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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by 
+John C. Van Dyke
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Text-Book of the History of Painting
+
+Author: John C. Van Dyke
+
+Release Date: July 23, 2006 [EBook #18900]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PAINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+           [Illustration: VELASQUEZ. HEAD OF ÆSOP, MADRID.]
+
+
+                             A TEXT-BOOK
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                         HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+   PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE AND AUTHOR OF
+        "ART FOR ART'S SAKE," "THE MEANING OF PICTURES," ETC.
+
+
+
+                       LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+                   91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+                     LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
+                                 1909
+
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY
+                       LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The object of this series of text-books is to provide concise
+teachable histories of art for class-room use in schools and colleges.
+The limited time given to the study of art in the average educational
+institution has not only dictated the condensed style of the volumes,
+but has limited their scope of matter to the general features of art
+history. Archæological discussions on special subjects and æsthetic
+theories have been avoided. The main facts of history as settled by
+the best authorities are given. If the reader choose to enter into
+particulars the bibliography cited at the head of each chapter will be
+found helpful. Illustrations have been introduced as sight-help to the
+text, and, to avoid repetition, abbreviations have been used wherever
+practicable. The enumeration of the principal extant works of an
+artist, school, or period, and where they may be found, which follows
+each chapter, may be serviceable not only as a summary of individual
+or school achievement, but for reference by travelling students in
+Europe.
+
+This volume on painting, the first of the series, omits mention of
+such work in Arabic, Indian, Chinese, and Persian art as may come
+properly under the head of Ornament--a subject proposed for separate
+treatment hereafter. In treating of individual painters it has been
+thought best to give a short critical estimate of the man and his rank
+among the painters of his time rather than the detailed facts of his
+life. Students who wish accounts of the lives of the painters should
+use Vasari, Larousse, and the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ in connection
+with this text-book.
+
+Acknowledgments are made to the respective publishers of Woltmann and
+Woermann's History of Painting, and the fine series of art histories
+by Perrot and Chipiez, for permission to reproduce some few
+illustrations from these publications.
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPTIAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CHALDÆO-ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN, PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GREEK, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIÆVAL PERIOD, 200-1250
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--GOTHIC PERIOD, 1250-1400
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK, 1600-1894
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+SPANISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FLEMISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+DUTCH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GERMAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+BRITISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+AMERICAN PAINTING
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+     Velasquez, Head of Æsop, Madrid           _Frontispiece_
+
+1    Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Ti, Saccarah
+
+2    Portrait of Queen Taia
+
+3    Offerings to the Dead. Wall painting
+
+4    Vignette on Papyrus
+
+5    Enamelled Brick, Nimroud
+
+6        "       "    Khorsabad
+
+7    Wild Ass. Bas-relief
+
+8    Lions Frieze, Susa
+
+9    Painted Head from Edessa
+
+10   Cypriote Vase Decoration
+
+11   Attic Grave Painting
+
+12   Muse of Cortona
+
+13   Odyssey Landscape
+
+14   Amphore, Lower Italy
+
+15   Ritual Scene, Palatine Wall painting
+
+16   Portrait, Fayoum, Graf Collection
+
+17   Chamber in Catacombs, with wall decorations
+
+18   Catacomb Fresco, S. Cecilia
+
+19   Christ as Good Shepherd, Ravenna mosaic
+
+20   Christ and Saints, fresco, S. Generosa
+
+21   Ezekiel before the Lord. MS. illumination
+
+22   Giotto, Flight into Egypt, Arena Chap.
+
+23   Orcagna, Paradise (detail), S. M. Novella
+
+24   Lorenzetti, Peace (detail), Sienna
+
+25   Fra Angelico, Angel, Uffizi
+
+26   Fra Filippo, Madonna, Uffizi
+
+27   Botticelli, Coronation of Madonna, Uffizi
+
+28   Ghirlandajo, Visitation, Louvre
+
+29   Francesca, Duke of Urbino, Uffizi
+
+30   Signorelli, The Curse (detail), Orvieto
+
+31   Perugino, Madonna, Saints, and Angels, Louvre
+
+32   School of Francia, Madonna, Louvre
+
+33   Mantegna, Gonzaga Family Group, Mantua
+
+34   B. Vivarini, Madonna and Child, Turin
+
+35   Giovanni Bellini, Madonna, Venice Acad.
+
+36   Carpaccio, Presentation (detail), Venice Acad.
+
+37   Antonello da Messina, Unknown Man, Louvre
+
+38   Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from Cross, Pitti
+
+39   Andrea del Sarto, Madonna of St. Francis, Uffizi
+
+40   Michael Angelo, Athlete, Sistine Chap., Rome
+
+41   Raphael, La Belle Jardinière, Louvre
+
+42   Giulio Romano, Apollo and Muses, Pitti
+
+43   Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, Louvre
+
+44   Luini, Daughter of Herodias, Uffizi
+
+45   Sodoma, Ecstasy of St. Catherine, Sienna
+
+46   Correggio, Marriage of St. Catherine, Louvre
+
+47   Giorgione, Ordeal of Moses, Uffizi
+
+48   Titian, Venus Equipping Cupid, Borghese, Rome
+
+49   Tintoretto, Mercury and Graces, Ducal Pal., Venice
+
+50   Veronese, Venice Enthroned, Ducal Pal., Venice
+
+51   Lotto, Three Ages, Pitti
+
+52   Bronzino, Christ in Limbo, Uffizi
+
+53   Baroccio, Annunciation
+
+54   Annibale Caracci, Entombment of Christ, Louvre
+
+55   Caravaggio, The Card Players, Dresden
+
+56   Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, Louvre
+
+57   Claude Lorrain, Flight into Egypt, Dresden
+
+58   Watteau, Gilles, Louvre
+
+59   Boucher, Pastoral, Louvre
+
+60   David, The Sabines, Louvre
+
+61   Ingres, Oedipus and Sphinx, Louvre
+
+62   Delacroix, Massacre of Scio, Louvre
+
+63   Gérôme, Pollice Verso
+
+64   Corot, Landscape
+
+65   Rousseau, Charcoal Burner's Hut, Fuller Collection
+
+66   Millet, The Gleaners, Louvre
+
+67   Cabanel, Phædra
+
+68   Meissonier, Napoleon in 1814
+
+69   Sanchez-Coello, Daughter of Philip II., Madrid
+
+70   Murillo, St. Anthony of Padua, Dresden
+
+71   Ribera, St. Agnes, Dresden
+
+72   Fortuny, Spanish Marriage
+
+73   Madrazo, Unmasked
+
+74   Van Eycks, St. Bavon Altar-piece, Berlin
+
+75   Memling (?), St. Lawrence, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+76   Massys, Head of Virgin, Antwerp
+
+77   Rubens, Portrait of Young Woman
+
+78   Van Dyck, Portrait of Cornelius van der Geest
+
+79   Teniers the Younger, Prodigal Son, Louvre
+
+80   Alfred Stevens, On the Beach
+
+81   Hals, Portrait of a Lady
+
+82   Rembrandt, Head of a Woman, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+83   Ruisdael, Landscape
+
+84   Hobbema, The Water Wheel, Amsterdam Mus.
+
+85   Israels, Alone in the World
+
+86   Mauve, Sheep
+
+87   Lochner, Sts. John, Catharine, Matthew, London
+
+88   Wolgemut, Crucifixion, Munich
+
+89   Dürer, Praying Virgin, Augsburg
+
+90   Holbein, Portrait, Hague Mus.
+
+91   Piloty, Wise and Foolish Virgins
+
+92   Leibl, In Church
+
+93   Menzel, A Reader
+
+94   Hogarth, Shortly after Marriage, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+95   Reynolds, Countess Spencer and Lord Althorp
+
+96   Gainsborough, Blue Boy
+
+97   Constable, Corn Field, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+98   Turner, Fighting Téméraire, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+99   Burne-Jones, Flamma Vestalis
+
+100  Leighton, Helen of Troy
+
+101  Watts, Love and Death
+
+102  West, Peter Denying Christ, Hampton Court
+
+103  Gilbert Stuart, Washington, Boston Mus.
+
+104  Hunt, Lute Player
+
+105  Eastman Johnson, Churning
+
+106  Inness, Landscape
+
+107  Winslow Homer, Undertow
+
+108  Whistler, The White Girl
+
+109  Sargent, "Carnation Lily, Lily Rose"
+
+110  Chase, Alice, Art Institute, Chicago
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+(This includes the leading accessible works that treat of painting in
+general. For works on special periods or schools, see the
+bibliographical references at the head of each chapter. For
+bibliography of individual painters consult, under proper names,
+Champlin and Perkins's _Cyclopedia_, as given below.)
+
+
+Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, New York.
+
+Adeline, _Lexique des Termes d'Art_.
+
+_Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Paris.
+
+Larousse, _Grand Dictionnaire Universel_, Paris.
+
+_L'Art, Revue hebdomadaire illustrée_, Paris.
+
+Bryan, _Dictionary of Painters_. _New edition_.
+
+Brockhaus, _Conversations-Lexikon_.
+
+Meyer, _Allgemeines Künstler-Lexikon_, Berlin.
+
+Muther, _History of Modern Painting_.
+
+Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_.
+
+Bayet, _Précis d'Histoire de l'Art_.
+
+Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres de toutes les Écoles_.
+
+Eastlake, _Materials for a History of Oil Painting_.
+
+Lübke, _History of Art, trans. by Clarence Cook_.
+
+Reber, _History of Ancient Art_.
+
+Reber, _History of Mediæval Art_.
+
+Schnasse, _Geschichte der Bildenden Künste_.
+
+Girard, _La Peinture Antique_.
+
+Viardot, _History of the Painters of all Schools_.
+
+Williamson (Ed.), _Handbooks of Great Masters_.
+
+Woltmann and Woermann, _History of Painting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF PAINTING.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The origin of painting is unknown. The first important records of this
+art are met with in Egypt; but before the Egyptian civilization the
+men of the early ages probably used color in ornamentation and
+decoration, and they certainly scratched the outlines of men and
+animals upon bone and slate. Traces of this rude primitive work still
+remain to us on the pottery, weapons, and stone implements of the
+cave-dwellers. But while indicating the awakening of intelligence in
+early man, they can be reckoned with as art only in a slight
+archæological way. They show inclination rather than accomplishment--a
+wish to ornament or to represent, with only a crude knowledge of how
+to go about it.
+
+The first aim of this primitive painting was undoubtedly
+decoration--the using of colored forms for color and form only, as
+shown in the pottery designs or cross-hatchings on stone knives or
+spear-heads. The second, and perhaps later aim, was by imitating the
+shapes and colors of men, animals, and the like, to convey an idea of
+the proportions and characters of such things. An outline of a
+cave-bear or a mammoth was perhaps the cave-dweller's way of telling
+his fellows what monsters he had slain. We may assume that it was
+pictorial record, primitive picture-written history. This early method
+of conveying an idea is, in intent, substantially the same as the
+later hieroglyphic writing and historical painting of the Egyptians.
+The difference between them is merely one of development. Thus there
+is an indication in the art of Primitive Man of the two great
+departments of painting existent to-day.
+
+1. DECORATIVE PAINTING.
+
+2. EXPRESSIVE PAINTING.
+
+Pure Decorative Painting is not usually expressive of ideas other than
+those of rhythmical line and harmonious color. It is not our subject.
+This volume treats of Expressive Painting; but in dealing with that it
+should be borne in mind that Expressive Painting has always a more or
+less decorative effect accompanying it, and that must be spoken of
+incidentally. We shall presently see the intermingling of both kinds
+of painting in the art of ancient Egypt--our first inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPTIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Brugsch, _History of Egypt under the
+     Pharaohs_; Budge, _Dwellers on the Nile_; Duncker, _History
+     of Antiquity; Egypt Exploration Fund Memoirs_; Ely, _Manual
+     of Archæology_; Lepsius, _Denkmaler aus Aegypten und
+     Aethiopen_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_;
+     Maspero, _Guide du Visiteur au Musée de Boulaq_; Maspero,
+     _Egyptian Archæology_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art
+     in Ancient Egypt_; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the
+     Ancient Egyptians_.
+
+
+LAND AND PEOPLE: Egypt, as Herodotus has said, is "the gift of the
+Nile," one of the latest of the earth's geological formations, and yet
+one of the earliest countries to be settled and dominated by man. It
+consists now, as in the ancient days, of the valley of the Nile,
+bounded on the east by the Arabian mountains and on the west by the
+Libyan desert. Well-watered and fertile, it was doubtless at first a
+pastoral and agricultural country; then, by its riverine traffic, a
+commercial country, and finally, by conquest, a land enriched with the
+spoils of warfare.
+
+Its earliest records show a strongly established monarchy. Dynasties
+of kings called Pharaohs succeeded one another by birth or conquest.
+The king made the laws, judged the people, declared war, and was
+monarch supreme. Next to him in rank came the priests, who were not
+only in the service of religion but in that of the state, as
+counsellors, secretaries, and the like. The common people, with true
+Oriental lack of individuality, depending blindly on leaders, were
+little more than the servants of the upper classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--HUNTING IN THE MARSHES. TOMB OF TI, SACCARAH.
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+The Egyptian religion existing in the earliest days was a worship of
+the personified elements of nature. Each element had its particular
+controlling god, worshipped as such. Later on in Egyptian history the
+number of gods was increased, and each city had its trinity of godlike
+protectors symbolized by the propylæa of the temples. Future life was
+a certainty, provided that the Ka, or spirit, did not fall a prey to
+Typhon, the God of Evil, during the long wait in the tomb for the
+judgment-day. The belief that the spirit rested in the body until
+finally transported to the aaln fields (the Islands of the Blest,
+afterward adopted by the Greeks) was one reason for the careful
+preservation of the body by mummifying processes. Life itself was not
+more important than death. Hence the imposing ceremonies of the
+funeral and burial, the elaborate richness of the tomb and its wall
+paintings. Perhaps the first Egyptian art arose through religious
+observance, and certainly the first known to us was sepulchral.
+
+ART MOTIVES: The centre of the Egyptian system was the monarch and his
+supposed relatives, the gods. They arrogated to themselves the chief
+thought of life, and the aim of the great bulk of the art was to
+glorify monarchy or deity. The massive buildings, still standing
+to-day in ruins, were built as the dwelling-places of kings or the
+sanctuaries of gods. The towers symbolized deity, the sculptures and
+paintings recited the functional duties of presiding spirits, or the
+Pharaoh's looks and acts. Almost everything about the public buildings
+in painting and sculpture was symbolic illustration, picture-written
+history--written with a chisel and brush, written large that all might
+read. There was no other safe way of preserving record. There were no
+books; the papyrus sheet, used extensively, was frail, and the
+Egyptians evidently wished their buildings, carvings, and paintings to
+last into eternity. So they wrought in and upon stone. The same
+hieroglyphic character of their papyrus writings appeared cut and
+colored on the palace walls, and above them and beside them the
+pictures ran as vignettes explanatory of the text. In a less
+ostentatious way the tombs perpetuated history in a similar manner,
+reciting the domestic scenes from the life of the individual, as the
+temples and palaces the religious and monarchical scenes.
+
+In one form or another it was all record of Egyptian life, but this
+was not the only motive of their painting. The temples and palaces,
+designed to shut out light and heat, were long squares of heavy stone,
+gloomy as the cave from which their plan may have originated. Carving
+and color were used to brighten and enliven the interior. The battles,
+the judgment scenes, the Pharaoh playing at draughts with his wives,
+the religious rites and ceremonies, were all given with brilliant
+arbitrary color, surrounded oftentimes by bordering bands of green,
+yellow, and blue. Color showed everywhere from floor to ceiling. Even
+the explanatory hieroglyphic texts ran in colors, lining the walls and
+winding around the cylinders of stone. The lotus capitals, the frieze
+and architrave, all glowed with bright hues, and often the roof
+ceiling was painted in blue and studded with golden stars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTRAIT OF QUEEN TAIA. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+All this shows a decorative motive in Egyptian painting, and how
+constantly this was kept in view may be seen at times in the
+arrangement of the different scenes, the large ones being placed in
+the middle of the wall and the smaller ones going at the top and
+bottom, to act as a frieze and dado. There were, then, two leading
+motives for Egyptian painting; (1) History, monarchical, religious, or
+domestic; and (2) Decoration.
+
+TECHNICAL METHODS: Man in the early stages of civilization comprehends
+objects more by line than by color or light. The figure is not
+studied in itself, but in its sun-shadow or silhouette. The Egyptian
+hieroglyph represented objects by outlines or arbitrary marks and
+conveyed a simple meaning without circumlocution. The Egyptian
+painting was substantially an enlargement of the hieroglyph. There was
+no attempt to place objects in the setting which they hold in nature.
+Perspective and light-and-shade were disregarded. Objects, of whatever
+nature, were shown in flat profile. In the human figure the shoulders
+were square, the hips slight, the legs and arms long, the feet and
+hands flat. The head, legs, and arms were shown in profile, while the
+chest and eye were twisted to show the flat front view. There are only
+one or two full-faced figures among the remains of Egyptian painting.
+After the outline was drawn the enclosed space was filled in with
+plain color. In the absence of high light, or composed groups,
+prominence was given to an important figure, like that of the king, by
+making it much larger than the other figures. This may be seen in any
+of the battle-pieces of Rameses II., in which the monarch in his
+chariot is a giant where his followers are mere pygmies. In the
+absence of perspective, receding figures of men or of horses were
+given by multiplied outlines of legs, or heads, placed before, or
+after, or raised above one another. Flat water was represented by
+zigzag lines, placed as it were upon a map, one tree symbolized a
+forest, and one fortification a town.
+
+These outline drawings were not realistic in any exact sense. The face
+was generally expressionless, the figure, evidently done from memory
+or pattern, did not reveal anatomical structure, but was nevertheless
+graceful, and in the representation of animals the sense of motion was
+often given with much truth. The color was usually an attempt at
+nature, though at times arbitrary or symbolic, as in the case of
+certain gods rendered with blue, yellow, or green skins. The
+backgrounds were always of flat color, arbitrary in hue, and
+decorative only. The only composition was a balance by numbers, and
+the processional scenes rose tier upon tier above one another in long
+panels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD, WALL PAINTING, EIGHTEENTH
+DYNASTY. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+Such work would seem almost ludicrous did we not keep in mind its
+reason for existence. It was, first, symbolic story-telling art, and
+secondly, architectural decoration. As a story-teller it was effective
+because of its simplicity and directness. As decoration, the repeated
+expressionless face and figure, the arbitrary color, the absence of
+perspective were not inappropriate then nor are they now. Egyptian
+painting never was free from the decorative motive. Wall painting was
+little more than an adjunct of architecture, and probably grew out of
+sculpture. The early statues were colored, and on the wall the chisel,
+like the flint of Primitive Man, cut the outline of the figure. At
+first only this cut was filled with color, producing what has been
+called the koil-anaglyphic. In the final stage the line was made by
+drawing with chalk or coal on prepared stucco, and the color, mixed
+with gum-water (a kind of distemper), was applied to the whole
+enclosed space. Substantially the same method of painting was used
+upon other materials, such as wood, mummy cartonnage, papyrus; and in
+all its thousands of years of existence Egyptian painting never
+advanced upon or varied to any extent this one method of work.
+
+HISTORIC PERIODS: Egyptian art may be traced back as far as the Third
+or Fourth Memphitic dynasty of kings. The date is uncertain, but it is
+somewhere near 3,500 B.C. The seat of empire, at that time, was
+located at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and it is among the remains of this
+
+Memphitic Period that the earliest and best painting is found. In
+fact, all Egyptian art, literature, language, civilization, seem at
+their highest point of perfection in the period farthest removed from
+us. In that earliest age the finest portrait busts were cut, and the
+painting, found chiefly in the tombs and on the mummy-cases, was the
+attempted realistic with not a little of spirited individuality. The
+figure was rather short and squat, the face a little squarer than the
+conventional type afterward adopted, the action better, and the
+positions, attitudes, and gestures more truthful to local
+characteristics. The domestic scenes--hunting, fishing, tilling,
+grazing--were all shown in the one flat, planeless, shadowless method
+of representation, but with better drawing and color and more variety
+than appeared later on. Still, more or less conventional types were
+used, even in this early time, and continued to be used all through
+Egyptian history.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--VIGNETTE ON PAPYRUS, LOUVRE. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+The Memphitic Period comes down to the eleventh dynasty. In the
+fifteenth dynasty comes the invasion of the so-called Hyksos, or
+Shepherd Kings. Little is known of the Hyksos, and, in painting, the
+next stage is the
+
+Theban Period, which, culminated in Thebes, in Upper Egypt, with
+Rameses II., of the nineteenth dynasty. Painting had then changed
+somewhat both in subject and character. The time was one of great
+temple and palace building, and, though the painting of _genre_
+subjects in tombs and sepulchres continued, the general body of art
+became more monumental and subservient to architecture. Painting was
+put to work on temple and palace-walls, depicting processional scenes,
+either religious or monarchical, and vast in extent. The figure, too,
+changed slightly. It became longer, slighter, with a pronounced nose,
+thick lips, and long eye. From constant repetition, rather than any
+set rule or canon, this figure grew conventional, and was reproduced
+as a type in a mechanical and unvarying manner for hundreds of years.
+It was, in fact, only a variation from the original Egyptian type seen
+in the tombs of the earliest dynasties. There was a great quantity of
+art produced during the Theban Period, and of a graceful, decorative
+character, but it was rather monotonous by repetition and filled with
+established mannerisms. The Egyptian really never was a free worker,
+never an artist expressing himself; but, for his day, a skilled
+mechanic following time-honored example. In the
+
+Saitic Period the seat of empire was once more in Lower Egypt, and art
+had visibly declined with the waning power of the country. All
+spontaneity seemed to have passed out of it, it was repetition of
+repetition by poor workmen, and the simplicity and purity of the
+technic were corrupted by foreign influences. With the Alexandrian
+epoch Egyptian art came in contact with Greek methods, and grew
+imitative of the new art, to the detriment of its own native
+character. Eventually it was entirely lost in the art of the
+Greco-Roman world. It was never other than conventional, produced by a
+method almost as unvarying as that of the hieroglyphic writing, and in
+this very respect characteristic and reflective of the unchanging
+Orientals. Technically it had its shortcomings, but it conveyed the
+proper information to its beholders and was serviceable and graceful
+decoration for Egyptian days.
+
+     EXTANT PAINTINGS: The temples, palaces, and tombs of Egypt
+     still reveal Egyptian painting in almost as perfect a state
+     as when originally executed; the Ghizeh Museum has many fine
+     examples; and there are numerous examples in the museums at
+     Turin, Paris, Berlin, London, New York, and Boston. An
+     interesting collection belongs to the New York Historical
+     Society, and some of the latest "finds" of the Egypt
+     Exploration Fund are in the Boston Museum.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CHALDÆO-ASSYRIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Babelon, _Manual of Oriental
+     Antiquities_; Botta, _Monument de Ninive_; Budge,
+     _Babylonian Life and History_; Duncker, _History of
+     Antiquity_; Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_; Layard,
+     _Discoveries Among Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_; Lenormant,
+     _Manual of the Ancient History of the East_; Loftus,
+     _Travels in Chaldæa and Susiana_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient
+     Egypt and Assyria_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in
+     Chaldæa and Assyria_; Place, _Ninive et l'Assyrie_; Sayce,
+     _Assyria: Its Palaces, Priests, and People_.
+
+
+TIGRIS-EUPHRATES CIVILIZATION: In many respects the civilization along
+the Tigris-Euphrates was like that along the Nile. Both valleys were
+settled by primitive peoples, who grew rapidly by virtue of favorable
+climate and soil, and eventually developed into great nations headed
+by kings absolute in power. The king was the state in Egypt, and in
+Assyria the monarch was even more dominant and absolute. For the
+Pharaohs shared architecture, painting, and sculpture with the gods;
+but the Sargonids seem to have arrogated the most of these things to
+themselves alone.
+
+Religion was perhaps as real in Assyria as in Egypt, but it was less
+apparent in art. Certain genii, called gods or demons, appear in the
+bas-reliefs, but it is not yet settled whether they represent gods or
+merely legendary heroes or monsters of fable. There was no great
+demonstration of religion by form and color, as in Egypt. The
+Assyrians were Semites, and religion with them was more a matter of
+the spirit than the senses--an image in the mind rather than an image
+in metal or stone. The temple was not eloquent with the actions and
+deeds of the gods, and even the tomb, that fruitful source of art in
+Egypt, was in Chaldæa undecorated and in Assyria unknown. No one knows
+what the Assyrians did with their dead, unless they carried them back
+to the fatherland of the race, the Persian Gulf region, as the native
+tribes of Mesopotamia do to this day.
+
+ART MOTIVES: As in Egypt, there were two motives for art--illustration
+and decoration. Religion, as we have seen, hardly obtained at all. The
+king attracted the greatest attention. The countless bas-reliefs, cut
+on soft stone slabs, were pages from the history of the monarch in
+peace and war, in council, in the chase, or in processional rites.
+Beside him and around him his officers came in for a share of the
+background glory. Occasionally the common people had representations
+of their lives and their pursuits, but the main subject of all the
+valley art was the king and his doings. Sculpture and painting were
+largely illustrations accompanying a history written in the
+ever-present cuneiform characters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENAMELLED BRICK. NIMROUD. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+But, while serving as history, like the picture-writings of the
+Egyptians, this illustration was likewise decoration, and was designed
+with that end in view. Rows upon rows of partly colored bas-reliefs
+were arranged like a dado along the palace-wall, and above them
+wall-paintings, or glazed tiles in patterns, carried out the color
+scheme. Almost all of the color has now disappeared, but it must have
+been brilliant at one time, and was doubtless in harmony with the
+architecture. Both painting and sculpture were subordinate to and
+dependent upon architecture. Palace-building was the chief pursuit,
+and the other arts were called in mainly as adjuncts--ornamental
+records of the king who built.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ENAMELLED BRICK. KHORSABAD. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+THE TYPE, FORM, COLOR: There were only two distinct faces in Assyrian
+art--one with and one without a beard. Neither of them was a portrait
+except as attributes or inscriptions designated. The type was
+unendingly repeated. Women appeared in only one or two isolated cases,
+and even these are doubtful. The warrior, a strong, coarse-membered,
+heavily muscled creation, with a heavy, expressionless, Semitic face,
+appeared everywhere. The figure was placed in profile, with eye and
+bust twisted to show the front view, and the long feet projected one
+beyond the other, as in the Nile pictures. This was the Assyrian ideal
+of strength, dignity, and majesty, established probably in the early
+ages, and repeated for centuries with few characteristic variations.
+The figure was usually given in motion, walking, or riding, and had
+little of that grace seen in Egyptian painting, but in its place a
+great deal of rude strength. In modelling, the human form was not so
+knowingly rendered as the animal. The long Eastern clothing probably
+prevented the close study of the figure. This failure in anatomical
+exactness was balanced in part by minute details in the dress and
+accessories, productive of a rich ornamental effect.
+
+Hard stone was not found in the Mesopotamian regions. Temples were
+built of burnt brick, bas-reliefs were made upon alabaster slabs and
+heightened by coloring, and painting was largely upon tiles, with
+mineral paints, afterward glazed by fire. These glazed brick or tiles,
+with figured designs, were fixed upon the walls, arches, and
+archivolts by bitumen mortar, and made up the first mosaics of which
+we have record. There was a further painting upon plaster in
+distemper, of which some few traces remain. It did not differ in
+design from the bas-reliefs or the tile mosaics.
+
+The subjects used were the Assyrian type, shown somewhat slighter in
+painting than in sculpture, animals, birds, and other objects; but
+they were obviously not attempts at nature. The color was arbitrary,
+not natural, and there was little perspective, light-and-shade, or
+relief. Heavy outline bands of color appeared about the object, and
+the prevailing hues were yellow and blue. There was perhaps less
+symbolism and more direct representation in Assyria than in Egypt.
+There was also more feeling for perspective and space, as shown in
+such objects as water and in the mountain landscapes of the late
+bas-reliefs; but, in the main, there was no advance upon Egypt. There
+was a difference which was not necessarily a development. Painting, as
+we know the art to-day, was not practised in Chaldæa-Assyria. It was
+never free from a servitude to architecture and sculpture; it was
+hampered by conventionalities; and the painter was more artisan than
+artist, having little freedom or individuality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WILD ASS. BAS-RELIEF, BRITISH MUSEUM. (FROM
+PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+HISTORIC PERIODS: Chaldæa, of unknown antiquity, with Babylon its
+capital, is accounted the oldest nation in the Tigris-Euphrates
+valley, and, so far as is known, it was an original nation producing
+an original art. Its sculpture (especially in the Tello heads), and
+presumably its painting, were more realistic and individual than any
+other in the valley. Assyria coming later, and the heir of Chaldæa,
+was the
+
+Second Empire: There are two distinct periods of this Second Empire, the
+first lasting from 1,400 B.C., down to about 900 B.C., and in art
+showing a great profusion of bas-reliefs. The second closed about 625
+B.C., and in art produced much glazed-tile work and a more elaborate
+sculpture and painting. After this the Chaldæan provinces gained the
+ascendency again, and Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, became the first
+city of Asia. But the new Babylon did not last long. It fell before
+Cyrus and the Persians 536 B.C. Again, as in Egypt, the earliest art
+appears the purest and the simplest, and the years of Chaldæo-Assyrian
+history known to us carry a record of change rather than of progress in
+art.
+
+     ART REMAINS: The most valuable collections of
+     Chaldæo-Assyrian art are to be found in the Louvre and the
+     British Museum. The other large museums of Europe have
+     collections in this department, but all of them combined are
+     little compared with the treasures that still lie buried in
+     the mounds of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Excavations have
+     been made at Mugheir, Warka, Khorsabad, Kouyunjik, and
+     elsewhere, but many difficulties have thus far rendered
+     systematic work impossible. The complete history of
+     Chaldæo-Assyria and its art has yet to be written.
+
+
+PERSIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker,
+     Lenormant, Ely; Dieulafoy, _L'Art Antique de la Perse_;
+     Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_; Justi, _Geschichte des
+     alten Persiens_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in
+     Persia_.
+
+
+HISTORY AND ART MOTIVES: The Medes and Persians were the natural
+inheritors of Assyrian civilization, but they did not improve their
+birthright. The Medes soon lost their power. Cyrus conquered them, and
+established the powerful Persian monarchy upheld for two hundred years
+by Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes. Substantially the same conditions
+surrounded the Persians as the Assyrians--that is, so far as art
+production was concerned. Their conceptions of life were similar, and
+their use of art was for historic illustration of kingly doings and
+ornamental embellishment of kingly palaces. Both sculpture and
+painting were accessories of architecture.
+
+Of Median art nothing remains. The Persians left the record, but it
+was not wholly of their own invention, nor was it very extensive or
+brilliant. It had little originality about it, and was really only an
+echo of Assyria. The sculptors and painters copied their Assyrian
+predecessors, repeating at Persepolis what had been better told at
+Nineveh.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LIONS' FRIEZE, SUSA. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+TYPES AND TECHNIC: The same subjects, types, and technical methods in
+bas-relief, tile, and painting on plaster were followed under Darius
+as under Shalmanezer. But the imitation was not so good as the
+original. The warrior, the winged monsters, the animals all lost
+something of their air of brutal defiance and their strength of
+modelling. Heroes still walked in procession along the bas-reliefs and
+glazed tiles, but the figure was smaller, more effeminate, the hair
+and beard were not so long, the drapery fell in slightly indicated
+folds at times, and there was a profusion of ornamental detail. Some
+of this detail and some modifications in the figure showed the
+influence of foreign nations other than the Greek; but, in the main,
+Persian art followed in the footsteps of Assyrian art. It was the last
+reflection of Mesopotamian splendor. For with the conquest of Persia
+by Alexander the book of expressive art in that valley was closed,
+and, under Islam, it remains closed to this day.
+
+     ART REMAINS: Persian painting is something about which
+     little is known because little remains. The Louvre contains
+     some reconstructed friezes made in mosaics of stamped brick
+     and square tile, showing figures of lions and a number of
+     archers. The coloring is particularly rich, and may give
+     some idea of Persian pigments. Aside from the chief museums
+     of Europe the bulk of Persian art is still seen half-buried
+     in the ruins of Persepolis and elsewhere.
+
+
+PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker, Ely,
+     Girard, Lenormant; Cesnola, _Cyprus_; Cesnola, _Cypriote
+     Antiquities in Metropolitan Museum of Art_; Kenrick,
+     _Phoenicia_; Movers, _Die Phonizier_; Perrot and Chipiez,
+     _History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus_; Perrot and
+     Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, Syria and Asia
+     Minor_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Phrygia,
+     Lydia, etc._; Renan, _Mission de Phénicie_.
+
+
+THE TRADING NATIONS: The coast-lying nations of the Eastern
+Mediterranean were hardly original or creative nations in a large
+sense. They were at different times the conquered dependencies of
+Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and their lands were but bridges over
+which armies passed from east to west or from west to east. Located on
+the Mediterranean between the great civilizations of antiquity they
+naturally adapted themselves to circumstances, and became the
+middlemen, the brokers, traders, and carriers of the ancient world.
+Their lands were not favorable to agriculture, but their sea-coasts
+rendered commerce easy and lucrative. They made a kingdom of the sea,
+and their means of livelihood were gathered from it. There is no
+record that the Egyptians ever traversed the Mediterranean, the
+Assyrians were not sailors, the Greeks had not yet arisen, and so
+probably Phoenicia and her neighbors had matters their own way.
+Colonies and trading stations were established at Cyprus, Carthage,
+Sardinia, the Greek islands, and the Greek mainland, and not only
+Eastern goods but Eastern ideas were thus carried to the West.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PAINTED HEAD FROM EDESSA. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+Politically, socially, and religiously these small middle nations were
+inconsequential. They simply adapted their politics or faith to the
+nation that for the time had them under its heel. What semi-original
+religion they possessed was an amalgamation of the religions of other
+nations, and their gods of bronze, terra-cotta, and enamel were
+irreverently sold in the market like any other produce.
+
+ART MOTIVES AND METHODS: Building, carving, and painting were
+practised among the coastwise nations, but upon no such extensive
+scale as in either Egypt or Assyria. The mere fact that they were
+people of the sea rather than of the land precluded extensive or
+concentrated development. Politically Phoenicia was divided among
+five cities, and her artistic strength was distributed in a similar
+manner. Such art as was produced showed the religious and decorative
+motives, and in its spiritless materialistic make-up, the commercial
+motive. It was at the best a hybrid, mongrel art, borrowed from many
+sources and distributed to many points of the compass. At one time it
+had a strong Assyrian cast, at another an Egyptian cast, and after
+Greece arose it accepted a retroactive influence from there.
+
+It is impossible to characterize the Phoenician type, and even the
+Cypriote type, though more pronounced, varies so with the different
+influences that it has no very striking individuality. Technically
+both the Phoenician and Cypriote were fair workmen in bronze and
+stone, and doubtless taught many technical methods to the early
+Greeks, besides making known to them those deities afterward adopted
+under the names of Aphrodite, Adonis, and Heracles, and familiarizing
+them with the art forms of Egypt and Assyria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--CYPRIOTE VASE DECORATION. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+As for painting, there was undoubtedly figured decoration upon walls
+of stone and plaster, but there is not enough left to us from all the
+small nations like Phoenicia, Judea, Cyprus, and the kingdoms of
+Asia Minor, put together, to patch up a disjointed history. The first
+lands to meet the spoiler, their very ruins have perished. All that
+there is of painting comes to us in broken potteries and color traces
+on statuary. The remains of sculpture and architecture are of course
+better preserved. None of this intermediate art holds much rank by
+virtue of its inherent worth. It is its influence upon the West--the
+ideas, subjects, and methods it imparted to the Greeks--that gives it
+importance in art history.
+
+     ART REMAINS: In painting chiefly the vases in the
+     Metropolitan Museum, New York, the Louvre, British and
+     Berlin Museums. These give a poor and incomplete idea of the
+     painting in Asia Minor, Phoenicia and her colonies. The
+     terra-cottas, figurines in bronze, and sculptures can be
+     studied to more advantage. The best collection of Cypriote
+     antiquities is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. A new
+     collection of Judaic art has been recently opened in the
+     Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GREEK PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Baumeister, _Denkmäler des klassischen
+     Altertums_--article "_Malerei_;" Birch, _History of Ancient
+     Pottery_; Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Künstler_;
+     Collignon, _Mythologie figurée de la Grèce_; Collignon,
+     _Manuel d'Archaeologie Grecque_; Cros et Henry,
+     _L'Encaustique et les autres procédés de Peinture chez les
+     Anciens_; Girard, _La Peinture Antique_; Murray, _Handbook
+     of Greek Archæology_; Overbeck, _Antiken Schriftquellen zur
+     geschichte der bildenen Kunste bie den Griechen_; Perrot and
+     Chipiez, _History of Art in Greece_; Woerman, _Die
+     Landschaft in der Kunst der antiken Volker_; _see also books
+     on Etruscan and Roman painting_.
+
+
+GREECE AND THE GREEKS: The origin of the Greek race is not positively
+known. It is reasonably supposed that the early settlers in Greece
+came from the region of Asia Minor, either across the Hellespont or
+the sea, and populated the Greek islands and the mainland. When this
+was done has been matter of much conjecture. The early history is
+lost, but art remains show that in the period before Homer the Greeks
+were an established race with habits and customs distinctly
+individual. Egyptian and Asiatic influences are apparent in their art
+at this early time, but there is, nevertheless, the mark of a race
+peculiarly apart from all the races of the older world.
+
+The development of the Greek people was probably helped by favorable
+climate and soil, by commerce and conquest, by republican institutions
+and political faith, by freedom of mind and of body; but all these
+together are not sufficient to account for the keenness of intellect,
+the purity of taste, and the skill in accomplishment which showed in
+every branch of Greek life. The cause lies deeper in the fundamental
+make-up of the Greek mind, and its eternal aspiration toward mental,
+moral, and physical ideals. Perfect mind, perfect body, perfect
+conduct in this world were sought-for ideals. The Greeks aspired to
+completeness. The course of education and race development trained
+them physically as athletes and warriors, mentally as philosophers,
+law-makers, poets, artists, morally as heroes whose lives and actions
+emulated those of the gods, and were almost perfect for this world.
+
+ART MOTIVES: Neither the monarchy nor the priesthood commanded the
+services of the artist in Greece, as in Assyria and Egypt. There was
+no monarch in an oriental sense, and the chosen leaders of the Greeks
+never, until the late days, arrogated art to themselves. It was
+something for all the people.
+
+In religion there was a pantheon of gods established and worshipped
+from the earliest ages, but these gods were more like epitomes of
+Greek ideals than spiritual beings. They were the personified virtues
+of the Greeks, exemplars of perfect living; and in worshipping them
+the Greek was really worshipping order, conduct, repose, dignity,
+perfect life. The gods and heroes, as types of moral and physical
+qualities, were continually represented in an allegorical or legendary
+manner. Athene represented noble warfare, Zeus was majestic dignity
+and power, Aphrodite love, Phoebus song, Niké triumph, and all the
+lesser gods, nymphs, and fauns stood for beauties of nature or of
+life. The great bulk of Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting
+was put forth to honor these gods or heroes, and by so doing the
+artist repeated the national ideals and honored himself. The first
+motive of Greek art, then, was to praise Hellas and the Hellenic view
+of life. In part it was a religious motive, but with little of that
+spiritual significance and belief which ruled in Egypt, and later on
+in Italy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--ATTIC GRAVE PAINTING. (FROM BAUMEISTER.)]
+
+A second and ever-present motive in Greek painting was decoration.
+This appears in the tomb pottery of the earliest ages, and was carried
+on down to the latest times. Vase painting, wall painting, tablet and
+sculpture painting were all done with a decorative motive in view.
+Even the easel or panel pictures had some decorative effect about
+them, though they were primarily intended to convey ideas other than
+those of form and color.
+
+SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The gods and heroes, their lives and adventures,
+formed the early subjects of Greek painting. Certain themes taken
+from the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were as frequently shown as,
+afterward, the Annunciations in Italian painting. The traditional
+subjects, the Centaurs and Lapiths, the Amazon war, Theseus and
+Ariadne, Perseus and Andromeda, were frequently depicted. Humanity and
+actual Greek life came in for its share. Single figures, still-life,
+_genre_, caricature, all were shown, and as painting neared the
+Alexandrian age a semi-realistic portraiture came into vogue.
+
+The materials employed by the Greeks and their methods of work are
+somewhat difficult to ascertain, because there are few Greek pictures,
+except those on the vases, left to us. From the confusing accounts of
+the ancient writers, the vases, some Greek slabs in Italy, and the
+Roman paintings imitative of the Greek, we may gain a general idea.
+The early Greek work was largely devoted to pottery and tomb
+decoration, in which much in manner and method was borrowed from Asia,
+Phoenicia, and Egypt. Later on, painting appeared in flat outline on
+stone or terra-cotta slabs, sometimes representing processional
+scenes, as in Egypt, and doubtless done in a hybrid fresco-work
+similar to the Egyptian method. Wall paintings were done in fresco and
+distemper, probably upon the walls themselves, and also upon panels
+afterward let into the wall. Encaustic painting (color mixed with wax
+upon the panel and fused with a hot spatula) came in with the
+Sikyonian school. It is possible that the oil medium and canvas were
+known, but not probable that either was ever used extensively.
+
+There is no doubt about the Greeks being expert draughtsmen, though
+this does not appear until late in history. They knew the outlines
+well, and drew them with force and grace. That they modelled in strong
+relief is more questionable. Light-and-shade was certainly employed in
+the figure, but not in any modern way. Perspective in both figures and
+landscape was used; but the landscape was at first symbolic and
+rarely got beyond a decorative background for the figure. Greek
+composition we know little about, but may infer that it was largely a
+series of balances, a symmetrical adjustment of objects to fill a
+given space with not very much freedom allowed to the artist. In
+atmosphere, sunlight, color, and those peculiarly sensuous charms that
+belong to painting, there is no reason to believe that the Greeks
+approached the moderns. Their interest was chiefly centred in the
+human figure. Landscape, with its many beauties, was reserved for
+modern hands to disclose. Color was used in abundance, without doubt,
+but it was probably limited to the leading hues, with little of that
+refinement or delicacy known in painting to-day.
+
+ART HISTORY: For the history of Greek painting we have to rely upon
+the words of Aristotle, Plutarch, Pliny, Quintilian, Lucian, Cicero,
+Pausanias. Their accounts appear to be partly substantiated by the
+vase paintings, and such few slabs and Roman frescos as remain to us.
+There is no consecutive narrative. The story of painting originating
+from a girl seeing the wall-silhouette of her lover and filling it in
+with color, and the conjecture of painting having developed from
+embroidery work, have neither of them a foundation in fact. The
+earliest settlers of Greece probably learned painting from the
+Phoenicians, and employed it, after the Egyptian, Assyrian, and
+Phoenician manner, on pottery, terra-cotta slabs, and rude
+sculpture. It developed slower than sculpture perhaps; but were there
+anything of importance left to judge from, we should probably find
+that it developed in much the same manner as sculpture. Down to 500
+B.C. there was little more than outline filled in with flat
+monochromatic paint and with a decorative effect similar, perhaps, to
+that of the vase paintings. After that date come the more important
+names of artists mentioned by the ancient writers. It is difficult to
+assign these artists to certain periods or schools, owing to the
+insufficient knowledge we have about them. The following
+classifications and assignments may, therefore, in some instances, be
+questioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MUSE OF CORTONA, CORTONA MUSEUM.]
+
+OLDER ATTIC SCHOOL: The first painter of rank was Polygnotus (fl.
+475-455 B.C.), sometimes called the founder of Greek painting, because
+perhaps he was one of the first important painters in Greece proper.
+He seems to have been a good outline draughtsman, producing figures in
+profile, with little attempt at relief, perspective, or
+light-and-shade. His colors were local tones, but probably more like
+nature and more varied than anything in Egyptian painting. Landscapes,
+buildings, and the like, were given in a symbolic manner. Portraiture
+was a generalization, and in figure compositions the names of the
+principal characters were written near them for purposes of
+identification. The most important works of Polygnotus were the wall
+paintings for the Assembly Room of the Knidians at Delphi. The
+subjects related to the Trojan War and the adventures of Ulysses.
+
+Opposed to this flat, unrelieved style was the work of a follower,
+Agatharchos of Samos (fl. end of fifth century B.C.). He was a
+scene-painter, and by the necessities of his craft was led toward
+nature. Stage effect required a study of perspective, variation of
+light, and a knowledge of the laws of optics. The slight outline
+drawing of his predecessor was probably superseded by effective masses
+to create illusion. This was a distinct advance toward nature.
+Apollodorus (fl. end of fifth century B.C.) applied the principles of
+Agatharchos to figures. According to Plutarch, he was the first to
+discover variation in the shade of colors, and, according to Pliny,
+the first master to paint objects as they appeared in nature. He had
+the title of _skiagraphos_ (shadow-painter), and possibly gave a
+semi-natural background with perspective. This was an improvement, but
+not a perfection. It is not likely that the backgrounds were other
+than conventional settings for the figure. Even these were not at once
+accepted by the painters of the period, but were turned to profit in
+the hands of the followers.
+
+After the Peloponnesian Wars the art of painting seems to have
+flourished elsewhere than in Athens, owing to the Athenian loss of
+supremacy. Other schools sprang up in various districts, and one to
+call for considerable mention by the ancient writers was the
+
+IONIAN SCHOOL, which in reality had existed from the sixth century.
+The painters of this school advanced upon the work of Apollodorus as
+regards realistic effect. Zeuxis, whose fame was at its height during
+the Peloponnesian Wars, seems to have regarded art as a matter of
+illusion, if one may judge by the stories told of his work. The tale
+of his painting a bunch of grapes so like reality that the birds came
+to peck at them proves either that the painter's motive was deception,
+or that the narrator of the tale picked out the deceptive part of his
+picture for admiration. He painted many subjects, like Helen,
+Penelope, and many _genre_ pieces on panel. Quintilian says he
+originated light-and-shade, an achievement credited by Plutarch to
+Apollodorus. It is probable that he advanced light-and-shade.
+
+In illusion he seems to have been outdone by a rival, Parrhasios of
+Ephesus. Zeuxis deceived the birds with painted grapes, but Parrhasios
+deceived Zeuxis with a painted curtain. There must have been knowledge
+of color, modelling, and relief to have produced such an illusion, but
+the aim was petty and unworthy of the skill. There was evidently an
+advance technically, but some decline in the true spirit of art.
+Parrhasios finally suffered defeat at the hands of Timanthes of
+Kythnos, by a Contest between Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of
+Achilles. Timanthes's famous work was the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, of
+which there is a supposed Pompeian copy.
+
+SIKYONIAN SCHOOL: This school seems to have sprung up after the
+Peloponnesian Wars, and was perhaps founded by Eupompos, a
+contemporary of Parrhasios. His pupil Pamphilos brought the school to
+maturity. He apparently reacted from the deception motive of Zeuxis
+and Parrhasios, and taught academic methods of drawing, composing, and
+painting. He was also credited with bringing into use the encaustic
+method of painting, though it was probably known before his time. His
+pupil, Pausias, possessed some freedom of creation in _genre_ and
+still-life subjects. Pliny says he had great technical skill, as shown
+in the foreshortening of a black ox by variations of the black tones,
+and he obtained some fame by a figure of Methè (Intoxication) drinking
+from a glass, the face being seen through the glass. Again the
+motives seem trifling, but again advancing technical power is shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ODYSSEY LANDSCAPE, VATICAN. (FROM WOLTMANN AND
+WOERMANN.)]
+
+THEBAN-ATTIC SCHOOL: This was the fourth school of Greek painting.
+Nikomachus (fl. about 360 B.C.), a facile painter, was at its head.
+His pupil, Aristides, painted pathetic scenes, and was perhaps as
+remarkable for teaching art to the celebrated Euphranor (fl. 360 B.C.)
+as for his own productions. Euphranor had great versatility in the
+arts, and in painting was renowned for his pictures of the Olympian
+gods at Athens. His successor, Nikias (fl. 340-300 B.C.), was a
+contemporary of Praxiteles, the sculptor, and was possibly influenced
+by him in the painting of female figures. He was a technician of
+ability in composition, light-and-shade, and relief, and was praised
+for the roundness of his figures. He also did some tinting of
+sculpture, and is said to have tinted some of the works of
+Praxiteles.
+
+LATE PAINTERS: Contemporary with and following these last-named
+artists were some celebrated painters who really belong to the
+beginning of the Hellenistic Period (323 B.C.). At their head was
+Apelles, the painter of Philip and Alexander, and the climax of Greek
+painting. He painted many gods, heroes, and allegories, with much
+"gracefulness," as Pliny puts it. The Italian Botticelli, seventeen
+hundred years after him, tried to reproduce his celebrated Calumny,
+from Lucian's description of it. His chief works were his Aphrodite
+Anadyomene, carried to Rome by Augustus, and the portrait of Alexander
+with the Thunder-bolt. He was undoubtedly a superior man technically.
+Protogenes rivalled him, if we are to believe Petronius, by the foam
+on a dog's mouth and the wonder in the eye of a startled pheasant.
+Aëtion, the painter of Alexander's Marriage to Roxana, was not able to
+turn the aim of painting from this deceptive illusion. After
+Alexander, painting passed still further into the imitative and the
+theatrical, and when not grandiloquent was infinitely little over
+cobbler-shops and huckster-stalls. Landscape for purposes of
+decorative composition, and floor painting, done in mosaic, came in
+during the time of the Diadochi. There were no great names in the
+latter days, and such painters as still flourished passed on to Rome,
+there to produce copies of the works of their predecessors.
