Art, science, +literature, and learning degenerated to mere shadows of their former +selves, and a semi-barbarism reigned for five centuries. During all +this dark period Christian painting struggled on in a feeble way, +seeking to express itself. It started Roman in form, method, and even, +at times, in subject; it ended Christian, but not without a long +period of gradual transition, during which it was influenced from many +sources and underwent many changes. + +ART MOTIVES: As in the ancient world, there were two principal motives +for painting in early Christian times--religion and decoration. +Religion was the chief motive, but Christianity was a very different +religion from that of the Greeks and Romans. The Hellenistic faith was +a worship of nature, a glorification of humanity, an exaltation of +physical and moral perfections. It dealt with the material and the +tangible, and Greek art appealed directly to the sensuous and earthly +nature of mankind. The Hebraic faith or Christianity was just the +opposite of this. It decried the human, the flesh, and the worldly. It +would have nothing to do with the beauty of this earth. Its hopes were +centred upon the life hereafter. The teaching of Christ was the +humility and the abasement of the human in favor of the spiritual and +the divine. Where Hellenism appealed to the senses, Hebraism appealed +to the spirit. In art the fine athletic figure, or, for that matter, +any figure, was an abomination. The early Church fathers opposed it. +It was forbidden by the Mosaic decalogue and savored of idolatry. + +But what should take its place in art? How could the new Christian +ideas be expressed without form? Symbolism came in, but it was +insufficient. A party in the Church rose up in favor of more direct +representation. Art should be used as an engine of the Church to teach +the Bible to those who could not read. This argument held good, and +notwithstanding the opposition of the Iconoclastic party painting grew +in favor. It lent itself to teaching and came under ecclesiastical +domination. As it left the nature of the classic world and loosened +its grasp on things tangible it became feeble and decrepit in its +form. While it grew in sentiment and religious fervor it lost in +bodily vigor and technical ability. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CATACOMB FRESCO. CRYPT OF S. CECILIA. THIRD +CENTURY.] + +For many centuries the religious motive held strong, and art was the +servant of the Church. It taught the Bible truths, but it also +embellished and adorned the interiors of the churches. All the +frescos, mosaics, and altar-pieces had a decorative motive in their +coloring and setting. The church building was a house of refuge for +the oppressed, and it was made attractive not only in its lines and +proportions but in its ornamentation. Hence the two motives of the +early work--religious teaching and decoration. + +SUBJECTS AND TECHNICAL METHODS: There was no distinct Judaic or +Christian type used in the very early art. The painters took their +models directly from the Roman frescos and marbles. It was the classic +figure and the classic costume, and those who produced the painting +of the early period were the degenerate painters of the classic world. +The figure was rather short and squat, coarse in the joints, hands, +and feet, and almost expressionless in the face. Christian life at +that time was passion-strung, but the faces in art do not show it, for +the reason that the Roman frescos were the painter's model, not the +people of the Christian community about him. There was nothing like a +realistic presentation at this time. The type alone was given. + +In the drawing it was not so good as that shown in the Roman and +Pompeian frescos. There was a mechanism about its production, a +copying by unskilled hands, a negligence or an ignorance of form that +showed everywhere. The coloring, again, was a conventional scheme of +flat tints in reddish-browns and bluish-greens, with heavy outline +bands of brown. There was little perspective or background, and the +figures in panels were separated by vines, leaves, or other ornamental +division lines. Some relief was given to the figure by the brown +outlines. Light-and-shade was not well rendered, and composition was +formal. The great part of this early work was done in fresco after the +Roman formula, and was executed on the walls of the Catacombs. Other +forms of art showed in the gilded glasses, in manuscript illumination, +and, later, in the mosaics. + +Technically the work begins to decline from the beginning in +proportion as painting was removed from the knowledge of the ancient +world. About the fifth century the figure grew heavy and stiff. A new +type began to show itself. The Roman toga was exchanged for the long +liturgical garment which hid the proportions of the body, the lines +grew hard and dark, a golden nimbus appeared about the head, and the +patriarchal in appearance came into art. The youthful Orphic face of +Christ changed to a solemn visage, with large, round eyes, saint-like +beard, and melancholy air. The classic qualities were fast +disappearing. Eastern types and elements were being introduced +through Byzantium. Oriental ornamentation, gold embossing, rich color +were doing away with form, perspective, light-and-shade, and +background. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--CHRIST AS GOOD SHEPHERD. MOSAIC, RAVENNA, +FIFTH CENTURY.] + +The color was rich and the mechanical workmanship fair for the time, +but the figure had become paralytic. It shrouded itself in a sack-like +brocaded gown, had no feet at times, and instead of standing on the +ground hung in the air. Facial expression ran to contorted features, +holiness became moroseness, and sadness sulkiness. The flesh was +brown, the shadows green-tinted, giving an unhealthy look to the +faces. Add to this the gold ground (a Persian inheritance), the gilded +high lights, the absence of perspective, and the composing of groups +so that the figures looked piled one upon another instead of receding, +and we have the style of painting that prevailed in Byzantium and +Italy from about the ninth to the thirteenth century. Nothing of a +technical nature was in its favor except the rich coloring and the +mechanical adroitness of the fitting. + +EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING: The earliest Christian painting appeared on +the walls of the Catacombs in Rome. These were decorated with panels +and within the panels were representations of trailing vines, leaves, +fruits, flowers, with birds and little genii or cupids. It was +painting similar to the Roman work, and had no Christian significance +though in a Christian place. Not long after, however, the desire to +express something of the faith began to show itself in a symbolic way. +The cups and the vases became marked with the fish, because the Greek +spelling of the word "icthus" gave the initials of the Christian +confession of faith. The paintings of the shepherd bearing a sheep +symbolized Christ and his flock; the anchor meant the Christian hope; +the phoenix immortality; the ship the Church; the cock watchfulness, +and so on. And at this time the decorations began to have a double +meaning. The vine came to represent the "I am the vine" and the birds +grew longer wings and became doves, symbolizing pure Christian souls. + +It has been said this form of art came about through fear of +persecution, that the Christians hid their ideas in symbols because +open representation would be followed by violence and desecration. +Such was hardly the case. The emperors persecuted the living, but the +dead and their sepulchres were exempt from sacrilege by Roman law. +They probably used the symbol because they feared the Roman figure and +knew no other form to take its place. But symbolism did not supply the +popular need; it was impossible to originate an entirely new figure; +so the painters went back and borrowed the old Roman form. Christ +appeared as a beardless youth in Phrygian costume, the Virgin Mary was +a Roman matron, and the Apostles looked like Roman senators wearing +the toga. + +Classic story was also borrowed to illustrate Bible truth. Hermes +carrying the sheep was the Good Shepherd, Psyche discovering Cupid was +the curiosity of Eve, Ulysses closing his ears to the Sirens was the +Christian resisting the tempter. The pagan Orpheus charming the +animals of the wood was finally adopted as a symbol, or perhaps an +ideal likeness of Christ. Then followed more direct representation in +classic form and manner, the Old Testament prefiguring and emphasizing +the New. Jonah appeared cast into the sea and cast by the whale on dry +land again as a symbol of the New Testament resurrection, and also as +a representation of the actual occurrence. Moses striking the rock +symbolized life eternal, and David slaying Goliath was Christ +victorious. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--CHRIST AND SAINTS. FRESCO. S. GENEROSA, +SEVENTH CENTURY (?).] + +The chronology of the Catacombs painting is very much mixed, but it is +quite certain there was degeneracy from the start. The cause was +neglect of form, neglect of art as art, mechanical copying instead of +nature study, and finally, the predominance of the religious idea over +the forms of nature. With Constantine Christianity was recognized as +the national religion. Christian art came out of the Catacombs and +began to show itself in illuminations, mosaics, and church +decorations. Notwithstanding it was now free from restraint it did not +improve. Church traditions prevailed, sentiment bordered upon +sentimentality, and the technic of painting passed from bad to worse. + +The decline continued during the sixth and seventh centuries, owing +somewhat perhaps to the influence of Byzantium and the introduction +into Italy of Eastern types and elements. In the eighth century the +Iconoclastic controversy broke out again in fury with the edict of Leo +the Isaurian. This controversy was a renewal of the old quarrel in the +Church about the use of pictures and images. Some wished them for +instruction in the Word; others decried them as leading to idolatry. +It was a long quarrel of over a hundred years' duration, and a deadly +one for art. When it ended, the artists were ordered to follow the +traditions, not to make any new creations, and not to model any figure +in the round. The nature element in art was quite dead at that time, +and the order resulted only in diverting the course of painting toward +the unrestricted miniatures and manuscripts. The native Italian art +was crushed for a time by this new ecclesiastical burden. It did not +entirely disappear, but it gave way to the stronger, though equally +restricted art that had been encroaching upon it for a long time--the +art of Byzantium. + +BYZANTINE PAINTING: Constantinople was rebuilt and rechristened by +Constantine, a Christian emperor, in the year 328 A.D. It became a +stronghold of Christian traditions, manners, customs, art. But it was +not quite the same civilization as that of Rome and the West. It was +bordered on the south and east by oriental influences, and much of +Eastern thought, method, and glamour found its way into the Christian +community. The artists fought this influence, stickling a long time +for the severer classicism of ancient Greece. For when Rome fell the +traditions of the Old World centred around Constantinople. But classic +form was ever being encroached upon by oriental richness of material +and color. The struggle was a long but hopeless one. As in Italy, +form failed century by century. When, in the eighth century, the +Iconoclastic controversy cut away the little Greek existing in it, the +oriental ornament was about all that remained. + +There was no chance for painting to rise under the prevailing +conditions. Free artistic creation was denied the artist. An advocate +of painting at the Second Nicene Council declared that: "It is not the +invention of the painter that creates the picture, but an inviolable +law of the Catholic Church. It is not the painter but the holy fathers +who have to invent and dictate. To them manifestly belongs the +composition, to the painter only the execution." Painting was in a +strait-jacket. It had to follow precedent and copy what had gone +before in old Byzantine patterns. Both in Italy and in Byzantium the +creative artist had passed away in favor of the skilled artisan--the +repeater of time-honored forms or colors. The workmanship was good for +the time, and the coloring and ornamental borders made a rich setting, +but the real life of art had gone. A long period of heavy, morose, +almost formless art, eloquent of mediæval darkness and ignorance, +followed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--EZEKIEL BEFORE THE LORD. MS. ILLUMINATION. +PARIS, NINTH CENTURY.] + +It is strange that such an art should be adopted by foreign nations, +and yet it was. Its bloody crucifixions and morbid madonnas were well +fitted to the dark view of life held during the Middle Ages, and its +influence was wide-spread and of long duration. It affected French and +German art, it ruled at the North, and in the East it lives even to +this day. That it strongly affected Italy is a very apparent fact. +Just when it first began to show its influence there is matter of +dispute. It probably gained a foothold at Ravenna in the sixth +century, when that province became a part of the empire of Justinian. +Later it permeated Rome, Sicily, and Naples at the south, and Venice +at the north. With the decline of the early Christian art of Italy +this richer, and in many ways more acceptable, Byzantine art came in, +and, with Italian modifications, usurped the field. It did not +literally crush out the native Italian art, but practically it +superseded it, or held it in check, from the ninth to the twelfth +century. After that the corrupted Italian art once more came to the +front. + + EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE REMAINS: The best examples of + Early Christian painting are still to be seen in the + Catacombs at Rome. Mosaics in the early churches of Rome, + Ravenna, Naples, Venice, Constantinople. Sculptures, + ivories, and glasses in the Lateran, Ravenna, and Vatican + museums. Illuminations in Vatican and Paris libraries. + Almost all the museums of Europe, those of the Vatican and + Naples particularly, have some examples of Byzantine work. + The older altar-pieces of the early Italian churches date + back to the mediæval period and show Byzantine influence. + The altar-pieces of the Greek and Russian churches show the + same influence even in modern work. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +GOTHIC PERIOD. 1250-1400. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and + Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Lindsay, Reber; + also Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in the National Gallery, + London_ (_unabridged edition_); Cartier, _Vie de Fra + Angelico_; Förster, _Leben und Werke des Fra Angelico_; + Habich, _Vade Mecum pour la Peinture Italienne des Anciens + Maîtres_; Lacroix, _Les Arts au Moyen-Age et à la Époque de + la Renaissance_; Mantz, _Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de la Peinture + Italienne_; Morelli, _Italian Masters in German Galleries_; + Morelli, _Italian Masters, Critical Studies in their Works_; + Rumohr, _Italienische Forschungen_; Selincourt, _Giotto_; + Stillman, _Old Italian Masters_; Vasari, _Lives of the Most + Eminent Painters_; consult also General Bibliography (p. + xv). + + +SIGNS OF THE AWAKENING: It would seem at first as though nothing but +self-destruction could come to that struggling, praying, +throat-cutting population that terrorized Italy during the Mediæval +Period. The people were ignorant, the rulers treacherous, the passions +strong, and yet out of the Dark Ages came light. In the thirteenth +century the light grew brighter, but the internal dissensions did not +cease. The Hohenstaufen power was broken, the imperial rule in Italy +was crushed. Pope and emperor no longer warred each other, but the +cries of "Guelf" and "Ghibelline" had not died out. + +Throughout the entire Romanesque and Gothic periods (1000-1400) Italy +was torn by political wars, though the free cities, through their +leagues of protection and their commerce, were prosperous. A +commercial rivalry sprang up among the cities. Trade with the East, +manufactures, banking, all flourished; and even the philosophies, with +law, science, and literature, began to be studied. The spirit of +learning showed itself in the founding of schools and universities. +Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, reflecting respectively religion, +classic learning, and the inclination toward nature, lived and gave +indication of the trend of thought. Finally the arts, architecture, +sculpture, painting, began to stir and take upon themselves new +appearances. + +SUBJECTS AND METHODS: In painting, though there were some portraits +and allegorical scenes produced during the Gothic period, the chief +theme was Bible story. The Church was the patron, and art was only the +servant, as it had been from the beginning. It was the instructor and +consoler of the faithful, a means whereby the Church made converts, +and an adornment of wall and altar. It had not entirely escaped from +symbolism. It was still the portrayal of things for what they meant, +rather than for what they looked. There was no such thing then as art +for art's sake. It was art for religion's sake. + +The demand for painting increased, and its subjects multiplied with +the establishment at this time of the two powerful orders of Dominican +and Franciscan monks. The first exacted from the painters more learned +and instructive work; the second wished for the crucifixions, the +martyrdoms, the dramatic deaths, wherewith to move people by emotional +appeal. To offset this the ultra-religious character of painting was +encroached upon somewhat by the growth of the painters' guilds, and +art production largely passing into the hands of laymen. In +consequence painting produced many themes, but, as yet, only after the +Byzantine style. The painter was more of a workman than an artist. The +Church had more use for his fingers than for his creative ability. It +was his business to transcribe what had gone before. This he did, but +not without signs here and there of uneasiness and discontent with the +pattern. There was an inclination toward something truer to nature, +but, as yet, no great realization of it. The study of nature came in +very slowly, and painting was not positive in statement until the time +of Giotto and Lorenzetti. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--GIOTTO, FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. ARENA CHAP. +PADUA.] + +The best paintings during the Gothic period were executed upon the +walls of the churches in fresco. The prepared color was laid on wet +plaster, and allowed to soak in. The small altar and panel pictures +were painted in distemper, the gold ground and many Byzantine features +being retained by most of the painters, though discarded by some few. + +CHANGES IN THE TYPE, ETC.: The advance of Italian art in the Gothic +age was an advance through the development of the imposed Byzantine +pattern. It was not a revolt or a starting out anew on a wholly +original path. When people began to stir intellectually the artists +found that the old Byzantine model did not look like nature. They +began, not by rejecting it, but by improving it, giving it slight +movements here and there, turning the head, throwing out a hand, or +shifting the folds of drapery. The Eastern type was still seen in the +long pathetic face, oblique eyes, green flesh tints, stiff robes, thin +fingers, and absence of feet; but the painters now began to modify and +enliven it. More realistic Italian faces were introduced, +architectural and landscape backgrounds encroached upon the Byzantine +gold grounds, even portraiture was taken up. + +This looks very much like realism, but we must not lay too much stress +upon it. The painters were taking notes of natural appearances. It +showed in features like the hands, feet, and drapery; but the anatomy +of the body had not yet been studied, and there is no reason to +believe their study of the face was more than casual, nor their +portraits more than records from memory. + +No one painter began this movement. The whole artistic region of Italy +was at that time ready for the advance. That all the painters moved at +about the same pace, and continued to move at that pace down to the +fifteenth century, that they all based themselves upon Byzantine +teaching, and that they all had a similar style of working is proved +by the great difficulty in attributing their existing pictures to +certain masters, or even certain schools. There are plenty of pictures +in Italy to-day that might be attributed to either Florence or Sienna, +Giotto or Lorenzetti, or some other master; because though each master +and each school had slight peculiarities, yet they all had a common +origin in the art traditions of the time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ORCAGNA, PARADISE (DETAIL). S. M. NOVELLA, +FLORENCE.] + +FLORENTINE SCHOOL: Cimabue (1240?-1302?) seems the most notable +instance in early times of a Byzantine-educated painter who improved +upon the traditions. He has been called the father of Italian +painting, but Italian painting had no father. Cimabue was simply a man +of more originality and ability than his contemporaries, and departed +further from the art teachings of the time without decidedly opposing +them. He retained the Byzantine pattern, but loosened the lines of +drapery somewhat, turned the head to one side, infused the figure with +a little appearance of life. His contemporaries elsewhere in Italy +were doing the same thing, and none of them was any more than a link +in the progressive chain. + +Cimabue's pupil, Giotto (1266?-1337), was a great improver on all his +predecessors because he was a man of extraordinary genius. He would +have been great in any time, and yet he was not great enough to throw +off wholly the Byzantine traditions. He tried to do it. He studied +nature in a general way, changed the type of face somewhat by making +the jaw squarer, and gave it expression and nobility. To the figure he +gave more motion, dramatic gesture, life. The drapery was cast in +broader, simpler masses, with some regard for line, and the form and +movement of the body were somewhat emphasized through it. In methods +Giotto was more knowing, but not essentially different from his +contemporaries; his subjects were from the common stock of religious +story; but his imaginative force and invention were his own. Bound by +the conventionalities of his time he could still create a work of +nobility and power. He came too early for the highest achievement. He +had genius, feeling, fancy, almost everything except accurate +knowledge of the laws of nature and art. His art was the best of its +time, but it still lacked, nor did that of his immediate followers go +much beyond it technically. + +Taddeo Gaddi (1300?-1366?) was Giotto's chief pupil, a painter of much +feeling, but lacking in the large elements of construction and in the +dramatic force of his master. Agnolo Gaddi (1333?-1396?), Antonio +Veneziano (1312?-1388?), Giovanni da Milano (fl. 1366), Andrea da +Firenze (fl. 1377), were all followers of the Giotto methods, and were +so similar in their styles that their works are often confused and +erroneously attributed. Giottino (1324?-1357?) was a supposed imitator +of Giotto, of whom little is known. Orcagna (1329?-1376?) still +further advanced the Giottesque type and method. He gathered up and +united in himself all the art teachings of his time. In working out +problems of form and in delicacy and charm of expression he went +beyond his predecessors. He was a many-sided genius, knowing not only +in a matter of natural appearance, but in color problems, in +perspective, shadows, and light. His art was further along toward the +Renaissance than that of any other Giottesque. He almost changed the +character of painting, and yet did not live near enough to the +fifteenth century to accomplish it completely. Spinello Aretino +(1332?-1410?) was the last of the great Giotto followers. He carried +out the teachings of the school in technical features, such as +composition, drawing, and relief by color rather than by light, but he +lacked the creative power of Giotto. In fact, none of the Giottesque +can be said to have improved upon the master, taking him as a whole. +Toward the beginning of the fifteenth century the school rather +declined. + +SIENNESE SCHOOL: The art teachings and traditions of the past seemed +deeper rooted at Sienna than at Florence. Nor was there so much +attempt to shake them off as at Florence. Giotto broke the immobility +of the Byzantine model by showing the draped figure in action. So also +did the Siennese to some extent, but they cared more for the +expression of the spiritual than the beauty of the natural. The +Florentines were robust, resolute, even a little coarse at times; the +Siennese were more refined and sentimental. Their fancy ran to +sweetness of face rather than to bodily vigor. Again, their art was +more ornate, richer in costume, color, and detail than Florentine art; +but it was also more finical and narrow in scope. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A. LORENZETTI. PEACE (DETAIL). TOWN-HALL, +SIENNA.] + +There was little advance upon Byzantinism in the work of Guido da +Sienna (fl. 1275). Even Duccio (1260?----?), the real founder of the +Siennese school, retained Byzantine methods and adopted the school +subjects, but he perfected details of form, such as the hands and +feet, and while retaining the long Byzantine face, gave it a +melancholy tenderness of expression. He possessed no dramatic force, +but had a refined workmanship for his time--a workmanship perhaps +better, all told, than that of his Florentine contemporary, Cimabue. +Simone di Martino (1283?-1344?) changed the type somewhat by rounding +the form. His drawing was not always correct, but in color he was good +and in detail exact and minute. He probably profited somewhat by the +example of Giotto. + +The Siennese who came the nearest to Giotto's excellence were the +brothers Ambrogio (fl. 1342) and Pietro (fl. 1350) Lorenzetti. There +is little known about them except that they worked together in a +similar manner. The most of their work has perished, but what remains +shows an intellectual grasp equal to any of the age. The Sienna +frescos by Ambrogio Lorenzetti are strong in facial character, and +some of the figures, like that of the white-robed Peace, are beautiful +in their flow of line. Lippo Memmi (?-1356), Bartolo di Fredi +(1330-1410), and Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422), were other painters of +the school. The late men rather carried detail to excess, and the +school grew conventional instead of advancing. + +TRANSITION PAINTERS: Several painters, Starnina (1354-1413), Gentile +da Fabriano (1360?-1440?), Fra Angelico (1387-1455), have been put +down in art history as the makers of the transition from Gothic to +Renaissance painting. They hardly deserve the title. There was no +transition. The development went on, and these painters, coming late +in the fourteenth century and living into the fifteenth, simply showed +the changing style, the advance in the study of nature and the technic +of art. Starnina's work gave strong evidence of the study of form, but +it was no such work as Masaccio's. There is always a little of the +past in the present, and these painters showed traces of Byzantinism +in details of the face and figure, in coloring, and in gold embossing. + +Gentile had all that nicety of finish and richness of detail and color +characteristic of the Siennese. Being closer to the Renaissance than +his predecessors he was more of a nature student. He was the first man +to show the effect of sunlight in landscape, the first one to put a +gold sun in the sky. He never, however, outgrew Gothic methods and +really belongs in the fourteenth century. This is true of Fra +Angelico. Though he lived far into the Early Renaissance he did not +change his style and manner of work in conformity with the work of +others about him. He was the last inheritor of the Giottesque +traditions. Religious sentiment was the strong feature of his art. He +was behind Giotto and Lorenzetti in power and in imagination, and +behind Orcagna as a painter. He knew little of light, shade, +perspective, and color, and in characterization was feeble, except in +some late work. One face or type answered him for all classes of +people--a sweet, fair face, full of divine tenderness. His art had +enough nature in it to express his meanings, but little more. He was +pre-eminently a devout painter, and really the last of the great +religionists in painting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--FRA ANGELICO. ANGEL (DETAIL). UFFIZI.] + +The other regions of Italy had not at this time developed schools of +painting of sufficient consequence to mention. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Cimabue, Madonnas S. M. + Novella and Acad. Florence, frescos Upper Church of Assisi + (?); Giotto, frescos Upper and Lower churches Assisi, best + work Arena chapel Padua, Bardi and Peruzzi chapels S. Croce, + injured frescos Bargello Florence; Taddeo Gaddi, frescos + entrance wall Baroncelli chapel S. Croce, Spanish chapel S. + M. Novella (designed by Gaddi (?)); Agnolo Gaddi frescos in + choir S. Croce, S. Jacopo tra Fossi Florence, panel pictures + Florence Acad.; Giovanni da Milano, Bewailing of Christ + Florence Acad., Virgin enthroned Prato Gal., altar-piece + Uffizi Gal., frescos S. Croce Florence; Antonio Veneziano, + frescos in ceiling of Spanish chapel, S. M. Novella, Campo + Santo Pisa; Orcagna, altar-piece Last Judgment and Paradise + Strozzi chapel S. M. Novella, S. Zenobio Duomo, Saints + Medici chapel S. Croce, Descent of Holy Spirit Badia + Florence, altar-piece Nat. Gal. Lon.; Spinello Aretino, Life + of St. Benedict S. Miniato al Monte near Florence, + Annunciation Convent degl' Innocenti Arezzo, frescos Campo + Santo Pisa, Coronation Florence Acad., Barbarossa frescos + Palazzo Publico Sienna; Andrea da Firenze, Church Militant, + Calvary, Crucifixion Spanish chapel, Upper series of Life of + S. Raniera Campo Santo Pisa. + + SIENNESE--Guido da Sienna, Madonna S. Domenico Sienna; + Duccio, panels Duomo and Acad. Sienna, Madonna Nat. Gal. + Lon.; Simone di Martino, frescos Palazzo Pubblico, Sienna, + altar-piece and panels Seminario Vescovile, Pisa Gal., + altar-piece and Madonna Opera del Duomo Orvieto; Lippo + Memmi, frescos Palazzo del Podesta S. Gemignano, + Annunciation Uffizi Florence; Bartolo di Fredi, altar-pieces + Acad. Sienna, S. Francesco Montalcino; Taddeo di Bartolo, + Palazzo Pubblico Sienna, Duomo, S. Gemignano, S. Francesco + Pisa; Ambrogio Lorenzetti, frescos Palazzo Pubblico Sienna, + Triumph of Death (with Pietro Lorenzetti) Campo Santo Pisa, + St. Francis frescos Lower Church Assisi, S. Francesco and S. + Agostino Sienna, Annunciation Sienna Acad., Presentation + Florence Acad.; Pietro Lorenzetti, Virgin S. Ansano, + altar-pieces Duomo Sienna, Parish Church of Arezzo (worked + with his brother Ambrogio). + + TRANSITION PAINTERS: Starnina, frescos Duomo Prato + (completed by pupil); Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration + Florence Acad., Coronation Brera Milan, Madonna Duomo + Orvieto; Fra Angelico, Coronation and many small panels + Uffizi, many pieces Life of Christ Florence Acad., other + pieces S. Marco Florence, Last Judgment Duomo, Orvieto. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +EARLY RENAISSANCE. 1400-1500. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and + Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Habich, Lacroix, + Mantz, Morelli, Burton, Rumohr, Stillman, Vasari; also Crowe + and Cavalcaselle, _History of Painting in North Italy_; + Berenson, _Florentine Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson, + _Venetian Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson, _Central + Italian Painters of Renaissance_; _Study and Criticism of + Italian Art_; Boschini, _La Carta del Navegar_; Calvi, + _Memorie della Vita ed opere di Francesco Raibolini_; Cibo, + _Niccolo Alunno e la scuola Umbra_; Citadella, _Notizie + relative a Ferrara_; Cruttwell, _Verrocchio_; Cruttwell, + _Pollaiuolo_; Morelli, Anonimo, _Notizie_; Mezzanotte, + _Commentario della Vita di Pietro Vanucci_; Mundler, _Essai + d'une Analyse critique de la Notice des tableaux Italiens au + Louvre_; Muntz, _Les Précurseurs de la Renaissance_; Muntz, + _La Renaissance en Italie et en France_; Patch, _Life of + Masaccio_; Hill, Pisanello, _Publications of the Arundel + Society_; Richter, _Italian Art in National Gallery, + London_; Ridolfi, _Le Meraviglie dell' Arte_; Rosini, + _Storia della Pittura Italiana_; Schnaase, _Geschichte der + bildenden Kunste_; Symonds, _Renaissance in Italy--the Fine + Arts_; Vischer, _Lucas Signorelli und die Italienische + Renaissance_; Waagen, _Art Treasures_; Waagen, _Andrea + Mantegna und Luca Signorelli_ (in _Raumer's Taschenbuch_, + (1850)); Zanetti, _Della Pittura Veneziana_. + + +THE ITALIAN MIND: There is no way of explaining the Italian fondness +for form and color other than by considering the necessities of the +people and the artistic character of the Italian mind. Art in all its +phases was not only an adornment but a necessity of Christian +civilization. The Church taught people by sculpture, mosaic, +miniature, and fresco. It was an object-teaching, a grasping of ideas +by forms seen in the mind, not a presenting of abstract ideas as in +literature. Printing was not known. There were few manuscripts, and +the majority of people could not read. Ideas came to them for +centuries through form and color, until at last the Italian mind took +on a plastic and pictorial character. It saw things in symbolic +figures, and when the Renaissance came and art took the lead as one of +its strongest expressions, painting was but the color-thought and +form-language of the people. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--FRA FILIPPO. MADONNA. UFFIZI.] + +And these people, by reason of their peculiar education, were an +exacting people, knowing what was good and demanding it from the +artists. Every Italian was, in a way, an art critic, because every +church in Italy was an art school. The artists may have led the +people, but the people spurred on the artists, and so the Italian mind +went on developing and unfolding until at last it produced the great +art of the Renaissance. + +THE AWAKENING: The Italian civilization of the fourteenth century was +made up of many impulses and inclinations, none of them very strongly +defined. There was a feeling about in the dark, a groping toward the +light, but the leaders stumbled often on the road. There was good +reason for it. The knowledge of the ancient world lay buried under the +ruins of Rome. The Italians had to learn it all over again, almost +without a precedent, almost without a preceptor. With the fifteenth +century the horizon began to brighten. The Early Renaissance was +begun. It was not a revolt, a reaction, or a starting out on a new +path. It was a development of the Gothic period; and the three +inclinations of the Gothic period--religion, the desire for classic +knowledge, and the study of nature--were carried into the art of the +time with greater realization. + +The inference must not be made that because nature and the antique +came to be studied in Early Renaissance times that therefore religion +was neglected. It was not. It still held strong, and though with the +Renaissance there came about a strange mingling of crime and +corruption, æstheticism and immorality, yet the Church was never +abandoned for an hour. When enlightenment came, people began to doubt +the spiritual power of the Papacy. They did not cringe to it so +servilely as before. Religion was not violently embraced as in the +Middle Ages, but there was no revolt. The Church held the power and +was still the patron of art. The painter's subjects extended over +nature, the antique, the fable, allegory, history, portraiture; but +the religious subject was not neglected. Fully three-quarters of all +the fifteenth-century painting was done for the Church, at her +command, and for her purposes. + +But art was not so wholly pietistic as in the Gothic age. The study of +nature and the antique materialized painting somewhat. The outside +world drew the painter's eyes, and the beauty of the religious subject +and its sentiment were somewhat slurred for the beauty of natural +appearances. There was some loss of religious power, but religion had +much to lose. In the fifteenth century it was still dominant. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--BOTTICELLI. CORONATION OF MADONNA. UFFIZI.] + +KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANTIQUE AND NATURE: The revival of antique learning +came about in real earnest during this period. The scholars set +themselves the task of restoring the polite learning of ancient +Greece, studying coins and marbles, collecting manuscripts, founding +libraries and schools of philosophy. The wealthy nobles, Palla +Strozzi, the Albizzi, the Medici, and the Dukes of Urbino, encouraged +it. In 1440 the Greek was taught in five cities. Immediately +afterward, with Constantinople falling into the hands of the Turks, +came an influx of Greek scholars into Italy. Then followed the +invention of printing and the age of discovery on land and sea. Not +the antique alone but the natural were being pried into by the spirit +of inquiry. Botany, geology, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, anatomy, +law, literature--nothing seemed to escape the keen eye of the time. +Knowledge was being accumulated from every source, and the arts were +all reflecting it. + +The influence of the newly discovered classic marbles upon painting +was not so great as is usually supposed. The painters studied them, +but did not imitate them. Occasionally in such men as Botticelli and +Mantegna we see a following of sculpturesque example--a taking of +details and even of whole figures--but the general effect of the +antique marbles was to impress the painters with the idea that nature +was at the bottom of it all. They turned to the earth not only to +study form and feature, but to learn perspective, light, shadow, +color--in short, the technical features of art. True, religion was the +chief subject, but nature and the antique were used to give it +setting. All the fifteenth-century painting shows nature study, force, +character, sincerity; but it does not show elegance, grace, or the +full complement of color. The Early Renaissance was the promise of +great things; the High Renaissance was the fulfilment. + +FLORENTINE SCHOOL: The Florentines were draughtsmen more than +colorists. The chief medium was fresco on the walls of buildings, and +architectural necessities often dictated the form of compositions. +Distemper in easel pictures was likewise used, and oil-painting, +though known, was not extensively employed until the last quarter of +the century. In technical knowledge and intellectual grasp Florence +was at this time the leader and drew to her many artists from +neighboring schools. Masaccio (1401?-1428?) was the first great nature +student of the Early Renaissance, though his master, Masolino +(1383-1447), had given proof positive of severe nature study in bits +of modelling, in drapery, and in portrait heads. Masaccio, however, +seems the first to have gone into it thoroughly and to have grasped +nature as a whole. His mastery of form, his plastic composition, his +free, broad folds of drapery, and his knowledge of light and +perspective, all placed him in the front rank of fifteenth-century +painters. Though an exact student he was not a literalist. He had a +large artistic sense, a breadth of view, and a comprehension of nature +as a mass that Michael Angelo and Raphael did not disdain to follow. +He was not a pietist, and there was no great religious feeling in his +work. Dignified truthful appearance was his creed, and in this he was +possibly influenced by Donatello the sculptor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. LOUVRE.] + +He came early in the century and died early, but his contemporaries +did not continue the advance from where he carried it. There was +wavering all along the line. Some from lack of genius could not equal +him, others took up nature with indecision, and others clung fondly +to the gold-embossed ornaments and gilded halos of the past. Paolo +Uccello (1397?-1475), Andrea Castagno (1390-1457), Benozzo Gozzoli +(1420?-1497?), Baldovinetti (1427-1499), Antonio del Pollajuolo +(1426-1498), Cosimo Rosselli (1439-1507), can hardly be looked upon as +improvements upon the young leader. The first real successor of +Masaccio was his contemporary, and possibly his pupil, the monk Fra +Filippo Lippi (1406-1469). He was a master of color and +light-and-shade for his time, though in composition and command of +line he did not reach up to Masaccio. He was among the first of the +painters to take the individual faces of those about him as models for +his sacred characters, and clothe them in contemporary costume. Piety +is not very pronounced in any of his works, though he is not without +imagination and feeling, and there is in his women a charm of +sweetness. His tendency was to materialize the sacred characters. + +With Filippino (1457?-1504), Botticelli (1446-1510), and Ghirlandajo +(1449-1494) we find a degree of imagination, culture, and independence +not surpassed by any of the Early Florentines. Filippino modelled his +art upon that of his father, Fra Filippo, and was influenced by +Botticelli. He was the weakest of the trio, without being by any means +a weak man. On the contrary, he was an artist of fine ability, much +charm and tenderness, and considerable style, but not a great deal of +original force, though occasionally doing forceful things. Purity in +his type and graceful sentiment in pose and feature seem more +characteristic of his work. Botticelli, even, was not so remarkable +for his strength as for his culture, and an individual way of looking +at things. He was a pupil of Fra Filippo, a man imbued with the +religious feeling of Dante and Savonarola, a learned student of the +antique and one of the first to take subjects from it, a severe nature +student, and a painter of much technical skill. Religion, classicism, +and nature all met in his work, but the mingling was not perfect. +Religious feeling and melancholy warped it. His willowy figures, +delicate and refined in drawing, are more passionate than powerful, +more individual than comprehensive, but they are nevertheless very +attractive in their tenderness and grace. + +Without being so original or so attractive an artist as Botticelli, +his contemporary, Ghirlandajo, was a stronger one. His strength came +more from assimilation than from invention. He combined in his work +all the art learning of his time. He drew well, handled drapery simply +and beautifully, was a good composer, and, for Florence, a good +colorist. In addition, his temperament was robust, his style +dignified, even grand, and his execution wonderfully free. He was the +most important of the fifteenth-century technicians, without having +any peculiar distinction or originality, and in spite of being rather +prosaic at times. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--FRANCESCA. DUKE OF URBINO. UFFIZI.] + +Verrocchio (1435-1488) was more of a sculptor than a painter, but in +his studio were three celebrated pupils--Perugino, Leonardo da Vinci, +and Lorenzo di Credi--who were half-way between the Early and the High +Renaissance. Only one of them, Leonardo, can be classed among the +High Renaissance men. Perugino belongs to the Umbrian school, and +Lorenzo di Credi (1450-1537), though Florentine, never outgrew the +fifteenth century. He was a pure painter, with much feeling, but weak +at times. His drawing was good, but his painting lacked force, and he +was too pallid in flesh color. There is much detail, study, and +considerable grace about his work, but little of strength. Piero di +Cosimo (1462-1521) was fond of mythological and classical studies, was +somewhat fantastic in composition, pleasant in color, and rather +distinguished in landscape backgrounds. His work strikes one as +eccentric, and eccentricity was the strong characteristic of the man. + +UMBRIAN AND PERUGIAN SCHOOLS: At the beginning of the fifteenth +century the old Siennese school founded by Duccio and the Lorenzetti +was in a state of decline. It had been remarkable for intense +sentiment, and just what effect this sentiment of the old Siennese +school had upon the painters of the neighboring Umbrian school of the +early fifteenth century is a matter of speculation with historians. It +must have had some, though the early painters, like Ottaviano Nelli, +do not show it. That which afterward became known as the Umbrian +sentiment probably first appeared in the work of Niccolò da Foligno +(1430?-1502), who was probably a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli, who was, in +turn, a pupil of Fra Angelico. That would indicate Florentine +influence, but there were many influences at work in this upper-valley +country. Sentiment had been prevalent enough all through Central +Italian painting during the Gothic age--more so at Sienna than +elsewhere. With the Renaissance Florence rather forsook sentiment for +precision of forms and equilibrium of groups; but the Umbrian towns +being more provincial, held fast to their sentiment, their detail, and +their gold ornamentation. Their influence upon Florence was slight, +but the influence of Florence upon them was considerable. The larger +city drew the provincials its way to learn the new methods. The +result was a group of Umbro-Florentine painters, combining some +up-country sentiment with Florentine technic. Gentile da Fabriano, +Niccolo da Foligno, Bonfiglio (1425?-1496?), and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo +(1444?-1520) were of this mixed character. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--SIGNORELLI. THE CURSE (DETAIL). ORVIETO.] + +The most positive in methods among the early men was Piero della +Francesca (1420?-1492). Umbrian born, but Florentine trained, he +became more scientific than sentimental, and excelled as a craftsman. +He knew drawing, perspective, atmosphere, light-and-shade in a way +that rather foreshadowed Leonardo da Vinci. From working in the +Umbrian country his influence upon his fellow-Umbrians was large. It +showed directly in Signorelli (1441?-1523), whose master he was, and +whose style he probably formed. Signorelli was Umbrian born, like +Piero, but there was not much of the Umbrian sentiment about him. He +was a draughtsman and threw his strength in line, producing athletic, +square-shouldered figures in violent action, with complicated +foreshortenings quite astonishing. The most daring man of his time, he +was a master in anatomy, composition, motion. There was nothing select +about his type, and nothing charming about his painting. His color was +hot and coarse, his lights lurid, his shadows brick red. He was, +however, a master-draughtsman, and a man of large conceptions and +great strength. Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), of whom little is known, +was another pupil of Piero, and Giovanni Santi (1435?-1494), the +father of Raphael, was probably influenced by both of these last +named. + +The true descent of the Umbrian sentiment was through Foligno and +Bonfiglio to Perugino (1446-1524). Signorelli and Perugino seem +opposed to each other in their art. The first was the forerunner of +Michael Angelo, the second was the master of Raphael; and the +difference between Michael Angelo and Raphael was, in a less varied +degree, the difference between Signorelli and Perugino. The one showed +Florentine line, the other Umbrian sentiment and color. It is in +Perugino that we find the old religious feeling. Fervor, tenderness, +and devotion, with soft eyes, delicate features, and pathetic looks +characterized his art. The figure was slight, graceful, and in pose +sentimentally inclined to one side. The head was almost affectedly +placed on the shoulders, and the round olive face was full of wistful +tenderness. This Perugino type, used in all his paintings, is well +described by Taine as a "body belonging to the Renaissance containing +a soul that belonged to the Middle Ages." The sentiment was more +purely human, however, than in such a painter, for instance, as Fra +Angelico. Religion still held with Perugino and the Umbrians, but +even with them it was becoming materialized by the beauty of the +world about them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PERUGINO. MADONNA, SAINTS, AND ANGELS. +LOUVRE.] + +As a technician Perugino was excellent. There was no dramatic fire and +fury about him. The composition was simple, with graceful figures in +repose. The coloring was rich, and there were many brilliant effects +obtained by the use of oils. He was among the first of his school to +use that medium. His friend and fellow-worker, Pinturricchio +(1454-1513), did not use oils, but was a superior man in fresco. In +type and sentiment he was rather like Perugino, in composition a +little extravagant and huddled, in landscape backgrounds quite +original and inventive. He never was a serious rival of Perugino, +though a more varied and interesting painter. Perugino's best pupil, +after Raphael, was Lo Spagna (?-1530?), who followed his master's +style until the High Renaissance, when he became a follower of +Raphael. + +SCHOOLS OF FERRARA AND BOLOGNA: The painters of Ferrara, in the +fifteenth century, seemed to have relied upon Padua for their +teaching. The best of the early men was Cosimo Tura (1430-1495), who +showed the Paduan influence of Squarcione in anatomical insistences, +coarse joints, infinite detail, and fantastic ornamentation. He was +probably the founder of the school in which Francesco Cossa (fl. +1435-1480), a _naif_ and strong, if somewhat morbid painter, Ercole di +Giulio Grandi (fl. 1465-1535), and Lorenzo Costa (1460?-1535) were the +principal masters. Cossa and Grandi, it seems, afterward removed to +Bologna, and it was probably their move that induced Lorenzo Costa to +follow them. In that way the Ferrarese school became somewhat +complicated with the Bolognese school, and is confused in its history +to this day. Costa was not unlikely the real founder, or, at the +least, the strongest influencer of the Bolognese school. He was a +painter of a rugged, manly type, afterward tempered by Southern +influences to softness and sentiment. This was the result of Paduan +methods meeting at Bologna with Umbrian sentiment. + +The Perugino type and influence had found its way to Bologna, and +showed in the work of Francia (1450-1518), a contemporary and +fellow-worker with Costa. Though trained as a goldsmith, and learning +painting in a different school, Francia, as regards his sentiment, +belongs in the same category with Perugino. Even his subjects, types, +and treatment were, at times, more Umbrian than Bolognese. He was not +so profound in feeling as Perugino, but at times he appeared loftier +in conception. His color was usually rich, his drawing a little sharp +at first, as showing the goldsmith's hand, the surfaces smooth, the +detail elaborate. Later on, his work had a Raphaelesque tinge, +showing perhaps the influence of that rising master. It is probable +that Francia at first was influenced by Costa's methods, and it is +quite certain that he in turn influenced Costa in the matter of +refined drawing and sentiment, though Costa always adhered to a +certain detail and ornament coming from the north, and a landscape +background that is peculiar to himself, and yet reminds one of +Pinturricchio's landscapes. These two men, Francia and Costa, were the +Perugino and Pinturricchio of the Ferrara-Bolognese school, and the +most important painters in that school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--SCHOOL OF FRANCIA. MADONNA AND CHILD. +LOUVRE.] + +THE LOMBARD SCHOOL: The designation of the Lombard school is rather a +vague one in the history of painting, and is used by historians to +cover a number of isolated schools or men in the Lombardy region. In +the fifteenth century these schools counted for little either in men +or in works. The principal activity was about Milan, which drew +painters from Brescia, Vincenza, and elsewhere to form what is known +as the Milanese school. Vincenzo Foppa (fl. 1455-1492), of Brescia, +and afterward at Milan, was probably the founder of this Milanese +school. His painting is of rather a harsh, exacting nature, and points +to the influence of Padua, at which place he perhaps got his early art +training. Borgognone (1450-1523) is set down as his pupil, a painter +of much sentiment and spiritual feeling. The school was afterward +greatly influenced by the example of Leonardo da Vinci, as will be +shown further on. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Masaccio, frescos in Brancacci + Chapel Carmine Florence (the series completed by Filippino); + Masolino, frescos Church and Baptistery Castiglione d' Olona; + Paolo Uccello, frescos S. M. Novella, equestrian + portrait Duomo Florence, battle-pieces in Louvre and Nat. + Gal. Lon.; Andrea Castagno, heroes and sibyls Uffizi, + altar-piece Acad. Florence, equestrian portrait Duomo + Florence; Benozzo Gozzoli, Francesco Montefalco, Magi + Ricardi palace Florence, frescos Campo Santo Pisa; + Baldovinetti, Portico of the Annunziata Florence, + altar-pieces Uffizi; Antonio Pollajuolo, Hercules Uffizi, + St. Sebastian Pitti and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Cosimo Rosselli, + frescos S. Ambrogio Florence, Sistine Chapel Rome, Madonna + Uffizi; Fra Filippo, frescos Cathedral Prato, altar-pieces + Florence Acad., Uffizi, Pitti and Berlin Gals., Nat. Gal. + Lon.; Filippino, frescos Carmine Florence, Caraffa Chapel + Minerva Rome, S. M. Novella and Acad. Florence, S. Domenico + Bologna, easel pictures in Pitti, Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., + Berlin Mus., Old Pinacothek Munich; Botticelli, frescos + Sistine Chapel Rome, Spring and Coronation Florence Acad., + Venus, Calumny, Madonnas Uffizi, Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon., + Louvre, etc.; Ghirlandajo, frescos Sistine Chapel Rome, S. + Trinità Florence, S. M. Novella, Palazzo Vecchio, + altar-pieces Uffizi and Acad. Florence, Visitation Louvre; + Verrocchio, Baptism of Christ Acad. Florence; Lorenzo di + Credi, Nativity Acad. Florence, Madonnas Louvre and Nat. + Gal. Lon., Holy Family Borghese Gal. Rome; Piero di Cosimo, + Perseus and Andromeda Uffizi, Procris Nat. Gal. Lon., Venus + and Mars Berlin Gal. + + UMBRIANS--Ottaviano Nelli, altar-piece S. M. Nuovo Gubbio, + St. Augustine legends S. Agostino Gubbio; Niccolò da + Foligno, altar-piece S. Niccolò Foligno; Bonfigli, frescos + Palazzo Communale, altar-pieces Acad. Perugia; Fiorenzo di + Lorenzo, many pictures Acad. Perugia, Madonna Berlin Gal.; + Piero della Francesca, frescos Communitá and Hospital Borgo + San Sepolcro, San Francesco Arezzo, Chapel of the Relicts + Rimini, portraits Uffizi, pictures Nat. Gal. Lon.; + Signorelli, frescos Cathedral Orvieto, Sistine Rome, Palazzo + Petrucci Sienna, altar-pieces Arezzo, Cortona, Perugia, + pictures Pitti, Uffizi, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; + Melozzo da Forli, angels St. Peter's Rome, frescos Vatican, + pictures Berlin and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Giovanni Santi, + Annunciation Milan, Pieta Urbino, Madonnas Berlin, Nat. Gal. + Lon., S. Croce Fano; Perugino, frescos Sistine Rome, + Crucifixion S. M. Maddalena Florence, Sala del Cambio + Perugia, altar-pieces Pitti, Fano, Cremona, many pictures in + European galleries; Pinturricchio, frescos S. M. del Popolo, + Appartamento Borgo Vatican, Bufolini Chapel Aracoeli Rome, + Duomo Library Sienna, altar-pieces Perugia and Sienna + Acads., Pitti, Louvre; Lo Spagna, Madonna Lower Church + Assisi, frescos at Spoleto, Turin, Perugia, Assisi. + + FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Cosimo Tura, altar-pieces Berlin + Mus., Bergamo, Museo Correr Venice, Nat. Gal. Lon.; + Francesco Cossa, altar-pieces S. Petronio and Acad. Bologna, + Dresden Gal.; Grandi, St. George Corsini Pal. Rome, several + canvases Constabili Collection Ferrara; Lorenzo Costa, + frescos S. Giacomo Maggiore, altar-pieces S. Petronio, S. + Giovanni in Monte and Acad. Bologna, also Louvre, Berlin, + and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Francia, altar-pieces S. Giacomo + Maggiore, S. Martino Maggiore, and many altar-pieces in + Acad. Bologna, Annunciation Brera Milan, Rose Garden Munich, + Pieta Nat. Gal. Lon., Scappi Portrait Uffizi, Baptism + Dresden. + + LOMBARDS--Foppa, altar-pieces S. Maria di Castello Savona, + Borromeo Col. Milan, Carmine Brescia, panels Brera Milan; + Borgognone, altar-pieces Certosa of Pavia, Church of + Melegnano, S. Ambrogio, Ambrosian Lib., Brera Milan, Nat. + Gal. Lon. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +EARLY RENAISSANCE--1400-1500--CONTINUED. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned; + also consult the General Bibliography (page xv.) + + +PADUAN SCHOOL: It was at Padua in the north that the influence of the +classic marbles made itself strongly apparent. Umbria remained true to +the religious sentiment, Florence engaged itself largely with nature +study and technical problems, introducing here and there draperies and +poses that showed knowledge of ancient sculpture, but at Padua much of +the classic in drapery, figures, and architecture seems to have been +taken directly from the rediscovered antique or the modern bronze. + +The early men of the school were hardly great enough to call for +mention. During the fourteenth century there was some Giotto influence +felt--that painter having been at Padua working in the Arena Chapel. +Later on there was a slight influence from Gentile da Fabriano and his +fellow-worker Vittore Pisano, of Verona. But these influences seem to +have died out and the real direction of the school in the early +fifteenth century was given by Francesco Squarcione (1394-1474). He +was an enlightened man, a student, a collector and an admirer of +ancient sculpture, and though no great painter himself he taught an +anatomical statuesque art, based on ancient marbles and nature, to +many pupils. + +Squarcione's work has perished, but his teaching was reflected in the +work of his great pupil Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). Yet Mantegna +never received the full complement of his knowledge from Squarcione. +He was of an observing nature and probably studied Paolo Uccello and +Fra Filippo, some of whose works were then in Paduan edifices. He +gained color knowledge from the Venetian Bellinis, who lived at Padua +at one time and who were connected with Mantegna by marriage. But the +sculpturesque side of his art came from Squarcione, from a study of +the antique, and from a deeper study of Donatello, whose bronzes to +this day are to be seen within and without the Paduan Duomo of S. +Antonio. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--MANTEGNA. GONZAGA FAMILY GROUP (DETAIL). +MANTUA.] + +The sculpturesque is characteristic of Mantegna's work. His people are +hard, rigid at times, immovable human beings, not so much turned to +stone as turned to bronze--the bronze of Donatello. There is little +sense of motion about them. The figure is sharp and harsh, the +drapery, evidently studied from sculpture, is "liney," and the +archæology is often more scientific than artistic. Mantegna was not, +however, entirely devoted to the sculpturesque. He was one of the +severest nature students of the Early Renaissance, knew about nature, +and carried it out in more exacting detail than was perhaps well for +his art. In addition he was a master of light-and-shade, understood +composition, space, color, atmosphere, and was as scientific in +perspective as Piero della Francesca. There is stiffness in his +figures but nevertheless great truth and character. The forms are +noble, even grand, and for invention and imagination they were never, +in his time, carried further or higher. He was little of a +sentimentalist or an emotionalist, not much of a brush man or a +colorist, but as a draughtsman, a creator of noble forms, a man of +power, he stood second to none in the century. + +Of Squarcione's other pupils Pizzolo (fl. 1470) was the most +promising, but died early. Marco Zoppo (1440-1498) seems to have +followed the Paduan formula of hardness, dryness, and exacting detail. +He was possibly influenced by Cosimo Tura, and in turn influenced +somewhat the Ferrara-Bolognese school. Mantegna, however, was the +greatest of the school, and his influence was far-reaching. It +affected the school of Venice in matters of drawing, beside +influencing the Lombard and Veronese schools in their beginnings. + +SCHOOLS OF VERONA AND VICENZA: Artistically Verona belonged with the +Venetian provinces, because it was largely an echo of Venice except at +the very start. Vittore Pisano (1380-1456), called Pisanello, was the +earliest painter of note, but he was not distinctly Veronese in his +art. He was medallist and painter both, worked with Gentile da +Fabriano in the Ducal Palace at Venice and elsewhere, and his art +seems to have an affinity with that of his companion. + +Liberale da Verona (1451-1536?) was at first a miniaturist, but +afterward developed a larger style based on a following of Mantegna's +work, with some Venetian influences showing in the coloring and +backgrounds. Francesco Bonsignori (1455-1519) was of the Verona +school, but established himself later at Mantua and was under the +Mantegna influence. His style at first was rather severe, but he +afterward developed much ability in portraiture, historical work, +animals, and architectural features. Francesco Caroto (1470-1546), a +pupil of Liberale, really belongs to the next century--the High +Renaissance--but his early works show his education in Veronese and +Paduan methods. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--B. VIVARINI. MADONNA AND CHILD. TURIN.] + +In the school of Vicenza the only master of much note in this Early +Renaissance time was Bartolommeo Montagna (1450?-1523), a painter in +both oil and fresco of much severity and at times grandeur of style. +In drawing he was influenced by Mantegna, in composition and coloring +he showed a study of Giovanni Bellini and Carpaccio. + +VENETIAN LIFE AND ART: The conditions of art production in Venice +during the Early Renaissance were quite different from those in +Florence or Umbria. By the disposition of her people Venice was not a +learned or devout city. Religion, though the chief subject, was not +the chief spirit of Venetian art. Christianity was accepted by the +Venetians, but with no fevered enthusiasm. The Church was strong +enough there to defy the Papacy at one time, and yet religion with the +people was perhaps more of a civic function or a duty than a spiritual +worship. It was sincere in its way, and the early painters painted its +subjects with honesty, but the Venetians were much too proud and +worldly minded to take anything very seriously except their own +splendor and their own power. + +Again, the Venetians were not humanists or students of the revived +classic. They housed manuscripts, harbored exiled humanists, received +the influx of Greek scholars after the fall of Constantinople, and +later the celebrated Aldine press was established in Venice; but, for +all that, classic learning was not the fancy of the Venetians. They +made no quarrel over the relative merits of Plato and Aristotle, dug +up no classic marbles, had no revival of learning in a Florentine +sense. They were merchant princes, winning wealth by commerce and +expending it lavishly in beautifying their island home. Not to attain +great learning, but to revel in great splendor, seems to have been +their aim. Life in the sovereign city of the sea was a worthy +existence in itself. And her geographical and political position aided +her prosperity. Unlike Florence she was not torn by contending princes +within and foreign foes without--at least not to her harm. She had +her wars, but they were generally on distant seas. Popery, Paganism, +Despotism, all the convulsions of Renaissance life threatened but +harmed her not. Free and independent, her kingdom was the sea, and her +livelihood commerce, not agriculture. + +The worldly spirit of the Venetian people brought about a worldly and +luxurious art. Nothing in the disposition or education of the +Venetians called for the severe or the intellectual. The demand was +for rich decoration that would please the senses without stimulating +the intellect or firing the imagination to any great extent. Line and +form were not so well suited to them as color--the most sensuous of +all mediums. Color prevailed through Venetian art from the very +beginning, and was its distinctive characteristic. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--GIOVANNI BELLINI. MADONNA OF SS. GEORGE AND +PAUL. VENICE ACAD.] + +Where this love of color came from is matter of speculation. Some say +out of Venetian skies and waters, and, doubtless, these had something +to do with the Venetian color-sense; but Venice in its color was also +an example of the effect of commerce on art. She was a trader with the +East from her infancy--not Constantinople and the Byzantine East +alone, but back of these the old Mohammedan East, which for a thousand +years has cast its art in colors rather than in forms. It was Eastern +ornament in mosaics, stuffs, porcelains, variegated marbles, brought +by ship to Venice and located in S. Marco, in Murano, and in Torcello, +that first gave the color-impulse to the Venetians. If Florence was +the heir of Rome and its austere classicism, Venice was the heir of +Constantinople and its color-charm. The two great color spots in Italy +at this day are Venice and Ravenna, commercial footholds of the +Byzantines in Mediæval and Renaissance days. It may be concluded +without error that Venice derived her color-sense and much of her +luxurious and material view of life from the East. + +THE EARLY VENETIAN PAINTERS: Painting began at Venice with the +fabrication of mosaics and ornamental altar-pieces of rich gold +stucco-work. The "Greek manner"--that is, the Byzantine--was practised +early in the fifteenth century by Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo, +but it did not last long. Instead of lingering for a hundred years, as +at Florence, it died a natural death in the first half of the +fifteenth century. Gentile da Fabriano, who was at Venice about 1420, +painting in the Ducal Palace with Pisano as his assistant, may have +brought this about. He taught there in Venice, was the master of +Jacopo Bellini, and if not the teacher then the influencer of the +Vivarinis of Murano. There were two of the Vivarinis in the early +times, so far as can be made out, Antonio Vivarini (?-1470) and +Bartolommeo Vivarini (fl. 1450-1499), who worked with Johannes +Alemannus, a painter of supposed German birth and training. They all +signed themselves from Murano (an outlying Venetian island), where +they were producing church altars and ornaments with some Paduan +influence showing in their work. They made up the Muranese school, +though this school was not strongly marked apart either in +characteristics or subjects from the Venetian school, of which it was, +in fact, a part. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CARPACCIO. PRESENTATION (DETAIL). VENICE +ACAD.] + +Bartolommeo was the best of the group, and contended long time in +rivalry with the Bellinis at Venice, but toward 1470 he fell away and +died comparatively forgotten. Luigi Vivarini (fl. 1461-1503) was the +latest of this family, and with his death the history of the Muranese +merges into the Venetian school proper, except as it continues to +appear in some pupils and followers. Of these latter Carlo Crivelli +(1430?1493?) was the only one of much mark. He apparently gathered +his art from many sources--ornament and color from the Vivarini, a +lean and withered type from the early Paduans under Squarcione, +architecture from Mantegna, and a rather repulsive sentiment from the +same school. His faces were contorted and sulky, his hands and feet +stringy, his drawing rather bad; but he had a transparent color, +beautiful ornamentation and not a little tragic power. + +Venetian art practically dates from the Bellinis. They did not begin +where the Vivarini left off. The two families of painters seem to have +started about the same time, worked along together from like +inspirations, and in somewhat of a similar manner as regards the early +men. Jacopo Bellini (1400?-1464?) was the pupil of Gentile da +Fabriano, and a painter of considerable rank. His son, Gentile Bellini +(1426?-1507), was likewise a painter of ability, and an extremely +interesting one on account of his Venetian subjects painted with much +open-air effect and knowledge of light and atmosphere. The younger +son, Giovanni Bellini (1428?-1516), was the greatest of the family and +the true founder of the Venetian school. + +About the middle of the fifteenth century the Bellini family lived at +Padua and came in contact with the classic-realistic art of Mantegna. +In fact, Mantegna married Giovanni Bellini's sister, and there was a +mingling of family as well as of art. There was an influence upon +Mantegna of Venetian color, and upon the Bellinis of Paduan line. The +latter showed in Giovanni Bellini's early work, which was rather hard, +angular in drapery, and anatomical in the joints, hands, and feet; but +as the century drew to a close this melted away into the growing +splendor of Venetian color. Giovanni Bellini lived into the sixteenth +century, but never quite attained the rank of a High Renaissance +painter. He had religious feeling, earnestness, honesty, simplicity, +character, force, knowledge; but not the full complement of +brilliancy and painter's power. He went beyond all his contemporaries +in technical strength and color-harmony, and was in fact the +epoch-making man of early Venice. Some of his pictures, like the S. +Zaccaria Madonna, will compare favorably with any work of any age, and +his landscape backgrounds (see the St. Peter Martyr in the National +Gallery, London) were rather wonderful for the period in which they +were produced. + +Of Bellini's contemporaries and followers there were many, and as a +school there was a similarity of style, subject, and color-treatment +carrying through them all, with individual peculiarities in each +painter. After Giovanni Bellini comes Carpaccio (?-1522?), a younger +contemporary, about whose history little is known. He worked with +Gentile Bellini, and was undoubtedly influenced by Giovanni Bellini. +In subject he was more romantic and chivalric than religious, though +painting a number of altar-pieces. The legend was his delight, and his +great success, as the St. Ursula and St. George pictures in Venice +still indicate. He was remarkable for his knowledge of architecture, +costumes, and Oriental settings, put forth in a realistic way, with +much invention and technical ability in the handling of landscape, +perspective, light, and color. There is a truthfulness of +appearance--an out-of-doors feeling--about his work that is quite +captivating. In addition, the spirit of his art was earnestness, +honesty, and sincerity, and even the awkward bits of drawing which +occasionally appeared in his work served to add to the general naive +effect of the whole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. UNKNOWN MAN. LOUVRE.] + +Cima da Conegliano (1460?-1517?) was probably a pupil of Giovanni +Bellini, with some Carpaccio influence about him. He was the best of +the immediate followers, none of whom came up to the master. They were +trammelled somewhat by being educated in distemper work, and then +midway in their careers changing to the oil medium, that medium +having been introduced into Venice by Antonello da Messina in 1473. +Cima's subjects were largely half-length madonnas, given with strong +qualities of light-and-shade and color. He was not a great originator, +though a man of ability. Catena (?-1531) had a wide reputation in his +day, but it came more from a smooth finish and pretty accessories than +from creative power. He imitated Bellini's style so well that a number +of his pictures pass for works by the master even to this day. Later +he followed Giorgione and Carpaccio. A man possessed of knowledge, he +seemed to have no original propelling purpose behind him. That was +largely the make-up of the other men of the school, Basaiti +(1490-1521?), Previtali (1470?-1525?), Bissolo (14641528), Rondinelli +(1440?-1500?), Diana (?-1500?), Mansueti (fl. 1500). + +Antonello da Messina (1444?-1493), though Sicilian born, is properly +classed with the Venetian school. He obtained a knowledge of Flemish +methods probably from Flemish painters or pictures in Italy (he never +was a pupil of Jan van Eyck, as Vasari relates, and probably never saw +Flanders), and introduced the use of oil as a medium in the Venetian +school. His early work was Flemish in character, and was very accurate +and minute. His late work showed the influence of the Bellinis. His +counter-influence upon Venetian portraiture has never been quite +justly estimated. That fine, exact, yet powerful work, of which the +Doge Loredano by Bellini, in the National Gallery, London, is a type, +was perhaps brought about by an amalgamation of Flemish and Venetian +methods, and Antonello was perhaps the means of bringing it about. He +was an excellent, if precise, portrait-painter. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: PADUANS--Andrea Mantegna, Eremitani Padua, + Madonna of S. Xeno Verona, St. Sebastian Vienna Mus., St. + George Venice Acad., Camera di Sposi Castello di Corte + Mantua, Madonna and Allegories Louvre, Scipio Summer Autumn + Nat. Gal. Lon.; Pizzoli (with Mantegna), Eremitani Padua; + Marco Zoppo frescos Casa Colonna Bologna, Madonna Berlin + Gal. + + VERONESE AND VICENTINE PAINTERS--Vittore Pisano, St. Anthony + and George Nat. Gal. Lon., St. George S. Anastasia Verona; + Liberale da Verona, miniatures Duomo Sienna, St. Sebastian + Brera Milan, Madonna Berlin Mus., other works Duomo and Gal. + Verona; Bonsignori, S. Bernardino and Gal. Verona, Mantua, + and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Caroto, In S. Tommaso, S. Giorgio, S. + Caterina and Gal. Verona, Dresden and Frankfort Gals.; + Montagna, Madonnas Brera, Venice Acad., Bergamo, Berlin, + Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre. + + VENETIANS--Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo, all + attributions doubtful; Antonio Vivarini and Johannes + Alemannus, together altar-pieces Venice Acad., S. Zaccaria + Venice; Antonio alone, Adoration of Kings Berlin Gal.; + Bartolommeo Vivarini, Madonna Bologna Gal. (with Antonio), + altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Frari, Venice; Luigi + Vivarini, Madonna Berlin Gal., Frari and Acad. Venice; + Carlo Crivelli, Madonnas and altar-pieces Brera, Nat. Gal. + Lon., Lateran, Berlin Gals.; Jacopo Bellini, Crucifixion + Verona Gal., Sketch-book Brit. Mus.; Gentile Bellini, Organ + Doors S. Marco, Procession and Miracle of Cross Acad. + Venice, St. Mark Brera; Giovanni Bellini, many pictures in + European galleries, Acad., Frari, S. Zaccaria SS. Giovanni e + Paolo Venice; Carpaccio, Presentation and Ursula pictures + Acad., St. George and St. Jerome S. Giorgio da Schiavone + Venice, St. Stephen Berlin Gal.; Cima, altar-pieces S. Maria + dell Orte, S. Giovanni in Bragora, Acad. Venice, Louvre, + Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and other galleries; + Catena, Altar-pieces S. Simeone, S. M. Mater Domini, SS. + Giovanni e Paolo, Acad. Venice, Dresden, and in Nat. Gal. + Lon. (the Warrior and Horse attributed to "School of + Bellini"); Basaiti, Venice Acad. Nat. Gal. Lon., Vienna, and + Berlin Gals.; Previtali, altar-pieces S. Spirito Bergamo, + Brera, Berlin, and Dresden Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Venice + Acad.; Bissolo, Resurrection Berlin Gal., S. Caterina Venice + Acad.; Rondinelli, two pictures Palazzo Doria Rome, Holy + Family (No. 6) Louvre (attributed to Giovanni Bellini); + Diana, Altar-pieces Venice Acad.; Mansueti, large pictures + Venice Acad.; Antonella da Messina, Portraits Louvre, Berlin + and Nat. Gal. Lon., Crucifixion Antwerp Mus. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +THE HIGH RENAISSANCE--1500-1600. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned, + and also, Berenson, _Lorenzo Lotto_; Clement, _Michel Ange, + L. da Vinci, Raphael_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Titian_; + same authors, _Raphael_; Grimm, _Michael Angelo_; Gronau, + _Titian_; Holroyd, _Michael Angelo_; Meyer, _Correggio_; + Moore, _Correggio_; Muntz, _Leonardo da Vinci_; Passavant, + _Raphael_; Pater, _Studies in History of Renaissance_; + Phillips, _Titian_; Reumont, _Andrea del Sarto_; Ricci, + _Correggio_; Richter, _Leonardo di Vinci_; Ridolfi, _Vita di + Paolo Cagliari Veronese_; Springer, _Rafael und Michel + Angelo_; Symonds, _Michael Angelo_; Taine, _Italy--Florence + and Venice_. + + +THE HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT: The word "Renaissance" has a broader meaning +than its strict etymology would imply. It was a "new birth," but +something more than the revival of Greek learning and the study of +nature entered into it. It was the grand consummation of Italian +intelligence in many departments--the arrival at maturity of the +Christian trained mind tempered by the philosophy of Greece, and the +knowledge of the actual world. Fully aroused at last, the Italian +intellect became inquisitive, inventive, scientific, skeptical--yes, +treacherous, immoral, polluted. It questioned all things, doubted +where it pleased, saturated itself with crime, corruption, and +sensuality, yet bowed at the shrine of the beautiful and knelt at the +altar of Christianity. It is an illustration of the contradictions +that may exist when the intellectual, the religious, and the moral +are brought together, with the intellectual in predominance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--FRA BARTOLOMMEO. DESCENT FROM CROSS. PITTI.] + +And that keen Renaissance intellect made swift progress. It remodelled +the philosophy of Greece, and used its literature as a mould for its +own. It developed Roman law and introduced modern science. The world +without and the world within were rediscovered. Land and sea, starry +sky and planetary system, were fixed upon the chart. Man himself, the +animals, the planets, organic and inorganic life, the small things of +the earth gave up their secrets. Inventions utilized all classes of +products, commerce flourished, free cities were builded, universities +arose, learning spread itself on the pages of newly invented books of +print, and, perhaps, greatest of all, the arts arose on strong wings +of life to the very highest altitude. + +For the moral side of the Renaissance intellect it had its tastes and +refinements, as shown in its high quality of art; but it also had its +polluting and degrading features, as shown in its political and social +life. Religion was visibly weakening though the ecclesiastical still +held strong. People were forgetting the faith of the early days, and +taking up with the material things about them. They were glorifying +the human and exalting the natural. The story of Greece was being +repeated in Italy. And out of this new worship came jewels of rarity +and beauty, but out of it also came faithlessness, corruption, vice. + +Strictly speaking, the Renaissance had been accomplished before the +year 1500, but so great was its impetus that, in the arts at least, it +extended half-way through the sixteenth century. Then it began to fail +through exhaustion. + +MOTIVES AND METHODS: The religious subject still held with the +painters, but this subject in High-Renaissance days did not carry with +it the religious feeling as in Gothic days. Art had grown to be +something else than a teacher of the Bible. In the painter's hands it +had come to mean beauty for its own sake--a picture beautiful for its +form and color, regardless of its theme. This was the teaching of +antique art, and the study of nature but increased the belief. A new +love had arisen in the outer and visible world, and when the Church +called for altar-pieces the painters painted their new love, +christened it with a religious title, and handed it forth in the name +of the old. Thus art began to free itself from Church domination and +to live as an independent beauty. The general motive, then, of +painting during the High Renaissance, though apparently religious from +the subject, and in many cases still religious in feeling, was largely +to show the beauty of form or color, in which religion, the antique, +and the natural came in as modifying elements. + +In technical methods, though extensive work was still done in fresco, +especially at Florence and Rome, yet the bulk of High-Renaissance +painting was in oils upon panel and canvas. At Venice even the +decorative wall paintings were upon canvas, afterward inserted in wall +or ceiling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--ANDREA DEL SARTO. MADONNA OF ST. FRANCIS. +UFFIZI.] + +THE FLORENTINES AND ROMANS: There was a severity and austerity about +the Florentine art, even at its climax. It was never too sensuous and +luxurious, but rather exact and intellectual. The Florentines were +fond of lustreless fresco, architectural composition, towering or +sweeping lines, rather sharp color as compared with the Venetians, and +theological, classical, even literary and allegorical subjects. +Probably this was largely due to the classic bias of the painters and +the intellectual and social influences of Florence and Rome. Line and +composition were means of expressing abstract thought better than +color, though some of the Florentines employed both line and color +knowingly. + +This was the case with Fra Bartolommeo (1475-1517), a monk of San +Marco, who was a transition painter from the fifteenth to the +sixteenth century. He was a religionist, a follower of Savonarola, and +a man of soul who thought to do work of a religious character and +feeling; but he was also a fine painter, excelling in composition, +drawing, drapery, color. The painter's element in his work, its +material and earthly beauty, rather detracted from its spiritual +significance. He opposed the sensuous and the nude, and yet about the +only nude he ever painted--a St. Sebastian for San Marco--had so much +of the earthly about it that people forgot the suffering saint in +admiring the fine body, and the picture had to be removed from the +convent. In such ways religion in art was gradually undermined, not +alone by naturalism and classicism but by art itself. Painting brought +into life by religion no sooner reached maturity than it led people +away from religion by pointing out sensuous beauties in the type +rather than religious beauties in the symbol. + +Fra Bartolommeo was among the last of the pietists in art. He had no +great imagination, but some feeling and a fine color-sense for +Florence. Naturally he was influenced somewhat by the great ones about +him, learning perspective from Raphael, grandeur from Michael Angelo, +and contours from Leonardo da Vinci. He worked in collaboration with +Albertinelli (1474-1515), a skilled artist and a fellow-pupil with +Bartolommeo in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli. Their work is so much +alike that it is often difficult to distinguish the painters apart. +Albertinelli was not so devout as his companion, but he painted the +religious subject with feeling, as his Visitation in the Uffizi +indicates. Among the followers of Bartolommeo and Albertinelli were +Fra Paolino (14901547), Bugiardini (1475-1554), Granacci (1477-1543), +who showed many influences, and Ridolfo Ghirlandajo (1483-1561). + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MICHAEL ANGELO. ATHLETE. SISTINE, ROME.] + +Andrea del Sarto (1486-1531) was a Florentine pure and simple--a +painter for the Church producing many madonnas and altar-pieces, and +yet possessed of little religious feeling or depth. He was a painter +more than a pietist, and was called by his townsmen "the faultless +painter." So he was as regards the technical features of his art. He +was the best brushman and colorist of the Florentine school. Dealing +largely with the material side his craftsmanship was excellent and his +pictures exuberant with life and color, but his madonnas and saints +were decidedly of the earth--handsome Florentine models garbed as +sacred characters--well-drawn and easily painted, with little +devotional feeling about them. He was influenced by other painters to +some extent. Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Michael Angelo were his models +in drawing; Leonardo and Bartolommeo in contours; while in warmth of +color, brush-work, atmospheric and landscape effects he was quite by +himself. He had a large number of pupils and followers, but most of +them deserted him later on to follow Michael Angelo. Pontormo +(1493-1558) and Franciabigio (1482-1525) were among the best of them. + +Michael Angelo (1474-1564) has been called the "Prophet of the +Renaissance," and perhaps deserves the title, since he was more of the +Old Testament than the New--more of the austere and imperious than the +loving or the forgiving. There was no sentimental feature about his +art. His conception was intellectual, highly imaginative, mysterious, +at times disordered and turbulent in its strength. He came the nearest +to the sublime of any painter in history through the sole attribute of +power. He had no tenderness nor any winning charm. He did not win, but +rather commanded. Everything he saw or felt was studied for the +strength that was in it. Religion, Old-Testament history, the antique, +humanity, all turned in his hands into symbolic forms of power, put +forth apparently in the white heat of passion, and at times in +defiance of every rule and tradition of art. Personal feeling was very +apparent in his work, and in this he was as far removed as possible +from the Greeks, and nearer to what one would call to-day a +romanticist. There was little of the objective about him. He was not +an imitator of facts but a creator of forms and ideas. His art was a +reflection of himself--a self-sufficient man, positive, creative, +standing alone, a law unto himself. + +Technically he was more of a sculptor than a painter. He said so +himself when Julius commanded him to paint the Sistine ceiling, and he +told the truth. He was a magnificent draughtsman, and drew magnificent +sculpturesque figures on the Sistine vault. That was about all his +achievement with the brush. In color, light, air, perspective--in all +those features peculiar to the painter--he was behind his +contemporaries. Composition he knew a great deal about, and in drawing +he had the most positive, far-reaching command of line of any painter +of any time. It was in drawing that he showed his power. Even this is +severe and harsh at times, and then again filled with a grace that is +majestic and in scope universal, as witness the Creation of Adam in +the Sistine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--RAPHAEL. LA BELLE JARDINIÈRE. LOUVRE.] + +He came out of Florence, a pupil of Ghirlandajo, with a school feeling +for line, stimulated by the frescos of Masaccio and Signorelli. At an +early age he declared himself, and hewed a path of his own through +art, sweeping along with him many of the slighter painters of his age. +Long-lived he saw his contemporaries die about him and Humanism end in +bloodshed with the coming of the Jesuits; but alone, gloomy, resolute, +steadfast to his belief, he held his way, the last great +representative of Florentine art, the first great representative of +individualism in art. With him and after him came many followers who +strove to imitate his "terrible style," but they did not succeed any +too well. + +The most of these followers find classification under the Mannerists +of the Decadence. Of those who were immediate pupils of Michael +Angelo, or carried out his designs, Daniele da Volterra (1509-1566) +was one of the most satisfactory. His chief work, the Descent from the +Cross, was considered by Poussin as one of the three great pictures of +the world. It is sometimes said to have been designed by Michael +Angelo, but that is only a conjecture. It has much action and life in +it, but is somewhat affected in pose and gesture, and Volterra's work +generally was deficient in real energy of conception and execution. +Marcello Venusti (1515-1585?) painted directly from Michael Angelo's +designs in a delicate and precise way, probably imbibed from his +master, Perino del Vaga, and from association with Venetians like +Sebastiano del Piombo (1485-1547). This last-named painter was born in +Venice and trained under Bellini and Giorgione, inheriting the color +and light-and-shade qualities of the Venetians; but later on he went +to Rome and came under the influence of Michael Angelo and Raphael. He +tried, under Michael Angelo's inspiration it is said, to unite the +Florentine grandeur of line with the Venetian coloring, and thus outdo +Raphael. It was not wholly successful, though resulting in an +excellent quality of art. As a portrait-painter he was above reproach. +His early works were rather free in impasto, the late ones smooth and +shiny, in imitation of Raphael. + +Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) was more Greek in method than any of the +great Renaissance painters. In subject he was not more classic than +others of his time; he painted all subjects. In thought he was not +particularly classic; he was chiefly intellectual, with a leaning +toward the sensuous that was half-pagan. It was in method and +expression more than elsewhere that he showed the Greek spirit. He +aimed at the ideal and the universal, independent, so far as possible, +of the individual, and sought by a union of all elements to produce +perfect harmony. The Harmonist of the Renaissance is his title. And +this harmony extended to a blending of thought, form, and expression, +heightening or modifying every element until they ran together with +such rhythm that it could not be seen where one left off and another +began. He was the very opposite of Michael Angelo. The art of the +latter was an expression of individual power and was purely +subjective. Raphael's art was largely a unity of objective beauties, +with the personal element as much in abeyance as was possible for his +time. + +His education was a cultivation of every grace of mind and hand. He +assimilated freely whatever he found to be good in the art about him. +A pupil of Perugino originally, he levied upon features of excellence +in Masaccio, Fra Bartolommeo, Leonardo, Michael Angelo. From the first +he got tenderness, from the second drawing, from the third color and +composition, from the fourth charm, from the fifth force. Like an +eclectic Greek he drew from all sources, and then blended and united +these features in a peculiar style of his own and stamped them with +his peculiar Raphaelesque stamp. + +In subject Raphael was religious and mythological, but he was imbued +with neither of these so far as the initial spirit was concerned. He +looked at all subjects in a calm, intellectual, artistic way. Even the +celebrated Sistine Madonna is more intellectual than pietistic, a +Christian Minerva ruling rather than helping to save the world. The +same spirit ruled him in classic and theological themes. He did not +feel them keenly or execute them passionately--at least there is no +indication of it in his work. The doing so would have destroyed unity, +symmetry, repose. The theme was ever held in check by a regard for +proportion and rhythm. To keep all artistic elements in perfect +equilibrium, allowing no one to predominate, seemed the mainspring of +his action, and in doing this he created that harmony which his +admirers sometimes refer to as pure beauty. + +For his period and school he was rather remarkable technically. He +excelled in everything except brush-work, which was never brought to +maturity in either Florence or Rome. Even in color he was fine for +Florence, though not equal to the Venetians. In composition, +modelling, line, even in texture painting (see his portraits) he was a +man of accomplishment; while in grace, purity, serenity, loftiness he +was the Florentine leader easily first. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--GIULIO ROMANO. APOLLO AND MUSES. PITTI.] + +The influence of Raphael's example was largely felt throughout Central +Italy, and even at the north, resulting in many imitators and +followers, who tried to produce Raphaelesque effects. Their efforts +were usually successful in precipitating charm into sweetness and +sentiment into sentimentality. Francesco Penni (1488?-1528) seems to +have been content to work under Raphael with some ability. Giulio +Romano (1492-1546) was the strongest of the pupils, and became the +founder and leader of the Roman school, which had considerable +influence upon the painters of the Decadence. He adopted the classic +subject and tried to adopt Raphael's style, but he was not completely +successful. Raphael's refinement in Giulio's hands became exaggerated +coarseness. He was a good draughtsman, but rather hot as a colorist, +and a composer of violent, restless, and, at times, contorted groups. +He was a prolific painter, but his work tended toward the baroque +style, and had a bad influence on the succeeding schools. + +Primaticcio (1504-1570) was one of his followers, and had much to do +with the founding of the school of Fontainebleau in France. Giovanni +da Udine (1487-1564), a Venetian trained painter, became a follower of +Raphael, his only originality showing in decorative designs. Perino +del Vaga (1500-1547) was of the same cast of mind. Andrea Sabbatini +(1480?-1545) carried Raphael's types and methods to the south of +Italy, and some artists at Bologna, and in Umbria, like Innocenza da +Imola (1494-1550?), and Timoteo di Viti (1467-1523), adopted the +Raphael type and method to the detriment of what native talent they +may have possessed, though about Timoteo there is some doubt whether +he adopted Raphael's type, or Raphael his type. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from + the Cross Salvator Mundi St. Mark Pitti, Madonnas and + Prophets Uffizi, other pictures Florence Acad., Louvre, + Vienna Gal.; Albertinelli, Visitation Uffizi, Christ + Magdalene Madonna Louvre, Trinity Madonna Florence Acad., + Annunciation Munich Gal.; Fra Paolino, works at San Spirito + Sienna, S. Domenico and S. Paolo Pistoia, Madonna Florence + Acad.; Bugiardini, Madonna Uffizi, St. Catherine S. M. + Novella Florence, Nativity Berlin, St. Catherine Bologna + Gal.; Granacci, altar-pieces Uffizi, Pitti, Acad. Florence, + Berlin and Munich Gals.; Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, S. Zenobio + pictures Uffizi, also Louvre and Berlin Gal.; Andrea del + Sarto, many pictures in Uffizi and Pitti, Louvre, Berlin, + Dresden, Madrid, Nat. Gal. Lon., frescos S. Annunziata and + the Scalzo Florence; Pontormo, frescos Annunziata Florence, + Visitation and Madonna Louvre, portrait Berlin Gal., Supper + at Emmaus Florence Acad., other works Uffizi; Franciabigio, + frescos courts of the Servi and Scalzo Florence, Bathsheba + Dresden Gal., many portraits in Louvre, Pitti, Berlin Gal.; + Michael Angelo, frescos Sistine Rome, Holy Family Uffizi; + Daniele da Volterra, frescos Hist. of Cross Trinità de' + Monti Rome, Innocents Uffizi; Venusti, frescos Castel San + Angelo, S. Spirito Rome, Annunciation St. John Lateran Rome; + Sebastiano del Piombo, Lazarus Nat. Gal. Lon., Pietà + Viterbo, Fornarina Uffizi (ascribed to Raphael) Fornarina + and Christ Bearing Cross Berlin and Dresden Gals., Agatha + Pitti, Visitation Louvre, portrait Doria Gal. Rome; Raphael, + Marriage of Virgin Brera, Madonna and Vision of Knight Nat. + Gal. Lon., Madonnas St. Michael and St. George Louvre, many + Madonnas and portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Munich, Vienna, St. + Petersburgh, Madrid Gals., Sistine Madonna Dresden, chief + frescos Vatican Rome. + + ROMANS: Giulio Romano, frescos Sala di Constantino Vatican + Rome (with Francesco Penni after Raphael), Palazzo del Tè + Mantua, St. Stephen, S. Stefano Genoa, Holy Family Dresden + Gal., other works in Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Pitti, Uffizi; + Primaticcio, works attributed to him doubtful--Scipio + Louvre, Lady at Toilet and Venus Musée de Cluny; Giovanni da + Udine, decorations, arabesques and grotesques in Vatican + Loggia; Perino del Vaga, Hist. of Joshua and David Vatican + (with Raphael), frescos Trinità de' Monti and Castel S. + Angelo Rome, Creation of Eve S. Marcello Rome; Sabbatini, + Adoration Naples Mus., altar-pieces in Naples and Salerno + churches; Innocenza da Imola, works in Bologna, Berlin and + Munich Gals.; Timoteo di Viti, Church of the Pace Rome + (after Raphael), madonnas and Magdalene Brera, Acad. of St. + Luke Rome, Bologna Gal., S. Domenico Urbino, Gubbio + Cathedral. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +THE HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600.--CONTINUED. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned + and consult also the General Bibliography (p. xv.) + + +LEONARDO DA VINCI AND THE MILANESE: The third person in the great +Florentine trinity of painters was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the +other two being Michael Angelo and Raphael. He greatly influenced the +school of Milan, and has usually been classed with the Milanese, yet +he was educated in Florence, in the workshop of Verrocchio, and was so +universal in thought and methods that he hardly belongs to any school. + +He has been named a realist, an idealist, a magician, a wizard, a +dreamer, and finally a scientist, by different writers, yet he was +none of these things while being all of them--a full-rounded, +universal man, learned in many departments and excelling in whatever +he undertook. He had the scientific and experimental way of looking at +things. That is perhaps to be regretted, since it resulted in his +experimenting with everything and completing little of anything. His +different tastes and pursuits pulled him different ways, and his +knowledge made him sceptical of his own powers. He pondered and +thought how to reach up higher, how to penetrate deeper, how to +realize more comprehensively, and in the end he gave up in despair. He +could not fulfil his ideal of the head of Christ nor the head of Mona +Lisa, and after years of labor he left them unfinished. The problem +of human life, the spirit, the world engrossed him, and all his +creations seem impregnated with the psychological, the mystical, the +unattainable, the hidden. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--LEONARDO DA VINCI. MONA LISA. LOUVRE.] + +He was no religionist, though painting the religious subject with +feeling; he was not in any sense a classicist, nor had he any care for +the antique marbles, which he considered a study of nature at +second-hand. He was more in love with physical life without being an +enthusiast over it. His regard for contours, rhythm of line, blend of +light with shade, study of atmosphere, perspective, trees, animals, +humanity, show that though he examined nature scientifically, he +pictured it æsthetically. In his types there is much sweetness of +soul, charm of disposition, dignity of mien, even grandeur and majesty +of presence. His people we would like to know better. They are full of +life, intelligence, sympathy; they have fascination of manner, +winsomeness of mood, grace of bearing. We see this in his best-known +work--the Mona Lisa of the Louvre. It has much allurement of personal +presence, with a depth and abundance of soul altogether charming. + +Technically, Leonardo was not a handler of the brush superior in any +way to his Florentine contemporaries. He knew all the methods and +mediums of the time, and did much to establish oil-painting among the +Florentines, but he was never a painter like Titian, or even Correggio +or Andrea del Sarto. A splendid draughtsman, a man of invention, +imagination, grace, elegance, and power, he nevertheless carried more +by mental penetration and æsthetic sense than by his technical skill. +He was one of the great men of the Renaissance, and deservedly holds a +place in the front rank. + +Though Leonardo's accomplishment seems slight because of the little +that is left to us, yet he had a great following not only among the +Florentines but at Milan, where Vincenza Foppa had started a school in +the Early Renaissance time. Leonardo was there for fourteen years, and +his artistic personality influenced many painters to adopt his type +and methods. Bernardino Luini (1475?-1532?) was the most prominent of +the disciples. He cultivated Leonardo's sentiment, style, subjects, +and composition in his middle period, but later on developed +independence and originality. He came at a period of art when that +earnestness of characterization which marked the early men was giving +way to gracefulness of recitation, and that was the chief feature of +his art. For that matter gracefulness and pathetic sweetness of mood, +with purity of line and warmth of color characterized all the Milanese +painters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--LUINI. DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS WITH HEAD OF JOHN +THE BAPTIST. UFFIZI.] + +The more prominent lights of the school were Salaino (fl. 1495-1518), +of whose work nothing authentic exists, Boltraffio (1467-1516), a +painter of limitations but of much refinement and purity, and Marco da +Oggiono (1470?-1530) a close follower of Leonardo. Solario +(1458?-1515?) probably became acquainted early with the Flemish mode +of working practised by Antonello da Messina, but he afterward came +under Leonardo's spell at Milan. He was a careful, refined painter, +possessed of feeling and tenderness, producing pictures with enamelled +surfaces and much detail. Gianpietrino (fl. 1520-1540) and Cesare da +Sesto (1477-1523?) were also of the Milanese school, the latter +afterward falling under the Raphael influence. Gaudenzio Ferrara +(1481?-1547?), an exceptionally brilliant colorist and a painter of +much distinction, was under Leonardo's influence at one time, and +with the teachings of that master he mingled a little of Raphael in +the type of face. He was an uneven painter, often excessive in +sentiment, but at his best one of the most charming of the northern +painters. + +SODOMA AND THE SIENNESE: Sienna, alive in the fourteenth century to +all that was stirring in art, in the fifteenth century was in complete +eclipse, no painters of consequence emanating from there or being +established there. In the sixteenth century there was a revival of art +because of a northern painter settling there and building up a new +school. This painter was Sodoma (1477?