+
+It is hard to reconcile the unworthy motive attributed to Greek
+painting by the ancient writers with the high aim of Greek sculpture.
+It is easier to think (and it is more probable) that the writers knew
+very little about art, and that they missed the spirit of Greek
+painting in admiring its insignificant details. That painting
+technically was at a high point of perfection as regards the figure,
+even the imitative Roman works indicate, and it can hardly be doubted
+that in spirit it was at one time equally strong.
+
+     EXTANT REMAINS: There are few wall or panel pictures of
+     Greek times in existence. Four slabs of stone in the Naples
+     Museum, with red outline drawings of Theseus, Silenos, and
+     some figures with masks, are probably Greek work from which
+     the color has scaled. A number of Roman copies of Greek
+     frescos and mosaics are in the Vatican, Capitoline, and
+     Naples Museums. All these pieces show an imitation of late
+     Hellenistic art--not the best period of Greek development.
+
+     THE VASES: The history of Greek painting in its remains is
+     traced with some accuracy in the decorative figures upon the
+     vases. The first ware--dating before the seventh century
+     B.C.--seems free from oriental influences in its designs.
+     The vase is reddish, the decoration is in tiers, bands, or
+     zig-zags, usually in black or brown, without the human
+     figure. The second kind of ware dates from about the middle
+     of the seventh century. It shows meander, wave, and other
+     designs, and is called the "geometrical" style. Later on
+     animals, rosettes, and vegetation appear that show Assyrian
+     influence. The decoration is profuse and the rude human
+     figure subordinate to it. The design is in black or
+     dark-brown, on a cream-colored slip. The third kind of ware
+     is the archaic or "strong" style. It dates from 500 B.C. to
+     the Peloponnesian Wars, and is marked by black figures upon
+     a yellow or red ground. White and purple are also used to
+     define flesh, hair, and white objects. The figure is stiff,
+     the action awkward, the composition is freer than before,
+     but still conventional. The subjects are the gods,
+     demi-gods, and heroes in scenes from their lives and
+     adventures. The fourth kind of ware dates down into the
+     Hellenistic age and shows red figures surrounded by a black
+     ground. The figure, the drawing, the composition are better
+     than at any other period and suggest a high excellence in
+     other forms of Greek painting. After Alexander, vase
+     painting seems to have shared the fate of wall and panel
+     painting. There was a striving for effect, with ornateness
+     and extravagance, and finally the art passed out entirely.
+
+     There was an establishment founded in Southern Italy which
+     imitated the Greek and produced the Apulian ware, but the
+     Romans gave little encouragement to vase painting, and about
+     65 B.C. it disappeared. Almost all the museums of the world
+     have collections of Greek vases. The British, Berlin, and
+     Paris collections are perhaps as complete as any.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--AMPHORE, LOWER ITALY.]
+
+
+ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: See Bibliography of Greek Painting and
+     also Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_; Graul, _Die
+     Portratgemalde aus den Grabstatten des Faiyum_; Helbig, _Die
+     Wandgemalde Campaniens_; Helbig, _Untersuchungen uber die
+     Campanische Wandmalerei_; Mau, _Geschichte der Decorativen
+     Wandmalerei in Pompeii_; Martha, _L'Archéologie Étrusque et
+     Romaine_.
+
+
+ETRUSCAN PAINTING: Painting in Etruria has not a great deal of
+interest for us just here. It was largely decorative and sepulchral in
+motive, and was employed in the painting of tombs, and upon vases and
+other objects placed in the tombs. It had a native way of expressing
+itself, which at first was neither Greek nor Oriental, and yet a
+reminder of both. Technically it was not well done. Before 500 B.C. it
+was almost childish in the drawing. After that date the figures were
+better, though short and squat. Those on the vases usually show
+outline drawing filled in with dull browns and yellows. Finally there
+was a mingling of Etruscan with Greek elements, and an imitation of
+Greek methods. It was at best a hybrid art, but of some importance
+from an archæological point of view.
+
+ROMAN PAINTING: Roman art is an appendix to the art history of Greece.
+It originated little in painting, and was content to perpetuate the
+traditions of Greece in an imitative way. What was worse, it copied
+the degeneracy of Greece by following the degenerate Hellenistic
+paintings. In motive and method it was substantially the same work as
+that of the Greeks under the Diadochi. The subjects, again, were often
+taken from Greek story, though there were Roman historical scenes,
+_genre_ pieces, and many portraits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--RITUAL SCENE, PALATINE WALL PAINTING. (FROM
+WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)]
+
+In the beginning of the Empire tablet or panel painting was rather
+abandoned in favor of mural decoration. That is to say, figures or
+groups were painted in fresco on the wall and then surrounded by
+geometrical, floral, or architectural designs to give the effect of a
+panel let into the wall. Thus painting assumed a more decorative
+nature. Vitruvius says in effect that in the early days nature was
+followed in these wall paintings, but later on they became ornate and
+overdone, showing many unsupported architectural façades and
+impossible decorative framings. This can be traced in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There were four kinds of these wall paintings. (1.)
+Those that covered all the walls of a room and did away with dado,
+frieze, and the like, such as figures with large landscape
+backgrounds showing villas and trees. (2.) Small paintings separated
+or framed by pilasters. (3.) Panel pictures let into the wall or
+painted with that effect. (4.) Single figures with architectural
+backgrounds. The single figures were usually the best. They had grace
+of line and motion and all the truth to nature that decoration
+required. Some of the backgrounds were flat tints of red or black
+against which the figure was placed. In the larger pieces the
+composition was rather rambling and disjointed, and the color harsh.
+In light-and-shade and relief they probably followed the Greek
+example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PORTRAIT-HEAD. (FROM FAYOUM, GRAF COL.)]
+
+ROMAN PAINTERS: During the first five centuries Rome was between the
+influences of Etruria and Greece. The first paintings in Rome of which
+there is record were done in the Temple of Ceres by the Greek artists
+of Lower Italy, Gorgasos and Damophilos (fl. 493 B.C.). They were
+doubtless somewhat like the vase paintings--profile work, without
+light, shade, or perspective. At the time and after Alexander Greek
+influence held sway. Fabius Pictor (fl. about 300 B.C.) is one of the
+celebrated names in historical painting, and later on Pacuvius,
+Metrodorus, and Serapion are mentioned. In the last century of the
+Republic, Sopolis, Dionysius, and Antiochus Gabinius excelled in
+portraiture. Ancient painting really ends for us with the destruction
+of Pompeii (79 A.D.), though after that there were interesting
+portraits produced, especially those found in the Fayoum (Egypt).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Scribner's Magazine, vol. v., p. 219, New Series.]
+
+     EXTANT REMAINS: The frescos that are left to us to-day are
+     largely the work of mechanical decorators rather than
+     creative artists. They are to be seen in Rome, in the Baths
+     of Titus, the Vatican, Livia's Villa, Farnesina,
+     Rospigliosi, and Barberini Palaces, Baths of Caracalla,
+     Capitoline and Lateran Museums, in the houses of excavated
+     Pompeii, and the Naples Museum. Besides these there are
+     examples of Roman fresco and distemper in the Louvre and
+     other European Museums. Examples of Etruscan painting are to
+     be seen in the Vatican, Cortona, the Louvre, the British
+     Museum and elsewhere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIÆVAL PERIOD. 200-1250.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bayet, _L'Art Byzantin_; Bennett,
+     _Christian Archæology_; Bosio, _La Roma Sotterranea_;
+     Burckhardt, _The Cicerone, an Art Guide to Painting in
+     Italy, ed. by Crowe_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _New History
+     of Painting in Italy_; De Rossi, _La Roma Sotterranea
+     Cristiana_; De Rossi, _Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana_;
+     Didron, _Christian Iconography_; Eastlake (Kügler's),
+     _Handbook of Painting--The Italian Schools_; Garrucci,
+     _Storia dell' Arte Cristiana_; Gerspach, _La Mosaïque_;
+     Lafenestre, _La Peinture Italienne_; Lanzi, _History of
+     Painting in Italy_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Les Manuscrits et
+     la Miniature_; Lindsay, _Sketches of the History of
+     Christian Art_; Martigny, _Dictionnaire des Antiques
+     Chrétiennes_; Pératé, _L'Archeologie Chretienne_; Reber,
+     _History of Mediæval Art_; Rio, _Poetry of Christian Art_;
+     Lethaby, _Medieval Art_; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+     Christian Antiquities_.
+
+
+RISE OF CHRISTIANITY: Out of the decaying civilization of Rome sprang
+into life that remarkable growth known as Christianity. It was not
+welcomed by the Romans. It was scoffed at, scourged, persecuted, and,
+at one time, nearly exterminated. But its vitality was stronger than
+that of its persecutor, and when Rome declined, Christianity utilized
+the things that were Roman, while striving to live for ideas that were
+Christian.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CHAMBER IN CATACOMBS, SHOWING WALL
+DECORATION.]
+
+There was no revolt, no sudden change. The Christian idea made haste
+slowly, and at the start it was weighed down with many paganisms. The
+Christians themselves in all save religious faith, were Romans, and
+inherited Roman tastes, manners, and methods. But the Roman world,
+with all its classicism and learning, was dying. The decline socially
+and intellectually was with the Christians as well as the Romans.
+There was good reason for it. The times were out of joint, and almost
+everything was disorganized, worn out, decadent. The military life of
+the Empire had begun to give way to the monastic and feudal life of
+the Church. Quarrels and wars between the powers kept life at fever
+heat. In the fifth century came the inpouring of the Goths and Huns,
+and with them the sacking and plunder of the land. Misery and
+squalor, with intellectual blackness, succeeded. Art, science,
+literature, and learning degenerated to mere shadows of their former
+selves, and a semi-barbarism reigned for five centuries. During all
+this dark period Christian painting struggled on in a feeble way,
+seeking to express itself. It started Roman in form, method, and even,
+at times, in subject; it ended Christian, but not without a long
+period of gradual transition, during which it was influenced from many
+sources and underwent many changes.
+
+ART MOTIVES: As in the ancient world, there were two principal motives
+for painting in early Christian times--religion and decoration.
+Religion was the chief motive, but Christianity was a very different
+religion from that of the Greeks and Romans. The Hellenistic faith was
+a worship of nature, a glorification of humanity, an exaltation of
+physical and moral perfections. It dealt with the material and the
+tangible, and Greek art appealed directly to the sensuous and earthly
+nature of mankind. The Hebraic faith or Christianity was just the
+opposite of this. It decried the human, the flesh, and the worldly. It
+would have nothing to do with the beauty of this earth. Its hopes were
+centred upon the life hereafter. The teaching of Christ was the
+humility and the abasement of the human in favor of the spiritual and
+the divine. Where Hellenism appealed to the senses, Hebraism appealed
+to the spirit. In art the fine athletic figure, or, for that matter,
+any figure, was an abomination. The early Church fathers opposed it.
+It was forbidden by the Mosaic decalogue and savored of idolatry.
+
+But what should take its place in art? How could the new Christian
+ideas be expressed without form? Symbolism came in, but it was
+insufficient. A party in the Church rose up in favor of more direct
+representation. Art should be used as an engine of the Church to teach
+the Bible to those who could not read. This argument held good, and
+notwithstanding the opposition of the Iconoclastic party painting grew
+in favor. It lent itself to teaching and came under ecclesiastical
+domination. As it left the nature of the classic world and loosened
+its grasp on things tangible it became feeble and decrepit in its
+form. While it grew in sentiment and religious fervor it lost in
+bodily vigor and technical ability.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CATACOMB FRESCO. CRYPT OF S. CECILIA. THIRD
+CENTURY.]
+
+For many centuries the religious motive held strong, and art was the
+servant of the Church. It taught the Bible truths, but it also
+embellished and adorned the interiors of the churches. All the
+frescos, mosaics, and altar-pieces had a decorative motive in their
+coloring and setting. The church building was a house of refuge for
+the oppressed, and it was made attractive not only in its lines and
+proportions but in its ornamentation. Hence the two motives of the
+early work--religious teaching and decoration.
+
+SUBJECTS AND TECHNICAL METHODS: There was no distinct Judaic or
+Christian type used in the very early art. The painters took their
+models directly from the Roman frescos and marbles. It was the classic
+figure and the classic costume, and those who produced the painting
+of the early period were the degenerate painters of the classic world.
+The figure was rather short and squat, coarse in the joints, hands,
+and feet, and almost expressionless in the face. Christian life at
+that time was passion-strung, but the faces in art do not show it, for
+the reason that the Roman frescos were the painter's model, not the
+people of the Christian community about him. There was nothing like a
+realistic presentation at this time. The type alone was given.
+
+In the drawing it was not so good as that shown in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There was a mechanism about its production, a
+copying by unskilled hands, a negligence or an ignorance of form that
+showed everywhere. The coloring, again, was a conventional scheme of
+flat tints in reddish-browns and bluish-greens, with heavy outline
+bands of brown. There was little perspective or background, and the
+figures in panels were separated by vines, leaves, or other ornamental
+division lines. Some relief was given to the figure by the brown
+outlines. Light-and-shade was not well rendered, and composition was
+formal. The great part of this early work was done in fresco after the
+Roman formula, and was executed on the walls of the Catacombs. Other
+forms of art showed in the gilded glasses, in manuscript illumination,
+and, later, in the mosaics.
+
+Technically the work begins to decline from the beginning in
+proportion as painting was removed from the knowledge of the ancient
+world. About the fifth century the figure grew heavy and stiff. A new
+type began to show itself. The Roman toga was exchanged for the long
+liturgical garment which hid the proportions of the body, the lines
+grew hard and dark, a golden nimbus appeared about the head, and the
+patriarchal in appearance came into art. The youthful Orphic face of
+Christ changed to a solemn visage, with large, round eyes, saint-like
+beard, and melancholy air. The classic qualities were fast
+disappearing. Eastern types and elements were being introduced
+through Byzantium. Oriental ornamentation, gold embossing, rich color
+were doing away with form, perspective, light-and-shade, and
+background.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--CHRIST AS GOOD SHEPHERD. MOSAIC, RAVENNA,
+FIFTH CENTURY.]
+
+The color was rich and the mechanical workmanship fair for the time,
+but the figure had become paralytic. It shrouded itself in a sack-like
+brocaded gown, had no feet at times, and instead of standing on the
+ground hung in the air. Facial expression ran to contorted features,
+holiness became moroseness, and sadness sulkiness. The flesh was
+brown, the shadows green-tinted, giving an unhealthy look to the
+faces. Add to this the gold ground (a Persian inheritance), the gilded
+high lights, the absence of perspective, and the composing of groups
+so that the figures looked piled one upon another instead of receding,
+and we have the style of painting that prevailed in Byzantium and
+Italy from about the ninth to the thirteenth century. Nothing of a
+technical nature was in its favor except the rich coloring and the
+mechanical adroitness of the fitting.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING: The earliest Christian painting appeared on
+the walls of the Catacombs in Rome. These were decorated with panels
+and within the panels were representations of trailing vines, leaves,
+fruits, flowers, with birds and little genii or cupids. It was
+painting similar to the Roman work, and had no Christian significance
+though in a Christian place. Not long after, however, the desire to
+express something of the faith began to show itself in a symbolic way.
+The cups and the vases became marked with the fish, because the Greek
+spelling of the word "icthus" gave the initials of the Christian
+confession of faith. The paintings of the shepherd bearing a sheep
+symbolized Christ and his flock; the anchor meant the Christian hope;
+the phoenix immortality; the ship the Church; the cock watchfulness,
+and so on. And at this time the decorations began to have a double
+meaning. The vine came to represent the "I am the vine" and the birds
+grew longer wings and became doves, symbolizing pure Christian souls.
+
+It has been said this form of art came about through fear of
+persecution, that the Christians hid their ideas in symbols because
+open representation would be followed by violence and desecration.
+Such was hardly the case. The emperors persecuted the living, but the
+dead and their sepulchres were exempt from sacrilege by Roman law.
+They probably used the symbol because they feared the Roman figure and
+knew no other form to take its place. But symbolism did not supply the
+popular need; it was impossible to originate an entirely new figure;
+so the painters went back and borrowed the old Roman form. Christ
+appeared as a beardless youth in Phrygian costume, the Virgin Mary was
+a Roman matron, and the Apostles looked like Roman senators wearing
+the toga.
+
+Classic story was also borrowed to illustrate Bible truth. Hermes
+carrying the sheep was the Good Shepherd, Psyche discovering Cupid was
+the curiosity of Eve, Ulysses closing his ears to the Sirens was the
+Christian resisting the tempter. The pagan Orpheus charming the
+animals of the wood was finally adopted as a symbol, or perhaps an
+ideal likeness of Christ. Then followed more direct representation in
+classic form and manner, the Old Testament prefiguring and emphasizing
+the New. Jonah appeared cast into the sea and cast by the whale on dry
+land again as a symbol of the New Testament resurrection, and also as
+a representation of the actual occurrence. Moses striking the rock
+symbolized life eternal, and David slaying Goliath was Christ
+victorious.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--CHRIST AND SAINTS. FRESCO. S. GENEROSA,
+SEVENTH CENTURY (?).]
+
+The chronology of the Catacombs painting is very much mixed, but it is
+quite certain there was degeneracy from the start. The cause was
+neglect of form, neglect of art as art, mechanical copying instead of
+nature study, and finally, the predominance of the religious idea over
+the forms of nature. With Constantine Christianity was recognized as
+the national religion. Christian art came out of the Catacombs and
+began to show itself in illuminations, mosaics, and church
+decorations. Notwithstanding it was now free from restraint it did not
+improve. Church traditions prevailed, sentiment bordered upon
+sentimentality, and the technic of painting passed from bad to worse.
+
+The decline continued during the sixth and seventh centuries, owing
+somewhat perhaps to the influence of Byzantium and the introduction
+into Italy of Eastern types and elements. In the eighth century the
+Iconoclastic controversy broke out again in fury with the edict of Leo
+the Isaurian. This controversy was a renewal of the old quarrel in the
+Church about the use of pictures and images. Some wished them for
+instruction in the Word; others decried them as leading to idolatry.
+It was a long quarrel of over a hundred years' duration, and a deadly
+one for art. When it ended, the artists were ordered to follow the
+traditions, not to make any new creations, and not to model any figure
+in the round. The nature element in art was quite dead at that time,
+and the order resulted only in diverting the course of painting toward
+the unrestricted miniatures and manuscripts. The native Italian art
+was crushed for a time by this new ecclesiastical burden. It did not
+entirely disappear, but it gave way to the stronger, though equally
+restricted art that had been encroaching upon it for a long time--the
+art of Byzantium.
+
+BYZANTINE PAINTING: Constantinople was rebuilt and rechristened by
+Constantine, a Christian emperor, in the year 328 A.D. It became a
+stronghold of Christian traditions, manners, customs, art. But it was
+not quite the same civilization as that of Rome and the West. It was
+bordered on the south and east by oriental influences, and much of
+Eastern thought, method, and glamour found its way into the Christian
+community. The artists fought this influence, stickling a long time
+for the severer classicism of ancient Greece. For when Rome fell the
+traditions of the Old World centred around Constantinople. But classic
+form was ever being encroached upon by oriental richness of material
+and color. The struggle was a long but hopeless one. As in Italy,
+form failed century by century. When, in the eighth century, the
+Iconoclastic controversy cut away the little Greek existing in it, the
+oriental ornament was about all that remained.
+
+There was no chance for painting to rise under the prevailing
+conditions. Free artistic creation was denied the artist. An advocate
+of painting at the Second Nicene Council declared that: "It is not the
+invention of the painter that creates the picture, but an inviolable
+law of the Catholic Church. It is not the painter but the holy fathers
+who have to invent and dictate. To them manifestly belongs the
+composition, to the painter only the execution." Painting was in a
+strait-jacket. It had to follow precedent and copy what had gone
+before in old Byzantine patterns. Both in Italy and in Byzantium the
+creative artist had passed away in favor of the skilled artisan--the
+repeater of time-honored forms or colors. The workmanship was good for
+the time, and the coloring and ornamental borders made a rich setting,
+but the real life of art had gone. A long period of heavy, morose,
+almost formless art, eloquent of mediæval darkness and ignorance,
+followed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--EZEKIEL BEFORE THE LORD. MS. ILLUMINATION.
+PARIS, NINTH CENTURY.]
+
+It is strange that such an art should be adopted by foreign nations,
+and yet it was. Its bloody crucifixions and morbid madonnas were well
+fitted to the dark view of life held during the Middle Ages, and its
+influence was wide-spread and of long duration. It affected French and
+German art, it ruled at the North, and in the East it lives even to
+this day. That it strongly affected Italy is a very apparent fact.
+Just when it first began to show its influence there is matter of
+dispute. It probably gained a foothold at Ravenna in the sixth
+century, when that province became a part of the empire of Justinian.
+Later it permeated Rome, Sicily, and Naples at the south, and Venice
+at the north. With the decline of the early Christian art of Italy
+this richer, and in many ways more acceptable, Byzantine art came in,
+and, with Italian modifications, usurped the field. It did not
+literally crush out the native Italian art, but practically it
+superseded it, or held it in check, from the ninth to the twelfth
+century. After that the corrupted Italian art once more came to the
+front.
+
+     EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE REMAINS: The best examples of
+     Early Christian painting are still to be seen in the
+     Catacombs at Rome. Mosaics in the early churches of Rome,
+     Ravenna, Naples, Venice, Constantinople. Sculptures,
+     ivories, and glasses in the Lateran, Ravenna, and Vatican
+     museums. Illuminations in Vatican and Paris libraries.
+     Almost all the museums of Europe, those of the Vatican and
+     Naples particularly, have some examples of Byzantine work.
+     The older altar-pieces of the early Italian churches date
+     back to the mediæval period and show Byzantine influence.
+     The altar-pieces of the Greek and Russian churches show the
+     same influence even in modern work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+GOTHIC PERIOD. 1250-1400.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+     Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Lindsay, Reber;
+     also Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in the National Gallery,
+     London_ (_unabridged edition_); Cartier, _Vie de Fra
+     Angelico_; Förster, _Leben und Werke des Fra Angelico_;
+     Habich, _Vade Mecum pour la Peinture Italienne des Anciens
+     Maîtres_; Lacroix, _Les Arts au Moyen-Age et à la Époque de
+     la Renaissance_; Mantz, _Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de la Peinture
+     Italienne_; Morelli, _Italian Masters in German Galleries_;
+     Morelli, _Italian Masters, Critical Studies in their Works_;
+     Rumohr, _Italienische Forschungen_; Selincourt, _Giotto_;
+     Stillman, _Old Italian Masters_; Vasari, _Lives of the Most
+     Eminent Painters_; consult also General Bibliography (p.
+     xv).
+
+
+SIGNS OF THE AWAKENING: It would seem at first as though nothing but
+self-destruction could come to that struggling, praying,
+throat-cutting population that terrorized Italy during the Mediæval
+Period. The people were ignorant, the rulers treacherous, the passions
+strong, and yet out of the Dark Ages came light. In the thirteenth
+century the light grew brighter, but the internal dissensions did not
+cease. The Hohenstaufen power was broken, the imperial rule in Italy
+was crushed. Pope and emperor no longer warred each other, but the
+cries of "Guelf" and "Ghibelline" had not died out.
+
+Throughout the entire Romanesque and Gothic periods (1000-1400) Italy
+was torn by political wars, though the free cities, through their
+leagues of protection and their commerce, were prosperous. A
+commercial rivalry sprang up among the cities. Trade with the East,
+manufactures, banking, all flourished; and even the philosophies, with
+law, science, and literature, began to be studied. The spirit of
+learning showed itself in the founding of schools and universities.
+Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, reflecting respectively religion,
+classic learning, and the inclination toward nature, lived and gave
+indication of the trend of thought. Finally the arts, architecture,
+sculpture, painting, began to stir and take upon themselves new
+appearances.
+
+SUBJECTS AND METHODS: In painting, though there were some portraits
+and allegorical scenes produced during the Gothic period, the chief
+theme was Bible story. The Church was the patron, and art was only the
+servant, as it had been from the beginning. It was the instructor and
+consoler of the faithful, a means whereby the Church made converts,
+and an adornment of wall and altar. It had not entirely escaped from
+symbolism. It was still the portrayal of things for what they meant,
+rather than for what they looked. There was no such thing then as art
+for art's sake. It was art for religion's sake.
+
+The demand for painting increased, and its subjects multiplied with
+the establishment at this time of the two powerful orders of Dominican
+and Franciscan monks. The first exacted from the painters more learned
+and instructive work; the second wished for the crucifixions, the
+martyrdoms, the dramatic deaths, wherewith to move people by emotional
+appeal. To offset this the ultra-religious character of painting was
+encroached upon somewhat by the growth of the painters' guilds, and
+art production largely passing into the hands of laymen. In
+consequence painting produced many themes, but, as yet, only after the
+Byzantine style. The painter was more of a workman than an artist. The
+Church had more use for his fingers than for his creative ability. It
+was his business to transcribe what had gone before. This he did, but
+not without signs here and there of uneasiness and discontent with the
+pattern. There was an inclination toward something truer to nature,
+but, as yet, no great realization of it. The study of nature came in
+very slowly, and painting was not positive in statement until the time
+of Giotto and Lorenzetti.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--GIOTTO, FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. ARENA CHAP.
+PADUA.]
+
+The best paintings during the Gothic period were executed upon the
+walls of the churches in fresco. The prepared color was laid on wet
+plaster, and allowed to soak in. The small altar and panel pictures
+were painted in distemper, the gold ground and many Byzantine features
+being retained by most of the painters, though discarded by some few.
+
+CHANGES IN THE TYPE, ETC.: The advance of Italian art in the Gothic
+age was an advance through the development of the imposed Byzantine
+pattern. It was not a revolt or a starting out anew on a wholly
+original path. When people began to stir intellectually the artists
+found that the old Byzantine model did not look like nature. They
+began, not by rejecting it, but by improving it, giving it slight
+movements here and there, turning the head, throwing out a hand, or
+shifting the folds of drapery. The Eastern type was still seen in the
+long pathetic face, oblique eyes, green flesh tints, stiff robes, thin
+fingers, and absence of feet; but the painters now began to modify and
+enliven it. More realistic Italian faces were introduced,
+architectural and landscape backgrounds encroached upon the Byzantine
+gold grounds, even portraiture was taken up.
+
+This looks very much like realism, but we must not lay too much stress
+upon it. The painters were taking notes of natural appearances. It
+showed in features like the hands, feet, and drapery; but the anatomy
+of the body had not yet been studied, and there is no reason to
+believe their study of the face was more than casual, nor their
+portraits more than records from memory.
+
+No one painter began this movement. The whole artistic region of Italy
+was at that time ready for the advance. That all the painters moved at
+about the same pace, and continued to move at that pace down to the
+fifteenth century, that they all based themselves upon Byzantine
+teaching, and that they all had a similar style of working is proved
+by the great difficulty in attributing their existing pictures to
+certain masters, or even certain schools. There are plenty of pictures
+in Italy to-day that might be attributed to either Florence or Sienna,
+Giotto or Lorenzetti, or some other master; because though each master
+and each school had slight peculiarities, yet they all had a common
+origin in the art traditions of the time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ORCAGNA, PARADISE (DETAIL). S. M. NOVELLA,
+FLORENCE.]
+
+FLORENTINE SCHOOL: Cimabue (1240?-1302?) seems the most notable
+instance in early times of a Byzantine-educated painter who improved
+upon the traditions. He has been called the father of Italian
+painting, but Italian painting had no father. Cimabue was simply a man
+of more originality and ability than his contemporaries, and departed
+further from the art teachings of the time without decidedly opposing
+them. He retained the Byzantine pattern, but loosened the lines of
+drapery somewhat, turned the head to one side, infused the figure with
+a little appearance of life. His contemporaries elsewhere in Italy
+were doing the same thing, and none of them was any more than a link
+in the progressive chain.
+
+Cimabue's pupil, Giotto (1266?-1337), was a great improver on all his
+predecessors because he was a man of extraordinary genius. He would
+have been great in any time, and yet he was not great enough to throw
+off wholly the Byzantine traditions. He tried to do it. He studied
+nature in a general way, changed the type of face somewhat by making
+the jaw squarer, and gave it expression and nobility. To the figure he
+gave more motion, dramatic gesture, life. The drapery was cast in
+broader, simpler masses, with some regard for line, and the form and
+movement of the body were somewhat emphasized through it. In methods
+Giotto was more knowing, but not essentially different from his
+contemporaries; his subjects were from the common stock of religious
+story; but his imaginative force and invention were his own. Bound by
+the conventionalities of his time he could still create a work of
+nobility and power. He came too early for the highest achievement. He
+had genius, feeling, fancy, almost everything except accurate
+knowledge of the laws of nature and art. His art was the best of its
+time, but it still lacked, nor did that of his immediate followers go
+much beyond it technically.
+
+Taddeo Gaddi (1300?-1366?) was Giotto's chief pupil, a painter of much
+feeling, but lacking in the large elements of construction and in the
+dramatic force of his master. Agnolo Gaddi (1333?-1396?), Antonio
+Veneziano (1312?-1388?), Giovanni da Milano (fl. 1366), Andrea da
+Firenze (fl. 1377), were all followers of the Giotto methods, and were
+so similar in their styles that their works are often confused and
+erroneously attributed. Giottino (1324?-1357?) was a supposed imitator
+of Giotto, of whom little is known. Orcagna (1329?-1376?) still
+further advanced the Giottesque type and method. He gathered up and
+united in himself all the art teachings of his time. In working out
+problems of form and in delicacy and charm of expression he went
+beyond his predecessors. He was a many-sided genius, knowing not only
+in a matter of natural appearance, but in color problems, in
+perspective, shadows, and light. His art was further along toward the
+Renaissance than that of any other Giottesque. He almost changed the
+character of painting, and yet did not live near enough to the
+fifteenth century to accomplish it completely. Spinello Aretino
+(1332?-1410?) was the last of the great Giotto followers. He carried
+out the teachings of the school in technical features, such as
+composition, drawing, and relief by color rather than by light, but he
+lacked the creative power of Giotto. In fact, none of the Giottesque
+can be said to have improved upon the master, taking him as a whole.
+Toward the beginning of the fifteenth century the school rather
+declined.
+
+SIENNESE SCHOOL: The art teachings and traditions of the past seemed
+deeper rooted at Sienna than at Florence. Nor was there so much
+attempt to shake them off as at Florence. Giotto broke the immobility
+of the Byzantine model by showing the draped figure in action. So also
+did the Siennese to some extent, but they cared more for the
+expression of the spiritual than the beauty of the natural. The
+Florentines were robust, resolute, even a little coarse at times; the
+Siennese were more refined and sentimental. Their fancy ran to
+sweetness of face rather than to bodily vigor. Again, their art was
+more ornate, richer in costume, color, and detail than Florentine art;
+but it was also more finical and narrow in scope.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A. LORENZETTI. PEACE (DETAIL). TOWN-HALL,
+SIENNA.]
+
+There was little advance upon Byzantinism in the work of Guido da
+Sienna (fl. 1275). Even Duccio (1260?----?), the real founder of the
+Siennese school, retained Byzantine methods and adopted the school
+subjects, but he perfected details of form, such as the hands and
+feet, and while retaining the long Byzantine face, gave it a
+melancholy tenderness of expression. He possessed no dramatic force,
+but had a refined workmanship for his time--a workmanship perhaps
+better, all told, than that of his Florentine contemporary, Cimabue.
+Simone di Martino (1283?-1344?) changed the type somewhat by rounding
+the form. His drawing was not always correct, but in color he was good
+and in detail exact and minute. He probably profited somewhat by the
+example of Giotto.
+
+The Siennese who came the nearest to Giotto's excellence were the
+brothers Ambrogio (fl. 1342) and Pietro (fl. 1350) Lorenzetti. There
+is little known about them except that they worked together in a
+similar manner. The most of their work has perished, but what remains
+shows an intellectual grasp equal to any of the age. The Sienna
+frescos by Ambrogio Lorenzetti are strong in facial character, and
+some of the figures, like that of the white-robed Peace, are beautiful
+in their flow of line. Lippo Memmi (?-1356), Bartolo di Fredi
+(1330-1410), and Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422), were other painters of
+the school. The late men rather carried detail to excess, and the
+school grew conventional instead of advancing.
+
+TRANSITION PAINTERS: Several painters, Starnina (1354-1413), Gentile
+da Fabriano (1360?-1440?), Fra Angelico (1387-1455), have been put
+down in art history as the makers of the transition from Gothic to
+Renaissance painting. They hardly deserve the title. There was no
+transition. The development went on, and these painters, coming late
+in the fourteenth century and living into the fifteenth, simply showed
+the changing style, the advance in the study of nature and the technic
+of art. Starnina's work gave strong evidence of the study of form, but
+it was no such work as Masaccio's. There is always a little of the
+past in the present, and these painters showed traces of Byzantinism
+in details of the face and figure, in coloring, and in gold embossing.
+
+Gentile had all that nicety of finish and richness of detail and color
+characteristic of the Siennese. Being closer to the Renaissance than
+his predecessors he was more of a nature student. He was the first man
+to show the effect of sunlight in landscape, the first one to put a
+gold sun in the sky. He never, however, outgrew Gothic methods and
+really belongs in the fourteenth century. This is true of Fra
+Angelico. Though he lived far into the Early Renaissance he did not
+change his style and manner of work in conformity with the work of
+others about him. He was the last inheritor of the Giottesque
+traditions. Religious sentiment was the strong feature of his art. He
+was behind Giotto and Lorenzetti in power and in imagination, and
+behind Orcagna as a painter. He knew little of light, shade,
+perspective, and color, and in characterization was feeble, except in
+some late work. One face or type answered him for all classes of
+people--a sweet, fair face, full of divine tenderness. His art had
+enough nature in it to express his meanings, but little more. He was
+pre-eminently a devout painter, and really the last of the great
+religionists in painting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--FRA ANGELICO. ANGEL (DETAIL). UFFIZI.]
+
+The other regions of Italy had not at this time developed schools of
+painting of sufficient consequence to mention.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Cimabue, Madonnas S. M.
+     Novella and Acad. Florence, frescos Upper Church of Assisi
+     (?); Giotto, frescos Upper and Lower churches Assisi, best
+     work Arena chapel Padua, Bardi and Peruzzi chapels S. Croce,
+     injured frescos Bargello Florence; Taddeo Gaddi, frescos
+     entrance wall Baroncelli chapel S. Croce, Spanish chapel S.
+     M. Novella (designed by Gaddi (?)); Agnolo Gaddi frescos in
+     choir S. Croce, S. Jacopo tra Fossi Florence, panel pictures
+     Florence Acad.; Giovanni da Milano, Bewailing of Christ
+     Florence Acad., Virgin enthroned Prato Gal., altar-piece
+     Uffizi Gal., frescos S. Croce Florence; Antonio Veneziano,
+     frescos in ceiling of Spanish chapel, S. M. Novella, Campo
+     Santo Pisa; Orcagna, altar-piece Last Judgment and Paradise
+     Strozzi chapel S. M. Novella, S. Zenobio Duomo, Saints
+     Medici chapel S. Croce, Descent of Holy Spirit Badia
+     Florence, altar-piece Nat. Gal. Lon.; Spinello Aretino, Life
+     of St. Benedict S. Miniato al Monte near Florence,
+     Annunciation Convent degl' Innocenti Arezzo, frescos Campo
+     Santo Pisa, Coronation Florence Acad., Barbarossa frescos
+     Palazzo Publico Sienna; Andrea da Firenze, Church Militant,
+     Calvary, Crucifixion Spanish chapel, Upper series of Life of
+     S. Raniera Campo Santo Pisa.
+
+     SIENNESE--Guido da Sienna, Madonna S. Domenico Sienna;
+     Duccio, panels Duomo and Acad. Sienna, Madonna Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Simone di Martino, frescos Palazzo Pubblico, Sienna,
+     altar-piece and panels Seminario Vescovile, Pisa Gal.,
+     altar-piece and Madonna Opera del Duomo Orvieto; Lippo
+     Memmi, frescos Palazzo del Podesta S. Gemignano,
+     Annunciation Uffizi Florence; Bartolo di Fredi, altar-pieces
+     Acad. Sienna, S. Francesco Montalcino; Taddeo di Bartolo,
+     Palazzo Pubblico Sienna, Duomo, S. Gemignano, S. Francesco
+     Pisa; Ambrogio Lorenzetti, frescos Palazzo Pubblico Sienna,
+     Triumph of Death (with Pietro Lorenzetti) Campo Santo Pisa,
+     St. Francis frescos Lower Church Assisi, S. Francesco and S.
+     Agostino Sienna, Annunciation Sienna Acad., Presentation
+     Florence Acad.; Pietro Lorenzetti, Virgin S. Ansano,
+     altar-pieces Duomo Sienna, Parish Church of Arezzo (worked
+     with his brother Ambrogio).
+
+     TRANSITION PAINTERS: Starnina, frescos Duomo Prato
+     (completed by pupil); Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration
+     Florence Acad., Coronation Brera Milan, Madonna Duomo
+     Orvieto; Fra Angelico, Coronation and many small panels
+     Uffizi, many pieces Life of Christ Florence Acad., other
+     pieces S. Marco Florence, Last Judgment Duomo, Orvieto.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE. 1400-1500.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+     Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Habich, Lacroix,
+     Mantz, Morelli, Burton, Rumohr, Stillman, Vasari; also Crowe
+     and Cavalcaselle, _History of Painting in North Italy_;
+     Berenson, _Florentine Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson,
+     _Venetian Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson, _Central
+     Italian Painters of Renaissance_; _Study and Criticism of
+     Italian Art_; Boschini, _La Carta del Navegar_; Calvi,
+     _Memorie della Vita ed opere di Francesco Raibolini_; Cibo,
+     _Niccolo Alunno e la scuola Umbra_; Citadella, _Notizie
+     relative a Ferrara_; Cruttwell, _Verrocchio_; Cruttwell,
+     _Pollaiuolo_; Morelli, Anonimo, _Notizie_; Mezzanotte,
+     _Commentario della Vita di Pietro Vanucci_; Mundler, _Essai
+     d'une Analyse critique de la Notice des tableaux Italiens au
+     Louvre_; Muntz, _Les Précurseurs de la Renaissance_; Muntz,
+     _La Renaissance en Italie et en France_; Patch, _Life of
+     Masaccio_; Hill, Pisanello, _Publications of the Arundel
+     Society_; Richter, _Italian Art in National Gallery,
+     London_; Ridolfi, _Le Meraviglie dell' Arte_; Rosini,
+     _Storia della Pittura Italiana_; Schnaase, _Geschichte der
+     bildenden Kunste_; Symonds, _Renaissance in Italy--the Fine
+     Arts_; Vischer, _Lucas Signorelli und die Italienische
+     Renaissance_; Waagen, _Art Treasures_; Waagen, _Andrea
+     Mantegna und Luca Signorelli_ (in _Raumer's Taschenbuch_,
+     (1850)); Zanetti, _Della Pittura Veneziana_.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN MIND: There is no way of explaining the Italian fondness
+for form and color other than by considering the necessities of the
+people and the artistic character of the Italian mind. Art in all its
+phases was not only an adornment but a necessity of Christian
+civilization. The Church taught people by sculpture, mosaic,
+miniature, and fresco. It was an object-teaching, a grasping of ideas
+by forms seen in the mind, not a presenting of abstract ideas as in
+literature. Printing was not known. There were few manuscripts, and
+the majority of people could not read. Ideas came to them for
+centuries through form and color, until at last the Italian mind took
+on a plastic and pictorial character. It saw things in symbolic
+figures, and when the Renaissance came and art took the lead as one of
+its strongest expressions, painting was but the color-thought and
+form-language of the people.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--FRA FILIPPO. MADONNA. UFFIZI.]
+
+And these people, by reason of their peculiar education, were an
+exacting people, knowing what was good and demanding it from the
+artists. Every Italian was, in a way, an art critic, because every
+church in Italy was an art school. The artists may have led the
+people, but the people spurred on the artists, and so the Italian mind
+went on developing and unfolding until at last it produced the great
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+THE AWAKENING: The Italian civilization of the fourteenth century was
+made up of many impulses and inclinations, none of them very strongly
+defined. There was a feeling about in the dark, a groping toward the
+light, but the leaders stumbled often on the road. There was good
+reason for it. The knowledge of the ancient world lay buried under the
+ruins of Rome. The Italians had to learn it all over again, almost
+without a precedent, almost without a preceptor. With the fifteenth
+century the horizon began to brighten. The Early Renaissance was
+begun. It was not a revolt, a reaction, or a starting out on a new
+path. It was a development of the Gothic period; and the three
+inclinations of the Gothic period--religion, the desire for classic
+knowledge, and the study of nature--were carried into the art of the
+time with greater realization.
+
+The inference must not be made that because nature and the antique
+came to be studied in Early Renaissance times that therefore religion
+was neglected. It was not. It still held strong, and though with the
+Renaissance there came about a strange mingling of crime and
+corruption, æstheticism and immorality, yet the Church was never
+abandoned for an hour. When enlightenment came, people began to doubt
+the spiritual power of the Papacy. They did not cringe to it so
+servilely as before. Religion was not violently embraced as in the
+Middle Ages, but there was no revolt. The Church held the power and
+was still the patron of art. The painter's subjects extended over
+nature, the antique, the fable, allegory, history, portraiture; but
+the religious subject was not neglected. Fully three-quarters of all
+the fifteenth-century painting was done for the Church, at her
+command, and for her purposes.
+
+But art was not so wholly pietistic as in the Gothic age. The study of
+nature and the antique materialized painting somewhat. The outside
+world drew the painter's eyes, and the beauty of the religious subject
+and its sentiment were somewhat slurred for the beauty of natural
+appearances. There was some loss of religious power, but religion had
+much to lose. In the fifteenth century it was still dominant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--BOTTICELLI. CORONATION OF MADONNA. UFFIZI.]
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANTIQUE AND NATURE: The revival of antique learning
+came about in real earnest during this period. The scholars set
+themselves the task of restoring the polite learning of ancient
+Greece, studying coins and marbles, collecting manuscripts, founding
+libraries and schools of philosophy. The wealthy nobles, Palla
+Strozzi, the Albizzi, the Medici, and the Dukes of Urbino, encouraged
+it. In 1440 the Greek was taught in five cities. Immediately
+afterward, with Constantinople falling into the hands of the Turks,
+came an influx of Greek scholars into Italy. Then followed the
+invention of printing and the age of discovery on land and sea. Not
+the antique alone but the natural were being pried into by the spirit
+of inquiry. Botany, geology, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, anatomy,
+law, literature--nothing seemed to escape the keen eye of the time.
+Knowledge was being accumulated from every source, and the arts were
+all reflecting it.
+
+The influence of the newly discovered classic marbles upon painting
+was not so great as is usually supposed. The painters studied them,
+but did not imitate them. Occasionally in such men as Botticelli and
+Mantegna we see a following of sculpturesque example--a taking of
+details and even of whole figures--but the general effect of the
+antique marbles was to impress the painters with the idea that nature
+was at the bottom of it all. They turned to the earth not only to
+study form and feature, but to learn perspective, light, shadow,
+color--in short, the technical features of art. True, religion was the
+chief subject, but nature and the antique were used to give it
+setting. All the fifteenth-century painting shows nature study, force,
+character, sincerity; but it does not show elegance, grace, or the
+full complement of color. The Early Renaissance was the promise of
+great things; the High Renaissance was the fulfilment.
+
+FLORENTINE SCHOOL: The Florentines were draughtsmen more than
+colorists. The chief medium was fresco on the walls of buildings, and
+architectural necessities often dictated the form of compositions.
+Distemper in easel pictures was likewise used, and oil-painting,
+though known, was not extensively employed until the last quarter of
+the century. In technical knowledge and intellectual grasp Florence
+was at this time the leader and drew to her many artists from
+neighboring schools. Masaccio (1401?-1428?) was the first great nature
+student of the Early Renaissance, though his master, Masolino
+(1383-1447), had given proof positive of severe nature study in bits
+of modelling, in drapery, and in portrait heads. Masaccio, however,
+seems the first to have gone into it thoroughly and to have grasped
+nature as a whole. His mastery of form, his plastic composition, his
+free, broad folds of drapery, and his knowledge of light and
+perspective, all placed him in the front rank of fifteenth-century
+painters. Though an exact student he was not a literalist. He had a
+large artistic sense, a breadth of view, and a comprehension of nature
+as a mass that Michael Angelo and Raphael did not disdain to follow.
+He was not a pietist, and there was no great religious feeling in his
+work. Dignified truthful appearance was his creed, and in this he was
+possibly influenced by Donatello the sculptor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. LOUVRE.]
+
+He came early in the century and died early, but his contemporaries
+did not continue the advance from where he carried it. There was
+wavering all along the line. Some from lack of genius could not equal
+him, others took up nature with indecision, and others clung fondly
+to the gold-embossed ornaments and gilded halos of the past. Paolo
+Uccello (1397?-1475), Andrea Castagno (1390-1457), Benozzo Gozzoli
+(1420?-1497?), Baldovinetti (1427-1499), Antonio del Pollajuolo
+(1426-1498), Cosimo Rosselli (1439-1507), can hardly be looked upon as
+improvements upon the young leader. The first real successor of
+Masaccio was his contemporary, and possibly his pupil, the monk Fra
+Filippo Lippi (1406-1469). He was a master of color and
+light-and-shade for his time, though in composition and command of
+line he did not reach up to Masaccio. He was among the first of the
+painters to take the individual faces of those about him as models for
+his sacred characters, and clothe them in contemporary costume. Piety
+is not very pronounced in any of his works, though he is not without
+imagination and feeling, and there is in his women a charm of
+sweetness. His tendency was to materialize the sacred characters.
+
+With Filippino (1457?-1504), Botticelli (1446-1510), and Ghirlandajo
+(1449-1494) we find a degree of imagination, culture, and independence
+not surpassed by any of the Early Florentines. Filippino modelled his
+art upon that of his father, Fra Filippo, and was influenced by
+Botticelli. He was the weakest of the trio, without being by any means
+a weak man. On the contrary, he was an artist of fine ability, much
+charm and tenderness, and considerable style, but not a great deal of
+original force, though occasionally doing forceful things. Purity in
+his type and graceful sentiment in pose and feature seem more
+characteristic of his work. Botticelli, even, was not so remarkable
+for his strength as for his culture, and an individual way of looking
+at things. He was a pupil of Fra Filippo, a man imbued with the
+religious feeling of Dante and Savonarola, a learned student of the
+antique and one of the first to take subjects from it, a severe nature
+student, and a painter of much technical skill. Religion, classicism,
+and nature all met in his work, but the mingling was not perfect.
+Religious feeling and melancholy warped it. His willowy figures,
+delicate and refined in drawing, are more passionate than powerful,
+more individual than comprehensive, but they are nevertheless very
+attractive in their tenderness and grace.
+
+Without being so original or so attractive an artist as Botticelli,
+his contemporary, Ghirlandajo, was a stronger one. His strength came
+more from assimilation than from invention. He combined in his work
+all the art learning of his time. He drew well, handled drapery simply
+and beautifully, was a good composer, and, for Florence, a good
+colorist. In addition, his temperament was robust, his style
+dignified, even grand, and his execution wonderfully free. He was the
+most important of the fifteenth-century technicians, without having
+any peculiar distinction or originality, and in spite of being rather
+prosaic at times.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--FRANCESCA. DUKE OF URBINO. UFFIZI.]
+
+Verrocchio (1435-1488) was more of a sculptor than a painter, but in
+his studio were three celebrated pupils--Perugino, Leonardo da Vinci,
+and Lorenzo di Credi--who were half-way between the Early and the High
+Renaissance. Only one of them, Leonardo, can be classed among the
+High Renaissance men. Perugino belongs to the Umbrian school, and
+Lorenzo di Credi (1450-1537), though Florentine, never outgrew the
+fifteenth century. He was a pure painter, with much feeling, but weak
+at times. His drawing was good, but his painting lacked force, and he
+was too pallid in flesh color. There is much detail, study, and
+considerable grace about his work, but little of strength. Piero di
+Cosimo (1462-1521) was fond of mythological and classical studies, was
+somewhat fantastic in composition, pleasant in color, and rather
+distinguished in landscape backgrounds. His work strikes one as
+eccentric, and eccentricity was the strong characteristic of the man.
+
+UMBRIAN AND PERUGIAN SCHOOLS: At the beginning of the fifteenth
+century the old Siennese school founded by Duccio and the Lorenzetti
+was in a state of decline. It had been remarkable for intense
+sentiment, and just what effect this sentiment of the old Siennese
+school had upon the painters of the neighboring Umbrian school of the
+early fifteenth century is a matter of speculation with historians. It
+must have had some, though the early painters, like Ottaviano Nelli,
+do not show it. That which afterward became known as the Umbrian
+sentiment probably first appeared in the work of Niccolò da Foligno
+(1430?-1502), who was probably a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli, who was, in
+turn, a pupil of Fra Angelico. That would indicate Florentine
+influence, but there were many influences at work in this upper-valley
+country. Sentiment had been prevalent enough all through Central
+Italian painting during the Gothic age--more so at Sienna than
+elsewhere. With the Renaissance Florence rather forsook sentiment for
+precision of forms and equilibrium of groups; but the Umbrian towns
+being more provincial, held fast to their sentiment, their detail, and
+their gold ornamentation. Their influence upon Florence was slight,
+but the influence of Florence upon them was considerable. The larger
+city drew the provincials its way to learn the new methods. The
+result was a group of Umbro-Florentine painters, combining some
+up-country sentiment with Florentine technic. Gentile da Fabriano,
+Niccolo da Foligno, Bonfiglio (1425?-1496?), and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
+(1444?-1520) were of this mixed character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--SIGNORELLI. THE CURSE (DETAIL). ORVIETO.]
+
+The most positive in methods among the early men was Piero della
+Francesca (1420?-1492). Umbrian born, but Florentine trained, he
+became more scientific than sentimental, and excelled as a craftsman.
+He knew drawing, perspective, atmosphere, light-and-shade in a way
+that rather foreshadowed Leonardo da Vinci. From working in the
+Umbrian country his influence upon his fellow-Umbrians was large. It
+showed directly in Signorelli (1441?-1523), whose master he was, and
+whose style he probably formed. Signorelli was Umbrian born, like
+Piero, but there was not much of the Umbrian sentiment about him. He
+was a draughtsman and threw his strength in line, producing athletic,
+square-shouldered figures in violent action, with complicated
+foreshortenings quite astonishing. The most daring man of his time, he
+was a master in anatomy, composition, motion. There was nothing select
+about his type, and nothing charming about his painting. His color was
+hot and coarse, his lights lurid, his shadows brick red. He was,
+however, a master-draughtsman, and a man of large conceptions and
+great strength. Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), of whom little is known,
+was another pupil of Piero, and Giovanni Santi (1435?-1494), the
+father of Raphael, was probably influenced by both of these last
+named.
+
+The true descent of the Umbrian sentiment was through Foligno and
+Bonfiglio to Perugino (1446-1524). Signorelli and Perugino seem
+opposed to each other in their art. The first was the forerunner of
+Michael Angelo, the second was the master of Raphael; and the
+difference between Michael Angelo and Raphael was, in a less varied
+degree, the difference between Signorelli and Perugino. The one showed
+Florentine line, the other Umbrian sentiment and color. It is in
+Perugino that we find the old religious feeling. Fervor, tenderness,
+and devotion, with soft eyes, delicate features, and pathetic looks
+characterized his art. The figure was slight, graceful, and in pose
+sentimentally inclined to one side. The head was almost affectedly
+placed on the shoulders, and the round olive face was full of wistful
+tenderness. This Perugino type, used in all his paintings, is well
+described by Taine as a "body belonging to the Renaissance containing
+a soul that belonged to the Middle Ages." The sentiment was more
+purely human, however, than in such a painter, for instance, as Fra
+Angelico. Religion still held with Perugino and the Umbrians, but
+even with them it was becoming materialized by the beauty of the
+world about them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PERUGINO. MADONNA, SAINTS, AND ANGELS.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+As a technician Perugino was excellent. There was no dramatic fire and
+fury about him. The composition was simple, with graceful figures in
+repose. The coloring was rich, and there were many brilliant effects
+obtained by the use of oils. He was among the first of his school to
+use that medium. His friend and fellow-worker, Pinturricchio
+(1454-1513), did not use oils, but was a superior man in fresco. In
+type and sentiment he was rather like Perugino, in composition a
+little extravagant and huddled, in landscape backgrounds quite
+original and inventive. He never was a serious rival of Perugino,
+though a more varied and interesting painter. Perugino's best pupil,
+after Raphael, was Lo Spagna (?-1530?), who followed his master's
+style until the High Renaissance, when he became a follower of
+Raphael.
+
+SCHOOLS OF FERRARA AND BOLOGNA: The painters of Ferrara, in the
+fifteenth century, seemed to have relied upon Padua for their
+teaching. The best of the early men was Cosimo Tura (1430-1495), who
+showed the Paduan influence of Squarcione in anatomical insistences,
+coarse joints, infinite detail, and fantastic ornamentation. He was
+probably the founder of the school in which Francesco Cossa (fl.
+1435-1480), a _naif_ and strong, if somewhat morbid painter, Ercole di
+Giulio Grandi (fl. 1465-1535), and Lorenzo Costa (1460?-1535) were the
+principal masters. Cossa and Grandi, it seems, afterward removed to
+Bologna, and it was probably their move that induced Lorenzo Costa to
+follow them. In that way the Ferrarese school became somewhat
+complicated with the Bolognese school, and is confused in its history
+to this day. Costa was not unlikely the real founder, or, at the
+least, the strongest influencer of the Bolognese school. He was a
+painter of a rugged, manly type, afterward tempered by Southern
+influences to softness and sentiment. This was the result of Paduan
+methods meeting at Bologna with Umbrian sentiment.
+
+The Perugino type and influence had found its way to Bologna, and
+showed in the work of Francia (1450-1518), a contemporary and
+fellow-worker with Costa. Though trained as a goldsmith, and learning
+painting in a different school, Francia, as regards his sentiment,
+belongs in the same category with Perugino. Even his subjects, types,
+and treatment were, at times, more Umbrian than Bolognese. He was not
+so profound in feeling as Perugino, but at times he appeared loftier
+in conception. His color was usually rich, his drawing a little sharp
+at first, as showing the goldsmith's hand, the surfaces smooth, the
+detail elaborate. Later on, his work had a Raphaelesque tinge,
+showing perhaps the influence of that rising master. It is probable
+that Francia at first was influenced by Costa's methods, and it is
+quite certain that he in turn influenced Costa in the matter of
+refined drawing and sentiment, though Costa always adhered to a
+certain detail and ornament coming from the north, and a landscape
+background that is peculiar to himself, and yet reminds one of
+Pinturricchio's landscapes. These two men, Francia and Costa, were the
+Perugino and Pinturricchio of the Ferrara-Bolognese school, and the
+most important painters in that school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--SCHOOL OF FRANCIA. MADONNA AND CHILD.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+THE LOMBARD SCHOOL: The designation of the Lombard school is rather a
+vague one in the history of painting, and is used by historians to
+cover a number of isolated schools or men in the Lombardy region. In
+the fifteenth century these schools counted for little either in men
+or in works. The principal activity was about Milan, which drew
+painters from Brescia, Vincenza, and elsewhere to form what is known
+as the Milanese school. Vincenzo Foppa (fl. 1455-1492), of Brescia,
+and afterward at Milan, was probably the founder of this Milanese
+school. His painting is of rather a harsh, exacting nature, and points
+to the influence of Padua, at which place he perhaps got his early art
+training. Borgognone (1450-1523) is set down as his pupil, a painter
+of much sentiment and spiritual feeling. The school was afterward
+greatly influenced by the example of Leonardo da Vinci, as will be
+shown further on.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Masaccio, frescos in Brancacci
+     Chapel Carmine Florence (the series completed by Filippino);
+     Masolino, frescos Church and Baptistery Castiglione d' Olona;
+     Paolo Uccello, frescos S. M. Novella, equestrian
+     portrait Duomo Florence, battle-pieces in Louvre and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Andrea Castagno, heroes and sibyls Uffizi,
+     altar-piece Acad. Florence, equestrian portrait Duomo
+     Florence; Benozzo Gozzoli, Francesco Montefalco, Magi
+     Ricardi palace Florence, frescos Campo Santo Pisa;
+     Baldovinetti, Portico of the Annunziata Florence,
+     altar-pieces Uffizi; Antonio Pollajuolo, Hercules Uffizi,
+     St. Sebastian Pitti and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Cosimo Rosselli,
+     frescos S. Ambrogio Florence, Sistine Chapel Rome, Madonna
+     Uffizi; Fra Filippo, frescos Cathedral Prato, altar-pieces
+     Florence Acad., Uffizi, Pitti and Berlin Gals., Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Filippino, frescos Carmine Florence, Caraffa Chapel
+     Minerva Rome, S. M. Novella and Acad. Florence, S. Domenico
+     Bologna, easel pictures in Pitti, Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Berlin Mus., Old Pinacothek Munich; Botticelli, frescos
+     Sistine Chapel Rome, Spring and Coronation Florence Acad.,
+     Venus, Calumny, Madonnas Uffizi, Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Louvre, etc.; Ghirlandajo, frescos Sistine Chapel Rome, S.
+     Trinità Florence, S. M. Novella, Palazzo Vecchio,
+     altar-pieces Uffizi and Acad. Florence, Visitation Louvre;
+     Verrocchio, Baptism of Christ Acad. Florence; Lorenzo di
+     Credi, Nativity Acad. Florence, Madonnas Louvre and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Holy Family Borghese Gal. Rome; Piero di Cosimo,
+     Perseus and Andromeda Uffizi, Procris Nat. Gal. Lon., Venus
+     and Mars Berlin Gal.
+
+     UMBRIANS--Ottaviano Nelli, altar-piece S. M. Nuovo Gubbio,
+     St. Augustine legends S. Agostino Gubbio; Niccolò da
+     Foligno, altar-piece S. Niccolò Foligno; Bonfigli, frescos
+     Palazzo Communale, altar-pieces Acad. Perugia; Fiorenzo di
+     Lorenzo, many pictures Acad. Perugia, Madonna Berlin Gal.;
+     Piero della Francesca, frescos Communitá and Hospital Borgo
+     San Sepolcro, San Francesco Arezzo, Chapel of the Relicts
+     Rimini, portraits Uffizi, pictures Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Signorelli, frescos Cathedral Orvieto, Sistine Rome, Palazzo
+     Petrucci Sienna, altar-pieces Arezzo, Cortona, Perugia,
+     pictures Pitti, Uffizi, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Melozzo da Forli, angels St. Peter's Rome, frescos Vatican,
+     pictures Berlin and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Giovanni Santi,
+     Annunciation Milan, Pieta Urbino, Madonnas Berlin, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon., S. Croce Fano; Perugino, frescos Sistine Rome,
+     Crucifixion S. M. Maddalena Florence, Sala del Cambio
+     Perugia, altar-pieces Pitti, Fano, Cremona, many pictures in
+     European galleries; Pinturricchio, frescos S. M. del Popolo,
+     Appartamento Borgo Vatican, Bufolini Chapel Aracoeli Rome,
+     Duomo Library Sienna, altar-pieces Perugia and Sienna
+     Acads., Pitti, Louvre; Lo Spagna, Madonna Lower Church
+     Assisi, frescos at Spoleto, Turin, Perugia, Assisi.
+
+     FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Cosimo Tura, altar-pieces Berlin
+     Mus., Bergamo, Museo Correr Venice, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Francesco Cossa, altar-pieces S. Petronio and Acad. Bologna,
+     Dresden Gal.; Grandi, St. George Corsini Pal. Rome, several
+     canvases Constabili Collection Ferrara; Lorenzo Costa,
+     frescos S. Giacomo Maggiore, altar-pieces S. Petronio, S.
+     Giovanni in Monte and Acad. Bologna, also Louvre, Berlin,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Francia, altar-pieces S. Giacomo
+     Maggiore, S. Martino Maggiore, and many altar-pieces in
+     Acad. Bologna, Annunciation Brera Milan, Rose Garden Munich,
+     Pieta Nat. Gal. Lon., Scappi Portrait Uffizi, Baptism
+     Dresden.
+
+     LOMBARDS--Foppa, altar-pieces S. Maria di Castello Savona,
+     Borromeo Col. Milan, Carmine Brescia, panels Brera Milan;
+     Borgognone, altar-pieces Certosa of Pavia, Church of
+     Melegnano, S. Ambrogio, Ambrosian Lib., Brera Milan, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE--1400-1500--CONTINUED.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned;
+     also consult the General Bibliography (page xv.)
+
+
+PADUAN SCHOOL: It was at Padua in the north that the influence of the
+classic marbles made itself strongly apparent. Umbria remained true to
+the religious sentiment, Florence engaged itself largely with nature
+study and technical problems, introducing here and there draperies and
+poses that showed knowledge of ancient sculpture, but at Padua much of
+the classic in drapery, figures, and architecture seems to have been
+taken directly from the rediscovered antique or the modern bronze.
+
+The early men of the school were hardly great enough to call for
+mention. During the fourteenth century there was some Giotto influence
+felt--that painter having been at Padua working in the Arena Chapel.
+Later on there was a slight influence from Gentile da Fabriano and his
+fellow-worker Vittore Pisano, of Verona. But these influences seem to
+have died out and the real direction of the school in the early
+fifteenth century was given by Francesco Squarcione (1394-1474). He
+was an enlightened man, a student, a collector and an admirer of
+ancient sculpture, and though no great painter himself he taught an
+anatomical statuesque art, based on ancient marbles and nature, to
+many pupils.
+
+Squarcione's work has perished, but his teaching was reflected in the
+work of his great pupil Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). Yet Mantegna
+never received the full complement of his knowledge from Squarcione.
+He was of an observing nature and probably studied Paolo Uccello and
+Fra Filippo, some of whose works were then in Paduan edifices. He
+gained color knowledge from the Venetian Bellinis, who lived at Padua
+at one time and who were connected with Mantegna by marriage. But the
+sculpturesque side of his art came from Squarcione, from a study of
+the antique, and from a deeper study of Donatello, whose bronzes to
+this day are to be seen within and without the Paduan Duomo of S.
+Antonio.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--MANTEGNA. GONZAGA FAMILY GROUP (DETAIL).
+MANTUA.]
+
+The sculpturesque is characteristic of Mantegna's work. His people are
+hard, rigid at times, immovable human beings, not so much turned to
+stone as turned to bronze--the bronze of Donatello. There is little
+sense of motion about them. The figure is sharp and harsh, the
+drapery, evidently studied from sculpture, is "liney," and the
+archæology is often more scientific than artistic. Mantegna was not,
+however, entirely devoted to the sculpturesque. He was one of the
+severest nature students of the Early Renaissance, knew about nature,
+and carried it out in more exacting detail than was perhaps well for
+his art. In addition he was a master of light-and-shade, understood
+composition, space, color, atmosphere, and was as scientific in
+perspective as Piero della Francesca. There is stiffness in his
+figures but nevertheless great truth and character. The forms are
+noble, even grand, and for invention and imagination they were never,
+in his time, carried further or higher. He was little of a
+sentimentalist or an emotionalist, not much of a brush man or a
+colorist, but as a draughtsman, a creator of noble forms, a man of
+power, he stood second to none in the century.
+
+Of Squarcione's other pupils Pizzolo (fl. 1470) was the most
+promising, but died early. Marco Zoppo (1440-1498) seems to have
+followed the Paduan formula of hardness, dryness, and exacting detail.
+He was possibly influenced by Cosimo Tura, and in turn influenced
+somewhat the Ferrara-Bolognese school. Mantegna, however, was the
+greatest of the school, and his influence was far-reaching. It
+affected the school of Venice in matters of drawing, beside
+influencing the Lombard and Veronese schools in their beginnings.
+
+SCHOOLS OF VERONA AND VICENZA: Artistically Verona belonged with the
+Venetian provinces, because it was largely an echo of Venice except at
+the very start. Vittore Pisano (1380-1456), called Pisanello, was the
+earliest painter of note, but he was not distinctly Veronese in his
+art. He was medallist and painter both, worked with Gentile da
+Fabriano in the Ducal Palace at Venice and elsewhere, and his art
+seems to have an affinity with that of his companion.
+
+Liberale da Verona (1451-1536?) was at first a miniaturist, but
+afterward developed a larger style based on a following of Mantegna's
+work, with some Venetian influences showing in the coloring and
+backgrounds. Francesco Bonsignori (1455-1519) was of the Verona
+school, but established himself later at Mantua and was under the
+Mantegna influence. His style at first was rather severe, but he
+afterward developed much ability in portraiture, historical work,
+animals, and architectural features. Francesco Caroto (1470-1546), a
+pupil of Liberale, really belongs to the next century--the High
+Renaissance--but his early works show his education in Veronese and
+Paduan methods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--B. VIVARINI. MADONNA AND CHILD. TURIN.]
+
+In the school of Vicenza the only master of much note in this Early
+Renaissance time was Bartolommeo Montagna (1450?-1523), a painter in
+both oil and fresco of much severity and at times grandeur of style.
+In drawing he was influenced by Mantegna, in composition and coloring
+he showed a study of Giovanni Bellini and Carpaccio.
+
+VENETIAN LIFE AND ART: The conditions of art production in Venice
+during the Early Renaissance were quite different from those in
+Florence or Umbria. By the disposition of her people Venice was not a
+learned or devout city. Religion, though the chief subject, was not
+the chief spirit of Venetian art. Christianity was accepted by the
+Venetians, but with no fevered enthusiasm. The Church was strong
+enough there to defy the Papacy at one time, and yet religion with the
+people was perhaps more of a civic function or a duty than a spiritual
+worship. It was sincere in its way, and the early painters painted its
+subjects with honesty, but the Venetians were much too proud and
+worldly minded to take anything very seriously except their own
+splendor and their own power.
+
+Again, the Venetians were not humanists or students of the revived
+classic. They housed manuscripts, harbored exiled humanists, received
+the influx of Greek scholars after the fall of Constantinople, and
+later the celebrated Aldine press was established in Venice; but, for
+all that, classic learning was not the fancy of the Venetians. They
+made no quarrel over the relative merits of Plato and Aristotle, dug
+up no classic marbles, had no revival of learning in a Florentine
+sense. They were merchant princes, winning wealth by commerce and
+expending it lavishly in beautifying their island home. Not to attain
+great learning, but to revel in great splendor, seems to have been
+their aim. Life in the sovereign city of the sea was a worthy
+existence in itself. And her geographical and political position aided
+her prosperity. Unlike Florence she was not torn by contending princes
+within and foreign foes without--at least not to her harm. She had
+her wars, but they were generally on distant seas. Popery, Paganism,
+Despotism, all the convulsions of Renaissance life threatened but
+harmed her not. Free and independent, her kingdom was the sea, and her
+livelihood commerce, not agriculture.
+
+The worldly spirit of the Venetian people brought about a worldly and
+luxurious art. Nothing in the disposition or education of the
+Venetians called for the severe or the intellectual. The demand was
+for rich decoration that would please the senses without stimulating
+the intellect or firing the imagination to any great extent. Line and
+form were not so well suited to them as color--the most sensuous of
+all mediums. Color prevailed through Venetian art from the very
+beginning, and was its distinctive characteristic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--GIOVANNI BELLINI. MADONNA OF SS. GEORGE AND
+PAUL. VENICE ACAD.]
+
+Where this love of color came from is matter of speculation. Some say
+out of Venetian skies and waters, and, doubtless, these had something
+to do with the Venetian color-sense; but Venice in its color was also
+an example of the effect of commerce on art. She was a trader with the
+East from her infancy--not Constantinople and the Byzantine East
+alone, but back of these the old Mohammedan East, which for a thousand
+years has cast its art in colors rather than in forms. It was Eastern
+ornament in mosaics, stuffs, porcelains, variegated marbles, brought
+by ship to Venice and located in S. Marco, in Murano, and in Torcello,
+that first gave the color-impulse to the Venetians. If Florence was
+the heir of Rome and its austere classicism, Venice was the heir of
+Constantinople and its color-charm. The two great color spots in Italy
+at this day are Venice and Ravenna, commercial footholds of the
+Byzantines in Mediæval and Renaissance days. It may be concluded
+without error that Venice derived her color-sense and much of her
+luxurious and material view of life from the East.
+
+THE EARLY VENETIAN PAINTERS: Painting began at Venice with the
+fabrication of mosaics and ornamental altar-pieces of rich gold
+stucco-work. The "Greek manner"--that is, the Byzantine--was practised
+early in the fifteenth century by Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo,
+but it did not last long. Instead of lingering for a hundred years, as
+at Florence, it died a natural death in the first half of the
+fifteenth century. Gentile da Fabriano, who was at Venice about 1420,
+painting in the Ducal Palace with Pisano as his assistant, may have
+brought this about. He taught there in Venice, was the master of
+Jacopo Bellini, and if not the teacher then the influencer of the
+Vivarinis of Murano. There were two of the Vivarinis in the early
+times, so far as can be made out, Antonio Vivarini (?-1470) and
+Bartolommeo Vivarini (fl. 1450-1499), who worked with Johannes
+Alemannus, a painter of supposed German birth and training. They all
+signed themselves from Murano (an outlying Venetian island), where
+they were producing church altars and ornaments with some Paduan
+influence showing in their work. They made up the Muranese school,
+though this school was not strongly marked apart either in
+characteristics or subjects from the Venetian school, of which it was,
+in fact, a part.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CARPACCIO. PRESENTATION (DETAIL). VENICE
+ACAD.]
+
+Bartolommeo was the best of the group, and contended long time in
+rivalry with the Bellinis at Venice, but toward 1470 he fell away and
+died comparatively forgotten. Luigi Vivarini (fl. 1461-1503) was the
+latest of this family, and with his death the history of the Muranese
+merges into the Venetian school proper, except as it continues to
+appear in some pupils and followers. Of these latter Carlo Crivelli
+(1430?1493?) was the only one of much mark. He apparently gathered
+his art from many sources--ornament and color from the Vivarini, a
+lean and withered type from the early Paduans under Squarcione,
+architecture from Mantegna, and a rather repulsive sentiment from the
+same school. His faces were contorted and sulky, his hands and feet
+stringy, his drawing rather bad; but he had a transparent color,
+beautiful ornamentation and not a little tragic power.
+
+Venetian art practically dates from the Bellinis. They did not begin
+where the Vivarini left off. The two families of painters seem to have
+started about the same time, worked along together from like
+inspirations, and in somewhat of a similar manner as regards the early
+men. Jacopo Bellini (1400?-1464?) was the pupil of Gentile da
+Fabriano, and a painter of considerable rank. His son, Gentile Bellini
+(1426?-1507), was likewise a painter of ability, and an extremely
+interesting one on account of his Venetian subjects painted with much
+open-air effect and knowledge of light and atmosphere. The younger
+son, Giovanni Bellini (1428?-1516), was the greatest of the family and
+the true founder of the Venetian school.
+
+About the middle of the fifteenth century the Bellini family lived at
+Padua and came in contact with the classic-realistic art of Mantegna.
+In fact, Mantegna married Giovanni Bellini's sister, and there was a
+mingling of family as well as of art. There was an influence upon
+Mantegna of Venetian color, and upon the Bellinis of Paduan line. The
+latter showed in Giovanni Bellini's early work, which was rather hard,
+angular in drapery, and anatomical in the joints, hands, and feet; but
+as the century drew to a close this melted away into the growing
+splendor of Venetian color. Giovanni Bellini lived into the sixteenth
+century, but never quite attained the rank of a High Renaissance
+painter. He had religious feeling, earnestness, honesty, simplicity,
+character, force, knowledge; but not the full complement of
+brilliancy and painter's power. He went beyond all his contemporaries
+in technical strength and color-harmony, and was in fact the
+epoch-making man of early Venice. Some of his pictures, like the S.
+Zaccaria Madonna, will compare favorably with any work of any age, and
+his landscape backgrounds (see the St. Peter Martyr in the National
+Gallery, London) were rather wonderful for the period in which they
+were produced.
+
+Of Bellini's contemporaries and followers there were many, and as a
+school there was a similarity of style, subject, and color-treatment
+carrying through them all, with individual peculiarities in each
+painter. After Giovanni Bellini comes Carpaccio (?-1522?), a younger
+contemporary, about whose history little is known. He worked with
+Gentile Bellini, and was undoubtedly influenced by Giovanni Bellini.
+In subject he was more romantic and chivalric than religious, though
+painting a number of altar-pieces. The legend was his delight, and his
+great success, as the St. Ursula and St. George pictures in Venice
+still indicate. He was remarkable for his knowledge of architecture,
+costumes, and Oriental settings, put forth in a realistic way, with
+much invention and technical ability in the handling of landscape,
+perspective, light, and color. There is a truthfulness of
+appearance--an out-of-doors feeling--about his work that is quite
+captivating. In addition, the spirit of his art was earnestness,
+honesty, and sincerity, and even the awkward bits of drawing which
+occasionally appeared in his work served to add to the general naive
+effect of the whole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. UNKNOWN MAN. LOUVRE.]
+
+Cima da Conegliano (1460?-1517?) was probably a pupil of Giovanni
+Bellini, with some Carpaccio influence about him. He was the best of
+the immediate followers, none of whom came up to the master. They were
+trammelled somewhat by being educated in distemper work, and then
+midway in their careers changing to the oil medium, that medium
+having been introduced into Venice by Antonello da Messina in 1473.
+Cima's subjects were largely half-length madonnas, given with strong
+qualities of light-and-shade and color. He was not a great originator,
+though a man of ability. Catena (?-1531) had a wide reputation in his
+day, but it came more from a smooth finish and pretty accessories than
+from creative power. He imitated Bellini's style so well that a number
+of his pictures pass for works by the master even to this day. Later
+he followed Giorgione and Carpaccio. A man possessed of knowledge, he
+seemed to have no original propelling purpose behind him. That was
+largely the make-up of the other men of the school, Basaiti
+(1490-1521?), Previtali (1470?-1525?), Bissolo (14641528), Rondinelli
+(1440?-1500?), Diana (?-1500?), Mansueti (fl. 1500).
+
+Antonello da Messina (1444?-1493), though Sicilian born, is properly
+classed with the Venetian school. He obtained a knowledge of Flemish
+methods probably from Flemish painters or pictures in Italy (he never
+was a pupil of Jan van Eyck, as Vasari relates, and probably never saw
+Flanders), and introduced the use of oil as a medium in the Venetian
+school. His early work was Flemish in character, and was very accurate
+and minute. His late work showed the influence of the Bellinis. His
+counter-influence upon Venetian portraiture has never been quite
+justly estimated. That fine, exact, yet powerful work, of which the
+Doge Loredano by Bellini, in the National Gallery, London, is a type,
+was perhaps brought about by an amalgamation of Flemish and Venetian
+methods, and Antonello was perhaps the means of bringing it about. He
+was an excellent, if precise, portrait-painter.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: PADUANS--Andrea Mantegna, Eremitani Padua,
+     Madonna of S. Xeno Verona, St. Sebastian Vienna Mus., St.
+     George Venice Acad., Camera di Sposi Castello di Corte
+     Mantua, Madonna and Allegories Louvre, Scipio Summer Autumn
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Pizzoli (with Mantegna), Eremitani Padua;
+     Marco Zoppo frescos Casa Colonna Bologna, Madonna Berlin
+     Gal.
+
+     VERONESE AND VICENTINE PAINTERS--Vittore Pisano, St. Anthony
+     and George Nat. Gal. Lon., St. George S. Anastasia Verona;
+     Liberale da Verona, miniatures Duomo Sienna, St. Sebastian
+     Brera Milan, Madonna Berlin Mus., other works Duomo and Gal.
+     Verona; Bonsignori, S. Bernardino and Gal. Verona, Mantua,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Caroto, In S. Tommaso, S. Giorgio, S.
+     Caterina and Gal. Verona, Dresden and Frankfort Gals.;
+     Montagna, Madonnas Brera, Venice Acad., Bergamo, Berlin,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre.
+
+     VENETIANS--Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo, all
+     attributions doubtful; Antonio Vivarini and Johannes
+     Alemannus, together altar-pieces Venice Acad., S. Zaccaria
+     Venice; Antonio alone, Adoration of Kings Berlin Gal.;
+     Bartolommeo Vivarini, Madonna Bologna Gal. (with Antonio),
+     altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Frari, Venice; Luigi
+     Vivarini, Madonna Berlin Gal., Frari and Acad. Venice;
+     Carlo Crivelli, Madonnas and altar-pieces Brera, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon., Lateran, Berlin Gals.; Jacopo Bellini, Crucifixion
+     Verona Gal., Sketch-book Brit. Mus.; Gentile Bellini, Organ
+     Doors S. Marco, Procession and Miracle of Cross Acad.
+     Venice, St. Mark Brera; Giovanni Bellini, many pictures in
+     European galleries, Acad., Frari, S. Zaccaria SS. Giovanni e
+     Paolo Venice; Carpaccio, Presentation and Ursula pictures
+     Acad., St. George and St. Jerome S. Giorgio da Schiavone
+     Venice, St. Stephen Berlin Gal.; Cima, altar-pieces S. Maria
+     dell Orte, S. Giovanni in Bragora, Acad. Venice, Louvre,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and other galleries;
+     Catena, Altar-pieces S. Simeone, S. M. Mater Domini, SS.
+     Giovanni e Paolo, Acad. Venice, Dresden, and in Nat. Gal.
+     Lon. (the Warrior and Horse attributed to "School of
+     Bellini"); Basaiti, Venice Acad. Nat. Gal. Lon., Vienna, and
+     Berlin Gals.; Previtali, altar-pieces S. Spirito Bergamo,
+     Brera, Berlin, and Dresden Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Venice
+     Acad.; Bissolo, Resurrection Berlin Gal., S. Caterina Venice
+     Acad.; Rondinelli, two pictures Palazzo Doria Rome, Holy
+     Family (No. 6) Louvre (attributed to Giovanni Bellini);
+     Diana, Altar-pieces Venice Acad.; Mansueti, large pictures
+     Venice Acad.; Antonella da Messina, Portraits Louvre, Berlin
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon., Crucifixion Antwerp Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE--1500-1600.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned,
+     and also, Berenson, _Lorenzo Lotto_; Clement, _Michel Ange,
+     L. da Vinci, Raphael_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Titian_;
+     same authors, _Raphael_; Grimm, _Michael Angelo_; Gronau,
+     _Titian_; Holroyd, _Michael Angelo_; Meyer, _Correggio_;
+     Moore, _Correggio_; Muntz, _Leonardo da Vinci_; Passavant,
+     _Raphael_; Pater, _Studies in History of Renaissance_;
+     Phillips, _Titian_; Reumont, _Andrea del Sarto_; Ricci,
+     _Correggio_; Richter, _Leonardo di Vinci_; Ridolfi, _Vita di
+     Paolo Cagliari Veronese_; Springer, _Rafael und Michel
+     Angelo_; Symonds, _Michael Angelo_; Taine, _Italy--Florence
+     and Venice_.
+
+
+THE HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT: The word "Renaissance" has a broader meaning
+than its strict etymology would imply. It was a "new birth," but
+something more than the revival of Greek learning and the study of
+nature entered into it. It was the grand consummation of Italian
+intelligence in many departments--the arrival at maturity of the
+Christian trained mind tempered by the philosophy of Greece, and the
+knowledge of the actual world. Fully aroused at last, the Italian
+intellect became inquisitive, inventive, scientific, skeptical--yes,
+treacherous, immoral, polluted. It questioned all things, doubted
+where it pleased, saturated itself with crime, corruption, and
+sensuality, yet bowed at the shrine of the beautiful and knelt at the
+altar of Christianity. It is an illustration of the contradictions
+that may exist when the intellectual, the religious, and the moral
+are brought together, with the intellectual in predominance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--FRA BARTOLOMMEO. DESCENT FROM CROSS. PITTI.]
+
+And that keen Renaissance intellect made swift progress. It remodelled
+the philosophy of Greece, and used its literature as a mould for its
+own. It developed Roman law and introduced modern science. The world
+without and the world within were rediscovered. Land and sea, starry
+sky and planetary system, were fixed upon the chart. Man himself, the
+animals, the planets, organic and inorganic life, the small things of
+the earth gave up their secrets. Inventions utilized all classes of
+products, commerce flourished, free cities were builded, universities
+arose, learning spread itself on the pages of newly invented books of
+print, and, perhaps, greatest of all, the arts arose on strong wings
+of life to the very highest altitude.
+
+For the moral side of the Renaissance intellect it had its tastes and
+refinements, as shown in its high quality of art; but it also had its
+polluting and degrading features, as shown in its political and social
+life. Religion was visibly weakening though the ecclesiastical still
+held strong. People were forgetting the faith of the early days, and
+taking up with the material things about them. They were glorifying
+the human and exalting the natural. The story of Greece was being
+repeated in Italy. And out of this new worship came jewels of rarity
+and beauty, but out of it also came faithlessness, corruption, vice.
+
+Strictly speaking, the Renaissance had been accomplished before the
+year 1500, but so great was its impetus that, in the arts at least, it
+extended half-way through the sixteenth century. Then it began to fail
+through exhaustion.
+
+MOTIVES AND METHODS: The religious subject still held with the
+painters, but this subject in High-Renaissance days did not carry with
+it the religious feeling as in Gothic days. Art had grown to be
+something else than a teacher of the Bible. In the painter's hands it
+had come to mean beauty for its own sake--a picture beautiful for its
+form and color, regardless of its theme. This was the teaching of
+antique art, and the study of nature but increased the belief. A new
+love had arisen in the outer and visible world, and when the Church
+called for altar-pieces the painters painted their new love,
+christened it with a religious title, and handed it forth in the name
+of the old. Thus art began to free itself from Church domination and
+to live as an independent beauty. The general motive, then, of
+painting during the High Renaissance, though apparently religious from
+the subject, and in many cases still religious in feeling, was largely
+to show the beauty of form or color, in which religion, the antique,
+and the natural came in as modifying elements.
+
+In technical methods, though extensive work was still done in fresco,
+especially at Florence and Rome, yet the bulk of High-Renaissance
+painting was in oils upon panel and canvas. At Venice even the
+decorative wall paintings were upon canvas, afterward inserted in wall
+or ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--ANDREA DEL SARTO. MADONNA OF ST. FRANCIS.
+UFFIZI.]
+
+THE FLORENTINES AND ROMANS: There was a severity and austerity about
+the Florentine art, even at its climax. It was never too sensuous and
+luxurious, but rather exact and intellectual. The Florentines were
+fond of lustreless fresco, architectural composition, towering or
+sweeping lines, rather sharp color as compared with the Venetians, and
+theological, classical, even literary and allegorical subjects.
+Probably this was largely due to the classic bias of the painters and
+the intellectual and social influences of Florence and Rome. Line and
+composition were means of expressing abstract thought better than
+color, though some of the Florentines employed both line and color
+knowingly.
+
+This was the case with Fra Bartolommeo (1475-1517), a monk of San
+Marco, who was a transition painter from the fifteenth to the
+sixteenth century. He was a religionist, a follower of Savonarola, and
+a man of soul who thought to do work of a religious character and
+feeling; but he was also a fine painter, excelling in composition,
+drawing, drapery, color. The painter's element in his work, its
+material and earthly beauty, rather detracted from its spiritual
+significance. He opposed the sensuous and the nude, and yet about the
+only nude he ever painted--a St. Sebastian for San Marco--had so much
+of the earthly about it that people forgot the suffering saint in
+admiring the fine body, and the picture had to be removed from the
+convent. In such ways religion in art was gradually undermined, not
+alone by naturalism and classicism but by art itself. Painting brought
+into life by religion no sooner reached maturity than it led people
+away from religion by pointing out sensuous beauties in the type
+rather than religious beauties in the symbol.
+
+Fra Bartolommeo was among the last of the pietists in art. He had no
+great imagination, but some feeling and a fine color-sense for
+Florence. Naturally he was influenced somewhat by the great ones about
+him, learning perspective from Raphael, grandeur from Michael Angelo,
+and contours from Leonardo da Vinci. He worked in collaboration with
+Albertinelli (1474-1515), a skilled artist and a fellow-pupil with
+Bartolommeo in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli. Their work is so much
+alike that it is often difficult to distinguish the painters apart.
+Albertinelli was not so devout as his companion, but he painted the
+religious subject with feeling, as his Visitation in the Uffizi
+indicates. Among the followers of Bartolommeo and Albertinelli were
+Fra Paolino (14901547), Bugiardini (1475-1554), Granacci (1477-1543),
+who showed many influences, and Ridolfo Ghirlandajo (1483-1561).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MICHAEL ANGELO. ATHLETE. SISTINE, ROME.]
+
+Andrea del Sarto (1486-1531) was a Florentine pure and simple--a
+painter for the Church producing many madonnas and altar-pieces, and
+yet possessed of little religious feeling or depth. He was a painter
+more than a pietist, and was called by his townsmen "the faultless
+painter." So he was as regards the technical features of his art. He
+was the best brushman and colorist of the Florentine school. Dealing
+largely with the material side his craftsmanship was excellent and his
+pictures exuberant with life and color, but his madonnas and saints
+were decidedly of the earth--handsome Florentine models garbed as
+sacred characters--well-drawn and easily painted, with little
+devotional feeling about them. He was influenced by other painters to
+some extent. Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Michael Angelo were his models
+in drawing; Leonardo and Bartolommeo in contours; while in warmth of
+color, brush-work, atmospheric and landscape effects he was quite by
+himself. He had a large number of pupils and followers, but most of
+them deserted him later on to follow Michael Angelo. Pontormo
+(1493-1558) and Franciabigio (1482-1525) were among the best of them.
+
+Michael Angelo (1474-1564) has been called the "Prophet of the
+Renaissance," and perhaps deserves the title, since he was more of the
+Old Testament than the New--more of the austere and imperious than the
+loving or the forgiving. There was no sentimental feature about his
+art. His conception was intellectual, highly imaginative, mysterious,
+at times disordered and turbulent in its strength. He came the nearest
+to the sublime of any painter in history through the sole attribute of
+power. He had no tenderness nor any winning charm. He did not win, but
+rather commanded. Everything he saw or felt was studied for the
+strength that was in it. Religion, Old-Testament history, the antique,
+humanity, all turned in his hands into symbolic forms of power, put
+forth apparently in the white heat of passion, and at times in
+defiance of every rule and tradition of art. Personal feeling was very
+apparent in his work, and in this he was as far removed as possible
+from the Greeks, and nearer to what one would call to-day a
+romanticist. There was little of the objective about him. He was not
+an imitator of facts but a creator of forms and ideas. His art was a
+reflection of himself--a self-sufficient man, positive, creative,
+standing alone, a law unto himself.
+
+Technically he was more of a sculptor than a painter. He said so
+himself when Julius commanded him to paint the Sistine ceiling, and he
+told the truth. He was a magnificent draughtsman, and drew magnificent
+sculpturesque figures on the Sistine vault. That was about all his
+achievement with the brush. In color, light, air, perspective--in all
+those features peculiar to the painter--he was behind his
+contemporaries. Composition he knew a great deal about, and in drawing
+he had the most positive, far-reaching command of line of any painter
+of any time. It was in drawing that he showed his power. Even this is
+severe and harsh at times, and then again filled with a grace that is
+majestic and in scope universal, as witness the Creation of Adam in
+the Sistine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--RAPHAEL. LA BELLE JARDINIÈRE. LOUVRE.]
+
+He came out of Florence, a pupil of Ghirlandajo, with a school feeling
+for line, stimulated by the frescos of Masaccio and Signorelli. At an
+early age he declared himself, and hewed a path of his own through
+art, sweeping along with him many of the slighter painters of his age.
+Long-lived he saw his contemporaries die about him and Humanism end in
+bloodshed with the coming of the Jesuits; but alone, gloomy, resolute,
+steadfast to his belief, he held his way, the last great
+representative of Florentine art, the first great representative of
+individualism in art. With him and after him came many followers who
+strove to imitate his "terrible style," but they did not succeed any
+too well.
+
+The most of these followers find classification under the Mannerists
+of the Decadence. Of those who were immediate pupils of Michael
+Angelo, or carried out his designs, Daniele da Volterra (1509-1566)
+was one of the most satisfactory. His chief work, the Descent from the
+Cross, was considered by Poussin as one of the three great pictures of
+the world. It is sometimes said to have been designed by Michael
+Angelo, but that is only a conjecture. It has much action and life in
+it, but is somewhat affected in pose and gesture, and Volterra's work
+generally was deficient in real energy of conception and execution.
+Marcello Venusti (1515-1585?) painted directly from Michael Angelo's
+designs in a delicate and precise way, probably imbibed from his
+master, Perino del Vaga, and from association with Venetians like
+Sebastiano del Piombo (1485-1547). This last-named painter was born in
+Venice and trained under Bellini and Giorgione, inheriting the color
+and light-and-shade qualities of the Venetians; but later on he went
+to Rome and came under the influence of Michael Angelo and Raphael. He
+tried, under Michael Angelo's inspiration it is said, to unite the
+Florentine grandeur of line with the Venetian coloring, and thus outdo
+Raphael. It was not wholly successful, though resulting in an
+excellent quality of art. As a portrait-painter he was above reproach.
+His early works were rather free in impasto, the late ones smooth and
+shiny, in imitation of Raphael.
+
+Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) was more Greek in method than any of the
+great Renaissance painters. In subject he was not more classic than
+others of his time; he painted all subjects. In thought he was not
+particularly classic; he was chiefly intellectual, with a leaning
+toward the sensuous that was half-pagan. It was in method and
+expression more than elsewhere that he showed the Greek spirit. He
+aimed at the ideal and the universal, independent, so far as possible,
+of the individual, and sought by a union of all elements to produce
+perfect harmony. The Harmonist of the Renaissance is his title. And
+this harmony extended to a blending of thought, form, and expression,
+heightening or modifying every element until they ran together with
+such rhythm that it could not be seen where one left off and another
+began. He was the very opposite of Michael Angelo. The art of the
+latter was an expression of individual power and was purely
+subjective. Raphael's art was largely a unity of objective beauties,
+with the personal element as much in abeyance as was possible for his
+time.
+
+His education was a cultivation of every grace of mind and hand. He
+assimilated freely whatever he found to be good in the art about him.
+A pupil of Perugino originally, he levied upon features of excellence
+in Masaccio, Fra Bartolommeo, Leonardo, Michael Angelo. From the first
+he got tenderness, from the second drawing, from the third color and
+composition, from the fourth charm, from the fifth force. Like an
+eclectic Greek he drew from all sources, and then blended and united
+these features in a peculiar style of his own and stamped them with
+his peculiar Raphaelesque stamp.
+
+In subject Raphael was religious and mythological, but he was imbued
+with neither of these so far as the initial spirit was concerned. He
+looked at all subjects in a calm, intellectual, artistic way. Even the
+celebrated Sistine Madonna is more intellectual than pietistic, a
+Christian Minerva ruling rather than helping to save the world. The
+same spirit ruled him in classic and theological themes. He did not
+feel them keenly or execute them passionately--at least there is no
+indication of it in his work. The doing so would have destroyed unity,
+symmetry, repose. The theme was ever held in check by a regard for
+proportion and rhythm. To keep all artistic elements in perfect
+equilibrium, allowing no one to predominate, seemed the mainspring of
+his action, and in doing this he created that harmony which his
+admirers sometimes refer to as pure beauty.
+
+For his period and school he was rather remarkable technically. He
+excelled in everything except brush-work, which was never brought to
+maturity in either Florence or Rome. Even in color he was fine for
+Florence, though not equal to the Venetians. In composition,
+modelling, line, even in texture painting (see his portraits) he was a
+man of accomplishment; while in grace, purity, serenity, loftiness he
+was the Florentine leader easily first.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--GIULIO ROMANO. APOLLO AND MUSES. PITTI.]
+
+The influence of Raphael's example was largely felt throughout Central
+Italy, and even at the north, resulting in many imitators and
+followers, who tried to produce Raphaelesque effects. Their efforts
+were usually successful in precipitating charm into sweetness and
+sentiment into sentimentality. Francesco Penni (1488?-1528) seems to
+have been content to work under Raphael with some ability. Giulio
+Romano (1492-1546) was the strongest of the pupils, and became the
+founder and leader of the Roman school, which had considerable
+influence upon the painters of the Decadence. He adopted the classic
+subject and tried to adopt Raphael's style, but he was not completely
+successful. Raphael's refinement in Giulio's hands became exaggerated
+coarseness. He was a good draughtsman, but rather hot as a colorist,
+and a composer of violent, restless, and, at times, contorted groups.
+He was a prolific painter, but his work tended toward the baroque
+style, and had a bad influence on the succeeding schools.
+
+Primaticcio (1504-1570) was one of his followers, and had much to do
+with the founding of the school of Fontainebleau in France. Giovanni
+da Udine (1487-1564), a Venetian trained painter, became a follower of
+Raphael, his only originality showing in decorative designs. Perino
+del Vaga (1500-1547) was of the same cast of mind. Andrea Sabbatini
+(1480?-1545) carried Raphael's types and methods to the south of
+Italy, and some artists at Bologna, and in Umbria, like Innocenza da
+Imola (1494-1550?), and Timoteo di Viti (1467-1523), adopted the
+Raphael type and method to the detriment of what native talent they
+may have possessed, though about Timoteo there is some doubt whether
+he adopted Raphael's type, or Raphael his type.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from
+     the Cross Salvator Mundi St. Mark Pitti, Madonnas and
+     Prophets Uffizi, other pictures Florence Acad., Louvre,
+     Vienna Gal.; Albertinelli, Visitation Uffizi, Christ
+     Magdalene Madonna Louvre, Trinity Madonna Florence Acad.,
+     Annunciation Munich Gal.; Fra Paolino, works at San Spirito
+     Sienna, S. Domenico and S. Paolo Pistoia, Madonna Florence
+     Acad.; Bugiardini, Madonna Uffizi, St. Catherine S. M.
+     Novella Florence, Nativity Berlin, St. Catherine Bologna
+     Gal.; Granacci, altar-pieces Uffizi, Pitti, Acad. Florence,
+     Berlin and Munich Gals.; Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, S. Zenobio
+     pictures Uffizi, also Louvre and Berlin Gal.; Andrea del
+     Sarto, many pictures in Uffizi and Pitti, Louvre, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Madrid, Nat. Gal. Lon., frescos S. Annunziata and
+     the Scalzo Florence; Pontormo, frescos Annunziata Florence,
+     Visitation and Madonna Louvre, portrait Berlin Gal., Supper
+     at Emmaus Florence Acad., other works Uffizi; Franciabigio,
+     frescos courts of the Servi and Scalzo Florence, Bathsheba
+     Dresden Gal., many portraits in Louvre, Pitti, Berlin Gal.;
+     Michael Angelo, frescos Sistine Rome, Holy Family Uffizi;
+     Daniele da Volterra, frescos Hist. of Cross Trinità de'
+     Monti Rome, Innocents Uffizi; Venusti, frescos Castel San
+     Angelo, S. Spirito Rome, Annunciation St. John Lateran Rome;
+     Sebastiano del Piombo, Lazarus Nat. Gal. Lon., Pietà
+     Viterbo, Fornarina Uffizi (ascribed to Raphael) Fornarina
+     and Christ Bearing Cross Berlin and Dresden Gals., Agatha
+     Pitti, Visitation Louvre, portrait Doria Gal. Rome; Raphael,
+     Marriage of Virgin Brera, Madonna and Vision of Knight Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Madonnas St. Michael and St. George Louvre, many
+     Madonnas and portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Munich, Vienna, St.
+     Petersburgh, Madrid Gals., Sistine Madonna Dresden, chief
+     frescos Vatican Rome.
+
+     ROMANS: Giulio Romano, frescos Sala di Constantino Vatican
+     Rome (with Francesco Penni after Raphael), Palazzo del Tè
+     Mantua, St. Stephen, S. Stefano Genoa, Holy Family Dresden
+     Gal., other works in Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Pitti, Uffizi;
+     Primaticcio, works attributed to him doubtful--Scipio
+     Louvre, Lady at Toilet and Venus Musée de Cluny; Giovanni da
+     Udine, decorations, arabesques and grotesques in Vatican
+     Loggia; Perino del Vaga, Hist. of Joshua and David Vatican
+     (with Raphael), frescos Trinità de' Monti and Castel S.
+     Angelo Rome, Creation of Eve S. Marcello Rome; Sabbatini,
+     Adoration Naples Mus., altar-pieces in Naples and Salerno
+     churches; Innocenza da Imola, works in Bologna, Berlin and
+     Munich Gals.; Timoteo di Viti, Church of the Pace Rome
+     (after Raphael), madonnas and Magdalene Brera, Acad. of St.
+     Luke Rome, Bologna Gal., S. Domenico Urbino, Gubbio
+     Cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600.--CONTINUED.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+     and consult also the General Bibliography (p. xv.)
+
+
+LEONARDO DA VINCI AND THE MILANESE: The third person in the great
+Florentine trinity of painters was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the
+other two being Michael Angelo and Raphael. He greatly influenced the
+school of Milan, and has usually been classed with the Milanese, yet
+he was educated in Florence, in the workshop of Verrocchio, and was so
+universal in thought and methods that he hardly belongs to any school.
+
+He has been named a realist, an idealist, a magician, a wizard, a
+dreamer, and finally a scientist, by different writers, yet he was
+none of these things while being all of them--a full-rounded,
+universal man, learned in many departments and excelling in whatever
+he undertook. He had the scientific and experimental way of looking at
+things. That is perhaps to be regretted, since it resulted in his
+experimenting with everything and completing little of anything. His
+different tastes and pursuits pulled him different ways, and his
+knowledge made him sceptical of his own powers. He pondered and
+thought how to reach up higher, how to penetrate deeper, how to
+realize more comprehensively, and in the end he gave up in despair. He
+could not fulfil his ideal of the head of Christ nor the head of Mona
+Lisa, and after years of labor he left them unfinished. The problem
+of human life, the spirit, the world engrossed him, and all his
+creations seem impregnated with the psychological, the mystical, the
+unattainable, the hidden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--LEONARDO DA VINCI. MONA LISA. LOUVRE.]
+
+He was no religionist, though painting the religious subject with
+feeling; he was not in any sense a classicist, nor had he any care for
+the antique marbles, which he considered a study of nature at
+second-hand. He was more in love with physical life without being an
+enthusiast over it. His regard for contours, rhythm of line, blend of
+light with shade, study of atmosphere, perspective, trees, animals,
+humanity, show that though he examined nature scientifically, he
+pictured it æsthetically. In his types there is much sweetness of
+soul, charm of disposition, dignity of mien, even grandeur and majesty
+of presence. His people we would like to know better. They are full of
+life, intelligence, sympathy; they have fascination of manner,
+winsomeness of mood, grace of bearing. We see this in his best-known
+work--the Mona Lisa of the Louvre. It has much allurement of personal
+presence, with a depth and abundance of soul altogether charming.