-1549). He was one of the best +pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, a master of the human figure, handling it +with much grace and charm of expression, but not so successful with +groups or studied compositions, wherein he was inclined to huddle and +over-crowd space. He was afterward led off by the brilliant success of +Raphael, and adopted something of that master's style. His best work +was done in fresco, though he did some easel pictures that have +darkened very much through time. He was a friend of Raphael, and his +portrait appears beside Raphael's in the latter painter's celebrated +School of Athens. The pupils and followers of the Siennese School were +not men of great strength. Pacchiarotta (1474-1540?), Girolamo della +Pacchia (1477-1535), Peruzzi (1481-1536), a half-Lombard half-Umbrian +painter of ability, and Beccafumi (1486-1551) were the principal +lights. The influence of the school was slight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SODOMA. ECSTASY OF ST. CATHERINE. SIENNA.] + +FERRARA AND BOLOGNESE SCHOOLS: The painters of these schools during +the sixteenth century have usually been classed among the followers +and imitators of Raphael, but not without some injustice. The +influence of Raphael was great throughout Central Italy, and the +Ferrarese and Bolognese felt it, but not to the extinction of their +native thought and methods. Moreover, there was some influence in +color coming from the Venetian school, but again not to the entire +extinction of Ferrarese individuality. Dosso Dossi (1479?-1541), at +Ferrara, a pupil of Lorenzo Costa, was the chief painter of the time, +and he showed more of Giorgione in color and light-and-shade than +anyone else, yet he never abandoned the yellows, greens, and reds +peculiar to Ferrara, and both he and Garofolo were strikingly original +in their background landscapes. Garofolo (1481-1559) was a pupil of +Panetti and Costa, who made several visits to Rome and there fell in +love with Raphael's work, which showed in a fondness for the sweep and +flow of line, in the type of face adopted, and in the calmness of his +many easel pictures. He was not so dramatic a painter as Dosso, and in +addition he had certain mannerisms or earmarks, such as sootiness in +his flesh tints and brightness in his yellows and greens, with dulness +in his reds. He was always Ferrarese in his landscapes and in the main +characteristics of his technic. Mazzolino (1478?-1528?) was another of +the school, probably a pupil of Panetti. He was an elaborate painter, +fond of architectural backgrounds and glowing colors enlivened with +gold in the high lights. Bagnacavallo (1484-1542) was a pupil of +Francia at Bologna, but with much of Dosso and Ferrara about him. He, +in common with Imola, already mentioned, was indebted to the art of +Raphael. + +CORREGGIO AT PARMA: In Correggio (1494?-1534) all the Boccaccio nature +of the Renaissance came to the surface. It was indicated in Andrea del +Sarto--this nature-worship--but Correggio was the consummation. He was +the Faun of the Renaissance, the painter with whom the beauty of the +human as distinguished from the religious and the classic showed at +its very strongest. Free animal spirits, laughing madonnas, raving +nymphs, excited children of the wood, and angels of the sky pass and +repass through his pictures in an atmosphere of pure sensuousness. +They appeal to us not religiously, not historically, not +intellectually, but sensuously and artistically through their rhythmic +lines, their palpitating flesh, their beauty of color, and in the +light and atmosphere that surround them. He was less of a religionist +than Andrea del Sarto. Religion in art was losing ground in his day, +and the liberality and worldliness of its teachers appeared clearly +enough in the decorations of the Convent of St. Paul at Parma, where +Correggio was allowed to paint mythological Dianas and Cupids in the +place of saints and madonnas. True enough, he painted the religious +subject very often, but with the same spirit of life and joyousness as +profane subjects. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46--CORREGGIO. MARRIAGE OF ST. CATHERINE AND +CHRIST. LOUVRE.] + +The classic subject seemed more appropriate to his spirit, and yet he +knew and probably cared less about it than the religious subject. His +Dianas and Ledas are only so in name. They have little of the +Hellenic spirit about them, and for the sterner, heroic phases of +classicism--the lofty, the grand--Correggio never essayed them. The +things of this earth and the sweetness thereof seemed ever his aim. +Women and children were beautiful to him in the same way that flowers +and trees and skies and sunsets were beautiful. They were revelations +of grace, charm, tenderness, light, shade, color. Simply to exist and +be glad in the sunlight was sweetness to Correggio. He would have no +Sibylesque mystery, no prophetic austerity, no solemnity, no great +intellectuality. He was no leader of a tragic chorus. The dramatic, +the forceful, the powerful, were foreign to his mood. He was a singer +of lyrics and pastorals, a lover of the material beauty about him, and +it is because he passed by the pietistic, the classic, the literary, +and showed the beauty of physical life as an art motive that he is +called the Faun of the Renaissance. The appellation is not +inappropriate. + +How or why he came to take this course would be hard to determine. It +was reflective of the times; but Correggio, so far as history tells +us, had little to do with the movements and people of his age. He was +born and lived and died near Parma, and is sometimes classed among the +Bologna-Ferrara painters, but the reasons for the classification are +not too strong. His education, masters, and influences are all shadowy +and indefinite. He seems, from his drawing and composition, to have +known something of Mantegna at Mantua; from his coloring something of +Dosso and Garofolo, especially in his straw-yellows; from his early +types and faces something of Costa and Francia, and his contours and +light-and-shade indicate a knowledge of Leonardo's work. But there is +no positive certainty that he saw the work of any of these men. + +His drawing was faulty at times, but not obtrusively so; his color and +brush-work rich, vivacious, spirited; his light brilliant, warm, +penetrating; his contours melting, graceful; his atmosphere +omnipresent, enveloping. In composition he rather pushed aside line in +favor of light and color. It was his technical peculiarity that he +centralized his light and surrounded it by darks as a foil. And in +this very feature he was one of the first men in Renaissance Italy to +paint a picture for the purpose of weaving a scheme of lights and +darks through a tapestry of rich colors. That is art for art's sake, +and that, as will be seen further on, was the picture motive of the +great Venetians. + +Correggio's immediate pupils and followers, like those of Raphael and +Andrea del Sarto, did him small honor. As was usually the case in +Renaissance art-history they caught at the method and lost the spirit +of the master. His son, Pomponio Allegri (1521-1593?), was a painter +of some mark without being in the front rank. Michelangelo Anselmi +(1491-1554?), though not a pupil, was an indifferent imitator of +Correggio. Parmigianino (1504-1540), a mannered painter of some +brilliancy, and of excellence in portraits, was perhaps the best of +the immediate followers. It was not until after Correggio's death, and +with the painters of the Decadence, that his work was seriously taken +up and followed. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: MILANESE--Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper S. + M. delle Grazie Milan (in ruins), Mona Lisa, Madonna with + St. Anne (badly damaged) Louvre, Adoration (unfinished) + Uffizi, Angel at left in Verrocchio's Baptism Florence + Acad.; Luini, frescos Monastero Maggiore, 71 fragments in + Brera Milan, Church of the Pilgrims Sarrona, S. M. degli + Angeli Lugano, altar-pieces Duomo Como, Ambrosian Library + Milan, Brera, Uffizi, Louvre, Madrid, St. Petersburgh, and + other galleries; Beltraffio, Madonna Louvre, Barbara Berlin + Gal., Madonna Nat. Gal. Lon., fresco Convent of S. Onofrio + Rome (ascribed to Da Vinci); Marco da Oggiono, Archangels + and other works Brera, Holy Family Madonna Louvre; Solario, + Ecce Homo Repose Poldi-Pezzoli Gal. Milan, Holy Family + Brera, Madonna Portrait Louvre, Portraits Nat. Gal. Lon., + Assumption Certosa of Pavia; Giampietrino, Magdalene Brera, + Madonna S. Sepolcro Milan, Magdalene and Catherine Berlin + Gal.; Cesare da Sesto, Madonna Brera, Magi Naples Mus.; + Gaudenzio Ferrara, frescos Church of Pilgrims Saronna, other + pictures in Brera, Turin Gal., S. Gaudenzio Novara, S. Celso + Milan. + + SIENNESE--Sodoma, frescos Convent of St. Anne near Pienza, + Benedictine Convent of Mont' Oliveto Maggiore, Alexander and + Roxana Villa Farnesina Rome, S. Bernardino Palazzo Pubblico, + S. Domenico Sienna, pictures Uffizi, Brera, Munich, Vienna + Gals.; Pacchiarotto, Ascension Visitation Sienna Gal.; + Girolamo del Pacchia, frescos (3) S. Bernardino, + altar-pieces S. Spirito and Sienna Acad., Munich and Nat. + Gal. Lon.; Peruzzi, fresco Fontegiuste Sienna, S. Onofrio, + S. M. della Pace Rome; Beccafumi, St. Catherine Saints + Sienna Acad., frescos S. Bernardino Hospital and S. Martino + Sienna, Palazzo Doria Rome, Pitti, Berlin, Munich Gals. + + FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Dosso Dossi, many works Ferrara + Modena Gals., Duomo S. Pietro Modena, Brera, Borghese, + Doria, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, Gals.; Garofolo, many works + Ferrara churches and Gal., Borghese, Campigdoglio, Louvre, + Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Mazzolino, Ferrara, + Berlin, Dresden, Louvre, Doria, Borghese, Pitti, Uffizi, and + Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bagnacavallo, Misericordia and Gal. Bologna, + Louvre, Berlin, Dresden Gals. + + PARMESE--Correggio, frescos Convent of S. Paolo, S. Giovanni + Evangelista, Duomo Parma, altar-pieces Dresden (4), Parma + Gals., Louvre, mythological pictures Antiope Louvre, Danae + Borghese, Leda Jupiter and Io Berlin, Venus Mercury and + Cupid Nat. Gal. Lon., Ganymede Vienna Gal.; Pomponio + Allegri, frescos Capella del Popolo Parma; Anselmi, frescos + S. Giovanni Evangelista, altar-pieces Madonna della + Steccata, Duomo, Gal. Parma, Louvre; Parmigianino, frescos + Moses Steccata, S. Giovanni Parma, altar-pieces Santa + Margherita, Bologna Gal., Madonna Pitti, portraits Uffizi, + Vienna, Naples Mus., other works Dresden, Vienna, and Nat. + Gal. Lon. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +THE HIGH RENAISSANCE. 1500-1600. (_Continued._) + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned + and also consult General Bibliography, (page xv.). + + +THE VENETIAN SCHOOL: It was at Venice and with the Venetian painters +of the sixteenth century that a new art-motive was finally and fully +adopted. This art-motive was not religion. For though the religious +subject was still largely used, the religious or pietistic belief was +not with the Venetians any more than with Correggio. It was not a +classic, antique, realistic, or naturalistic motive. The Venetians +were interested in all phases of nature, and they were students of +nature, but not students of truth for truth's sake. + +What they sought, primarily, was the light and shade on a nude +shoulder, the delicate contours of a form, the flow and fall of silk +or brocade, the richness of a robe, a scheme of color or of light, the +character of a face, the majesty of a figure. They were seeking +effects of line, light, color--mere sensuous and pictorial effects, in +which religion and classicism played secondary parts. They believed in +art for art's sake; that painting was a creation, not an illustration; +that it should exist by its pictorial beauties, not by its subject or +story. No matter what their subjects, they invariably painted them so +as to show the beauties they prized the highest. The Venetian +conception was less austere, grand, intellectual, than pictorial, +sensuous, concerning the beautiful as it appealed to the eye. And this +was not a slight or unworthy conception. True it dealt with the +fulness of material life, but regarded as it was by the Venetians--a +thing full-rounded, complete, harmonious, splendid--it became a great +ideal of existence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GIORGIONE(?). ORDEAL OF MOSES. UFFIZI.] + +In technical expression color was the note of all the school, with +hardly an exception. This in itself would seem to imply a lightness of +spirit, for color is somehow associated in the popular mind with +decorative gayety; but nothing could be further removed from the +Venetian school than triviality. Color was taken up with the greatest +seriousness, and handled in such masses and with such dignified power +that while it pleased it also awed the spectator. Without having quite +the severity of line, some of the Venetian chromatic schemes rise in +sublimity almost to the Sistine modellings of Michael Angelo. We do +not feel this so much in Giovanni Bellini, fine in color as he was. He +came too early for the full splendor, but he left many pupils who +completed what he had inaugurated. + +THE GREAT VENETIANS: The most positive in influence upon his +contemporaries of all the great Venetians was Giorgione (1477?-1511). +He died young, and what few pictures by him are left to us have been +so torn to pieces by historical criticism that at times one begins to +doubt if there ever was such a painter. His different styles have been +confused, and his pictures in consequence thereof attributed to +followers instead of to the master. Painters change their styles, but +seldom their original bent of mind. With Giorgione there was a lyric +feeling as shown in music. The voluptuous swell of line, the melting +tone of color, the sharp dash of light, the undercurrent of +atmosphere, all mingled for him into radiant melody. He sought pure +pictorial beauty and found it in everything of nature. He had little +grasp of the purely intellectual, and the religious was something he +dealt with in no strong devotional way. The fête, the concert, the +fable, the legend, with a landscape setting, made a stronger appeal to +him. More of a recorder than a thinker he was not the less a leader +showing the way into that new Arcadian grove of pleasure whose +inhabitants thought not of creeds and faiths and histories and +literatures, but were content to lead the life that was sweet in its +glow and warmth of color, its light, its shadows, its bending trees, +and arching skies. A strong full-blooded race, sober-minded, +dignified, rationally happy with their lot, Giorgione portrayed them +with an art infinite in variety and consummate in skill. Their least +features under his brush seemed to glow like jewels. The sheen of +armor and rich robe, a bare forearm, a nude back, or loosened +hair--mere morsels of color and light--all took on a new beauty. Even +landscape with him became more significant. His master, Bellini, had +been realistic enough in the details of trees and hills, but Giorgione +grasped the meaning of landscape as an entirety, and rendered it with +poetic breadth. + +Technically he adopted the oil medium brought to Venice by Antonello +da Messina, introducing scumbling and glazing to obtain brilliancy and +depth of color. Of light-and-shade he was a master, and in atmosphere +excellent. He, in common with all the Venetians, is sometimes said to +be lacking in drawing, but that is the result of a misunderstanding. +The Venetians never cared to accent line, choosing rather to model in +masses of light and shadow and color. Giorgione was a superior man +with the brush, but not quite up to his contemporary Titian. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--TITIAN. VENUS EQUIPPING CUPID. BORGHESE PAL., +ROME.] + +That is not surprising, for Titian (1477-1576) was the painter easily +first in the whole range of Italian art. He was the first man in the +history of painting to handle a brush with freedom, vigor, and gusto. +And Titian's brush-work was probably the least part of his genius. +Calm in mood, dignified, and often majestic in conception, learned +beyond all others in his craft, he mingled thought, feeling, color, +brush-work into one grand and glowing whole. He emphasized nothing, +yet elevated everything. In pure intellectual thought he was not so +strong as Raphael. He never sought to make painting a vehicle for +theological, literary, or classical ideas. His tale was largely of +humanity under a religious or classical name, but a noble, majestic +humanity. In his art dignified senators, stern doges, and solemn +ecclesiastics mingle with open-eyed madonnas, winning Ariadnes, and +youthful Bacchuses. Men and women they are truly, but the very noblest +of the Italian race, the mountain race of the Cadore country--proud, +active, glowing with life; the sea race of Venice--worldly wise, full +of character, luxurious in power. + +In himself he was an epitome of all the excellences of painting. He +was everything, the sum of Venetian skill, the crowning genius of +Renaissance art. He had force, power, invention, imagination, point of +view; he had the infinite knowledge of nature and the infinite mastery +of art. In addition, Fortune smiled upon him as upon a favorite child. +Trained in mind and hand he lived for ninety-nine years and worked +unceasingly up to a few months of his death. His genius was great and +his accomplishment equally so. He was celebrated and independent at +thirty-five, though before that he showed something of the influence +of Giorgione. After the death of Giorgione and his master, Bellini, +Titian was the leader in Venice to the end of his long life, and +though having few scholars of importance his influence was spread +through all North Italian painting. + +Taking him for all in all, perhaps it is not too much to say that he +was the greatest painter known to history. If it were possible to +describe that greatness in one word, that word would be +"universality." He saw and painted that which was universal in its +truth. The local and particular, the small and the accidental, were +passed over for those great truths which belong to all the world of +life. In this respect he was a veritable Shakespeare, with all the +calmness and repose of one who overlooked the world from a lofty +height. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--TINTORETTO. MERCURY AND GRACES. DUCAL PAL., +VENICE.] + +The restfulness and easy strength of Titian were not characteristics +of his follower Tintoretto (1518-1592). He was violent, headlong, +impulsive, more impetuous than Michael Angelo, and in some respects a +strong reminder of him. He had not Michael Angelo's austerity, and +there was more clash and tumult and fire about him, but he had a +command of line like the Florentine, and a way of hurling things, as +seen in the Fall of the Damned, that reminds one of the Last Judgment +of the Sistine. It was his aim to combine the line of Michael Angelo +and the color of Titian; but without reaching up to either of his +models he produced a powerful amalgam of his own. + +He was one of the very great artists of the world, and the most rapid +workman in the whole Renaissance period. There are to-day, after +centuries of decay, fire, theft, and repainting, yards upon yards of +Tintoretto's canvases rotting upon the walls of the Venetian churches. +He produced an enormous amount of work, and, what is to be regretted, +much of it was contract work or experimental sketching. This has given +his art a rather bad name, but judged by his best works in the Ducal +Palace and the Academy at Venice, he will not be found lacking. Even +in his masterpiece (The Miracle of the Slave) he is "Il Furioso," as +they used to call him; but his thunderbolt style is held in check by +wonderful grace, strength of modelling, superb contrasts of light with +shade, and a coloring of flesh and robes not unworthy of the very +greatest. He was a man who worked in the white heat of passion, with +much imagination and invention. As a technician he sought difficulties +rather than avoided them. There is some antagonism between form and +color, but Tintoretto tried to reconcile them. The result was +sometimes clashing, but no one could have done better with them than +he did. He was a fine draughtsman, a good colorist, and a master of +light. As a brushman he was a superior man, but not equal to Titian. + +Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), the fourth great Venetian, did not follow +the line direction set by Tintoretto, but carried out the original +color-leaning of the school. He came a little later than Tintoretto, +and his art was a reflection of the advancing Renaissance, wherein +simplicity was destined to lose itself in complexity, grandeur, and +display. Paolo came on the very crest of the Renaissance wave, when +art, risen to its greatest height, was gleaming in that transparent +splendor that precedes the fall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--P. VERONESE. VENICE ENTHRONED. DUCAL PAL., +VENICE.] + +The great bulk of his work had a large decorative motive behind it. +Almost all of the late Venetian work was of that character. Hence it +was brilliant in color, elaborate in subject, and grand in scale. +Splendid robes, hangings, furniture, architecture, jewels, armor, +appeared everywhere, and not in flat, lustreless hues, but with that +brilliancy which they possess in nature. Drapery gave way to clothing, +and texture-painting was introduced even in the largest canvases. +Scenes from Scripture and legend turned into grand pageants of +Venetian glory, and the facial expression of the characters rather +passed out in favor of telling masses of color to be seen at a +distance upon wall or ceiling. It was pomp and glory carried to the +highest pitch, but with all seriousness of mood and truthfulness in +art. It was beyond Titian in variety, richness, ornament, facility; +but it was perhaps below Titian in sentiment, sobriety, and depth of +insight. Titian, with all his sensuous beauty, did appeal to the +higher intelligence, while Paolo and his companions appealed more +positively to the eye by luxurious color-setting and magnificence of +invention. The decadence came after Paolo, but not with him. His art +was the most gorgeous of the Venetian school, and by many is ranked +the highest of all, but perhaps it is better to say it was the height. +Those who came after brought about the decline by striving to imitate +his splendor, and thereby falling into extravagance. + +These are the four great Venetians--the men of first rank. Beside them +and around them were many other painters, placed in the second rank, +who in any other time or city would have held first place. Palma il +Vecchio (1480?-1528) was so excellent in many ways that it seems +unjust to speak of him as a secondary painter. He was not, however, a +great original mind, though in many respects a perfect painter. He was +influenced by Bellini at first, and then by Giorgione. In subject +there was nothing dramatic about him, and he carries chiefly by his +portrayal of quiet, dignified, and beautiful Venetians under the names +of saints and holy families. The St. Barbara is an example of this, +and one of the most majestic figures in all painting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--LOTTO. THREE AGES. PITTI.] + +Palma's friend and fellow-worker, Lorenzo Lotto (1480?-1556?) came +from the school of the Bellini, and at different times was under the +influence of several Venetian painters--Palma, Giorgione, +Titian--without obliterating a sensitive individuality of his own. He +was a somewhat mannered but very charming painter, and in portraits +can hardly be classed below Titian. Rocco Marconi (fl. 1505-1520) was +another Bellini-educated painter, showing the influence of Palma and +even of Paris Bordone. In color and landscape he was excellent. +Pordenone (1483-1540) rather followed after Giorgione, and +unsuccessfully competed with Titian. He was inclined to exaggeration +in dramatic composition, but was a painter of undeniable power. +Cariani (1480-1541) was another Giorgione follower. Bonifazio Pitati +probably came from a Veronese family. He showed the influence of +Palma, and was rather deficient in drawing, though exceedingly +brilliant and rich in coloring. This latter may be said for Paris +Bordone (1495-1570), a painter of Titian's school, gorgeous in color, +but often lacking in truth of form. His portraits are very fine. +Another painter family, the Bassani--there were six of them, of whom +Jacopo Bassano (1510-1592) and his son Francesco Bassano (1550-1591), +were the most noted--formed themselves after Venetian masters, and +were rather remarkable for violent contrasts of light and dark, +_genre_ treatment of sacred subjects, and still-life and animal +painting. + +PAINTING IN VENETIAN TERRITORIES: Venetian painting was not confined to +Venice, but extended through all the Venetian territories in Renaissance +times, and those who lived away from the city were, in their art, +decidedly Venetian, though possessing local characteristics. + +At Brescia Savoldo (1480?-1548), a rather superficial painter, fond of +weird lights and sheeny draperies, and Romanino (1485?-1566), a +follower of Giorgione, good in composition but unequal and careless in +execution, were the earliest of the High Renaissance men. Moretto +(1498?-1555) was the strongest and most original, a man of +individuality and power, remarkable technically for his delicacy and +unity of color under a veil of "silvery tone." In composition he was +dignified and noble, and in brush-work simple and direct. One of the +great painters of the time, he seemed to stand more apart from +Venetian influence than any other on Venetian territory. He left one +remarkable pupil, Moroni (fl. 1549-1578) whose portraits are to-day +the gems of several galleries, and greatly admired for their modern +spirit and treatment. + +At Verona Caroto and Girolamo dai Libri (1474-1555), though living +into the sixteenth century were more allied to the art of the +fifteenth century. Torbido (1486?-1546?) was a vacillating painter, +influenced by Liberale da Verona, Giorgione, Bonifazio Veronese, and +later, even by Giulio Romano. Cavazzola (1486-1522) was more original, +and a man of talent. There were numbers of other painters scattered +all through the Venetian provinces at this time, but they were not of +the first, or even the second rank, and hence call for no mention +here. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: Giorgione, Fête Rustique Louvre, Sleeping + Venus Dresden, altar-piece Castelfranco, Ordeal of Moses + Judgment of Solomon Knight of Malta Uffizi; Titian, Sacred + and Profane Love Borghese, Tribute Money Dresden, + Annunciation S. Rocco, Pesaro Madonna Frari Venice, + Entombment Man with Glove Louvre, Bacchus Nat. Gal. Lon., + Charles V. Madrid, Danæ Naples, many other works in almost + every European gallery; Tintoretto, many works in Venetian + churches, Salute SS. Giovanni e Paolo S. Maria dell' Orto + Scuola and Church of S. Rocco Ducal Palace Venice Acad. + (best work Miracle of Slave); Paolo Veronese, many Pictures + in S. Sebastiano Ducal Palace Academy Venice, Pitti, Uffizi, + Brera, Capitoline and Borghese Galleries Rome, Turin, + Dresden, Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Palma il Vecchio, + Jacob and Rachel Three Sisters Dresden, Barbara S. M. + Formosa Venice, other altar-pieces Venice Acad., Colonna + Palace Rome, Brera, Naples Mus., Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon.; + Lotto, Three Ages Pitti, Portraits Brera, Nat. Gal. Lon., + altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice and churches at + Bergamo, Treviso, Recanti, also Uffizi, Vienna, Madrid + Gals.; Marconi, Descent Venice Acad., altar-pieces S. + Giorgio Maggiore SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice; Pordenone, S. + Lorenzo Madonna Venice Acad., Salome Doria St. George + Quirinale Rome, other works Madrid, Dresden, St. Petersburg, + Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bonifazio, St. John, St. Joseph, etc. + Ambrosian Library Milan (attributed to Giorgione), Holy + Family Colonna Pal. Rome, Ducal Pal., Pitti, Dresden Gals.; + Supper at Emmaus Brera, other works Venice Acad.; Paris + Bordone, Fisherman and Doge, Venice Acad., Madonna Casa + Tadini Lovere, portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Louvre, Munich, + Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon., Brignola Pal. Genoa; Jacopo Bassano, + altar-pieces in Bassano churches, also Ducal Pal. Venice, + Nat. Gal. Lon., Uffizi, Naples Mus.; Francesco Bassano, + large pictures Ducal Pal., St. Catherine Pitti, Sabines + Turin, Adoration and Christ in Temple Dresden, Adoration and + Last Supper Madrid; Savoldo, altar-pieces Brera, S. Niccolò + Treviso, Uffizi, Turin Gal., S. Giobbe Venice, Nat. Gal. + Lon.; Romanino, altar-pieces S. Francesco Brescia, Berlin + Gal., S. Giovanni Evangelista Brescia, Duomo Cremona, Padua, + and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moretto, altar-pieces Brera, Staedel + Mus., S. M. della Pieta Venice, Vienna, Berlin, Louvre, + Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moroni, portraits Bergamo Gal., + Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Berlin, Dresden, Madrid; Girolamo + dai Libri, Madonna Berlin, Conception S. Paolo Verona, + Virgin Verona Gal., S. Giorgio Maggiore Verona, Nat. Gal. + Lon.; Torbido, frescos Duomo, altar-pieces S. Zeno and S. + Eufemia Verona; Cavazzola, altar-pieces, Verona Gal. and + Nat. Gal. Lon. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ITALIAN PAINTING. + +THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK. 1600-1894. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, also General Bibliography, + (page xv.); Calvi, _Notizie della vita e delle opere di Gio. + Francesco Barbiera_; Malvasia, _Felsina Pittrice_; Sir + Joshua Reynolds, _Discourses_; Symonds, _Renaissance in + Italy--The Catholic Reaction_; Willard, _Modern Italian + Art_. + + +THE DECLINE: An art movement in history seems like a wave that rises +to a height, then breaks, falls, and parts of it are caught up from +beneath to help form the strength of a new advance. In Italy +Christianity was the propelling force of the wave. In the Early +Renaissance, the antique, and the study of nature came in as +additions. At Venice in the High Renaissance the art-for-art's-sake +motive made the crest of light and color. The highest point was +reached then, and there was nothing that could follow but the breaking +and the scattering of the wave. This took place in Central Italy after +1540, in Venice after 1590. + +Art had typified in form, thought, and expression everything of which +the Italian race was capable. It had perfected all the graces and +elegancies of line and color, and adorned them with a superlative +splendor. There was nothing more to do. The idea was completed, the +motive power had served its purpose, and that store of race-impulse +which seems necessary to the making of every great art was exhausted. +For the men that came after Michael Angelo and Tintoretto there was +nothing. All that they could do was to repeat what others had said, or +to recombine the old thoughts and forms. This led inevitably to +imitation, over-refinement of style, and conscious study of beauty, +resulting in mannerism and affectation. Such qualities marked the art +of those painters who came in the latter part of the sixteenth century +and the first of the seventeenth. They were unfortunate men in the +time of their birth. No painter could have been great in the +seventeenth century of Italy. Art lay prone upon its face under Jesuit +rule, and the late men were left upon the barren sands by the receding +wave of the Renaissance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--BRONZINO. CHRIST IN LIMBO. UFFIZI.] + +ART MOTIVES AND SUBJECTS: As before, the chief subject of the art of +the Decadence was religion, with many heads and busts of the Madonna, +though nature and the classic still played their parts. After the +Reformation at the North the Church in Italy started the +Counter-Reformation. One of the chief means employed by this Catholic +reaction was the embellishment of church worship, and painting on a +large scale, on panel rather than in fresco, was demanded for +decorative purposes. But the religious motive had passed out, though +its subject was retained, and the pictorial motive had reached its +climax at Venice. The faith of the one and the taste and skill of the +other were not attainable by the late men, and, while consciously +striving to achieve them, they fell into exaggerated sentiment and +technical weakness. It seems perfectly apparent in their works that +they had nothing of their own to say, and that they were trying to say +over again what Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Titian had said before +them much better. There were earnest men and good painters among them, +but they could produce only the empty form of art. The spirit had +fled. + +THE MANNERISTS: Immediately after the High Renaissance leaders of +Florence and Rome came the imitators and exaggerators of their styles. +They produced large, crowded compositions, with a hasty facility of +the brush and striking effects of light. Seeking the grand they +overshot the temperate. Their elegance was affected, their sentiment +forced, their brilliancy superficial glitter. When they thought to be +ideal they lost themselves in incomprehensible allegories; when they +thought to be real they grew prosaic in detail. These men are known in +art history as the Mannerists, and the men whose works they imitated +were chiefly Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Correggio. There were many +of them, and some of them have already been spoken of as the followers +of Michael Angelo. + +Agnolo Bronzino (1502?-1572) was a pupil of Pontormo, and an imitator +of Michael Angelo, painting in rather heavy colors with a thin brush. +His characters were large, but never quite free from weakness, except +in portraiture, where he appeared at his best. Vasari (1511-1574)--the +same Vasari who wrote the lives of the painters--had versatility and +facility, but his superficial imitations of Michael Angelo were too +grandiose in conception and too palpably false in modelling. Salviati +(1510-1563) was a friend of Vasari, a painter of about the same cast +of mind and hand as Vasari, and Federigo Zucchero (1543-1609) belongs +with him in producing things muscularly big but intellectually small. +Baroccio (1528-1612), though classed among the Mannerists as an +imitator of Correggio and Raphael, was really one of the strong men of +the late times. There was affectation and sentimentality about his +work, a prettiness of face, rosy flesh tints, and a general lightness +of color, but he was a superior brushman, a good colorist, and, at +times, a man of earnestness and power. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--BAROCCIO. ANNUNCIATION.] + +THE ECLECTICS: After the Mannerists came the Eclectics of Bologna, led +by the Caracci, who, about 1585, sought to "revive" art. They started +out to correct the faults of the Mannerists, and yet their own art was +based more on the art of their great predecessors than on nature. They +thought to make a union of Renaissance excellences by combining +Michael Angelo's line, Titian's color, Correggio's light-and-shade and +Raphael's symmetry and grace. The attempt was praiseworthy for the +time, but hardly successful. They caught the lines and lights and +colors of the great men, but they overlooked the fact that the +excellence of the imitated lay largely in their inimitable +individualities, which could not be combined. The Eclectic work was +done with intelligence, but their system was against them and their +baroque age was against them. Midway in their career the Caracci +themselves modified their eclecticism and placed more reliance upon +nature. But their pupils paid little heed to the modification. + +There were five of the Caracci, but three of them--Ludovico +(1555-1619), Agostino (1557-1602), and Annibale (1560-1609)--led the +school, and of these Annibale was the most distinguished. They had +many pupils, and their influence was widely spread over Italy. In Sir +Joshua Reynolds's day they were ranked with Raphael, but at the +present time criticism places them where they belong--painters of the +Decadence with little originality or spontaneity in their art, though +much technical skill. Domenichino (1581-1641) was the strongest of the +pupils. His St. Jerome was rated by Poussin as one of the three great +paintings of the world, but it never deserved such rank. It is +powerfully composed, but poor in coloring and handling. The painter +had great repute in his time, and was one of the best of the +seventeenth century men. Guido Reni (1575-1642) was a painter of many +gifts and accomplishments, combined with many weaknesses. His works +are well composed and painted, but excessive in sentiment and overdone +in pathos. Albani (1578-1660) ran to elegance and a porcelain-like +prettiness. Guercino (1591-1666) was originally of the Eclectic School +at Bologna, but later took up with the methods of the Naturalists at +Naples. He was a painter of far more than the average ability. +Sassoferrato (1605-1685) and Carlo Dolci (1616-1686) were so +super-saturated with sentimentality that often their skill as painters +is overlooked or forgotten. In spirit they were about the weakest of +the century. There were other eclectic schools started throughout +Italy--at Milan, Cremona, Ferrara--but they produced little worth +recording. At Rome certain painters like Cristofano Allori +(1577-1621), an exceptionally strong man for the time, Berrettini +(1596-1669), and Maratta (1625-1713), manufactured a facile kind of +painting from what was attractive in the various schools, but it was +never other than meretricious work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.--ANNIBALE CARACCI. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST. +LOUVRE.] + +THE NATURALISTS: Contemporary with the Eclectics sprang up the +Neapolitan school of the Naturalists, led by Caravaggio (1569-1609) +and his pupils. These schools opposed each other, and yet influenced +each other. Especially was this true with the later men, who took what +was best in both schools. The Naturalists were, perhaps, more firmly +based upon nature than the Bolognese Eclectics. Their aim was to take +nature as they found it, and yet, in conformity with the extravagance +of the age, they depicted extravagant nature. Caravaggio thought to +represent sacred scenes more truthfully by taking his models from the +harsh street life about him and giving types of saints and apostles +from Neapolitan brawlers and bandits. It was a brutal, coarse +representation, rather fierce in mood and impetuous in action, yet not +without a good deal of tragic power. His subjects were rather dismal +or morose, but there was knowledge in the drawing of them, some good +color and brush-work and a peculiar darkness of shadow masses +(originally gained from Giorgione), that stood as an ear-mark of his +whole school. From the continuous use of black shadows the school got +the name of the "Darklings," by which they are still known. Giordano +(1632-1705), a painter of prodigious facility and invention, Salvator +Rosa (1615-1673), best known as one of the early painters of +landscape, and Ribera, a Spanish painter, were the principal pupils. + +THE LATE VENETIANS: The Decadence at Venice, like the Renaissance, +came later than at Florence, but after the death of Tintoretto +mannerisms and the imitation of the great men did away with +originality. There was still much color left, and fine ceiling +decorations were done, but the nobility and calm splendor of Titian's +days had passed. Palma il Giovine (1544-1628) with a hasty brush +produced imitations of Tintoretto with some grace and force, and in +remarkable quantity. He and Tintoretto were the most rapid and +productive painters of the century; but Palma's was not good in +spirit, though quite dashing in technic. Padovanino (1590-1650) was +more of a Titian follower, but, like all the other painters of the +time, he was proficient with the brush and lacking in the stronger +mental elements. The last great Italian painter was Tiepolo +(1696-1770), and he was really great beyond his age. With an art +founded on Paolo Veronese, he produced decorative ceilings and panels +of high quality, with wonderful invention, a limpid brush, and a light +flaky color peculiarly appropriate to the walls of churches and +palaces. He was, especially in easel pictures, a brilliant, vivacious +brushman, full of dash and spirit, tempered by a large knowledge of +what was true and pictorial. Some of his best pictures are still in +Venice, and modern painters are unstinted in their praise of them. He +left a son, Domenico Tiepolo (1726-1795), who followed his methods. In +the late days of Venetian painting, Canaletto (1697-1768) and Guardi +(1712-1793) achieved reputation by painting Venetian canals and +architecture with much color effect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CARAVAGGIO. THE CARD PLAYERS. DRESDEN.] + +NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN ITALY: There is little in the art of +Italy during the present century that shows a positive national +spirit. It has been leaning on the rest of Europe for many years, and +the best that the living painters show is largely an echo of +Dusseldorf, Munich, or Paris. The revived classicism of David in +France affected nineteenth-century painting in Italy somewhat. Then it +was swayed by Cornelius and Overbeck from Germany. Morelli (1826-[2]) +shows this latter influence, though one of the most important of the +living men.[3] In the 1860's Mariano Fortuny, a Spaniard at Rome, led +the younger element in the glittering and the sparkling, and this +style mingled with much that is more strikingly Parisian than Italian, +may be found in the works of painters like Michetti, De Nittis +(1846-1884), Favretto, Tito, Nono, Simonetti, and others. + +[Footnote 2: Died, 1901.] + +[Footnote 3: See _Scribner's Magazine_, Neapolitan Art, Dec., 1890, +Feb., 1891.] + +Of recent days the impressionistic view of light and color has had its +influence; but the Italian work at its best is below that of France. +Segantini[4] was one of the most promising of the younger men in +subjects that have an archaic air about them. Boldini, though Italian +born and originally following Fortuny's example, is really more +Parisian than anything else. He is an artist of much power and +technical strength in _genre_ subjects and portraits. The newer men +are Fragiocomo, Fattori, Mancini, Marchetti. + +[Footnote 4: Died, 1899.] + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: MANNERISTS--Agnolo Bronzino, Christ in + Limbo and many portraits in Uffizi and Nat. Gal. Lon.; + Vasari, many pictures in galleries at Arezzo, Bologna, + Berlin, Munich, Louvre, Madrid; Salviati, Charity Christ + Uffizi, Patience Pitti, St. Thomas Louvre, Love and Psyche + Berlin; Federigo Zucchero, Duomo Florence, Ducal Palace + Venice, Allegories Uffizi, Calumny Hampton Court; Baroccio, + Pardon of St. Francis Urbino, Annunciation Loreto, several + pictures in Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Dresden Gal. + + ECLECTICS--Ludovico Caracci, Cathedral frescos Bologna, + thirteen pictures Bologna Gal.; Agostino Caracci, frescos + (with Annibale) Farnese Pal. Rome, altar-pieces Bologna + Gal.; Annibale Carracci, frescos (with Agostino) Farnese + Pal. Rome, other pictures Bologna Gal., Uffizi, Naples Mus., + Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Domenichino, St. + Jerome Vatican, S. Pietro in Vincoli, Diana Borghese, + Bologna, Pitti, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Guido Reni, frescos + Aurora Rospigliosi Pal. Rome, many pictures Bologna, + Borghese Gal., Pitti, Uffizi, Brera, Naples, Louvre, and + other galleries of Europe; Albani, Guercino, Sassoferrato, + and Carlo Dolci, works in almost every European gallery, + especially Bologna; Cristofano Allori, Judith Pitti, also + pictures in Uffizi; Berrettini and Maratta, many examples in + Italian galleries, also Louvre. + + NATURALISTS--Caravaggio, Entombment Vatican, many other + works in Pitti, Uffizi, Naples, Louvre, Dresden, St. + Petersburg; Giordano, Judgment of Paris Berlin, many + pictures in Dresden and Italian galleries; Salvator Rosa, + best marine in Pitti, other works Uffizi, Brera, Naples, + Madrid galleries and Colonna, Corsini, Doria, Chigi Palaces + Rome. + + LATE VENETIANS--Palma il Giovine, Ducal Palace Venice, + Cassel, Dresden, Munich, Madrid, Naples, Vienna galleries; + Padovanino, Marriage in Cana Kneeling Angel and other works + Venice Acad., Carmina Venice, also galleries of Louvre, + Uffizi, Borghese, Dresden, London; Tiepolo, large fresco + Villa Pisani Stra, Palazzo Labia Scuola Carmina, Venice, + Villa Valmarana, and at Wurtzburg, easel pictures Venice + Acad., Louvre, Berlin, Madrid; Canaletto and Guardi, many + pictures in European galleries. + + MODERN ITALIANS[5]--Morelli, Madonna Royal chap. + Castiglione, Assumption Royal chap. Naples; Michetti, The + Vow Nat. Gal. Rome; De Nittis, Place du Carrousel Luxembourg + Paris; Boldini, Gossips Met. Mus. New York. + +[Footnote 5: Only works in public places are given. Those in private +hands change too often for record here. For detailed list of works see +Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings._] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +FRENCH PAINTING. + +SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Amorini, _Vita del celebre pittore + Francesco Primaticcio_; Berger, _Histoire de l'École + Française de Peinture au XVII^{me} Siècle_; Bland, _Les + Peintres des fêtes galantes, Watteau, Boucher, et al._; + Curmer, _L'OEuvre de Jean Fouquet_; Delaborde, _Études sur + les Beaux Arts en France et en Italie_; Didot, _Études sur + Jean Cousin_; Dimier, _French Painting in XVI Century_; + Dumont, _Antoine Watteau_; Dussieux, _Nouvelles Recherches + sur la Vie de E. Lesueur_; Genevay, _Le Style Louis XIV., + Charles Le Brun_; Goncourt, _L'Art du XVIII^{me} Siècle_; + Guibel, _Éloge de Nicolas Poussin_; Guiffrey, _La Famille de + Jean Cousin_; Laborde, _La Renaissance des Arts à la Cour de + France_; Lagrange, _J. Vernet et la Peinture au XVIII^{me} + Siècle_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi René_; Mantz, _François + Boucher_; Michiels, _Études sur l'Art Flamand dans l'est et + le midi de la France_; Muntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et + en France_; Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_; Pattison, + _Renaissance of Art in France_; Pattison, _Claude Lorrain_; + Poillon, _Nicolas Poussin_; Stranahan, _History of French + Painting_. + + +EARLY FRENCH ART: Painting in France did not, as in Italy, spring +directly from Christianity, though it dealt with the religious +subject. From the beginning a decorative motive--the strong feature of +French art--appears as the chief motive of painting. This showed +itself largely in church ornament, garments, tapestries, miniatures, +and illuminations. Mural paintings were produced during the fifth +century, probably in imitation of Italian or Roman example. Under +Charlemagne, in the eighth century, Byzantine influences were at work. +In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries much stained-glass +work appeared, and also many missal paintings and furniture +decorations. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56.--POUSSIN. ET IN ARCADIA EGO. LOUVRE.] + +In the fifteenth century René of Anjou (1408-1480), king and painter, +gave an impetus to art which he perhaps originally received from +Italy. His work showed some Italian influence mingled with a great +deal of Flemish precision, and corresponded for France to the early +Renaissance work of Italy, though by no means so advanced. +Contemporary with René was Jean Fouquet (1415?-1480?) an illuminator +and portrait-painter, one of the earliest in French history. He was an +artist of some original characteristics and produced an art detailed +and exact in its realism. Jean Péreal (?-1528?) and Jean Bourdichon +(1457?-1521?) with Fouquet's pupils and sons, formed a school at Tours +which afterward came to show some Italian influence. The native +workmen at Paris--they sprang up from illuminators to painters in all +probability--showed more of the Flemish influence. Neither of the +schools of the fifteenth century reflected much life or thought, but +what there was of it was native to the soil, though their methods were +influenced from without. + +SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: During this century Francis I., at +Fontainebleau, seems to have encouraged two schools of painting, one +the native French and the other an imported Italian, which afterward +took to itself the name of the "School of Fontainebleau." Of the +native artists the Clouets were the most conspicuous. They were of +Flemish origin, and followed Flemish methods both in technic and +mediums. There were four of them, of whom Jean (1485?-1541?) and +François (1500?-1572?) were the most noteworthy. They painted many +portraits, and François' work, bearing some resemblance to that of +Holbein, it has been doubtfully said that he was a pupil of that +painter. All of their work was remarkable for detail and closely +followed facts. + +The Italian importation came about largely through the travels of +Francis I. in Italy. He invited to Fontainebleau Leonardo da Vinci, +Andrea del Sarto, Il Rosso, Primaticcio, and Niccolò dell' Abbate. +These painters rather superseded and greatly influenced the French +painters. The result was an Italianized school of French art which +ruled in France for many years. Primaticcio was probably the greatest +of the influencers, remaining as he did for thirty years in France. +The native painters, Jean Cousin (1500?-1589) and Toussaint du Breuil +(1561-1602) followed his style, and in the next century the painters +were even more servile imitators of Italy--imitating not the best +models either, but the Mannerists, the Eclectics, and the Roman +painters of the Decadence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--CLAUDE LORRAIN. FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. DRESDEN.] + +SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was a century of great development +and production in France, the time of the founding of the French +Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and the formation of many picture +collections. In the first part of the century the Flemish and native +tendencies existed, but they were overawed, outnumbered by the +Italian. Not even Rubens's painting for Marie de' Medici, in the +palace of the Luxembourg, could stem the tide of Italy. The French +painters flocked to Rome to study the art of their great predecessors +and were led astray by the flashy elegance of the late Italians. Among +the earliest of this century was Fréminet (1567-1619). He was first +taught by his father and Jean Cousin, but afterward spent fifteen +years in Italy studying Parmigianino and Michael Angelo. His work had +something of the Mannerist style about it and was overwrought and +exaggerated. In shadows he seemed to have borrowed from Caravaggio. +Vouet (1590-1649) was a student in Italy of Veronese's painting and +afterward of Guido Reni and Caravaggio. He was a mediocre artist, but +had a great vogue in France and left many celebrated pupils. + +By all odds the best painter of this time was Nicolas Poussin +(1593-1665). He lived almost all of his life in Italy, and might be +put down as an Italian of the Decadence. He was well versed in +classical archæology, and had much of the classic taste and feeling +prevalent at that time in the Roman school of Giulio Romano. His work +showed great intelligence and had an elevated grandiloquent style +about it that was impressive. It reflected nothing French, and had +little more root in present human sympathy than any of the other +painting of the time, but it was better done. The drawing was correct +if severe, the composition agreeable if formal, the coloring +variegated if violent. Many of his pictures have now changed for the +worse in coloring owing to the dissipation of surface pigments. He was +the founder of the classic and academic in French art, and in +influence was the most important man of the century. He was especially +strong in the heroic landscape, and in this branch helped form the +style of his brother-in-law, Gaspard (Dughet) Poussin (1613-1675). + +The landscape painter of the period, however, was Claude Lorrain +(1600-1682). He differed from Poussin in making his pictures depend +more strictly upon landscape than upon figures. With both painters, +the trees, mountains, valleys, buildings, figures, were of the grand +classic variety. Hills and plains, sylvan groves, flowing streams, +peopled harbors, Ionic and Corinthian temples, Roman aqueducts, +mythological groups, were the materials used, and the object of their +use was to show the ideal dwelling-place of man--the former Garden of +the Gods. Panoramic and slightly theatrical at times, Claude's work +was not without its poetic side, shrewd knowledge, and skilful +execution. He was a leader in landscape, the man who first painted +real golden sunlight and shed its light upon earth. There is a soft +summer's-day drowsiness, a golden haze of atmosphere, a feeling of +composure and restfulness about his pictures that are attractive. Like +Poussin he depended much upon long sweeping lines in composition, and +upon effects of linear perspective. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58--WATTEAU. GILLES. LOUVRE.] + +COURT PAINTING: When Louis XIV. came to the throne painting took on a +decided character, but it was hardly national or race character. The +popular idea, if the people had an idea, did not obtain. There was no +motive springing from the French except an inclination to follow +Italy; and in Italy all the great art-motives were dead. In method +the French painters followed the late Italians, and imitated an +imitation; in matter they bowed to the dictates of the court and +reflected the king's mock-heroic spirit. Echoing the fashion of the +day, painting became pompous, theatrical, grandiloquent--a mass of +vapid vanity utterly lacking in sincerity and truth. Lebrun +(1619-1690), painter in ordinary to the king, directed substantially +all the painting of the reign. He aimed at pleasing royalty with +flattering allusions to Cæsarism and extravagant personifications of +the king as a classic conqueror. His art had neither truth, nor +genius, nor great skill, and so sought to startle by subject or size. +Enormous canvases of Alexander's triumphs, in allusion to those of the +great Louis, were turned out to order, and Versailles to this day is +tapestried with battle-pieces in which Louis is always victor. +Considering the amount of work done, Lebrun showed great fecundity and +industry, but none of it has much more than a mechanical ingenuity +about it. It was rather original in composition, but poor in drawing, +lighting, and coloring; and its example upon the painters of the time +was pernicious. + +His contemporary, Le Sueur (1616-1655), was a more sympathetic and +sincere painter, if not a much better technician. Both were pupils of +Vouet, but Le Sueur's art was religious in subject, while Lebrun's was +military and monarchical. Le Sueur had a feeling for his theme, but +was a weak painter, inclined to the sentimental, thin in coloring, and +not at all certain in his drawing. French allusions to him as "the +French Raphael" show more national complacency than correctness. +Sebastian Bourdon (1616-1671) was another painter of history, but a +little out of the Lebrun circle. He was not, however, free from the +influence of Italy, where he spent three years studying color more +than drawing. This shows in his works, most of which are lacking in +form. + +Contemporary with these men was a group of portrait-painters who +gained celebrity perhaps as much by their subjects as by their own +powers. They were facile flatterers given over to the pomps of the +reign and mirroring all its absurdities of fashion. Their work has a +graceful, smooth appearance, and, for its time, it was undoubtedly +excellent portraiture. Even to this day it has qualities of drawing +and coloring to commend it, and at times one meets with exceptionally +good work. The leaders among these portrait-painters were Philip de +Champaigne (1602-1674), the best of his time; Pierre Mignard +(1610?-1695), a pupil of Vouet, who studied in Rome and afterward +returned to France to become the successful rival of Lebrun; +Largillière (1656-1746) and Rigaud (1659-1743). + +EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: The painting of Louis XIV.'s time was +continued into the eighteenth century for some fifteen years or more +with little change. With the advent of Louis XV. art took upon itself +another character, and one that reflected perfectly the moral, social, +and political France of the eighteenth century. The first Louis +clamored for glory, the second Louis revelled in gayety, frivolity, +and sensuality. This was the difference between both monarchs and both +arts. The gay and the coquettish in painting had already been +introduced by the Regent, himself a dilettante in art, and when Louis +XV. came to the throne it passed from the gay to the insipid, the +flippant, even the erotic. Shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in +court silks and satins with cottony sheep beside them posed in +stage-set Arcadias, pretty gods and goddesses reclined indolently upon +gossamer clouds, and court gallants lounged under artificial trees by +artificial ponds making love to pretty soubrettes from the theatre. + +Yet, in spite of the lack of moral and intellectual elevation, in +spite of frivolity and make-believe, this art was infinitely better +than the pompous imitation of foreign example set up by Louis XIV. It +was more spontaneous, more original, more French. The influence of +Italy began to fail, and the painters began to mirror French life. It +was largely court life, lively, vivacious, licentious, but in that +very respect characteristic of the time. Moreover, there was another +quality about it that showed French taste at its best--the decorative +quality. It can hardly be supposed that the fairy creations of the age +were intended to represent actual nature. They were designed to +ornament hall and boudoir, and in pure decorative delicacy of design, +lightness of touch, color charm, they have never been excelled. The +serious spirit was lacking, but the gayety of line and color was well +given. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--BOUCHER. PASTORAL. LOUVRE.] + +Watteau (1684-1721) was the one chiefly responsible for the coquette +and soubrette of French art, and Watteau was, practically speaking, +the first French painter. His subjects were trifling bits of +fashionable love-making, scenes from the opera, fêtes, balls, and the +like. All his characters played at life in parks and groves that never +grew, and most of his color was beautifully unreal; but for all that +the work was original, decorative, and charming. Moreover, Watteau was +a brushman, and introduced not only a new spirit and new subject into +art, but a new method. The epic treatment of the Italians was laid +aside in favor of a genre treatment, and instead of line and flat +surface Watteau introduced color and cleverly laid pigment. He was a +brilliant painter; not a great man in thought or imagination, but one +of fancy, delicacy, and skill. Unfortunately he set a bad example by +his gay subjects, and those who came after him carried his gayety and +lightness of spirit into exaggeration. Watteau's best pupils were +Lancret (1690-1743) and Pater (1695-1736), who painted in his style +with fair results. + +After these men came Van Loo (1705-1765) and Boucher (1703-1770), who +turned Watteau's charming fêtes, showing the costumes and manners of +the Regency, into flippant extravagance. Not only was the moral tone +and intellectual stamina of their art far below that of Watteau, but +their workmanship grew defective. Both men possessed a remarkable +facility of the hand and a keen decorative color-sense; but after a +time both became stereotyped and mannered. Drawing and modelling were +neglected, light was wholly conventional, and landscape turned into a +piece of embroidered background with a Dresden china-tapestry effect +about it. As decoration the general effect was often excellent, as a +serious expression of life it was very weak, as an intellectual or +moral force it was worse than worthless. Fragonard (1732-1806) +followed in a similar style, but was a more knowing man, clever in +color, and a much freer and better brushman. + +A few painters in the time of Louis XV. remained apparently +unaffected by the court influence, and stand in conspicuous isolation. +Claude Joseph Vernet (1712-1789) was a landscape and marine painter of +some repute in his time. He had a sense of the pictorial, but not a +remarkable sense of the truthful in nature. Chardin (1699-1779) and +Greuze (1725-1805), clung to portrayals of humble life and sought to +popularize the _genre_ subject. Chardin was not appreciated by the +masses. His frank realism, his absolute sincerity of purpose, his play +of light and its effect upon color, and his charming handling of +textures were comparatively unnoticed. Yet as a colorist he may be +ranked second to none in French art, and in freshness of handling his +work is a model for present-day painters. Diderot early recognized +Chardin's excellence, and many artists since his day have admired his +pictures; but he is not now a well-known or popular painter. The +populace fancies Greuze and his sentimental heads of young girls. They +have a prettiness about them that is attractive, but as art they lack +in force, and in workmanship they are too smooth, finical, and thin in +handling. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: All of these French painters are best + represented in the collections of the Louvre. Some of the + other galleries, like the Dresden, Berlin, and National at + London, have examples of their work; but the masterpieces + are with the French people in the Louvre and in the other + municipal galleries of France. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +FRENCH PAINTING. + +THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Stranahan, _et al._; also + Ballière, _Henri Regnault_; Blanc, _Les Artistes de mon + Temps_; Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres français au XIX^{me} + Siècle_; Blanc, _Ingres et son OEuvre_; Bigot, _Peintres + français contemporains_; Breton, _La Vie d'un Artiste_ + (_English Translation_); Brownell, _French Art_; Burty, + _Maîtres et Petit-Maîtres_; Chesneau, _Peinture française au + XIX^{me} Siècle_; Clément, _Études sur les Beaux Arts en + France_; Clément, _Prudhon_; Delaborde, _OEuvre de Paul + Delaroche_; Delécluze, _Jacques Louis David, son École, et + son Temps_; Duret, _Les Peintres français en 1867_; Gautier, + _L'Art Moderne_; Gautier, _Romanticisme_; Gonse, _Eugène + Fromentin_; Hamerton, _Contemporary French Painting_; + Hamerton, _Painting in France after the Decline of + Classicism_; Henley, _Memorial Catalogue of French and Dutch + Loan Collection_ (1886); Henriet, _Charles Daubigny et son + OEuvre_; Lenormant, _Les Artistes Contemporains_; + Lenormant, _Ary Scheffer_; Merson, _Ingres, sa Vie et son + OEuvre_; Moreau, _Decamps et son OEuvre_; Planche, + _Études sur l'École française_; Robaut et Chesneau, + _L' OEuvre complet d'Eugène Delacroix_; Sensier, _Théodore + Rousseau_; Sensier, _Life and Works of J. F. Millet_; + Silvestre, _Histoire des Artistes vivants et étrangers_; + Strahan, _Modern French Art_; Thoré, _L'Art Contemporain_; + Theuriet, _Jules Bastien-Lepage_; Van Dyke, _Modern French + Masters_. + + +THE REVOLUTIONARY TIME: In considering this century's art in Europe, +it must be remembered that a great social and intellectual change has +taken place since the days of the Medici. The power so long pent up in +Italy during the Renaissance finally broke and scattered itself upon +the western nations; societies and states were torn down and +rebuilded, political, social, and religious ideas shifted into new +garbs; the old order passed away. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--DAVID. THE SABINES. LOUVRE.] + +Religion as an art-motive, or even as an art-subject, ceased to obtain +anywhere. The Church failed as an art-patron, and the walls of +cloister and cathedral furnished no new Bible readings to the +unlettered. Painting, from being a necessity of life, passed into a +luxury, and the king, the state, or the private collector became the +patron. Nature and actual life were about the only sources left from +which original art could draw its materials. These have been freely +used, but not so much in a national as in an individual manner. The +tendency to-day is not to put forth a universal conception but an +individual belief. Individualism--the same quality that appeared so +strongly in Michael Angelo's art--has become a keynote in modern work. +It is not the only kind of art that has been shown in this century, +nor is nature the only theme from which art has been derived. We must +remember and consider the influence of the past upon modern men, and +the attempts to restore the classic beauty of the Greek, Roman, and +Italian, which practically ruled French painting in the first part of +this century. + +FRENCH CLASSICISM OF DAVID: This was a revival of Greek form in art, +founded on the belief expressed by Winckelmann, that beauty lay in +form, and was best shown by the ancient Greeks. It was the objective +view of art which saw beauty in the external and tolerated no +individuality in the artist except that which was shown in technical +skill. It was little more than an imitation of the Greek and Roman +marbles as types, with insistence upon perfect form, correct drawing, +and balanced composition. In theme and spirit it was pseudo-heroic, +the incidents of Greek and Roman history forming the chief subjects, +and in method it rather despised color, light-and-shade, and natural +surroundings. It was elevated, lofty, ideal in aspiration, but coldly +unsympathetic because lacking in contemporary interest; and, though +correct enough in classic form, was lacking in the classic spirit. +Like all reanimated art, it was derivative as regards its forms and +lacking in spontaneity. The reason for the existence of Greek art died +with its civilization, and those, like the French classicists, who +sought to revive it, brought a copy of the past into the present, +expecting the world to accept it. + +There was some social, and perhaps artistic, reason, however, for the +revival of the classic in the French art of the late eighteenth +century. It was a revolt, and at that time revolts were popular. The +art of Boucher and Van Loo had become quite unbearable. It was +flippant, careless, licentious. It had no seriousness or dignity about +it. Moreover, it smacked of the Bourbon monarchy, which people had +come to hate. Classicism was severe, elevated, respectable at least, +and had the air of the heroic republic about it. It was a return to a +sterner view of life, with the martial spirit behind it as an impetus, +and it had a great vogue. For many years during the Revolution, the +Consulate, and the Empire, classicism was accepted by the sovereigns +and the Institute of France, and to this day it lives in a modified +form in that semi-classic work known as academic art. + +THE CLASSIC SCHOOL: Vien (1716-1809) was the first painter to protest +against the art of Boucher and Van Loo by advocating more nobility of +form and a closer study of nature. He was, however, more devoted to +the antique forms he had studied in Rome than to nature. In subject +and line his tendency was classic, with a leaning toward the Italians +of the Decadence. He lacked the force to carry out a complete reform +in painting, but his pupil David (1748-1825) accomplished what he had +begun. It was David who established the reign of classicism, and by +native power became the leader. The time was appropriate, the +Revolution called for pictures of Romulus, Brutus and Achilles, and +Napoleon encouraged the military theme. David had studied the marbles +at Rome, and he used them largely for models, reproducing scenes from +Greek and Roman life in an elevated and sculpturesque style, with much +archæological knowledge and a great deal of skill. In color, relief, +sentiment, individuality, his painting was lacking. He despised all +that. The rhythm of line, the sweep of composed groups, the heroic +subject and the heroic treatment, made up his art. It was thoroughly +objective, and what contemporary interest it possessed lay largely in +the martial spirit then prevalent. Of course it was upheld by the +Institute, and it really set the pace for French painting for nearly +half a century. When David was called upon to paint Napoleonic +pictures he painted them under protest, and yet these, with his +portraits, constitute his best work. In portraiture he was uncommonly +strong at times. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.--INGRES. OEDIPUS AND SPHINX. LOUVRE.] + +After the Restoration David, who had been a revolutionist, and then an +adherent of Napoleon, was sent into exile; but the influence he had +left and the school he had established were carried on by his +contemporaries and pupils. Of the former Regnault (1754-1829), Vincent +(1746-1816), and Prudhon (1758-1823) were the most conspicuous. The +last one was considered as out of the classic circle, but so far as +making his art depend upon drawing and composition, he was a genuine +classicist. His subjects, instead of being heroic, inclined to the +mythological and the allegorical. In Italy he had been a student of +the Renaissance painters, and from them borrowed a method of shadow +gradation that rendered his figures misty and phantom-like. They +possessed an ease of movement sometimes called "Prudhonesque grace," +and in composition were well placed and effective. + +Of David's pupils there were many. Only a few of them, however, had +pronounced ability, and even these carried David's methods into the +theatrical. Girodet (1766-1824) was a draughtsman of considerable +power, but with poor taste in color and little repose in composition. +Most of his work was exaggeration and strained effect. Lethière +(1760-1832) and Guérin (1774-1833), pupils of Regnault, were painters +akin to Girodet, but inferior to him. Gérard (1770-1837) was a weak +David follower, who gained some celebrity by painting portraits of +celebrated men and women. The two pupils of David who brought him the +most credit were Ingres (1780-1867) and Gros (1771-1835). Ingres was a +cold, persevering man, whose principles had been well settled by David +early in life, and were adhered to with conviction by the pupil to the +last. He modified the classic subject somewhat, studied Raphael and +the Italians, and reintroduced the single figure into art (the Source, +and the Odalisque, for example). For color he had no fancy. "In nature +all is form," he used to say. Painting he thought not an independent +art, but "a development of sculpture." To consider emotion, color, or +light as the equal of form was monstrous, and to compare Rembrandt +with Raphael was blasphemy. To this belief he clung to the end, +faithfully reproducing the human figure, and it is not to be wondered +at that eventually he became a learned draughtsman. His single figures +and his portraits show him to the best advantage. He had a strong +grasp of modelling and an artistic sense of the beauty and dignity of +line not excelled by any artist of this century. And to him more than +any other painter is due the cultured draughtsmanship which is to-day +the just pride of the French school. + +Gros was a more vacillating man, and by reason of forsaking the +classic subject for Napoleonic battle-pieces, he unconsciously led the +way toward romanticism. He excelled as a draughtsman, but when he came +to paint the Field of Eylau and the Pest of Jaffa he mingled color, +light, air, movement, action, sacrificing classic composition and +repose to reality. This was heresy from the Davidian point of view, +and David eventually convinced him of it. Gros returned to the classic +theme and treatment, but soon after was so reviled by the changing +criticism of the time that he committed suicide in the Seine. His art, +however, was the beginning of romanticism. + +The landscape painting of this time was rather academic and +unsympathetic. It was a continuation of the Claude-Poussin tradition, +and in its insistence upon line, grandeur of space, and imposing trees +and mountains, was a fit companion to the classic figure-piece. It had +little basis in nature, and little in color or feeling to commend it. +Watelet (1780-1866), Bertin (1775-1842), Michallon (1796-1822), and +Aligny (1798-1871), were its exponents. + +A few painters seemed to stand apart from the contemporary influences. +Madame Vigée-Lebrun (1755-1842), a successful portrait-painter of +nobility, and Horace Vernet (1789-1863), a popular battle-painter, +many of whose works are to be seen at Versailles, were of this class. + +ROMANTICISM: The movement in French painting which began about 1822 and +took the name of Romanticism was but a part of the "storm-and-stress" +feeling that swept Germany, England, and France at the beginning of this +century, appearing first in literature and afterward in art. It had its +origin in a discontent with the present, a passionate yearning for the +unattainable, an intensity of sentiment, gloomy melancholy imaginings, +and a desire to express the inexpressible. It was emphatically +subjective, self-conscious, a mood of mind or feeling. In this respect +it was diametrically opposed to the academic and the classic. In French +painting it came forward in opposition to the classicism of David. +People had begun to weary of Greek and Roman heroes and their deeds, of +impersonal line-bounded statuesque art. There was a demand for something +more representative, spontaneous, expressive of the intense feeling of +the time. The very gist of romanticism was passion. Freedom to express +itself in what form it would was a condition of its existence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--DELACROIX. MASSACRE OF SCIO. LOUVRE.] + +The classic subject was abandoned by the romanticists for dramatic +scenes of mediæval and modern times. The romantic hero and heroine in +scenes of horror, perils by land and sea, flame and fury, love and +anguish, came upon the boards. Much of this was illustration of +history, the novel, and poetry, especially the poetry of Goethe, +Byron, and Scott. Line was slurred in favor of color, symmetrical +composition gave way to wild disordered groups in headlong action, and +atmospheres, skies, and lights were twisted and distorted to convey +the sentiment of the story. It was thus, more by suggestion than +realization, that romanticism sought to give the poetic sentiment of +life. Its position toward classicism was antagonistic, a rebound, a +flying to the other extreme. One virtually said that beauty was in the +Greek form, the other that it was in the painter's emotional nature. +The disagreement was violent, and out of it grew the so-called +romantic quarrel of the 1820's. + +LEADERS OF ROMANTICISM: Symptoms of the coming movement were apparent +long before any open revolt. Gros had made innovations on the classic +in his battle-pieces, but the first positive dissent from classic +teachings was made in the Salon of 1819 by Géricault (1791-1824) with +his Raft of the Medusa. It represented the starving, the dead, and the +dying of the Medusa's crew on a raft in mid-ocean. The subject was not +classic. It was literary, romantic, dramatic, almost theatric in its +seizing of the critical moment. Its theme was restless, harrowing, +horrible. It met with instant opposition from the old men and applause +from the young men. It was the trumpet-note of the revolt, but +Géricault did not live long enough to become the leader of +romanticism. That position fell to his contemporary and fellow-pupil, +Delacroix (1799-1863). It was in 1822 that Delacroix's first Salon +picture (the Dante and Virgil) appeared. A strange, ghost-like scene +from Dante's _Inferno_, the black atmosphere of the nether world, +weird faces, weird colors, weird flames, and a modelling of the +figures by patches of color almost savage as compared to the tinted +drawing of classicism. Delacroix's youth saved the picture from +condemnation, but it was different with his Massacre of Scio two +years later. This was decried by the classicists, and even Gros called +it "the massacre of art." The painter was accused of establishing the +worship of the ugly, he was no draughtsman, had no selection, no +severity, nothing but brutality. But Delacroix was as obstinate as +Ingres, and declared that the whole world could not prevent him from +seeing and painting things in his own way. It was thus the quarrel +started, the young men siding with Delacroix, the older men following +David and Ingres. + +In himself Delacroix embodied all that was best and strongest in the +romantic movement. His painting was intended to convey a romantic mood +of mind by combinations of color, light, air, and the like. In subject +it was tragic and passionate, like the poetry of Hugo, Byron, and +Scott. The figures were usually given with anguish-wrung brows, wild +eyes, dishevelled hair, and impetuous, contorted action. The painter +never cared for technical details, seeking always to gain the effect +of the whole rather than the exactness of the part. He purposely +slurred drawing at times, and was opposed to formal composition. In +color he was superior, though somewhat violent at times, and in +brush-work he was often labored and patchy. His strength lay in +imagination displayed in color and in action. + +The quarrel between classicism and romanticism lasted some years, with +neither side victorious. Delacroix won recognition for his view of +art, but did not crush the belief in form which was to come to the +surface again. He fought almost alone. Many painters rallied around +him, but they added little strength to the new movement. Devéria +(1805-1865) and Champmartin (1797-1883) were highly thought of at +first, but they rapidly degenerated. Sigalon (1788-1837), Cogniet +(1794-1880), Robert-Fleury (1797-), and Boulanger (1806-1867), were +romanticists, but achieved more as teachers than as painters. +Delaroche (1797-1856) was an eclectic--in fact, founded a school of +that name--thinking to take what was best from both parties. +Inventing nothing, he profited by all invented. He employed the +romantic subject and color, but adhered to classic drawing. His +composition was good, his costume careful in detail, his brush-work +smooth, and his story-telling capacity excellent. All these qualities +made him a popular painter, but not an original or powerful one. Ary +Scheffer (1797-1858) was an illustrator of Goethe and Byron, frail in +both sentiment and color, a painter who started as a romanticist, but +afterward developed line under Ingres. + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--GÉRÔME. POLLICE VERSO.] + +THE ORIENTALISTS: In both literature and painting one phase of +romanticism showed itself in a love for the life, the light, the color +of the Orient. From Paris Decamps (1803-1860) was the first painter to +visit the East and paint Eastern life. He was a _genre_ painter more +than a figure painter, giving naturalistic street scenes in Turkey and +Asia Minor, courts, and interiors, with great feeling for air, warmth +of color, and light. At about the same time Marilhat (1811-1847) was +in Egypt picturing the life of that country in a similar manner; and +later, Fromentin (1820-1876), painter and writer, following Delacroix, +went to Algiers and portrayed there Arab life with fast-flying horses, +the desert air, sky, light, and color. Théodore Frere and Ziem belong +further on in the century, but were no less exponents of romanticism +in the East. + +Fifteen years after the starting of romanticism the movement had +materially subsided. It had never been a school in the sense of having +rules and laws of art. Liberty of thought and perfect freedom for +individual expression were all it advocated. As a result there was no +unity, for there was nothing to unite upon; and with every painter +painting as he pleased, regardless of law, extravagance was +inevitable. This was the case, and when the next generation came in +romanticism began to be ridiculed for its excesses. A reaction started +in favor of more line and academic training. This was first shown by +the students of Delaroche, though there were a number of movements at +the time, all of them leading away from romanticism. A recoil from too +much color in favor of more form was inevitable, but romanticism was +not to perish entirely. Its influence was to go on, and to appear in +the work of later men. + +ECLECTICS AND TRANSITIONAL PAINTERS: After Ingres his follower +Flandrin (1809-1864) was the most considerable draughtsman of the +time. He was not classic but religious in subject, and is sometimes +called "the religious painter of France." He had a delicate beauty of +line and a fine feeling for form, but never was strong in color, +brush-work, or sentiment. His best work appears in his very fine +portraits. Gleyre (1806-1874) was a man of classic methods, but +romantic tastes, who modified the heroic into the idyllic and +mythologic. He was a sentimental day-dreamer, with a touch of +melancholy about the vanished past, appearing in Arcadian fancies, +pretty nymphs, and idealized memories of youth. In execution he was +not at all romantic. His color was pale, his drawing delicate, and his +lighting misty and uncertain. It was the etherealized classic method, +and this method he transmitted to a little band of painters called the + +NEW-GREEKS, who, in point of time, belong much further along in the +century, but in their art are with Gleyre. Their work never rose above +the idyllic and the graceful, and calls for no special mention. Hamon +(1821-1874) and Aubert (1824-) belonged to the band, and Gérôme +(1824-[6]) was at one time its leader, but he afterward emerged from +it to a higher place in French art, where he will find mention +hereafter. + +[Footnote 6: Died, 1904.] + +Couture (1815-1879) stood quite by himself, a mingling of several +influences. His chief picture, The Romans of the Decadence, is classic +in subject, romantic in sentiment (and this very largely expressed by +warmth of color), and rather realistic in natural appearance. He was +an eclectic in a way, and yet seems to stand as the forerunner of a +large body of artists who find classification hereafter under the +title of the Semi-Classicists. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: All the painters mentioned in this chapter + are best represented in the Louvre at Paris, at Versailles, + and in the museums of the chief French cities. Some works of + the late or living men may be found in the Luxembourg, where + pictures bought by the state are kept for ten years after + the painter's death, and then are either sent to the Louvre + or to the other municipal galleries of France. Some pictures + by these men are also to be seen in the Metropolitan Museum, + New York, the Boston Museum, and the Chicago Art Institute. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FRENCH PAINTING. + +THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (_Continued_). + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The books before mentioned, consult also + General Bibliography, (page xv.) + + +THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The influence of either the classic or +romantic example may be traced in almost all of the French painting of +this century. The opposed teachings find representatives in new men, +and under different names the modified dispute goes on--the dispute of +the academic _versus_ the individual, the art of form and line +_versus_ the art of sentiment and color. + +With the classicism of David not only the figure but the landscape +setting of it, took on an ideal heroic character. Trees and hills and +rivers became supernaturally grand and impressive. Everything was +elevated by method to produce an imaginary Arcadia fit for the deities +of the classic world. The result was that nature and the humanity of +the painter passed out in favor of school formula and academic +traditions. When romanticism came in this was changed, but nature +falsified in another direction. Landscape was given an interest in +human affairs, and made to look gay or sad, peaceful or turbulent, as +the day went well or ill with the hero of the story portrayed. It was, +however, truer to the actual than the classic, more studied in the +parts, more united in the whole. About the year 1830 the influence of +romanticism began to show in a new landscape art. That is to say, the +emotional impulse springing from romanticism combined with the study +of the old Dutch landscapists, and the English contemporary painters, +Constable and Bonington, set a large number of painters to the close +study of nature and ultimately developed what has been vaguely called +the + +FONTAINEBLEAU-BARBIZON SCHOOL: This whole school was primarily devoted +to showing the sentiment of color and light. It took nature just as it +found it in the forest of Fontainebleau, on the plain of Barbizon, and +elsewhere, and treated it with a poetic feeling for light, shadow, +atmosphere, color, that resulted in the best landscape painting yet +known to us. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--COROT. LANDSCAPE.] + +Corot (1796-1875) though classically trained under Bertin, and though +somewhat apart from the other men in his life, belongs with this +group. He was a man whose artistic life was filled with the beauty of +light and air. These he painted with great singleness of aim and great +poetic charm. Most of his work is in a light silvery key of color, +usually slight in composition, simple in masses of light and dark, +and very broadly but knowingly handled with the brush. He began +painting by using the minute brush, but changed it later on for a +freer style which recorded only the great omnipresent truths and +suppressed the small ones. He has never had a superior in producing +the permeating light of morning and evening. For this alone, if for no +other excellence, he deservedly holds high rank. + +Rousseau (1812-1867) was one of the foremost of the recognized +leaders, and probably the most learned landscapist of this century. A +man of many moods and methods he produced in variety with rare +versatility. Much of his work was experimental, but at his best he had +a majestic conception of nature, a sense of its power and permanence, +its volume and mass, that often resulted in the highest quality of +pictorial poetry. In color he was rich and usually warm, in technic +firm and individual, in sentiment at times quite sublime. At first he +painted broadly and won friends among the artists and sneers from the +public; then in his middle style he painted in detail, and had a +period of popular success; in his late style he went back to the broad +manner, and died amid quarrels and vexations of spirits. His long-time +friend and companion, Jules Dupré (1812-1889), hardly reached up to +him, though a strong painter in landscape and marine. He was a good +but not great colorist, and, technically, his brush was broad enough +but sometimes heavy. His late work is inferior in sentiment and +labored in handling. Diaz (1808-1876) was allied to Rousseau in aim +and method, though not so sure nor so powerful a painter. He had fancy +and variety in creation that sometimes ran to license, and in color he +was clear and brilliant. Never very well trained, his drawing is often +indifferent and his light distorted, but these are more than atoned +for by delicacy and poetic charm. At times he painted with much power. +Daubigny (1817-1878) seemed more like Corot in his charm of style and +love of atmosphere and light than any of the others. He was fond of +the banks of the Seine and the Marne at twilight, with evening +atmospheres and dark trees standing in silent ranks against the warm +sky. He was also fond of the gray day along the coast, and even the +sea attracted him not a little. He was a painter of high abilities, +and in treatment strongly individual, even distinguished, by his +simplicity and directness. Unity of the whole, grasp of the mass +entire, was his technical aim, and this he sought to get not so much +by line as by color-tones of varying value. In this respect he seemed +a connecting link between Corot and the present-day impressionists. +Michel (1763-1842), Huet (1804-1869), Chintreuil (1814-1873), and +Français (1814-) were all allied in point of view with this group of +landscape painters, and among the late men who have carried out their +beliefs are Cazin,[7] Yon,[8] Damoye, Pointelin, Harpignies and +Pelouse[9] seem a little more inclined to the realistic than the +poetic view, though producing work of much virility and intelligence. + +[Footnote 7: Died, 1901.] + +[Footnote 8: Died, 1897.] + +[Footnote 9: Died, 1890.] + +Contemporary and associated with the Fontainebleau painters were a +number of men who won high distinction as + +PAINTERS OF ANIMALS: Troyon (1810-1865) was the most prominent among +them. His work shows the same sentiment of light and color as the +Fontainebleau landscapists, and with it there is much keen insight +into animal life. As a technician he was rather hard at first, and he +never was a correct draughtsman, but he had a way of giving the +character of the objects he portrayed which is the very essence of +truth. He did many landscapes with and without cattle. His best pupil +was Van Marcke (1827-1890), who followed his methods but never +possessed the feeling of his master. Jacque (1813-[10]) is also of the +Fontainebleau-Barbizon group, and is justly celebrated for his +paintings and etchings of sheep. The poetry of the school is his, and +technically he is fine in color at times, if often rather dark in +illumination. Like Troyon he knows his subject well, and can show the +nature of sheep with true feeling. Rosa Bonheur (1822-[11]) and her +brother, Auguste Bonheur (1824-1884), have both dealt with animal +life, but never with that fine artistic feeling which would warrant +their popularity. Their work is correct enough, but prosaic and +commonplace in spirit. They do not belong in the same group with +Troyon and Rousseau. + +[Footnote 10: Died, 1894.] + +[Footnote 11: Died, 1899.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ROUSSEAU, CHARCOAL BURNERS' HUT. FULLER +COLLECTION.] + +THE PEASANT PAINTERS: Allied again in feeling and sentiment with the +Fontainebleau landscapists were some celebrated painters of peasant +life, chief among whom stood Millet (1814-1875), of Barbizon. The +pictorial inclination of Millet was early grounded by a study of +Delacroix, the master romanticist, and his work is an expression of +romanticism modified by an individual study of nature and applied to +peasant life. He was peasant born, living and dying at Barbizon, +sympathizing with his class, and painting them with great poetic force +and simplicity. His sentiment sometimes has a literary bias, as in his +far-famed but indifferent Angelus, but usually it is strictly +pictorial and has to do with the beauty of light, air, color, motion, +life, as shown in The Sower or The Gleaners. Technically he was not +strong as a draughtsman or a brushman, but he had a large feeling for +form, great simplicity in line, keen perception of the relations of +light and dark, and at times an excellent color-sense. He was +virtually the discoverer of the peasant as an art subject, and for +this, as for his original point of view and artistic feeling, he is +ranked as one of the foremost artists of the century. + +Jules Breton (1827-), though painting little besides the peasantry, is +no Millet follower, for he started painting peasant scenes at about +the same time as Millet. His affinities were with the New-Greeks early +in life, and ever since he has inclined toward the academic in style, +though handling the rustic subject. He is a good technician, except in +his late work; but as an original thinker, as a pictorial poet, he +does not show the intensity or profundity of Millet. The followers of +the Millet-Breton tradition are many. The blue-frocked and sabot-shod +peasantry have appeared in salon and gallery for twenty years and +more, but with not very good results. The imitators, as usual, have +caught at the subject and missed the spirit. Billet and Legros, +contemporaries of Millet, still living, and Lerolle, a man of +present-day note, are perhaps the most considerable of the painters of +rural subjects to-day. + +THE SEMI-CLASSICISTS: It must not be inferred that the classic +influence of David and Ingres disappeared from view with the coming of +the romanticists, the Fontainebleau landscapists, and the Barbizon +painters. On the contrary, side by side with these men, and opposed +to them, were the believers in line and academic formulas of the +beautiful. The whole tendency of academic art in France was against +Delacroix, Rousseau, and Millet. During their lives they were regarded +as heretics in art and without the pale of the Academy. Their art, +however, combined with nature study and the realism of Courbet, +succeeded in modifying the severe classicism of Ingres into what has +been called semi-classicism. It consists in the elevated, heroic, or +historical theme, academic form well drawn, some show of bright +colors, smoothness of brush-work, and precision and nicety of detail. +In treatment it attempts the realistic, but in spirit it is usually +stilted, cold, unsympathetic. + +Cabanel (1823-1889) and Bouguereau (1825-1905) have both represented +semi-classic art well. They are justly ranked as famous draughtsmen +and good portrait-painters, but their work always has about it the +stamp of the academy machine, a something done to order, knowing and +exact, but lacking in the personal element. It is a weakness of the +academic method that it virtually banishes the individuality of eye +and hand in favor of school formulas. Cabanel and Bouguereau have +painted many incidents of classic and historic story, but with never a +dash of enthusiasm or a suggestion of the great qualities of painting. +Their drawing has been as thorough as could be asked for, but their +colorings have been harsh and their brushes cold and thin. + +Gérôme (1824-[12]) is a man of classic training and inclination, but +his versatility hardly allows him to be classified anywhere. He was +first a leader of the New-Greeks, painting delicate mythological +subjects; then a historical painter, showing deaths of Cæsar and the +like; then an Orientalist, giving scenes from Cairo and +Constantinople; then a _genre_ painter, depicting contemporary +subjects in the many lands through which he has travelled. Whatever he +has done shows semi-classic drawing, ethnological and archæological +knowledge, Parisian technic, and exact detail. His travels have not +changed his precise scientific point of view. He is a true academician +at bottom, but a more versatile and cultured painter than either +Cabanel or Bouguereau. He draws well, sometimes uses color well, and +is an excellent painter of textures. A man of great learning in many +departments he is no painter to be sneered at, and yet not a painter +to make the pulse beat faster or to arouse the æsthetic emotions. His +work is impersonal, objective fact, showing a brilliant exterior but +inwardly devoid of feeling. + +[Footnote 12: Died, 1904.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--MILLET. THE GLEANERS. LOUVRE.] + +Paul Baudry (1828-1886), though a disciple of line, was not precisely +a semi-classicist, and perhaps for that reason was superior to any of +the academic painters of his time. He was a follower of the old +masters in Rome more than the _École des Beaux Arts_. His subjects, +aside from many splendid portraits, were almost all classical, +allegorical, or mythological. He was a fine draughtsman, and, what is +more remarkable in conjunction therewith, a fine colorist. He was +hardly a great originator, and had not passion, dramatic force, or +much sentiment, except such as may be found in his delicate coloring +and rhythm of line. Nevertheless he was an artist to be admired for +his purity of purpose and breadth of accomplishment. His chief work is +to be seen in the Opera at Paris. Puvis de Chavannes (1824-[13]) is +quite a different style of painter, and is remarkable for fine +delicate tones of color which hold their place well on wall or +ceiling, and for a certain grandeur of composition. In his desire to +revive the monumental painting of the Renaissance he has met with much +praise and much blame. He is an artist of sincerity and learning, and +as a wall-painter has no superior in contemporary France. + +[Footnote 13: Died, 1898.] + +Hébert (1817-1908), an early painter of academic tendencies, and +Henner (1829-), fond of form and yet a brushman with an idyllic +feeling for light and color in dark surroundings, are painters who may +come under the semi-classic grouping. Lefebvre (1834-) is probably the +most pronounced in academic methods among the present men, a +draughtsman of ability. + +PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: Under this heading may be included those +painters who stand by themselves, showing no positive preference for +either the classic or romantic followings. Bonnat (1833-) has painted +all kinds of subjects--_genre_, figure, and historical pieces--but is +perhaps best known as a portrait-painter. He has done forcible work. +Some of it indeed is astonishing in its realistic modelling--the +accentuation of light and shadow often causing the figures to advance +unnaturally. From this feature and from his detail he has been known for +years as a "realist." His anatomical Christ on the Cross and mural +paintings in the Pantheon are examples. As a portrait-painter he is +acceptable, if at times a little raw in color. Another portrait-painter +of celebrity is Carolus-Duran (1837-). He is rather startling at times +in his portrayal of robes and draperies, has a facility of the brush +that is frequently deceptive, and in color is sometimes vivid. He has +had great success as a teacher, and is, all told, a painter of high +rank. Delaunay (1828-1892) in late years painted little besides +portraits, and was one of the conservatives of French art. Laurens +(1838-) has been more of a historical painter than the others, and has +dealt largely with death scenes. He is often spoken of as "the painter +of the dead," a man of sound training and excellent technical power. +Regnault (1843-1871) was a figure and _genre_ painter with much feeling +for oriental light and color, who unfortunately was killed in battle at +twenty-seven years of age. He was an artist of promise, and has left +several notable canvases. Among the younger men who portray the +historical subject in an elevated style mention should be made of Cormon +(1845-), Benjamin-Constant (1845-[14]), and Rochegrosse. As painters of +portraits Aman-Jean and Carrière[15] have long held rank, and each +succeeding Salon brings new portraitists to the front. + +[Footnote 14: Died, 1902.] + +[Footnote 15: Died, 1906.] + +THE REALISTS: About the time of the appearance of Millet, say 1848, +there also came to the front a man who scorned both classicism and +romanticism, and maintained that the only model and subject of art +should be nature. This man, Courbet (1819-1878), really gave a third +tendency to the art of this century in France, and his influence +undoubtedly had much to do with modifying both the classic and +romantic tendencies. Courbet was a man of arrogant, dogmatic +disposition, and was quite heartily detested during his life, but that +he was a painter of great ability few will deny. His theory was the +abolition of both sentiment and academic law, and the taking of nature +just as it was, with all its beauties and all its deformities. This, +too, was his practice to a certain extent. His art is material, and +yet at times lofty in conception even to the sublime. And while he +believed in realism he did not believe in petty detail, but rather in +the great truths of nature. These he saw with a discerning eye and +portrayed with a masterful brush. He believed in what he saw only, and +had more the observing than the reflective or emotional disposition. +As a technician he was coarse but superbly strong, handling sky, +earth, air, with the ease and power of one well trained in his craft. +His subjects were many--the peasantry of France, landscape, and the +sea holding prominent places--and his influence, though not direct +because he had no pupils of consequence, has been most potent with the +late men. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--CABANEL. PHÆDRA.] + +The young painter of to-day who does things in a "realistic" way is +frequently met with in French art. L'hermitte (1844-), Julien Dupré +(1851-), and others have handled the peasant subject with skill, after +the Millet-Courbet initiative; and Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884) excited +a good deal of admiration in his lifetime for the truth and evident +sincerity of his art. Bastien's point of view was realistic enough, +but somewhat material. He never handled the large composition with +success, but in small pieces and in portraits he was quite above +criticism. His following among the young men was considerable, and the +so-called impressionists have ranked him among their disciples or +leaders. + +PAINTERS OF MILITARY SCENES, GENRE, ETC.: The art of Meissonier +(1815-1891), while extremely realistic in modern detail, probably +originated from a study of the seventeenth-century Dutchmen like +Terburg and Metsu. It does not portray low life, but rather the +half-aristocratic--the scholar, the cavalier, the gentleman of +leisure. This is done on a small scale with microscopic nicety, and +really more in the historical than the _genre_ spirit. Single figures +and interiors were his preference, but he also painted a cycle of +Napoleonic battle-pictures with much force. There is little or no +sentiment about his work--little more than in that of Gérôme. His +success lay in exact technical accomplishment. He drew well, painted +well, and at times was a superior colorist. His art is more admired by +the public than by the painters; but even the latter do not fail to +praise his skill of hand. He was a great craftsman in the infinitely +little. As a great artist his rank is still open to question. + +The _genre_ painting of fashionable life has been carried out by many +followers of Meissonier, whose names need not be mentioned since they +have not improved upon their forerunner. Toulmouche (1829-), Leloir +(1843-1884), Vibert (1840-), Bargue (?