+
+Technically, Leonardo was not a handler of the brush superior in any
+way to his Florentine contemporaries. He knew all the methods and
+mediums of the time, and did much to establish oil-painting among the
+Florentines, but he was never a painter like Titian, or even Correggio
+or Andrea del Sarto. A splendid draughtsman, a man of invention,
+imagination, grace, elegance, and power, he nevertheless carried more
+by mental penetration and æsthetic sense than by his technical skill.
+He was one of the great men of the Renaissance, and deservedly holds a
+place in the front rank.
+
+Though Leonardo's accomplishment seems slight because of the little
+that is left to us, yet he had a great following not only among the
+Florentines but at Milan, where Vincenza Foppa had started a school in
+the Early Renaissance time. Leonardo was there for fourteen years, and
+his artistic personality influenced many painters to adopt his type
+and methods. Bernardino Luini (1475?-1532?) was the most prominent of
+the disciples. He cultivated Leonardo's sentiment, style, subjects,
+and composition in his middle period, but later on developed
+independence and originality. He came at a period of art when that
+earnestness of characterization which marked the early men was giving
+way to gracefulness of recitation, and that was the chief feature of
+his art. For that matter gracefulness and pathetic sweetness of mood,
+with purity of line and warmth of color characterized all the Milanese
+painters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--LUINI. DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS WITH HEAD OF JOHN
+THE BAPTIST. UFFIZI.]
+
+The more prominent lights of the school were Salaino (fl. 1495-1518),
+of whose work nothing authentic exists, Boltraffio (1467-1516), a
+painter of limitations but of much refinement and purity, and Marco da
+Oggiono (1470?-1530) a close follower of Leonardo. Solario
+(1458?-1515?) probably became acquainted early with the Flemish mode
+of working practised by Antonello da Messina, but he afterward came
+under Leonardo's spell at Milan. He was a careful, refined painter,
+possessed of feeling and tenderness, producing pictures with enamelled
+surfaces and much detail. Gianpietrino (fl. 1520-1540) and Cesare da
+Sesto (1477-1523?) were also of the Milanese school, the latter
+afterward falling under the Raphael influence. Gaudenzio Ferrara
+(1481?-1547?), an exceptionally brilliant colorist and a painter of
+much distinction, was under Leonardo's influence at one time, and
+with the teachings of that master he mingled a little of Raphael in
+the type of face. He was an uneven painter, often excessive in
+sentiment, but at his best one of the most charming of the northern
+painters.
+
+SODOMA AND THE SIENNESE: Sienna, alive in the fourteenth century to
+all that was stirring in art, in the fifteenth century was in complete
+eclipse, no painters of consequence emanating from there or being
+established there. In the sixteenth century there was a revival of art
+because of a northern painter settling there and building up a new
+school. This painter was Sodoma (1477?-1549). He was one of the best
+pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, a master of the human figure, handling it
+with much grace and charm of expression, but not so successful with
+groups or studied compositions, wherein he was inclined to huddle and
+over-crowd space. He was afterward led off by the brilliant success of
+Raphael, and adopted something of that master's style. His best work
+was done in fresco, though he did some easel pictures that have
+darkened very much through time. He was a friend of Raphael, and his
+portrait appears beside Raphael's in the latter painter's celebrated
+School of Athens. The pupils and followers of the Siennese School were
+not men of great strength. Pacchiarotta (1474-1540?), Girolamo della
+Pacchia (1477-1535), Peruzzi (1481-1536), a half-Lombard half-Umbrian
+painter of ability, and Beccafumi (1486-1551) were the principal
+lights. The influence of the school was slight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SODOMA. ECSTASY OF ST. CATHERINE. SIENNA.]
+
+FERRARA AND BOLOGNESE SCHOOLS: The painters of these schools during
+the sixteenth century have usually been classed among the followers
+and imitators of Raphael, but not without some injustice. The
+influence of Raphael was great throughout Central Italy, and the
+Ferrarese and Bolognese felt it, but not to the extinction of their
+native thought and methods. Moreover, there was some influence in
+color coming from the Venetian school, but again not to the entire
+extinction of Ferrarese individuality. Dosso Dossi (1479?-1541), at
+Ferrara, a pupil of Lorenzo Costa, was the chief painter of the time,
+and he showed more of Giorgione in color and light-and-shade than
+anyone else, yet he never abandoned the yellows, greens, and reds
+peculiar to Ferrara, and both he and Garofolo were strikingly original
+in their background landscapes. Garofolo (1481-1559) was a pupil of
+Panetti and Costa, who made several visits to Rome and there fell in
+love with Raphael's work, which showed in a fondness for the sweep and
+flow of line, in the type of face adopted, and in the calmness of his
+many easel pictures. He was not so dramatic a painter as Dosso, and in
+addition he had certain mannerisms or earmarks, such as sootiness in
+his flesh tints and brightness in his yellows and greens, with dulness
+in his reds. He was always Ferrarese in his landscapes and in the main
+characteristics of his technic. Mazzolino (1478?-1528?) was another of
+the school, probably a pupil of Panetti. He was an elaborate painter,
+fond of architectural backgrounds and glowing colors enlivened with
+gold in the high lights. Bagnacavallo (1484-1542) was a pupil of
+Francia at Bologna, but with much of Dosso and Ferrara about him. He,
+in common with Imola, already mentioned, was indebted to the art of
+Raphael.
+
+CORREGGIO AT PARMA: In Correggio (1494?-1534) all the Boccaccio nature
+of the Renaissance came to the surface. It was indicated in Andrea del
+Sarto--this nature-worship--but Correggio was the consummation. He was
+the Faun of the Renaissance, the painter with whom the beauty of the
+human as distinguished from the religious and the classic showed at
+its very strongest. Free animal spirits, laughing madonnas, raving
+nymphs, excited children of the wood, and angels of the sky pass and
+repass through his pictures in an atmosphere of pure sensuousness.
+They appeal to us not religiously, not historically, not
+intellectually, but sensuously and artistically through their rhythmic
+lines, their palpitating flesh, their beauty of color, and in the
+light and atmosphere that surround them. He was less of a religionist
+than Andrea del Sarto. Religion in art was losing ground in his day,
+and the liberality and worldliness of its teachers appeared clearly
+enough in the decorations of the Convent of St. Paul at Parma, where
+Correggio was allowed to paint mythological Dianas and Cupids in the
+place of saints and madonnas. True enough, he painted the religious
+subject very often, but with the same spirit of life and joyousness as
+profane subjects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--CORREGGIO. MARRIAGE OF ST. CATHERINE AND
+CHRIST. LOUVRE.]
+
+The classic subject seemed more appropriate to his spirit, and yet he
+knew and probably cared less about it than the religious subject. His
+Dianas and Ledas are only so in name. They have little of the
+Hellenic spirit about them, and for the sterner, heroic phases of
+classicism--the lofty, the grand--Correggio never essayed them. The
+things of this earth and the sweetness thereof seemed ever his aim.
+Women and children were beautiful to him in the same way that flowers
+and trees and skies and sunsets were beautiful. They were revelations
+of grace, charm, tenderness, light, shade, color. Simply to exist and
+be glad in the sunlight was sweetness to Correggio. He would have no
+Sibylesque mystery, no prophetic austerity, no solemnity, no great
+intellectuality. He was no leader of a tragic chorus. The dramatic,
+the forceful, the powerful, were foreign to his mood. He was a singer
+of lyrics and pastorals, a lover of the material beauty about him, and
+it is because he passed by the pietistic, the classic, the literary,
+and showed the beauty of physical life as an art motive that he is
+called the Faun of the Renaissance. The appellation is not
+inappropriate.
+
+How or why he came to take this course would be hard to determine. It
+was reflective of the times; but Correggio, so far as history tells
+us, had little to do with the movements and people of his age. He was
+born and lived and died near Parma, and is sometimes classed among the
+Bologna-Ferrara painters, but the reasons for the classification are
+not too strong. His education, masters, and influences are all shadowy
+and indefinite. He seems, from his drawing and composition, to have
+known something of Mantegna at Mantua; from his coloring something of
+Dosso and Garofolo, especially in his straw-yellows; from his early
+types and faces something of Costa and Francia, and his contours and
+light-and-shade indicate a knowledge of Leonardo's work. But there is
+no positive certainty that he saw the work of any of these men.
+
+His drawing was faulty at times, but not obtrusively so; his color and
+brush-work rich, vivacious, spirited; his light brilliant, warm,
+penetrating; his contours melting, graceful; his atmosphere
+omnipresent, enveloping. In composition he rather pushed aside line in
+favor of light and color. It was his technical peculiarity that he
+centralized his light and surrounded it by darks as a foil. And in
+this very feature he was one of the first men in Renaissance Italy to
+paint a picture for the purpose of weaving a scheme of lights and
+darks through a tapestry of rich colors. That is art for art's sake,
+and that, as will be seen further on, was the picture motive of the
+great Venetians.
+
+Correggio's immediate pupils and followers, like those of Raphael and
+Andrea del Sarto, did him small honor. As was usually the case in
+Renaissance art-history they caught at the method and lost the spirit
+of the master. His son, Pomponio Allegri (1521-1593?), was a painter
+of some mark without being in the front rank. Michelangelo Anselmi
+(1491-1554?), though not a pupil, was an indifferent imitator of
+Correggio. Parmigianino (1504-1540), a mannered painter of some
+brilliancy, and of excellence in portraits, was perhaps the best of
+the immediate followers. It was not until after Correggio's death, and
+with the painters of the Decadence, that his work was seriously taken
+up and followed.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: MILANESE--Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper S.
+     M. delle Grazie Milan (in ruins), Mona Lisa, Madonna with
+     St. Anne (badly damaged) Louvre, Adoration (unfinished)
+     Uffizi, Angel at left in Verrocchio's Baptism Florence
+     Acad.; Luini, frescos Monastero Maggiore, 71 fragments in
+     Brera Milan, Church of the Pilgrims Sarrona, S. M. degli
+     Angeli Lugano, altar-pieces Duomo Como, Ambrosian Library
+     Milan, Brera, Uffizi, Louvre, Madrid, St. Petersburgh, and
+     other galleries; Beltraffio, Madonna Louvre, Barbara Berlin
+     Gal., Madonna Nat. Gal. Lon., fresco Convent of S. Onofrio
+     Rome (ascribed to Da Vinci); Marco da Oggiono, Archangels
+     and other works Brera, Holy Family Madonna Louvre; Solario,
+     Ecce Homo Repose Poldi-Pezzoli Gal. Milan, Holy Family
+     Brera, Madonna Portrait Louvre, Portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Assumption Certosa of Pavia; Giampietrino, Magdalene Brera,
+     Madonna S. Sepolcro Milan, Magdalene and Catherine Berlin
+     Gal.; Cesare da Sesto, Madonna Brera, Magi Naples Mus.;
+     Gaudenzio Ferrara, frescos Church of Pilgrims Saronna, other
+     pictures in Brera, Turin Gal., S. Gaudenzio Novara, S. Celso
+     Milan.
+
+     SIENNESE--Sodoma, frescos Convent of St. Anne near Pienza,
+     Benedictine Convent of Mont' Oliveto Maggiore, Alexander and
+     Roxana Villa Farnesina Rome, S. Bernardino Palazzo Pubblico,
+     S. Domenico Sienna, pictures Uffizi, Brera, Munich, Vienna
+     Gals.; Pacchiarotto, Ascension Visitation Sienna Gal.;
+     Girolamo del Pacchia, frescos (3) S. Bernardino,
+     altar-pieces S. Spirito and Sienna Acad., Munich and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Peruzzi, fresco Fontegiuste Sienna, S. Onofrio,
+     S. M. della Pace Rome; Beccafumi, St. Catherine Saints
+     Sienna Acad., frescos S. Bernardino Hospital and S. Martino
+     Sienna, Palazzo Doria Rome, Pitti, Berlin, Munich Gals.
+
+     FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Dosso Dossi, many works Ferrara
+     Modena Gals., Duomo S. Pietro Modena, Brera, Borghese,
+     Doria, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, Gals.; Garofolo, many works
+     Ferrara churches and Gal., Borghese, Campigdoglio, Louvre,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Mazzolino, Ferrara,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Louvre, Doria, Borghese, Pitti, Uffizi, and
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bagnacavallo, Misericordia and Gal. Bologna,
+     Louvre, Berlin, Dresden Gals.
+
+     PARMESE--Correggio, frescos Convent of S. Paolo, S. Giovanni
+     Evangelista, Duomo Parma, altar-pieces Dresden (4), Parma
+     Gals., Louvre, mythological pictures Antiope Louvre, Danae
+     Borghese, Leda Jupiter and Io Berlin, Venus Mercury and
+     Cupid Nat. Gal. Lon., Ganymede Vienna Gal.; Pomponio
+     Allegri, frescos Capella del Popolo Parma; Anselmi, frescos
+     S. Giovanni Evangelista, altar-pieces Madonna della
+     Steccata, Duomo, Gal. Parma, Louvre; Parmigianino, frescos
+     Moses Steccata, S. Giovanni Parma, altar-pieces Santa
+     Margherita, Bologna Gal., Madonna Pitti, portraits Uffizi,
+     Vienna, Naples Mus., other works Dresden, Vienna, and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE. 1500-1600. (_Continued._)
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+     and also consult General Bibliography, (page xv.).
+
+
+THE VENETIAN SCHOOL: It was at Venice and with the Venetian painters
+of the sixteenth century that a new art-motive was finally and fully
+adopted. This art-motive was not religion. For though the religious
+subject was still largely used, the religious or pietistic belief was
+not with the Venetians any more than with Correggio. It was not a
+classic, antique, realistic, or naturalistic motive. The Venetians
+were interested in all phases of nature, and they were students of
+nature, but not students of truth for truth's sake.
+
+What they sought, primarily, was the light and shade on a nude
+shoulder, the delicate contours of a form, the flow and fall of silk
+or brocade, the richness of a robe, a scheme of color or of light, the
+character of a face, the majesty of a figure. They were seeking
+effects of line, light, color--mere sensuous and pictorial effects, in
+which religion and classicism played secondary parts. They believed in
+art for art's sake; that painting was a creation, not an illustration;
+that it should exist by its pictorial beauties, not by its subject or
+story. No matter what their subjects, they invariably painted them so
+as to show the beauties they prized the highest. The Venetian
+conception was less austere, grand, intellectual, than pictorial,
+sensuous, concerning the beautiful as it appealed to the eye. And this
+was not a slight or unworthy conception. True it dealt with the
+fulness of material life, but regarded as it was by the Venetians--a
+thing full-rounded, complete, harmonious, splendid--it became a great
+ideal of existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GIORGIONE(?). ORDEAL OF MOSES. UFFIZI.]
+
+In technical expression color was the note of all the school, with
+hardly an exception. This in itself would seem to imply a lightness of
+spirit, for color is somehow associated in the popular mind with
+decorative gayety; but nothing could be further removed from the
+Venetian school than triviality. Color was taken up with the greatest
+seriousness, and handled in such masses and with such dignified power
+that while it pleased it also awed the spectator. Without having quite
+the severity of line, some of the Venetian chromatic schemes rise in
+sublimity almost to the Sistine modellings of Michael Angelo. We do
+not feel this so much in Giovanni Bellini, fine in color as he was. He
+came too early for the full splendor, but he left many pupils who
+completed what he had inaugurated.
+
+THE GREAT VENETIANS: The most positive in influence upon his
+contemporaries of all the great Venetians was Giorgione (1477?-1511).
+He died young, and what few pictures by him are left to us have been
+so torn to pieces by historical criticism that at times one begins to
+doubt if there ever was such a painter. His different styles have been
+confused, and his pictures in consequence thereof attributed to
+followers instead of to the master. Painters change their styles, but
+seldom their original bent of mind. With Giorgione there was a lyric
+feeling as shown in music. The voluptuous swell of line, the melting
+tone of color, the sharp dash of light, the undercurrent of
+atmosphere, all mingled for him into radiant melody. He sought pure
+pictorial beauty and found it in everything of nature. He had little
+grasp of the purely intellectual, and the religious was something he
+dealt with in no strong devotional way. The fête, the concert, the
+fable, the legend, with a landscape setting, made a stronger appeal to
+him. More of a recorder than a thinker he was not the less a leader
+showing the way into that new Arcadian grove of pleasure whose
+inhabitants thought not of creeds and faiths and histories and
+literatures, but were content to lead the life that was sweet in its
+glow and warmth of color, its light, its shadows, its bending trees,
+and arching skies. A strong full-blooded race, sober-minded,
+dignified, rationally happy with their lot, Giorgione portrayed them
+with an art infinite in variety and consummate in skill. Their least
+features under his brush seemed to glow like jewels. The sheen of
+armor and rich robe, a bare forearm, a nude back, or loosened
+hair--mere morsels of color and light--all took on a new beauty. Even
+landscape with him became more significant. His master, Bellini, had
+been realistic enough in the details of trees and hills, but Giorgione
+grasped the meaning of landscape as an entirety, and rendered it with
+poetic breadth.
+
+Technically he adopted the oil medium brought to Venice by Antonello
+da Messina, introducing scumbling and glazing to obtain brilliancy and
+depth of color. Of light-and-shade he was a master, and in atmosphere
+excellent. He, in common with all the Venetians, is sometimes said to
+be lacking in drawing, but that is the result of a misunderstanding.
+The Venetians never cared to accent line, choosing rather to model in
+masses of light and shadow and color. Giorgione was a superior man
+with the brush, but not quite up to his contemporary Titian.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--TITIAN. VENUS EQUIPPING CUPID. BORGHESE PAL.,
+ROME.]
+
+That is not surprising, for Titian (1477-1576) was the painter easily
+first in the whole range of Italian art. He was the first man in the
+history of painting to handle a brush with freedom, vigor, and gusto.
+And Titian's brush-work was probably the least part of his genius.
+Calm in mood, dignified, and often majestic in conception, learned
+beyond all others in his craft, he mingled thought, feeling, color,
+brush-work into one grand and glowing whole. He emphasized nothing,
+yet elevated everything. In pure intellectual thought he was not so
+strong as Raphael. He never sought to make painting a vehicle for
+theological, literary, or classical ideas. His tale was largely of
+humanity under a religious or classical name, but a noble, majestic
+humanity. In his art dignified senators, stern doges, and solemn
+ecclesiastics mingle with open-eyed madonnas, winning Ariadnes, and
+youthful Bacchuses. Men and women they are truly, but the very noblest
+of the Italian race, the mountain race of the Cadore country--proud,
+active, glowing with life; the sea race of Venice--worldly wise, full
+of character, luxurious in power.
+
+In himself he was an epitome of all the excellences of painting. He
+was everything, the sum of Venetian skill, the crowning genius of
+Renaissance art. He had force, power, invention, imagination, point of
+view; he had the infinite knowledge of nature and the infinite mastery
+of art. In addition, Fortune smiled upon him as upon a favorite child.
+Trained in mind and hand he lived for ninety-nine years and worked
+unceasingly up to a few months of his death. His genius was great and
+his accomplishment equally so. He was celebrated and independent at
+thirty-five, though before that he showed something of the influence
+of Giorgione. After the death of Giorgione and his master, Bellini,
+Titian was the leader in Venice to the end of his long life, and
+though having few scholars of importance his influence was spread
+through all North Italian painting.
+
+Taking him for all in all, perhaps it is not too much to say that he
+was the greatest painter known to history. If it were possible to
+describe that greatness in one word, that word would be
+"universality." He saw and painted that which was universal in its
+truth. The local and particular, the small and the accidental, were
+passed over for those great truths which belong to all the world of
+life. In this respect he was a veritable Shakespeare, with all the
+calmness and repose of one who overlooked the world from a lofty
+height.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--TINTORETTO. MERCURY AND GRACES. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.]
+
+The restfulness and easy strength of Titian were not characteristics
+of his follower Tintoretto (1518-1592). He was violent, headlong,
+impulsive, more impetuous than Michael Angelo, and in some respects a
+strong reminder of him. He had not Michael Angelo's austerity, and
+there was more clash and tumult and fire about him, but he had a
+command of line like the Florentine, and a way of hurling things, as
+seen in the Fall of the Damned, that reminds one of the Last Judgment
+of the Sistine. It was his aim to combine the line of Michael Angelo
+and the color of Titian; but without reaching up to either of his
+models he produced a powerful amalgam of his own.
+
+He was one of the very great artists of the world, and the most rapid
+workman in the whole Renaissance period. There are to-day, after
+centuries of decay, fire, theft, and repainting, yards upon yards of
+Tintoretto's canvases rotting upon the walls of the Venetian churches.
+He produced an enormous amount of work, and, what is to be regretted,
+much of it was contract work or experimental sketching. This has given
+his art a rather bad name, but judged by his best works in the Ducal
+Palace and the Academy at Venice, he will not be found lacking. Even
+in his masterpiece (The Miracle of the Slave) he is "Il Furioso," as
+they used to call him; but his thunderbolt style is held in check by
+wonderful grace, strength of modelling, superb contrasts of light with
+shade, and a coloring of flesh and robes not unworthy of the very
+greatest. He was a man who worked in the white heat of passion, with
+much imagination and invention. As a technician he sought difficulties
+rather than avoided them. There is some antagonism between form and
+color, but Tintoretto tried to reconcile them. The result was
+sometimes clashing, but no one could have done better with them than
+he did. He was a fine draughtsman, a good colorist, and a master of
+light. As a brushman he was a superior man, but not equal to Titian.
+
+Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), the fourth great Venetian, did not follow
+the line direction set by Tintoretto, but carried out the original
+color-leaning of the school. He came a little later than Tintoretto,
+and his art was a reflection of the advancing Renaissance, wherein
+simplicity was destined to lose itself in complexity, grandeur, and
+display. Paolo came on the very crest of the Renaissance wave, when
+art, risen to its greatest height, was gleaming in that transparent
+splendor that precedes the fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--P. VERONESE. VENICE ENTHRONED. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.]
+
+The great bulk of his work had a large decorative motive behind it.
+Almost all of the late Venetian work was of that character. Hence it
+was brilliant in color, elaborate in subject, and grand in scale.
+Splendid robes, hangings, furniture, architecture, jewels, armor,
+appeared everywhere, and not in flat, lustreless hues, but with that
+brilliancy which they possess in nature. Drapery gave way to clothing,
+and texture-painting was introduced even in the largest canvases.
+Scenes from Scripture and legend turned into grand pageants of
+Venetian glory, and the facial expression of the characters rather
+passed out in favor of telling masses of color to be seen at a
+distance upon wall or ceiling. It was pomp and glory carried to the
+highest pitch, but with all seriousness of mood and truthfulness in
+art. It was beyond Titian in variety, richness, ornament, facility;
+but it was perhaps below Titian in sentiment, sobriety, and depth of
+insight. Titian, with all his sensuous beauty, did appeal to the
+higher intelligence, while Paolo and his companions appealed more
+positively to the eye by luxurious color-setting and magnificence of
+invention. The decadence came after Paolo, but not with him. His art
+was the most gorgeous of the Venetian school, and by many is ranked
+the highest of all, but perhaps it is better to say it was the height.
+Those who came after brought about the decline by striving to imitate
+his splendor, and thereby falling into extravagance.
+
+These are the four great Venetians--the men of first rank. Beside them
+and around them were many other painters, placed in the second rank,
+who in any other time or city would have held first place. Palma il
+Vecchio (1480?-1528) was so excellent in many ways that it seems
+unjust to speak of him as a secondary painter. He was not, however, a
+great original mind, though in many respects a perfect painter. He was
+influenced by Bellini at first, and then by Giorgione. In subject
+there was nothing dramatic about him, and he carries chiefly by his
+portrayal of quiet, dignified, and beautiful Venetians under the names
+of saints and holy families. The St. Barbara is an example of this,
+and one of the most majestic figures in all painting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--LOTTO. THREE AGES. PITTI.]
+
+Palma's friend and fellow-worker, Lorenzo Lotto (1480?-1556?) came
+from the school of the Bellini, and at different times was under the
+influence of several Venetian painters--Palma, Giorgione,
+Titian--without obliterating a sensitive individuality of his own. He
+was a somewhat mannered but very charming painter, and in portraits
+can hardly be classed below Titian. Rocco Marconi (fl. 1505-1520) was
+another Bellini-educated painter, showing the influence of Palma and
+even of Paris Bordone. In color and landscape he was excellent.
+Pordenone (1483-1540) rather followed after Giorgione, and
+unsuccessfully competed with Titian. He was inclined to exaggeration
+in dramatic composition, but was a painter of undeniable power.
+Cariani (1480-1541) was another Giorgione follower. Bonifazio Pitati
+probably came from a Veronese family. He showed the influence of
+Palma, and was rather deficient in drawing, though exceedingly
+brilliant and rich in coloring. This latter may be said for Paris
+Bordone (1495-1570), a painter of Titian's school, gorgeous in color,
+but often lacking in truth of form. His portraits are very fine.
+Another painter family, the Bassani--there were six of them, of whom
+Jacopo Bassano (1510-1592) and his son Francesco Bassano (1550-1591),
+were the most noted--formed themselves after Venetian masters, and
+were rather remarkable for violent contrasts of light and dark,
+_genre_ treatment of sacred subjects, and still-life and animal
+painting.
+
+PAINTING IN VENETIAN TERRITORIES: Venetian painting was not confined to
+Venice, but extended through all the Venetian territories in Renaissance
+times, and those who lived away from the city were, in their art,
+decidedly Venetian, though possessing local characteristics.
+
+At Brescia Savoldo (1480?-1548), a rather superficial painter, fond of
+weird lights and sheeny draperies, and Romanino (1485?-1566), a
+follower of Giorgione, good in composition but unequal and careless in
+execution, were the earliest of the High Renaissance men. Moretto
+(1498?-1555) was the strongest and most original, a man of
+individuality and power, remarkable technically for his delicacy and
+unity of color under a veil of "silvery tone." In composition he was
+dignified and noble, and in brush-work simple and direct. One of the
+great painters of the time, he seemed to stand more apart from
+Venetian influence than any other on Venetian territory. He left one
+remarkable pupil, Moroni (fl. 1549-1578) whose portraits are to-day
+the gems of several galleries, and greatly admired for their modern
+spirit and treatment.
+
+At Verona Caroto and Girolamo dai Libri (1474-1555), though living
+into the sixteenth century were more allied to the art of the
+fifteenth century. Torbido (1486?-1546?) was a vacillating painter,
+influenced by Liberale da Verona, Giorgione, Bonifazio Veronese, and
+later, even by Giulio Romano. Cavazzola (1486-1522) was more original,
+and a man of talent. There were numbers of other painters scattered
+all through the Venetian provinces at this time, but they were not of
+the first, or even the second rank, and hence call for no mention
+here.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: Giorgione, Fête Rustique Louvre, Sleeping
+     Venus Dresden, altar-piece Castelfranco, Ordeal of Moses
+     Judgment of Solomon Knight of Malta Uffizi; Titian, Sacred
+     and Profane Love Borghese, Tribute Money Dresden,
+     Annunciation S. Rocco, Pesaro Madonna Frari Venice,
+     Entombment Man with Glove Louvre, Bacchus Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Charles V. Madrid, Danæ Naples, many other works in almost
+     every European gallery; Tintoretto, many works in Venetian
+     churches, Salute SS. Giovanni e Paolo S. Maria dell' Orto
+     Scuola and Church of S. Rocco Ducal Palace Venice Acad.
+     (best work Miracle of Slave); Paolo Veronese, many Pictures
+     in S. Sebastiano Ducal Palace Academy Venice, Pitti, Uffizi,
+     Brera, Capitoline and Borghese Galleries Rome, Turin,
+     Dresden, Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Palma il Vecchio,
+     Jacob and Rachel Three Sisters Dresden, Barbara S. M.
+     Formosa Venice, other altar-pieces Venice Acad., Colonna
+     Palace Rome, Brera, Naples Mus., Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Lotto, Three Ages Pitti, Portraits Brera, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice and churches at
+     Bergamo, Treviso, Recanti, also Uffizi, Vienna, Madrid
+     Gals.; Marconi, Descent Venice Acad., altar-pieces S.
+     Giorgio Maggiore SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice; Pordenone, S.
+     Lorenzo Madonna Venice Acad., Salome Doria St. George
+     Quirinale Rome, other works Madrid, Dresden, St. Petersburg,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bonifazio, St. John, St. Joseph, etc.
+     Ambrosian Library Milan (attributed to Giorgione), Holy
+     Family Colonna Pal. Rome, Ducal Pal., Pitti, Dresden Gals.;
+     Supper at Emmaus Brera, other works Venice Acad.; Paris
+     Bordone, Fisherman and Doge, Venice Acad., Madonna Casa
+     Tadini Lovere, portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Louvre, Munich,
+     Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon., Brignola Pal. Genoa; Jacopo Bassano,
+     altar-pieces in Bassano churches, also Ducal Pal. Venice,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Uffizi, Naples Mus.; Francesco Bassano,
+     large pictures Ducal Pal., St. Catherine Pitti, Sabines
+     Turin, Adoration and Christ in Temple Dresden, Adoration and
+     Last Supper Madrid; Savoldo, altar-pieces Brera, S. Niccolò
+     Treviso, Uffizi, Turin Gal., S. Giobbe Venice, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Romanino, altar-pieces S. Francesco Brescia, Berlin
+     Gal., S. Giovanni Evangelista Brescia, Duomo Cremona, Padua,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moretto, altar-pieces Brera, Staedel
+     Mus., S. M. della Pieta Venice, Vienna, Berlin, Louvre,
+     Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moroni, portraits Bergamo Gal.,
+     Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Berlin, Dresden, Madrid; Girolamo
+     dai Libri, Madonna Berlin, Conception S. Paolo Verona,
+     Virgin Verona Gal., S. Giorgio Maggiore Verona, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Torbido, frescos Duomo, altar-pieces S. Zeno and S.
+     Eufemia Verona; Cavazzola, altar-pieces, Verona Gal. and
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK. 1600-1894.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, also General Bibliography,
+     (page xv.); Calvi, _Notizie della vita e delle opere di Gio.
+     Francesco Barbiera_; Malvasia, _Felsina Pittrice_; Sir
+     Joshua Reynolds, _Discourses_; Symonds, _Renaissance in
+     Italy--The Catholic Reaction_; Willard, _Modern Italian
+     Art_.
+
+
+THE DECLINE: An art movement in history seems like a wave that rises
+to a height, then breaks, falls, and parts of it are caught up from
+beneath to help form the strength of a new advance. In Italy
+Christianity was the propelling force of the wave. In the Early
+Renaissance, the antique, and the study of nature came in as
+additions. At Venice in the High Renaissance the art-for-art's-sake
+motive made the crest of light and color. The highest point was
+reached then, and there was nothing that could follow but the breaking
+and the scattering of the wave. This took place in Central Italy after
+1540, in Venice after 1590.
+
+Art had typified in form, thought, and expression everything of which
+the Italian race was capable. It had perfected all the graces and
+elegancies of line and color, and adorned them with a superlative
+splendor. There was nothing more to do. The idea was completed, the
+motive power had served its purpose, and that store of race-impulse
+which seems necessary to the making of every great art was exhausted.
+For the men that came after Michael Angelo and Tintoretto there was
+nothing. All that they could do was to repeat what others had said, or
+to recombine the old thoughts and forms. This led inevitably to
+imitation, over-refinement of style, and conscious study of beauty,
+resulting in mannerism and affectation. Such qualities marked the art
+of those painters who came in the latter part of the sixteenth century
+and the first of the seventeenth. They were unfortunate men in the
+time of their birth. No painter could have been great in the
+seventeenth century of Italy. Art lay prone upon its face under Jesuit
+rule, and the late men were left upon the barren sands by the receding
+wave of the Renaissance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--BRONZINO. CHRIST IN LIMBO. UFFIZI.]
+
+ART MOTIVES AND SUBJECTS: As before, the chief subject of the art of
+the Decadence was religion, with many heads and busts of the Madonna,
+though nature and the classic still played their parts. After the
+Reformation at the North the Church in Italy started the
+Counter-Reformation. One of the chief means employed by this Catholic
+reaction was the embellishment of church worship, and painting on a
+large scale, on panel rather than in fresco, was demanded for
+decorative purposes. But the religious motive had passed out, though
+its subject was retained, and the pictorial motive had reached its
+climax at Venice. The faith of the one and the taste and skill of the
+other were not attainable by the late men, and, while consciously
+striving to achieve them, they fell into exaggerated sentiment and
+technical weakness. It seems perfectly apparent in their works that
+they had nothing of their own to say, and that they were trying to say
+over again what Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Titian had said before
+them much better. There were earnest men and good painters among them,
+but they could produce only the empty form of art. The spirit had
+fled.
+
+THE MANNERISTS: Immediately after the High Renaissance leaders of
+Florence and Rome came the imitators and exaggerators of their styles.
+They produced large, crowded compositions, with a hasty facility of
+the brush and striking effects of light. Seeking the grand they
+overshot the temperate. Their elegance was affected, their sentiment
+forced, their brilliancy superficial glitter. When they thought to be
+ideal they lost themselves in incomprehensible allegories; when they
+thought to be real they grew prosaic in detail. These men are known in
+art history as the Mannerists, and the men whose works they imitated
+were chiefly Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Correggio. There were many
+of them, and some of them have already been spoken of as the followers
+of Michael Angelo.
+
+Agnolo Bronzino (1502?-1572) was a pupil of Pontormo, and an imitator
+of Michael Angelo, painting in rather heavy colors with a thin brush.
+His characters were large, but never quite free from weakness, except
+in portraiture, where he appeared at his best. Vasari (1511-1574)--the
+same Vasari who wrote the lives of the painters--had versatility and
+facility, but his superficial imitations of Michael Angelo were too
+grandiose in conception and too palpably false in modelling. Salviati
+(1510-1563) was a friend of Vasari, a painter of about the same cast
+of mind and hand as Vasari, and Federigo Zucchero (1543-1609) belongs
+with him in producing things muscularly big but intellectually small.
+Baroccio (1528-1612), though classed among the Mannerists as an
+imitator of Correggio and Raphael, was really one of the strong men of
+the late times. There was affectation and sentimentality about his
+work, a prettiness of face, rosy flesh tints, and a general lightness
+of color, but he was a superior brushman, a good colorist, and, at
+times, a man of earnestness and power.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--BAROCCIO. ANNUNCIATION.]
+
+THE ECLECTICS: After the Mannerists came the Eclectics of Bologna, led
+by the Caracci, who, about 1585, sought to "revive" art. They started
+out to correct the faults of the Mannerists, and yet their own art was
+based more on the art of their great predecessors than on nature. They
+thought to make a union of Renaissance excellences by combining
+Michael Angelo's line, Titian's color, Correggio's light-and-shade and
+Raphael's symmetry and grace. The attempt was praiseworthy for the
+time, but hardly successful. They caught the lines and lights and
+colors of the great men, but they overlooked the fact that the
+excellence of the imitated lay largely in their inimitable
+individualities, which could not be combined. The Eclectic work was
+done with intelligence, but their system was against them and their
+baroque age was against them. Midway in their career the Caracci
+themselves modified their eclecticism and placed more reliance upon
+nature. But their pupils paid little heed to the modification.
+
+There were five of the Caracci, but three of them--Ludovico
+(1555-1619), Agostino (1557-1602), and Annibale (1560-1609)--led the
+school, and of these Annibale was the most distinguished. They had
+many pupils, and their influence was widely spread over Italy. In Sir
+Joshua Reynolds's day they were ranked with Raphael, but at the
+present time criticism places them where they belong--painters of the
+Decadence with little originality or spontaneity in their art, though
+much technical skill. Domenichino (1581-1641) was the strongest of the
+pupils. His St. Jerome was rated by Poussin as one of the three great
+paintings of the world, but it never deserved such rank. It is
+powerfully composed, but poor in coloring and handling. The painter
+had great repute in his time, and was one of the best of the
+seventeenth century men. Guido Reni (1575-1642) was a painter of many
+gifts and accomplishments, combined with many weaknesses. His works
+are well composed and painted, but excessive in sentiment and overdone
+in pathos. Albani (1578-1660) ran to elegance and a porcelain-like
+prettiness. Guercino (1591-1666) was originally of the Eclectic School
+at Bologna, but later took up with the methods of the Naturalists at
+Naples. He was a painter of far more than the average ability.
+Sassoferrato (1605-1685) and Carlo Dolci (1616-1686) were so
+super-saturated with sentimentality that often their skill as painters
+is overlooked or forgotten. In spirit they were about the weakest of
+the century. There were other eclectic schools started throughout
+Italy--at Milan, Cremona, Ferrara--but they produced little worth
+recording. At Rome certain painters like Cristofano Allori
+(1577-1621), an exceptionally strong man for the time, Berrettini
+(1596-1669), and Maratta (1625-1713), manufactured a facile kind of
+painting from what was attractive in the various schools, but it was
+never other than meretricious work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--ANNIBALE CARACCI. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+THE NATURALISTS: Contemporary with the Eclectics sprang up the
+Neapolitan school of the Naturalists, led by Caravaggio (1569-1609)
+and his pupils. These schools opposed each other, and yet influenced
+each other. Especially was this true with the later men, who took what
+was best in both schools. The Naturalists were, perhaps, more firmly
+based upon nature than the Bolognese Eclectics. Their aim was to take
+nature as they found it, and yet, in conformity with the extravagance
+of the age, they depicted extravagant nature. Caravaggio thought to
+represent sacred scenes more truthfully by taking his models from the
+harsh street life about him and giving types of saints and apostles
+from Neapolitan brawlers and bandits. It was a brutal, coarse
+representation, rather fierce in mood and impetuous in action, yet not
+without a good deal of tragic power. His subjects were rather dismal
+or morose, but there was knowledge in the drawing of them, some good
+color and brush-work and a peculiar darkness of shadow masses
+(originally gained from Giorgione), that stood as an ear-mark of his
+whole school. From the continuous use of black shadows the school got
+the name of the "Darklings," by which they are still known. Giordano
+(1632-1705), a painter of prodigious facility and invention, Salvator
+Rosa (1615-1673), best known as one of the early painters of
+landscape, and Ribera, a Spanish painter, were the principal pupils.
+
+THE LATE VENETIANS: The Decadence at Venice, like the Renaissance,
+came later than at Florence, but after the death of Tintoretto
+mannerisms and the imitation of the great men did away with
+originality. There was still much color left, and fine ceiling
+decorations were done, but the nobility and calm splendor of Titian's
+days had passed. Palma il Giovine (1544-1628) with a hasty brush
+produced imitations of Tintoretto with some grace and force, and in
+remarkable quantity. He and Tintoretto were the most rapid and
+productive painters of the century; but Palma's was not good in
+spirit, though quite dashing in technic. Padovanino (1590-1650) was
+more of a Titian follower, but, like all the other painters of the
+time, he was proficient with the brush and lacking in the stronger
+mental elements. The last great Italian painter was Tiepolo
+(1696-1770), and he was really great beyond his age. With an art
+founded on Paolo Veronese, he produced decorative ceilings and panels
+of high quality, with wonderful invention, a limpid brush, and a light
+flaky color peculiarly appropriate to the walls of churches and
+palaces. He was, especially in easel pictures, a brilliant, vivacious
+brushman, full of dash and spirit, tempered by a large knowledge of
+what was true and pictorial. Some of his best pictures are still in
+Venice, and modern painters are unstinted in their praise of them. He
+left a son, Domenico Tiepolo (1726-1795), who followed his methods. In
+the late days of Venetian painting, Canaletto (1697-1768) and Guardi
+(1712-1793) achieved reputation by painting Venetian canals and
+architecture with much color effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CARAVAGGIO. THE CARD PLAYERS. DRESDEN.]
+
+NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN ITALY: There is little in the art of
+Italy during the present century that shows a positive national
+spirit. It has been leaning on the rest of Europe for many years, and
+the best that the living painters show is largely an echo of
+Dusseldorf, Munich, or Paris. The revived classicism of David in
+France affected nineteenth-century painting in Italy somewhat. Then it
+was swayed by Cornelius and Overbeck from Germany. Morelli (1826-[2])
+shows this latter influence, though one of the most important of the
+living men.[3] In the 1860's Mariano Fortuny, a Spaniard at Rome, led
+the younger element in the glittering and the sparkling, and this
+style mingled with much that is more strikingly Parisian than Italian,
+may be found in the works of painters like Michetti, De Nittis
+(1846-1884), Favretto, Tito, Nono, Simonetti, and others.
+
+[Footnote 2: Died, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See _Scribner's Magazine_, Neapolitan Art, Dec., 1890,
+Feb., 1891.]
+
+Of recent days the impressionistic view of light and color has had its
+influence; but the Italian work at its best is below that of France.
+Segantini[4] was one of the most promising of the younger men in
+subjects that have an archaic air about them. Boldini, though Italian
+born and originally following Fortuny's example, is really more
+Parisian than anything else. He is an artist of much power and
+technical strength in _genre_ subjects and portraits. The newer men
+are Fragiocomo, Fattori, Mancini, Marchetti.
+
+[Footnote 4: Died, 1899.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: MANNERISTS--Agnolo Bronzino, Christ in
+     Limbo and many portraits in Uffizi and Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Vasari, many pictures in galleries at Arezzo, Bologna,
+     Berlin, Munich, Louvre, Madrid; Salviati, Charity Christ
+     Uffizi, Patience Pitti, St. Thomas Louvre, Love and Psyche
+     Berlin; Federigo Zucchero, Duomo Florence, Ducal Palace
+     Venice, Allegories Uffizi, Calumny Hampton Court; Baroccio,
+     Pardon of St. Francis Urbino, Annunciation Loreto, several
+     pictures in Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Dresden Gal.
+
+     ECLECTICS--Ludovico Caracci, Cathedral frescos Bologna,
+     thirteen pictures Bologna Gal.; Agostino Caracci, frescos
+     (with Annibale) Farnese Pal. Rome, altar-pieces Bologna
+     Gal.; Annibale Carracci, frescos (with Agostino) Farnese
+     Pal. Rome, other pictures Bologna Gal., Uffizi, Naples Mus.,
+     Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Domenichino, St.
+     Jerome Vatican, S. Pietro in Vincoli, Diana Borghese,
+     Bologna, Pitti, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Guido Reni, frescos
+     Aurora Rospigliosi Pal. Rome, many pictures Bologna,
+     Borghese Gal., Pitti, Uffizi, Brera, Naples, Louvre, and
+     other galleries of Europe; Albani, Guercino, Sassoferrato,
+     and Carlo Dolci, works in almost every European gallery,
+     especially Bologna; Cristofano Allori, Judith Pitti, also
+     pictures in Uffizi; Berrettini and Maratta, many examples in
+     Italian galleries, also Louvre.
+
+     NATURALISTS--Caravaggio, Entombment Vatican, many other
+     works in Pitti, Uffizi, Naples, Louvre, Dresden, St.
+     Petersburg; Giordano, Judgment of Paris Berlin, many
+     pictures in Dresden and Italian galleries; Salvator Rosa,
+     best marine in Pitti, other works Uffizi, Brera, Naples,
+     Madrid galleries and Colonna, Corsini, Doria, Chigi Palaces
+     Rome.
+
+     LATE VENETIANS--Palma il Giovine, Ducal Palace Venice,
+     Cassel, Dresden, Munich, Madrid, Naples, Vienna galleries;
+     Padovanino, Marriage in Cana Kneeling Angel and other works
+     Venice Acad., Carmina Venice, also galleries of Louvre,
+     Uffizi, Borghese, Dresden, London; Tiepolo, large fresco
+     Villa Pisani Stra, Palazzo Labia Scuola Carmina, Venice,
+     Villa Valmarana, and at Wurtzburg, easel pictures Venice
+     Acad., Louvre, Berlin, Madrid; Canaletto and Guardi, many
+     pictures in European galleries.
+
+     MODERN ITALIANS[5]--Morelli, Madonna Royal chap.
+     Castiglione, Assumption Royal chap. Naples; Michetti, The
+     Vow Nat. Gal. Rome; De Nittis, Place du Carrousel Luxembourg
+     Paris; Boldini, Gossips Met. Mus. New York.
+
+[Footnote 5: Only works in public places are given. Those in private
+hands change too often for record here. For detailed list of works see
+Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Amorini, _Vita del celebre pittore
+     Francesco Primaticcio_; Berger, _Histoire de l'École
+     Française de Peinture au XVII^{me} Siècle_; Bland, _Les
+     Peintres des fêtes galantes, Watteau, Boucher, et al._;
+     Curmer, _L'OEuvre de Jean Fouquet_; Delaborde, _Études sur
+     les Beaux Arts en France et en Italie_; Didot, _Études sur
+     Jean Cousin_; Dimier, _French Painting in XVI Century_;
+     Dumont, _Antoine Watteau_; Dussieux, _Nouvelles Recherches
+     sur la Vie de E. Lesueur_; Genevay, _Le Style Louis XIV.,
+     Charles Le Brun_; Goncourt, _L'Art du XVIII^{me} Siècle_;
+     Guibel, _Éloge de Nicolas Poussin_; Guiffrey, _La Famille de
+     Jean Cousin_; Laborde, _La Renaissance des Arts à la Cour de
+     France_; Lagrange, _J. Vernet et la Peinture au XVIII^{me}
+     Siècle_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi René_; Mantz, _François
+     Boucher_; Michiels, _Études sur l'Art Flamand dans l'est et
+     le midi de la France_; Muntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et
+     en France_; Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_; Pattison,
+     _Renaissance of Art in France_; Pattison, _Claude Lorrain_;
+     Poillon, _Nicolas Poussin_; Stranahan, _History of French
+     Painting_.
+
+
+EARLY FRENCH ART: Painting in France did not, as in Italy, spring
+directly from Christianity, though it dealt with the religious
+subject. From the beginning a decorative motive--the strong feature of
+French art--appears as the chief motive of painting. This showed
+itself largely in church ornament, garments, tapestries, miniatures,
+and illuminations. Mural paintings were produced during the fifth
+century, probably in imitation of Italian or Roman example. Under
+Charlemagne, in the eighth century, Byzantine influences were at work.
+In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries much stained-glass
+work appeared, and also many missal paintings and furniture
+decorations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--POUSSIN. ET IN ARCADIA EGO. LOUVRE.]
+
+In the fifteenth century René of Anjou (1408-1480), king and painter,
+gave an impetus to art which he perhaps originally received from
+Italy. His work showed some Italian influence mingled with a great
+deal of Flemish precision, and corresponded for France to the early
+Renaissance work of Italy, though by no means so advanced.
+Contemporary with René was Jean Fouquet (1415?-1480?) an illuminator
+and portrait-painter, one of the earliest in French history. He was an
+artist of some original characteristics and produced an art detailed
+and exact in its realism. Jean Péreal (?-1528?) and Jean Bourdichon
+(1457?-1521?) with Fouquet's pupils and sons, formed a school at Tours
+which afterward came to show some Italian influence. The native
+workmen at Paris--they sprang up from illuminators to painters in all
+probability--showed more of the Flemish influence. Neither of the
+schools of the fifteenth century reflected much life or thought, but
+what there was of it was native to the soil, though their methods were
+influenced from without.
+
+SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: During this century Francis I., at
+Fontainebleau, seems to have encouraged two schools of painting, one
+the native French and the other an imported Italian, which afterward
+took to itself the name of the "School of Fontainebleau." Of the
+native artists the Clouets were the most conspicuous. They were of
+Flemish origin, and followed Flemish methods both in technic and
+mediums. There were four of them, of whom Jean (1485?-1541?) and
+François (1500?-1572?) were the most noteworthy. They painted many
+portraits, and François' work, bearing some resemblance to that of
+Holbein, it has been doubtfully said that he was a pupil of that
+painter. All of their work was remarkable for detail and closely
+followed facts.
+
+The Italian importation came about largely through the travels of
+Francis I. in Italy. He invited to Fontainebleau Leonardo da Vinci,
+Andrea del Sarto, Il Rosso, Primaticcio, and Niccolò dell' Abbate.
+These painters rather superseded and greatly influenced the French
+painters. The result was an Italianized school of French art which
+ruled in France for many years. Primaticcio was probably the greatest
+of the influencers, remaining as he did for thirty years in France.
+The native painters, Jean Cousin (1500?-1589) and Toussaint du Breuil
+(1561-1602) followed his style, and in the next century the painters
+were even more servile imitators of Italy--imitating not the best
+models either, but the Mannerists, the Eclectics, and the Roman
+painters of the Decadence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--CLAUDE LORRAIN. FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. DRESDEN.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was a century of great development
+and production in France, the time of the founding of the French
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and the formation of many picture
+collections. In the first part of the century the Flemish and native
+tendencies existed, but they were overawed, outnumbered by the
+Italian. Not even Rubens's painting for Marie de' Medici, in the
+palace of the Luxembourg, could stem the tide of Italy. The French
+painters flocked to Rome to study the art of their great predecessors
+and were led astray by the flashy elegance of the late Italians. Among
+the earliest of this century was Fréminet (1567-1619). He was first
+taught by his father and Jean Cousin, but afterward spent fifteen
+years in Italy studying Parmigianino and Michael Angelo. His work had
+something of the Mannerist style about it and was overwrought and
+exaggerated. In shadows he seemed to have borrowed from Caravaggio.
+Vouet (1590-1649) was a student in Italy of Veronese's painting and
+afterward of Guido Reni and Caravaggio. He was a mediocre artist, but
+had a great vogue in France and left many celebrated pupils.
+
+By all odds the best painter of this time was Nicolas Poussin
+(1593-1665). He lived almost all of his life in Italy, and might be
+put down as an Italian of the Decadence. He was well versed in
+classical archæology, and had much of the classic taste and feeling
+prevalent at that time in the Roman school of Giulio Romano. His work
+showed great intelligence and had an elevated grandiloquent style
+about it that was impressive. It reflected nothing French, and had
+little more root in present human sympathy than any of the other
+painting of the time, but it was better done. The drawing was correct
+if severe, the composition agreeable if formal, the coloring
+variegated if violent. Many of his pictures have now changed for the
+worse in coloring owing to the dissipation of surface pigments. He was
+the founder of the classic and academic in French art, and in
+influence was the most important man of the century. He was especially
+strong in the heroic landscape, and in this branch helped form the
+style of his brother-in-law, Gaspard (Dughet) Poussin (1613-1675).
+
+The landscape painter of the period, however, was Claude Lorrain
+(1600-1682). He differed from Poussin in making his pictures depend
+more strictly upon landscape than upon figures. With both painters,
+the trees, mountains, valleys, buildings, figures, were of the grand
+classic variety. Hills and plains, sylvan groves, flowing streams,
+peopled harbors, Ionic and Corinthian temples, Roman aqueducts,
+mythological groups, were the materials used, and the object of their
+use was to show the ideal dwelling-place of man--the former Garden of
+the Gods. Panoramic and slightly theatrical at times, Claude's work
+was not without its poetic side, shrewd knowledge, and skilful
+execution. He was a leader in landscape, the man who first painted
+real golden sunlight and shed its light upon earth. There is a soft
+summer's-day drowsiness, a golden haze of atmosphere, a feeling of
+composure and restfulness about his pictures that are attractive. Like
+Poussin he depended much upon long sweeping lines in composition, and
+upon effects of linear perspective.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58--WATTEAU. GILLES. LOUVRE.]
+
+COURT PAINTING: When Louis XIV. came to the throne painting took on a
+decided character, but it was hardly national or race character. The
+popular idea, if the people had an idea, did not obtain. There was no
+motive springing from the French except an inclination to follow
+Italy; and in Italy all the great art-motives were dead. In method
+the French painters followed the late Italians, and imitated an
+imitation; in matter they bowed to the dictates of the court and
+reflected the king's mock-heroic spirit. Echoing the fashion of the
+day, painting became pompous, theatrical, grandiloquent--a mass of
+vapid vanity utterly lacking in sincerity and truth. Lebrun
+(1619-1690), painter in ordinary to the king, directed substantially
+all the painting of the reign. He aimed at pleasing royalty with
+flattering allusions to Cæsarism and extravagant personifications of
+the king as a classic conqueror. His art had neither truth, nor
+genius, nor great skill, and so sought to startle by subject or size.
+Enormous canvases of Alexander's triumphs, in allusion to those of the
+great Louis, were turned out to order, and Versailles to this day is
+tapestried with battle-pieces in which Louis is always victor.
+Considering the amount of work done, Lebrun showed great fecundity and
+industry, but none of it has much more than a mechanical ingenuity
+about it. It was rather original in composition, but poor in drawing,
+lighting, and coloring; and its example upon the painters of the time
+was pernicious.
+
+His contemporary, Le Sueur (1616-1655), was a more sympathetic and
+sincere painter, if not a much better technician. Both were pupils of
+Vouet, but Le Sueur's art was religious in subject, while Lebrun's was
+military and monarchical. Le Sueur had a feeling for his theme, but
+was a weak painter, inclined to the sentimental, thin in coloring, and
+not at all certain in his drawing. French allusions to him as "the
+French Raphael" show more national complacency than correctness.
+Sebastian Bourdon (1616-1671) was another painter of history, but a
+little out of the Lebrun circle. He was not, however, free from the
+influence of Italy, where he spent three years studying color more
+than drawing. This shows in his works, most of which are lacking in
+form.
+
+Contemporary with these men was a group of portrait-painters who
+gained celebrity perhaps as much by their subjects as by their own
+powers. They were facile flatterers given over to the pomps of the
+reign and mirroring all its absurdities of fashion. Their work has a
+graceful, smooth appearance, and, for its time, it was undoubtedly
+excellent portraiture. Even to this day it has qualities of drawing
+and coloring to commend it, and at times one meets with exceptionally
+good work. The leaders among these portrait-painters were Philip de
+Champaigne (1602-1674), the best of his time; Pierre Mignard
+(1610?-1695), a pupil of Vouet, who studied in Rome and afterward
+returned to France to become the successful rival of Lebrun;
+Largillière (1656-1746) and Rigaud (1659-1743).
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: The painting of Louis XIV.'s time was
+continued into the eighteenth century for some fifteen years or more
+with little change. With the advent of Louis XV. art took upon itself
+another character, and one that reflected perfectly the moral, social,
+and political France of the eighteenth century. The first Louis
+clamored for glory, the second Louis revelled in gayety, frivolity,
+and sensuality. This was the difference between both monarchs and both
+arts. The gay and the coquettish in painting had already been
+introduced by the Regent, himself a dilettante in art, and when Louis
+XV. came to the throne it passed from the gay to the insipid, the
+flippant, even the erotic. Shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in
+court silks and satins with cottony sheep beside them posed in
+stage-set Arcadias, pretty gods and goddesses reclined indolently upon
+gossamer clouds, and court gallants lounged under artificial trees by
+artificial ponds making love to pretty soubrettes from the theatre.
+
+Yet, in spite of the lack of moral and intellectual elevation, in
+spite of frivolity and make-believe, this art was infinitely better
+than the pompous imitation of foreign example set up by Louis XIV. It
+was more spontaneous, more original, more French. The influence of
+Italy began to fail, and the painters began to mirror French life. It
+was largely court life, lively, vivacious, licentious, but in that
+very respect characteristic of the time. Moreover, there was another
+quality about it that showed French taste at its best--the decorative
+quality. It can hardly be supposed that the fairy creations of the age
+were intended to represent actual nature. They were designed to
+ornament hall and boudoir, and in pure decorative delicacy of design,
+lightness of touch, color charm, they have never been excelled. The
+serious spirit was lacking, but the gayety of line and color was well
+given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--BOUCHER. PASTORAL. LOUVRE.]
+
+Watteau (1684-1721) was the one chiefly responsible for the coquette
+and soubrette of French art, and Watteau was, practically speaking,
+the first French painter. His subjects were trifling bits of
+fashionable love-making, scenes from the opera, fêtes, balls, and the
+like. All his characters played at life in parks and groves that never
+grew, and most of his color was beautifully unreal; but for all that
+the work was original, decorative, and charming. Moreover, Watteau was
+a brushman, and introduced not only a new spirit and new subject into
+art, but a new method. The epic treatment of the Italians was laid
+aside in favor of a genre treatment, and instead of line and flat
+surface Watteau introduced color and cleverly laid pigment. He was a
+brilliant painter; not a great man in thought or imagination, but one
+of fancy, delicacy, and skill. Unfortunately he set a bad example by
+his gay subjects, and those who came after him carried his gayety and
+lightness of spirit into exaggeration. Watteau's best pupils were
+Lancret (1690-1743) and Pater (1695-1736), who painted in his style
+with fair results.
+
+After these men came Van Loo (1705-1765) and Boucher (1703-1770), who
+turned Watteau's charming fêtes, showing the costumes and manners of
+the Regency, into flippant extravagance. Not only was the moral tone
+and intellectual stamina of their art far below that of Watteau, but
+their workmanship grew defective. Both men possessed a remarkable
+facility of the hand and a keen decorative color-sense; but after a
+time both became stereotyped and mannered. Drawing and modelling were
+neglected, light was wholly conventional, and landscape turned into a
+piece of embroidered background with a Dresden china-tapestry effect
+about it. As decoration the general effect was often excellent, as a
+serious expression of life it was very weak, as an intellectual or
+moral force it was worse than worthless. Fragonard (1732-1806)
+followed in a similar style, but was a more knowing man, clever in
+color, and a much freer and better brushman.
+
+A few painters in the time of Louis XV. remained apparently
+unaffected by the court influence, and stand in conspicuous isolation.
+Claude Joseph Vernet (1712-1789) was a landscape and marine painter of
+some repute in his time. He had a sense of the pictorial, but not a
+remarkable sense of the truthful in nature. Chardin (1699-1779) and
+Greuze (1725-1805), clung to portrayals of humble life and sought to
+popularize the _genre_ subject. Chardin was not appreciated by the
+masses. His frank realism, his absolute sincerity of purpose, his play
+of light and its effect upon color, and his charming handling of
+textures were comparatively unnoticed. Yet as a colorist he may be
+ranked second to none in French art, and in freshness of handling his
+work is a model for present-day painters. Diderot early recognized
+Chardin's excellence, and many artists since his day have admired his
+pictures; but he is not now a well-known or popular painter. The
+populace fancies Greuze and his sentimental heads of young girls. They
+have a prettiness about them that is attractive, but as art they lack
+in force, and in workmanship they are too smooth, finical, and thin in
+handling.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: All of these French painters are best
+     represented in the collections of the Louvre. Some of the
+     other galleries, like the Dresden, Berlin, and National at
+     London, have examples of their work; but the masterpieces
+     are with the French people in the Louvre and in the other
+     municipal galleries of France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Stranahan, _et al._; also
+     Ballière, _Henri Regnault_; Blanc, _Les Artistes de mon
+     Temps_; Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres français au XIX^{me}
+     Siècle_; Blanc, _Ingres et son OEuvre_; Bigot, _Peintres
+     français contemporains_; Breton, _La Vie d'un Artiste_
+     (_English Translation_); Brownell, _French Art_; Burty,
+     _Maîtres et Petit-Maîtres_; Chesneau, _Peinture française au
+     XIX^{me} Siècle_; Clément, _Études sur les Beaux Arts en
+     France_; Clément, _Prudhon_; Delaborde, _OEuvre de Paul
+     Delaroche_; Delécluze, _Jacques Louis David, son École, et
+     son Temps_; Duret, _Les Peintres français en 1867_; Gautier,
+     _L'Art Moderne_; Gautier, _Romanticisme_; Gonse, _Eugène
+     Fromentin_; Hamerton, _Contemporary French Painting_;
+     Hamerton, _Painting in France after the Decline of
+     Classicism_; Henley, _Memorial Catalogue of French and Dutch
+     Loan Collection_ (1886); Henriet, _Charles Daubigny et son
+     OEuvre_; Lenormant, _Les Artistes Contemporains_;
+     Lenormant, _Ary Scheffer_; Merson, _Ingres, sa Vie et son
+     OEuvre_; Moreau, _Decamps et son OEuvre_; Planche,
+     _Études sur l'École française_; Robaut et Chesneau,
+     _L' OEuvre complet d'Eugène Delacroix_; Sensier, _Théodore
+     Rousseau_; Sensier, _Life and Works of J. F. Millet_;
+     Silvestre, _Histoire des Artistes vivants et étrangers_;
+     Strahan, _Modern French Art_; Thoré, _L'Art Contemporain_;
+     Theuriet, _Jules Bastien-Lepage_; Van Dyke, _Modern French
+     Masters_.
+
+
+THE REVOLUTIONARY TIME: In considering this century's art in Europe,
+it must be remembered that a great social and intellectual change has
+taken place since the days of the Medici. The power so long pent up in
+Italy during the Renaissance finally broke and scattered itself upon
+the western nations; societies and states were torn down and
+rebuilded, political, social, and religious ideas shifted into new
+garbs; the old order passed away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--DAVID. THE SABINES. LOUVRE.]
+
+Religion as an art-motive, or even as an art-subject, ceased to obtain
+anywhere. The Church failed as an art-patron, and the walls of
+cloister and cathedral furnished no new Bible readings to the
+unlettered. Painting, from being a necessity of life, passed into a
+luxury, and the king, the state, or the private collector became the
+patron. Nature and actual life were about the only sources left from
+which original art could draw its materials. These have been freely
+used, but not so much in a national as in an individual manner. The
+tendency to-day is not to put forth a universal conception but an
+individual belief. Individualism--the same quality that appeared so
+strongly in Michael Angelo's art--has become a keynote in modern work.
+It is not the only kind of art that has been shown in this century,
+nor is nature the only theme from which art has been derived. We must
+remember and consider the influence of the past upon modern men, and
+the attempts to restore the classic beauty of the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian, which practically ruled French painting in the first part of
+this century.
+
+FRENCH CLASSICISM OF DAVID: This was a revival of Greek form in art,
+founded on the belief expressed by Winckelmann, that beauty lay in
+form, and was best shown by the ancient Greeks. It was the objective
+view of art which saw beauty in the external and tolerated no
+individuality in the artist except that which was shown in technical
+skill. It was little more than an imitation of the Greek and Roman
+marbles as types, with insistence upon perfect form, correct drawing,
+and balanced composition. In theme and spirit it was pseudo-heroic,
+the incidents of Greek and Roman history forming the chief subjects,
+and in method it rather despised color, light-and-shade, and natural
+surroundings. It was elevated, lofty, ideal in aspiration, but coldly
+unsympathetic because lacking in contemporary interest; and, though
+correct enough in classic form, was lacking in the classic spirit.
+Like all reanimated art, it was derivative as regards its forms and
+lacking in spontaneity. The reason for the existence of Greek art died
+with its civilization, and those, like the French classicists, who
+sought to revive it, brought a copy of the past into the present,
+expecting the world to accept it.
+
+There was some social, and perhaps artistic, reason, however, for the
+revival of the classic in the French art of the late eighteenth
+century. It was a revolt, and at that time revolts were popular. The
+art of Boucher and Van Loo had become quite unbearable. It was
+flippant, careless, licentious. It had no seriousness or dignity about
+it. Moreover, it smacked of the Bourbon monarchy, which people had
+come to hate. Classicism was severe, elevated, respectable at least,
+and had the air of the heroic republic about it. It was a return to a
+sterner view of life, with the martial spirit behind it as an impetus,
+and it had a great vogue. For many years during the Revolution, the
+Consulate, and the Empire, classicism was accepted by the sovereigns
+and the Institute of France, and to this day it lives in a modified
+form in that semi-classic work known as academic art.
+
+THE CLASSIC SCHOOL: Vien (1716-1809) was the first painter to protest
+against the art of Boucher and Van Loo by advocating more nobility of
+form and a closer study of nature. He was, however, more devoted to
+the antique forms he had studied in Rome than to nature. In subject
+and line his tendency was classic, with a leaning toward the Italians
+of the Decadence. He lacked the force to carry out a complete reform
+in painting, but his pupil David (1748-1825) accomplished what he had
+begun. It was David who established the reign of classicism, and by
+native power became the leader. The time was appropriate, the
+Revolution called for pictures of Romulus, Brutus and Achilles, and
+Napoleon encouraged the military theme. David had studied the marbles
+at Rome, and he used them largely for models, reproducing scenes from
+Greek and Roman life in an elevated and sculpturesque style, with much
+archæological knowledge and a great deal of skill. In color, relief,
+sentiment, individuality, his painting was lacking. He despised all
+that. The rhythm of line, the sweep of composed groups, the heroic
+subject and the heroic treatment, made up his art. It was thoroughly
+objective, and what contemporary interest it possessed lay largely in
+the martial spirit then prevalent. Of course it was upheld by the
+Institute, and it really set the pace for French painting for nearly
+half a century. When David was called upon to paint Napoleonic
+pictures he painted them under protest, and yet these, with his
+portraits, constitute his best work. In portraiture he was uncommonly
+strong at times.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--INGRES. OEDIPUS AND SPHINX. LOUVRE.]
+
+After the Restoration David, who had been a revolutionist, and then an
+adherent of Napoleon, was sent into exile; but the influence he had
+left and the school he had established were carried on by his
+contemporaries and pupils. Of the former Regnault (1754-1829), Vincent
+(1746-1816), and Prudhon (1758-1823) were the most conspicuous. The
+last one was considered as out of the classic circle, but so far as
+making his art depend upon drawing and composition, he was a genuine
+classicist. His subjects, instead of being heroic, inclined to the
+mythological and the allegorical. In Italy he had been a student of
+the Renaissance painters, and from them borrowed a method of shadow
+gradation that rendered his figures misty and phantom-like. They
+possessed an ease of movement sometimes called "Prudhonesque grace,"
+and in composition were well placed and effective.
+
+Of David's pupils there were many. Only a few of them, however, had
+pronounced ability, and even these carried David's methods into the
+theatrical. Girodet (1766-1824) was a draughtsman of considerable
+power, but with poor taste in color and little repose in composition.
+Most of his work was exaggeration and strained effect. Lethière
+(1760-1832) and Guérin (1774-1833), pupils of Regnault, were painters
+akin to Girodet, but inferior to him. Gérard (1770-1837) was a weak
+David follower, who gained some celebrity by painting portraits of
+celebrated men and women. The two pupils of David who brought him the
+most credit were Ingres (1780-1867) and Gros (1771-1835). Ingres was a
+cold, persevering man, whose principles had been well settled by David
+early in life, and were adhered to with conviction by the pupil to the
+last. He modified the classic subject somewhat, studied Raphael and
+the Italians, and reintroduced the single figure into art (the Source,
+and the Odalisque, for example). For color he had no fancy. "In nature
+all is form," he used to say. Painting he thought not an independent
+art, but "a development of sculpture." To consider emotion, color, or
+light as the equal of form was monstrous, and to compare Rembrandt
+with Raphael was blasphemy. To this belief he clung to the end,
+faithfully reproducing the human figure, and it is not to be wondered
+at that eventually he became a learned draughtsman. His single figures
+and his portraits show him to the best advantage. He had a strong
+grasp of modelling and an artistic sense of the beauty and dignity of
+line not excelled by any artist of this century. And to him more than
+any other painter is due the cultured draughtsmanship which is to-day
+the just pride of the French school.
+
+Gros was a more vacillating man, and by reason of forsaking the
+classic subject for Napoleonic battle-pieces, he unconsciously led the
+way toward romanticism. He excelled as a draughtsman, but when he came
+to paint the Field of Eylau and the Pest of Jaffa he mingled color,
+light, air, movement, action, sacrificing classic composition and
+repose to reality. This was heresy from the Davidian point of view,
+and David eventually convinced him of it. Gros returned to the classic
+theme and treatment, but soon after was so reviled by the changing
+criticism of the time that he committed suicide in the Seine. His art,
+however, was the beginning of romanticism.
+
+The landscape painting of this time was rather academic and
+unsympathetic. It was a continuation of the Claude-Poussin tradition,
+and in its insistence upon line, grandeur of space, and imposing trees
+and mountains, was a fit companion to the classic figure-piece. It had
+little basis in nature, and little in color or feeling to commend it.
+Watelet (1780-1866), Bertin (1775-1842), Michallon (1796-1822), and
+Aligny (1798-1871), were its exponents.
+
+A few painters seemed to stand apart from the contemporary influences.
+Madame Vigée-Lebrun (1755-1842), a successful portrait-painter of
+nobility, and Horace Vernet (1789-1863), a popular battle-painter,
+many of whose works are to be seen at Versailles, were of this class.
+
+ROMANTICISM: The movement in French painting which began about 1822 and
+took the name of Romanticism was but a part of the "storm-and-stress"
+feeling that swept Germany, England, and France at the beginning of this
+century, appearing first in literature and afterward in art. It had its
+origin in a discontent with the present, a passionate yearning for the
+unattainable, an intensity of sentiment, gloomy melancholy imaginings,
+and a desire to express the inexpressible. It was emphatically
+subjective, self-conscious, a mood of mind or feeling. In this respect
+it was diametrically opposed to the academic and the classic. In French
+painting it came forward in opposition to the classicism of David.
+People had begun to weary of Greek and Roman heroes and their deeds, of
+impersonal line-bounded statuesque art. There was a demand for something
+more representative, spontaneous, expressive of the intense feeling of
+the time. The very gist of romanticism was passion. Freedom to express
+itself in what form it would was a condition of its existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--DELACROIX. MASSACRE OF SCIO. LOUVRE.]
+
+The classic subject was abandoned by the romanticists for dramatic
+scenes of mediæval and modern times. The romantic hero and heroine in
+scenes of horror, perils by land and sea, flame and fury, love and
+anguish, came upon the boards. Much of this was illustration of
+history, the novel, and poetry, especially the poetry of Goethe,
+Byron, and Scott. Line was slurred in favor of color, symmetrical
+composition gave way to wild disordered groups in headlong action, and
+atmospheres, skies, and lights were twisted and distorted to convey
+the sentiment of the story. It was thus, more by suggestion than
+realization, that romanticism sought to give the poetic sentiment of
+life. Its position toward classicism was antagonistic, a rebound, a
+flying to the other extreme. One virtually said that beauty was in the
+Greek form, the other that it was in the painter's emotional nature.
+The disagreement was violent, and out of it grew the so-called
+romantic quarrel of the 1820's.
+
+LEADERS OF ROMANTICISM: Symptoms of the coming movement were apparent
+long before any open revolt. Gros had made innovations on the classic
+in his battle-pieces, but the first positive dissent from classic
+teachings was made in the Salon of 1819 by Géricault (1791-1824) with
+his Raft of the Medusa. It represented the starving, the dead, and the
+dying of the Medusa's crew on a raft in mid-ocean. The subject was not
+classic. It was literary, romantic, dramatic, almost theatric in its
+seizing of the critical moment. Its theme was restless, harrowing,
+horrible. It met with instant opposition from the old men and applause
+from the young men. It was the trumpet-note of the revolt, but
+Géricault did not live long enough to become the leader of
+romanticism. That position fell to his contemporary and fellow-pupil,
+Delacroix (1799-1863). It was in 1822 that Delacroix's first Salon
+picture (the Dante and Virgil) appeared. A strange, ghost-like scene
+from Dante's _Inferno_, the black atmosphere of the nether world,
+weird faces, weird colors, weird flames, and a modelling of the
+figures by patches of color almost savage as compared to the tinted
+drawing of classicism. Delacroix's youth saved the picture from
+condemnation, but it was different with his Massacre of Scio two
+years later. This was decried by the classicists, and even Gros called
+it "the massacre of art." The painter was accused of establishing the
+worship of the ugly, he was no draughtsman, had no selection, no
+severity, nothing but brutality. But Delacroix was as obstinate as
+Ingres, and declared that the whole world could not prevent him from
+seeing and painting things in his own way. It was thus the quarrel
+started, the young men siding with Delacroix, the older men following
+David and Ingres.
+
+In himself Delacroix embodied all that was best and strongest in the
+romantic movement. His painting was intended to convey a romantic mood
+of mind by combinations of color, light, air, and the like. In subject
+it was tragic and passionate, like the poetry of Hugo, Byron, and
+Scott. The figures were usually given with anguish-wrung brows, wild
+eyes, dishevelled hair, and impetuous, contorted action. The painter
+never cared for technical details, seeking always to gain the effect
+of the whole rather than the exactness of the part. He purposely
+slurred drawing at times, and was opposed to formal composition. In
+color he was superior, though somewhat violent at times, and in
+brush-work he was often labored and patchy. His strength lay in
+imagination displayed in color and in action.
+
+The quarrel between classicism and romanticism lasted some years, with
+neither side victorious. Delacroix won recognition for his view of
+art, but did not crush the belief in form which was to come to the
+surface again. He fought almost alone. Many painters rallied around
+him, but they added little strength to the new movement. Devéria
+(1805-1865) and Champmartin (1797-1883) were highly thought of at
+first, but they rapidly degenerated. Sigalon (1788-1837), Cogniet
+(1794-1880), Robert-Fleury (1797-), and Boulanger (1806-1867), were
+romanticists, but achieved more as teachers than as painters.
+Delaroche (1797-1856) was an eclectic--in fact, founded a school of
+that name--thinking to take what was best from both parties.
+Inventing nothing, he profited by all invented. He employed the
+romantic subject and color, but adhered to classic drawing. His
+composition was good, his costume careful in detail, his brush-work
+smooth, and his story-telling capacity excellent. All these qualities
+made him a popular painter, but not an original or powerful one. Ary
+Scheffer (1797-1858) was an illustrator of Goethe and Byron, frail in
+both sentiment and color, a painter who started as a romanticist, but
+afterward developed line under Ingres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--GÉRÔME. POLLICE VERSO.]
+
+THE ORIENTALISTS: In both literature and painting one phase of
+romanticism showed itself in a love for the life, the light, the color
+of the Orient. From Paris Decamps (1803-1860) was the first painter to
+visit the East and paint Eastern life. He was a _genre_ painter more
+than a figure painter, giving naturalistic street scenes in Turkey and
+Asia Minor, courts, and interiors, with great feeling for air, warmth
+of color, and light. At about the same time Marilhat (1811-1847) was
+in Egypt picturing the life of that country in a similar manner; and
+later, Fromentin (1820-1876), painter and writer, following Delacroix,
+went to Algiers and portrayed there Arab life with fast-flying horses,
+the desert air, sky, light, and color. Théodore Frere and Ziem belong
+further on in the century, but were no less exponents of romanticism
+in the East.
+
+Fifteen years after the starting of romanticism the movement had
+materially subsided. It had never been a school in the sense of having
+rules and laws of art. Liberty of thought and perfect freedom for
+individual expression were all it advocated. As a result there was no
+unity, for there was nothing to unite upon; and with every painter
+painting as he pleased, regardless of law, extravagance was
+inevitable. This was the case, and when the next generation came in
+romanticism began to be ridiculed for its excesses. A reaction started
+in favor of more line and academic training. This was first shown by
+the students of Delaroche, though there were a number of movements at
+the time, all of them leading away from romanticism. A recoil from too
+much color in favor of more form was inevitable, but romanticism was
+not to perish entirely. Its influence was to go on, and to appear in
+the work of later men.
+
+ECLECTICS AND TRANSITIONAL PAINTERS: After Ingres his follower
+Flandrin (1809-1864) was the most considerable draughtsman of the
+time. He was not classic but religious in subject, and is sometimes
+called "the religious painter of France." He had a delicate beauty of
+line and a fine feeling for form, but never was strong in color,
+brush-work, or sentiment. His best work appears in his very fine
+portraits. Gleyre (1806-1874) was a man of classic methods, but
+romantic tastes, who modified the heroic into the idyllic and
+mythologic. He was a sentimental day-dreamer, with a touch of
+melancholy about the vanished past, appearing in Arcadian fancies,
+pretty nymphs, and idealized memories of youth. In execution he was
+not at all romantic. His color was pale, his drawing delicate, and his
+lighting misty and uncertain. It was the etherealized classic method,
+and this method he transmitted to a little band of painters called the
+
+NEW-GREEKS, who, in point of time, belong much further along in the
+century, but in their art are with Gleyre. Their work never rose above
+the idyllic and the graceful, and calls for no special mention. Hamon
+(1821-1874) and Aubert (1824-) belonged to the band, and Gérôme
+(1824-[6]) was at one time its leader, but he afterward emerged from
+it to a higher place in French art, where he will find mention
+hereafter.
+
+[Footnote 6: Died, 1904.]
+
+Couture (1815-1879) stood quite by himself, a mingling of several
+influences. His chief picture, The Romans of the Decadence, is classic
+in subject, romantic in sentiment (and this very largely expressed by
+warmth of color), and rather realistic in natural appearance. He was
+an eclectic in a way, and yet seems to stand as the forerunner of a
+large body of artists who find classification hereafter under the
+title of the Semi-Classicists.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: All the painters mentioned in this chapter
+     are best represented in the Louvre at Paris, at Versailles,
+     and in the museums of the chief French cities. Some works of
+     the late or living men may be found in the Luxembourg, where
+     pictures bought by the state are kept for ten years after
+     the painter's death, and then are either sent to the Louvre
+     or to the other municipal galleries of France. Some pictures
+     by these men are also to be seen in the Metropolitan Museum,
+     New York, the Boston Museum, and the Chicago Art Institute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (_Continued_).
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The books before mentioned, consult also
+     General Bibliography, (page xv.)
+
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The influence of either the classic or
+romantic example may be traced in almost all of the French painting of
+this century. The opposed teachings find representatives in new men,
+and under different names the modified dispute goes on--the dispute of
+the academic _versus_ the individual, the art of form and line
+_versus_ the art of sentiment and color.
+
+With the classicism of David not only the figure but the landscape
+setting of it, took on an ideal heroic character. Trees and hills and
+rivers became supernaturally grand and impressive. Everything was
+elevated by method to produce an imaginary Arcadia fit for the deities
+of the classic world. The result was that nature and the humanity of
+the painter passed out in favor of school formula and academic
+traditions. When romanticism came in this was changed, but nature
+falsified in another direction. Landscape was given an interest in
+human affairs, and made to look gay or sad, peaceful or turbulent, as
+the day went well or ill with the hero of the story portrayed. It was,
+however, truer to the actual than the classic, more studied in the
+parts, more united in the whole. About the year 1830 the influence of
+romanticism began to show in a new landscape art. That is to say, the
+emotional impulse springing from romanticism combined with the study
+of the old Dutch landscapists, and the English contemporary painters,
+Constable and Bonington, set a large number of painters to the close
+study of nature and ultimately developed what has been vaguely called
+the
+
+FONTAINEBLEAU-BARBIZON SCHOOL: This whole school was primarily devoted
+to showing the sentiment of color and light. It took nature just as it
+found it in the forest of Fontainebleau, on the plain of Barbizon, and
+elsewhere, and treated it with a poetic feeling for light, shadow,
+atmosphere, color, that resulted in the best landscape painting yet
+known to us.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--COROT. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+Corot (1796-1875) though classically trained under Bertin, and though
+somewhat apart from the other men in his life, belongs with this
+group. He was a man whose artistic life was filled with the beauty of
+light and air. These he painted with great singleness of aim and great
+poetic charm. Most of his work is in a light silvery key of color,
+usually slight in composition, simple in masses of light and dark,
+and very broadly but knowingly handled with the brush. He began
+painting by using the minute brush, but changed it later on for a
+freer style which recorded only the great omnipresent truths and
+suppressed the small ones. He has never had a superior in producing
+the permeating light of morning and evening. For this alone, if for no
+other excellence, he deservedly holds high rank.
+
+Rousseau (1812-1867) was one of the foremost of the recognized
+leaders, and probably the most learned landscapist of this century. A
+man of many moods and methods he produced in variety with rare
+versatility. Much of his work was experimental, but at his best he had
+a majestic conception of nature, a sense of its power and permanence,
+its volume and mass, that often resulted in the highest quality of
+pictorial poetry. In color he was rich and usually warm, in technic
+firm and individual, in sentiment at times quite sublime. At first he
+painted broadly and won friends among the artists and sneers from the
+public; then in his middle style he painted in detail, and had a
+period of popular success; in his late style he went back to the broad
+manner, and died amid quarrels and vexations of spirits. His long-time
+friend and companion, Jules Dupré (1812-1889), hardly reached up to
+him, though a strong painter in landscape and marine. He was a good
+but not great colorist, and, technically, his brush was broad enough
+but sometimes heavy. His late work is inferior in sentiment and
+labored in handling. Diaz (1808-1876) was allied to Rousseau in aim
+and method, though not so sure nor so powerful a painter. He had fancy
+and variety in creation that sometimes ran to license, and in color he
+was clear and brilliant. Never very well trained, his drawing is often
+indifferent and his light distorted, but these are more than atoned
+for by delicacy and poetic charm. At times he painted with much power.
+Daubigny (1817-1878) seemed more like Corot in his charm of style and
+love of atmosphere and light than any of the others. He was fond of
+the banks of the Seine and the Marne at twilight, with evening
+atmospheres and dark trees standing in silent ranks against the warm
+sky. He was also fond of the gray day along the coast, and even the
+sea attracted him not a little. He was a painter of high abilities,
+and in treatment strongly individual, even distinguished, by his
+simplicity and directness. Unity of the whole, grasp of the mass
+entire, was his technical aim, and this he sought to get not so much
+by line as by color-tones of varying value. In this respect he seemed
+a connecting link between Corot and the present-day impressionists.
+Michel (1763-1842), Huet (1804-1869), Chintreuil (1814-1873), and
+Français (1814-) were all allied in point of view with this group of
+landscape painters, and among the late men who have carried out their
+beliefs are Cazin,[7] Yon,[8] Damoye, Pointelin, Harpignies and
+Pelouse[9] seem a little more inclined to the realistic than the
+poetic view, though producing work of much virility and intelligence.
+
+[Footnote 7: Died, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Died, 1897.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Died, 1890.]
+
+Contemporary and associated with the Fontainebleau painters were a
+number of men who won high distinction as
+
+PAINTERS OF ANIMALS: Troyon (1810-1865) was the most prominent among
+them. His work shows the same sentiment of light and color as the
+Fontainebleau landscapists, and with it there is much keen insight
+into animal life. As a technician he was rather hard at first, and he
+never was a correct draughtsman, but he had a way of giving the
+character of the objects he portrayed which is the very essence of
+truth. He did many landscapes with and without cattle. His best pupil
+was Van Marcke (1827-1890), who followed his methods but never
+possessed the feeling of his master. Jacque (1813-[10]) is also of the
+Fontainebleau-Barbizon group, and is justly celebrated for his
+paintings and etchings of sheep. The poetry of the school is his, and
+technically he is fine in color at times, if often rather dark in
+illumination. Like Troyon he knows his subject well, and can show the
+nature of sheep with true feeling. Rosa Bonheur (1822-[11]) and her
+brother, Auguste Bonheur (1824-1884), have both dealt with animal
+life, but never with that fine artistic feeling which would warrant
+their popularity. Their work is correct enough, but prosaic and
+commonplace in spirit. They do not belong in the same group with
+Troyon and Rousseau.
+
+[Footnote 10: Died, 1894.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Died, 1899.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ROUSSEAU, CHARCOAL BURNERS' HUT. FULLER
+COLLECTION.]
+
+THE PEASANT PAINTERS: Allied again in feeling and sentiment with the
+Fontainebleau landscapists were some celebrated painters of peasant
+life, chief among whom stood Millet (1814-1875), of Barbizon. The
+pictorial inclination of Millet was early grounded by a study of
+Delacroix, the master romanticist, and his work is an expression of
+romanticism modified by an individual study of nature and applied to
+peasant life. He was peasant born, living and dying at Barbizon,
+sympathizing with his class, and painting them with great poetic force
+and simplicity. His sentiment sometimes has a literary bias, as in his
+far-famed but indifferent Angelus, but usually it is strictly
+pictorial and has to do with the beauty of light, air, color, motion,
+life, as shown in The Sower or The Gleaners. Technically he was not
+strong as a draughtsman or a brushman, but he had a large feeling for
+form, great simplicity in line, keen perception of the relations of
+light and dark, and at times an excellent color-sense. He was
+virtually the discoverer of the peasant as an art subject, and for
+this, as for his original point of view and artistic feeling, he is
+ranked as one of the foremost artists of the century.
+
+Jules Breton (1827-), though painting little besides the peasantry, is
+no Millet follower, for he started painting peasant scenes at about
+the same time as Millet. His affinities were with the New-Greeks early
+in life, and ever since he has inclined toward the academic in style,
+though handling the rustic subject. He is a good technician, except in
+his late work; but as an original thinker, as a pictorial poet, he
+does not show the intensity or profundity of Millet. The followers of
+the Millet-Breton tradition are many. The blue-frocked and sabot-shod
+peasantry have appeared in salon and gallery for twenty years and
+more, but with not very good results. The imitators, as usual, have
+caught at the subject and missed the spirit. Billet and Legros,
+contemporaries of Millet, still living, and Lerolle, a man of
+present-day note, are perhaps the most considerable of the painters of
+rural subjects to-day.
+
+THE SEMI-CLASSICISTS: It must not be inferred that the classic
+influence of David and Ingres disappeared from view with the coming of
+the romanticists, the Fontainebleau landscapists, and the Barbizon
+painters. On the contrary, side by side with these men, and opposed
+to them, were the believers in line and academic formulas of the
+beautiful. The whole tendency of academic art in France was against
+Delacroix, Rousseau, and Millet. During their lives they were regarded
+as heretics in art and without the pale of the Academy. Their art,
+however, combined with nature study and the realism of Courbet,
+succeeded in modifying the severe classicism of Ingres into what has
+been called semi-classicism. It consists in the elevated, heroic, or
+historical theme, academic form well drawn, some show of bright
+colors, smoothness of brush-work, and precision and nicety of detail.
+In treatment it attempts the realistic, but in spirit it is usually
+stilted, cold, unsympathetic.
+
+Cabanel (1823-1889) and Bouguereau (1825-1905) have both represented
+semi-classic art well. They are justly ranked as famous draughtsmen
+and good portrait-painters, but their work always has about it the
+stamp of the academy machine, a something done to order, knowing and
+exact, but lacking in the personal element. It is a weakness of the
+academic method that it virtually banishes the individuality of eye
+and hand in favor of school formulas. Cabanel and Bouguereau have
+painted many incidents of classic and historic story, but with never a
+dash of enthusiasm or a suggestion of the great qualities of painting.
+Their drawing has been as thorough as could be asked for, but their
+colorings have been harsh and their brushes cold and thin.
+
+Gérôme (1824-[12]) is a man of classic training and inclination, but
+his versatility hardly allows him to be classified anywhere. He was
+first a leader of the New-Greeks, painting delicate mythological
+subjects; then a historical painter, showing deaths of Cæsar and the
+like; then an Orientalist, giving scenes from Cairo and
+Constantinople; then a _genre_ painter, depicting contemporary
+subjects in the many lands through which he has travelled. Whatever he
+has done shows semi-classic drawing, ethnological and archæological
+knowledge, Parisian technic, and exact detail. His travels have not
+changed his precise scientific point of view. He is a true academician
+at bottom, but a more versatile and cultured painter than either
+Cabanel or Bouguereau. He draws well, sometimes uses color well, and
+is an excellent painter of textures. A man of great learning in many
+departments he is no painter to be sneered at, and yet not a painter
+to make the pulse beat faster or to arouse the æsthetic emotions. His
+work is impersonal, objective fact, showing a brilliant exterior but
+inwardly devoid of feeling.
+
+[Footnote 12: Died, 1904.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--MILLET. THE GLEANERS. LOUVRE.]
+
+Paul Baudry (1828-1886), though a disciple of line, was not precisely
+a semi-classicist, and perhaps for that reason was superior to any of
+the academic painters of his time. He was a follower of the old
+masters in Rome more than the _École des Beaux Arts_. His subjects,
+aside from many splendid portraits, were almost all classical,
+allegorical, or mythological. He was a fine draughtsman, and, what is
+more remarkable in conjunction therewith, a fine colorist. He was
+hardly a great originator, and had not passion, dramatic force, or
+much sentiment, except such as may be found in his delicate coloring
+and rhythm of line. Nevertheless he was an artist to be admired for
+his purity of purpose and breadth of accomplishment. His chief work is
+to be seen in the Opera at Paris. Puvis de Chavannes (1824-[13]) is
+quite a different style of painter, and is remarkable for fine
+delicate tones of color which hold their place well on wall or
+ceiling, and for a certain grandeur of composition. In his desire to
+revive the monumental painting of the Renaissance he has met with much
+praise and much blame. He is an artist of sincerity and learning, and
+as a wall-painter has no superior in contemporary France.
+
+[Footnote 13: Died, 1898.]
+
+Hébert (1817-1908), an early painter of academic tendencies, and
+Henner (1829-), fond of form and yet a brushman with an idyllic
+feeling for light and color in dark surroundings, are painters who may
+come under the semi-classic grouping. Lefebvre (1834-) is probably the
+most pronounced in academic methods among the present men, a
+draughtsman of ability.
+
+PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: Under this heading may be included those
+painters who stand by themselves, showing no positive preference for
+either the classic or romantic followings. Bonnat (1833-) has painted
+all kinds of subjects--_genre_, figure, and historical pieces--but is
+perhaps best known as a portrait-painter. He has done forcible work.
+Some of it indeed is astonishing in its realistic modelling--the
+accentuation of light and shadow often causing the figures to advance
+unnaturally. From this feature and from his detail he has been known for
+years as a "realist." His anatomical Christ on the Cross and mural
+paintings in the Pantheon are examples. As a portrait-painter he is
+acceptable, if at times a little raw in color. Another portrait-painter
+of celebrity is Carolus-Duran (1837-). He is rather startling at times
+in his portrayal of robes and draperies, has a facility of the brush
+that is frequently deceptive, and in color is sometimes vivid. He has
+had great success as a teacher, and is, all told, a painter of high
+rank. Delaunay (1828-1892) in late years painted little besides
+portraits, and was one of the conservatives of French art. Laurens
+(1838-) has been more of a historical painter than the others, and has
+dealt largely with death scenes. He is often spoken of as "the painter
+of the dead," a man of sound training and excellent technical power.
+Regnault (1843-1871) was a figure and _genre_ painter with much feeling
+for oriental light and color, who unfortunately was killed in battle at
+twenty-seven years of age. He was an artist of promise, and has left
+several notable canvases. Among the younger men who portray the
+historical subject in an elevated style mention should be made of Cormon
+(1845-), Benjamin-Constant (1845-[14]), and Rochegrosse. As painters of
+portraits Aman-Jean and Carrière[15] have long held rank, and each
+succeeding Salon brings new portraitists to the front.
+
+[Footnote 14: Died, 1902.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Died, 1906.]
+
+THE REALISTS: About the time of the appearance of Millet, say 1848,
+there also came to the front a man who scorned both classicism and
+romanticism, and maintained that the only model and subject of art
+should be nature. This man, Courbet (1819-1878), really gave a third
+tendency to the art of this century in France, and his influence
+undoubtedly had much to do with modifying both the classic and
+romantic tendencies. Courbet was a man of arrogant, dogmatic
+disposition, and was quite heartily detested during his life, but that
+he was a painter of great ability few will deny. His theory was the
+abolition of both sentiment and academic law, and the taking of nature
+just as it was, with all its beauties and all its deformities. This,
+too, was his practice to a certain extent. His art is material, and
+yet at times lofty in conception even to the sublime. And while he
+believed in realism he did not believe in petty detail, but rather in
+the great truths of nature. These he saw with a discerning eye and
+portrayed with a masterful brush. He believed in what he saw only, and
+had more the observing than the reflective or emotional disposition.
+As a technician he was coarse but superbly strong, handling sky,
+earth, air, with the ease and power of one well trained in his craft.
+His subjects were many--the peasantry of France, landscape, and the
+sea holding prominent places--and his influence, though not direct
+because he had no pupils of consequence, has been most potent with the
+late men.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--CABANEL. PHÆDRA.]
+
+The young painter of to-day who does things in a "realistic" way is
+frequently met with in French art. L'hermitte (1844-), Julien Dupré
+(1851-), and others have handled the peasant subject with skill, after
+the Millet-Courbet initiative; and Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884) excited
+a good deal of admiration in his lifetime for the truth and evident
+sincerity of his art. Bastien's point of view was realistic enough,
+but somewhat material. He never handled the large composition with
+success, but in small pieces and in portraits he was quite above
+criticism. His following among the young men was considerable, and the
+so-called impressionists have ranked him among their disciples or
+leaders.
+
+PAINTERS OF MILITARY SCENES, GENRE, ETC.: The art of Meissonier
+(1815-1891), while extremely realistic in modern detail, probably
+originated from a study of the seventeenth-century Dutchmen like
+Terburg and Metsu. It does not portray low life, but rather the
+half-aristocratic--the scholar, the cavalier, the gentleman of
+leisure. This is done on a small scale with microscopic nicety, and
+really more in the historical than the _genre_ spirit. Single figures
+and interiors were his preference, but he also painted a cycle of
+Napoleonic battle-pictures with much force. There is little or no
+sentiment about his work--little more than in that of Gérôme. His
+success lay in exact technical accomplishment. He drew well, painted
+well, and at times was a superior colorist. His art is more admired by
+the public than by the painters; but even the latter do not fail to
+praise his skill of hand. He was a great craftsman in the infinitely
+little. As a great artist his rank is still open to question.
+
+The _genre_ painting of fashionable life has been carried out by many
+followers of Meissonier, whose names need not be mentioned since they
+have not improved upon their forerunner. Toulmouche (1829-), Leloir
+(1843-1884), Vibert (1840-), Bargue (?-1883), and others, though
+somewhat different from Meissonier, belong among those painters of
+_genre_ who love detail, costumes, stories, and pretty faces. Among
+the painters of military _genre_ mention should be made of De Neuville
+(1836-1885), Berne-Bellecour (1838-), Detaille (1848-), and Aimé-Morot
+(1850-), all of them painters of merit.
+
+Quite a different style of painting--half figure-piece half
+_genre_--is to be found in the work of Ribot (1823-), a strong
+painter, remarkable for his apposition of high flesh lights with deep
+shadows, after the manner of Ribera, the Spanish painter. Roybet
+(1840-) is fond of rich stuffs and tapestries with velvet-clad
+characters in interiors, out of which he makes good color effects.
+Bonvin (1817-1887) and Mettling have painted the interior with small
+figures, copper-kettles, and other still-life that have given
+brilliancy to their pictures. As a still-life painter Vollon (1833-)
+has never had a superior. His fruits, flowers, armors, even his small
+marines and harbor pieces, are painted with one of the surest brushes
+of this century. He is called the "painter's painter," and is a man of
+great force in handling color, and in large realistic effect. Dantan
+and Friant have both produced canvases showing figures in interiors.
+
+A number of excellent _genre_ painters have been claimed by the
+impressionists as belonging to their brotherhood. There is little to
+warrant the claim, except the adoption to some extent of the modern
+ideas of illumination and flat painting. Dagnan-Bouveret (1852-) is
+one of these men, a good draughtsman, and a finished clean painter who
+by his recent use of high color finds himself occasionally looked upon
+as an impressionist. As a matter of fact he is one of the most
+conservative of the moderns--a man of feeling and imagination, and a
+fine technician. Fantin-Latour (1836-1904) is half romantic, half
+allegorical in subject, and in treatment oftentimes designedly vague
+and shadowy, more suggestive than realistic. Duez (1843-) and Gervex
+(1848-) are perhaps nearer to impressionism in their works than the
+others, but they are not at all advance advocates of this latest phase
+of art. In addition there are Cottet and Henri Martin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--MEISSONIER. NAPOLEON IN 1814.]
+
+THE IMPRESSIONISTS: The name is a misnomer. Every painter is an
+impressionist in so far as he records his impressions, and all art is
+impressionistic. What Manet (1833-1883), the leader of the original
+movement, meant to say was that nature should not be painted as it
+actually is, but as it "impresses" the painter. He and his few
+followers tried to change the name to Independents, but the original
+name has clung to them and been mistakenly fastened to a present band
+of landscape painters who are seeking effects of light and air and
+should be called luminists if it is necessary for them to be named at
+all. Manet was extravagant in method and disposed toward low life for
+a subject, which has always militated against his popularity; but he
+was a very important man for his technical discoveries regarding the
+relations of light and shadow, the flat appearance of nature, the
+exact value of color tones. Some of his works, like The Boy with a
+Sword and The Toreador Dead, are excellent pieces of painting. The
+higher imaginative qualities of art Manet made no great effort at
+attaining.
+
+Degas stands quite by himself, strong in effects of motion, especially
+with race-horses, fine in color, and a delightful brushman in such
+subjects as ballet-girls and scenes from the theatre. Besnard is one
+of the best of the present men. He deals with the figure, and is
+usually concerned with the problem of harmonizing color under
+conflicting lights, such as twilight and lamplight. Béraud and
+Raffaelli are exceedingly clever in street scenes and character
+pieces; Pissarro[16] handles the peasantry in high color; Brown
+(1829-1890), the race-horse, and Renoir, the middle class of social
+life. Caillebotte, Roll, Forain, and Miss Cassatt, an American, are
+also classed with the impressionists.
+
+[Footnote 16: Died, 1903.]
+
+IMPRESSIONIST LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: Of recent years there has been a
+disposition to change the key of light in landscape painting, to get
+nearer the truth of nature in the height of light and in the height of
+shadows. In doing this Claude Monet, the present leader of the
+movement, has done away with the dark brown or black shadow and
+substituted the light-colored shadow, which is nearer the actual truth
+of nature. In trying to raise the pitch of light he has not been quite
+so successful, though accomplishing something. His method is to use
+pure prismatic colors on the principle that color is light in a
+decomposed form, and that its proper juxtaposition on canvas will
+recompose into pure light again. Hence the use of light shadows and
+bright colors. The aim of these modern men is chiefly to gain the
+effect of light and air. They do not apparently care for subject,
+detail, or composition.
+
+At present their work is in the experimental stage, but from the way
+in which it is being accepted and followed by the painters of to-day
+we may be sure the movement is of considerable importance. There will
+probably be a reaction  in favor of more form and solidity than the
+present men give, but the high key of light will be retained. There
+are so many painters following these modern methods, not only in
+France but all over the world, that a list of their names would be
+impossible. In France Sisley with Monet are the two important
+landscapists. In marines Boudin and Montenard should be mentioned.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: The modern French painters are seen to
+     advantage in the Louvre, Luxembourg, Pantheon, Sorbonne, and
+     the municipal galleries of France. Also Metropolitan Museum
+     New York, Chicago Art Institute, Boston Museum, and many
+     private collections in France and America. Consult for works
+     in public or private hands, Champlin and Perkins,
+     _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, under names of
+     artists.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+SPANISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bermudez, _Diccionario de las Bellas
+     Artes en España_; Davillier, _Mémoire de Velasquez_;
+     Davillier, _Fortuny_; Eusebi, _Los Differentes Escuelas de
+     Pintura_; Ford, _Handbook of Spain_; Head, _History of
+     Spanish and French Schools of Painting_; Justi, _Velasquez
+     and his Times_; Lefort, _Velasquez_; Lefort, _Francisco
+     Goya_; Lefort, _Murillo et son École_; Lefort, _La Peinture
+     Espagnole_; Palomino de Castro y Velasco, _Vidas de los
+     Pintores y Estatuarios Eminentes Españoles_; Passavant, _Die
+     Christliche Kunst in Spanien_; Plon, _Les Maîtres Italiens
+     au Service de la Maison d'Autriche_; Stevenson, _Velasquez_;
+     Stirling, _Annals of the Artists of Spain_; Stirling,
+     _Velasquez and his Works_; Tubino, _El Arte y los Artistas
+     contemporáneos en la Peninsula_; Tubino, _Murillo_; Viardot,
+     _Notices sur les Principaux Peintres de l'Espagne_; Yriarte,
+     _Goya, sa Biographie_, etc.