-1883), and others, though +somewhat different from Meissonier, belong among those painters of +_genre_ who love detail, costumes, stories, and pretty faces. Among +the painters of military _genre_ mention should be made of De Neuville +(1836-1885), Berne-Bellecour (1838-), Detaille (1848-), and Aimé-Morot +(1850-), all of them painters of merit. + +Quite a different style of painting--half figure-piece half +_genre_--is to be found in the work of Ribot (1823-), a strong +painter, remarkable for his apposition of high flesh lights with deep +shadows, after the manner of Ribera, the Spanish painter. Roybet +(1840-) is fond of rich stuffs and tapestries with velvet-clad +characters in interiors, out of which he makes good color effects. +Bonvin (1817-1887) and Mettling have painted the interior with small +figures, copper-kettles, and other still-life that have given +brilliancy to their pictures. As a still-life painter Vollon (1833-) +has never had a superior. His fruits, flowers, armors, even his small +marines and harbor pieces, are painted with one of the surest brushes +of this century. He is called the "painter's painter," and is a man of +great force in handling color, and in large realistic effect. Dantan +and Friant have both produced canvases showing figures in interiors. + +A number of excellent _genre_ painters have been claimed by the +impressionists as belonging to their brotherhood. There is little to +warrant the claim, except the adoption to some extent of the modern +ideas of illumination and flat painting. Dagnan-Bouveret (1852-) is +one of these men, a good draughtsman, and a finished clean painter who +by his recent use of high color finds himself occasionally looked upon +as an impressionist. As a matter of fact he is one of the most +conservative of the moderns--a man of feeling and imagination, and a +fine technician. Fantin-Latour (1836-1904) is half romantic, half +allegorical in subject, and in treatment oftentimes designedly vague +and shadowy, more suggestive than realistic. Duez (1843-) and Gervex +(1848-) are perhaps nearer to impressionism in their works than the +others, but they are not at all advance advocates of this latest phase +of art. In addition there are Cottet and Henri Martin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--MEISSONIER. NAPOLEON IN 1814.] + +THE IMPRESSIONISTS: The name is a misnomer. Every painter is an +impressionist in so far as he records his impressions, and all art is +impressionistic. What Manet (1833-1883), the leader of the original +movement, meant to say was that nature should not be painted as it +actually is, but as it "impresses" the painter. He and his few +followers tried to change the name to Independents, but the original +name has clung to them and been mistakenly fastened to a present band +of landscape painters who are seeking effects of light and air and +should be called luminists if it is necessary for them to be named at +all. Manet was extravagant in method and disposed toward low life for +a subject, which has always militated against his popularity; but he +was a very important man for his technical discoveries regarding the +relations of light and shadow, the flat appearance of nature, the +exact value of color tones. Some of his works, like The Boy with a +Sword and The Toreador Dead, are excellent pieces of painting. The +higher imaginative qualities of art Manet made no great effort at +attaining. + +Degas stands quite by himself, strong in effects of motion, especially +with race-horses, fine in color, and a delightful brushman in such +subjects as ballet-girls and scenes from the theatre. Besnard is one +of the best of the present men. He deals with the figure, and is +usually concerned with the problem of harmonizing color under +conflicting lights, such as twilight and lamplight. Béraud and +Raffaelli are exceedingly clever in street scenes and character +pieces; Pissarro[16] handles the peasantry in high color; Brown +(1829-1890), the race-horse, and Renoir, the middle class of social +life. Caillebotte, Roll, Forain, and Miss Cassatt, an American, are +also classed with the impressionists. + +[Footnote 16: Died, 1903.] + +IMPRESSIONIST LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: Of recent years there has been a +disposition to change the key of light in landscape painting, to get +nearer the truth of nature in the height of light and in the height of +shadows. In doing this Claude Monet, the present leader of the +movement, has done away with the dark brown or black shadow and +substituted the light-colored shadow, which is nearer the actual truth +of nature. In trying to raise the pitch of light he has not been quite +so successful, though accomplishing something. His method is to use +pure prismatic colors on the principle that color is light in a +decomposed form, and that its proper juxtaposition on canvas will +recompose into pure light again. Hence the use of light shadows and +bright colors. The aim of these modern men is chiefly to gain the +effect of light and air. They do not apparently care for subject, +detail, or composition. + +At present their work is in the experimental stage, but from the way +in which it is being accepted and followed by the painters of to-day +we may be sure the movement is of considerable importance. There will +probably be a reaction in favor of more form and solidity than the +present men give, but the high key of light will be retained. There +are so many painters following these modern methods, not only in +France but all over the world, that a list of their names would be +impossible. In France Sisley with Monet are the two important +landscapists. In marines Boudin and Montenard should be mentioned. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: The modern French painters are seen to + advantage in the Louvre, Luxembourg, Pantheon, Sorbonne, and + the municipal galleries of France. Also Metropolitan Museum + New York, Chicago Art Institute, Boston Museum, and many + private collections in France and America. Consult for works + in public or private hands, Champlin and Perkins, + _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, under names of + artists. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +SPANISH PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bermudez, _Diccionario de las Bellas + Artes en España_; Davillier, _Mémoire de Velasquez_; + Davillier, _Fortuny_; Eusebi, _Los Differentes Escuelas de + Pintura_; Ford, _Handbook of Spain_; Head, _History of + Spanish and French Schools of Painting_; Justi, _Velasquez + and his Times_; Lefort, _Velasquez_; Lefort, _Francisco + Goya_; Lefort, _Murillo et son École_; Lefort, _La Peinture + Espagnole_; Palomino de Castro y Velasco, _Vidas de los + Pintores y Estatuarios Eminentes Españoles_; Passavant, _Die + Christliche Kunst in Spanien_; Plon, _Les Maîtres Italiens + au Service de la Maison d'Autriche_; Stevenson, _Velasquez_; + Stirling, _Annals of the Artists of Spain_; Stirling, + _Velasquez and his Works_; Tubino, _El Arte y los Artistas + contemporáneos en la Peninsula_; Tubino, _Murillo_; Viardot, + _Notices sur les Principaux Peintres de l'Espagne_; Yriarte, + _Goya, sa Biographie_, etc. + + +SPANISH ART MOTIVES: What may have been the early art of Spain we are +at a loss to conjecture. The reigns of the Moor, the Iconoclast, and, +finally, the Inquisitor, have left little that dates before the +fourteenth century. The miniatures and sacred relics treasured in the +churches and said to be of the apostolic period, show the traces of a +much later date and a foreign origin. Even when we come down to the +fifteenth century and meet with art produced in Spain, we have a +following of Italy or the Netherlands. In methods and technic it was +derivative more than original, though almost from the beginning +peculiarly Spanish in spirit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--SANCHEZ COELLO. CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF +PHILIP II. MADRID.] + +That spirit was a dark and savage one, a something that cringed under +the lash of the Church, bowed before the Inquisition, and played the +executioner with the paint-brush. The bulk of Spanish art was Church +art, done under ecclesiastical domination, and done in form without +question or protest. The religious subject ruled. True enough, there +was portraiture of nobility, and under Philip and Velasquez a +half-monarchical art of military scenes and _genre_; but this was not +the bent of Spanish painting as a whole. Even in late days, when +Velasquez was reflecting the haughty court, Murillo was more widely +and nationally reflecting the believing provinces and the Church +faith of the people. It is safe to say, in a general way, that the +Church was responsible for Spanish art, and that religion was its +chief motive. + +There was no revived antique, little of the nude or the pagan, little +of consequence in landscape, little, until Velasquez's time, of the +real and the actual. An ascetic view of life, faith, and the hereafter +prevailed. The pietistic, the fervent, and the devout were not so +conspicuous as the morose, the ghastly, and the horrible. The saints +and martyrs, the crucifixions and violent deaths, were eloquent of the +torture-chamber. It was more ecclesiasticism by blood and violence +than Christianity by peace and love. And Spain welcomed this. For of +all the children of the Church she was the most faithful to rule, +crushing out heresy with an iron hand, gaining strength from the +Catholic reaction, and upholding the Jesuits and the Inquisition. + +METHODS OF PAINTING: Spanish art worthy of mention did not appear +until the fifteenth century. At that time Spain was in close relations +with the Netherlands, and Flemish painting was somewhat followed. How +much the methods of the Van Eycks influenced Spain would be hard to +determine, especially as these Northern methods were mixed with +influences coming from Italy. Finally, the Italian example prevailed +by reason of Spanish students in Italy and Italian painters in Spain. +Florentine line, Venetian color, and Neapolitan light-and-shade ruled +almost everywhere, and it was not until the time of Velasquez--the +period just before the eighteenth-century decline--that distinctly +Spanish methods, founded on nature, really came forcibly to the front. + +SPANISH SCHOOLS OF PAINTING: There is difficulty in classifying these +schools of painting because our present knowledge of them is limited. +Isolated somewhat from the rest of Europe, the Spanish painters have +never been critically studied as the Italians have been, and what is +at present known about the schools must be accepted subject to +critical revision hereafter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--MURILLO. ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA. BERLIN.] + +The earliest school seems to have been made up from a gathering of +artists at Toledo, who limned, carved, and gilded in the cathedral; +but this school was not of long duration. It was merged into the +Castilian school, which, after the building of Madrid, made its home +in that capital and drew its forces from the towns of Toledo, +Valladolid, and Badajoz. The Andalusian school, which rose about the +middle of the sixteenth century, was made up from the local schools of +Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The Valencian school, to the +southeast, rose about the same time, and was finally merged into the +Andalusian. The Aragonese school, to the east, was small and of no +great consequence, though existing in a feeble way to the end of the +seventeenth century. The painters of these schools are not very +strongly marked apart by methods or school traditions, and perhaps the +divisions would better be looked upon as more geographical than +otherwise. None of the schools really began before the sixteenth +century, though there are names of artists and some extant pictures +before that date, and with the seventeenth century all art in Spain +seems to have centred about Madrid. + +Spanish painting started into life concurrently with the rise to +prominence of Spain as a political kingdom. What, if any, direct +effect the maritime discoveries, the conquests of Granada and Naples, +the growth of literature, and the decline of Italy, may have had upon +Spanish painting can only be conjectured; but certainly the sudden +advance of the nation politically and socially was paralleled by the +advance of its art. + +THE CASTILIAN SCHOOL: This school probably had no so-called founder. +It was a growth from early art traditions at Toledo, and afterward +became the chief school of the kingdom owing to the patronage of +Philip II. and Philip IV. at Madrid. The first painter of importance +in the school seems to have been Antonio Rincon (1446?-1500?). He is +sometimes spoken of as the father of Spanish painting, and as having +studied in Italy with Castagno and Ghirlandajo, but there is little +foundation for either statement. He painted chiefly at Toledo, painted +portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and had some skill in hard +drawing. Berruguete (1480?-1561) studied with Michael Angelo, and is +supposed to have helped him in the Vatican. He afterward returned to +Spain, painted many altar-pieces, and was patronized as painter, +sculptor, and architect by Charles V. and Philip II. He was probably +the first to introduce pure Italian methods into Spain, with some +coldness and dryness of coloring and handling. Becerra (1520?-1570) +was born in Andalusia, but worked in Castile, and was a man of Italian +training similar to Berruguete. He was an exceptional man, perhaps, in +his use of mythological themes and nude figures. + +There is not a great deal known about Morales (1509?-1586), called +"the Divine," except that he was allied to the Castilian school, and +painted devotional heads of Christ with the crown of thorns, and many +afflicted and weeping madonnas. There was Florentine drawing in his +work, great regard for finish, and something of Correggio's softness +in shadows pitched in a browner key. His sentiment was rather +exaggerated. Sanchez-Coello (1513?-1590) was painter and courtier to +Philip II., and achieved reputation as a portrait-painter, though also +doing some altar-pieces. It is doubtful whether he ever studied in +Italy, but in Spain he was for a time with Antonio Moro, and probably +learned from him something of rich costumes, ermines, embroideries, +and jewels, for which his portraits were remarkable. Navarette +(1526?-1579), called "El Mudo" (the dumb one), certainly was in Italy +for something like twenty years, and was there a disciple of Titian, +from whom he doubtless learned much of color and the free flow of +draperies. He was one of the best of the middle-period painters. +Theotocopuli (1548?-1625), called "El Greco" (the Greek), was another +Venetian-influenced painter, with enough Spanish originality about him +to make most of his pictures striking in color and drawing. Tristan +(1586-1640) was his best follower. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--RIBERA. ST. AGNES. DRESDEN.] + +Velasquez (1599-1660) is the greatest name in the history of Spanish +painting. With him Spanish art took upon itself a decidedly +naturalistic and national stamp. Before his time Italy had been freely +imitated; but though Velasquez himself was in Italy for quite a long +time, and intimately acquainted with great Italian art, he never +seemed to have been led away from his own individual way of seeing and +doing. He was a pupil of Herrera, afterward with Pacheco, and learned +much from Ribera and Tristan, but more from a direct study of nature +than from all the others. He was in a broad sense a realist--a man who +recorded the material and the actual without emendation or +transposition. He has never been surpassed in giving the solidity and +substance of form and the placing of objects in atmosphere. And this, +not in a small, finical way, but with a breadth of view and of +treatment which are to-day the despair of painters. There was nothing +of the ethereal, the spiritual, the pietistic, or the pathetic about +him. He never for a moment left the firm basis of reality. Standing +upon earth he recorded the truths of the earth, but in their largest, +fullest, most universal forms. + +Technically his was a master-hand, doing all things with ease, giving +exact relations of colors and lights, and placing everything so +perfectly that no addition or alteration is thought of. With the brush +he was light, easy, sure. The surface looks as though touched once, no +more. It is the perfection of handling through its simplicity and +certainty, and has not the slightest trace of affectation or +mannerism. He was one of the few Spanish painters who were enabled to +shake off the yoke of the Church. Few of his canvases are religious in +subject. Under royal patronage he passed almost all of his life in +painting portraits of the royal family, ministers of state, and great +dignitaries. As a portrait-painter he is more widely known than as a +figure-painter. Nevertheless he did many canvases like The Tapestry +Weavers and The Surrender at Breda, which attest his remarkable genius +in that field; and even in landscape, in _genre_, in animal painting, +he was a very superior man. In fact Velasquez is one of the few great +painters in European history for whom there is nothing but praise. He +was the full-rounded complete painter, intensely individual and +self-assertive, and yet in his art recording in a broad way the +Spanish type and life. He was the climax of Spanish painting, and +after him there was a rather swift decline, as had been the case in +the Italian schools. + +Mazo (1610?-1667), pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez, was one of his +most facile imitators, and Carreño de Miranda (1614-1685) was +influenced by Velasquez, and for a time his assistant. The Castilian +school may be said to have closed with these late men and with Claudio +Coello (1635?-1693), a painter with a style founded on Titian and +Rubens, whose best work was of extraordinary power. Spanish painting +went out with Spanish power, and only isolated men of small rank +remained. + +ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL: This school came into existence about the middle of +the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief +patron the Church rather than the king. Vargas (1502-1568) was +probably the real founder of the school, though De Castro (fl. 1454) +and others preceded him. Vargas was a man of much reputation and +ability in his time, and introduced Italian methods and elegance into +the Andalusian school after twenty odd years of residence in Italy. He +is said to have studied under Perino del Vaga, and there is some +sweetness of face and grace of form about his work that point that +way, though his composition suggests Correggio. Most of his frescos +have perished; some of his canvases are still in existence. + +Cespedes (1538?-1608) is little known through extant works, but he +achieved fame in many departments during his life, and is said to have +been in Italy under Florentine influence. His coloring was rather +cold, and his drawing large and flat. The best early painter of the +school was Roelas (1558?-1625), the inspirer of Murillo and the master +of Zurbaran. He is supposed to have studied at Venice, because of his +rich, glowing color. Most of his works are religious and are found +chiefly at Seville. He was greatly patronized by the Jesuits. Pacheco +(1571-1654) was more of a pedant than a painter, a man of rule, who +to-day might be written down an academician. His drawing was hard, and +perhaps the best reason for his being remembered is that he was one of +the masters and the father-in-law of Velasquez. His rival, Herrera the +Elder (1576?-1656) was a stronger man--in fact, the most original +artist of his school. He struck off by himself and created a bold +realism with a broad brush that anticipated Velasquez--in fact, +Velasquez was under him for a time. + +The pure Spanish school in Andalusia, as distinct from Italian +imitation, may be said to have started with Herrera. It was further +advanced by another independent painter, Zurbaran (1598-1662), a pupil +of Roelas. He was a painter of the emaciated monk in ecstasy, and many +other rather dismal religious subjects expressive of tortured rapture. +From using a rather dark shadow he acquired the name of the Spanish +Caravaggio. He had a good deal of Caravaggio's strength, together with +a depth and breadth of color suggestive of the Venetians. Cano +(1601-1667), though he never was in Italy, had the name of the Spanish +Michael Angelo, probably because he was sculptor, painter, and +architect. His painting was rather sharp in line and statuesque in +pose, with a coloring somewhat like that of Van Dyck. It was eclectic +rather than original work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FORTUNY. SPANISH MARRIAGE.] + +Murillo (1618-1682) is generally placed at the head of the Andalusian +school, as Velasquez at the head of the Castilian. There is good +reason for it, for though Murillo was not the great painter he was +sometime supposed, yet he was not the weak man his modern critics +would make him out. A religious painter largely, though doing some +_genre_ subjects like his beggar-boy groups, he sought for religious +fervor and found, only too often, sentimentality. His madonnas are +usually after the Carlo Dolci pattern, though never so excessive in +sentiment. This was not the case with his earlier works, mostly of +humble life, which were painted in rather a hard, positive manner. +Later on he became misty, veiled in light and effeminate in outline, +though still holding grace. His color varied with his early and later +styles. It was usually gay and a little thin. While basing his work on +nature like Velasquez, he never had the supreme poise of that master, +either mentally or technically; howbeit he was an excellent painter, +who perhaps justly holds second place in Spanish art. + +SCHOOL OF VALENCIA: This school rose contemporary with the Andalusian +school, into which it was finally merged after the importance of +Madrid had been established. It was largely modelled upon Italian +painting, as indeed were all the schools of Spain at the start. Juan +de Joanes (1507?-1579) apparently was its founder, a man who painted a +good portrait, but in other respects was only a fair imitator of +Raphael, whom he had studied at Rome. A stronger man was Francisco de +Ribalta (1550?-1628), who was for a time in Italy under the Caracci, +and learned from them free draughtsmanship and elaborate composition. +He was also fond of Sebastiano del Piombo, and in his best works (at +Valencia) reflected him. Ribalta gave an early training to Ribera +(1588-1656), who was the most important man of this school. In reality +Ribera was more Italian than Valencian, for he spent the greater part +of his life in Italy, where he was called Lo Spagnoletto, and was +greatly influenced by Caravaggio. He was a Spaniard in the horrible +subjects that he chose, but in coarse strength of line, heaviness of +shadows, harsh handling of the brush, he was a true Neapolitan +Darkling. A pronounced mannerist he was no less a man of strength, and +even in his shadow-saturated colors a painter with the color instinct. +In Italy his influence in the time of the Decadence was wide-spread, +and in Spain his Italian pupil, Giordano, introduced his methods for +late imitation. There were no other men of much rank in the Valencian +school, and, as has been said, the school was eventually merged in +Andalusian painting. + +EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN: Almost directly +after the passing of Velasquez and Murillo Spanish art failed. The +eighteenth-century, as in Italy, was quite barren of any considerable +art until near its close. Then Goya (1746-1828) seems to have made a +partial restoration of painting. He was a man of peculiarly Spanish +turn of mind, fond of the brutal and the bloody, picturing inquisition +scenes, bull-fights, battle pieces, and revelling in caricature, +sarcasm, and ridicule. His imagination was grotesque and horrible, but +as a painter his art was based on the natural, and was exceedingly +strong. In brush-work he followed Velasquez; in a peculiar forcing of +contrasts in light and dark he was apparently quite himself, though +possibly influenced by Ribera's work. His best work shows in his +portraits and etchings. + +After Goya's death Spanish art, such as it was, rather followed +France, with the extravagant classicism of David as a model. What was +produced may be seen to this day in the Madrid Museum. It does not +call for mention here. About the beginning of the 1860's Spanish +painting made a new advance with Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874). In his +early years he worked at historical painting, but later on he went to +Algiers and Rome, finding his true vent in a bright sparkling painting +of _genre_ subjects, oriental scenes, streets, interiors, single +figures, and the like. He excelled in color, sunlight effects, and +particularly in a vivacious facile handling of the brush. His work is +brilliant, and in his late productions often spotty from excessive +use of points of light in high color. He was a technician of much +brilliancy and originality, his work exciting great admiration in his +day, and leading the younger painters of Spain into that ornate +handling visible in their works at the present time. Many of these +latter, from association with art and artists in Paris, have adopted +French methods, and hardly show such a thing as Spanish nationality. +Fortuny's brother-in-law, Madrazo (1841-), is an example of a Spanish +painter turned French in his methods--a facile and brilliant +portrait-painter. Zamacois (1842-1871) died early, but with a +reputation as a successful portrayer of seventeenth-century subjects a +little after the style of Meissonier and not unlike Gérôme. He was a +good colorist and an excellent painter of textures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--MADRAZO, UNMASKED.] + +The historical scene of Mediæval or Renaissance times, pageants and +fêtes with rich costume, fine architecture and vivid effects of color, +are characteristic of a number of the modern Spaniards--Villegas, +Pradilla, Alvarez. As a general thing their canvases are a little +flashy, likely to please at first sight but grow wearisome after a +time. Palmaroli has a style that resembles a mixture of Fortuny and +Meissonier; and some other painters, like Luis Jiminez Aranda, +Sorolla, Zuloaga, Anglada, Garcia y Remos, Vierge, Roman Ribera, and +Domingo, have done excellent work. In landscape and Venetian scenes +Rico leads among the Spaniards with a vivacity and brightness not +always seen to good advantage in his late canvases. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: Generally speaking, Spanish art cannot be + seen to advantage outside of Spain. Both its ancient and + modern masterpieces are at Madrid, Seville, Toledo, and + elsewhere. The Royal Gallery at Madrid has the most and the + best examples. + + CASTILIAN SCHOOL--Rincon, altar-piece church of Robleda de + Chavilla; Berruguete, altar-pieces Saragossa, Valladolid, + Madrid, Toledo; Morales, Madrid and Louvre; Sanchez-Coello, + Madrid and Brussels Mus.; Navarette, Escorial, Madrid, St. + Petersburg; Theotocopuli, Cathedral and S. Tomé Toledo, + Madrid Mus.; Velasquez, best works in Madrid Mus., Escorial, + Salamanca, Montpensier Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Infanta + Marguerita Louvre, Borro portrait (?) Berlin, Innocent X. + Doria Rome; Mazo, landscapes Madrid Mus.; Carreño de + Miranda, Madrid Mus.; Claudio Coello, Escorial, Madrid, + Brussels, Berlin, and Munich Mus. + + ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL--Vargas, Seville Cathedral; Cespedes, + Cordova Cathedral; Roelas, S. Isidore Cathedral, Museum + Seville; Pacheco, Madrid Mus.; Herrera, Seville Cathedral + and Mus. and Archbishop's Palace, Dresden Mus.; Zurbaran, + Seville Cathedral and Mus. Madrid, Dresden, Louvre, Nat. + Gal. Lon.; Cano, Madrid, Seville Mus. and Cathedral, Berlin, + Dresden, Munich; Murillo, best pictures in Madrid Mus. and + Acad. of S. Fernando Madrid, Seville Mus. Hospital and + Capuchin Church, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Munich, + Hermitage. + + VALENCIAN SCHOOL--Juan de Joanes, Madrid Mus., Cathedral + Valencia, Hermitage; Ribalta, Madrid and Valencian Mus., + Hermitage; Ribera, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Naples, + Hermitage, and other European museums, chief works at + Madrid. + + MODERN MEN AND THEIR WORKS--Goya, Madrid Mus., Acad. of S. + Fernando, Valencian Cathedral and Mus., two portraits in + Louvre. The works of the contemporary painters are largely + in private hands where reference to them is of little use to + the average student. Thirty Fortunys are in the collection + of William H. Stewart in Paris. His best work, The Spanish + Marriage, belongs to Madame de Cassin, in Paris. Examples of + Villegas, Madrazo, Rico, Domingo, and others, in the + Vanderbilt Gallery, Metropolitan Mus., New York; Boston, + Chicago, and Philadelphia Mus. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +FLEMISH PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Busscher, _Recherches sur les Peintres + Gantois_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Early Flemish Painters_; + Cust, _Van Dyck_; Dehaisnes, _L'Art dans la Flandre_; Du + Jardin, _L'art Flamand_; Eisenmann, _The Brothers Van Eyck_; + Fétis, _Les Artistes Belges à l'Étranger_; Fromentin, _Old + Masters of Belgium and Holland_; Gerrits, _Rubens zyn Tyd, + etc._; Guiffrey, _Van Dyck_; Hasselt, _Histoire de Rubens_; + (Waagen's) Kügler, _Handbook of Painting--German, Flemish, + and Dutch Schools_; Lemonnier, _Histoire des Arts en + Belgique_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Michel, _Rubens_; + Michiels, _Rubens en l'École d'Anvers_; Michiels, _Histoire + de la Peinture Flamande_; Stevenson, _Rubens_; Van den + Branden, _Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilderschool_; Van + Mander, _Le Livre des Peintres_; Waagen, _Uber Hubert und + Jan Van Eyck_; Waagen, _Peter Paul Rubens_; Wauters, _Rogier + van der Weyden_; Wauters, _La Peinture Flamande_; Weale, + _Hans Memling_ (_Arundel Soc._); Weale, _Notes sur Jean Van + Eyck_. + + +THE FLEMISH PEOPLE: Individually and nationally the Flemings were +strugglers against adverse circumstances from the beginning. A +realistic race with practical ideas, a people rather warm of impulse +and free in habits, they combined some German sentiment with French +liveliness and gayety. The solidarity of the nation was not +accomplished until after 1385, when the Dukes of Burgundy began to +extend their power over the Low Countries. Then the Flemish people +became strong enough to defy both Germany and France, and wealthy +enough, through their commerce with Spain, Italy, and France to +encourage art not only at the Ducal court but in the churches, and +among the citizens of the various towns. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--VAN EYCKS. ST. BAVON ALTAR-PIECE (WING). +BERLIN.] + +FLEMISH SUBJECTS AND METHODS: As in all the countries of Europe, the +early Flemish painting pictured Christian subjects primarily. The +great bulk of it was church altar-pieces, though side by side with +this was an admirable portraiture, some knowledge of landscape, and +some exposition of allegorical subjects. In means and methods it was +quite original. The early history is lost, but if Flemish painting was +beholden to the painting of any other nation, it was to the miniature +painting of France. There is, however, no positive record of this. The +Flemings seem to have begun by themselves, and pictured the life about +them in their own way. They were apparently not influenced at first by +Italy. There were no antique influences, no excavated marbles to copy, +no Byzantine traditions left to follow. At first their art was exact +and minute in detail, but not well grasped in the mass. The +compositions were huddled, the landscapes pure but finical, the +figures inclined to slimness, awkwardness, and angularity in the lines +of form or drapery, and uncertain in action. To offset this there was +a positive realism in textures, perspective, color, tone, light, and +atmosphere. The effect of the whole was odd and strained, but the +effect of the part was to convince one that the Flemish painters were +excellent craftsmen in detail, skilled with the brush, and shrewd +observers of nature in a purely picturesque way. + +To the Flemish painters of the fifteenth century belongs, not the +invention of oil-painting, for it was known before their time, but its +acceptable application in picture-making. They applied oil with color +to produce brilliancy and warmth of effect, to insure firmness and +body in the work, and to carry out textural effects in stuffs, +marbles, metals, and the like. So far as we know there never was much +use of distemper, or fresco-work upon the walls of buildings. The oil +medium came into vogue when the miniatures and illuminations of the +early days had expanded into panel pictures. The size of the miniature +was increased, but the minute method of finishing was not laid aside. +Some time afterward painting with oil upon canvas was adopted. + +SCHOOL OF BRUGES: Painting in Flanders starts abruptly with the +fifteenth century. What there was before that time more than +miniatures and illuminations is not known. Time and the Iconoclasts +have left no remains of consequence. Flemish art for us begins with +Hubert van Eyck (?-1426) and his younger brother Jan van Eyck +(?-1440). The elder brother is supposed to have been the better +painter, because the most celebrated work of the brothers--the St. +Bavon altar-piece, parts of which are in Ghent, Brussels, and +Berlin--bears the inscription that Hubert began it and Jan finished +it. Hubert was no doubt an excellent painter, but his pictures are few +and there is much discussion whether he or Jan painted them. For +historical purposes Flemish art was begun, and almost completed, by +Jan van Eyck. He had all the attributes of the early men, and was one +of the most perfect of Flemish painters. He painted real forms and +real life, gave them a setting in true perspective and light, and put +in background landscapes with a truthful if minute regard for the +facts. His figures in action had some awkwardness, they were small of +head, slim of body, and sometimes stumbled; but his modelling of +faces, his rendering of textures in cloth, metal, stone, and the like, +his delicate yet firm _facture_ were all rather remarkable for his +time. None of this early Flemish art has the grandeur of Italian +composition, but in realistic detail, in landscape, architecture, +figure, and dress, in pathos, sincerity, and sentiment it is +unsurpassed by any fifteenth-century art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.--MEMLING (?). ST. LAWRENCE (DETAIL). NAT. +GAL., LONDON.] + +Little is known of the personal history of either of the Van Eycks. +They left an influence and had many followers, but whether these were +direct pupils or not is an open question. Peter Cristus (1400?-1472) +was perhaps a pupil of Jan, though more likely a follower of his +methods in color and general technic. Roger van der Weyden +(1400?-1464), whether a pupil of the Van Eycks or a rival, produced a +similar style of art. His first master was an obscure Robert Campin. +He was afterward at Bruges, and from there went to Brussels and +founded a school of his own called the + +SCHOOL OF BRABANT: He was more emotional and dramatic than Jan van +Eyck, giving much excited action and pathetic expression to his +figures in scenes from the passion of Christ. He had not Van Eyck's +skill, nor his detail, nor his color. More of a draughtsman than a +colorist, he was angular in figure and drapery, but had honesty, +pathos, and sincerity, and was very charming in bright background +landscapes. Though spending some time in Italy, he was never +influenced by Italian art. He was always Flemish in type, subject, and +method, a trifle repulsive at first through angularity and emotional +exaggeration, but a man to be studied. + +By Van der Goes (1430?-1482) there are but few good examples, the +chief one being an altar-piece in the Uffizi at Florence. It is +angular in drawing but full of character, and in beauty of detail and +ornamentation is a remarkable picture. He probably followed Van der +Weyden, as did also Justus van Ghent (last half of fifteenth century). +Contemporary with these men Dierick Bouts (1410-1475) established a +school at Haarlem. He was Dutch by birth, but after 1450 settled in +Louvain, and in his art belongs to the Flemish school. He was +influenced by Van der Weyden, and shows it in his detail of hands and +melancholy face, though he differed from him in dramatic action and in +type. His figure was awkward, his color warm and rich, and in +landscape backgrounds he greatly advanced the painting of the time. + +Memling (1425?-1495?), one of the greatest of the school, is another +man about whose life little is known. He was probably associated with +Van der Weyden in some way. His art is founded on the Van Eyck school, +and is remarkable for sincerity, purity, and frankness of attitude. As +a religious painter, he was perhaps beyond all his contemporaries in +tenderness and pathos. In portraiture he was exceedingly strong in +characterization, and in his figures very graceful. His flesh painting +was excellent, but in textures or landscape work he was not +remarkable. His best followers were Van der Meire (1427?-1474?) and +Gheeraert David (1450?-1523). The latter was famous for the fine, +broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his pictures, said, however, by +critics to have been painted by Joachim Patinir. He was realistically +horrible in many subjects, and though a close recorder of detail he +was much broader than any of his predecessors. + +FLEMISH SCHOOLS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY: In this century Flemish +painting became rather widely diffused. The schools of Bruges and +Ghent gave place to the schools in the large commercial cities like +Antwerp and Brussels, and the commercial relations between the Low +Countries and Italy finally led to the dissipation of national +characteristics in art and the imitation of the Italian Renaissance +painters. There is no sharp line of demarcation between those painters +who clung to Flemish methods and those who adopted Italian methods. +The change was gradual. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--MASSYS. HEAD OF VIRGIN. ANTWERP.] + +Quentin Massys (1460?-1530) and Mostert (1474-1556?), a Dutchman by +birth, but, like Bouts, Flemish by influence, were among the last of +the Gothic painters in Flanders, and yet they began the introduction +of Italian features in their painting. Massys led in architectural +backgrounds, and from that the Italian example spread to subjects, +figures, methods, until the indigenous Flemish art became a thing of +the past. Massys was, at Antwerp, the most important painter of his +day, following the old Flemish methods with many improvements. His +work was detailed, and yet executed with a broader, freer brush than +formerly, and with more variety in color, modelling, expression of +character. He increased figures to almost life-size, giving them +greater importance than landscape or architecture. The type was still +lean and angular, and often contorted with emotion. His Money-Changers +and Misers (many of them painted by his son) were a _genre_ of his +own. With him closed the Gothic school, and with him began the + +ANTWERP SCHOOL, the pupils of which went to Italy, and eventually +became Italianized. Mabuse (1470?-1541) was the first to go. His early +work shows the influence of Massys and David. He was good in +composition, color, and brush-work, but lacked in originality, as did +all the imitators of Italy. Franz Floris (1518?-1570) was a man of +talent, much admired in his time, because he brought back +reminiscences of Michael Angelo to Antwerp. His influence was fatal +upon his followers, of whom there were many, like the Franckens and De +Vos. Italy and Roman methods, models, architecture, subjects, began to +rule everywhere. + +From Brussels Barent van Orley (1491?-1542) left early for Italy, and +became essentially Italian, though retaining some Flemish color. He +painted in oil, tempera, and for glass, and is supposed to have gained +his brilliant colors by using a gilt ground. His early works remind +one of David. Cocxie (1499-1592), the Flemish Raphael, was but an +indifferent imitator of the Italian Raphael. At Liége the Romanists, +so called, began with Lambert Lombard (1505-1566), of whose work +nothing authentic remains except drawings. At Bruges Peeter Pourbus +(1510?-1584) was about the last one of the good portrait-painters of +the time. Another excellent portrait-painter, a pupil of Scorel, was +Antonio Moro (1512?-1578?). He had much dignity, force, and +elaborateness of costume, and stood quite by himself. There were other +painters of the time who were born or trained in Flanders, and yet +became so naturalized in other countries that in their work they do +not belong to Flanders. Neuchatel (1527?-1590?), Geldorp (1553-1616?), +Calvaert (1540?-1619), Spranger (1546-1627?), and others, were of this +group. + +Among all the strugglers in Italian imitation only a few landscapists +held out for the Flemish view. Paul Bril (1554-1626) was the first of +them. He went to Italy, but instead of following the methods taught +there, he taught Italians his own view of landscape. His work was a +little dry and formal, but graceful in composition, and good in light +and color. The Brueghels--there were three of them--also stood out for +Flemish landscape, introducing it nominally as a background for small +figures, but in reality for the beauty of the landscape itself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.--RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN. HERMITAGE, +ST. PETERSBURGH.] + +SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was the great century of Flemish +painting, though the painting was not entirely Flemish in method or +thought. The influence of Italy had done away with the early simplicity, +purity, and religious pathos of the Van Eycks. During the sixteenth +century everything had run to bald imitation of Renaissance methods. +Then came a new master-genius, Rubens (1577-1640), who formed a new art +founded in method upon Italy, yet distinctly northern in character. +Rubens chose all subjects for his brush, but the religious altar-piece +probably occupied him as much as any. To this he gave little of Gothic +sentiment, but everything of Renaissance splendor. His art was more +material than spiritual, more brilliant and startling in sensuous +qualities, such as line and color, than charming by facial expression or +tender feeling. Something of the Paolo Veronese cast of mind, he +conceived things largely, and painted them proportionately--large +Titanic types, broad schemes and masses of color, great sweeping lines +of beauty. One value of this largeness was its ability to hold at a +distance upon wall or altar. Hence, when seen to-day, close at hand, in +museums, people are apt to think Rubens's art coarse and gross. + +There is no prettiness about his type. It is not effeminate or +sentimental, but rather robust, full of life and animal spirits, full +of blood, bone, and muscle--of majestic dignity, grace, and power, and +glowing with splendor of color. In imagination, in conception of art +purely as art, and not as a mere vehicle to convey religious or +mythological ideas, in mental grasp of the pictorial world, Rubens +stands with Titian and Velasquez in the very front rank of painters. +As a technician, he was unexcelled. A master of composition, +modelling, and drawing, a master of light, and a color-harmonist of +the rarest ability, he, in addition, possessed the most certain, +adroit, and facile hand that ever handled a paint-brush. Nothing could +be more sure than the touch of Rubens, nothing more easy and +masterful. He was trained in both mind and eye, a genius by birth and +by education, a painter who saw keenly, and was able to realize what +he saw with certainty. + +Well-born, ennobled by royalty, successful in both court and studio, +Rubens lived brilliantly and his life was a series of triumphs. He +painted enormous canvases, and the number of pictures, altar-pieces, +mythological decorations, landscapes, portraits scattered throughout +the galleries of Europe, and attributed to him, is simply amazing. He +was undoubtedly helped in many of his canvases by his pupils, but the +works painted by his own hand make a world of art in themselves. He +was the greatest painter of the North, a full-rounded, complete +genius, comparable to Titian in his universality. His precursors and +masters, Van Noort (1562-1641) and Vaenius (1558-1629), gave no strong +indication of the greatness of Ruben's art, and his many pupils, +though echoing his methods, never rose to his height in mental or +artistic grasp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 78.--VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF CORNELIUS VAN DER +GEEST. NAT. GAL. LONDON.] + +Van Dyck (1599-1641) was his principal pupil. He followed Rubens +closely at first, though in a slighter manner technically, and with a +cooler coloring. After visiting Italy he took up with the warmth of +Titian. Later, in England, he became careless and less certain. His +rank is given him not for his figure-pieces. They were not always +successful, lacking as they did in imagination and originality, though +done with force. His best work was his portraiture, for which he +became famous, painting nobility in every country of Europe in which +he visited. At his best he was a portrait-painter of great power, but +not to be placed in the same rank with Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, and +Velasquez. His characters are gracefully posed, and appear to be +aristocratic. There is a noble distinction about them, and yet even +this has the feeling of being somewhat affected. The serene +complacency of his lords and ladies finally became almost a mannerism +with him, though never a disagreeable one. He died early, a painter of +mark, but not the greatest portrait-painter of the world, as is +sometimes said of him. + +There were a number of Rubens's pupils, like Diepenbeeck (1596-1675), +who learned from their master a certain brush facility, but were not +sufficiently original to make deep impressions. When Rubens died the +best painter left in Belgium was Jordaens (1593-1678). He was a pupil +of Van Noort, but submitted to the Rubens influence and followed in +Rubens's style, though more florid in coloring and grosser in types. +He painted all sorts of subjects, but was seen at his best in +mythological scenes with groups of drunken satyrs and bacchants, +surrounded by a close-placed landscape. He was the most independent +and original of the followers, of whom there was a host. Crayer +(1582-1669), Janssens (1575-1632), Zegers (1591-1651), Rombouts +(1597-1637), were the prominent ones. They all took an influence more +or less pronounced from Rubens. Cornelius de Vos (1585-1651) was a +more independent man--a realistic portrait-painter of much ability. +Snyders (1579-1657), and Fyt (1609?-1661), devoted their brushes to +the painting of still-life, game, fruits, flowers, landscape--Snyders +often in collaboration with Rubens himself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TENIERS THE YOUNGER. PRODIGAL SON. LOUVRE.] + +Living at the same time with these half-Italianized painters, and +continuing later in the century, there was another group of painters +in the Low Countries who were emphatically of the soil, believing in +themselves and their own country and picturing scenes from commonplace +life in a manner quite their own. These were the "Little Masters," the +_genre_ painters, of whom there was even a stronger representation +appearing contemporaneously in Holland. In Belgium there were not so +many nor such talented men, but some of them were very interesting in +their work as in their subjects. Teniers the Younger (1610-1690) was +among the first of them to picture peasant, burgher, alewife, and +nobleman in all scenes and places. Nothing escaped him as a subject, +and yet his best work was shown in the handling of low life in +taverns. There is coarse wit in his work, but it is atoned for by +good color and easy handling. He was influenced by Rubens, though +decidedly different from him in many respects. Brouwer (1606?