+
+
+SPANISH ART MOTIVES: What may have been the early art of Spain we are
+at a loss to conjecture. The reigns of the Moor, the Iconoclast, and,
+finally, the Inquisitor, have left little that dates before the
+fourteenth century. The miniatures and sacred relics treasured in the
+churches and said to be of the apostolic period, show the traces of a
+much later date and a foreign origin. Even when we come down to the
+fifteenth century and meet with art produced in Spain, we have a
+following of Italy or the Netherlands. In methods and technic it was
+derivative more than original, though almost from the beginning
+peculiarly Spanish in spirit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--SANCHEZ COELLO. CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF
+PHILIP II. MADRID.]
+
+That spirit was a dark and savage one, a something that cringed under
+the lash of the Church, bowed before the Inquisition, and played the
+executioner with the paint-brush. The bulk of Spanish art was Church
+art, done under ecclesiastical domination, and done in form without
+question or protest. The religious subject ruled. True enough, there
+was portraiture of nobility, and under Philip and Velasquez a
+half-monarchical art of military scenes and _genre_; but this was not
+the bent of Spanish painting as a whole. Even in late days, when
+Velasquez was reflecting the haughty court, Murillo was more widely
+and nationally reflecting the believing provinces and the Church
+faith of the people. It is safe to say, in a general way, that the
+Church was responsible for Spanish art, and that religion was its
+chief motive.
+
+There was no revived antique, little of the nude or the pagan, little
+of consequence in landscape, little, until Velasquez's time, of the
+real and the actual. An ascetic view of life, faith, and the hereafter
+prevailed. The pietistic, the fervent, and the devout were not so
+conspicuous as the morose, the ghastly, and the horrible. The saints
+and martyrs, the crucifixions and violent deaths, were eloquent of the
+torture-chamber. It was more ecclesiasticism by blood and violence
+than Christianity by peace and love. And Spain welcomed this. For of
+all the children of the Church she was the most faithful to rule,
+crushing out heresy with an iron hand, gaining strength from the
+Catholic reaction, and upholding the Jesuits and the Inquisition.
+
+METHODS OF PAINTING: Spanish art worthy of mention did not appear
+until the fifteenth century. At that time Spain was in close relations
+with the Netherlands, and Flemish painting was somewhat followed. How
+much the methods of the Van Eycks influenced Spain would be hard to
+determine, especially as these Northern methods were mixed with
+influences coming from Italy. Finally, the Italian example prevailed
+by reason of Spanish students in Italy and Italian painters in Spain.
+Florentine line, Venetian color, and Neapolitan light-and-shade ruled
+almost everywhere, and it was not until the time of Velasquez--the
+period just before the eighteenth-century decline--that distinctly
+Spanish methods, founded on nature, really came forcibly to the front.
+
+SPANISH SCHOOLS OF PAINTING: There is difficulty in classifying these
+schools of painting because our present knowledge of them is limited.
+Isolated somewhat from the rest of Europe, the Spanish painters have
+never been critically studied as the Italians have been, and what is
+at present known about the schools must be accepted subject to
+critical revision hereafter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--MURILLO. ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA. BERLIN.]
+
+The earliest school seems to have been made up from a gathering of
+artists at Toledo, who limned, carved, and gilded in the cathedral;
+but this school was not of long duration. It was merged into the
+Castilian school, which, after the building of Madrid, made its home
+in that capital and drew its forces from the towns of Toledo,
+Valladolid, and Badajoz. The Andalusian school, which rose about the
+middle of the sixteenth century, was made up from the local schools of
+Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The Valencian school, to the
+southeast, rose about the same time, and was finally merged into the
+Andalusian. The Aragonese school, to the east, was small and of no
+great consequence, though existing in a feeble way to the end of the
+seventeenth century. The painters of these schools are not very
+strongly marked apart by methods or school traditions, and perhaps the
+divisions would better be looked upon as more geographical than
+otherwise. None of the schools really began before the sixteenth
+century, though there are names of artists and some extant pictures
+before that date, and with the seventeenth century all art in Spain
+seems to have centred about Madrid.
+
+Spanish painting started into life concurrently with the rise to
+prominence of Spain as a political kingdom. What, if any, direct
+effect the maritime discoveries, the conquests of Granada and Naples,
+the growth of literature, and the decline of Italy, may have had upon
+Spanish painting can only be conjectured; but certainly the sudden
+advance of the nation politically and socially was paralleled by the
+advance of its art.
+
+THE CASTILIAN SCHOOL: This school probably had no so-called founder.
+It was a growth from early art traditions at Toledo, and afterward
+became the chief school of the kingdom owing to the patronage of
+Philip II. and Philip IV. at Madrid. The first painter of importance
+in the school seems to have been Antonio Rincon (1446?-1500?). He is
+sometimes spoken of as the father of Spanish painting, and as having
+studied in Italy with Castagno and Ghirlandajo, but there is little
+foundation for either statement. He painted chiefly at Toledo, painted
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and had some skill in hard
+drawing. Berruguete (1480?-1561) studied with Michael Angelo, and is
+supposed to have helped him in the Vatican. He afterward returned to
+Spain, painted many altar-pieces, and was patronized as painter,
+sculptor, and architect by Charles V. and Philip II. He was probably
+the first to introduce pure Italian methods into Spain, with some
+coldness and dryness of coloring and handling. Becerra (1520?-1570)
+was born in Andalusia, but worked in Castile, and was a man of Italian
+training similar to Berruguete. He was an exceptional man, perhaps, in
+his use of mythological themes and nude figures.
+
+There is not a great deal known about Morales (1509?-1586), called
+"the Divine," except that he was allied to the Castilian school, and
+painted devotional heads of Christ with the crown of thorns, and many
+afflicted and weeping madonnas. There was Florentine drawing in his
+work, great regard for finish, and something of Correggio's softness
+in shadows pitched in a browner key. His sentiment was rather
+exaggerated. Sanchez-Coello (1513?-1590) was painter and courtier to
+Philip II., and achieved reputation as a portrait-painter, though also
+doing some altar-pieces. It is doubtful whether he ever studied in
+Italy, but in Spain he was for a time with Antonio Moro, and probably
+learned from him something of rich costumes, ermines, embroideries,
+and jewels, for which his portraits were remarkable. Navarette
+(1526?-1579), called "El Mudo" (the dumb one), certainly was in Italy
+for something like twenty years, and was there a disciple of Titian,
+from whom he doubtless learned much of color and the free flow of
+draperies. He was one of the best of the middle-period painters.
+Theotocopuli (1548?-1625), called "El Greco" (the Greek), was another
+Venetian-influenced painter, with enough Spanish originality about him
+to make most of his pictures striking in color and drawing. Tristan
+(1586-1640) was his best follower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--RIBERA. ST. AGNES. DRESDEN.]
+
+Velasquez (1599-1660) is the greatest name in the history of Spanish
+painting. With him Spanish art took upon itself a decidedly
+naturalistic and national stamp. Before his time Italy had been freely
+imitated; but though Velasquez himself was in Italy for quite a long
+time, and intimately acquainted with great Italian art, he never
+seemed to have been led away from his own individual way of seeing and
+doing. He was a pupil of Herrera, afterward with Pacheco, and learned
+much from Ribera and Tristan, but more from a direct study of nature
+than from all the others. He was in a broad sense a realist--a man who
+recorded the material and the actual without emendation or
+transposition. He has never been surpassed in giving the solidity and
+substance of form and the placing of objects in atmosphere. And this,
+not in a small, finical way, but with a breadth of view and of
+treatment which are to-day the despair of painters. There was nothing
+of the ethereal, the spiritual, the pietistic, or the pathetic about
+him. He never for a moment left the firm basis of reality. Standing
+upon earth he recorded the truths of the earth, but in their largest,
+fullest, most universal forms.
+
+Technically his was a master-hand, doing all things with ease, giving
+exact relations of colors and lights, and placing everything so
+perfectly that no addition or alteration is thought of. With the brush
+he was light, easy, sure. The surface looks as though touched once, no
+more. It is the perfection of handling through its simplicity and
+certainty, and has not the slightest trace of affectation or
+mannerism. He was one of the few Spanish painters who were enabled to
+shake off the yoke of the Church. Few of his canvases are religious in
+subject. Under royal patronage he passed almost all of his life in
+painting portraits of the royal family, ministers of state, and great
+dignitaries. As a portrait-painter he is more widely known than as a
+figure-painter. Nevertheless he did many canvases like The Tapestry
+Weavers and The Surrender at Breda, which attest his remarkable genius
+in that field; and even in landscape, in _genre_, in animal painting,
+he was a very superior man. In fact Velasquez is one of the few great
+painters in European history for whom there is nothing but praise. He
+was the full-rounded complete painter, intensely individual and
+self-assertive, and yet in his art recording in a broad way the
+Spanish type and life. He was the climax of Spanish painting, and
+after him there was a rather swift decline, as had been the case in
+the Italian schools.
+
+Mazo (1610?-1667), pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez, was one of his
+most facile imitators, and Carreño de Miranda (1614-1685) was
+influenced by Velasquez, and for a time his assistant. The Castilian
+school may be said to have closed with these late men and with Claudio
+Coello (1635?-1693), a painter with a style founded on Titian and
+Rubens, whose best work was of extraordinary power. Spanish painting
+went out with Spanish power, and only isolated men of small rank
+remained.
+
+ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL: This school came into existence about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief
+patron the Church rather than the king. Vargas (1502-1568) was
+probably the real founder of the school, though De Castro (fl. 1454)
+and others preceded him. Vargas was a man of much reputation and
+ability in his time, and introduced Italian methods and elegance into
+the Andalusian school after twenty odd years of residence in Italy. He
+is said to have studied under Perino del Vaga, and there is some
+sweetness of face and grace of form about his work that point that
+way, though his composition suggests Correggio. Most of his frescos
+have perished; some of his canvases are still in existence.
+
+Cespedes (1538?-1608) is little known through extant works, but he
+achieved fame in many departments during his life, and is said to have
+been in Italy under Florentine influence. His coloring was rather
+cold, and his drawing large and flat. The best early painter of the
+school was Roelas (1558?-1625), the inspirer of Murillo and the master
+of Zurbaran. He is supposed to have studied at Venice, because of his
+rich, glowing color. Most of his works are religious and are found
+chiefly at Seville. He was greatly patronized by the Jesuits. Pacheco
+(1571-1654) was more of a pedant than a painter, a man of rule, who
+to-day might be written down an academician. His drawing was hard, and
+perhaps the best reason for his being remembered is that he was one of
+the masters and the father-in-law of Velasquez. His rival, Herrera the
+Elder (1576?-1656) was a stronger man--in fact, the most original
+artist of his school. He struck off by himself and created a bold
+realism with a broad brush that anticipated Velasquez--in fact,
+Velasquez was under him for a time.
+
+The pure Spanish school in Andalusia, as distinct from Italian
+imitation, may be said to have started with Herrera. It was further
+advanced by another independent painter, Zurbaran (1598-1662), a pupil
+of Roelas. He was a painter of the emaciated monk in ecstasy, and many
+other rather dismal religious subjects expressive of tortured rapture.
+From using a rather dark shadow he acquired the name of the Spanish
+Caravaggio. He had a good deal of Caravaggio's strength, together with
+a depth and breadth of color suggestive of the Venetians. Cano
+(1601-1667), though he never was in Italy, had the name of the Spanish
+Michael Angelo, probably because he was sculptor, painter, and
+architect. His painting was rather sharp in line and statuesque in
+pose, with a coloring somewhat like that of Van Dyck. It was eclectic
+rather than original work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FORTUNY. SPANISH MARRIAGE.]
+
+Murillo (1618-1682) is generally placed at the head of the Andalusian
+school, as Velasquez at the head of the Castilian. There is good
+reason for it, for though Murillo was not the great painter he was
+sometime supposed, yet he was not the weak man his modern critics
+would make him out. A religious painter largely, though doing some
+_genre_ subjects like his beggar-boy groups, he sought for religious
+fervor and found, only too often, sentimentality. His madonnas are
+usually after the Carlo Dolci pattern, though never so excessive in
+sentiment. This was not the case with his earlier works, mostly of
+humble life, which were painted in rather a hard, positive manner.
+Later on he became misty, veiled in light and effeminate in outline,
+though still holding grace. His color varied with his early and later
+styles. It was usually gay and a little thin. While basing his work on
+nature like Velasquez, he never had the supreme poise of that master,
+either mentally or technically; howbeit he was an excellent painter,
+who perhaps justly holds second place in Spanish art.
+
+SCHOOL OF VALENCIA: This school rose contemporary with the Andalusian
+school, into which it was finally merged after the importance of
+Madrid had been established. It was largely modelled upon Italian
+painting, as indeed were all the schools of Spain at the start. Juan
+de Joanes (1507?-1579) apparently was its founder, a man who painted a
+good portrait, but in other respects was only a fair imitator of
+Raphael, whom he had studied at Rome. A stronger man was Francisco de
+Ribalta (1550?-1628), who was for a time in Italy under the Caracci,
+and learned from them free draughtsmanship and elaborate composition.
+He was also fond of Sebastiano del Piombo, and in his best works (at
+Valencia) reflected him. Ribalta gave an early training to Ribera
+(1588-1656), who was the most important man of this school. In reality
+Ribera was more Italian than Valencian, for he spent the greater part
+of his life in Italy, where he was called Lo Spagnoletto, and was
+greatly influenced by Caravaggio. He was a Spaniard in the horrible
+subjects that he chose, but in coarse strength of line, heaviness of
+shadows, harsh handling of the brush, he was a true Neapolitan
+Darkling. A pronounced mannerist he was no less a man of strength, and
+even in his shadow-saturated colors a painter with the color instinct.
+In Italy his influence in the time of the Decadence was wide-spread,
+and in Spain his Italian pupil, Giordano, introduced his methods for
+late imitation. There were no other men of much rank in the Valencian
+school, and, as has been said, the school was eventually merged in
+Andalusian painting.
+
+EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN: Almost directly
+after the passing of Velasquez and Murillo Spanish art failed. The
+eighteenth-century, as in Italy, was quite barren of any considerable
+art until near its close. Then Goya (1746-1828) seems to have made a
+partial restoration of painting. He was a man of peculiarly Spanish
+turn of mind, fond of the brutal and the bloody, picturing inquisition
+scenes, bull-fights, battle pieces, and revelling in caricature,
+sarcasm, and ridicule. His imagination was grotesque and horrible, but
+as a painter his art was based on the natural, and was exceedingly
+strong. In brush-work he followed Velasquez; in a peculiar forcing of
+contrasts in light and dark he was apparently quite himself, though
+possibly influenced by Ribera's work. His best work shows in his
+portraits and etchings.
+
+After Goya's death Spanish art, such as it was, rather followed
+France, with the extravagant classicism of David as a model. What was
+produced may be seen to this day in the Madrid Museum. It does not
+call for mention here. About the beginning of the 1860's Spanish
+painting made a new advance with Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874). In his
+early years he worked at historical painting, but later on he went to
+Algiers and Rome, finding his true vent in a bright sparkling painting
+of _genre_ subjects, oriental scenes, streets, interiors, single
+figures, and the like. He excelled in color, sunlight effects, and
+particularly in a vivacious facile handling of the brush. His work is
+brilliant, and in his late productions often spotty from excessive
+use of points of light in high color. He was a technician of much
+brilliancy and originality, his work exciting great admiration in his
+day, and leading the younger painters of Spain into that ornate
+handling visible in their works at the present time. Many of these
+latter, from association with art and artists in Paris, have adopted
+French methods, and hardly show such a thing as Spanish nationality.
+Fortuny's brother-in-law, Madrazo (1841-), is an example of a Spanish
+painter turned French in his methods--a facile and brilliant
+portrait-painter. Zamacois (1842-1871) died early, but with a
+reputation as a successful portrayer of seventeenth-century subjects a
+little after the style of Meissonier and not unlike Gérôme. He was a
+good colorist and an excellent painter of textures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--MADRAZO, UNMASKED.]
+
+The historical scene of Mediæval or Renaissance times, pageants and
+fêtes with rich costume, fine architecture and vivid effects of color,
+are characteristic of a number of the modern Spaniards--Villegas,
+Pradilla, Alvarez. As a general thing their canvases are a little
+flashy, likely to please at first sight but grow wearisome after a
+time. Palmaroli has a style that resembles a mixture of Fortuny and
+Meissonier; and some other painters, like Luis Jiminez Aranda,
+Sorolla, Zuloaga, Anglada, Garcia y Remos, Vierge, Roman Ribera, and
+Domingo, have done excellent work. In landscape and Venetian scenes
+Rico leads among the Spaniards with a vivacity and brightness not
+always seen to good advantage in his late canvases.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: Generally speaking, Spanish art cannot be
+     seen to advantage outside of Spain. Both its ancient and
+     modern masterpieces are at Madrid, Seville, Toledo, and
+     elsewhere. The Royal Gallery at Madrid has the most and the
+     best examples.
+
+     CASTILIAN SCHOOL--Rincon, altar-piece church of Robleda de
+     Chavilla; Berruguete, altar-pieces Saragossa, Valladolid,
+     Madrid, Toledo; Morales, Madrid and Louvre; Sanchez-Coello,
+     Madrid and Brussels Mus.; Navarette, Escorial, Madrid, St.
+     Petersburg; Theotocopuli, Cathedral and S. Tomé Toledo,
+     Madrid Mus.; Velasquez, best works in Madrid Mus., Escorial,
+     Salamanca, Montpensier Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Infanta
+     Marguerita Louvre, Borro portrait (?) Berlin, Innocent X.
+     Doria Rome; Mazo, landscapes Madrid Mus.; Carreño de
+     Miranda, Madrid Mus.; Claudio Coello, Escorial, Madrid,
+     Brussels, Berlin, and Munich Mus.
+
+     ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL--Vargas, Seville Cathedral; Cespedes,
+     Cordova Cathedral; Roelas, S. Isidore Cathedral, Museum
+     Seville; Pacheco, Madrid Mus.; Herrera, Seville Cathedral
+     and Mus. and Archbishop's Palace, Dresden Mus.; Zurbaran,
+     Seville Cathedral and Mus. Madrid, Dresden, Louvre, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Cano, Madrid, Seville Mus. and Cathedral, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Munich; Murillo, best pictures in Madrid Mus. and
+     Acad. of S. Fernando Madrid, Seville Mus. Hospital and
+     Capuchin Church, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Munich,
+     Hermitage.
+
+     VALENCIAN SCHOOL--Juan de Joanes, Madrid Mus., Cathedral
+     Valencia, Hermitage; Ribalta, Madrid and Valencian Mus.,
+     Hermitage; Ribera, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Naples,
+     Hermitage, and other European museums, chief works at
+     Madrid.
+
+     MODERN MEN AND THEIR WORKS--Goya, Madrid Mus., Acad. of S.
+     Fernando, Valencian Cathedral and Mus., two portraits in
+     Louvre. The works of the contemporary painters are largely
+     in private hands where reference to them is of little use to
+     the average student. Thirty Fortunys are in the collection
+     of William H. Stewart in Paris. His best work, The Spanish
+     Marriage, belongs to Madame de Cassin, in Paris. Examples of
+     Villegas, Madrazo, Rico, Domingo, and others, in the
+     Vanderbilt Gallery, Metropolitan Mus., New York; Boston,
+     Chicago, and Philadelphia Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FLEMISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Busscher, _Recherches sur les Peintres
+     Gantois_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Early Flemish Painters_;
+     Cust, _Van Dyck_; Dehaisnes, _L'Art dans la Flandre_; Du
+     Jardin, _L'art Flamand_; Eisenmann, _The Brothers Van Eyck_;
+     Fétis, _Les Artistes Belges à l'Étranger_; Fromentin, _Old
+     Masters of Belgium and Holland_; Gerrits, _Rubens zyn Tyd,
+     etc._; Guiffrey, _Van Dyck_; Hasselt, _Histoire de Rubens_;
+     (Waagen's) Kügler, _Handbook of Painting--German, Flemish,
+     and Dutch Schools_; Lemonnier, _Histoire des Arts en
+     Belgique_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Michel, _Rubens_;
+     Michiels, _Rubens en l'École d'Anvers_; Michiels, _Histoire
+     de la Peinture Flamande_; Stevenson, _Rubens_; Van den
+     Branden, _Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilderschool_; Van
+     Mander, _Le Livre des Peintres_; Waagen, _Uber Hubert und
+     Jan Van Eyck_; Waagen, _Peter Paul Rubens_; Wauters, _Rogier
+     van der Weyden_; Wauters, _La Peinture Flamande_; Weale,
+     _Hans Memling_ (_Arundel Soc._); Weale, _Notes sur Jean Van
+     Eyck_.
+
+
+THE FLEMISH PEOPLE: Individually and nationally the Flemings were
+strugglers against adverse circumstances from the beginning. A
+realistic race with practical ideas, a people rather warm of impulse
+and free in habits, they combined some German sentiment with French
+liveliness and gayety. The solidarity of the nation was not
+accomplished until after 1385, when the Dukes of Burgundy began to
+extend their power over the Low Countries. Then the Flemish people
+became strong enough to defy both Germany and France, and wealthy
+enough, through their commerce with Spain, Italy, and France to
+encourage art not only at the Ducal court but in the churches, and
+among the citizens of the various towns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--VAN EYCKS. ST. BAVON ALTAR-PIECE (WING).
+BERLIN.]
+
+FLEMISH SUBJECTS AND METHODS: As in all the countries of Europe, the
+early Flemish painting pictured Christian subjects primarily. The
+great bulk of it was church altar-pieces, though side by side with
+this was an admirable portraiture, some knowledge of landscape, and
+some exposition of allegorical subjects. In means and methods it was
+quite original. The early history is lost, but if Flemish painting was
+beholden to the painting of any other nation, it was to the miniature
+painting of France. There is, however, no positive record of this. The
+Flemings seem to have begun by themselves, and pictured the life about
+them in their own way. They were apparently not influenced at first by
+Italy. There were no antique influences, no excavated marbles to copy,
+no Byzantine traditions left to follow. At first their art was exact
+and minute in detail, but not well grasped in the mass. The
+compositions were huddled, the landscapes pure but finical, the
+figures inclined to slimness, awkwardness, and angularity in the lines
+of form or drapery, and uncertain in action. To offset this there was
+a positive realism in textures, perspective, color, tone, light, and
+atmosphere. The effect of the whole was odd and strained, but the
+effect of the part was to convince one that the Flemish painters were
+excellent craftsmen in detail, skilled with the brush, and shrewd
+observers of nature in a purely picturesque way.
+
+To the Flemish painters of the fifteenth century belongs, not the
+invention of oil-painting, for it was known before their time, but its
+acceptable application in picture-making. They applied oil with color
+to produce brilliancy and warmth of effect, to insure firmness and
+body in the work, and to carry out textural effects in stuffs,
+marbles, metals, and the like. So far as we know there never was much
+use of distemper, or fresco-work upon the walls of buildings. The oil
+medium came into vogue when the miniatures and illuminations of the
+early days had expanded into panel pictures. The size of the miniature
+was increased, but the minute method of finishing was not laid aside.
+Some time afterward painting with oil upon canvas was adopted.
+
+SCHOOL OF BRUGES: Painting in Flanders starts abruptly with the
+fifteenth century. What there was before that time more than
+miniatures and illuminations is not known. Time and the Iconoclasts
+have left no remains of consequence. Flemish art for us begins with
+Hubert van Eyck (?-1426) and his younger brother Jan van Eyck
+(?-1440). The elder brother is supposed to have been the better
+painter, because the most celebrated work of the brothers--the St.
+Bavon altar-piece, parts of which are in Ghent, Brussels, and
+Berlin--bears the inscription that Hubert began it and Jan finished
+it. Hubert was no doubt an excellent painter, but his pictures are few
+and there is much discussion whether he or Jan painted them. For
+historical purposes Flemish art was begun, and almost completed, by
+Jan van Eyck. He had all the attributes of the early men, and was one
+of the most perfect of Flemish painters. He painted real forms and
+real life, gave them a setting in true perspective and light, and put
+in background landscapes with a truthful if minute regard for the
+facts. His figures in action had some awkwardness, they were small of
+head, slim of body, and sometimes stumbled; but his modelling of
+faces, his rendering of textures in cloth, metal, stone, and the like,
+his delicate yet firm _facture_ were all rather remarkable for his
+time. None of this early Flemish art has the grandeur of Italian
+composition, but in realistic detail, in landscape, architecture,
+figure, and dress, in pathos, sincerity, and sentiment it is
+unsurpassed by any fifteenth-century art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--MEMLING (?). ST. LAWRENCE (DETAIL). NAT.
+GAL., LONDON.]
+
+Little is known of the personal history of either of the Van Eycks.
+They left an influence and had many followers, but whether these were
+direct pupils or not is an open question. Peter Cristus (1400?-1472)
+was perhaps a pupil of Jan, though more likely a follower of his
+methods in color and general technic. Roger van der Weyden
+(1400?-1464), whether a pupil of the Van Eycks or a rival, produced a
+similar style of art. His first master was an obscure Robert Campin.
+He was afterward at Bruges, and from there went to Brussels and
+founded a school of his own called the
+
+SCHOOL OF BRABANT: He was more emotional and dramatic than Jan van
+Eyck, giving much excited action and pathetic expression to his
+figures in scenes from the passion of Christ. He had not Van Eyck's
+skill, nor his detail, nor his color. More of a draughtsman than a
+colorist, he was angular in figure and drapery, but had honesty,
+pathos, and sincerity, and was very charming in bright background
+landscapes. Though spending some time in Italy, he was never
+influenced by Italian art. He was always Flemish in type, subject, and
+method, a trifle repulsive at first through angularity and emotional
+exaggeration, but a man to be studied.
+
+By Van der Goes (1430?-1482) there are but few good examples, the
+chief one being an altar-piece in the Uffizi at Florence. It is
+angular in drawing but full of character, and in beauty of detail and
+ornamentation is a remarkable picture. He probably followed Van der
+Weyden, as did also Justus van Ghent (last half of fifteenth century).
+Contemporary with these men Dierick Bouts (1410-1475) established a
+school at Haarlem. He was Dutch by birth, but after 1450 settled in
+Louvain, and in his art belongs to the Flemish school. He was
+influenced by Van der Weyden, and shows it in his detail of hands and
+melancholy face, though he differed from him in dramatic action and in
+type. His figure was awkward, his color warm and rich, and in
+landscape backgrounds he greatly advanced the painting of the time.
+
+Memling (1425?-1495?), one of the greatest of the school, is another
+man about whose life little is known. He was probably associated with
+Van der Weyden in some way. His art is founded on the Van Eyck school,
+and is remarkable for sincerity, purity, and frankness of attitude. As
+a religious painter, he was perhaps beyond all his contemporaries in
+tenderness and pathos. In portraiture he was exceedingly strong in
+characterization, and in his figures very graceful. His flesh painting
+was excellent, but in textures or landscape work he was not
+remarkable. His best followers were Van der Meire (1427?-1474?) and
+Gheeraert David (1450?-1523). The latter was famous for the fine,
+broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his pictures, said, however, by
+critics to have been painted by Joachim Patinir. He was realistically
+horrible in many subjects, and though a close recorder of detail he
+was much broader than any of his predecessors.
+
+FLEMISH SCHOOLS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY: In this century Flemish
+painting became rather widely diffused. The schools of Bruges and
+Ghent gave place to the schools in the large commercial cities like
+Antwerp and Brussels, and the commercial relations between the Low
+Countries and Italy finally led to the dissipation of national
+characteristics in art and the imitation of the Italian Renaissance
+painters. There is no sharp line of demarcation between those painters
+who clung to Flemish methods and those who adopted Italian methods.
+The change was gradual.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--MASSYS. HEAD OF VIRGIN. ANTWERP.]
+
+Quentin Massys (1460?-1530) and Mostert (1474-1556?), a Dutchman by
+birth, but, like Bouts, Flemish by influence, were among the last of
+the Gothic painters in Flanders, and yet they began the introduction
+of Italian features in their painting. Massys led in architectural
+backgrounds, and from that the Italian example spread to subjects,
+figures, methods, until the indigenous Flemish art became a thing of
+the past. Massys was, at Antwerp, the most important painter of his
+day, following the old Flemish methods with many improvements. His
+work was detailed, and yet executed with a broader, freer brush than
+formerly, and with more variety in color, modelling, expression of
+character. He increased figures to almost life-size, giving them
+greater importance than landscape or architecture. The type was still
+lean and angular, and often contorted with emotion. His Money-Changers
+and Misers (many of them painted by his son) were a _genre_ of his
+own. With him closed the Gothic school, and with him began the
+
+ANTWERP SCHOOL, the pupils of which went to Italy, and eventually
+became Italianized. Mabuse (1470?-1541) was the first to go. His early
+work shows the influence of Massys and David. He was good in
+composition, color, and brush-work, but lacked in originality, as did
+all the imitators of Italy. Franz Floris (1518?-1570) was a man of
+talent, much admired in his time, because he brought back
+reminiscences of Michael Angelo to Antwerp. His influence was fatal
+upon his followers, of whom there were many, like the Franckens and De
+Vos. Italy and Roman methods, models, architecture, subjects, began to
+rule everywhere.
+
+From Brussels Barent van Orley (1491?-1542) left early for Italy, and
+became essentially Italian, though retaining some Flemish color. He
+painted in oil, tempera, and for glass, and is supposed to have gained
+his brilliant colors by using a gilt ground. His early works remind
+one of David. Cocxie (1499-1592), the Flemish Raphael, was but an
+indifferent imitator of the Italian Raphael. At Liége the Romanists,
+so called, began with Lambert Lombard (1505-1566), of whose work
+nothing authentic remains except drawings. At Bruges Peeter Pourbus
+(1510?-1584) was about the last one of the good portrait-painters of
+the time. Another excellent portrait-painter, a pupil of Scorel, was
+Antonio Moro (1512?-1578?). He had much dignity, force, and
+elaborateness of costume, and stood quite by himself. There were other
+painters of the time who were born or trained in Flanders, and yet
+became so naturalized in other countries that in their work they do
+not belong to Flanders. Neuchatel (1527?-1590?), Geldorp (1553-1616?),
+Calvaert (1540?-1619), Spranger (1546-1627?), and others, were of this
+group.
+
+Among all the strugglers in Italian imitation only a few landscapists
+held out for the Flemish view. Paul Bril (1554-1626) was the first of
+them. He went to Italy, but instead of following the methods taught
+there, he taught Italians his own view of landscape. His work was a
+little dry and formal, but graceful in composition, and good in light
+and color. The Brueghels--there were three of them--also stood out for
+Flemish landscape, introducing it nominally as a background for small
+figures, but in reality for the beauty of the landscape itself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN. HERMITAGE,
+ST. PETERSBURGH.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was the great century of Flemish
+painting, though the painting was not entirely Flemish in method or
+thought. The influence of Italy had done away with the early simplicity,
+purity, and religious pathos of the Van Eycks. During the sixteenth
+century everything had run to bald imitation of Renaissance methods.
+Then came a new master-genius, Rubens (1577-1640), who formed a new art
+founded in method upon Italy, yet distinctly northern in character.
+Rubens chose all subjects for his brush, but the religious altar-piece
+probably occupied him as much as any. To this he gave little of Gothic
+sentiment, but everything of Renaissance splendor. His art was more
+material than spiritual, more brilliant and startling in sensuous
+qualities, such as line and color, than charming by facial expression or
+tender feeling. Something of the Paolo Veronese cast of mind, he
+conceived things largely, and painted them proportionately--large
+Titanic types, broad schemes and masses of color, great sweeping lines
+of beauty. One value of this largeness was its ability to hold at a
+distance upon wall or altar. Hence, when seen to-day, close at hand, in
+museums, people are apt to think Rubens's art coarse and gross.
+
+There is no prettiness about his type. It is not effeminate or
+sentimental, but rather robust, full of life and animal spirits, full
+of blood, bone, and muscle--of majestic dignity, grace, and power, and
+glowing with splendor of color. In imagination, in conception of art
+purely as art, and not as a mere vehicle to convey religious or
+mythological ideas, in mental grasp of the pictorial world, Rubens
+stands with Titian and Velasquez in the very front rank of painters.
+As a technician, he was unexcelled. A master of composition,
+modelling, and drawing, a master of light, and a color-harmonist of
+the rarest ability, he, in addition, possessed the most certain,
+adroit, and facile hand that ever handled a paint-brush. Nothing could
+be more sure than the touch of Rubens, nothing more easy and
+masterful. He was trained in both mind and eye, a genius by birth and
+by education, a painter who saw keenly, and was able to realize what
+he saw with certainty.
+
+Well-born, ennobled by royalty, successful in both court and studio,
+Rubens lived brilliantly and his life was a series of triumphs. He
+painted enormous canvases, and the number of pictures, altar-pieces,
+mythological decorations, landscapes, portraits scattered throughout
+the galleries of Europe, and attributed to him, is simply amazing. He
+was undoubtedly helped in many of his canvases by his pupils, but the
+works painted by his own hand make a world of art in themselves. He
+was the greatest painter of the North, a full-rounded, complete
+genius, comparable to Titian in his universality. His precursors and
+masters, Van Noort (1562-1641) and Vaenius (1558-1629), gave no strong
+indication of the greatness of Ruben's art, and his many pupils,
+though echoing his methods, never rose to his height in mental or
+artistic grasp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF CORNELIUS VAN DER
+GEEST. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+Van Dyck (1599-1641) was his principal pupil. He followed Rubens
+closely at first, though in a slighter manner technically, and with a
+cooler coloring. After visiting Italy he took up with the warmth of
+Titian. Later, in England, he became careless and less certain. His
+rank is given him not for his figure-pieces. They were not always
+successful, lacking as they did in imagination and originality, though
+done with force. His best work was his portraiture, for which he
+became famous, painting nobility in every country of Europe in which
+he visited. At his best he was a portrait-painter of great power, but
+not to be placed in the same rank with Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, and
+Velasquez. His characters are gracefully posed, and appear to be
+aristocratic. There is a noble distinction about them, and yet even
+this has the feeling of being somewhat affected. The serene
+complacency of his lords and ladies finally became almost a mannerism
+with him, though never a disagreeable one. He died early, a painter of
+mark, but not the greatest portrait-painter of the world, as is
+sometimes said of him.
+
+There were a number of Rubens's pupils, like Diepenbeeck (1596-1675),
+who learned from their master a certain brush facility, but were not
+sufficiently original to make deep impressions. When Rubens died the
+best painter left in Belgium was Jordaens (1593-1678). He was a pupil
+of Van Noort, but submitted to the Rubens influence and followed in
+Rubens's style, though more florid in coloring and grosser in types.
+He painted all sorts of subjects, but was seen at his best in
+mythological scenes with groups of drunken satyrs and bacchants,
+surrounded by a close-placed landscape. He was the most independent
+and original of the followers, of whom there was a host. Crayer
+(1582-1669), Janssens (1575-1632), Zegers (1591-1651), Rombouts
+(1597-1637), were the prominent ones. They all took an influence more
+or less pronounced from Rubens. Cornelius de Vos (1585-1651) was a
+more independent man--a realistic portrait-painter of much ability.
+Snyders (1579-1657), and Fyt (1609?-1661), devoted their brushes to
+the painting of still-life, game, fruits, flowers, landscape--Snyders
+often in collaboration with Rubens himself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TENIERS THE YOUNGER. PRODIGAL SON. LOUVRE.]
+
+Living at the same time with these half-Italianized painters, and
+continuing later in the century, there was another group of painters
+in the Low Countries who were emphatically of the soil, believing in
+themselves and their own country and picturing scenes from commonplace
+life in a manner quite their own. These were the "Little Masters," the
+_genre_ painters, of whom there was even a stronger representation
+appearing contemporaneously in Holland. In Belgium there were not so
+many nor such talented men, but some of them were very interesting in
+their work as in their subjects. Teniers the Younger (1610-1690) was
+among the first of them to picture peasant, burgher, alewife, and
+nobleman in all scenes and places. Nothing escaped him as a subject,
+and yet his best work was shown in the handling of low life in
+taverns. There is coarse wit in his work, but it is atoned for by
+good color and easy handling. He was influenced by Rubens, though
+decidedly different from him in many respects. Brouwer (1606?-1638)
+has often been catalogued with the Holland school, but he really
+belongs with Teniers, in Belgium. He died early, but left a number of
+pictures remarkable for their fine "fat" quality and their beautiful
+color. He was not a man of Italian imagination, but a painter of low
+life, with coarse humor and not too much good taste, yet a superb
+technician and vastly beyond many of his little Dutch contemporaries
+at the North. Teniers and Brouwer led a school and had many followers.
+
+In a slightly different vein was Gonzales Coques (1618-1684), who is
+generally seen to advantage in pictures of interiors with family
+groups. In subject he was more refined than the other _genre_
+painters, and was influenced to some extent by Van Dyck. As a colorist
+he held rank, and his portraiture (rarely seen) was excellent. At this
+time there were also many painters of landscape, marine, battles,
+still-life--in fact Belgium was alive with painters--but none of them
+was sufficiently great to call for individual mention. Most of them
+were followers of either Holland or Italy, and the gist of their work
+will be spoken of hereafter under Dutch painting.
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: Decline had set in before the
+seventeenth century ended. Belgium was torn by wars, her commerce
+flagged, her art-spirit seemed burned out. A long line of petty
+painters followed whose works call for silence. One man alone seemed
+to stand out like a star by comparison with his contemporaries,
+Verhagen (1728-1811), a portrait-painter of talent.
+
+NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: During this century Belgium
+has been so closely related to France that the influence of the larger
+country has been quite apparent upon the art of the smaller. In 1816
+David, the leader of the French classic school, sent into exile by the
+Restoration, settled at Brussels, and immediately drew around him
+many pupils. His influence was felt at once, and Francois Navez
+(1787-1869) was the chief one among his pupils to establish the
+revived classic art in Belgium. In 1830, with Belgian independence and
+almost concurrently with the romantic movement in France, there began
+a romantic movement in Belgium with Wappers (1803-1874). His art was
+founded substantially on Rubens; but, like the Paris romanticists, he
+chose the dramatic subject of the times and treated it more for color
+than for line. He drew a number of followers to himself, but the
+movement was not more lasting than in France.
+
+Wiertz (1806-1865), whose collection of works is to be seen in
+Brussels, was a partial exposition of romanticism mixed with a
+what-not of eccentricity entirely his own. Later on came a
+comparatively new man, Louis Gallait (1810-?), who held in Brussels
+substantially the same position that Delaroche did in Paris. His art
+was eclectic and never strong, though he had many pupils at Brussels,
+and started there a rivalry to Wappers at Antwerp. Leys (1815-1869)
+holds a rather unique position in Belgian art by reason of his
+affectation. He at first followed Pieter de Hooghe and other early
+painters. Then, after a study of the old German painters like Cranach,
+he developed an archaic style, producing a Gothic quaintness of line
+and composition, mingled with old Flemish coloring. The result was
+something popular, but not original or far-reaching, though
+technically well done. His chief pupil was Alma Tadema (1836-), alive
+to-day in London, and belonging to no school in particular. He is a
+technician of ability, mannered in composition and subject, and
+somewhat perfunctory in execution. His work is very popular with those
+who enjoy minute detail and smooth texture-painting.
+
+In 1851 the influence of the French realism of Courbet began to be
+felt at Brussels, and since then Belgian art has followed closely the
+art movements at Paris. Men like Alfred Stevens (1828-), a pupil of
+Navez, are really more French than Belgian. Stevens is one of the best
+of the moderns, a painter of power in fashionable or high-life
+_genre_, and a colorist of the first rank in modern art. Among the
+recent painters but a few can be mentioned. Willems (1823-), a weak
+painter of fashionable _genre_; Verboeckhoven (1799-1881), a vastly
+over-estimated animal painter; Clays (1819-), an excellent marine
+painter; Boulanger, a landscapist; Wauters (1846-), a history, and
+portrait-painter; Jan van Beers and Robie. The new men are Claus,
+Buysse, Frederic, Khnopff, Lempoels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ALFRED STEVENS. ON THE BEACH.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS:--Hubert van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb
+     (with Jan van Eyck) St. Bavon Ghent (wings at Brussels and
+     Berlin supposed to be by Jan, the rest by Hubert); Jan van
+     Eyck, as above, also Arnolfini portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Virgin and Donor Louvre, Madonna Staedel Mus., Man with
+     Pinks Berlin, Triumph of Church Madrid; Van der Weyden, a
+     number of pictures in Brussels and Antwerp Mus., also at
+     Staedel Mus., Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Cristus, Berlin,
+     Staedel Mus., Hermitage, Madrid; Justus van Ghent, Last
+     Supper Urbino Gal.; Bouts, St. Peter Louvain, Munich,
+     Berlin, Brussels, Vienna; Memling, Brussels Mus. and Bruges
+     Acad., and Hospital Antwerp, Turin, Uffizi, Munich, Vienna;
+     Van der Meire, triptych St. Bavon Ghent; Ghaeraert David,
+     Bruges, Berlin, Rouen, Munich.
+
+     Massys, Brussels, Antwerp, Berlin, St. Petersburg; best
+     works Deposition in Antwerp Gal. and Merchant and Wife
+     Louvre; Mostert, altar-piece Notre Dame Bruges; Mabuse,
+     Madonnas Palermo, Milan Cathedral, Prague, other works
+     Vienna, Berlin, Munich, Antwerp; Floris, Antwerp, Amsterdam,
+     Brussels, Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Barent van Orley,
+     altar-pieces Church of the Saviour Antwerp, and Brussels
+     Mus.; Cocxie, Antwerp, Brussels, and Madrid Mus.; Pourbus,
+     Bruges, Brussels, Vienna Mus.; Moro, portraits Madrid,
+     Vienna, Hague, Brussels, Cassel, Louvre, St. Petersburg
+     Mus.; Bril, landscapes Madrid, Louvre, Dresden, Berlin Mus.;
+     the landscapes of the three Breughels are to be seen in most
+     of the museums of Europe, especially at Munich, Dresden, and
+     Madrid.
+
+     Rubens, many works, 93 in Munich, 35 in Dresden, 15 at
+     Cassel, 16 at Berlin, 14 in London, 90 in Vienna, 66 in
+     Madrid, 54 in Paris, 63 at St. Petersburg (as given by
+     Wauters), best works at Antwerp, Vienna, Munich, and Madrid;
+     Van Noort, Antwerp, Brussels Mus., Ghent and Antwerp
+     Cathedrals; Van Dyck, Windsor Castle, Nat. Gal. Lon., 41 in
+     Munich, 19 in Dresden, 15 in Cassel, 13 in Berlin, 67 in
+     Vienna, 21 in Madrid, 24 in Paris, and 38 in St. Petersburg
+     (Wauters), best examples in Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     and Madrid, good example in Met. Mus. N. Y.; Diepenbeeck,
+     Antwerp Churches and Mus., Berlin, Vienna, Munich,
+     Frankfort; Jordaens, Brussels, Antwerp, Munich, Vienna,
+     Cassel, Madrid, Paris; Crayer, Brussels, Munich, Vienna;
+     Janssens, Antwerp Mus., St. Bavon Ghent, Brussels and
+     Cologne Mus.; Zegers, Cathedral Ghent, Notre Dame Bruges,
+     Antwerp Mus.; Rombouts, Mus. and Cathedral Ghent, Antwerp
+     Mus., Beguin Convent Mechlin, Hospital of St. John Bruges;
+     De Vos, Cathedral and Mus. Antwerp, Munich, Oldenburg,
+     Berlin Mus.; Snyders, Munich, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid,
+     Paris, St. Petersburg; Fyt, Munich, Dresden, Cassel, Berlin,
+     Vienna, Madrid, Paris; Teniers the Younger, 29 pictures in
+     Munich, 24 in Dresden, 8 in Berlin, 19 in Nat. Gal. Lon., 33
+     in Vienna, 52 in Madrid, 34 in Louvre, 40 in St. Petersburg
+     (Wauters); Brauwer, 19 in Munich, 6 in Dresden, 4 in Berlin,
+     5 in Paris, 5 in St. Petersburgh (Wauters); Coques, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Amsterdam, Berlin, Munich Mus.
+
+     Verhagen, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Vienna Mus.; Navez,
+     Ghent, Antwerp, and Amsterdam Mus., Nat. Gal. Berlin;
+     Wappers, Amsterdam, Brussels, Versailles Mus.; Wiertz, in
+     Wiertz Gal. Brussels; Gallait, Liége, Versailles, Tournay,
+     Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Leys, Amsterdam Mus., New
+     Pinacothek, Munich, Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin, Antwerp Mus.
+     and City Hall; Alfred Stevens, Marseilles, Brussels, frescos
+     Royal Pal. Brussels; Willems, Brussels Mus. and Foder Mus.
+     Amsterdam, Met. Mus. N. Y.; Verboeckhoven, Amsterdam, Foder,
+     Nat. Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek, Brussels, Ghent, Met. Mus.
+     N. Y.; Clays, Ghent Mus.; Wauters, Brussels, Liége Mus.; Van
+     Beers, Burial of Charles the Good Amsterdam Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+DUTCH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before Fromentin, (Waagen's) Kügler;
+     Amand-Durand, _OEuvre de Rembrandt_; _Archief voor
+     Nederlandsche Kunst-geschiedenis_; Blanc, _OEuvre de
+     Rembrandt_; Bode, _Franz Hals und seine Schule_; Bode,
+     _Studien zur Geschichte der Hollandischen Malerei_; Bode,
+     _Adriaan van Ostade_; Brown, _Rembrandt_; Burger (Th.
+     Thoré), _Les Musées de la Hollande_; Havard, _La Peinture
+     Hollandaise_; Michel, _Rembrandt_; Michel, _Gerard Terburg
+     et sa Famille_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Rooses, _Dutch
+     Painters of the Nineteenth Century_; Rooses, _Rubens_;
+     Schmidt, _Das Leben des Malers Adriaen Brouwer_; Van der
+     Willigen, _Les Artistes de Harlem_; Van Mander, _Leven der
+     Nederlandsche en Hoogduitsche Schilders_; Vosmaer,
+     _Rembrandt, sa Vie et ses OEuvres_; Westrheene, _Jan
+     Steen, Étude sur l'Art en Hollande_; Van Dyke, _Old Dutch
+     and Flemish Masters_.
+
+
+THE DUTCH PEOPLE AND THEIR ART: Though Holland produced a somewhat
+different quality of art from Flanders and Belgium, yet in many
+respects the people at the north were not very different from those at
+the south of the Netherlands. They were perhaps less versatile, less
+volatile, less like the French and more like the Germans. Fond of
+homely joys and the quiet peace of town and domestic life, the Dutch
+were matter-of-fact in all things, sturdy, honest, coarse at times,
+sufficient unto themselves, and caring little for what other people
+did. Just so with their painters. They were realistic at times to
+grotesqueness. Little troubled with fine poetic frenzies they painted
+their own lives in street, town-hall, tavern, and kitchen, conscious
+that it was good because true to themselves.
+
+At first Dutch art was influenced, even confounded, with that of
+Flanders. The Van Eycks led the way, and painters like Bouts and
+others, though Dutch by birth, became Flemish by adoption in their art
+at least. When the Flemish painters fell to copying Italy some of the
+Dutch followed them, but with no great enthusiasm. Suddenly, at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, when Holland had gained
+political independence, Dutch art struck off by itself, became
+original, became famous. It pictured native life with verve, skill,
+keenness of insight, and fine pictorial view. Limited it was; it never
+soared like Italian art, never became universal or world-embracing. It
+was distinct, individual, national, something that spoke for Holland,
+but little beyond it.
+
+In subject there were few historical canvases such as the Italians and
+French produced. The nearest approach to them were the paintings of
+shooting companies, or groups of burghers and syndics, and these were
+merely elaborations and enlargements of the portrait which the Dutch
+loved best of all. As a whole their subjects were single figures or
+small groups in interiors, quiet scenes, family conferences, smokers,
+card-players, drinkers, landscapes, still-life, architectural pieces.
+When they undertook the large canvas with many figures, they were
+often unsatisfactory. Even Rembrandt was so. The chief medium was oil,
+used upon panel or canvas. Fresco was probably used in the early days,
+but the climate was too damp for it and it was abandoned. It was
+perhaps the dampness of the northern climate that led to the
+adaptation of the oil medium, something the Van Eycks are credited
+with inaugurating.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--HALS. PORTRAIT OF A LADY.]