-1638) +has often been catalogued with the Holland school, but he really +belongs with Teniers, in Belgium. He died early, but left a number of +pictures remarkable for their fine "fat" quality and their beautiful +color. He was not a man of Italian imagination, but a painter of low +life, with coarse humor and not too much good taste, yet a superb +technician and vastly beyond many of his little Dutch contemporaries +at the North. Teniers and Brouwer led a school and had many followers. + +In a slightly different vein was Gonzales Coques (1618-1684), who is +generally seen to advantage in pictures of interiors with family +groups. In subject he was more refined than the other _genre_ +painters, and was influenced to some extent by Van Dyck. As a colorist +he held rank, and his portraiture (rarely seen) was excellent. At this +time there were also many painters of landscape, marine, battles, +still-life--in fact Belgium was alive with painters--but none of them +was sufficiently great to call for individual mention. Most of them +were followers of either Holland or Italy, and the gist of their work +will be spoken of hereafter under Dutch painting. + +EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: Decline had set in before the +seventeenth century ended. Belgium was torn by wars, her commerce +flagged, her art-spirit seemed burned out. A long line of petty +painters followed whose works call for silence. One man alone seemed +to stand out like a star by comparison with his contemporaries, +Verhagen (1728-1811), a portrait-painter of talent. + +NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: During this century Belgium +has been so closely related to France that the influence of the larger +country has been quite apparent upon the art of the smaller. In 1816 +David, the leader of the French classic school, sent into exile by the +Restoration, settled at Brussels, and immediately drew around him +many pupils. His influence was felt at once, and Francois Navez +(1787-1869) was the chief one among his pupils to establish the +revived classic art in Belgium. In 1830, with Belgian independence and +almost concurrently with the romantic movement in France, there began +a romantic movement in Belgium with Wappers (1803-1874). His art was +founded substantially on Rubens; but, like the Paris romanticists, he +chose the dramatic subject of the times and treated it more for color +than for line. He drew a number of followers to himself, but the +movement was not more lasting than in France. + +Wiertz (1806-1865), whose collection of works is to be seen in +Brussels, was a partial exposition of romanticism mixed with a +what-not of eccentricity entirely his own. Later on came a +comparatively new man, Louis Gallait (1810-?), who held in Brussels +substantially the same position that Delaroche did in Paris. His art +was eclectic and never strong, though he had many pupils at Brussels, +and started there a rivalry to Wappers at Antwerp. Leys (1815-1869) +holds a rather unique position in Belgian art by reason of his +affectation. He at first followed Pieter de Hooghe and other early +painters. Then, after a study of the old German painters like Cranach, +he developed an archaic style, producing a Gothic quaintness of line +and composition, mingled with old Flemish coloring. The result was +something popular, but not original or far-reaching, though +technically well done. His chief pupil was Alma Tadema (1836-), alive +to-day in London, and belonging to no school in particular. He is a +technician of ability, mannered in composition and subject, and +somewhat perfunctory in execution. His work is very popular with those +who enjoy minute detail and smooth texture-painting. + +In 1851 the influence of the French realism of Courbet began to be +felt at Brussels, and since then Belgian art has followed closely the +art movements at Paris. Men like Alfred Stevens (1828-), a pupil of +Navez, are really more French than Belgian. Stevens is one of the best +of the moderns, a painter of power in fashionable or high-life +_genre_, and a colorist of the first rank in modern art. Among the +recent painters but a few can be mentioned. Willems (1823-), a weak +painter of fashionable _genre_; Verboeckhoven (1799-1881), a vastly +over-estimated animal painter; Clays (1819-), an excellent marine +painter; Boulanger, a landscapist; Wauters (1846-), a history, and +portrait-painter; Jan van Beers and Robie. The new men are Claus, +Buysse, Frederic, Khnopff, Lempoels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ALFRED STEVENS. ON THE BEACH.] + + PRINCIPAL WORKS:--Hubert van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb + (with Jan van Eyck) St. Bavon Ghent (wings at Brussels and + Berlin supposed to be by Jan, the rest by Hubert); Jan van + Eyck, as above, also Arnolfini portraits Nat. Gal. Lon., + Virgin and Donor Louvre, Madonna Staedel Mus., Man with + Pinks Berlin, Triumph of Church Madrid; Van der Weyden, a + number of pictures in Brussels and Antwerp Mus., also at + Staedel Mus., Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Cristus, Berlin, + Staedel Mus., Hermitage, Madrid; Justus van Ghent, Last + Supper Urbino Gal.; Bouts, St. Peter Louvain, Munich, + Berlin, Brussels, Vienna; Memling, Brussels Mus. and Bruges + Acad., and Hospital Antwerp, Turin, Uffizi, Munich, Vienna; + Van der Meire, triptych St. Bavon Ghent; Ghaeraert David, + Bruges, Berlin, Rouen, Munich. + + Massys, Brussels, Antwerp, Berlin, St. Petersburg; best + works Deposition in Antwerp Gal. and Merchant and Wife + Louvre; Mostert, altar-piece Notre Dame Bruges; Mabuse, + Madonnas Palermo, Milan Cathedral, Prague, other works + Vienna, Berlin, Munich, Antwerp; Floris, Antwerp, Amsterdam, + Brussels, Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Barent van Orley, + altar-pieces Church of the Saviour Antwerp, and Brussels + Mus.; Cocxie, Antwerp, Brussels, and Madrid Mus.; Pourbus, + Bruges, Brussels, Vienna Mus.; Moro, portraits Madrid, + Vienna, Hague, Brussels, Cassel, Louvre, St. Petersburg + Mus.; Bril, landscapes Madrid, Louvre, Dresden, Berlin Mus.; + the landscapes of the three Breughels are to be seen in most + of the museums of Europe, especially at Munich, Dresden, and + Madrid. + + Rubens, many works, 93 in Munich, 35 in Dresden, 15 at + Cassel, 16 at Berlin, 14 in London, 90 in Vienna, 66 in + Madrid, 54 in Paris, 63 at St. Petersburg (as given by + Wauters), best works at Antwerp, Vienna, Munich, and Madrid; + Van Noort, Antwerp, Brussels Mus., Ghent and Antwerp + Cathedrals; Van Dyck, Windsor Castle, Nat. Gal. Lon., 41 in + Munich, 19 in Dresden, 15 in Cassel, 13 in Berlin, 67 in + Vienna, 21 in Madrid, 24 in Paris, and 38 in St. Petersburg + (Wauters), best examples in Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; + and Madrid, good example in Met. Mus. N. Y.; Diepenbeeck, + Antwerp Churches and Mus., Berlin, Vienna, Munich, + Frankfort; Jordaens, Brussels, Antwerp, Munich, Vienna, + Cassel, Madrid, Paris; Crayer, Brussels, Munich, Vienna; + Janssens, Antwerp Mus., St. Bavon Ghent, Brussels and + Cologne Mus.; Zegers, Cathedral Ghent, Notre Dame Bruges, + Antwerp Mus.; Rombouts, Mus. and Cathedral Ghent, Antwerp + Mus., Beguin Convent Mechlin, Hospital of St. John Bruges; + De Vos, Cathedral and Mus. Antwerp, Munich, Oldenburg, + Berlin Mus.; Snyders, Munich, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid, + Paris, St. Petersburg; Fyt, Munich, Dresden, Cassel, Berlin, + Vienna, Madrid, Paris; Teniers the Younger, 29 pictures in + Munich, 24 in Dresden, 8 in Berlin, 19 in Nat. Gal. Lon., 33 + in Vienna, 52 in Madrid, 34 in Louvre, 40 in St. Petersburg + (Wauters); Brauwer, 19 in Munich, 6 in Dresden, 4 in Berlin, + 5 in Paris, 5 in St. Petersburgh (Wauters); Coques, Nat. + Gal. Lon., Amsterdam, Berlin, Munich Mus. + + Verhagen, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Vienna Mus.; Navez, + Ghent, Antwerp, and Amsterdam Mus., Nat. Gal. Berlin; + Wappers, Amsterdam, Brussels, Versailles Mus.; Wiertz, in + Wiertz Gal. Brussels; Gallait, Liége, Versailles, Tournay, + Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Leys, Amsterdam Mus., New + Pinacothek, Munich, Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin, Antwerp Mus. + and City Hall; Alfred Stevens, Marseilles, Brussels, frescos + Royal Pal. Brussels; Willems, Brussels Mus. and Foder Mus. + Amsterdam, Met. Mus. N. Y.; Verboeckhoven, Amsterdam, Foder, + Nat. Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek, Brussels, Ghent, Met. Mus. + N. Y.; Clays, Ghent Mus.; Wauters, Brussels, Liége Mus.; Van + Beers, Burial of Charles the Good Amsterdam Mus. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +DUTCH PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before Fromentin, (Waagen's) Kügler; + Amand-Durand, _OEuvre de Rembrandt_; _Archief voor + Nederlandsche Kunst-geschiedenis_; Blanc, _OEuvre de + Rembrandt_; Bode, _Franz Hals und seine Schule_; Bode, + _Studien zur Geschichte der Hollandischen Malerei_; Bode, + _Adriaan van Ostade_; Brown, _Rembrandt_; Burger (Th. + Thoré), _Les Musées de la Hollande_; Havard, _La Peinture + Hollandaise_; Michel, _Rembrandt_; Michel, _Gerard Terburg + et sa Famille_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Rooses, _Dutch + Painters of the Nineteenth Century_; Rooses, _Rubens_; + Schmidt, _Das Leben des Malers Adriaen Brouwer_; Van der + Willigen, _Les Artistes de Harlem_; Van Mander, _Leven der + Nederlandsche en Hoogduitsche Schilders_; Vosmaer, + _Rembrandt, sa Vie et ses OEuvres_; Westrheene, _Jan + Steen, Étude sur l'Art en Hollande_; Van Dyke, _Old Dutch + and Flemish Masters_. + + +THE DUTCH PEOPLE AND THEIR ART: Though Holland produced a somewhat +different quality of art from Flanders and Belgium, yet in many +respects the people at the north were not very different from those at +the south of the Netherlands. They were perhaps less versatile, less +volatile, less like the French and more like the Germans. Fond of +homely joys and the quiet peace of town and domestic life, the Dutch +were matter-of-fact in all things, sturdy, honest, coarse at times, +sufficient unto themselves, and caring little for what other people +did. Just so with their painters. They were realistic at times to +grotesqueness. Little troubled with fine poetic frenzies they painted +their own lives in street, town-hall, tavern, and kitchen, conscious +that it was good because true to themselves. + +At first Dutch art was influenced, even confounded, with that of +Flanders. The Van Eycks led the way, and painters like Bouts and +others, though Dutch by birth, became Flemish by adoption in their art +at least. When the Flemish painters fell to copying Italy some of the +Dutch followed them, but with no great enthusiasm. Suddenly, at the +beginning of the seventeenth century, when Holland had gained +political independence, Dutch art struck off by itself, became +original, became famous. It pictured native life with verve, skill, +keenness of insight, and fine pictorial view. Limited it was; it never +soared like Italian art, never became universal or world-embracing. It +was distinct, individual, national, something that spoke for Holland, +but little beyond it. + +In subject there were few historical canvases such as the Italians and +French produced. The nearest approach to them were the paintings of +shooting companies, or groups of burghers and syndics, and these were +merely elaborations and enlargements of the portrait which the Dutch +loved best of all. As a whole their subjects were single figures or +small groups in interiors, quiet scenes, family conferences, smokers, +card-players, drinkers, landscapes, still-life, architectural pieces. +When they undertook the large canvas with many figures, they were +often unsatisfactory. Even Rembrandt was so. The chief medium was oil, +used upon panel or canvas. Fresco was probably used in the early days, +but the climate was too damp for it and it was abandoned. It was +perhaps the dampness of the northern climate that led to the +adaptation of the oil medium, something the Van Eycks are credited +with inaugurating. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--HALS. PORTRAIT OF A LADY.] + +THE EARLY PAINTING: The early work has, for the great part, perished +through time and the fierceness with which the Iconoclastic warfare +was waged. That which remains to-day is closely allied in method and +style to Flemish painting under the Van Eycks. Ouwater is one of the +earliest names that appears, and perhaps for that reason he has been +called the founder of the school. He was remarked in his time for the +excellent painting of background landscapes; but there is little +authentic by him left to us from which we may form an opinion.[17] +Geertjen van St. Jan (about 1475) was evidently a pupil of his, and +from him there are two wings of an altar in the Vienna Gallery, +supposed to be genuine. Bouts and Mostert have been spoken of under +the Flemish school. Bosch (1460?-1516) was a man of some individuality +who produced fantastic purgatories that were popular in their time and +are known to-day through engravings. Engelbrechsten (1468-1533) was +Dutch by birth and in his art, and yet probably got his inspiration +from the Van Eyck school. The works attributed to him are doubtful, +though two in the Leyden Gallery seem to be authentic. He was the +master of Lucas van Leyden (1494-1533), the leading artist of the +early period. Lucas van Leyden was a personal friend of Albrecht +Dürer, the German painter, and in his art he was not unlike him. A +man with a singularly lean type, a little awkward in composition, +brilliant in color, and warm in tone, he was, despite his +archaic-looking work, an artist of much ability and originality. At +first he was inclined toward Flemish methods, with an exaggerated +realism in facial expression. In his middle period he was distinctly +Dutch, but in his later days he came under Italian influence, and with +a weakening effect upon his art. Taking his work as a whole, it was +the strongest of all the early Dutch painters. + +[Footnote 17: A Raising of Lazarus is in the Berlin Gallery.] + +SIXTEENTH CENTURY: This century was a period of Italian imitation, +probably superinduced by the action of the Flemings at Antwerp. The +movement was somewhat like the Flemish one, but not so extensive or so +productive. There was hardly a painter of rank in Holland during the +whole century. Scorel (1495-1562) was the leader, and he probably got +his first liking for Italian art through Mabuse at Antwerp. He +afterward went to Italy, studied Raphael and Michael Angelo, and +returned to Utrecht to open a school and introduce Italian art into +Holland. A large number of pupils followed him, but their work was +lacking in true originality. Heemskerck (1498-1574) and Cornelis van +Haarlem (1562-1638), with Steenwyck (1550?-1604), were some of the +more important men of the century, but none of them was above a common +average. + +SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: Beginning with the first quarter of this century +came the great art of the Dutch people, founded on themselves and +rooted in their native character. Italian methods were abandoned, and +the Dutch told the story of their own lives in their own manner, with +truth, vigor, and skill. There were so many painters in Holland during +this period that it will be necessary to divide them into groups and +mention only the prominent names. + +PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: The real inaugurators of Dutch +portraiture were Mierevelt, Hals, Ravesteyn, and De Keyser. Mierevelt +(1567-1641) was one of the earliest, a prolific painter, fond of the +aristocratic sitter, and indulging in a great deal of elegance in his +accessories of dress and the like. He had a slight, smooth brush, much +detail, and a profusion of color. Quite the reverse of him was Franz +Hals (1584?-1666), one of the most remarkable painters of portraits +with which history acquaints us. In giving the sense of life and +personal physical presence, he was unexcelled by any one. What he saw +he could portray with the most telling reality. In drawing and +modelling he was usually good; in coloring he was excellent, though in +his late work sombre; in brush-handling he was one of the great +masters. Strong, virile, yet easy and facile, he seemed to produce +without effort. His brush was very broad in its sweep, very sure, very +true. Occasionally in his late painting facility ran to the +ineffectual, but usually he was certainty itself. His best work was in +portraiture, and the most important of this is to be seen at Haarlem, +where he died after a rather careless life. As a painter, pure and +simple, he is almost to be ranked beside Velasquez; as a poet, a +thinker, a man of lofty imagination, his work gives us little +enlightenment except in so far as it shows a fine feeling for masses +of color and problems of light. Though excellent portrait-painters, +Ravesteyn (1572?-1657) and De Keyser (1596?-1679) do not provoke +enthusiasm. They were quiet, conservative, dignified, painting civic +guards and societies with a knowing brush and lively color, giving the +truth of physiognomy, but not with that verve of the artist so +conspicuous in Hals, nor with that unity of the group so essential in +the making of a picture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--REMBRANDT. HEAD OF WOMAN. NAT. GAL. LONDON.] + +The next man in chronological order is Rembrandt (1607?-1669), the +greatest painter in Dutch art. He was a pupil of Swanenburch and +Lastman, but his great knowledge of nature and his craft came largely +from the direct study of the model. Settled at Amsterdam, he quickly +rose to fame, had a large following of pupils, and his influence was +felt through all Dutch painting. The portrait was emphatically his +strongest work. The many-figured group he was not always successful in +composing or lighting. His method of work rather fitted him for the +portrait and unfitted him for the large historical piece. He built up +the importance of certain features by dragging down all other +features. This was largely shown in his handling of illumination. +Strong in a few high lights on cheek, chin, or white linen, the rest +of the picture was submerged in shadow, under which color was +unmercifully sacrificed. This was not the best method for a large, +many-figured piece, but was singularly well suited to the portrait. It +produced strength by contrast. "Forced" it was undoubtedly, and not +always true to nature, yet nevertheless most potent in Rembrandt's +hands. He was an arbitrary though perfect master of light-and-shade, +and unusually effective in luminous and transparent shadows. In color +he was again arbitrary but forcible and harmonious. In brush-work he +was at times labored, but almost always effective. + +Mentally he was a man keen to observe, assimilate, and express his +impressions in a few simple truths. His conception was localized with +his own people and time (he never built up the imaginary or followed +Italy), and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of +Amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent +sympathy with man. Dramatic, even tragic, he was; yet this was not so +apparent in vehement action as in passionate expression. He had a +powerful way of striking universal truths through the human face, the +turned head, bent body, or outstretched hand. His people have +character, dignity, and a pervading feeling that they are the great +types of the Dutch race--people of substantial physique, slow in +thought and impulse, yet capable of feeling, comprehending, enjoying, +suffering. + +His landscapes, again, were a synthesis of all landscapes, a grouping +of the great truths of light, air, shadow, space. Whatever he turned +his hand to was treated with that breadth of view that overlooked the +little and grasped the great. He painted many subjects. His earliest +work dates from 1627, and is a little hard and sharp in detail and +cold in coloring. After 1654 he grew broader in handling and warmer in +tone, running to golden browns, and, toward the end of his career, to +rather hot tones. His life was embittered by many misfortunes, but +these never seem to have affected his art except to deepen it. He +painted on to the last, convinced that his own view was the true one, +and producing works that rank second to none in the history of +painting. + +Rembrandt's influence upon Dutch art was far-reaching, and appeared +immediately in the works of his many pupils. They all followed his +methods of handling light-and-shade, but no one of them ever equalled +him, though they produced work of much merit. Bol (1611-1680) was +chiefly a portrait-painter, with a pervading yellow tone and some +pallor of flesh-coloring--a man of ability who mistakenly followed +Rubens in the latter part of his life. Flinck (1615-1660) at one time +followed Rembrandt so closely that his work has passed for that of the +master; but latterly he, too, came under Flemish influence. Next to +Eeckhout he was probably the nearest to Rembrandt in methods of all +the pupils. Eeckhout (1621-1674) was really a Rembrandt imitator, but +his hand was weak and his color hot. Maes (1632-1693) was the most +successful manager of light after the school formula, and succeeded +very well with warmth and richness of color, especially with his reds. +The other Rembrandt pupils and followers were Poorter (fl. 1635-1643), +Victoors (1620?-1672?), Koninck (1619-1688), Fabritius (1624-1654), +and Backer (1608?-1651). + +Van der Helst (1612?-1670) stands apart from this school, and seems to +have followed more the portrait style of De Keyser. He was a +realistic, precise painter, with much excellence of modelling in head +and hands, and with fine carriage and dignity in the figure. In +composition he hardly held his characters in group owing to a +sacrifice of values, and in color he was often "spotty," and lacking +in the unity of mass. + +THE GENRE PAINTERS: This heading embraces those who may be called the +"Little Dutchmen," because of the small scale of their pictures and +their _genre_ subjects. Gerard Dou (1613-1675) is indicative of the +class without fully representing it. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, but +his work gave little report of this. It was smaller, more delicate in +detail, more petty in conception. He was a man great in little +things, one who wasted strength on the minutiæ of dress, or +table-cloth, or the texture of furniture without grasping the mass or +color significance of the whole scene. There was infinite detail about +his work, and that gave it popularity; but as art it held, and holds +to-day, little higher place than the work of Metsu (1630-1667), Van +Mieris (1635-1681), Netscher (1639-1684), or Schalcken (1643-1706), +all of whom produced the interior piece with figures elaborate in +accidental effects. Van Ostade (1610-1685), though dealing with the +small canvas, and portraying peasant life with perhaps unnecessary +coarseness, was a much stronger painter than the men just mentioned. +He was the favorite pupil of Hals and the master of Jan Steen. With +little delicacy in choice of subject he had much delicacy in color, +taste in arrangement, and skill in handling. His brush was precise but +not finical. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--J. VAN RUISDAEL. LANDSCAPE.] + +By far the best painter among all the "Little Dutchmen" was Terburg +(1617?-1681), a painter of interiors, small portraits, conversation +pictures, and the like. Though of diminutive scale his work has the +largeness of view characteristic of genius, and the skilled technic of +a thorough craftsman. Terburg was a travelled man, visiting Italy, +where he studied Titian, returning to Holland to study Rembrandt, +finally at Madrid studying Velasquez. He was a painter of much +culture, and the keynote of his art is refinement. Quiet and dignified +he carried taste through all branches of his art. In subject he was +rather elevated, in color subdued with broken tones, in composition +simple, in brush-work sure, vivacious, and yet unobtrusive. Selection +in his characters was followed by reserve in using them. Detail was +not very apparent. A few people with some accessory objects were all +that he required to make a picture. Perhaps his best qualities appear +in a number of small portraits remarkable for their distinction and +aristocratic grace. + +Steen (1626?-1679) was almost the opposite of Terburg, a man of +sarcastic flings and coarse humor who satirized his own time with +little reserve. He developed under Hals and Van Ostade, favoring the +latter in his interiors, family scenes, and drunken debauches. He was +a master of physiognomy, and depicted it with rare if rather +unpleasant truth. If he had little refinement in his themes he +certainly handled them as a painter with delicacy. At his best his +many figured groups were exceedingly well composed, his color was of +good quality (with a fondness for yellows), and his brush was as +limpid and graceful as though painting angels instead of Dutch boors. +He was really one of the fine brushmen of Holland, a man greatly +admired by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many an artist since; but not a +man of high intellectual pitch as compared with Terburg, for +instance. + +Pieter de Hooghe (1632?-1681) was a painter of purely pictorial +effects, beginning and ending a picture in a scheme of color, +atmosphere, clever composition, and above all the play of +light-and-shade. He was one of the early masters of full sunlight, +painting it falling across a court-yard or streaming through a window +with marvellous truth and poetry. His subjects were commonplace +enough. An interior with a figure or two in the middle distance, and a +passage-way leading into a lighted background were sufficient for him. +These formed a skeleton which he clothed in a half-tone shadow, +pierced with warm yellow light, enriched with rare colors, usually +garnet reds and deep yellows repeated in the different planes, and +surrounded with a subtle pervading atmosphere. As a brushman he was +easy but not distinguished, and often his drawing was not correct; but +in the placing of color masses and in composing by color and light he +was a master of the first rank. Little is known about his life. He +probably formed himself on Fabritius or Rembrandt at second-hand, but +little trace of the latter is apparent in his work. He seems not to +have achieved much fame until late years, and then rather in England +than in his own country. + +Jan van der Meer of Delft (1632-1675), one of the most charming of all +the _genre_ painters, was allied to De Hooghe in his pictorial point +of view and interior subjects. Unfortunately there is little left to +us of this master, but the few extant examples serve to show him a +painter of rare qualities in light, in color, and in atmosphere. He +was a remarkable man for his handling of blues, reds, and yellows; and +in the tonic relations of a picture he was a master second to no one. +Fabritius is supposed to have influenced him. + +THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The painters of the Netherlands were probably +the first, beginning with Bril, to paint landscape for its own sake, +and as a picture motive in itself. Before them it had been used as a +background for the figure, and was so used by many of the Dutchmen +themselves. It has been said that these landscape-painters were also +the first ones to paint landscape realistically, but that is true only +in part. They studied natural forms, as did, indeed, Bellini in the +Venetian school; they learned something of perspective, air, tree +anatomy, and the appearance of water; but no Dutch painter of +landscape in the seventeenth century grasped the full color of Holland +or painted its many varied lights. They indulged in a meagre +conventional palette of grays, greens, and browns, whereas Holland is +full of brilliant hues. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--HOBBEMA. THE WATER-WHEEL. AMSTERDAM MUS.] + +Van Goyen (1596-1656) was one of the earliest of the +seventeenth-century landscapists. In subject he was fond of the Dutch +bays, harbors, rivers, and canals with shipping, windmills, and +houses. His sky line was generally given low, his water silvery, and +his sky misty and luminous with bursts of white light. In color he +was subdued, and in perspective quite cunning at times. Salomon van +Ruisdael (1600?-1670) was his follower, if not his pupil. He had the +same sobriety of color as his master, and was a mannered and prosaic +painter in details, such as leaves and tree-branches. In composition +he was good, but his art had only a slight basis upon reality, though +it looks to be realistic at first sight. He had a formula for doing +landscape which he varied only in a slight way, and this +conventionality ran through all his work. Molyn (1600?-1661) was a +painter who showed limited truth to nature in flat and hilly +landscapes, transparent skies, and warm coloring. His extant works are +few in number. Wynants (1615?-1679?) was more of a realist in natural +appearance than any of the others, a man who evidently studied +directly from nature in details of vegetation, plants, trees, roads, +grasses, and the like. Most of the figures and animals in his +landscapes were painted by other hands. He himself was a pure +landscape-painter, excelling in light and aërial perspective, but not +remarkable in color. Van der Neer (1603-1677) and Everdingen +(1621?-1675) were two other contemporary painters of merit. + +The best landscapist following the first men of the century was Jacob +van Ruisdael (1625?-1682), the nephew of Salomon van Ruisdael. He is +put down, with perhaps unnecessary emphasis, as the greatest +landscape-painter of the Dutch school. He was undoubtedly the equal of +any of his time, though not so near to nature, perhaps, as Hobbema. He +was a man of imagination, who at first pictured the Dutch country +about Haarlem, and afterward took up with the romantic landscape of +Van Everdingen. This landscape bears a resemblance to the Norwegian +country, abounding, as it does, in mountains, heavy dark woods, and +rushing torrents. There is considerable poetry in its composition, its +gloomy skies, and darkened lights. It is mournful, suggestive, wild, +usually unpeopled. There was much of the methodical in its putting +together, and in color it was cold, and limited to a few tones. Many +of Ruisdael's works have darkened through time. Little is known about +the painter's life except that he was not appreciated in his own time +and died in the almshouse. + +Hobbema (1638?-1709) was probably the pupil of Jacob van Ruisdael, and +ranks with him, if not above him, in seventeenth-century landscape +painting. Ruisdael hardly ever painted sunlight, whereas Hobbema +rather affected it in quiet wood-scenes or roadways with little pools +of water and a mill. He was a freer man with the brush than Ruisdael, +and knew more about the natural appearance of trees, skies, and +lights; but, like his master, his view of nature found no favor in his +own land. Most of his work is in England, where it had not a little to +do with influencing such painters as Constable and others at the +beginning of the nineteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85.--ISRAELS. ALONE IN THE WORLD.] + +LANDSCAPE WITH CATTLE: Here we meet with Wouverman (1619-1668), a +painter of horses, cavalry, battles, and riding parties placed in +landscape. His landscape is bright and his horses are spirited in +action. There is some mannerism apparent in his reiterated +concentration of light on a white horse, and some repetition in his +canvases, of which there are many; but on the whole he was an +interesting, if smooth and neat painter. Paul Potter (1625-1654) +hardly merited his great repute. He was a harsh, exact recorder of +facts, often tin-like or woodeny in his cattle, and not in any way +remarkable in his landscapes, least of all in their composition. The +Young Bull at the Hague is an ambitious piece of drawing, but is not +successful in color, light, or _ensemble_. It is a brittle work all +through, and not nearly so good as some smaller things in the National +Gallery London, and in the Louvre. Adrien van de Velde (1635?-1672) +was short-lived, like Potter, but managed to do a prodigious amount +of work, showing cattle and figures in landscape with much technical +ability and good feeling. He was particularly good in composition and +the subtle gradation of neutral tints. A little of the Italian +influence appeared in his work, and with the men who came with him and +after him the Italian imitation became very pronounced. Aelbert Cuyp +(1620-1691) was a many-sided painter, adopting at various times +different styles, but was enough of a genius to be himself always. He +is best known to us, perhaps, by his yellow sunlight effects along +rivers, with cattle in the foreground, though he painted still-life, +and even portraits and marines. In composing a group he was knowing, +recording natural effects with power; in light and atmosphere he was +one of the best of his time, and in texture and color refined, and +frequently brilliant. Both (1610-1650?), Berchem (1620-1683), Du +Jardin (1622?-1678), followed the Italian tradition of Claude Lorrain, +producing semi-classic landscapes, never very convincing in their +originality. Van der Heyden (1637-1712), should be mentioned as an +excellent, if minute, painter of architecture with remarkable +atmospheric effects. + +MARINE AND STILL-LIFE PAINTERS: There were two pre-eminent marine +painters in this seventeenth century, Willem van de Velde (1633-1707) +and Backhuisen (1631-1708). The sea was not an unusual subject with +the Dutch landscapists. Van Goyen, Simon de Vlieger (1601?-1660?), +Cuyp, Willem van de Velde the Elder (1611?-1693), all employed it; but +it was Van de Velde the Younger who really stood at the head of the +marine painters. He knew his subject thoroughly, having been well +grounded in it by his father and De Vlieger, so that the painting of +the Dutch fleets and harbors was a part of his nature. He preferred +the quiet haven to the open sea. Smooth water, calm skies, silvery +light, and boats lying listlessly at anchor with drooping sails, made +up his usual subject. The color was almost always in a key of silver +and gray, very charming in its harmony and serenity, but a little +thin. Both he and his father went to England and entered the service +of the English king, and thereafter did English fleets rather than +Dutch ones. Backhuisen was quite the reverse of Van de Velde in +preferring the tempest to the calm of the sea. He also used more +brilliant and varied colors, but he was not so happy in harmony as Van +de Velde. There was often dryness in his handling, and something too +much of the theatrical in his wrecks on rocky shores. + +The still-life painters of Holland were all of them rather petty in +their emphasis of details such as figures on table-covers, water-drops +on flowers, and fur on rabbits. It was labored work with little of the +art spirit about it, except as the composition showed good masses. A +number of these painters gained celebrity in their day by their +microscopic labor over fruits, flowers, and the like, but they have no +great rank at the present time. Jan van Heem (1600?1684?) was perhaps +the best painter of flowers among them. Van Huysum (1682-1749) +succeeded with the same subject beyond his deserts. Hondecoeter +(1636-1695) was a unique painter of poultry; Weenix (1640-1719) and +Van Aelst (1620-1679), of dead game; Kalf (1630?-1693), of pots, pans, +dishes, and vegetables. + +EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: This was a period of decadence during which there +was no originality worth speaking about among the Dutch painters. +Realism in minute features was carried to the extreme, and imitation +of the early men took the place of invention. Everything was +prettified and elaborated until there was a porcelain smoothness and a +photographic exactness inconsistent with true art. Adriaan van der +Werff (1659-1722), and Philip van Dyck (1683-1753) with their "ideal" +inanities are typical of the century's art. There was nothing to +commend it. The lowest point of affectation had been reached. + +NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Dutch painters, unlike the Belgians, have +almost always been true to their own traditions and their own country. +Even in decadence the most of them feebly followed their own painters +rather than those of Italy and France, and in the early nineteenth +century they were not affected by the French classicism of David. +Later on there came into vogue an art that had some affinity with that +of Millet and Courbet in France. It was the Dutch version of modern +sentiment about the laboring classes, founded on the modern life of +Holland, yet in reality a continuation of the style or _genre_ +practised by the early Dutchmen. Israels (1824-) is a revival or a +survival of Rembrandtesque methods with a sentiment and feeling akin +to the French Millet. He deals almost exclusively with peasant life, +showing fisher-folk and the like in their cottage interiors, at the +table, or before the fire, with good effects of light, atmosphere, and +much pathos. Technically he is rather labored and heavy in handling, +but usually effective with sombre color in giving the unity of a +scene. Artz (1837-1890) considered himself in measure a follower of +Israels, though he never studied under him. His pictures in subject +are like those of Israels, but without the depth of the latter. +Blommers (1845-) is another peasant painter who follows Israels at a +distance, and Neuhuys (1844-) shows a similar style of work. Bosboom +(1817-1891) excelled in representing interiors, showing, with much +pictorial effect, the light, color, shadow, and feeling of space and +air in large cathedrals. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86.--MAUVE. SHEEP.] + +The brothers Maris have made a distinct impression on modern Dutch +art, and, strange enough, each in a different way from the others. +James Maris (1837-) studied at Paris, and is remarkable for fine, +vigorous views of canals, towns, and landscapes. He is broad in +handling, rather bleak in coloring, and excels in fine luminous skies +and voyaging clouds. Matthew Maris (1835-), Parisian trained like his +brother, lives in London, where little is seen of his work. He paints +for himself and his friends, and is rather melancholy and mystical in +his art. He is a recorder of visions and dreams rather than the +substantial things of the earth, but always with richness of color and +a fine decorative feeling. Willem Maris (1839-), sometimes called the +"Silvery Maris," is a portrayer of cattle and landscape in warm +sunlight and haze with a charm of color and tone often suggestive of +Corot. Jongkind (1819-1891) stands by himself, Mesdag (1831-) is a +fine painter of marines and sea-shores, and Mauve (1838-1888), a +cattle and sheep painter, with nice sentiment and tonality, whose +renown is just now somewhat disproportionate to his artistic ability. +In addition there are Kever, Poggenbeek, Bastert, Baur, Breitner, +Witsen, Haverman, Weissenbruch. + + EXTANT WORKS: Generally speaking the best examples of the + Dutch schools are still to be seen in the local museums of + Holland, especially the Amsterdam and Hague Mus.; Bosch, + Madrid, Antwerp, Brussels Mus.; Lucas van Leyden, Antwerp, + Leyden, Munich Mus.; Scorel, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Haarlem + Mus.; Heemskerck, Haarlem, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden; + Steenwyck, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels; Cornelis van Haarlem, + Amsterdam, Haarlem, Brunswick. + + PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS--Mierevelt, Hague, Amsterdam, + Rotterdam, Brunswick, Dresden, Copenhagen; Hals, best works + to be seen at Haarlem, others at Amsterdam, Brussels, Hague, + Berlin, Cassel, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Met. Mus. New York, + Art Institute Chicago; Rembrandt, Amsterdam, Hermitage, + Louvre, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Madrid, London; Bol, + Amsterdam, Hague, Dresden, Louvre; Flinck, Amsterdam, Hague, + Berlin; Eeckhout, Amsterdam, Brunswick, Berlin, Munich; + Maes, Nat. Gal. Lon., Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels; + Poorter, Amsterdam, Brussels, Dresden; Victoors, Amsterdam, + Copenhagen, Brunswick, Dresden; Fabritius, Rotterdam, + Amsterdam, Berlin; Van der Helst, best works at Amsterdam + Mus. + + GENRE PAINTERS--Examples of Dou, Metsu, Van Mieris, + Netscher, Schalcken, Van Ostade, are to be seen in almost + all the galleries of Europe, especially the Dutch, Belgian, + German, and French galleries; Terburg, Amsterdam, Louvre, + Dresden, Berlin (fine portraits); Steen, Amsterdam, Louvre, + Rotterdam, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden, Vienna; De + Hooghe, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Hermitage; Van + der Meer of Delft, Louvre, Hague, Amsterdam, Berlin, + Dresden, Met. Mus. New York. + + LANDSCAPE PAINTERS--Van Goyen, Amsterdam, Fitz-William Mus. + Cambridge, Louvre, Brussels, Cassel, Dresden, Berlin; + Salomon van Ruisdael, Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Dresden, + Munich; Van der Neer, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Brussels, + Amsterdam, Berlin, Dresden; Everdingen, Amsterdam, Berlin, + Louvre, Brunswick, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort; Jacob van + Ruisdael, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Berlin, + Dresden; Hobbema, best works in England, Nat. Gal. Lon., + Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dresden; Wouvermans, many works, best + at Amsterdam, Cassel, Louvre; Potter, Amsterdam, Hague, + Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Van de Velde, Amsterdam, Hague, + Cassel, Dresden, Frankfort, Munich, Louvre; Cuyp, Amsterdam, + Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Munich, Dresden; examples of Both, + Berchem, Du Jardin, and Van der Heyden, in almost all of the + Dutch and German galleries, besides the Louvre and Nat. Gal. + Lon. + + MARINE PAINTERS--Willem van de Velde Elder and Younger, + Backhuisen, Vlieger, together with the flower and fruit + painters like Huysum, Hondecoeter, Weenix, have all been + prolific workers, and almost every European gallery, + especially those at London, Amsterdam, and in Germany, have + examples of their works; Van der Werff and Philip van Dyck + are seen at their best at Dresden. + + The best works of the modern men are in private collections, + many in the United States, some examples of them in the + Amsterdam and Hague Museums. Also some examples of the old + Dutch masters in New York Hist. Society Library, Yale School + of Fine Arts, Met. Mus. New York, Boston Mus., and Chicago + Institute. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +GERMAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Colvin, _A. Durer, his Teachers, his + Rivals, and his Scholars_; Eye, _Leben und Werke Albrecht + Durers_; Förster, _Peter von Cornelius_; Förster, + _Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst_; Keane, _Early Teutonic, + Italian, and French Painters_; Kügler, _Handbook to German + and Netherland Schools, trans. by Crowe_; Merlo, _Die + Meister der altkolnischer Malerschule_; Moore, _Albert + Durer_; Pecht, _Deutsche Kunstler des Neunzehnten + Jahrhunderts_; Reber, _Geschichte der neueren Deutschen + Kunst_; Riegel, _Deutsche Kunststudien_; Rosenberg, _Die + Berliner Malerschule_; Rosenberg, _Sebald und Barthel + Beham_; Rumohr, _Hans Holbein der Jungere_; Sandrart, + _Teutsche Akademie der Edlen Bau, Bild-und Malerey-Kunste_; + Schuchardt, _Lucas Cranach's Leben_; Thausig, _Albert Durer, + His Life and Works_; Waagen, _Kunstwerke und Kunstler in + Deutschland_; E. aus'm Weerth, _Wandmalereien des + Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden_; Wessely, _Adolph Menzel_; + Woltmann, _Holbein and his Time_; Woltmann, _Geschichte der + Deutschen Kunst im Elsass_; Wurtzbach, _Martin Schongauer_. + + +EARLY GERMAN PAINTING: The Teutonic lands, like almost all of the +countries of Europe, received their first art impulse from +Christianity through Italy. The centre of the faith was at Rome, and +from there the influence in art spread west and north, and in each +land it was modified by local peculiarities of type and temperament. +In Germany, even in the early days, though Christianity was the theme +of early illuminations, miniatures, and the like, and though there was +a traditional form reaching back to Italy and Byzantium, yet under it +was the Teutonic type--the material, awkward, rather coarse Germanic +point of view. The wish to realize native surroundings was apparent +from the beginning. + +It is probable that the earliest painting in Germany took the form of +illuminations. At what date it first appeared is unknown. In +wall-painting a poor quality of work was executed in the churches as +early as the ninth century, and probably earlier. The oldest now +extant are those at Oberzell, dating back to the last part of the +tenth century. Better examples are seen in the Lower Church of +Schwarzrheindorf, of the twelfth century, and still better in the +choir and transept of the Brunswick cathedral, ascribed to the early +thirteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--LOCHNER. STS. JOHN, CATHERINE, AND MATTHEW. +NAT. GAL. LONDON.] + +All of these works have an archaic appearance about them, but they +are better in composition and drawing than the productions of Italy +and Byzantium at that time. It is likely that all the German churches +at this time were decorated, but most of the paintings have been +destroyed. The usual method was to cover the walls and wooden ceilings +with blue grounds, and upon these to place figures surrounded by +architectural ornaments. Stained glass was also used extensively. +Panel painting seems to have come into existence before the thirteenth +century (whether developed from miniature or wall-painting is +unknown), and was used for altar decorations. The panels were done in +tempera with figures in light colors upon gold grounds. The +spirituality of the age with a mingling of northern sentiment appeared +in the figure. This figure was at times graceful, and again awkward +and archaic, according to the place of production and the influence of +either France or Italy. The oldest panels extant are from the +Wiesenkirche at Soest, now in the Berlin Museum. They do not date +before the thirteenth century. + +FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: In the fourteenth century the +influence of France began to show strongly in willowy figures, long +flowing draperies, and sentimental poses. The artists along the Rhine +showed this more than those in the provinces to the east, where a +ruder if freer art appeared. The best panel-painting of the time was +done at Cologne, where we meet with the name of the first painter, +Meister Wilhelm, and where a school was established usually known as +the + +SCHOOL OF COLOGNE: This school probably got its sentimental +inclination, shown in slight forms and tender expression, from France, +but derived much of its technic from the Netherlands. Stephen Lochner, +or Meister Stephen, (fl. 1450) leaned toward the Flemish methods, and +in his celebrated picture, the Madonna of the Rose Garden, in the +Cologne Museum, there is an indication of this; but there is also an +individuality showing the growth of German independence in painting. +The figures of his Dombild have little manliness or power, but +considerable grace, pathos, and religious feeling. They are not +abstract types but the spiritualized people of the country in native +costumes, with much gold, jewelry, and armor. Gold was used instead of +a landscape background, and the foreground was spattered with flowers +and leaves. The outlines are rather hard, and none of the aërial +perspective of the Flemings is given. After a time French sentiment +was still further encroached upon by Flemish realism, as shown in the +works of the Master of the Lyversberg Passion (fl. about 1463-1480), +to be seen in the Cologne Museum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--WOLGEMUT. CRUCIFIXION. MUNICH.] + +BOHEMIAN SCHOOL: It was not on the Lower Rhine alone that German +painting was practised. The Bohemian school, located near Prague, +flourished for a short time in the fourteenth century, under Charles +IV., with Theodorich of Prague (fl. 1348-1378), Wurmser, and Kunz, as +the chief masters. Their art was quite the reverse of the Cologne +painters. It was heavy, clumsy, bony, awkward. If more original it was +less graceful, not so pathetic, not so religious. Sentiment was +slurred through a harsh attempt at realism, and the religious subject +met with something of a check in the romantic mediæval chivalric +theme, painted quite as often on the castle wall as the scriptural +theme on the church wall. After the close of the fourteenth century +wall-painting began to die out in favor of panel pictures. + +NUREMBERG SCHOOL: Half-way between the sentiment of Cologne and the +realism of Prague stood the early school of Nuremberg, with no known +painter at its head. Its chief work, the Imhof altar-piece, shows, +however, that the Nuremberg masters of the early and middle fifteenth +century were between eastern and western influences. They inclined to +the graceful swaying figure, following more the sculpture of the time +than the Cologne type. + +FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES: German art, if begun in the +fourteenth century, hardly showed any depth or breadth until the +fifteenth century, and no real individual strength until the sixteenth +century. It lagged behind the other countries of Europe and produced +the cramped archaic altar-piece. Then when printing was invented the +painter-engraver came into existence. He was a man who painted panels, +but found his largest audience through the circulation of engravings. +The two kinds of arts being produced by the one man led to much +detailed line work with the brush. Engraving is an influence to be +borne in mind in examining the painting of this period. + +[Illustration: FIG. 89.--DÜRER. PRAYING VIRGIN. AUGSBURG.] + +FRANCONIAN SCHOOL: Nuremberg was the centre of this school, and its +most famous early master was Wolgemut (1434-1519), though Plydenwurff +is the first-named painter. After the latter's death Wolgemut married +his widow and became the head of the school. His paintings were +chiefly altar-pieces, in which the figures were rather lank and +narrow-shouldered, with sharp outlines, indicative perhaps of the +influence of wood-engraving, in which he was much interested. There +was, however, in his work an advance in characterization, nobility of +expression, and quiet dignity, and it was his good fortune to be the +master of one of the most thoroughly original painters of all the +German schools--Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). + +With Dürer and Holbein German art reached its apogee in the first half +of the sixteenth century, yet their work was not different in spirit +from that of their predecessors. Painting simply developed and became +forceful and expressive technically without abandoning its early +character. There is in Dürer a naive awkwardness of figure, some +angularity of line, strain of pose, and in composition oftentimes +huddling and overloading of the scene with details. There is not that +largeness which seemed native to his Italian contemporaries. He was +hampered by that German exactness, which found its best expression in +engraving, and which, though unsuited to painting, nevertheless crept +into it. Within these limitations Dürer produced the typical art of +Germany in the Renaissance time--an art more attractive for the charm +and beauty of its parts than for its unity, or its general impression. +Dürer was a travelled man, visited Italy and the Netherlands, and, +though he always remained a German in art, yet he picked up some +Italian methods from Bellini and Mantegna that are faintly apparent in +some of his works. In subject he was almost exclusively religious, +painting the altar-piece with infinite care upon wooden panel, canvas, +or parchment. He never worked in fresco, preferring oil and tempera. +In drawing he was often harsh and faulty, in draperies cramped at +times, and then, again, as in the Apostle panels at Munich, very +broad, and effective. Many of his pictures show a hard, dry brush, and +a few, again, are so free and mellow that they look as though done by +another hand. He was usually minute in detail, especially in such +features as hair, cloth, flesh. His portraits were uneven and not his +best productions. He was too close a scrutinizer of the part and not +enough of an observer of the whole for good portraiture. Indeed, that +is the criticism to be made upon all his work. He was an exquisite +realist of certain features, but not always of the _ensemble_. +Nevertheless he holds first rank in the German art of the Renaissance, +not only on account of his technical ability, but also because of his +imagination, sincerity, and striking originality. + +[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. PORTRAIT. HAGUE MUS.] + +Dürer's influence was wide-spread throughout Germany, especially in +engraving, of which he was a master. In painting Schäufelin +(1490?-1540?) was probably his apprentice, and in his work followed +the master so closely that many of his works have been attributed to +Dürer. This is true in measure of Hans Baldung (1476?-1552?). Hans von +Kulmbach (?-1522) was a painter of more than ordinary importance, +brilliant in coloring, a follower of Dürer, who was inclined toward +Italian methods, an inclination that afterward developed all through +German art. Following Dürer's formulas came a large number of +so-called "Little Masters" (from the size of their engraved plates), +who were more engravers than painters. Among the more important of +those who were painters as well as engravers were Altdorfer +(1480?-1538), a rival rather than an imitator of Dürer; Barthel Beham +(1502-1540), Sebald Beham (1500-1550), Pencz (1500?-1550), Aldegrever +(1502-1558), and Bink (1490?-1569?). + +SWABIAN SCHOOL: This school includes a number of painters who were +located at different places, like Colmar and Ulm, and later on it +included the Holbeins at Augsburg, who were really the consummation of +the school. In the fifteenth century one of the early leaders was +Martin Schöngauer (1446?-1488), at Colmar. He is supposed to have been +a pupil of Roger Van der Weyden, of the Flemish school, and is better +known by his engravings than his paintings, none of the latter being +positively authenticated. He was thoroughly German in his type and +treatment, though, perhaps, indebted to the Flemings for his coloring. +There was some angularity in his figures and draperies, and a tendency +to get nearer nature and further away from the ecclesiastical and +ascetic conception in all that he did. + +At Ulm a local school came into existence with Zeitblom (fl. +1484-1517), who was probably a pupil of Schüchlin. He had neither +Schöngauer's force nor his fancy, but was a simple, straightforward +painter of one rather strong type. His drawing was not good, except in +the draperies, but he was quite remarkable for the solidity and +substance of his painting, considering the age he lived in was given +to hard, thin brush-work. Schaffner (fl. 1500-1535) was another Ulm +painter, a junior to Zeitblom, of whom little is known, save from a +few pictures graceful and free in composition. A recently discovered +man, Bernard Strigel (1461?