+
+THE EARLY PAINTING: The early work has, for the great part, perished
+through time and the fierceness with which the Iconoclastic warfare
+was waged. That which remains to-day is closely allied in method and
+style to Flemish painting under the Van Eycks. Ouwater is one of the
+earliest names that appears, and perhaps for that reason he has been
+called the founder of the school. He was remarked in his time for the
+excellent painting of background landscapes; but there is little
+authentic by him left to us from which we may form an opinion.[17]
+Geertjen van St. Jan (about 1475) was evidently a pupil of his, and
+from him there are two wings of an altar in the Vienna Gallery,
+supposed to be genuine. Bouts and Mostert have been spoken of under
+the Flemish school. Bosch (1460?-1516) was a man of some individuality
+who produced fantastic purgatories that were popular in their time and
+are known to-day through engravings. Engelbrechsten (1468-1533) was
+Dutch by birth and in his art, and yet probably got his inspiration
+from the Van Eyck school. The works attributed to him are doubtful,
+though two in the Leyden Gallery seem to be authentic. He was the
+master of Lucas van Leyden (1494-1533), the leading artist of the
+early period. Lucas van Leyden was a personal friend of Albrecht
+Dürer, the German painter, and in his art he was not unlike him. A
+man with a singularly lean type, a little awkward in composition,
+brilliant in color, and warm in tone, he was, despite his
+archaic-looking work, an artist of much ability and originality. At
+first he was inclined toward Flemish methods, with an exaggerated
+realism in facial expression. In his middle period he was distinctly
+Dutch, but in his later days he came under Italian influence, and with
+a weakening effect upon his art. Taking his work as a whole, it was
+the strongest of all the early Dutch painters.
+
+[Footnote 17: A Raising of Lazarus is in the Berlin Gallery.]
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY: This century was a period of Italian imitation,
+probably superinduced by the action of the Flemings at Antwerp. The
+movement was somewhat like the Flemish one, but not so extensive or so
+productive. There was hardly a painter of rank in Holland during the
+whole century. Scorel (1495-1562) was the leader, and he probably got
+his first liking for Italian art through Mabuse at Antwerp. He
+afterward went to Italy, studied Raphael and Michael Angelo, and
+returned to Utrecht to open a school and introduce Italian art into
+Holland. A large number of pupils followed him, but their work was
+lacking in true originality. Heemskerck (1498-1574) and Cornelis van
+Haarlem (1562-1638), with Steenwyck (1550?-1604), were some of the
+more important men of the century, but none of them was above a common
+average.
+
+SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: Beginning with the first quarter of this century
+came the great art of the Dutch people, founded on themselves and
+rooted in their native character. Italian methods were abandoned, and
+the Dutch told the story of their own lives in their own manner, with
+truth, vigor, and skill. There were so many painters in Holland during
+this period that it will be necessary to divide them into groups and
+mention only the prominent names.
+
+PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: The real inaugurators of Dutch
+portraiture were Mierevelt, Hals, Ravesteyn, and De Keyser. Mierevelt
+(1567-1641) was one of the earliest, a prolific painter, fond of the
+aristocratic sitter, and indulging in a great deal of elegance in his
+accessories of dress and the like. He had a slight, smooth brush, much
+detail, and a profusion of color. Quite the reverse of him was Franz
+Hals (1584?-1666), one of the most remarkable painters of portraits
+with which history acquaints us. In giving the sense of life and
+personal physical presence, he was unexcelled by any one. What he saw
+he could portray with the most telling reality. In drawing and
+modelling he was usually good; in coloring he was excellent, though in
+his late work sombre; in brush-handling he was one of the great
+masters. Strong, virile, yet easy and facile, he seemed to produce
+without effort. His brush was very broad in its sweep, very sure, very
+true. Occasionally in his late painting facility ran to the
+ineffectual, but usually he was certainty itself. His best work was in
+portraiture, and the most important of this is to be seen at Haarlem,
+where he died after a rather careless life. As a painter, pure and
+simple, he is almost to be ranked beside Velasquez; as a poet, a
+thinker, a man of lofty imagination, his work gives us little
+enlightenment except in so far as it shows a fine feeling for masses
+of color and problems of light. Though excellent portrait-painters,
+Ravesteyn (1572?-1657) and De Keyser (1596?-1679) do not provoke
+enthusiasm. They were quiet, conservative, dignified, painting civic
+guards and societies with a knowing brush and lively color, giving the
+truth of physiognomy, but not with that verve of the artist so
+conspicuous in Hals, nor with that unity of the group so essential in
+the making of a picture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--REMBRANDT. HEAD OF WOMAN. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+The next man in chronological order is Rembrandt (1607?-1669), the
+greatest painter in Dutch art. He was a pupil of Swanenburch and
+Lastman, but his great knowledge of nature and his craft came largely
+from the direct study of the model. Settled at Amsterdam, he quickly
+rose to fame, had a large following of pupils, and his influence was
+felt through all Dutch painting. The portrait was emphatically his
+strongest work. The many-figured group he was not always successful in
+composing or lighting. His method of work rather fitted him for the
+portrait and unfitted him for the large historical piece. He built up
+the importance of certain features by dragging down all other
+features. This was largely shown in his handling of illumination.
+Strong in a few high lights on cheek, chin, or white linen, the rest
+of the picture was submerged in shadow, under which color was
+unmercifully sacrificed. This was not the best method for a large,
+many-figured piece, but was singularly well suited to the portrait. It
+produced strength by contrast. "Forced" it was undoubtedly, and not
+always true to nature, yet nevertheless most potent in Rembrandt's
+hands. He was an arbitrary though perfect master of light-and-shade,
+and unusually effective in luminous and transparent shadows. In color
+he was again arbitrary but forcible and harmonious. In brush-work he
+was at times labored, but almost always effective.
+
+Mentally he was a man keen to observe, assimilate, and express his
+impressions in a few simple truths. His conception was localized with
+his own people and time (he never built up the imaginary or followed
+Italy), and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of
+Amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent
+sympathy with man. Dramatic, even tragic, he was; yet this was not so
+apparent in vehement action as in passionate expression. He had a
+powerful way of striking universal truths through the human face, the
+turned head, bent body, or outstretched hand. His people have
+character, dignity, and a pervading feeling that they are the great
+types of the Dutch race--people of substantial physique, slow in
+thought and impulse, yet capable of feeling, comprehending, enjoying,
+suffering.
+
+His landscapes, again, were a synthesis of all landscapes, a grouping
+of the great truths of light, air, shadow, space. Whatever he turned
+his hand to was treated with that breadth of view that overlooked the
+little and grasped the great. He painted many subjects. His earliest
+work dates from 1627, and is a little hard and sharp in detail and
+cold in coloring. After 1654 he grew broader in handling and warmer in
+tone, running to golden browns, and, toward the end of his career, to
+rather hot tones. His life was embittered by many misfortunes, but
+these never seem to have affected his art except to deepen it. He
+painted on to the last, convinced that his own view was the true one,
+and producing works that rank second to none in the history of
+painting.
+
+Rembrandt's influence upon Dutch art was far-reaching, and appeared
+immediately in the works of his many pupils. They all followed his
+methods of handling light-and-shade, but no one of them ever equalled
+him, though they produced work of much merit. Bol (1611-1680) was
+chiefly a portrait-painter, with a pervading yellow tone and some
+pallor of flesh-coloring--a man of ability who mistakenly followed
+Rubens in the latter part of his life. Flinck (1615-1660) at one time
+followed Rembrandt so closely that his work has passed for that of the
+master; but latterly he, too, came under Flemish influence. Next to
+Eeckhout he was probably the nearest to Rembrandt in methods of all
+the pupils. Eeckhout (1621-1674) was really a Rembrandt imitator, but
+his hand was weak and his color hot. Maes (1632-1693) was the most
+successful manager of light after the school formula, and succeeded
+very well with warmth and richness of color, especially with his reds.
+The other Rembrandt pupils and followers were Poorter (fl. 1635-1643),
+Victoors (1620?-1672?), Koninck (1619-1688), Fabritius (1624-1654),
+and Backer (1608?-1651).
+
+Van der Helst (1612?-1670) stands apart from this school, and seems to
+have followed more the portrait style of De Keyser. He was a
+realistic, precise painter, with much excellence of modelling in head
+and hands, and with fine carriage and dignity in the figure. In
+composition he hardly held his characters in group owing to a
+sacrifice of values, and in color he was often "spotty," and lacking
+in the unity of mass.
+
+THE GENRE PAINTERS: This heading embraces those who may be called the
+"Little Dutchmen," because of the small scale of their pictures and
+their _genre_ subjects. Gerard Dou (1613-1675) is indicative of the
+class without fully representing it. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, but
+his work gave little report of this. It was smaller, more delicate in
+detail, more petty in conception. He was a man great in little
+things, one who wasted strength on the minutiæ of dress, or
+table-cloth, or the texture of furniture without grasping the mass or
+color significance of the whole scene. There was infinite detail about
+his work, and that gave it popularity; but as art it held, and holds
+to-day, little higher place than the work of Metsu (1630-1667), Van
+Mieris (1635-1681), Netscher (1639-1684), or Schalcken (1643-1706),
+all of whom produced the interior piece with figures elaborate in
+accidental effects. Van Ostade (1610-1685), though dealing with the
+small canvas, and portraying peasant life with perhaps unnecessary
+coarseness, was a much stronger painter than the men just mentioned.
+He was the favorite pupil of Hals and the master of Jan Steen. With
+little delicacy in choice of subject he had much delicacy in color,
+taste in arrangement, and skill in handling. His brush was precise but
+not finical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--J. VAN RUISDAEL. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+By far the best painter among all the "Little Dutchmen" was Terburg
+(1617?-1681), a painter of interiors, small portraits, conversation
+pictures, and the like. Though of diminutive scale his work has the
+largeness of view characteristic of genius, and the skilled technic of
+a thorough craftsman. Terburg was a travelled man, visiting Italy,
+where he studied Titian, returning to Holland to study Rembrandt,
+finally at Madrid studying Velasquez. He was a painter of much
+culture, and the keynote of his art is refinement. Quiet and dignified
+he carried taste through all branches of his art. In subject he was
+rather elevated, in color subdued with broken tones, in composition
+simple, in brush-work sure, vivacious, and yet unobtrusive. Selection
+in his characters was followed by reserve in using them. Detail was
+not very apparent. A few people with some accessory objects were all
+that he required to make a picture. Perhaps his best qualities appear
+in a number of small portraits remarkable for their distinction and
+aristocratic grace.
+
+Steen (1626?-1679) was almost the opposite of Terburg, a man of
+sarcastic flings and coarse humor who satirized his own time with
+little reserve. He developed under Hals and Van Ostade, favoring the
+latter in his interiors, family scenes, and drunken debauches. He was
+a master of physiognomy, and depicted it with rare if rather
+unpleasant truth. If he had little refinement in his themes he
+certainly handled them as a painter with delicacy. At his best his
+many figured groups were exceedingly well composed, his color was of
+good quality (with a fondness for yellows), and his brush was as
+limpid and graceful as though painting angels instead of Dutch boors.
+He was really one of the fine brushmen of Holland, a man greatly
+admired by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many an artist since; but not a
+man of high intellectual pitch as compared with Terburg, for
+instance.
+
+Pieter de Hooghe (1632?-1681) was a painter of purely pictorial
+effects, beginning and ending a picture in a scheme of color,
+atmosphere, clever composition, and above all the play of
+light-and-shade. He was one of the early masters of full sunlight,
+painting it falling across a court-yard or streaming through a window
+with marvellous truth and poetry. His subjects were commonplace
+enough. An interior with a figure or two in the middle distance, and a
+passage-way leading into a lighted background were sufficient for him.
+These formed a skeleton which he clothed in a half-tone shadow,
+pierced with warm yellow light, enriched with rare colors, usually
+garnet reds and deep yellows repeated in the different planes, and
+surrounded with a subtle pervading atmosphere. As a brushman he was
+easy but not distinguished, and often his drawing was not correct; but
+in the placing of color masses and in composing by color and light he
+was a master of the first rank. Little is known about his life. He
+probably formed himself on Fabritius or Rembrandt at second-hand, but
+little trace of the latter is apparent in his work. He seems not to
+have achieved much fame until late years, and then rather in England
+than in his own country.
+
+Jan van der Meer of Delft (1632-1675), one of the most charming of all
+the _genre_ painters, was allied to De Hooghe in his pictorial point
+of view and interior subjects. Unfortunately there is little left to
+us of this master, but the few extant examples serve to show him a
+painter of rare qualities in light, in color, and in atmosphere. He
+was a remarkable man for his handling of blues, reds, and yellows; and
+in the tonic relations of a picture he was a master second to no one.
+Fabritius is supposed to have influenced him.
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The painters of the Netherlands were probably
+the first, beginning with Bril, to paint landscape for its own sake,
+and as a picture motive in itself. Before them it had been used as a
+background for the figure, and was so used by many of the Dutchmen
+themselves. It has been said that these landscape-painters were also
+the first ones to paint landscape realistically, but that is true only
+in part. They studied natural forms, as did, indeed, Bellini in the
+Venetian school; they learned something of perspective, air, tree
+anatomy, and the appearance of water; but no Dutch painter of
+landscape in the seventeenth century grasped the full color of Holland
+or painted its many varied lights. They indulged in a meagre
+conventional palette of grays, greens, and browns, whereas Holland is
+full of brilliant hues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--HOBBEMA. THE WATER-WHEEL. AMSTERDAM MUS.]
+
+Van Goyen (1596-1656) was one of the earliest of the
+seventeenth-century landscapists. In subject he was fond of the Dutch
+bays, harbors, rivers, and canals with shipping, windmills, and
+houses. His sky line was generally given low, his water silvery, and
+his sky misty and luminous with bursts of white light. In color he
+was subdued, and in perspective quite cunning at times. Salomon van
+Ruisdael (1600?-1670) was his follower, if not his pupil. He had the
+same sobriety of color as his master, and was a mannered and prosaic
+painter in details, such as leaves and tree-branches. In composition
+he was good, but his art had only a slight basis upon reality, though
+it looks to be realistic at first sight. He had a formula for doing
+landscape which he varied only in a slight way, and this
+conventionality ran through all his work. Molyn (1600?-1661) was a
+painter who showed limited truth to nature in flat and hilly
+landscapes, transparent skies, and warm coloring. His extant works are
+few in number. Wynants (1615?-1679?) was more of a realist in natural
+appearance than any of the others, a man who evidently studied
+directly from nature in details of vegetation, plants, trees, roads,
+grasses, and the like. Most of the figures and animals in his
+landscapes were painted by other hands. He himself was a pure
+landscape-painter, excelling in light and aërial perspective, but not
+remarkable in color. Van der Neer (1603-1677) and Everdingen
+(1621?-1675) were two other contemporary painters of merit.
+
+The best landscapist following the first men of the century was Jacob
+van Ruisdael (1625?-1682), the nephew of Salomon van Ruisdael. He is
+put down, with perhaps unnecessary emphasis, as the greatest
+landscape-painter of the Dutch school. He was undoubtedly the equal of
+any of his time, though not so near to nature, perhaps, as Hobbema. He
+was a man of imagination, who at first pictured the Dutch country
+about Haarlem, and afterward took up with the romantic landscape of
+Van Everdingen. This landscape bears a resemblance to the Norwegian
+country, abounding, as it does, in mountains, heavy dark woods, and
+rushing torrents. There is considerable poetry in its composition, its
+gloomy skies, and darkened lights. It is mournful, suggestive, wild,
+usually unpeopled. There was much of the methodical in its putting
+together, and in color it was cold, and limited to a few tones. Many
+of Ruisdael's works have darkened through time. Little is known about
+the painter's life except that he was not appreciated in his own time
+and died in the almshouse.
+
+Hobbema (1638?-1709) was probably the pupil of Jacob van Ruisdael, and
+ranks with him, if not above him, in seventeenth-century landscape
+painting. Ruisdael hardly ever painted sunlight, whereas Hobbema
+rather affected it in quiet wood-scenes or roadways with little pools
+of water and a mill. He was a freer man with the brush than Ruisdael,
+and knew more about the natural appearance of trees, skies, and
+lights; but, like his master, his view of nature found no favor in his
+own land. Most of his work is in England, where it had not a little to
+do with influencing such painters as Constable and others at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--ISRAELS. ALONE IN THE WORLD.]
+
+LANDSCAPE WITH CATTLE: Here we meet with Wouverman (1619-1668), a
+painter of horses, cavalry, battles, and riding parties placed in
+landscape. His landscape is bright and his horses are spirited in
+action. There is some mannerism apparent in his reiterated
+concentration of light on a white horse, and some repetition in his
+canvases, of which there are many; but on the whole he was an
+interesting, if smooth and neat painter. Paul Potter (1625-1654)
+hardly merited his great repute. He was a harsh, exact recorder of
+facts, often tin-like or woodeny in his cattle, and not in any way
+remarkable in his landscapes, least of all in their composition. The
+Young Bull at the Hague is an ambitious piece of drawing, but is not
+successful in color, light, or _ensemble_. It is a brittle work all
+through, and not nearly so good as some smaller things in the National
+Gallery London, and in the Louvre. Adrien van de Velde (1635?-1672)
+was short-lived, like Potter, but managed to do a prodigious amount
+of work, showing cattle and figures in landscape with much technical
+ability and good feeling. He was particularly good in composition and
+the subtle gradation of neutral tints. A little of the Italian
+influence appeared in his work, and with the men who came with him and
+after him the Italian imitation became very pronounced. Aelbert Cuyp
+(1620-1691) was a many-sided painter, adopting at various times
+different styles, but was enough of a genius to be himself always. He
+is best known to us, perhaps, by his yellow sunlight effects along
+rivers, with cattle in the foreground, though he painted still-life,
+and even portraits and marines. In composing a group he was knowing,
+recording natural effects with power; in light and atmosphere he was
+one of the best of his time, and in texture and color refined, and
+frequently brilliant. Both (1610-1650?), Berchem (1620-1683), Du
+Jardin (1622?-1678), followed the Italian tradition of Claude Lorrain,
+producing semi-classic landscapes, never very convincing in their
+originality. Van der Heyden (1637-1712), should be mentioned as an
+excellent, if minute, painter of architecture with remarkable
+atmospheric effects.
+
+MARINE AND STILL-LIFE PAINTERS: There were two pre-eminent marine
+painters in this seventeenth century, Willem van de Velde (1633-1707)
+and Backhuisen (1631-1708). The sea was not an unusual subject with
+the Dutch landscapists. Van Goyen, Simon de Vlieger (1601?-1660?),
+Cuyp, Willem van de Velde the Elder (1611?-1693), all employed it; but
+it was Van de Velde the Younger who really stood at the head of the
+marine painters. He knew his subject thoroughly, having been well
+grounded in it by his father and De Vlieger, so that the painting of
+the Dutch fleets and harbors was a part of his nature. He preferred
+the quiet haven to the open sea. Smooth water, calm skies, silvery
+light, and boats lying listlessly at anchor with drooping sails, made
+up his usual subject. The color was almost always in a key of silver
+and gray, very charming in its harmony and serenity, but a little
+thin. Both he and his father went to England and entered the service
+of the English king, and thereafter did English fleets rather than
+Dutch ones. Backhuisen was quite the reverse of Van de Velde in
+preferring the tempest to the calm of the sea. He also used more
+brilliant and varied colors, but he was not so happy in harmony as Van
+de Velde. There was often dryness in his handling, and something too
+much of the theatrical in his wrecks on rocky shores.
+
+The still-life painters of Holland were all of them rather petty in
+their emphasis of details such as figures on table-covers, water-drops
+on flowers, and fur on rabbits. It was labored work with little of the
+art spirit about it, except as the composition showed good masses. A
+number of these painters gained celebrity in their day by their
+microscopic labor over fruits, flowers, and the like, but they have no
+great rank at the present time. Jan van Heem (1600?1684?) was perhaps
+the best painter of flowers among them. Van Huysum (1682-1749)
+succeeded with the same subject beyond his deserts. Hondecoeter
+(1636-1695) was a unique painter of poultry; Weenix (1640-1719) and
+Van Aelst (1620-1679), of dead game; Kalf (1630?-1693), of pots, pans,
+dishes, and vegetables.
+
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: This was a period of decadence during which there
+was no originality worth speaking about among the Dutch painters.
+Realism in minute features was carried to the extreme, and imitation
+of the early men took the place of invention. Everything was
+prettified and elaborated until there was a porcelain smoothness and a
+photographic exactness inconsistent with true art. Adriaan van der
+Werff (1659-1722), and Philip van Dyck (1683-1753) with their "ideal"
+inanities are typical of the century's art. There was nothing to
+commend it. The lowest point of affectation had been reached.
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Dutch painters, unlike the Belgians, have
+almost always been true to their own traditions and their own country.
+Even in decadence the most of them feebly followed their own painters
+rather than those of Italy and France, and in the early nineteenth
+century they were not affected by the French classicism of David.
+Later on there came into vogue an art that had some affinity with that
+of Millet and Courbet in France. It was the Dutch version of modern
+sentiment about the laboring classes, founded on the modern life of
+Holland, yet in reality a continuation of the style or _genre_
+practised by the early Dutchmen. Israels (1824-) is a revival or a
+survival of Rembrandtesque methods with a sentiment and feeling akin
+to the French Millet. He deals almost exclusively with peasant life,
+showing fisher-folk and the like in their cottage interiors, at the
+table, or before the fire, with good effects of light, atmosphere, and
+much pathos. Technically he is rather labored and heavy in handling,
+but usually effective with sombre color in giving the unity of a
+scene. Artz (1837-1890) considered himself in measure a follower of
+Israels, though he never studied under him. His pictures in subject
+are like those of Israels, but without the depth of the latter.
+Blommers (1845-) is another peasant painter who follows Israels at a
+distance, and Neuhuys (1844-) shows a similar style of work. Bosboom
+(1817-1891) excelled in representing interiors, showing, with much
+pictorial effect, the light, color, shadow, and feeling of space and
+air in large cathedrals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--MAUVE. SHEEP.]
+
+The brothers Maris have made a distinct impression on modern Dutch
+art, and, strange enough, each in a different way from the others.
+James Maris (1837-) studied at Paris, and is remarkable for fine,
+vigorous views of canals, towns, and landscapes. He is broad in
+handling, rather bleak in coloring, and excels in fine luminous skies
+and voyaging clouds. Matthew Maris (1835-), Parisian trained like his
+brother, lives in London, where little is seen of his work. He paints
+for himself and his friends, and is rather melancholy and mystical in
+his art. He is a recorder of visions and dreams rather than the
+substantial things of the earth, but always with richness of color and
+a fine decorative feeling. Willem Maris (1839-), sometimes called the
+"Silvery Maris," is a portrayer of cattle and landscape in warm
+sunlight and haze with a charm of color and tone often suggestive of
+Corot. Jongkind (1819-1891) stands by himself, Mesdag (1831-) is a
+fine painter of marines and sea-shores, and Mauve (1838-1888), a
+cattle and sheep painter, with nice sentiment and tonality, whose
+renown is just now somewhat disproportionate to his artistic ability.
+In addition there are Kever, Poggenbeek, Bastert, Baur, Breitner,
+Witsen, Haverman, Weissenbruch.
+
+     EXTANT WORKS: Generally speaking the best examples of the
+     Dutch schools are still to be seen in the local museums of
+     Holland, especially the Amsterdam and Hague Mus.; Bosch,
+     Madrid, Antwerp, Brussels Mus.; Lucas van Leyden, Antwerp,
+     Leyden, Munich Mus.; Scorel, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Haarlem
+     Mus.; Heemskerck, Haarlem, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden;
+     Steenwyck, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels; Cornelis van Haarlem,
+     Amsterdam, Haarlem, Brunswick.
+
+     PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS--Mierevelt, Hague, Amsterdam,
+     Rotterdam, Brunswick, Dresden, Copenhagen; Hals, best works
+     to be seen at Haarlem, others at Amsterdam, Brussels, Hague,
+     Berlin, Cassel, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Met. Mus. New York,
+     Art Institute Chicago; Rembrandt, Amsterdam, Hermitage,
+     Louvre, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Madrid, London; Bol,
+     Amsterdam, Hague, Dresden, Louvre; Flinck, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Berlin; Eeckhout, Amsterdam, Brunswick, Berlin, Munich;
+     Maes, Nat. Gal. Lon., Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels;
+     Poorter, Amsterdam, Brussels, Dresden; Victoors, Amsterdam,
+     Copenhagen, Brunswick, Dresden; Fabritius, Rotterdam,
+     Amsterdam, Berlin; Van der Helst, best works at Amsterdam
+     Mus.
+
+     GENRE PAINTERS--Examples of Dou, Metsu, Van Mieris,
+     Netscher, Schalcken, Van Ostade, are to be seen in almost
+     all the galleries of Europe, especially the Dutch, Belgian,
+     German, and French galleries; Terburg, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+     Dresden, Berlin (fine portraits); Steen, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+     Rotterdam, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden, Vienna; De
+     Hooghe, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Hermitage; Van
+     der Meer of Delft, Louvre, Hague, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Met. Mus. New York.
+
+     LANDSCAPE PAINTERS--Van Goyen, Amsterdam, Fitz-William Mus.
+     Cambridge, Louvre, Brussels, Cassel, Dresden, Berlin;
+     Salomon van Ruisdael, Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Dresden,
+     Munich; Van der Neer, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Brussels,
+     Amsterdam, Berlin, Dresden; Everdingen, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Louvre, Brunswick, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort; Jacob van
+     Ruisdael, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Dresden; Hobbema, best works in England, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dresden; Wouvermans, many works, best
+     at Amsterdam, Cassel, Louvre; Potter, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Van de Velde, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Cassel, Dresden, Frankfort, Munich, Louvre; Cuyp, Amsterdam,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Munich, Dresden; examples of Both,
+     Berchem, Du Jardin, and Van der Heyden, in almost all of the
+     Dutch and German galleries, besides the Louvre and Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.
+
+     MARINE PAINTERS--Willem van de Velde Elder and Younger,
+     Backhuisen, Vlieger, together with the flower and fruit
+     painters like Huysum, Hondecoeter, Weenix, have all been
+     prolific workers, and almost every European gallery,
+     especially those at London, Amsterdam, and in Germany, have
+     examples of their works; Van der Werff and Philip van Dyck
+     are seen at their best at Dresden.
+
+     The best works of the modern men are in private collections,
+     many in the United States, some examples of them in the
+     Amsterdam and Hague Museums. Also some examples of the old
+     Dutch masters in New York Hist. Society Library, Yale School
+     of Fine Arts, Met. Mus. New York, Boston Mus., and Chicago
+     Institute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GERMAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Colvin, _A. Durer, his Teachers, his
+     Rivals, and his Scholars_; Eye, _Leben und Werke Albrecht
+     Durers_; Förster, _Peter von Cornelius_; Förster,
+     _Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst_; Keane, _Early Teutonic,
+     Italian, and French Painters_; Kügler, _Handbook to German
+     and Netherland Schools, trans. by Crowe_; Merlo, _Die
+     Meister der altkolnischer Malerschule_; Moore, _Albert
+     Durer_; Pecht, _Deutsche Kunstler des Neunzehnten
+     Jahrhunderts_; Reber, _Geschichte der neueren Deutschen
+     Kunst_; Riegel, _Deutsche Kunststudien_; Rosenberg, _Die
+     Berliner Malerschule_; Rosenberg, _Sebald und Barthel
+     Beham_; Rumohr, _Hans Holbein der Jungere_; Sandrart,
+     _Teutsche Akademie der Edlen Bau, Bild-und Malerey-Kunste_;
+     Schuchardt, _Lucas Cranach's Leben_; Thausig, _Albert Durer,
+     His Life and Works_; Waagen, _Kunstwerke und Kunstler in
+     Deutschland_; E. aus'm Weerth, _Wandmalereien des
+     Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden_; Wessely, _Adolph Menzel_;
+     Woltmann, _Holbein and his Time_; Woltmann, _Geschichte der
+     Deutschen Kunst im Elsass_; Wurtzbach, _Martin Schongauer_.
+
+
+EARLY GERMAN PAINTING: The Teutonic lands, like almost all of the
+countries of Europe, received their first art impulse from
+Christianity through Italy. The centre of the faith was at Rome, and
+from there the influence in art spread west and north, and in each
+land it was modified by local peculiarities of type and temperament.
+In Germany, even in the early days, though Christianity was the theme
+of early illuminations, miniatures, and the like, and though there was
+a traditional form reaching back to Italy and Byzantium, yet under it
+was the Teutonic type--the material, awkward, rather coarse Germanic
+point of view. The wish to realize native surroundings was apparent
+from the beginning.
+
+It is probable that the earliest painting in Germany took the form of
+illuminations. At what date it first appeared is unknown. In
+wall-painting a poor quality of work was executed in the churches as
+early as the ninth century, and probably earlier. The oldest now
+extant are those at Oberzell, dating back to the last part of the
+tenth century. Better examples are seen in the Lower Church of
+Schwarzrheindorf, of the twelfth century, and still better in the
+choir and transept of the Brunswick cathedral, ascribed to the early
+thirteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--LOCHNER. STS. JOHN, CATHERINE, AND MATTHEW.
+NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+All of these works have an archaic appearance about them, but they
+are better in composition and drawing than the productions of Italy
+and Byzantium at that time. It is likely that all the German churches
+at this time were decorated, but most of the paintings have been
+destroyed. The usual method was to cover the walls and wooden ceilings
+with blue grounds, and upon these to place figures surrounded by
+architectural ornaments. Stained glass was also used extensively.
+Panel painting seems to have come into existence before the thirteenth
+century (whether developed from miniature or wall-painting is
+unknown), and was used for altar decorations. The panels were done in
+tempera with figures in light colors upon gold grounds. The
+spirituality of the age with a mingling of northern sentiment appeared
+in the figure. This figure was at times graceful, and again awkward
+and archaic, according to the place of production and the influence of
+either France or Italy. The oldest panels extant are from the
+Wiesenkirche at Soest, now in the Berlin Museum. They do not date
+before the thirteenth century.
+
+FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: In the fourteenth century the
+influence of France began to show strongly in willowy figures, long
+flowing draperies, and sentimental poses. The artists along the Rhine
+showed this more than those in the provinces to the east, where a
+ruder if freer art appeared. The best panel-painting of the time was
+done at Cologne, where we meet with the name of the first painter,
+Meister Wilhelm, and where a school was established usually known as
+the
+
+SCHOOL OF COLOGNE: This school probably got its sentimental
+inclination, shown in slight forms and tender expression, from France,
+but derived much of its technic from the Netherlands. Stephen Lochner,
+or Meister Stephen, (fl. 1450) leaned toward the Flemish methods, and
+in his celebrated picture, the Madonna of the Rose Garden, in the
+Cologne Museum, there is an indication of this; but there is also an
+individuality showing the growth of German independence in painting.
+The figures of his Dombild have little manliness or power, but
+considerable grace, pathos, and religious feeling. They are not
+abstract types but the spiritualized people of the country in native
+costumes, with much gold, jewelry, and armor. Gold was used instead of
+a landscape background, and the foreground was spattered with flowers
+and leaves. The outlines are rather hard, and none of the aërial
+perspective of the Flemings is given. After a time French sentiment
+was still further encroached upon by Flemish realism, as shown in the
+works of the Master of the Lyversberg Passion (fl. about 1463-1480),
+to be seen in the Cologne Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--WOLGEMUT. CRUCIFIXION. MUNICH.]
+
+BOHEMIAN SCHOOL: It was not on the Lower Rhine alone that German
+painting was practised. The Bohemian school, located near Prague,
+flourished for a short time in the fourteenth century, under Charles
+IV., with Theodorich of Prague (fl. 1348-1378), Wurmser, and Kunz, as
+the chief masters. Their art was quite the reverse of the Cologne
+painters. It was heavy, clumsy, bony, awkward. If more original it was
+less graceful, not so pathetic, not so religious. Sentiment was
+slurred through a harsh attempt at realism, and the religious subject
+met with something of a check in the romantic mediæval chivalric
+theme, painted quite as often on the castle wall as the scriptural
+theme on the church wall. After the close of the fourteenth century
+wall-painting began to die out in favor of panel pictures.
+
+NUREMBERG SCHOOL: Half-way between the sentiment of Cologne and the
+realism of Prague stood the early school of Nuremberg, with no known
+painter at its head. Its chief work, the Imhof altar-piece, shows,
+however, that the Nuremberg masters of the early and middle fifteenth
+century were between eastern and western influences. They inclined to
+the graceful swaying figure, following more the sculpture of the time
+than the Cologne type.
+
+FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES: German art, if begun in the
+fourteenth century, hardly showed any depth or breadth until the
+fifteenth century, and no real individual strength until the sixteenth
+century. It lagged behind the other countries of Europe and produced
+the cramped archaic altar-piece. Then when printing was invented the
+painter-engraver came into existence. He was a man who painted panels,
+but found his largest audience through the circulation of engravings.
+The two kinds of arts being produced by the one man led to much
+detailed line work with the brush. Engraving is an influence to be
+borne in mind in examining the painting of this period.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--DÜRER. PRAYING VIRGIN. AUGSBURG.]
+
+FRANCONIAN SCHOOL: Nuremberg was the centre of this school, and its
+most famous early master was Wolgemut (1434-1519), though Plydenwurff
+is the first-named painter. After the latter's death Wolgemut married
+his widow and became the head of the school. His paintings were
+chiefly altar-pieces, in which the figures were rather lank and
+narrow-shouldered, with sharp outlines, indicative perhaps of the
+influence of wood-engraving, in which he was much interested. There
+was, however, in his work an advance in characterization, nobility of
+expression, and quiet dignity, and it was his good fortune to be the
+master of one of the most thoroughly original painters of all the
+German schools--Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528).
+
+With Dürer and Holbein German art reached its apogee in the first half
+of the sixteenth century, yet their work was not different in spirit
+from that of their predecessors. Painting simply developed and became
+forceful and expressive technically without abandoning its early
+character. There is in Dürer a naive awkwardness of figure, some
+angularity of line, strain of pose, and in composition oftentimes
+huddling and overloading of the scene with details. There is not that
+largeness which seemed native to his Italian contemporaries. He was
+hampered by that German exactness, which found its best expression in
+engraving, and which, though unsuited to painting, nevertheless crept
+into it. Within these limitations Dürer produced the typical art of
+Germany in the Renaissance time--an art more attractive for the charm
+and beauty of its parts than for its unity, or its general impression.
+Dürer was a travelled man, visited Italy and the Netherlands, and,
+though he always remained a German in art, yet he picked up some
+Italian methods from Bellini and Mantegna that are faintly apparent in
+some of his works. In subject he was almost exclusively religious,
+painting the altar-piece with infinite care upon wooden panel, canvas,
+or parchment. He never worked in fresco, preferring oil and tempera.
+In drawing he was often harsh and faulty, in draperies cramped at
+times, and then, again, as in the Apostle panels at Munich, very
+broad, and effective. Many of his pictures show a hard, dry brush, and
+a few, again, are so free and mellow that they look as though done by
+another hand. He was usually minute in detail, especially in such
+features as hair, cloth, flesh. His portraits were uneven and not his
+best productions. He was too close a scrutinizer of the part and not
+enough of an observer of the whole for good portraiture. Indeed, that
+is the criticism to be made upon all his work. He was an exquisite
+realist of certain features, but not always of the _ensemble_.
+Nevertheless he holds first rank in the German art of the Renaissance,
+not only on account of his technical ability, but also because of his
+imagination, sincerity, and striking originality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. PORTRAIT. HAGUE MUS.]
+
+Dürer's influence was wide-spread throughout Germany, especially in
+engraving, of which he was a master. In painting Schäufelin
+(1490?-1540?) was probably his apprentice, and in his work followed
+the master so closely that many of his works have been attributed to
+Dürer. This is true in measure of Hans Baldung (1476?-1552?). Hans von
+Kulmbach (?-1522) was a painter of more than ordinary importance,
+brilliant in coloring, a follower of Dürer, who was inclined toward
+Italian methods, an inclination that afterward developed all through
+German art. Following Dürer's formulas came a large number of
+so-called "Little Masters" (from the size of their engraved plates),
+who were more engravers than painters. Among the more important of
+those who were painters as well as engravers were Altdorfer
+(1480?-1538), a rival rather than an imitator of Dürer; Barthel Beham
+(1502-1540), Sebald Beham (1500-1550), Pencz (1500?-1550), Aldegrever
+(1502-1558), and Bink (1490?-1569?).
+
+SWABIAN SCHOOL: This school includes a number of painters who were
+located at different places, like Colmar and Ulm, and later on it
+included the Holbeins at Augsburg, who were really the consummation of
+the school. In the fifteenth century one of the early leaders was
+Martin Schöngauer (1446?-1488), at Colmar. He is supposed to have been
+a pupil of Roger Van der Weyden, of the Flemish school, and is better
+known by his engravings than his paintings, none of the latter being
+positively authenticated. He was thoroughly German in his type and
+treatment, though, perhaps, indebted to the Flemings for his coloring.
+There was some angularity in his figures and draperies, and a tendency
+to get nearer nature and further away from the ecclesiastical and
+ascetic conception in all that he did.
+
+At Ulm a local school came into existence with Zeitblom (fl.
+1484-1517), who was probably a pupil of Schüchlin. He had neither
+Schöngauer's force nor his fancy, but was a simple, straightforward
+painter of one rather strong type. His drawing was not good, except in
+the draperies, but he was quite remarkable for the solidity and
+substance of his painting, considering the age he lived in was given
+to hard, thin brush-work. Schaffner (fl. 1500-1535) was another Ulm
+painter, a junior to Zeitblom, of whom little is known, save from a
+few pictures graceful and free in composition. A recently discovered
+man, Bernard Strigel (1461?-1528?) seems to have been excellent in
+portraiture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--PILOTY. WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS.]
+
+At Augsburg there was still another school, which came into prominence
+in the sixteenth century with Burkmair and the Holbeins. It was only a
+part of the Swabian school, a concentration of artistic force about
+Augsburg, which, toward the close of the fifteenth century, had come
+into competition with Nuremberg, and rather outranked it in splendor.
+It was at Augsburg that the Renaissance art in Germany showed in more
+restful composition, less angularity, better modelling and painting,
+and more sense of the _ensemble_ of a picture. Hans Burkmair
+(1473-1531) was the founder of the school, a pupil of Schöngauer,
+later influenced by Dürer, and finally showing the influence of
+Italian art. He was not, like Dürer, a religious painter, though doing
+religious subjects. He was more concerned with worldly appearance, of
+which he had a large knowledge, as may be seen from his illustrations
+for engraving. As a painter he was a rather fine colorist, indulging
+in the fantastic of architecture but with good taste, crude in
+drawing but forceful, and at times giving excellent effects of motion.
+He was rounder, fuller, calmer in composition than Dürer, but never so
+strong an artist.
+
+Next to Burkmair comes the celebrated Holbein family. There were four
+of them all told, but only two of them, Hans the Elder and Hans the
+Younger, need be mentioned. Holbein the Elder (1460?-1524), after
+Burkmair, was the best painter of his time and school without being in
+himself a great artist. Schöngauer was at first his guide, though he
+soon submitted to some Flemish and Cologne influence, and later on
+followed Italian form and method in composition to some extent. He was
+a good draughtsman, and very clever at catching realistic points of
+physiognomy--a gift he left his son Hans. In addition he had some
+feeling for architecture and ornament, and in handling was a bit hard,
+and oftentimes careless. The best half of his life fell in the latter
+part of the fifteenth century, and he never achieved the free
+painter's quality of his son.
+
+Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) holds, with Dürer, the high place
+in German art. He was a more mature painter than Dürer, coming as he
+did a quarter of a century later. He was the Renaissance artist of
+Germany, whereas Dürer always had a little of the Gothic clinging to
+him. The two men were widely different in their points of view and in
+their work. Dürer was an idealist seeking after a type, a religious
+painter, a painter of panels with the spirit of an engraver. Holbein
+was emphatically a realist finding material in the actual life about
+him, a designer of cartoons and large wall paintings in something of
+the Italian spirit, a man who painted religious themes but with little
+spiritual significance.
+
+It is probable that he got his first instruction from his father and
+from Burkmair. He was an infant prodigy, developed early, saw much
+foreign art, and showed a number of tendencies in his work. In
+composition and drawing he appeared at times to be following Mantegna
+and the northern Italians; in brush-work he resembled the Flemings,
+especially Massys; yet he was never an imitator of either Italian or
+Flemish painting. Decidedly a self-sufficient and an observing man, he
+travelled in Italy and the Netherlands, and spent much of his life in
+England, where he met with great success at court as a portrait-painter.
+From seeing much he assimilated much, yet always remained German,
+changing his style but little as he grew older. His wall paintings have
+perished, but the drawings from them are preserved and show him as an
+artist of much invention. He is now known chiefly by his portraits, of
+which there are many of great excellence. His facility in grasping
+physiognomy and realizing character, the quiet dignity of his
+composition, his firm modelling, clear outline, harmonious coloring,
+excellent detail, and easy solid painting, all place him in the front
+rank of great painters. That he was not always bound down to literal
+facts may be seen in his many designs for wood-engravings. His portrait
+of Hubert Morett, in the Dresden Gallery, shows his art to advantage,
+and there are many portraits by him of great spirit in England, in the
+Louvre, and elsewhere.
+
+SAXON SCHOOL: Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) was a Franconian master, who
+settled in Saxony and was successively court-painter to three Electors
+and the leader of a small local school there. He, perhaps, studied
+under Grünewald, but was so positive a character that he showed no
+strong school influence. His work was fantastic, odd in conception and
+execution, sometimes ludicrous, and always archaic-looking. His type
+was rather strained in proportions, not always well drawn, but
+graceful even when not truthful. This type was carried into all his
+works, and finally became a mannerism with him. In subject he was
+religious, mythological, romantic, pastoral, with a preference for
+the nude figure. In coloring he was at first golden, then brown, and
+finally cold and sombre. The lack of aërial perspective and shadow
+masses gave his work a queer look, and he was never much of a
+brushman. His pictures were typical of the time and country, and for
+that and for their strong individuality they are ranked among the most
+interesting paintings of the German school. Perhaps his most
+satisfactory works are his portraits. Lucas Cranach the Younger
+(1515-1586) was the best of the elder Cranach's pupils. Many of his
+pictures are attributed to his father. He followed the elder closely,
+but was a weaker man, with a smoother brush and a more rosy color.
+Though there were many pupils the school did not go beyond the Cranach
+family. It began with the father and died with the son.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--LEIBL. IN CHURCH.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES: These were unrelieved centuries
+of decline in German painting. After Dürer, Holbein, and Cranach had
+passed there came about a senseless imitation of Italy, combined with
+an equally senseless imitation of detail in nature that produced
+nothing worthy of the name of original or genuine art. It is not
+probable that the Reformation had any more to do with this than with
+the decline in Italy. It was a period of barrenness in both countries.
+The Italian imitators in Germany were chiefly Rottenhammer
+(1564-1623), and Elzheimer (1574?-1620). After them came the
+representative of the other extreme in Denner (1685-1749), who thought
+to be great in portraiture by the minute imitation of hair, freckles,
+and three-days'-old beard--a petty and unworthy realism which excited
+some curiosity but never held rank as art. Mengs (1728-1779) sought
+for the sublime through eclecticism, but never reached it. His work,
+though academic and correct, is lacking in spirit and originality.
+Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807) succeeded in pleasing her inartistic age
+with the simply pretty, while Carstens (1754-1798) was a conscientious
+if mistaken student of the great Italians--a man of some severity in
+form and of academic inclinations.
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY: In the first part of this century there started in
+Germany a so-called "revival of art" led by Overbeck (1789-1869),
+Cornelius (1783-1867), Veit (1793-1877), and Schadow (1789-1862), but
+like many another revival of art it did not amount to much. The
+attempt to "revive" the past is usually a failure. The forms are
+caught, but the spirit is lost. The nineteenth-century attempt in
+Germany was brought about by the study of monumental painting in
+Italy, and the taking up of the religious spirit in a pre-Raphaelite
+manner. Something also of German romanticism was its inspiration.
+Overbeck remained in Rome, but the others, after some time in Italy,
+returned to Germany, diffused their teaching, and really formed a new
+epoch in German painting. A modern art began with ambitions and
+subjects entirely disproportionate to its skill. The monumental, the
+ideal, the classic, the exalted, were spread over enormous spaces, but
+there was no reason for such work in the contemporary German life, and
+nothing to warrant its appearance save that its better had appeared in
+Italy during the Renaissance. Cornelius after his return became the
+head of the
+
+MUNICH SCHOOL and painted pictures of the heroes of the classic and
+the Christian world upon a large scale. Nothing but their size and
+good intention ever brought them into notice, for their form and
+coloring were both commonplace. Schnorr (1794-1872) followed in the
+same style with the Niebelungen Lied, Charlemagne, and Barbarossa for
+subjects. Kaulbach (1805-1874) was a pupil of Cornelius, and had some
+ability but little taste, and not enough originality to produce great
+art. Piloty (1826-1886) was more realistic, more of a painter and
+ranks as one of the best of the early Munich masters. After him Munich
+art became _genre_-like in subject, with greater attention given to
+truthful representation in light, color, texture. To-day there are a
+large number of painters in the school who are remarkable for
+realistic detail.
+
+DUSSELDORF SCHOOL: After 1826 this school came into prominence under
+the guidance of Schadow. It did not fancy monumental painting so much
+as the common easel picture, with the sentimental, the dramatic, or
+the romantic subject. It was no better in either form or color than
+the Munich school, in fact not so good, though there were painters who
+emanated from it who had ability. At Berlin the inclination was to
+follow the methods and ideas held at Dusseldorf.
+
+The whole academic tendency of modern painting in Germany and Austria
+for the past fifty years has not been favorable to the best kind of
+pictorial art. There is a disposition on the part of artists to tell
+stories, to encroach upon the sentiment of literature, to paint with a
+dry brush in harsh unsympathetic colors, to ignore relations of
+light-and-shade, and to slur beauties of form. The subject seems to
+count for more than the truth of representation, or the individuality
+of view. From time to time artists of much ability have appeared, but
+these form an exception rather than a rule. The men to-day who are the
+great artists of Germany are less followers of the German tradition
+than individuals each working in a style peculiar to himself. A few
+only of them call for mention. Menzel (1815-1905) is easily first, a
+painter of group pictures, a good colorist, and a powerful pen-and-ink
+draughtsman; Lenbach (1836-1904), a forceful portraitist; Uhde
+(1848-), a portrayer of scriptural scenes in modern costumes with much
+sincerity, good color, and light; Leibl (1844-1900), an artist with
+something of the Holbein touch and realism; Thoma, a Frankfort painter
+of decorative friezes and panels; Liebermann, Gotthardt Kuehl, Franz
+Stuck, Max Klinger, Greiner, Trübner, Bartels, Keller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--MENZEL. A READER.]
+
+Aside from these men there are several notable painters with German
+affinities, like Makart (1840-1884), an Austrian, who possessed good
+technical qualities and indulged in a profusion of color; Munkacsy
+(1846-1900), a Hungarian, who is perhaps more Parisian than German in
+technic, and Böcklin (1827-1901), a Swiss, who is quite by himself in
+fantastic and grotesque subjects, a weird and uncanny imagination, and
+a brilliant prismatic coloring.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: BOHEMIAN SCHOOL--Theoderich of Prague,
+     Karlstein chap. and University Library Prague, Vienna Mus.;
+     Wurmser, same places.
+
+     FRANCONIAN SCHOOL--Wolgemut, Aschaffenburg, Munich,
+     Nuremberg, Cassel Mus.; Dürer, Crucifixion Dresden, Trinity
+     Vienna Mus., other works Munich, Nuremberg, Madrid Mus.;
+     Schäufelin, Basle, Bamberg, Cassel, Munich, Nuremberg,
+     Nordlingen Mus., and Ulm Cathedral; Baldung, Aschaffenburg,
+     Basle, Berlin, Kunsthalle Carlsruhe, Freiburg Cathedral;
+     Kulmbach, Munich, Nuremberg, Oldenburg; Altdorfer and the
+     "Little Masters" are seen in the Augsburg, Nuremberg,
+     Berlin, Munich and Fürstenberg Mus.
+
+     SWABIAN SCHOOL--Schöngauer, attributed pictures Colmar Mus.;
+     Zeitblom, Augsburg, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich, Nuremberg,
+     Simaringen Mus.; Schaffner, Munich, Schliessheim, Nuremberg,
+     Ulm Cathedral; Strigel, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich,
+     Nuremberg; Burkmair, Augsburg, Berlin, Munich, Maurice chap.
+     Nuremberg; Holbein the Elder, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Basle,
+     Städel Mus., Frankfort; Holbein the Younger, Basle,
+     Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Windsor
+     Castle, Vienna Mus.
+
+     SAXON SCHOOL--Cranach, Bamberg Cathedral and Gallery,
+     Munich, Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cassel; Cranach
+     the Younger, Stadtkirche Wittenberg, Leipsic, Vienna,
+     Nuremberg Mus.
+
+     SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Rottenhammer,
+     Louvre, Berlin, Munich, Schliessheim, Vienna, Kunsthalle
+     Hamburg; Elzheimer, Stadel, Brunswick, Louvre, Munich,
+     Berlin, Dresden; Denner, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Berlin,
+     Brunswick, Dresden, Vienna, Munich; Mengs, Madrid, Vienna,
+     Dresden, Munich, St. Petersburg; Angelica Kauffman, Vienna,
+     Hermitage, Turin, Dresden, Nat. Gal. Lon., Phila. Acad.