-1528?) seems to have been excellent in +portraiture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--PILOTY. WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS.] + +At Augsburg there was still another school, which came into prominence +in the sixteenth century with Burkmair and the Holbeins. It was only a +part of the Swabian school, a concentration of artistic force about +Augsburg, which, toward the close of the fifteenth century, had come +into competition with Nuremberg, and rather outranked it in splendor. +It was at Augsburg that the Renaissance art in Germany showed in more +restful composition, less angularity, better modelling and painting, +and more sense of the _ensemble_ of a picture. Hans Burkmair +(1473-1531) was the founder of the school, a pupil of Schöngauer, +later influenced by Dürer, and finally showing the influence of +Italian art. He was not, like Dürer, a religious painter, though doing +religious subjects. He was more concerned with worldly appearance, of +which he had a large knowledge, as may be seen from his illustrations +for engraving. As a painter he was a rather fine colorist, indulging +in the fantastic of architecture but with good taste, crude in +drawing but forceful, and at times giving excellent effects of motion. +He was rounder, fuller, calmer in composition than Dürer, but never so +strong an artist. + +Next to Burkmair comes the celebrated Holbein family. There were four +of them all told, but only two of them, Hans the Elder and Hans the +Younger, need be mentioned. Holbein the Elder (1460?-1524), after +Burkmair, was the best painter of his time and school without being in +himself a great artist. Schöngauer was at first his guide, though he +soon submitted to some Flemish and Cologne influence, and later on +followed Italian form and method in composition to some extent. He was +a good draughtsman, and very clever at catching realistic points of +physiognomy--a gift he left his son Hans. In addition he had some +feeling for architecture and ornament, and in handling was a bit hard, +and oftentimes careless. The best half of his life fell in the latter +part of the fifteenth century, and he never achieved the free +painter's quality of his son. + +Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) holds, with Dürer, the high place +in German art. He was a more mature painter than Dürer, coming as he +did a quarter of a century later. He was the Renaissance artist of +Germany, whereas Dürer always had a little of the Gothic clinging to +him. The two men were widely different in their points of view and in +their work. Dürer was an idealist seeking after a type, a religious +painter, a painter of panels with the spirit of an engraver. Holbein +was emphatically a realist finding material in the actual life about +him, a designer of cartoons and large wall paintings in something of +the Italian spirit, a man who painted religious themes but with little +spiritual significance. + +It is probable that he got his first instruction from his father and +from Burkmair. He was an infant prodigy, developed early, saw much +foreign art, and showed a number of tendencies in his work. In +composition and drawing he appeared at times to be following Mantegna +and the northern Italians; in brush-work he resembled the Flemings, +especially Massys; yet he was never an imitator of either Italian or +Flemish painting. Decidedly a self-sufficient and an observing man, he +travelled in Italy and the Netherlands, and spent much of his life in +England, where he met with great success at court as a portrait-painter. +From seeing much he assimilated much, yet always remained German, +changing his style but little as he grew older. His wall paintings have +perished, but the drawings from them are preserved and show him as an +artist of much invention. He is now known chiefly by his portraits, of +which there are many of great excellence. His facility in grasping +physiognomy and realizing character, the quiet dignity of his +composition, his firm modelling, clear outline, harmonious coloring, +excellent detail, and easy solid painting, all place him in the front +rank of great painters. That he was not always bound down to literal +facts may be seen in his many designs for wood-engravings. His portrait +of Hubert Morett, in the Dresden Gallery, shows his art to advantage, +and there are many portraits by him of great spirit in England, in the +Louvre, and elsewhere. + +SAXON SCHOOL: Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) was a Franconian master, who +settled in Saxony and was successively court-painter to three Electors +and the leader of a small local school there. He, perhaps, studied +under Grünewald, but was so positive a character that he showed no +strong school influence. His work was fantastic, odd in conception and +execution, sometimes ludicrous, and always archaic-looking. His type +was rather strained in proportions, not always well drawn, but +graceful even when not truthful. This type was carried into all his +works, and finally became a mannerism with him. In subject he was +religious, mythological, romantic, pastoral, with a preference for +the nude figure. In coloring he was at first golden, then brown, and +finally cold and sombre. The lack of aërial perspective and shadow +masses gave his work a queer look, and he was never much of a +brushman. His pictures were typical of the time and country, and for +that and for their strong individuality they are ranked among the most +interesting paintings of the German school. Perhaps his most +satisfactory works are his portraits. Lucas Cranach the Younger +(1515-1586) was the best of the elder Cranach's pupils. Many of his +pictures are attributed to his father. He followed the elder closely, +but was a weaker man, with a smoother brush and a more rosy color. +Though there were many pupils the school did not go beyond the Cranach +family. It began with the father and died with the son. + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--LEIBL. IN CHURCH.] + +SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES: These were unrelieved centuries +of decline in German painting. After Dürer, Holbein, and Cranach had +passed there came about a senseless imitation of Italy, combined with +an equally senseless imitation of detail in nature that produced +nothing worthy of the name of original or genuine art. It is not +probable that the Reformation had any more to do with this than with +the decline in Italy. It was a period of barrenness in both countries. +The Italian imitators in Germany were chiefly Rottenhammer +(1564-1623), and Elzheimer (1574?-1620). After them came the +representative of the other extreme in Denner (1685-1749), who thought +to be great in portraiture by the minute imitation of hair, freckles, +and three-days'-old beard--a petty and unworthy realism which excited +some curiosity but never held rank as art. Mengs (1728-1779) sought +for the sublime through eclecticism, but never reached it. His work, +though academic and correct, is lacking in spirit and originality. +Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807) succeeded in pleasing her inartistic age +with the simply pretty, while Carstens (1754-1798) was a conscientious +if mistaken student of the great Italians--a man of some severity in +form and of academic inclinations. + +NINETEENTH CENTURY: In the first part of this century there started in +Germany a so-called "revival of art" led by Overbeck (1789-1869), +Cornelius (1783-1867), Veit (1793-1877), and Schadow (1789-1862), but +like many another revival of art it did not amount to much. The +attempt to "revive" the past is usually a failure. The forms are +caught, but the spirit is lost. The nineteenth-century attempt in +Germany was brought about by the study of monumental painting in +Italy, and the taking up of the religious spirit in a pre-Raphaelite +manner. Something also of German romanticism was its inspiration. +Overbeck remained in Rome, but the others, after some time in Italy, +returned to Germany, diffused their teaching, and really formed a new +epoch in German painting. A modern art began with ambitions and +subjects entirely disproportionate to its skill. The monumental, the +ideal, the classic, the exalted, were spread over enormous spaces, but +there was no reason for such work in the contemporary German life, and +nothing to warrant its appearance save that its better had appeared in +Italy during the Renaissance. Cornelius after his return became the +head of the + +MUNICH SCHOOL and painted pictures of the heroes of the classic and +the Christian world upon a large scale. Nothing but their size and +good intention ever brought them into notice, for their form and +coloring were both commonplace. Schnorr (1794-1872) followed in the +same style with the Niebelungen Lied, Charlemagne, and Barbarossa for +subjects. Kaulbach (1805-1874) was a pupil of Cornelius, and had some +ability but little taste, and not enough originality to produce great +art. Piloty (1826-1886) was more realistic, more of a painter and +ranks as one of the best of the early Munich masters. After him Munich +art became _genre_-like in subject, with greater attention given to +truthful representation in light, color, texture. To-day there are a +large number of painters in the school who are remarkable for +realistic detail. + +DUSSELDORF SCHOOL: After 1826 this school came into prominence under +the guidance of Schadow. It did not fancy monumental painting so much +as the common easel picture, with the sentimental, the dramatic, or +the romantic subject. It was no better in either form or color than +the Munich school, in fact not so good, though there were painters who +emanated from it who had ability. At Berlin the inclination was to +follow the methods and ideas held at Dusseldorf. + +The whole academic tendency of modern painting in Germany and Austria +for the past fifty years has not been favorable to the best kind of +pictorial art. There is a disposition on the part of artists to tell +stories, to encroach upon the sentiment of literature, to paint with a +dry brush in harsh unsympathetic colors, to ignore relations of +light-and-shade, and to slur beauties of form. The subject seems to +count for more than the truth of representation, or the individuality +of view. From time to time artists of much ability have appeared, but +these form an exception rather than a rule. The men to-day who are the +great artists of Germany are less followers of the German tradition +than individuals each working in a style peculiar to himself. A few +only of them call for mention. Menzel (1815-1905) is easily first, a +painter of group pictures, a good colorist, and a powerful pen-and-ink +draughtsman; Lenbach (1836-1904), a forceful portraitist; Uhde +(1848-), a portrayer of scriptural scenes in modern costumes with much +sincerity, good color, and light; Leibl (1844-1900), an artist with +something of the Holbein touch and realism; Thoma, a Frankfort painter +of decorative friezes and panels; Liebermann, Gotthardt Kuehl, Franz +Stuck, Max Klinger, Greiner, Trübner, Bartels, Keller. + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--MENZEL. A READER.] + +Aside from these men there are several notable painters with German +affinities, like Makart (1840-1884), an Austrian, who possessed good +technical qualities and indulged in a profusion of color; Munkacsy +(1846-1900), a Hungarian, who is perhaps more Parisian than German in +technic, and Böcklin (1827-1901), a Swiss, who is quite by himself in +fantastic and grotesque subjects, a weird and uncanny imagination, and +a brilliant prismatic coloring. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: BOHEMIAN SCHOOL--Theoderich of Prague, + Karlstein chap. and University Library Prague, Vienna Mus.; + Wurmser, same places. + + FRANCONIAN SCHOOL--Wolgemut, Aschaffenburg, Munich, + Nuremberg, Cassel Mus.; Dürer, Crucifixion Dresden, Trinity + Vienna Mus., other works Munich, Nuremberg, Madrid Mus.; + Schäufelin, Basle, Bamberg, Cassel, Munich, Nuremberg, + Nordlingen Mus., and Ulm Cathedral; Baldung, Aschaffenburg, + Basle, Berlin, Kunsthalle Carlsruhe, Freiburg Cathedral; + Kulmbach, Munich, Nuremberg, Oldenburg; Altdorfer and the + "Little Masters" are seen in the Augsburg, Nuremberg, + Berlin, Munich and Fürstenberg Mus. + + SWABIAN SCHOOL--Schöngauer, attributed pictures Colmar Mus.; + Zeitblom, Augsburg, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich, Nuremberg, + Simaringen Mus.; Schaffner, Munich, Schliessheim, Nuremberg, + Ulm Cathedral; Strigel, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich, + Nuremberg; Burkmair, Augsburg, Berlin, Munich, Maurice chap. + Nuremberg; Holbein the Elder, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Basle, + Städel Mus., Frankfort; Holbein the Younger, Basle, + Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Windsor + Castle, Vienna Mus. + + SAXON SCHOOL--Cranach, Bamberg Cathedral and Gallery, + Munich, Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cassel; Cranach + the Younger, Stadtkirche Wittenberg, Leipsic, Vienna, + Nuremberg Mus. + + SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Rottenhammer, + Louvre, Berlin, Munich, Schliessheim, Vienna, Kunsthalle + Hamburg; Elzheimer, Stadel, Brunswick, Louvre, Munich, + Berlin, Dresden; Denner, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Berlin, + Brunswick, Dresden, Vienna, Munich; Mengs, Madrid, Vienna, + Dresden, Munich, St. Petersburg; Angelica Kauffman, Vienna, + Hermitage, Turin, Dresden, Nat. Gal. Lon., Phila. Acad. + + NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Overbeck, frescos in S. Maria + degli Angeli Assisi, Villa Massimo Rome, Carlsruhe, New + Pinacothek, Munich, Städel Mus., Dusseldorf; Cornelius, + frescos Glyptothek and Ludwigkirche Munich, Casa Zuccaro + Rome, Royal Cemetery Berlin; Veit, frescos Villa Bartholdi + Rome, Städel, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Schadow, Nat. Gal. Berlin, + Antwerp, Städel, Munich Mus., frescos Villa Bartholdi Rome; + Schnorr, Dresden, Cologne, Carlsruhe, New Pinacothek Munich, + Städel Mus.; Kaulbach, wall paintings Berlin Mus., Raczynski + Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Stuttgart, Phila. Acad.; + Piloty, best pictures in the New Pinacothek and + Maximilianeum Munich, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Menzel, Nat. Gal., + Raczynski Mus. Berlin, Breslau Mus.; Lenbach, Nat. Gal. + Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Zürich + Gal.; Uhde, Leipsic Mus.; Leibl, Dresden Mus. The + contemporary paintings have not as yet found their way, to + any extent, into public museums, but may be seen in the + expositions at Berlin and Munich from year to year. Makart + has one work in the Metropolitan Mus., N. Y., as has also + Munkacsy; other works by them and by Böcklin may be seen in + the Nat. Gal. Berlin. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +BRITISH PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Armstrong, _Sir Henry Raeburn_; + Armstrong, _Gainsborough_; Armstrong, _Sir Joshua Reynolds_; + Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in National Gallery_; + Chesneau, _La Peinture Anglaise_; Cook, _Art in England_; + Cunningham, _Lives of the most Eminent British Artists_; + Dobson, _Life of Hogarth_; Gilchrist, _Life of Etty_; + Gilchrist, _Life of Blake_; Hamerton, _Life of Turner_; + Henderson, _Constable_; Hunt, _The Pre-Raphaelite + Brotherhood_ (_Contemporary Review, Vol. 49_); Leslie, _Sir + Joshua Reynolds_; Leslie, _Life of Constable_; Martin and + Newbery, _Glasgow School of Painting_; McKay, _Scottish + School of Painting_; Monkhouse, _British Contemporary + Artists_; Redgrave, _Dictionary of Artists of the English + School_; Romney, _Life of George Romney_; Rossetti, _Fine + Art, chiefly Contemporary_; Ruskin, _Pre-Raphaelitism_; + Ruskin, _Art of England_; Sandby, _History of Royal Academy + of Arts_; William Bell Scott, _Autobiography_; Scott, + _British Landscape Painters_; Stephens, _Catalogue of Prints + and Drawings in the British Museum_; Swinburne, _William + Blake_; Temple, _Painting in the Queen's Reign_; Van Dyke, + _Old English Masters_; Wedmore, _Studies in English Art_; + Wilmot-Buxton, _English Painters_; Wright, _Life of Richard + Wilson_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--HOGARTH. SHORTLY AFTER MARRIAGE. NAT. GAL. +LONDON.] + + +BRITISH PAINTING: It may be premised in a general way, that the +British painters have never possessed the pictorial cast of mind in +the sense that the Italians, the French, or the Dutch have possessed +it. Painting, as a purely pictorial arrangement of line and color, has +been somewhat foreign to their conception. Whether this failure to +appreciate painting as painting is the result of geographical +position, isolation, race temperament, or mental disposition, would be +hard to determine. It is quite certain that from time immemorable the +English people have not been lacking in the appreciation of beauty; +but beauty has appealed to them, not so much through the eye in +painting and sculpture, as through the ear in poetry and literature. +They have been thinkers, reasoners, moralists, rather than observers +and artists in color. Images have been brought to their minds by words +rather than by forms. English poetry has existed since the days of +Arthur and the Round Table, but English painting is of comparatively +modern origin, and it is not wonderful that the original leaning of +the people toward literature and its sentiment should find its way +into pictorial representation. As a result one may say in a very +general way that English painting is more illustrative than creative. +It endeavors to record things that might be more pertinently and +completely told in poetry, romance, or history. The conception of +large art--creative work of the Rubens-Titian type--has not been given +to the English painters, save in exceptional cases. Their success has +been in portraiture and landscape, and this largely by reason of +following the model. + +EARLY PAINTING: The earliest decorative art appeared in Ireland. It +was probably first planted there by missionaries from Italy, and it +reached its height in the seventh century. In the ninth and tenth +centuries missal illumination of a Byzantine cast, with local +modifications, began to show. This lasted, in a feeble way, until the +fifteenth century, when work of a Flemish and French nature took its +place. In the Middle Ages there were wall paintings and church +decorations in England, as elsewhere in Europe, but these have now +perished, except some fragments in Kempley Church, Gloucestershire, +and Chaldon Church, Surrey. These are supposed to date back to the +twelfth century, and there are some remains of painting in Westminster +Abbey that are said to be of thirteenth and fourteenth-century origin. +From the fifteenth to the eighteenth century the English people +depended largely upon foreign painters who came and lived in England. +Mabuse, Moro, Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Lely, Kneller--all were there +at different times, in the service of royalty, and influencing such +local English painters as then lived. The outcome of missal +illumination and Holbein's example produced in the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries a local school of miniature-painters of much +interest, but painting proper did not begin to rise in England until +the beginning of the eighteenth century--that century so dead in art +over all the rest of Europe. + +FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Aside from a few inconsequential +precursors the first English artist of note was Hogarth (1697-1764). +He was an illustrator, a moralist, and a satirist as well as a +painter. To point a moral upon canvas by depicting the vices of his +time was his avowed aim, but in doing so he did not lose sight of +pictorial beauty. Charm of color, the painter's taste in arrangement, +light, air, setting, were his in a remarkable degree. He was not +successful in large compositions, but in small pictures like those of +the Rake's Progress he was excellent. An early man, a rigid stickler +for the representation, a keen observer of physiognomy, a satirist +with a sense of the absurd, he was often warped in his art by the +necessities of his subject and was sometimes hard and dry in method, +but in his best work he was quite a perfect painter. He was the first +of the English school, and perhaps the most original of that school. +This is quite as true of his technic as of his point of view. Both +were of his own creation. His subjects have been talked about a great +deal in the past; but his painting is not to this day valued as it +should be. + +[Illustration: FIG. 95.--REYNOLDS. COUNTESS SPENCER AND LORD ALTHORP.] + +The next man to be mentioned, one of the most considerable of all the +English school, is Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792). He was a pupil of +Hudson, but owed his art to many sources. Besides the influence of Van +Dyck he was for some years in Italy, a diligent student of the great +Italians, especially the Venetians, Correggio, and the Bolognese +Eclectics. Sir Joshua was inclined to be eclectic himself, and from +Italy he brought back a formula of art which, modified by his own +individuality, answered him for the rest of his life. He was not a man +of very lofty imagination or great invention. A few figure-pieces, +after the Titian initiative, came from his studio, but his reputation +rests upon his many portraits. In portraiture he was often beyond +criticism, giving the realistic representation with dignity, an +elevated spirit, and a suave brush. Even here he was more impressive +by his broad truth of facts than by his artistic feeling. He was not a +painter who could do things enthusiastically or excite enthusiasm in +the spectator. There was too much of rule and precedent, too much +regard for the traditions, for him to do anything strikingly original. +His brush-work and composition were more learned than individual, and +his color, though usually good, was oftentimes conventional in +contrasts. Taking him for all in all he was a very cultivated painter, +a man to be respected and admired, but he had not quite the original +spirit that we meet with in Gainsborough. + +Reynolds was well-grounded in Venetian color, Bolognese composition, +Parmese light-and-shade, and paid them the homage of assimilation; but +if Gainsborough (1727-1788) had such school knowledge he positively +disregarded it. He disliked all conventionalities and formulas. With a +natural taste for form and color, and with a large decorative sense, +he went directly to nature, and took from her the materials which he +fashioned into art after his own peculiar manner. His celebrated Blue +Boy was his protest against the conventional rule of Reynolds that a +composition should be warm in color and light. All through his work we +meet with departures from academic ways. By dint of native force and +grace he made rules unto himself. Some of them were not entirely +successful, and in drawing he might have profited by school training; +but he was of a peculiar poetic temperament, with a dash of melancholy +about him, and preferred to work in his own way. In portraiture his +color was rather cold; in landscape much warmer. His brush-work was as +odd as himself, but usually effective, and his accessories in +figure-painting were little more than decorative after-thoughts. Both +in portraiture and landscape he was one of the most original and most +English of all the English painters--a man not yet entirely +appreciated, though from the first ranked among the foremost in +English art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--GAINSBOROUGH. BLUE BOY.] + +Romney (1734-1802), a pupil of Steele, was often quite as masterful a +portrait-painter as either Reynolds or Gainsborough. He was never an +artist elaborate in composition, and his best works are bust-portraits +with a plain background. These he did with much dash and vivacity of +manner. His women, particularly, are fine in life-like pose and +winsomeness of mood. He was a very cunning observer, and knew how to +arrange for grace of line and charm of color. + +After Romney came Beechey (1753-1839), Raeburn (1756-1823), Opie +(1761-1807), and John Hoppner (1759-1810). Then followed Lawrence +(1769-1830), a mixture of vivacious style and rather meretricious +method. He was the most celebrated painter of his time, largely +because he painted nobility to look more noble and grace to look more +gracious. Fond of fine types, garments, draperies, colors, he was +always seeking the sparkling rather than the true, and forcing +artificial effects for the sake of startling one rather than stating +facts simply and frankly. He was facile with the brush, clever in line +and color, brilliant to the last degree, but lacking in that +simplicity of view and method which marks the great mind. His +composition was rather fine in its decorative effect, and, though his +lights were often faulty when compared with nature, they were no less +telling from the stand-point of picture-making. He is much admired by +artists to-day, and, as a technician, he certainly had more than +average ability. He was hardly an artist like Reynolds or +Gainsborough, but among the mediocre painters of his day he shone like +a star. It is not worth while to say much about his contemporaries. +Etty (1787-1849) was one of the best of the figure men, but his Greek +types and classic aspirations grow wearisome on acquaintance; and Sir +Charles Eastlake (1793-1865), though a learned man in art and doing +great service to painting as a writer, never was a painter of +importance. + +William Blake (1757-1827) was hardly a painter at all, though he drew +and colored the strange figures of his fancy and cannot be passed over +in any history of English art. He was perhaps the most imaginative +artist of English birth, though that imagination was often disordered +and almost incoherent. He was not a correct draughtsman, a man with no +great color-sense, and a workman without technical training; and yet, +in spite of all this, he drew some figures that are almost sublime in +their sweep of power. His decorative sense in filling space with lines +is well shown in his illustrations to the Book of Job. In grace of +form and feeling of motion he was excellent. Weird and uncanny in +thought, delving into the unknown, he opened a world of mystery, +peopled with a strange Apocalyptic race, whose writhing, flowing +bodies are the epitome of graceful grandeur. + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--CONSTABLE. CORN FIELD. NAT. GAL. LONDON.] + +GENRE-PAINTERS: From Blake to Morland (1763-1804) is a step across +space from heaven to earth. Morland was a realist of English country +life, horses at tavern-doors, cattle, pigs. His life was not the most +correct, but his art in truthfulness of representation, simplicity of +painting, richness of color and light, was often of a fine quality. As +a skilful technician he stood quite alone in his time, and seemed to +show more affinity with the Dutch _genre_-painters than his own +countrymen. His works are much prized to-day, and were so during the +painter's life. + +Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841) was also somewhat like the Dutch in +subject, a _genre_-painter, fond of the village fête and depicting it +with careful detail, a limpid brush, and good textural effects. In +1825 he travelled abroad, was gone some years, was impressed by +Velasquez, Correggio, and Rembrandt, and completely changed his style. +He then became a portrait and historical painter. He never outlived +the nervous constraint that shows in all his pictures, and his brush, +though facile within limits, was never free or bold as compared with a +Dutchman like Steen. In technical methods Landseer (1802-1873), the +painter of animals, was somewhat like him. That is to say, they both +had a method of painting surfaces and rendering textures that was more +"smart" than powerful. There is little solidity or depth to the +brush-work of either, though both are impressive to the spectator at +first sight. Landseer knew the habits and the anatomy of animals very +well, but he never had an appreciation of the brute in the animal, +such as we see in the pictures of Velasquez or the bronzes of Barye. +The Landseer animal has too much sentiment about it. The dogs, for +instance, are generally given those emotions pertinent to humanity, +and which are only exceptionally true of the canine race. This very +feature--the tendency to humanize the brute and make it tell a +story--accounts in large measure for the popularity of Landseer's art. +The work is perhaps correct enough, but the aim of it is somewhat +afield from pure painting. It illustrates the literary rather than the +pictorial. Following Wilkie the most distinguished painter was +Mulready (1786-1863), whose pictures of village boys are well known +through engravings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--TURNER. FIGHTING TÉMÉRAIRE. NAT. GAL. +LONDON.] + +THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: In landscape the English have had something to +say peculiarly their own. It has not always been well said, the +coloring is often hot, the brush-work brittle, the attention to +detail inconsistent with the large view of nature, yet such as it is +it shows the English point of view and is valuable on that account. +Richard Wilson (1713-1782) was the first landscapist of importance, +though he was not so English in view as some others to follow. In +fact, Wilson was nurtured on Claude Lorrain and Joseph Vernet and +instead of painting the realistic English landscape he painted the +pseudo-Italian landscape. He began working in portraiture under the +tutorship of Wright, and achieved some success in this department; but +in 1749 he went to Italy and devoted himself wholly to landscapes. +These were of the classic type and somewhat conventional. The +composition was usually a dark foreground with trees or buildings to +right and left, an opening in the middle distance leading into the +background, and a broad expanse of sunset sky. In the foreground he +usually introduced a few figures for romantic or classic association. +Considerable elevation of theme and spirit marks most of his pictures. +There was good workmanship about the skies and the light, and an +attentive study of nature was shown throughout. His canvases did not +meet with much success at the time they were painted. In more modern +days Wilson has been ranked as the true founder of landscape in +England, and one of the most sincere of English painters. + +THE NORWICH SCHOOL: Old Crome (1769-1821), though influenced to some +extent by Wilson and the Dutch painters, was an original talent, +painting English scenery with much simplicity and considerable power. +He was sometimes rasping with his brush, and had a small method of +recording details combined with mannerisms of drawing and composition, +and yet gave an out-of-doors feeling in light and air that was +astonishing. His large trees have truth of mass and accuracy of +drawing, and his foregrounds are painted with solidity. He was a keen +student of nature, and drew about him a number of landscape painters +at Norwich, who formed the Norwich School. Crome was its leader, and +the school made its influence felt upon English landscape painting. +Cotman (1782-1842) was the best painter of the group after Crome, a +man who depicted landscape and harbor scenes in a style that recalls +Girtin and Turner. + +The most complete, full-rounded landscapist in England was John +Constable (1776-1837). His foreign bias, such as it was, came from a +study of the Dutch masters. There were two sources from which the +English landscapists drew. Those who were inclined to the ideal, men +like Wilson, Calcott (1779-1844), and Turner, drew from the Italian of +Poussin and Claude; those who were content to do nature in her real +dress, men like Gainsborough and Constable, drew from the Dutch of +Hobbema and his contemporaries. A certain sombreness of color and +manner of composition show in Constable that may be attributed to +Holland; but these were slight features as compared with the +originality of the man. He was a close student of nature who painted +what he saw in English country life, especially about Hampstead, and +painted it with a knowledge and an artistic sensitiveness never +surpassed in England. The rural feeling was strong with him, and his +evident pleasure in simple scenes is readily communicated to the +spectator. There is no attempt at the grand or the heroic. He never +cared much for mountains or water, but was fond of cultivated uplands, +trees, bowling clouds, and torn skies. Bursts of sunlight, storms, +atmospheres, all pleased him. With detail he was little concerned. He +saw landscape in large patches of form and color, and so painted it. +His handling was broad and solid, and at times a little heavy. His +light was often forced by sharp contrast with shadows, and often his +pictures appear spotty from isolated glitters of light strewn here and +there. In color he helped eliminate the brown landscape and +substituted in its place the green and blue of nature. In atmosphere +he was excellent. His influence upon English art was impressive, and +in 1824 the exhibition at Paris of his Hay Wain, together with some +work by Bonington and Fielding had a decided effect upon the then +rising landscape school of France. The French realized that nature lay +at the bottom of Constable's art, and they profited, not by imitating +Constable, but by studying his nature model. + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--BURNE JONES. FLAMMA VESTALIS.] + +Bonington (1801-1828) died young, and though of English parents his +training was essentially French, and he really belonged to the French +school, an associate of Delacroix. His study of the Venetians turned +his talent toward warm coloring, in which he excelled. In landscape +his broad handling was somewhat related to that of Constable, and from +the fact of their works appearing together in the Salon of 1824 they +are often spoken of as influencers of the modern French landscape +painters. + +Turner (1775-1851) is the best known name in English art. His +celebrity is somewhat disproportionate to his real merits, though it +is impossible to deny his great ability. He was a man learned in all +the forms of nature and schooled in all the formulas of art; yet he +was not a profound lover of nature nor a faithful recorder of what +things he saw in nature, except in his early days. In the bulk of his +work he shows the traditions of Claude, with additions of his own. His +taste was classic (he possessed all the knowledge and the belongings +of the historical landscape), and he delighted in great stretches of +country broken by sea-shores, rivers, high mountains, fine buildings, +and illumined by blazing sunlight and gorgeous skies. His composition +was at times grotesque in imagination; his light was usually +bewildering in intensity and often unrelieved by shadows of sufficient +depth; his tone was sometimes faulty; and in color he was not always +harmonious, but inclined to be capricious, uneven, showing fondness +for arbitrary schemes of color. The object of his work seems to have +been to dazzle, to impress with a wilderness of lines and hues, to +overawe by imposing scale and grandeur. His paintings are impressive, +decoratively splendid, but they often smack of the stage, and are more +frequently grandiloquent than grand. His early works, especially in +water-colors, where he shows himself a follower of Girtin, are much +better than his later canvases in oil, many of which have changed +color. The water-colors are carefully done, subdued in color, and true +in light. From 1802, or thereabouts, to 1830 was his second period, +in which Italian composition and much color were used. The last twenty +years of his life he inclined to the _bizarre_, and turned his +canvases into almost incoherent color masses. He had an artistic +feeling for composition, linear perspective, and the sweep of horizon +lines; skies and hills he knew and drew with power; color he +comprehended only as decoration; and light he distorted for effect. +Yet with all his shortcomings Turner was an artist to be respected and +admired. He knew his craft, in fact, knew it so well that he relied +too much on artificial effects, drew away from the model of nature, +and finally passed into the extravagant. + +THE WATER-COLORISTS: About the beginning of this century a school of +water-colorists, founded originally by Cozens (1752-1799) and Girtin +(1775-1802), came into prominence and developed English art in a new +direction. It began to show with a new force the transparency of +skies, the luminosity of shadows, the delicacy and grace of clouds, +the brilliancy of light and color. Cozens and Blake were primitives in +the use of the medium, but Stothard (1755-1834) employed it with much +sentiment, charm, and _plein-air_ effect. Turner was quite a master of +it, and his most permanent work was done with it. Later on, when he +rather abandoned form to follow color, he also abandoned water-color +for oils. Fielding (1787-1849) used water-color effectively in giving +large feeling for space and air, and also for fogs and mists; Prout +(1783-1852) employed it in architectural drawings of the principal +cathedrals of Europe; and Cox (1783-1859), Dewint (1784-1849), Hunt +(1790-1864), Cattermole (1800-1868), Lewis (1805-1876), men whose +names only can be mentioned, all won recognition with this medium. +Water-color drawing is to-day said to be a department of art that +expresses the English pictorial feeling better than any other, though +this is not an undisputed statement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 100.--LEIGHTON. HELEN OF TROY.] + +Perhaps the most important movement in English painting of recent +times was that which took the name of + +PRE-RAPHAELITISM: It was started about 1847, primarily by Rossetti +(1828-1882), Holman Hunt (1827-), and Sir John Millais (1829-1896), +associated with several sculptors and poets, seven in all. It was an +emulation of the sincerity, the loving care, and the scrupulous +exactness in truth that characterized the Italian painters before +Raphael. Its advocates, including Mr. Ruskin the critic, maintained +that after Raphael came that fatal facility in art which seeking grace +of composition lost truth of fact, and that the proper course for +modern painters was to return to the sincerity and veracity of the +early masters. Hence the name pre-Raphaelitism, and the signatures on +their early pictures, P. R. B., pre-Raphaelite Brother. To this +attempt to gain the true regardless of the sensuous, was added a +morbidity of thought mingled with mysticism, a moral and religious +pose, and a studied simplicity. Some of the painters of the +Brotherhood went even so far as following the habits of the early +Italians, seeking retirement from the world and carrying with them a +Gothic earnestness of air. There is no doubt about the sincerity that +entered into this movement. It was an honest effort to gain the true, +the good, and as a result, the beautiful; but it was no less a +striven-after honesty and an imitated earnestness. The Brotherhood did +not last for long, the members drifted from each other and began to +paint each after his own style, and pre-Raphaelitism passed away as it +had arisen, though not without leaving a powerful stamp on English +art, especially in decoration. + +Rossetti, an Italian by birth though English by adoption, was the type +of the Brotherhood. He was more of a poet than a painter, took most of +his subjects from Dante, and painted as he wrote, in a mystical +romantic spirit. He was always of a retiring disposition and never +exhibited publicly after he was twenty-eight years of age. As a +draughtsman he was awkward in line and not always true in modelling. +In color he was superior to his associates and had considerable +decorative feeling. The shortcoming of his art, as with that of the +others of the Brotherhood, was that in seeking truth of detail he lost +truth of _ensemble_. This is perhaps better exemplified in the works +of Holman Hunt. He has spent infinite pains in getting the truth of +detail in his pictures, has travelled in the East and painted types, +costumes, and scenery in Palestine to gain the historic truths of his +Scriptural scenes; but all that he has produced has been little more +than a survey, a report, a record of the facts. He has not made a +picture. The insistence upon every detail has isolated all the facts +and left them isolated in the picture. In seeking the minute truths +he has overlooked the great truths of light, air, and setting. His +color has always been crude, his values or relations not well +preserved, and his brush-work hard and tortured. + +Millais showed some of this disjointed effect in his early work when +he was a member of the Brotherhood. He did not hold to his early +convictions however, and soon abandoned the pre-Raphaelite methods for +a more conventional style. He has painted some remarkable portraits +and some excellent figure pieces, and to-day holds high rank in +English art; but he is an uneven painter, often doing weak, +harshly-colored work. Moreover, the English tendency to tell stories +with the paint-brush finds in Millais a faithful upholder. At his best +he is a strong painter. + +Madox Brown (1821-1893) never joined the Brotherhood, though his +leaning was toward its principles. He had considerable dramatic power, +with which he illustrated historic scenes, and among contemporary +artists stood well. The most decided influence of pre-Raphaelitism +shows in Burne-Jones (1833-), a pupil of Rossetti, and perhaps the +most original painter now living[18] of the English school. From +Rossetti he got mysticism, sentiment, poetry, and from association +with Swinburne and William Morris, the poets, something of the +literary in art, which he has put forth with artistic effect. He has +not followed the Brotherhood in its pursuit of absolute truth of fact, +but has used facts for decorative effect in line and color. His +ability to fill a given space gracefully, shows with fine results in +his pictures, as in his stained-glass designs. He is a good +draughtsman and a rather rich colorist, but in brush-work somewhat +labored, stippled, and unique in dryness. He is a man of much +imagination, and his conceptions, though illustrative of literature, +do not suffer thereby, because his treatment does not sacrifice the +artistic. He has been the butt of considerable shallow laughter from +time to time, like many another man of power. Albert Moore +(1840-1893), a graceful painter of a decorative ideal type, rather +follows the Rossetti-Burne-Jones example, and is an illustration of +the influence of pre-Raphaelitism. + +[Footnote 18: Died 1898.] + +OTHER FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Among the contemporary painters +Sir Frederick Leighton (1830-1896), President of the Royal Academy, is +ranked as a fine academic draughtsman, but not a man with the +color-sense or the brushman's quality in his work. Watts (1818-1904) +is perhaps an inferior technician, and in color is often sombre and +dirty; but he is a man of much imagination, occasionally rises to +grandeur in conception, and has painted some superb portraits, notably +the one of Walter Crane. Orchardson (1835-) is more of a painter, pure +and simple, than any of his contemporaries, and is a knowing if +somewhat mannered colorist. Erskine Nicol (1825-), Faed[19] (1826-), +Calderon (1833-), Boughton (1834-1905), Frederick Walker (1840-1875), +Stanhope Forbes, Stott of Oldham and in portraiture Holl (1845-1890) +and Herkomer may be mentioned. + +[Footnote 19: Died 1900.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 101.--WATTS. LOVE AND DEATH.] + +LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS: In the department of landscape there +are many painters in England of contemporary importance. Vicat Cole +(1833-1893) had considerable exaggerated reputation as a depicter of +sunsets and twilights; Cecil Lawson (1851-1882) gave promise of great +accomplishment, and lived long enough to do some excellent work in the +style of the French Rousseau, mingled with an influence from +Gainsborough; Alfred Parsons is a little hard and precise in his work, +but one of the best of the living men; and W. L. Wyllie is a painter +of more than average merit. In marines Hook (1819-) belongs to the +older school, and is not entirely satisfactory. The most modern and +the best sea-painter in England is Henry Moore (1831-1895), a man who +paints well and gives the large feeling of the ocean with fine color +qualities. Some other men of mark are Clausen, Brangwyn, Ouless, +Steer, Bell, Swan, McTaggart, Sir George Reid. + +MODERN SCOTCH SCHOOL: There is at the present time a school of art in +Scotland that seems to have little or no affinity with the +contemporary school of England. Its painters are more akin to the +Dutch and the French, and in their coloring resemble, in depth and +quality, the work of Delacroix. Much of their art is far enough +removed from the actual appearance of nature, but it is strong in the +sentiment of color and in decorative effect. The school is represented +by such men as James Guthrie, E. A. Walton, James Hamilton, George +Henry, E. A. Hornel, Lavery, Melville, Crawhall, Roche, Lawson, +McBride, Morton, Reid Murray, Spence, Paterson. + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: English art cannot be seen to advantage, + outside of England. In the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., and + in private collections like that of Mr. William H. Fuller in + New York,[20] there are some good examples of the older + men--Reynolds, Constable, Gainsborough, and their + contemporaries. In the Louvre there are some indifferent + Constables and some good Boningtons. In England the best + collection is in the National Gallery. Next to this the + South Kensington Museum for Constable sketches. Elsewhere + the Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Windsor galleries, and + the private collections of the late Sir Richard Wallace, the + Duke of Westminster, and others. Turner is well represented + in the National Gallery, though his oils have suffered + through time and the use of fugitive pigments. For the + living men, their work may be seen in the yearly exhibitions + at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. There are comparatively + few English pictures in America. + +[Footnote 20: Dispersed, 1898.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +AMERICAN PAINTING. + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: _American Art Review_; Amory, _Life of + Copley_; _The Art Review_; Benjamin, _Contemporary Art in + America_; _Century Magazine_; Caffin, _American Painters_; + Clement and Hutton, _Artists of the Nineteenth Century_; + Cummings, _Historic Annals of the National Academy of + Design_; Downes, _Boston Painters_ (_in Atlantic Monthly + Vol. 62_); Dunlap, _Arts of Design in United States_; Flagg, + _Life and Letters of Washington Allston_; Galt, _Life of + West_; Isham, _History of American Painting_; Knowlton, _W. + M. Hunt_; Lester, _The Artists of America_; Mason, _Life and + Works of Gilbert Stuart_; Perkins, _Copley_; _Scribner's + Magazine_; Sheldon, _American Painters_; Tuckerman, _Book of + the Artists_; Van Dyke, _Art for Art's Sake_; Van + Rensselaer, _Six Portraits_; Ware, _Lectures on Allston_; + White, _A Sketch of Chester A. Harding_. + + +AMERICAN ART: It is hardly possible to predicate much about the +environment as it affects art in America. The result of the climate, +the temperament, and the mixture of nations in the production or +non-production of painting in America cannot be accurately computed at +this early stage of history. One thing only is certain, and that is, +that the building of a new commonwealth out of primeval nature does +not call for the production of art in the early periods of +development. The first centuries in the history of America were +devoted to securing the necessities of life, the energies of the time +were of a practical nature, and art as an indigenous product was +hardly known. + +After the Revolution, and indeed before it, a hybrid portraiture, +largely borrowed from England, began to appear, and after 1825 there +was an attempt at landscape painting; but painting as an art worthy +of very serious consideration, came in only with the sudden growth in +wealth and taste following the War of the Rebellion and the Centennial +Exhibition of 1876. The best of American art dates from about 1878, +though during the earlier years there were painters of note who cannot +be passed over unmentioned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--WEST. PETER DENYING CHRIST. HAMPTON CT.] + +THE EARLY PAINTERS: The "limner," or the man who could draw and color +a portrait, seems to have existed very early in American history. +Smibert (1684-1751), a Scotch painter, who settled in Boston, and +Watson (1685?-1768), another Scotchman, who settled in New Jersey, +were of this class--men capable of giving a likeness, but little more. +They were followed by English painters of even less consequence. Then +came Copley (1737-1815) and West (1738-1820), with whom painting in +America really began. They were good men for their time, but it must +be borne in mind that the times for art were not at all favorable. +West was a man about whom all the infant prodigy tales have been told, +but he never grew to be a great artist. He was ambitious beyond his +power, indulged in theatrical composition, was hot in color, and never +was at ease in handling the brush. Most of his life was passed in +England, where he had a vogue, was elected President of the Royal +Academy, and became practically a British painter. Copley was more of +an American than West, and more of a painter. Some of his portraits +are exceptionally fine, and his figure pieces, like Charles I. +demanding the Five Members of House of Commons are excellent in color +and composition. C. W. Peale (1741-1827), a pupil of both Copley and +West, was perhaps more fortunate in having celebrated characters like +Washington for sitters than in his art. Trumbull (1756-1843) preserved +on canvas the Revolutionary history of America and, all told, did it +very well. Some of his compositions, portraits, and miniature heads in +the Yale Art School at New Haven are drawn and painted in a masterful +manner and are as valuable for their art as for the incidents which +they portray. + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--GILBERT STUART. WASHINGTON (UNFINISHED). +BOSTON MUS.] + +Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) was the best portrait-painter of all the +early men, and his work holds very high rank even in the schools of +to-day. He was one of the first in American art-history to show +skilful accuracy of the brush, a good knowledge of color, and some +artistic sense of dignity and carriage in the sitter. He was not +always a good draughtsman, and he had a manner of laying on pure +colors without blending them that sometimes produced sharpness in +modelling; but as a general rule he painted a portrait with force and +with truth. He was a pupil of Alexander, a Scotchman, and afterward an +assistant to West. He settled in Boston, and during his life painted +most of the great men of his time, including Washington. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104.--W. M. HUNT. LUTE PLAYER.] + +Vanderlyn (1776-1852) met with adversity all his life long, and +perhaps never expressed himself fully. He was a pupil of Stuart, +studied in Paris and Italy, and his associations with Aaron Burr made +him quite as famous as his pictures. Washington Allston (1779-1843) +was a painter whom the Bostonians have ranked high in their +art-history, but he hardly deserved such position. Intellectually he +was a man of lofty and poetic aspirations, but as an artist he never +had the painter's sense or the painter's skill. He was an aspiration +rather than a consummation. He cherished notions about ideals, dealt +in imaginative allegories, and failed to observe the pictorial +character of the world about him. As a result of this, and poor +artistic training, his art had too little basis on nature, though it +was very often satisfactory as decoration. Rembrandt Peale +(1787-1860), like his father, was a painter of Washington portraits of +mediocre quality. Jarvis (1780-1834) and Sully (1783-1872) were both +British born, but their work belongs here in America, where most of +their days were spent. Sully could paint a very good portrait +occasionally, though he always inclined toward the weak and the +sentimental, especially in his portraits of women. Leslie (1794-1859) +and Newton (1795-1835) were Americans, but, like West and Copley, they +belong in their art more to England than to America. In all the early +American painting the British influence may be traced, with sometimes +an inclination to follow Italy in large compositions. + +THE MIDDLE PERIOD in American art dates from 1825 to about 1878. During +that time, something distinctly American began to appear in the +landscape work of Doughty (1793-1856) and Thomas Cole (1801-1848). Both +men were substantially self-taught, though Cole received some +instruction from a portrait-painter named Stein. Cole during his life +was famous for his Hudson River landscapes, and for two series of +pictures called The Voyage of Life and The Course of Empire. The latter +were really epic poems upon canvas, done with much blare of color and +literary explanation in the title. His best work was in pure landscape, +which he pictured with considerable accuracy in drawing, though it was +faulty in lighting and gaudy in coloring. Brilliant autumn scenes were +his favorite subjects. His work had the merit of originality and, +moreover, it must be remembered that Cole was one of the beginners in +American landscape art. Durand (1796-1886) was an engraver until 1835, +when he began painting portraits, and afterward developed landscape with +considerable power. He was usually simple in subject and realistic in +treatment, with not so much insistence upon brilliant color as some of +his contemporaries. Kensett (1818-1872) was a follower in landscape of +the so-called Hudson River School of Cole and others, though he studied +seven years in Europe. His color was rather warm, his air hazy, and the +general effect of his landscape that of a dreamy autumn day with poetic +suggestions. F. E. Church (1826-[A]) was a pupil of Cole, and has +followed him in seeking the grand and the startling in mountain scenery. +With Church should be mentioned a number of artists--Hubbard +(1817-1888), Hill (1829-,) Bierstadt (1830-),[21] Thomas Moran +(1837-)--who have achieved reputation by canvases of the Rocky Mountains +and other expansive scenes. Some other painters of smaller canvases +belong in point of time, and also in spirit, with the Hudson River +landscapists--painters, too, of considerable merit, as David Johnson +(1827-), Bristol (1826-), Sandford Gifford (1823-1880), McEntee +(1828-1891), and Whittredge (1820-), the last two very good portrayers +of autumn scenes; A. H. Wyant (1836-1892), one of the best and strongest +of the American landscapists; Bradford (1830-1892) and W. T. Richards +(1833-), the marine-painters. + +[Footnote 21: Died, 1900.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--EASTMAN JOHNSON. CHURNING.] + +PORTRAIT, HISTORY, AND GENRE-PAINTERS: Contemporary with the early +landscapists were a number of figure-painters, most of them +self-taught, or taught badly by foreign or native artists, and yet men +who produced creditable work. Chester Harding (1792-1866) was one of +the early portrait-painters of this century who achieved enough +celebrity in Boston to be the subject of what was called "the Harding +craze." Elliott (1812-1868) was a pupil of Trumbull, and a man of +considerable reputation, as was also Inman (1801-1846), a portrait +and _genre_-painter with a smooth, detailed brush. Page (1811-1885), +Baker (1821-1880), Huntington (1816-), the third President of the +Academy of Design; Healy (1808-[22]), a portrait-painter of more than +average excellence; Mount (1807-1868), one of the earliest of American +_genre_-painters, were all men of note in this middle period. + +[Footnote 22: Died 1894.] + +Leutze (1816-1868) was a German by birth but an American by adoption, +who painted many large historical scenes of the American Revolution, +such as Washington Crossing the Delaware, besides many scenes taken +from European history. He was a pupil of Lessing at Dusseldorf, and +had something to do with introducing Dusseldorf methods into America. +He was a painter of ability, if at times hot in color and dry in +handling. Occasionally he did a fine portrait, like the Seward in the +Union League Club, New York. + +During this period, in addition to the influence of Dusseldorf and +Rome upon American art, there came the influence of French art with +Hicks (1823-1890) and Hunt (1824-1879), both of them pupils of Couture +at Paris, and Hunt also of Millet at Barbizon. Hunt was the real +introducer of Millet and the Barbizon-Fontainebleau artists to the +American people. In 1855 he established himself at Boston, had a large +number of pupils, and met with great success as a teacher. He was a +painter of ability, but perhaps his greatest influence was as a +teacher and an instructor in what was good art as distinguished from +what was false and meretricious. He certainly was the first painter in +America who taught catholicity of taste, truth and sincerity in art, +and art in the artist rather than in the subject. Contemporary with +Hunt lived George Fuller (1822-1884), a unique man in American art for +the sentiment he conveyed in his pictures by means of color and +atmosphere. Though never proficient in the grammar of art he managed +by blendings of color to suggest certain sentiments regarding light +and air that have been rightly esteemed poetic. + +[Illustration: FIG. 106.--INNESS. LANDSCAPE.] + +THE THIRD PERIOD in American art began immediately after the +Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. Undoubtedly the display +of art, both foreign and domestic, at that time, together with the +national prosperity and great growth of the United States had much to +do with stimulating activity in painting. Many young men at the +beginning of this period went to Europe to study in the studios at +Munich, and later on at Paris. Before 1880 some of them had returned +to the United States, bringing with them knowledge of the technical +side of art, which they immediately began to give out to many pupils. +Gradually the influence of the young men from Munich and Paris spread. +The Art Students' League, founded in 1875, was incorporated in 1878, +and the Society of American Artists was established in the same year. +Societies and painters began to spring up all over the country, and as +a result there is in the United States to-day an artist body +technically as well trained and in spirit as progressive as in almost +any country of Europe. The late influence shown in painting has been +largely a French influence, and the American artists have been accused +from time to time of echoing French methods. The accusation is true in +part. Paris is the centre of all art-teaching to-day, and the +Americans, in common with the European nations, accept French methods, +not because they are French, but because they are the best extant. In +subjects and motives, however, the American school is as original as +any school can be in this cosmopolitan age. + +PORTRAIT, FIGURE, AND GENRE PAINTERS (1878-1894): It must not be +inferred that the painters now prominent in American art are all young +men schooled since 1876. On the contrary, some of the best of them are +men past middle life who began painting long before 1876, and have by +dint of observation and prolonged study continued with the modern +spirit. For example, Winslow Homer (1836-) is one of the strongest and +most original of all the American artists, a man who never had the +advantage of the highest technical training, yet possesses a feeling +for color, a dash and verve in execution, an originality in subject, +and an individuality of conception that are unsurpassed. Eastman +Johnson (1824-) is one of the older portrait and figure-painters who +stands among the younger generations without jostling, because he has +in measure kept himself informed with modern thought and method. He is +a good, conservative painter, possessed of taste, judgment, and +technical ability. Elihu Vedder (1836-) is more of a draughtsman than +a brushman. His color-sense is not acute nor his handling free, but he +has an imagination which, if somewhat more literary than pictorial, is +nevertheless very effective. John La Farge (1835-) and Albert Ryder +(1847-) are both colorists, and La Farge in artistic feeling is a man +of much power. Almost all of his pictures have fine decorative quality +in line and color and are thoroughly pictorial. + +[Illustration: FIG. 107.--WINSLOW HOMER. UNDERTOW.] + +The "young men," so-called, though some of them are now on toward +middle life, are perhaps more facile in brush-work and better trained +draughtsmen than those we have just mentioned. They have cultivated +vivacity of style and cleverness in statement, frequently at the +expense of the larger qualities of art. Sargent (1856-) is, perhaps, +the most considerable portrait-painter now living, a man of unbounded +resources technically and fine natural abilities. He is draughtsman, +colorist, brushman--in fact, almost everything in art that can be +cultivated. His taste is not yet mature, and he is just now given to +dashing effects that are more clever than permanent; but that he is a +master in portraiture has already been abundantly demonstrated. Chase +(1849-) is also an exceptionally good portrait painter, and he handles +the _genre_ subject with brilliant color and a swift, sure brush. In +brush-work he is exceedingly clever, and is an excellent technician +in almost every respect. Not always profound in matter he generally +manages to be entertaining in method. Blum (1857-) is well known to +magazine readers through many black-and-white illustrations. He is +also a painter of _genre_ subjects taken from many lands, and handles +his brush with brilliancy and force. Dewing (1851-) is a painter with +a refined sense not only in form but in color. His pictures are +usually small, but exquisite in delicacy and decorative charm. Thayer +(1849-) is fond of large canvases, a man of earnestness, sincerity, +and imagination, but not a good draughtsman, not a good colorist, and +a rather clumsy brushman. He has, however, something to say, and in a +large sense is an artist of uncommon ability. Kenyon Cox (1856-) is a +draughtsman, with a strong command of line and taste in its +arrangement. He is not a strong colorist, though in recent work he has +shown a new departure in this feature that promises well. He renders +the nude with power, and is fond of the allegorical subject. + +The number of good portrait-painters at present working in America is +quite large, and mention can be made of but a few in addition to those +already spoken of--Lockwood, McLure Hamilton, Tarbell, Beckwith, +Benson, Vinton. In figure and _genre_-painting the list of really good +painters could be drawn out indefinitely, and again mention must be +confined to a few only, like Simmons, Shirlaw, Smedley, Brush, Millet, +Hassam, Reid, Wiles, Mowbray, Reinhart, Blashfield, Metcalf, Low, C. +Y. Turner, Henri. + +[Illustration: FIG. 108.--WHISTLER. WHITE GIRL.] + +Most of the men whose names are given above are resident in America; +but, in addition, there is a large contingent of young men, American +born but resident abroad, who can hardly be claimed by the American +school, and yet belong to it as much as to any school. They are +cosmopolitan in their art, and reside in Paris, Munich, London, or +elsewhere, as the spirit moves them. Sargent, the portrait-painter, +really belongs to this group, as does also Whistler (1834-[23]), one +of the most artistic of all the moderns. Whistler was long resident in +London, but has now removed to Paris. He belongs to no school, and +such art as he produces is peculiarly his own, save a leaven of +influences from Velasquez and the Japanese. His art is the perfection +of delicacy, both in color and in line. Apparently very sketchy, it is +in reality the maximum of effect with the minimum of display. It has +the pictorial charm of mystery and suggestiveness, and the technical +effect of light, air, and space. There is nothing better produced in +modern painting than his present work, and in earlier years he painted +portraits like that of his mother, which are justly ranked as great +art. E. A. Abbey (1852-) is better known by his pen-and-ink work than +by his paintings, howbeit he has done good work in color. He is +resident in England. + +[Footnote 23: Died, 1903.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 109.--SARGENT. "CARNATION LILY, LILY ROSE."] + +In Paris there are many American-born painters, who really belong more +with the French school than the American. Bridgman is an example, and +Dannat, Alexander Harrison, Hitchcock, McEwen, Melchers, Pearce, +Julius Stewart, Weeks (1849-1903), J. W. Alexander, Walter Gay, +Sergeant Kendall have nothing distinctly American about their art. It +is semi-cosmopolitan with a leaning toward French methods. There are +also some American-born painters at Munich, like C. F. Ulrich; Shannon +is in London and Coleman in Italy. + +LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS, 1878-1894: In the department of +landscape America has had since 1825 something distinctly national, +and has at this day. In recent years the impressionist _plein-air_ +school of France has influenced many painters, and the prismatic +landscape is quite as frequently seen in American exhibitions as in +the Paris salons; but American landscape art rather dates ahead of +French impressionism. The strongest landscapist of our times, George +Inness (1825-[24]), is not a young man except in his artistic +aspirations. His style has undergone many changes, yet still remains +distinctly individual. He has always been an experimenter and an +uneven painter, at times doing work of wonderful force, and then again +falling into weakness. The solidity of nature, the mass and bulk of +landscape, he has shown with a power second to none. He is fond of the +sentiment of nature's light, air, and color, and has put it forth more +in his later than in his earlier canvases. At his best, he is one of +the first of the American landscapists. Among his contemporaries Wyant +(already mentioned), Swain Gifford,[25] Colman, Gay, Shurtleff, have +all done excellent work uninfluenced by foreign schools of to-day. +Homer Martin's[26] landscapes, from their breadth of treatment, are +popularly considered rather indifferent work, but in reality they are +excellent in color and poetic feeling. + +[Footnote 24: Died 1894.] + +[Footnote 25: Died 1905.] + +[Footnote 26: Died 1897.] + +The "young men" again, in landscape as in the figure, are working in +the modern spirit, though in substance they are based on the +traditions of the older American landscape school. There has been much +achievement, and there is still greater promise in such landscapists +as Tryon, Platt, Murphy, Dearth, Crane, Dewey, Coffin, Horatio Walker, +Jonas Lie. Among those who favor the so-called impressionistic view +are Weir, Twachtman, and Robinson,[27] three landscape-painters of +undeniable power. In marines Gedney Bunce has portrayed many Venetian +scenes of charming color-tone, and De Haas[28] has long been known as +a sea-painter of some power. Quartley, who died young, was brilliant +in color and broadly realistic. The present marine-painters are +Maynard, Snell, Rehn, Butler, Chapman. + +[Footnote 27: Died 1896.] + +[Footnote 28: Died 1895.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 110.--CHASE. ALICE.] + + PRINCIPAL WORKS: The works of the early American painters + are to be seen principally in the Boston Museum of Fine + Arts, the Athenæum, Boston Mus., Mass. Hist. Soc., Harvard + College, Redwood Library, Newport, Metropolitan Mus., Lenox + and Hist. Soc. Libraries, the City Hall, Century Club, + Chamber of Commerce, National Acad. of Design, N. Y. In New + Haven, at Yale School of Fine Arts, in Philadelphia at + Penna. Acad. of Fine Arts, in Rochester Powers's Art Gal., + in Washington Corcoran Gal. and the Capitol. + + The works of the younger men are seen in the exhibitions + held from year to year at the Academy of Design, the Society + of American Artists, N. Y., in Philadelphia, Chicago, + Boston, and elsewhere throughout the country. Some of their + works belong to permanent institutions like the Metropolitan + Mus., the Pennsylvania Acad., the Art Institute of Chicago, + but there is no public collection of pictures that + represents American art as a whole. Mr. T. B. Clarke, of New + York, had perhaps as complete a collection of paintings by + contemporary American artists as anyone. + + + + +POSTSCRIPT. + +SCATTERING SCHOOLS AND INFLUENCES IN ART. + + +In this brief history of painting it has been necessary to omit some +countries and some painters that have not seemed to be directly +connected with the progress or development of painting in the western +world. The arts of China and Japan, while well worthy of careful +chronicling, are somewhat removed from the arts of the other nations +and from our study. Moreover, they are so positively decorative that +they should be treated under the head of Decoration, though it is not +to be denied that they are also realistically expressive. Portugal has +had some history in the art of painting, but it is slight and so bound +up with Spanish and Flemish influences that its men do not stand out +as a distinct school. This is true in measure of Russian painting. The +early influences with it were Byzantine through the Greek Church. In +late years what has been produced favors the Parisian or German +schools. + +In Denmark and Scandinavia there has recently come to the front a +remarkable school of high-light painters, based on Parisian methods, +that threatens to outrival Paris itself. The work of such men as +Kröyer, Zorn, Petersen, Liljefors, Thaulow, Björck, Thegerström, is as +startling in its realism as it is brilliant in its color. The pictures +in the Scandinavian section of the Paris Exposition of 1889 were a +revelation of new strength from the North, and this has been somewhat +increased by the Scandinavian pictures at the World's Fair in 1893. It +is impossible to predict what will be the outcome of this northern +art, nor what will be the result of the recent movement here in +America. All that can be said is that the tide seems to be setting +westward and northward, though Paris has been the centre of art for +many years, and will doubtless continue to be the centre for many +years to come. + + + + +INDEX. + +(_For additions to Index see page 289._) + + +Abbate, Niccolò dell', 134. + +Abbey, Edwin A., 271. + +Aelst, Willem Van, 219. + +Aëtion, 30. + +Agatharchos, 27. + +Aimé-Morot, Nicolas, 167. + +Albani, Francesco, 126, 131. + +Albertinelli, Mariotto, 90, 97. + +Alemannus, Johannes (da Murano), 79, 84. + +Aldegrever, Heinrich, 231. + +Alexander, John, 262. + +Alexander, J. W., 272. + +Aligny, Claude François, 149. + +Allegri, Pomponio, 108, 109. + +Allori, Cristofano, 127, 131. + +Allston, Washington, 263. + +Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, 199, 202. + +Altdorfer, Albrecht, 231, 239. + +Alvarez, Don Luis, 184. + +Aman-Jean, E., 165. + +Andrea da Firenze, 52, 56. + +Angelico, Fra Giovanni, 54, 55, 56, 65, 67. + +Anselmi, Michelangelo, 108, 109. + +Antiochus Gabinius, 35. + +Antonio Veneziano, 52, 56. + +Apelles, 30. + +Apollodorus, 27, 28. + +Aranda, Luis Jiminez, 185. + +Aretino, Spinello, 53, 56. + +Aristides, 29. + +Artz, D. A. C., 220. + +Aubert, Ernest Jean, 155. + + +Backer, Jacob, 210. + +Backhuisen, Ludolf, 218, 222. + +Bagnacavallo, Bartolommeo Ramenghi, 105, 109. + +Baker, George A., 266. + +Baldovinetti, Alessio, 63, 71. + +Baldung, Hans, 230, 239. + +Bargue, Charles, 167. + +Baroccio, Federigo, 125, 130. + +Bartolo, Taddeo di, 54, 56. + +Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), 90, 92, 95, 97. + +Basaiti, Marco, 83, 85. + +Bassano, Francesco, 119-121. + +Bassano, Jacopo, 119-121. + +Bastert, N., 221. + +Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 166. + +Baudry, Paul, 163. + +Beccafumi, Domenico, 103, 108. + +Becerra, Gaspar, 177, 185. + +Beckwith, J. Carroll, 270. + +Beechey, Sir William, 246. + +Beham, Barthel, 231. + +Beham, Sebald, 231. + +Bellini, Gentile, 81, 85, 94. + +Bellini, Giovanni, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 85, 112-115, 214, 229. + +Bellini, Jacopo, 79, 81, 85. + +Boltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, 102. + +Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, 165. + +Benson, Frank W., 270. + +Béraud, Jean, 170. + +Berchem, Claas Pietersz, 217, 222. + +Berne-Bellecour, Étienne Prosper, 167. + +Berrettini, Pietro (il Cortona), 127, 131. + +Berruguete, Alonzo, 176, 185. + +Bertin, Jean Victor, 149, 157. + +Besnard, Paul Albert, 170. + +Bierstadt, Albert, 265. + +Billet, Pierre, 161. + +Bink, Jakob, 231. + +Bissolo, Pier Francesco, 83, 85. + +Björck, O., 276. + +Blake, William, 247, 254. + +Blashfield, Edwin H., 270. + +Blommers, B. J., 220. + +Blum, Robert, 270. + +Böcklin, Arnold, 238, 240. + +Bol, Ferdinand, 210, 221. + +Boldini, Giuseppe, 130, 131. + +Bonfiglio, Benedetto, 66, 67, 72. + +Bonheur, Auguste, 160. + +Bonheur, Rosa, 160. + +Bonifazio Pitati, 119-121. + +Bonington, Richard Parkes, 157, 252. + +Bonnat, Léon, 164. + +Bonsignori, Francesco, 76, 84. + +Bonvin, François, 168. + +Bordone, Paris, 119, 121. + +Borgognone, Ambrogio, 71, 72. + +Bosboom, J., 220. + +Bosch, Hieronymus, 205, 221. + +Both, Jan, 217, 222. + +Botticelli, Sandro, 61, 63, 71. + +Boucher, François, 141, 145, 146. + +Boudin, Eugène, 171. + +Boughton, George H., 258. + +Bouguereau, W. Adolphe, 162, 163. + +Boulanger, Hippolyte, 200. + +Boulanger, Louis, 153. + +Bourdichon, Jean, 133. + +Bourdon, Sebastien, 138. + +Bouts, Dierich, 190, 191, 201, 205. + +Bradford, William, 265. + +Breton, Jules Adolphe, 161. + +Breughel, 193, 201. + +Bridgman, Frederick A., 272. + +Bril, Paul, 193, 201, 214, 222. + +Bristol, John B., 265. + +Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo), il, 124, 131. + +Brouwer, Adriaan, 198, 202. + +Brown, Ford Madox, 257. + +Brown, John Lewis, 170, + +Brush, George D. F., 270. + +Bugiardini, Giuliano di Piero, 91, 97. + +Bunce, W. Gedney, 273. + +Burkmair, Hans, 232, 233, 239. + +Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 257. + +Butler, Howard Russell, 274. + + +Cabanel, Alexandre, 162, 163. + +Caillebotte, 170. + +Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, 258. + +Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, 251. + +Calvaert, Denis, 192. + +Campin, Robert, 189. + +Canaletto (Antonio Canale), il, 129, 131. + +Cano, Alonzo, 181, 185. + +Caracci, Agostino, 125-127, 130. + +Caracci, Annibale, 125-127, 130, 182. + +Caracci, Ludovico, 125-127, 130. + +Caravaggio, Michelangelo Amerighi da, 127, 128, 131, 136, 181, 182. + +Carolus-Duran, Charles Auguste Emil, 164. + +Caroto, Giovanni Francisco, 76, 84, 120, 121. + +Carpaccio, Vittore, 77, 82, 83, 85. + +Carrière, E., 165. + +Carstens, Asmus Jacob, 236. + +Cassatt, Mary, 170. + +Castagno, Andrea del, 63, 71, 176. + +Castro, Juan Sanchez de, 180, 185. + +Catena, Vincenzo di Biagio, 83, 85. + +Cattermole, George, 254. + +Cavazzola, Paolo (Moranda), 120, 121. + +Cazin, Jean Charles, 159. + +Cespedes, Pablo de, 180, 185. + +Champaigne, Philip de, 139. + +Champmartin, Callande de, 153. + +Chapman, Carlton T., 274. + +Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon, 142. + +Chase, William M., 269. + +Chintreuil, Antoine, 159. + +Church, Frederick E., 264. + +Cima da Conegliano, Giov. Battista, 82, 85. + +Cimabue, Giovanni, 51, 54, 56. + +Clays, Paul Jean, 200, 202. + +Clouet, Francois, 134. + +Clouet, Jean, 134. + +Cocxie, Michiel van, 192, 201. + +Coello, Claudio, 179, 185. + +Coffin, William A., 273. + +Cogniet, Leon, 153. + +Cole, Vicat, 258. + +Cole, Thomas, 264. + +Coleman, C. C., 272. + +Colman, Samuel, 273. + +Constable, John, 157, 216, 251-253, 259. + +Copley, John Singleton, 261, 264. + +Coques, Gonzales, 198, 202. + +Cormon, Fernand, 165. + +Cornelis van Haarlem, 206, 221. + +Cornelius, Peter von, 130, 236, 237, 239. + +Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, 157, 159, 221. + +Correggio (Antonio Allegri), il, 101, 105-109, 110, 124, 125, 177, 180, + 245, 249. + +Cossa, Francesco, 69, 72. + +Costa, Lorenzo, 69, 72, 104, 107. + +Cotman, John Sell, 251. + +Cottet, 168. + +Courbet, G., 162, 165, 166, 199, 219. + +Cousin, Jean, 134, 135. + +Couture, Thomas, 155, 266. + +Cozens, John Robert, 254. + +Cox, David, 254. + +Cox, Kenyon, 270. + +Cranach (the Elder), Lucas, 199, 234, 235, 239. + +Cranach (the Younger), Lucas, 235, 239. + +Crane, R. Bruce, 273. + +Crawhall, Joseph, 259. + +Crayer, Kasper de, 196, 201. + +Credi, Lorenzo di, 64, 65, 71. + +Cristus, Peter, 189, 201. + +Crivelli, Carlo, 80, 81, 84. + +Crome, John (Old Crome), 251. + +Cuyp, Aelbert, 217, 218, 222. + + +Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal A. J., 168. + +Damoye, Pierre Emmanuel, 159. + +Damophilos, 35. + +Dannat, William T., 272. + +Dantan, Joseph Édouard, 168. + +Daubigny, Charles François, 158. + +David, Gheeraert, 191, 192, 201. + +David, Jacques Louis, 130, 147-152, 153, 156, 162, 183, 198, 219. + +Dearth, Henry J., 273. + +Decamps, A. G., 153. + +Degas, 170. + +De Haas, M. F. H., 273. + +Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor E., 151, 152, 160, 162, 253, 259. + +Delaroche, Hippolyte (Paul), 153, 154, 199. + +Delaunay, Jules Elie, 165. + +De Neuville, Alphonse Maria, 167. + +De Nittis. See "Nittis." + +Denner, Balthasar, 236, 239. + +Detaille, Jean Baptiste Édouard, 167. + +Devéria, Eugene, 153. + +Dewey, Charles Melville, 273. + +Dewing, Thomas W., 270. + +Dewint, Peter, 254. + +Diana, Benedetto, 84, 85. + +Diaz de la Pena, Narciso Virgilio, 158. + +Diepenbeeck, Abraham van, 196, 201. + +Dionysius, 35. + +Dolci, Carlo, 126, 131, 182. + +Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), 126, 130. + +Domingo, J., 185. + +Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni di Lutero), 104, 107, 108. + +Dou, Gerard, 210, 221. + +Doughty, Thomas, 264. + +Du Breuil, Toussaint, 134. + +Duccio di Buoninsegna, 53, 56, 65. + +Duez, Ernest Ange, 168. + +Du Jardin, Karel, 217, 222. + +Dupré, Julien, 166. + +Dupré, Jules, 158. + +Durand, Asher Brown, 264. + +Dürer, Albrecht, 205, 229-235, 239. + + +Eastlake, Sir Charles, 247. + +Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den, 210, 221. + +Elliott, Charles Loring, 265. + +Elzheimer, Adam, 235, 239. + +Engelbrechsten, Cornelis, 205. + +Etty, William, 247. + +Euphranor, 29. + +Eupompos, 28. + +Everdingen, Allart van, 215, 222. + +Eyck, Hubert van, 188, 201. + +Eyck, Jan van, 84, 174, 188-190, 193, 201, 204, 205. + + +Fabius Pictor, 35. + +Fabriano, Gentile da, 54, 55, 56, 66, 74, 75, 79, 81. + +Fabritius, Karel, 210, 213, 221. + +Faed, Thomas, 258. + +Fantin-Latour, Henri, 168. + +Favretto, Giacomo, 130, 131. + +Ferrara, Gaudenzio, 102, 108. + +Fielding, Anthony V. D. Copley, 254. + +Filippino. See Lippi. + +Fiore, Jacobello del, 79, 84. + +Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 66, 72. + +Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, 154. + +Flinck, Govaert, 210, 221. + +Floris, Franz, 192, 201. + +Foppa, Vincenzo, 71, 72, 101. + +Forain, J. L., 170. + +Forbes, Stanhope, 258. + +Fortuny, Mariano, 130, 183-185. + +Fouquet, Jean, 133. + +Fragonard, Jean Honoré, 141. + +Français, François Louis, 159. + +Francesca, Piero della, 66, 72, 75. + +Francia, Francesco (Raibolini), 69, 72, 105, 107. + +Franciabigio (Francesco di Cristofano Bigi), 92, 97. + +Francken, 192. + +Fredi, Bartolo di, 54, 56. + +Fréminet, Martin, 135. + +Frere, T., 154. + +Friant, Emile, 168. + +Fromentin, E., 154. + +Fuller, George, 266. + +Fyt, Jan, 196, 201. + + +Gaddi, Agnolo, 52, 56. + +Gaddi, Taddeo, 52, 56. + +Gainsborough, T., 245-247, 259. + +Gallait, Louis, 199. + +Garofolo (Benvenuto Tisi), il, 104, 107, 109. + +Gay, Edward, 273. + +Gay, Walter, 272. + +Geldorp, Gortzius, 192. + +Gérard, Baron François Pascal, 148. + +Géricault, Jean Louis, A. T., 151. + +Gérôme, Jean Léon, 155, 162, 163, 167, 184. + +Gervex, Henri, 168. + +Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 63, 64, 71, 92, 176. + +Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo, 91, 97. + +Giampietrino (Giovanni Pedrini), 102, 108. + +Gifford, Sandford, 265. + +Gifford, R. Swain, 273. + +Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), il, 83, 94, 112-121, 128. + +Giordano, Luca, 128, 131, 183. + +Giotto di Bondone, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 73. + +Giottino (Tommaso di Stefano), 52, 56. + +Giovanni da Milano, 52, 56. + +Giovanni da Udine, 97, 98 + +Girodet de Roussy, Anne Louis, 148. + +Girtin, Thomas, 254. + +Giulio (Pippi), Romano, 96, 98, 120, 136. + +Gleyre, Marc Charles Gabriel, 154. + +Goes, Hugo van der, 190, 201. + +Gorgasos, 35. + +Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 183, 185. + +Goyen, Jan van, 214, 218, 222. + +Gozzoli, Benozzo, 63, 65, 71. + +Granacci, Francesco, 91, 97. + +Grandi, Ercole di Giulio, 69, 72. + +Greuze, Jean Baptiste, 142. + +Gros, Baron Antoine Jean, 149, 151, 152. + +Grünewald, Matthias, 234 + +Guardi, Francesco, 129, 131. + +Guercino (Giov. Fran. Barbiera), il, 126, 131. + +Guérin, Pierre Narcisse, 148. + +Guido Reni, 126, 130, 136. + +Guido da Sienna, 53, 56. + +Guthrie, James, 259. + + +Hals, Franz (the Younger), 207, 211, 212, 221. + +Hamilton, James, 259. + +Hamilton, McLure, 270. + +Hamon, Jean Louis, 155. + +Harding, Chester, 265. + +Harpignies, Henri, 159. + +Hassam, Childe, 270. + +Harrison, T. Alexander, 272. + +Healy, George P. A., 266. + +Hébert, Antoine Auguste Ernest, 164. + +Heem, Jan van, 218. + +Heemskerck, Marten van, 206, 221. + +Helst, Bartholomeus van der, 210, 221. + +Henner, Jean Jacques, 164. + +Henry, George, 259. + +Herkomer, Hubert, 258. + +Herrera, Francisco de, 177, 180, 185. + +Heyden, Jan van der, 218, 222. + +Hicks, Thomas, 266. + +Hill, Thomas, 265. + +Hitchcock, George, 272. + +Hobbema, Meindert, 215, 216, 222, 251. + +Hogarth, William, 243, 244. + +Holbein (the Elder), Hans, 233, 239. + +Holbein (the Younger), Hans, 134. 229-234, 239, 243. + +Holl, Frank, 258. + +Homer, Winslow, 268. + +Hondecoeter, Melchior d', 219, 222. + +Hooghe, Pieter de, 199, 213, 221. + +Hook, James Clarke, 259. + +Hoppner, John, 246. + +Hornell, E. A., 259. + +Hubbard, Richard W., 265. + +Huet, Paul, 159. + +Hunt, Holman, 255, 256. + +Hunt, William Henry, 254. + +Hunt, William Morris, 266. + +Huntington, Daniel, 266. + +Huysum, Jan van, 219-222. + + +Imola, Innocenza da (Francucci), 97, 98, 105. + +Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, 148, 152-154, 161, 162. + +Inman, Henry, 265. + +Inness, George, 273. + +Israels, Jozef, 219, 220. + + +Jacque, Charles, 159. + +Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham, 196, 201. + +Jarvis, John Wesley, 263. + +Joannes, Juan de, 182, 185. + +Johnson, David, 265. + +Johnson, Eastman, 268. + +Jongkind, 221. + +Jordaens, Jacob, 196. + +Justus van Ghent, 190, 201. + + +Kalf, Willem, 219. + +Kauffman, Angelica, 236, 239. + +Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 237, 239. + +Kendall, Sergeant, 272. + +Kensett, John F., 264. + +Kever, J. S. H., 221. + +Keyser, Thomas de, 207, 221. + +Klinger, Max, 238. + +Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 243. + +Koninck, Philip de, 210, 221. + +Kröyer, Peter S., 276. + +Kuehl, G., 238. + +Kulmbach, Hans von, 230, 239. + +Kunz, 227, 239. + + +La Farge, John, 268. + +Lancret, Nicolas, 141. + +Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, 249. + +Largillière, Nicolas, 139. + +Lastman, Pieter, 207. + +Laurens, Jean Paul, 165. + +Lavery, John, 259. + +Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 247. + +Lawson, Cecil Gordon, 258. + +Lawson, John, 259. + +Lebrun, Charles, 138, 139. + +Lebrun, Marie Elizabeth Louise Vigée, 149. + +Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, 164. + +Legros, Alphonse, 161. + +Leibl, Wilhelm, 238, 240. + +Leighton, Sir Frederick, 258. + +Leloir, Alexandre Louis, 167. + +Lely, Sir Peter, 243. + +Lenbach, Franz, 238, 239. + +Leonardo da Vinci, 64, 66, 71, 90, 92, 95, 99-103, 107, 108, 134. + +Lerolle, Henri, 161. + +Leslie, Robert Charles, 264. + +Lessing, Karl Friedrich, 266. + +Le Sueur, Eustache, 138. + +Lethière, Guillaume Guillon, 148. + +Leutze, Emanuel, 266. + +Lewis, John Frederick, 254. + +Leyden, Lucas van, 205, 221. + +Leys, Baron Jean Auguste Henri, 199, 202. + +L'hermitte, Léon Augustin, 166. + +Liberale da Verona, 76, 84, 120. + +Libri, Girolamo dai, 120, 121. + +Liebermann, Max, 238. + +Liljefors, Bruno, 276. + +Lippi, Fra Filippo, 63, 71, 74. + +Lippi, Filippino, 63, 71. + +Lockwood, Wilton, 270. + +Lombard, Lambert, 192. + +Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56. + +Lorenzetti, Pietro, 54, 56, 65. + +Lorrain, Claude (Gellée), 136, 150, 217, 250, 251, 253. + +Lotto, Lorenzo, 118, 121. + +Low, Will H., 270. + +Luini, Bernardino, 101, 108. + + +Mabuse, Jan (Gossart) van, 192, 201, 206, 243. + +McBride, A., 259. + +McEntee, Jervis, 265. + +McEwen, Walter, 272. + +Madrazo, Raimundo de, 184, 185. + +Maes, Nicolaas, 210, 221. + +Makart, Hans, 238, 240. + +Manet, Édouard, 168, 169, 170. + +Mansueti, Giovanni, 84, 85. + +Mantegna, Andrea, 61, 74, 76, 77, 81, 84, 107, 229, 234. + +Maratta, Carlo, 127, 131. + +Marconi, Rocco, 118, 119, 121. + +Marilhat, P., 154. + +Maris, James, 220. + +Maris, Matthew, 220. + +Maris, Willem, 221. + +Martin, Henri, 168. + +Martin, Homer, 273. + +Martino, Simone di, 54, 56. + +Masaccio, Tommaso, 54, 61, 71, 92, 93, 95. + +Masolino, Tommaso Fini, 61, 71. + +Massys, Quentin, 191, 192, 201, 234. + +Master of the Lyversberg Passion, 227. + +Mauve, Anton, 221. + +Mazo, Juan Bautista Martinez del, 179, 185. + +Mazzolino, Ludovico, 105, 109. + +Maynard, George W., 274. + +Meer of Delft, Jan van der, 213, 221. + +Meire, Gerard van der, 190, 201. + +Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, 167, 184. + +Meister, Stephen (Lochner), 225. + +Meister, Wilhelm, 222. + +Melchers, Gari, 272. + +Melozzo da Forli, 67, 72. + +Melville, Arthur, 259. + +Memling, Hans, 190, 201. + +Memmi, Lippo, 54, 56. + +Mengs, Raphael, 236, 239. + +Menzel, Adolf, 238, 239. + +Mesdag, Hendrik Willem, 221. + +Messina, Antonello da, 83, 84, 85, 102, 113. + +Metcalf, Willard L., 270. + +Metrodorus, 35. + +Metsu, Gabriel, 167, 211, 221. + +Mettling, V. Louis, 168. + +Michael Angelo (Buonarroti), 62, 90, 92, 97, 99, 112, 116, 122, 123-126, + 144, 176, 181, 192, 206. + +Michallon, Achille Etna, 149. + +Michel, Georges, 159. + +Michetti, Francesco Paolo, 130, 131. + +Mierevelt, Michiel Jansz, 206, 221. + +Mieris, Franz van, 211, 221. + +Mignard, Pierre, 139. + +Millais, Sir John, 255, 256, 257. + +Millet, Francis D., 270. + +Millet, Jean Francois, 160-162, 165, 166, 219, 266. + +Miranda, Juan Carreño de, 179, 185. + +Molyn (the Elder), Pieter de, 215, 222. + +Monet, Claude, 170, 171. + +Montagna, Bartolommeo, 77, 84. + +Montenard, Frederic, 171. + +Moore, Albert, 258. + +Moore, Henry, 259. + +Morales, Luis de, 177, 185. + +Moran, Thomas, 265. + +Morelli, Domenico, 130, 131. + +Moretto (Alessandro Buonvicino) il, 120, 121. + +Morland, George, 248. + +Moro, Antonio, 177, 192, 201, 243. + +Moroni, Giovanni Battista, 120, 121. + +Morton, Thomas, 259. + +Mostert, Jan, 191, 201, 205. + +Mount, William S., 266. + +Mowbray, H. Siddons, 270. + +Mulready, William, 249. + +Munkacsy, Mihaly, 238, 240. + +Murillo, Bartolomé Estéban, 173, 180-182, 185. + +Murphy, J. Francis, 273. + + +Navarette, Juan Fernandez, 177, 185. + +Navez, Francois, 199, 200, 202. + +Neer, Aart van der, 215, 222. + +Nelli, Ottaviano, 65, 71. + +Netscher, Kasper, 211, 221. + +Neuchatel, Nicolaus, 192. + +Neuhuys, Albert, 220. + +Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 264. + +Niccolo (Alunno) da Foligno, 65, 66, 72. + +Nicol, Erskine, 258. + +Nikias, 29. + +Nikomachus, 29. + +Nittis, Giuseppe de, 130, 131. + +Nono, Luigi, 130. + +Noort, Adam van, 195, 196, 201. + + +Oggiono, Marco da, 102, 108. + +Opie, John, 246. + +Orcagna (Andrea di Cione), 52, 56. + +Orchardson, William Quiller, 258. + +Orley, Barent van, 192. + +Ostade, Adriaan van, 211, 212, 221. + +Ouwater, Aalbert van, 204. + +Overbeck, Johann Friedrich, 130, 236, 239. + + +Pacchia, Girolamo della, 103, 108. + +Pacchiarotta, Giacomo, 103, 108. + +Pacheco, Francisco, 178, 180, 185. + +Pacuvius, 35. + +Padovanino (Ales. Varotari), il, 128, 131. + +Page, William, 266. + +Palma (il Vecchio), Jacopo, 118, 119, 121. + +Palma (il Giovine), Jacopo, 128, 131. + +Palmaroli, Vincente, 184. + +Parmigianino (Francesco Mazzola), il, 108, 109, 135. + +Pamphilos, 28. + +Panetti, Domenico, 104. + +Paolino (Fra) da Pistoja, 90, 97. + +Parrhasios, 28. + +Parsons, Alfred, 259. + +Pater, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 141. + +Paterson, James, 259. + +Patinir, Joachim, 191. + +Pausias, 28. + +Peale, Charles Wilson, 261. + +Peale, Rembrandt, 263. + +Pearce, Charles Sprague, 272. + +Pelouse, Léon Germaine, 159. + +Pencz, Georg, 231. + +Penni, Giovanni Francesco, 96, 98. + +Péreal, Jean, 133. + +Perino del Vaga, 94, 97, 98, 180. + +Perugino, Pietro (Vanucci), 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 95. + +Peruzzi, Baldassare, 103, 108. + +Petersen, Eilif, 276. + +Piero di Cosimo, 65, 71. + +Piloty, Carl Theodor von, 237, 239. + +Pinturricchio, Bernardino, 68, 70, 72. + +Piombo, Sebastiano del, 94, 98, 182. + +Pisano, Vittore (Pisanello), 73, 75, 79, 84. + +Pissarro, Camille, 170. + +Pizzolo, Niccolo, 75, 84. + +Platt, Charles A., 273. + +Plydenwurff, Wilhelm, 228. + +Poggenbeek, George, 221. + +Pointelin, 159. + +Pollajuolo, Antonio del, 63, 71. + +Polygnotus, 26. + +Pontormo, Jacopo (Carrucci), 92, 97, 124. + +Poorter, Willem de, 210, 221. + +Pordenone, Giovanni Ant., 119, 121. + +Potter, Paul, 216, 222. + +Pourbus, Peeter, 192, 201. + +Poussin, Gaspard (Dughet), 136. + +Poussin, Nicolas, 126, 136, 137, 150, 251. + +Pradilla, Francisco, 184. + +Previtali, Andrea, 83, 85. + +Primaticcio, Francesco, 97, 98, 134. + +Protogenes, 30. + +Prout, Samuel, 254. + +Prudhon, Pierre Paul, 147. + +Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 164. + + +QUARTLEY, Arthur, 274. + + +RAEBURN, Sir Henry, 246. + +Raffaelli, Jean François, 170. + +Raphael Sanzio, 62, 67, 90, 94, 98, 99, 103, 124, 125, 149, 182, 192, + 206, 255. + +Ravesteyn, Jan van, 207, 221. + +Regnault, Henri, 165. + +Regnault, Jean Baptiste, 147, 148. + +Rehn, F. K. M., 274. + +Reid, Robert, 270. + +Reid-Murray, J., 259. + +Reinhart, Charles S., 270. + +Rembrandt van Ryn, 148, 196, 204, 207-213, 221, 249. + +René of Anjou, 133. + +Renoir, 170. + +Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 212, 244-247. + +Ribalta, Francisco de, 182, 185. + +Ribera, Roman, 185. + +Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), José di, 128, 168, 178, 182, 183, 185. + +Ribot, Augustin Theodule, 168. + +Richards, William T., 265. + +Rico, Martin, 185. + +Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 139. + +Rincon, Antonio, 176, 185. + +Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas, 153. + +Robie, Jean, 200. + +Robinson, Theodore, 273. + +Roche, Alex., 259. + +Rochegrosse, Georges, 165. + +Roelas, Juan de las, 180, 181, 185. + +Roll, Alfred Philippe, 170. + +Romanino, Girolamo Bresciano, 120, 121. + +Rombouts, Theodoor, 196, 201. + +Romney, George, 246. + +Rondinelli, Niccolo, 84, 85. + +Rosa, Salvator, 128, 131. + +Rosselli, Cosimo, 63, 71, 90. + +Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante, 255, 256, 257. + +Rosso, il, 134. + +Rottenhammer, Johann, 235, 239. + +Rousseau, Théodore, 158, 160, 162. + +Roybet, Ferdinand, 168. + +Rubens, Peter Paul, 135, 179, 193-201, 210, 243. + +Ruisdael, Jacob van, 215, 216, 222. + +Ruisdael, Solomon van, 215, 222. + +Ryder, Albert, 268. + + +SABBATINI (Andrea da Salerno), 97, 98. + +St. Jan, Geertjen van, 205. + +Salaino (Andrea Sala), il, 101, 108. + +Salviati, Francesco Rossi, 124, 130. + +Sanchez-Coello, Alonzo, 177, 185. + +Santi, Giovanni, 67, 72. + +Sanzio. See "Raphael." + +Sargent, John S., 269, 270. + +Sarto, Andrea (Angeli) del, 91, 97, 101, 105, 134. + +Sassoferrato (Giov. Battista Salvi), il, 126, 131. + +Savoldo, Giovanni Girolamo, 120, 121. + +Schadow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, 236, 237, 239. + +Schaffner, Martin, 231, 239. + +Schalcken, Godfried, 211, 221. + +Schäufelin, Hans Leonhardt, 230, 239. + +Scheffer, Ary, 153. + +Schöngauer, Martin, 231, 232, 233, 239. + +Schnorr von Karolsfeld, J., 237, 239. + +Schüchlin, Hans, 231. + +Scorel, Jan van, 192, 206, 221. + +Segantini, Giovanni, 130. + +Semitecolo, Niccolo, 79, 84. + +Serapion, 35. + +Sesto, Cesare da, 102, 108. + +Shannon, J. J., 272. + +Shirlaw, Walter, 270. + +Shurtleff, Roswell M., 273. + +Sigalon, Xavier, 153. + +Signorelli, Luca, 66, 67, 72, 93. + +Simmons, Edward E., 270. + +Simonetti, 130. + +Sisley, Alfred, 171. + +Smedley, William T., 270. + +Smibert, John, 261. + +Snell, Henry B., 274. + +Snyders, Franz, 196, 201. + +Sodoma (Giov. Ant. Bazzi), il, 103, 108. + +Solario, Andrea (da Milano), 102, 108. + +Sopolis, 35. + +Sorolla, Joaquin, 185. + +Spagna, Lo (Giovanni di Pietro), 69, 72. + +Spence, Harry, 259. + +Spranger, Bartholomeus, 192. + +Squarcione, Francesco, 73, 74, 75, 81. + +Starnina, Gherardo, 54, 56. + +Steele, Edward, 246. + +Steen, Jan, 211, 212, 249. + +Steenwyck, Hendrik van, 206, 221. + +Stevens, Alfred, 200, 202. + +Stewart, Julius L., 272. + +Strigel, Bernard, 232, 239. + +Stothard, Thomas, 254. + +Stott of Oldham, 258. + +Stuart, Gilbert, 262, 263. + +Stuck, Franz, 238. + +Sully, Thomas, 263, 264. + +Swanenburch, Jakob Isaaks van, 207. + + +TARBELL, Edmund C., 270. + +Teniers (the Younger), David, 197, 202. + +Terburg, Gerard, 167, 212, 221. + +Thaulow, Fritz, 276. + +Thayer, Abbott H., 270. + +Thegerström, R., 276. + +Theodorich of Prague, 227, 239. + +Theotocopuli, Domenico, 177, 185. + +Thoma, Hans, 238. + +Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 128, 131. + +Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, 129, 131. + +Timanthes, 28. + +Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), il, 115-117, 121, 123, 128. + +Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), 101, 113-121, 124, 125, 128, 177, 179, 194, + 196, 212, 245. + +Tito, Ettore, 130. + +Torbido, Francisco (il Moro), 120, 121. + +Toulmouche, Auguste, 167. + +Tristan, Luis, 177, 178, 185. + +Troyon, Constant, 159, 160. + +Trumbull, John, 262, 265. + +Tryon, Dwight W., 273. + +Tura, Cosimo, 69, 72, 75. + +Turner, C. Y., 270. + +Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 251, 253, 254. + +Twachtman, John H., 273. + + +UCCELLO, Paolo, 63, 71, 74. + +Uhde, Fritz von, 238, 240. + +Ulrich, Charles F., 272. + + +VAENIUS, Otho, 195, 201. + +Van Beers, Jan, 200, 202. + +Vanderlyn, John, 263. + +Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 181, 195, 198, 201, 243, 244. + +Van Dyck, Philip, 219, 222. + +Van Loo, Jean Baptiste, 141, 145, 146. + +Van Marcke, Émil, 159. + +Vargas, Luis de, 180, 185. + +Vasari, Giorgio, 124, 130 + +Vedder, Elihu, 268. + +Veit, Philipp, 236, 239. + +Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, 173, 174, 177-185, 194, 196, 207, + 212, 249, 271. + +Velde, Adrien van de, 216, 222. + +Velde (the Elder), Willem van de, 218, 222. + +Velde (the Younger), Willem van de, 218, 222. + +Venusti, Marcello, 94, 98. + +Verboeckhoven, Eugène Joseph, 200, 202. + +Verhagen, Pierre Joseph, 198, 202. + +Vernet, Claude Joseph, 142, 250. + +Vernet, Émile Jean Horace, 149. + +Veronese, Paolo (Caliari), 116-121, 129, 136, 194. + +Verrocchio, Andrea del, 64, 71, 99. + +Vibert, Jehan Georges, 167. + +Victoors, Jan, 210, 221. + +Vien, Joseph Marie, 146. + +Villegas, José, 184, 185. + +Vincent, François André, 147. + +Vinci. See "Leonardo." + +Vinton, F. P., 270. + +Viti, Timoteo di, 97, 98. + +Vivarini, Antonio (da Murano), 79, 84. + +Vivarini, Bartolommeo (da Murano), 79, 84. + +Vivarini, Luigi or Alvise, 80, 85. + +Vlieger, Simon de, 218, 222. + +Vollon, Antoine, 168. + +Volterra, Daniele (Ricciarelli) da, 94, 97. + +Vos, Cornelis de, 196, 201. + +Vos, Marten de, 192. + +Vouet, Simon, 136, 139. + + +WALKER, Frederick, 258. + +Walker, Horatio, 273. + +Walton, E. A., 259. + +Wappers, Baron Gustavus, 199, 202. + +Watelet, Louis Étienne, 149. + +Watson, John, 261. + +Watteau, Antoine, 140, 141. + +Watts, George Frederick, 258. + +Wauters, Émile, 200. + +Weeks, Edwin L., 272. + +Weenix, Jan, 219, 222. + +Weir, J. Alden, 270, 273. + +Werff, Adriaan van der, 219, 222. + +West, Benjamin, 261, 262, 264. + +Weyden, Roger van der, 189, 190, 201, 231. + +Whistler, James A. McNeill, 271. + +Whittredge, Worthington, 265. + +Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, 199, 202. + +Wiles, Irving R., 270. + +Wilkie, Sir David, 249. + +Willems, Florent, 200, 202. + +Wilson, Richard, 250, 251. + +Wolgemut, Michael, 228, 239. + +Wouverman, Philips, 216, 222. + +Wright, Joseph, 250. + +Wurmser, Nicolaus, 227, 239. + +Wyant, Alexander H., 265, 273. + +Wyllie, W. L., 259 + +Wynants, Jan, 215, 222. + + +Yon, Edmund Charles, 159. + + +Zamacois, Eduardo, 184, 185. + +Zegers, Daniel, 196, 201. + +Ziem, 154. + +Zeitblom, Bartholomäus, 231, 239. + +Zeuxis, 27. + +Zoppo, Marco, 75, 84. + +Zorn, Anders, 276. + +Zucchero, Federigo, 125, 130. + +Zuloaga, Ignacio, 185. + +Zurbaran, Francisco de, 180, 181, 185. + + + + +ADDITIONS TO INDEX. + + +Anglada, 185. + + +Bartels, 238. + +Baur, 221. + +Bell, 259. + +Brangwyn, 259. + +Breitner, 221. + +Buysse, 200. + + +Cariani, 119. + +Claus, 200. + +Clausen, 259. + + +Fattori, 130. + +Fragiacomo, 130. + +Frederic, 200. + + +Garcia y Remos, 185. + +Greiner, 238. + + +Haverman, 221. + +Henri, Robert, 270. + + +Keller, 238. + +Khnopff, 200. + + +Lempoels, 200. + +Lie, Jonas, 273. + + +McTaggart, 259. + +Mancini, 130. + +Marchetti, 130. + + +Ouless, 259. + + +Reid, Sir George, 259. + + +Steer, 259. + +Swan, 259. + + +Trübner, 238. + + +Vierge, 185. + + +Weissenbruch, 221. + +Witsen, 221. + + * * * * * + + + + +COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART + +EDITED BY + +JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. + +PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE + + +HISTORY OF PAINTING + +By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and +110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50. + + +HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE + +By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M., Adjunct Professor of Architecture, +Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations +and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a +General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00. + + +HISTORY OF SCULPTURE + +By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D., and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., +Ph.D., Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton +University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50. + + * * * * * + + + + +A History of Architecture. + +By + +A. D. F. Hamlin, A.M. + +Adjunct Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia +College. + + +With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies, +Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, pp. +xx-453, $2.00. + +"The text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly +intelligent view taken of each separate epoch.... The book is +extremely well furnished with bibliographies, lists of monuments +[which] are excellent.... If any reasonable part of the contents of +this book can be got into the heads of those who study it, they will +have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound +knowledge of it."--THE NATION, NEW YORK. + +"A manual that will be invaluable to the student, while it will give +to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for the purposes of +the development of the various schools of architecture. What makes it +of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical +buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns, arches, +windows and doorways. Each chapter is prefaced by a list of books +recommended, and each ends with a list of monuments. The illustrations +are numerous and well executed."--SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE. + +"Probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time +concisely, the various periods and styles of architecture, with a +characterization of the most important works of each period and style, +than any other published work.... The volume fills a gap in +architectural literature which has long existed."--ADVERTISER, BOSTON. + +"A neatly published work, adapted to the use either of student or +general reader. As a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting +forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different +schools. The life history of each period is brief yet thorough.... The +treatment is broad and not over-critical. The chief facts are so +grouped that the student can easily grasp them. The plan-drawings are +clear cut and serve their purpose admirably. The half-tone +illustrations are modern in selection and treatment. The style is +clear, easy and pleasing. The entire production shows a studious and +orderly mind. A new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all +discussion on disputed points. In its unity, clearness and simplicity +lie its charm and interest."--NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, NOTRE DAME, IND. + +"This is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of +architecture from the earliest times down to the present.... The work +is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples, pictures, +diagrams, etc. It is intended to be used as a school text-book, and is +very conveniently arranged for this purpose, with suitable headings in +bold-faced type, and a copious index. Teachers and students will find +it a capital thing for the purpose."--PICAYUNE, NEW ORLEANS. + + + + +A History of Sculpture, + +BY + +ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph. D., L. H. D. + +AND + +ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph. D. + +Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton +University. + + +With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text, +Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo, +313 pages, $1.50. + + * * * * * + +HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N. Y._ + +"Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply +invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists +will be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students." + +CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_. + +"The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black +background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so +many half-tone prints." + +J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_. + +"These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book +and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially +interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_." + +CRITIC, _New York_. + +"This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in +full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its +individual developments under various conditions, physical, political, +religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never +before been written in English--never in any language in convenient +text-book form. This publication, then, should meet with an +enthusiastic reception among students and amateurs of art, not so +much, however, because it is the only book of its kind, as for its +intrinsic merit and attractive form." + +OUTLOOK, _New York_. + +"A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed +everywhere.... 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