+
+     NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Overbeck, frescos in S. Maria
+     degli Angeli Assisi, Villa Massimo Rome, Carlsruhe, New
+     Pinacothek, Munich, Städel Mus., Dusseldorf; Cornelius,
+     frescos Glyptothek and Ludwigkirche Munich, Casa Zuccaro
+     Rome, Royal Cemetery Berlin; Veit, frescos Villa Bartholdi
+     Rome, Städel, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Schadow, Nat. Gal. Berlin,
+     Antwerp, Städel, Munich Mus., frescos Villa Bartholdi Rome;
+     Schnorr, Dresden, Cologne, Carlsruhe, New Pinacothek Munich,
+     Städel Mus.; Kaulbach, wall paintings Berlin Mus., Raczynski
+     Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Stuttgart, Phila. Acad.;
+     Piloty, best pictures in the New Pinacothek and
+     Maximilianeum Munich, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Menzel, Nat. Gal.,
+     Raczynski Mus. Berlin, Breslau Mus.; Lenbach, Nat. Gal.
+     Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Zürich
+     Gal.; Uhde, Leipsic Mus.; Leibl, Dresden Mus. The
+     contemporary paintings have not as yet found their way, to
+     any extent, into public museums, but may be seen in the
+     expositions at Berlin and Munich from year to year. Makart
+     has one work in the Metropolitan Mus., N. Y., as has also
+     Munkacsy; other works by them and by Böcklin may be seen in
+     the Nat. Gal. Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+BRITISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Armstrong, _Sir Henry Raeburn_;
+     Armstrong, _Gainsborough_; Armstrong, _Sir Joshua Reynolds_;
+     Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in National Gallery_;
+     Chesneau, _La Peinture Anglaise_; Cook, _Art in England_;
+     Cunningham, _Lives of the most Eminent British Artists_;
+     Dobson, _Life of Hogarth_; Gilchrist, _Life of Etty_;
+     Gilchrist, _Life of Blake_; Hamerton, _Life of Turner_;
+     Henderson, _Constable_; Hunt, _The Pre-Raphaelite
+     Brotherhood_ (_Contemporary Review, Vol. 49_); Leslie, _Sir
+     Joshua Reynolds_; Leslie, _Life of Constable_; Martin and
+     Newbery, _Glasgow School of Painting_; McKay, _Scottish
+     School of Painting_; Monkhouse, _British Contemporary
+     Artists_; Redgrave, _Dictionary of Artists of the English
+     School_; Romney, _Life of George Romney_; Rossetti, _Fine
+     Art, chiefly Contemporary_; Ruskin, _Pre-Raphaelitism_;
+     Ruskin, _Art of England_; Sandby, _History of Royal Academy
+     of Arts_; William Bell Scott, _Autobiography_; Scott,
+     _British Landscape Painters_; Stephens, _Catalogue of Prints
+     and Drawings in the British Museum_; Swinburne, _William
+     Blake_; Temple, _Painting in the Queen's Reign_; Van Dyke,
+     _Old English Masters_; Wedmore, _Studies in English Art_;
+     Wilmot-Buxton, _English Painters_; Wright, _Life of Richard
+     Wilson_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--HOGARTH. SHORTLY AFTER MARRIAGE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.]
+
+
+BRITISH PAINTING: It may be premised in a general way, that the
+British painters have never possessed the pictorial cast of mind in
+the sense that the Italians, the French, or the Dutch have possessed
+it. Painting, as a purely pictorial arrangement of line and color, has
+been somewhat foreign to their conception. Whether this failure to
+appreciate painting as painting is the result of geographical
+position, isolation, race temperament, or mental disposition, would be
+hard to determine. It is quite certain that from time immemorable the
+English people have not been lacking in the appreciation of beauty;
+but beauty has appealed to them, not so much through the eye in
+painting and sculpture, as through the ear in poetry and literature.
+They have been thinkers, reasoners, moralists, rather than observers
+and artists in color. Images have been brought to their minds by words
+rather than by forms. English poetry has existed since the days of
+Arthur and the Round Table, but English painting is of comparatively
+modern origin, and it is not wonderful that the original leaning of
+the people toward literature and its sentiment should find its way
+into pictorial representation. As a result one may say in a very
+general way that English painting is more illustrative than creative.
+It endeavors to record things that might be more pertinently and
+completely told in poetry, romance, or history. The conception of
+large art--creative work of the Rubens-Titian type--has not been given
+to the English painters, save in exceptional cases. Their success has
+been in portraiture and landscape, and this largely by reason of
+following the model.
+
+EARLY PAINTING: The earliest decorative art appeared in Ireland. It
+was probably first planted there by missionaries from Italy, and it
+reached its height in the seventh century. In the ninth and tenth
+centuries missal illumination of a Byzantine cast, with local
+modifications, began to show. This lasted, in a feeble way, until the
+fifteenth century, when work of a Flemish and French nature took its
+place. In the Middle Ages there were wall paintings and church
+decorations in England, as elsewhere in Europe, but these have now
+perished, except some fragments in Kempley Church, Gloucestershire,
+and Chaldon Church, Surrey. These are supposed to date back to the
+twelfth century, and there are some remains of painting in Westminster
+Abbey that are said to be of thirteenth and fourteenth-century origin.
+From the fifteenth to the eighteenth century the English people
+depended largely upon foreign painters who came and lived in England.
+Mabuse, Moro, Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Lely, Kneller--all were there
+at different times, in the service of royalty, and influencing such
+local English painters as then lived. The outcome of missal
+illumination and Holbein's example produced in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries a local school of miniature-painters of much
+interest, but painting proper did not begin to rise in England until
+the beginning of the eighteenth century--that century so dead in art
+over all the rest of Europe.
+
+FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Aside from a few inconsequential
+precursors the first English artist of note was Hogarth (1697-1764).
+He was an illustrator, a moralist, and a satirist as well as a
+painter. To point a moral upon canvas by depicting the vices of his
+time was his avowed aim, but in doing so he did not lose sight of
+pictorial beauty. Charm of color, the painter's taste in arrangement,
+light, air, setting, were his in a remarkable degree. He was not
+successful in large compositions, but in small pictures like those of
+the Rake's Progress he was excellent. An early man, a rigid stickler
+for the representation, a keen observer of physiognomy, a satirist
+with a sense of the absurd, he was often warped in his art by the
+necessities of his subject and was sometimes hard and dry in method,
+but in his best work he was quite a perfect painter. He was the first
+of the English school, and perhaps the most original of that school.
+This is quite as true of his technic as of his point of view. Both
+were of his own creation. His subjects have been talked about a great
+deal in the past; but his painting is not to this day valued as it
+should be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--REYNOLDS. COUNTESS SPENCER AND LORD ALTHORP.]
+
+The next man to be mentioned, one of the most considerable of all the
+English school, is Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792). He was a pupil of
+Hudson, but owed his art to many sources. Besides the influence of Van
+Dyck he was for some years in Italy, a diligent student of the great
+Italians, especially the Venetians, Correggio, and the Bolognese
+Eclectics. Sir Joshua was inclined to be eclectic himself, and from
+Italy he brought back a formula of art which, modified by his own
+individuality, answered him for the rest of his life. He was not a man
+of very lofty imagination or great invention. A few figure-pieces,
+after the Titian initiative, came from his studio, but his reputation
+rests upon his many portraits. In portraiture he was often beyond
+criticism, giving the realistic representation with dignity, an
+elevated spirit, and a suave brush. Even here he was more impressive
+by his broad truth of facts than by his artistic feeling. He was not a
+painter who could do things enthusiastically or excite enthusiasm in
+the spectator. There was too much of rule and precedent, too much
+regard for the traditions, for him to do anything strikingly original.
+His brush-work and composition were more learned than individual, and
+his color, though usually good, was oftentimes conventional in
+contrasts. Taking him for all in all he was a very cultivated painter,
+a man to be respected and admired, but he had not quite the original
+spirit that we meet with in Gainsborough.
+
+Reynolds was well-grounded in Venetian color, Bolognese composition,
+Parmese light-and-shade, and paid them the homage of assimilation; but
+if Gainsborough (1727-1788) had such school knowledge he positively
+disregarded it. He disliked all conventionalities and formulas. With a
+natural taste for form and color, and with a large decorative sense,
+he went directly to nature, and took from her the materials which he
+fashioned into art after his own peculiar manner. His celebrated Blue
+Boy was his protest against the conventional rule of Reynolds that a
+composition should be warm in color and light. All through his work we
+meet with departures from academic ways. By dint of native force and
+grace he made rules unto himself. Some of them were not entirely
+successful, and in drawing he might have profited by school training;
+but he was of a peculiar poetic temperament, with a dash of melancholy
+about him, and preferred to work in his own way. In portraiture his
+color was rather cold; in landscape much warmer. His brush-work was as
+odd as himself, but usually effective, and his accessories in
+figure-painting were little more than decorative after-thoughts. Both
+in portraiture and landscape he was one of the most original and most
+English of all the English painters--a man not yet entirely
+appreciated, though from the first ranked among the foremost in
+English art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--GAINSBOROUGH. BLUE BOY.]
+
+Romney (1734-1802), a pupil of Steele, was often quite as masterful a
+portrait-painter as either Reynolds or Gainsborough. He was never an
+artist elaborate in composition, and his best works are bust-portraits
+with a plain background. These he did with much dash and vivacity of
+manner. His women, particularly, are fine in life-like pose and
+winsomeness of mood. He was a very cunning observer, and knew how to
+arrange for grace of line and charm of color.
+
+After Romney came Beechey (1753-1839), Raeburn (1756-1823), Opie
+(1761-1807), and John Hoppner (1759-1810). Then followed Lawrence
+(1769-1830), a mixture of vivacious style and rather meretricious
+method. He was the most celebrated painter of his time, largely
+because he painted nobility to look more noble and grace to look more
+gracious. Fond of fine types, garments, draperies, colors, he was
+always seeking the sparkling rather than the true, and forcing
+artificial effects for the sake of startling one rather than stating
+facts simply and frankly. He was facile with the brush, clever in line
+and color, brilliant to the last degree, but lacking in that
+simplicity of view and method which marks the great mind. His
+composition was rather fine in its decorative effect, and, though his
+lights were often faulty when compared with nature, they were no less
+telling from the stand-point of picture-making. He is much admired by
+artists to-day, and, as a technician, he certainly had more than
+average ability. He was hardly an artist like Reynolds or
+Gainsborough, but among the mediocre painters of his day he shone like
+a star. It is not worth while to say much about his contemporaries.
+Etty (1787-1849) was one of the best of the figure men, but his Greek
+types and classic aspirations grow wearisome on acquaintance; and Sir
+Charles Eastlake (1793-1865), though a learned man in art and doing
+great service to painting as a writer, never was a painter of
+importance.
+
+William Blake (1757-1827) was hardly a painter at all, though he drew
+and colored the strange figures of his fancy and cannot be passed over
+in any history of English art. He was perhaps the most imaginative
+artist of English birth, though that imagination was often disordered
+and almost incoherent. He was not a correct draughtsman, a man with no
+great color-sense, and a workman without technical training; and yet,
+in spite of all this, he drew some figures that are almost sublime in
+their sweep of power. His decorative sense in filling space with lines
+is well shown in his illustrations to the Book of Job. In grace of
+form and feeling of motion he was excellent. Weird and uncanny in
+thought, delving into the unknown, he opened a world of mystery,
+peopled with a strange Apocalyptic race, whose writhing, flowing
+bodies are the epitome of graceful grandeur.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--CONSTABLE. CORN FIELD. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+GENRE-PAINTERS: From Blake to Morland (1763-1804) is a step across
+space from heaven to earth. Morland was a realist of English country
+life, horses at tavern-doors, cattle, pigs. His life was not the most
+correct, but his art in truthfulness of representation, simplicity of
+painting, richness of color and light, was often of a fine quality. As
+a skilful technician he stood quite alone in his time, and seemed to
+show more affinity with the Dutch _genre_-painters than his own
+countrymen. His works are much prized to-day, and were so during the
+painter's life.
+
+Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841) was also somewhat like the Dutch in
+subject, a _genre_-painter, fond of the village fête and depicting it
+with careful detail, a limpid brush, and good textural effects. In
+1825 he travelled abroad, was gone some years, was impressed by
+Velasquez, Correggio, and Rembrandt, and completely changed his style.
+He then became a portrait and historical painter. He never outlived
+the nervous constraint that shows in all his pictures, and his brush,
+though facile within limits, was never free or bold as compared with a
+Dutchman like Steen. In technical methods Landseer (1802-1873), the
+painter of animals, was somewhat like him. That is to say, they both
+had a method of painting surfaces and rendering textures that was more
+"smart" than powerful. There is little solidity or depth to the
+brush-work of either, though both are impressive to the spectator at
+first sight. Landseer knew the habits and the anatomy of animals very
+well, but he never had an appreciation of the brute in the animal,
+such as we see in the pictures of Velasquez or the bronzes of Barye.
+The Landseer animal has too much sentiment about it. The dogs, for
+instance, are generally given those emotions pertinent to humanity,
+and which are only exceptionally true of the canine race. This very
+feature--the tendency to humanize the brute and make it tell a
+story--accounts in large measure for the popularity of Landseer's art.
+The work is perhaps correct enough, but the aim of it is somewhat
+afield from pure painting. It illustrates the literary rather than the
+pictorial. Following Wilkie the most distinguished painter was
+Mulready (1786-1863), whose pictures of village boys are well known
+through engravings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--TURNER. FIGHTING TÉMÉRAIRE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.]
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: In landscape the English have had something to
+say peculiarly their own. It has not always been well said, the
+coloring is often hot, the brush-work brittle, the attention to
+detail inconsistent with the large view of nature, yet such as it is
+it shows the English point of view and is valuable on that account.
+Richard Wilson (1713-1782) was the first landscapist of importance,
+though he was not so English in view as some others to follow. In
+fact, Wilson was nurtured on Claude Lorrain and Joseph Vernet and
+instead of painting the realistic English landscape he painted the
+pseudo-Italian landscape. He began working in portraiture under the
+tutorship of Wright, and achieved some success in this department; but
+in 1749 he went to Italy and devoted himself wholly to landscapes.
+These were of the classic type and somewhat conventional. The
+composition was usually a dark foreground with trees or buildings to
+right and left, an opening in the middle distance leading into the
+background, and a broad expanse of sunset sky. In the foreground he
+usually introduced a few figures for romantic or classic association.
+Considerable elevation of theme and spirit marks most of his pictures.
+There was good workmanship about the skies and the light, and an
+attentive study of nature was shown throughout. His canvases did not
+meet with much success at the time they were painted. In more modern
+days Wilson has been ranked as the true founder of landscape in
+England, and one of the most sincere of English painters.
+
+THE NORWICH SCHOOL: Old Crome (1769-1821), though influenced to some
+extent by Wilson and the Dutch painters, was an original talent,
+painting English scenery with much simplicity and considerable power.
+He was sometimes rasping with his brush, and had a small method of
+recording details combined with mannerisms of drawing and composition,
+and yet gave an out-of-doors feeling in light and air that was
+astonishing. His large trees have truth of mass and accuracy of
+drawing, and his foregrounds are painted with solidity. He was a keen
+student of nature, and drew about him a number of landscape painters
+at Norwich, who formed the Norwich School. Crome was its leader, and
+the school made its influence felt upon English landscape painting.
+Cotman (1782-1842) was the best painter of the group after Crome, a
+man who depicted landscape and harbor scenes in a style that recalls
+Girtin and Turner.
+
+The most complete, full-rounded landscapist in England was John
+Constable (1776-1837). His foreign bias, such as it was, came from a
+study of the Dutch masters. There were two sources from which the
+English landscapists drew. Those who were inclined to the ideal, men
+like Wilson, Calcott (1779-1844), and Turner, drew from the Italian of
+Poussin and Claude; those who were content to do nature in her real
+dress, men like Gainsborough and Constable, drew from the Dutch of
+Hobbema and his contemporaries. A certain sombreness of color and
+manner of composition show in Constable that may be attributed to
+Holland; but these were slight features as compared with the
+originality of the man. He was a close student of nature who painted
+what he saw in English country life, especially about Hampstead, and
+painted it with a knowledge and an artistic sensitiveness never
+surpassed in England. The rural feeling was strong with him, and his
+evident pleasure in simple scenes is readily communicated to the
+spectator. There is no attempt at the grand or the heroic. He never
+cared much for mountains or water, but was fond of cultivated uplands,
+trees, bowling clouds, and torn skies. Bursts of sunlight, storms,
+atmospheres, all pleased him. With detail he was little concerned. He
+saw landscape in large patches of form and color, and so painted it.
+His handling was broad and solid, and at times a little heavy. His
+light was often forced by sharp contrast with shadows, and often his
+pictures appear spotty from isolated glitters of light strewn here and
+there. In color he helped eliminate the brown landscape and
+substituted in its place the green and blue of nature. In atmosphere
+he was excellent. His influence upon English art was impressive, and
+in 1824 the exhibition at Paris of his Hay Wain, together with some
+work by Bonington and Fielding had a decided effect upon the then
+rising landscape school of France. The French realized that nature lay
+at the bottom of Constable's art, and they profited, not by imitating
+Constable, but by studying his nature model.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--BURNE JONES. FLAMMA VESTALIS.]
+
+Bonington (1801-1828) died young, and though of English parents his
+training was essentially French, and he really belonged to the French
+school, an associate of Delacroix. His study of the Venetians turned
+his talent toward warm coloring, in which he excelled. In landscape
+his broad handling was somewhat related to that of Constable, and from
+the fact of their works appearing together in the Salon of 1824 they
+are often spoken of as influencers of the modern French landscape
+painters.
+
+Turner (1775-1851) is the best known name in English art. His
+celebrity is somewhat disproportionate to his real merits, though it
+is impossible to deny his great ability. He was a man learned in all
+the forms of nature and schooled in all the formulas of art; yet he
+was not a profound lover of nature nor a faithful recorder of what
+things he saw in nature, except in his early days. In the bulk of his
+work he shows the traditions of Claude, with additions of his own. His
+taste was classic (he possessed all the knowledge and the belongings
+of the historical landscape), and he delighted in great stretches of
+country broken by sea-shores, rivers, high mountains, fine buildings,
+and illumined by blazing sunlight and gorgeous skies. His composition
+was at times grotesque in imagination; his light was usually
+bewildering in intensity and often unrelieved by shadows of sufficient
+depth; his tone was sometimes faulty; and in color he was not always
+harmonious, but inclined to be capricious, uneven, showing fondness
+for arbitrary schemes of color. The object of his work seems to have
+been to dazzle, to impress with a wilderness of lines and hues, to
+overawe by imposing scale and grandeur. His paintings are impressive,
+decoratively splendid, but they often smack of the stage, and are more
+frequently grandiloquent than grand. His early works, especially in
+water-colors, where he shows himself a follower of Girtin, are much
+better than his later canvases in oil, many of which have changed
+color. The water-colors are carefully done, subdued in color, and true
+in light. From 1802, or thereabouts, to 1830 was his second period,
+in which Italian composition and much color were used. The last twenty
+years of his life he inclined to the _bizarre_, and turned his
+canvases into almost incoherent color masses. He had an artistic
+feeling for composition, linear perspective, and the sweep of horizon
+lines; skies and hills he knew and drew with power; color he
+comprehended only as decoration; and light he distorted for effect.
+Yet with all his shortcomings Turner was an artist to be respected and
+admired. He knew his craft, in fact, knew it so well that he relied
+too much on artificial effects, drew away from the model of nature,
+and finally passed into the extravagant.
+
+THE WATER-COLORISTS: About the beginning of this century a school of
+water-colorists, founded originally by Cozens (1752-1799) and Girtin
+(1775-1802), came into prominence and developed English art in a new
+direction. It began to show with a new force the transparency of
+skies, the luminosity of shadows, the delicacy and grace of clouds,
+the brilliancy of light and color. Cozens and Blake were primitives in
+the use of the medium, but Stothard (1755-1834) employed it with much
+sentiment, charm, and _plein-air_ effect. Turner was quite a master of
+it, and his most permanent work was done with it. Later on, when he
+rather abandoned form to follow color, he also abandoned water-color
+for oils. Fielding (1787-1849) used water-color effectively in giving
+large feeling for space and air, and also for fogs and mists; Prout
+(1783-1852) employed it in architectural drawings of the principal
+cathedrals of Europe; and Cox (1783-1859), Dewint (1784-1849), Hunt
+(1790-1864), Cattermole (1800-1868), Lewis (1805-1876), men whose
+names only can be mentioned, all won recognition with this medium.
+Water-color drawing is to-day said to be a department of art that
+expresses the English pictorial feeling better than any other, though
+this is not an undisputed statement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--LEIGHTON. HELEN OF TROY.]
+
+Perhaps the most important movement in English painting of recent
+times was that which took the name of
+
+PRE-RAPHAELITISM: It was started about 1847, primarily by Rossetti
+(1828-1882), Holman Hunt (1827-), and Sir John Millais (1829-1896),
+associated with several sculptors and poets, seven in all. It was an
+emulation of the sincerity, the loving care, and the scrupulous
+exactness in truth that characterized the Italian painters before
+Raphael. Its advocates, including Mr. Ruskin the critic, maintained
+that after Raphael came that fatal facility in art which seeking grace
+of composition lost truth of fact, and that the proper course for
+modern painters was to return to the sincerity and veracity of the
+early masters. Hence the name pre-Raphaelitism, and the signatures on
+their early pictures, P. R. B., pre-Raphaelite Brother. To this
+attempt to gain the true regardless of the sensuous, was added a
+morbidity of thought mingled with mysticism, a moral and religious
+pose, and a studied simplicity. Some of the painters of the
+Brotherhood went even so far as following the habits of the early
+Italians, seeking retirement from the world and carrying with them a
+Gothic earnestness of air. There is no doubt about the sincerity that
+entered into this movement. It was an honest effort to gain the true,
+the good, and as a result, the beautiful; but it was no less a
+striven-after honesty and an imitated earnestness. The Brotherhood did
+not last for long, the members drifted from each other and began to
+paint each after his own style, and pre-Raphaelitism passed away as it
+had arisen, though not without leaving a powerful stamp on English
+art, especially in decoration.
+
+Rossetti, an Italian by birth though English by adoption, was the type
+of the Brotherhood. He was more of a poet than a painter, took most of
+his subjects from Dante, and painted as he wrote, in a mystical
+romantic spirit. He was always of a retiring disposition and never
+exhibited publicly after he was twenty-eight years of age. As a
+draughtsman he was awkward in line and not always true in modelling.
+In color he was superior to his associates and had considerable
+decorative feeling. The shortcoming of his art, as with that of the
+others of the Brotherhood, was that in seeking truth of detail he lost
+truth of _ensemble_. This is perhaps better exemplified in the works
+of Holman Hunt. He has spent infinite pains in getting the truth of
+detail in his pictures, has travelled in the East and painted types,
+costumes, and scenery in Palestine to gain the historic truths of his
+Scriptural scenes; but all that he has produced has been little more
+than a survey, a report, a record of the facts. He has not made a
+picture. The insistence upon every detail has isolated all the facts
+and left them isolated in the picture. In seeking the minute truths
+he has overlooked the great truths of light, air, and setting. His
+color has always been crude, his values or relations not well
+preserved, and his brush-work hard and tortured.
+
+Millais showed some of this disjointed effect in his early work when
+he was a member of the Brotherhood. He did not hold to his early
+convictions however, and soon abandoned the pre-Raphaelite methods for
+a more conventional style. He has painted some remarkable portraits
+and some excellent figure pieces, and to-day holds high rank in
+English art; but he is an uneven painter, often doing weak,
+harshly-colored work. Moreover, the English tendency to tell stories
+with the paint-brush finds in Millais a faithful upholder. At his best
+he is a strong painter.
+
+Madox Brown (1821-1893) never joined the Brotherhood, though his
+leaning was toward its principles. He had considerable dramatic power,
+with which he illustrated historic scenes, and among contemporary
+artists stood well. The most decided influence of pre-Raphaelitism
+shows in Burne-Jones (1833-), a pupil of Rossetti, and perhaps the
+most original painter now living[18] of the English school. From
+Rossetti he got mysticism, sentiment, poetry, and from association
+with Swinburne and William Morris, the poets, something of the
+literary in art, which he has put forth with artistic effect. He has
+not followed the Brotherhood in its pursuit of absolute truth of fact,
+but has used facts for decorative effect in line and color. His
+ability to fill a given space gracefully, shows with fine results in
+his pictures, as in his stained-glass designs. He is a good
+draughtsman and a rather rich colorist, but in brush-work somewhat
+labored, stippled, and unique in dryness. He is a man of much
+imagination, and his conceptions, though illustrative of literature,
+do not suffer thereby, because his treatment does not sacrifice the
+artistic. He has been the butt of considerable shallow laughter from
+time to time, like many another man of power. Albert Moore
+(1840-1893), a graceful painter of a decorative ideal type, rather
+follows the Rossetti-Burne-Jones example, and is an illustration of
+the influence of pre-Raphaelitism.
+
+[Footnote 18: Died 1898.]
+
+OTHER FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Among the contemporary painters
+Sir Frederick Leighton (1830-1896), President of the Royal Academy, is
+ranked as a fine academic draughtsman, but not a man with the
+color-sense or the brushman's quality in his work. Watts (1818-1904)
+is perhaps an inferior technician, and in color is often sombre and
+dirty; but he is a man of much imagination, occasionally rises to
+grandeur in conception, and has painted some superb portraits, notably
+the one of Walter Crane. Orchardson (1835-) is more of a painter, pure
+and simple, than any of his contemporaries, and is a knowing if
+somewhat mannered colorist. Erskine Nicol (1825-), Faed[19] (1826-),
+Calderon (1833-), Boughton (1834-1905), Frederick Walker (1840-1875),
+Stanhope Forbes, Stott of Oldham and in portraiture Holl (1845-1890)
+and Herkomer may be mentioned.
+
+[Footnote 19: Died 1900.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--WATTS. LOVE AND DEATH.]
+
+LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS: In the department of landscape there
+are many painters in England of contemporary importance. Vicat Cole
+(1833-1893) had considerable exaggerated reputation as a depicter of
+sunsets and twilights; Cecil Lawson (1851-1882) gave promise of great
+accomplishment, and lived long enough to do some excellent work in the
+style of the French Rousseau, mingled with an influence from
+Gainsborough; Alfred Parsons is a little hard and precise in his work,
+but one of the best of the living men; and W. L. Wyllie is a painter
+of more than average merit. In marines Hook (1819-) belongs to the
+older school, and is not entirely satisfactory. The most modern and
+the best sea-painter in England is Henry Moore (1831-1895), a man who
+paints well and gives the large feeling of the ocean with fine color
+qualities. Some other men of mark are Clausen, Brangwyn, Ouless,
+Steer, Bell, Swan, McTaggart, Sir George Reid.
+
+MODERN SCOTCH SCHOOL: There is at the present time a school of art in
+Scotland that seems to have little or no affinity with the
+contemporary school of England. Its painters are more akin to the
+Dutch and the French, and in their coloring resemble, in depth and
+quality, the work of Delacroix. Much of their art is far enough
+removed from the actual appearance of nature, but it is strong in the
+sentiment of color and in decorative effect. The school is represented
+by such men as James Guthrie, E. A. Walton, James Hamilton, George
+Henry, E. A. Hornel, Lavery, Melville, Crawhall, Roche, Lawson,
+McBride, Morton, Reid Murray, Spence, Paterson.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: English art cannot be seen to advantage,
+     outside of England. In the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., and
+     in private collections like that of Mr. William H. Fuller in
+     New York,[20] there are some good examples of the older
+     men--Reynolds, Constable, Gainsborough, and their
+     contemporaries. In the Louvre there are some indifferent
+     Constables and some good Boningtons. In England the best
+     collection is in the National Gallery. Next to this the
+     South Kensington Museum for Constable sketches. Elsewhere
+     the Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Windsor galleries, and
+     the private collections of the late Sir Richard Wallace, the
+     Duke of Westminster, and others. Turner is well represented
+     in the National Gallery, though his oils have suffered
+     through time and the use of fugitive pigments. For the
+     living men, their work may be seen in the yearly exhibitions
+     at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. There are comparatively
+     few English pictures in America.
+
+[Footnote 20: Dispersed, 1898.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+AMERICAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: _American Art Review_; Amory, _Life of
+     Copley_; _The Art Review_; Benjamin, _Contemporary Art in
+     America_; _Century Magazine_; Caffin, _American Painters_;
+     Clement and Hutton, _Artists of the Nineteenth Century_;
+     Cummings, _Historic Annals of the National Academy of
+     Design_; Downes, _Boston Painters_ (_in Atlantic Monthly
+     Vol. 62_); Dunlap, _Arts of Design in United States_; Flagg,
+     _Life and Letters of Washington Allston_; Galt, _Life of
+     West_; Isham, _History of American Painting_; Knowlton, _W.
+     M. Hunt_; Lester, _The Artists of America_; Mason, _Life and
+     Works of Gilbert Stuart_; Perkins, _Copley_; _Scribner's
+     Magazine_; Sheldon, _American Painters_; Tuckerman, _Book of
+     the Artists_; Van Dyke, _Art for Art's Sake_; Van
+     Rensselaer, _Six Portraits_; Ware, _Lectures on Allston_;
+     White, _A Sketch of Chester A. Harding_.
+
+
+AMERICAN ART: It is hardly possible to predicate much about the
+environment as it affects art in America. The result of the climate,
+the temperament, and the mixture of nations in the production or
+non-production of painting in America cannot be accurately computed at
+this early stage of history. One thing only is certain, and that is,
+that the building of a new commonwealth out of primeval nature does
+not call for the production of art in the early periods of
+development. The first centuries in the history of America were
+devoted to securing the necessities of life, the energies of the time
+were of a practical nature, and art as an indigenous product was
+hardly known.
+
+After the Revolution, and indeed before it, a hybrid portraiture,
+largely borrowed from England, began to appear, and after 1825 there
+was an attempt at landscape painting; but painting as an art worthy
+of very serious consideration, came in only with the sudden growth in
+wealth and taste following the War of the Rebellion and the Centennial
+Exhibition of 1876. The best of American art dates from about 1878,
+though during the earlier years there were painters of note who cannot
+be passed over unmentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--WEST. PETER DENYING CHRIST. HAMPTON CT.]
+
+THE EARLY PAINTERS: The "limner," or the man who could draw and color
+a portrait, seems to have existed very early in American history.
+Smibert (1684-1751), a Scotch painter, who settled in Boston, and
+Watson (1685?-1768), another Scotchman, who settled in New Jersey,
+were of this class--men capable of giving a likeness, but little more.
+They were followed by English painters of even less consequence. Then
+came Copley (1737-1815) and West (1738-1820), with whom painting in
+America really began. They were good men for their time, but it must
+be borne in mind that the times for art were not at all favorable.
+West was a man about whom all the infant prodigy tales have been told,
+but he never grew to be a great artist. He was ambitious beyond his
+power, indulged in theatrical composition, was hot in color, and never
+was at ease in handling the brush. Most of his life was passed in
+England, where he had a vogue, was elected President of the Royal
+Academy, and became practically a British painter. Copley was more of
+an American than West, and more of a painter. Some of his portraits
+are exceptionally fine, and his figure pieces, like Charles I.
+demanding the Five Members of House of Commons are excellent in color
+and composition. C. W. Peale (1741-1827), a pupil of both Copley and
+West, was perhaps more fortunate in having celebrated characters like
+Washington for sitters than in his art. Trumbull (1756-1843) preserved
+on canvas the Revolutionary history of America and, all told, did it
+very well. Some of his compositions, portraits, and miniature heads in
+the Yale Art School at New Haven are drawn and painted in a masterful
+manner and are as valuable for their art as for the incidents which
+they portray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--GILBERT STUART. WASHINGTON (UNFINISHED).
+BOSTON MUS.]
+
+Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) was the best portrait-painter of all the
+early men, and his work holds very high rank even in the schools of
+to-day. He was one of the first in American art-history to show
+skilful accuracy of the brush, a good knowledge of color, and some
+artistic sense of dignity and carriage in the sitter. He was not
+always a good draughtsman, and he had a manner of laying on pure
+colors without blending them that sometimes produced sharpness in
+modelling; but as a general rule he painted a portrait with force and
+with truth. He was a pupil of Alexander, a Scotchman, and afterward an
+assistant to West. He settled in Boston, and during his life painted
+most of the great men of his time, including Washington.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--W. M. HUNT. LUTE PLAYER.]
+
+Vanderlyn (1776-1852) met with adversity all his life long, and
+perhaps never expressed himself fully. He was a pupil of Stuart,
+studied in Paris and Italy, and his associations with Aaron Burr made
+him quite as famous as his pictures. Washington Allston (1779-1843)
+was a painter whom the Bostonians have ranked high in their
+art-history, but he hardly deserved such position. Intellectually he
+was a man of lofty and poetic aspirations, but as an artist he never
+had the painter's sense or the painter's skill. He was an aspiration
+rather than a consummation. He cherished notions about ideals, dealt
+in imaginative allegories, and failed to observe the pictorial
+character of the world about him. As a result of this, and poor
+artistic training, his art had too little basis on nature, though it
+was very often satisfactory as decoration. Rembrandt Peale
+(1787-1860), like his father, was a painter of Washington portraits of
+mediocre quality. Jarvis (1780-1834) and Sully (1783-1872) were both
+British born, but their work belongs here in America, where most of
+their days were spent. Sully could paint a very good portrait
+occasionally, though he always inclined toward the weak and the
+sentimental, especially in his portraits of women. Leslie (1794-1859)
+and Newton (1795-1835) were Americans, but, like West and Copley, they
+belong in their art more to England than to America. In all the early
+American painting the British influence may be traced, with sometimes
+an inclination to follow Italy in large compositions.
+
+THE MIDDLE PERIOD in American art dates from 1825 to about 1878. During
+that time, something distinctly American began to appear in the
+landscape work of Doughty (1793-1856) and Thomas Cole (1801-1848). Both
+men were substantially self-taught, though Cole received some
+instruction from a portrait-painter named Stein. Cole during his life
+was famous for his Hudson River landscapes, and for two series of
+pictures called The Voyage of Life and The Course of Empire. The latter
+were really epic poems upon canvas, done with much blare of color and
+literary explanation in the title. His best work was in pure landscape,
+which he pictured with considerable accuracy in drawing, though it was
+faulty in lighting and gaudy in coloring. Brilliant autumn scenes were
+his favorite subjects. His work had the merit of originality and,
+moreover, it must be remembered that Cole was one of the beginners in
+American landscape art. Durand (1796-1886) was an engraver until 1835,
+when he began painting portraits, and afterward developed landscape with
+considerable power. He was usually simple in subject and realistic in
+treatment, with not so much insistence upon brilliant color as some of
+his contemporaries. Kensett (1818-1872) was a follower in landscape of
+the so-called Hudson River School of Cole and others, though he studied
+seven years in Europe. His color was rather warm, his air hazy, and the
+general effect of his landscape that of a dreamy autumn day with poetic
+suggestions. F. E. Church (1826-[A]) was a pupil of Cole, and has
+followed him in seeking the grand and the startling in mountain scenery.
+With Church should be mentioned a number of artists--Hubbard
+(1817-1888), Hill (1829-,) Bierstadt (1830-),[21] Thomas Moran
+(1837-)--who have achieved reputation by canvases of the Rocky Mountains
+and other expansive scenes. Some other painters of smaller canvases
+belong in point of time, and also in spirit, with the Hudson River
+landscapists--painters, too, of considerable merit, as David Johnson
+(1827-), Bristol (1826-), Sandford Gifford (1823-1880), McEntee
+(1828-1891), and Whittredge (1820-), the last two very good portrayers
+of autumn scenes; A. H. Wyant (1836-1892), one of the best and strongest
+of the American landscapists; Bradford (1830-1892) and W. T. Richards
+(1833-), the marine-painters.
+
+[Footnote 21: Died, 1900.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--EASTMAN JOHNSON. CHURNING.]
+
+PORTRAIT, HISTORY, AND GENRE-PAINTERS: Contemporary with the early
+landscapists were a number of figure-painters, most of them
+self-taught, or taught badly by foreign or native artists, and yet men
+who produced creditable work. Chester Harding (1792-1866) was one of
+the early portrait-painters of this century who achieved enough
+celebrity in Boston to be the subject of what was called "the Harding
+craze." Elliott (1812-1868) was a pupil of Trumbull, and a man of
+considerable reputation, as was also  Inman (1801-1846), a portrait
+and _genre_-painter with a smooth, detailed brush. Page (1811-1885),
+Baker (1821-1880), Huntington (1816-), the third President of the
+Academy of Design; Healy (1808-[22]), a portrait-painter of more than
+average excellence; Mount (1807-1868), one of the earliest of American
+_genre_-painters, were all men of note in this middle period.
+
+[Footnote 22: Died 1894.]
+
+Leutze (1816-1868) was a German by birth but an American by adoption,
+who painted many large historical scenes of the American Revolution,
+such as Washington Crossing the Delaware, besides many scenes taken
+from European history. He was a pupil of Lessing at Dusseldorf, and
+had something to do with introducing Dusseldorf methods into America.
+He was a painter of ability, if at times hot in color and dry in
+handling. Occasionally he did a fine portrait, like the Seward in the
+Union League Club, New York.
+
+During this period, in addition to the influence of Dusseldorf and
+Rome upon American art, there came the influence of French art with
+Hicks (1823-1890) and Hunt (1824-1879), both of them pupils of Couture
+at Paris, and Hunt also of Millet at Barbizon. Hunt was the real
+introducer of Millet and the Barbizon-Fontainebleau artists to the
+American people. In 1855 he established himself at Boston, had a large
+number of pupils, and met with great success as a teacher. He was a
+painter of ability, but perhaps his greatest influence was as a
+teacher and an instructor in what was good art as distinguished from
+what was false and meretricious. He certainly was the first painter in
+America who taught catholicity of taste, truth and sincerity in art,
+and art in the artist rather than in the subject. Contemporary with
+Hunt lived George Fuller (1822-1884), a unique man in American art for
+the sentiment he conveyed in his pictures by means of color and
+atmosphere. Though never proficient in the grammar of art he managed
+by blendings of color to suggest certain sentiments regarding light
+and air that have been rightly esteemed poetic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--INNESS. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+THE THIRD PERIOD in American art began immediately after the
+Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. Undoubtedly the display
+of art, both foreign and domestic, at that time, together with the
+national prosperity and great growth of the United States had much to
+do with stimulating activity in painting. Many young men at the
+beginning of this period went to Europe to study in the studios at
+Munich, and later on at Paris. Before 1880 some of them had returned
+to the United States, bringing with them knowledge of the technical
+side of art, which they immediately began to give out to many pupils.
+Gradually the influence of the young men from Munich and Paris spread.
+The Art Students' League, founded in 1875, was incorporated in 1878,
+and the Society of American Artists was established in the same year.
+Societies and painters began to spring up all over the country, and as
+a result there is in the United States to-day an artist body
+technically as well trained and in spirit as progressive as in almost
+any country of Europe. The late influence shown in painting has been
+largely a French influence, and the American artists have been accused
+from time to time of echoing French methods. The accusation is true in
+part. Paris is the centre of all art-teaching to-day, and the
+Americans, in common with the European nations, accept French methods,
+not because they are French, but because they are the best extant. In
+subjects and motives, however, the American school is as original as
+any school can be in this cosmopolitan age.
+
+PORTRAIT, FIGURE, AND GENRE PAINTERS (1878-1894): It must not be
+inferred that the painters now prominent in American art are all young
+men schooled since 1876. On the contrary, some of the best of them are
+men past middle life who began painting long before 1876, and have by
+dint of observation and prolonged study continued with the modern
+spirit. For example, Winslow Homer (1836-) is one of the strongest and
+most original of all the American artists, a man who never had the
+advantage of the highest technical training, yet possesses a feeling
+for color, a dash and verve in execution, an originality in subject,
+and an individuality of conception that are unsurpassed. Eastman
+Johnson (1824-) is one of the older portrait and figure-painters who
+stands among the younger generations without jostling, because he has
+in measure kept himself informed with modern thought and method. He is
+a good, conservative painter, possessed of taste, judgment, and
+technical ability. Elihu Vedder (1836-) is more of a draughtsman than
+a brushman. His color-sense is not acute nor his handling free, but he
+has an imagination which, if somewhat more literary than pictorial, is
+nevertheless very effective. John La Farge (1835-) and Albert Ryder
+(1847-) are both colorists, and La Farge in artistic feeling is a man
+of much power. Almost all of his pictures have fine decorative quality
+in line and color and are thoroughly pictorial.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--WINSLOW HOMER. UNDERTOW.]
+
+The "young men," so-called, though some of them are now on toward
+middle life, are perhaps more facile in brush-work and better trained
+draughtsmen than those we have just mentioned. They have cultivated
+vivacity of style and cleverness in statement, frequently at the
+expense of the larger qualities of art. Sargent (1856-) is, perhaps,
+the most considerable portrait-painter now living, a man of unbounded
+resources technically and fine natural abilities. He is draughtsman,
+colorist, brushman--in fact, almost everything in art that can be
+cultivated. His taste is not yet mature, and he is just now given to
+dashing effects that are more clever than permanent; but that he is a
+master in portraiture has already been abundantly demonstrated. Chase
+(1849-) is also an exceptionally good portrait painter, and he handles
+the _genre_ subject with brilliant color and a swift, sure brush. In
+brush-work he is exceedingly clever, and is an excellent technician
+in almost every respect. Not always profound in matter he generally
+manages to be entertaining in method. Blum (1857-) is well known to
+magazine readers through many black-and-white illustrations. He is
+also a painter of _genre_ subjects taken from many lands, and handles
+his brush with brilliancy and force. Dewing (1851-) is a painter with
+a refined sense not only in form but in color. His pictures are
+usually small, but exquisite in delicacy and decorative charm. Thayer
+(1849-) is fond of large canvases, a man of earnestness, sincerity,
+and imagination, but not a good draughtsman, not a good colorist, and
+a rather clumsy brushman. He has, however, something to say, and in a
+large sense is an artist of uncommon ability. Kenyon Cox (1856-) is a
+draughtsman, with a strong command of line and taste in its
+arrangement. He is not a strong colorist, though in recent work he has
+shown a new departure in this feature that promises well. He renders
+the nude with power, and is fond of the allegorical subject.
+
+The number of good portrait-painters at present working in America is
+quite large, and mention can be made of but a few in addition to those
+already spoken of--Lockwood, McLure Hamilton, Tarbell, Beckwith,
+Benson, Vinton. In figure and _genre_-painting the list of really good
+painters could be drawn out indefinitely, and again mention must be
+confined to a few only, like Simmons, Shirlaw, Smedley, Brush, Millet,
+Hassam, Reid, Wiles, Mowbray, Reinhart, Blashfield, Metcalf, Low, C.
+Y. Turner, Henri.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--WHISTLER. WHITE GIRL.]
+
+Most of the men whose names are given above are resident in America;
+but, in addition, there is a large contingent of young men, American
+born but resident abroad, who can hardly be claimed by the American
+school, and yet belong to it as much as to any school. They are
+cosmopolitan in their art, and reside in Paris, Munich, London, or
+elsewhere, as the spirit moves them. Sargent, the portrait-painter,
+really belongs to this group, as does also Whistler (1834-[23]), one
+of the most artistic of all the moderns. Whistler was long resident in
+London, but has now removed to Paris. He belongs to no school, and
+such art as he produces is peculiarly his own, save a leaven of
+influences from Velasquez and the Japanese. His art is the perfection
+of delicacy, both in color and in line. Apparently very sketchy, it is
+in reality the maximum of effect with the minimum of display. It has
+the pictorial charm of mystery and suggestiveness, and the technical
+effect of light, air, and space. There is nothing better produced in
+modern painting than his present work, and in earlier years he painted
+portraits like that of his mother, which are justly ranked as great
+art. E. A. Abbey (1852-) is better known by his pen-and-ink work than
+by his paintings, howbeit he has done good work in color. He is
+resident in England.
+
+[Footnote 23: Died, 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--SARGENT. "CARNATION LILY, LILY ROSE."]
+
+In Paris there are many American-born painters, who really belong more
+with the French school than the American. Bridgman is an example, and
+Dannat, Alexander Harrison, Hitchcock, McEwen, Melchers, Pearce,
+Julius Stewart, Weeks (1849-1903), J. W. Alexander, Walter Gay,
+Sergeant Kendall have nothing distinctly American about their art. It
+is semi-cosmopolitan with a leaning toward French methods. There are
+also some American-born painters at Munich, like C. F. Ulrich; Shannon
+is in London and Coleman in Italy.
+
+LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS, 1878-1894: In the department of
+landscape America has had since 1825 something distinctly national,
+and has at this day. In recent years the impressionist _plein-air_
+school of France has influenced many painters, and the prismatic
+landscape is quite as frequently seen in American exhibitions as in
+the Paris salons; but American landscape art rather dates ahead of
+French impressionism. The strongest landscapist of our times, George
+Inness (1825-[24]), is not a young man except in his artistic
+aspirations. His style has undergone many changes, yet still remains
+distinctly individual. He has always been an experimenter and an
+uneven painter, at times doing work of wonderful force, and then again
+falling into weakness. The solidity of nature, the mass and bulk of
+landscape, he has shown with a power second to none. He is fond of the
+sentiment of nature's light, air, and color, and has put it forth more
+in his later than in his earlier canvases. At his best, he is one of
+the first of the American landscapists. Among his contemporaries Wyant
+(already mentioned), Swain Gifford,[25] Colman, Gay, Shurtleff, have
+all done excellent work uninfluenced by foreign schools of to-day.
+Homer Martin's[26] landscapes, from their breadth of treatment, are
+popularly considered rather indifferent work, but in reality they are
+excellent in color and poetic feeling.
+
+[Footnote 24: Died 1894.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Died 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Died 1897.]
+
+The "young men" again, in landscape as in the figure, are working in
+the modern spirit, though in substance they are based on the
+traditions of the older American landscape school. There has been much
+achievement, and there is still greater promise in such landscapists
+as Tryon, Platt, Murphy, Dearth, Crane, Dewey, Coffin, Horatio Walker,
+Jonas Lie. Among those who favor the so-called impressionistic view
+are Weir, Twachtman, and Robinson,[27] three landscape-painters of
+undeniable power. In marines Gedney Bunce has portrayed many Venetian
+scenes of charming color-tone, and De Haas[28] has long been known as
+a sea-painter of some power. Quartley, who died young, was brilliant
+in color and broadly realistic. The present marine-painters are
+Maynard, Snell, Rehn, Butler, Chapman.
+
+[Footnote 27: Died 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Died 1895.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--CHASE. ALICE.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: The works of the early American painters
+     are to be seen principally in the Boston Museum of Fine
+     Arts, the Athenæum, Boston Mus., Mass. Hist. Soc., Harvard
+     College, Redwood Library, Newport, Metropolitan Mus., Lenox
+     and Hist. Soc. Libraries, the City Hall, Century Club,
+     Chamber of Commerce, National Acad. of Design, N. Y. In New
+     Haven, at Yale School of Fine Arts, in Philadelphia at
+     Penna. Acad. of Fine Arts, in Rochester Powers's Art Gal.,
+     in Washington Corcoran Gal. and the Capitol.
+
+     The works of the younger men are seen in the exhibitions
+     held from year to year at the Academy of Design, the Society
+     of American Artists, N. Y., in Philadelphia, Chicago,
+     Boston, and elsewhere throughout the country. Some of their
+     works belong to permanent institutions like the Metropolitan
+     Mus., the Pennsylvania Acad., the Art Institute of Chicago,
+     but there is no public collection of pictures that
+     represents American art as a whole. Mr. T. B. Clarke, of New
+     York, had perhaps as complete a collection of paintings by
+     contemporary American artists as anyone.
+
+
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+SCATTERING SCHOOLS AND INFLUENCES IN ART.
+
+
+In this brief history of painting it has been necessary to omit some
+countries and some painters that have not seemed to be directly
+connected with the progress or development of painting in the western
+world. The arts of China and Japan, while well worthy of careful
+chronicling, are somewhat removed from the arts of the other nations
+and from our study. Moreover, they are so positively decorative that
+they should be treated under the head of Decoration, though it is not
+to be denied that they are also realistically expressive. Portugal has
+had some history in the art of painting, but it is slight and so bound
+up with Spanish and Flemish influences that its men do not stand out
+as a distinct school. This is true in measure of Russian painting. The
+early influences with it were Byzantine through the Greek Church. In
+late years what has been produced favors the Parisian or German
+schools.
+
+In Denmark and Scandinavia there has recently come to the front a
+remarkable school of high-light painters, based on Parisian methods,
+that threatens to outrival Paris itself. The work of such men as
+Kröyer, Zorn, Petersen, Liljefors, Thaulow, Björck, Thegerström, is as
+startling in its realism as it is brilliant in its color. The pictures
+in the Scandinavian section of the Paris Exposition of 1889 were a
+revelation of new strength from the North, and this has been somewhat
+increased by the Scandinavian pictures at the World's Fair in 1893. It
+is impossible to predict what will be the outcome of this northern
+art, nor what will be the result of the recent movement here in
+America. All that can be said is that the tide seems to be setting
+westward and northward, though Paris has been the centre of art for
+many years, and will doubtless continue to be the centre for many
+years to come.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+(_For additions to Index see page 289._)
+
+
+Abbate, Niccolò dell', 134.
+
+Abbey, Edwin A., 271.
+
+Aelst, Willem Van, 219.
+
+Aëtion, 30.
+
+Agatharchos, 27.
+
+Aimé-Morot, Nicolas, 167.
+
+Albani, Francesco, 126, 131.
+
+Albertinelli, Mariotto, 90, 97.
+
+Alemannus, Johannes (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Aldegrever, Heinrich, 231.
+
+Alexander, John, 262.
+
+Alexander, J. W., 272.
+
+Aligny, Claude François, 149.
+
+Allegri, Pomponio, 108, 109.
+
+Allori, Cristofano, 127, 131.
+
+Allston, Washington, 263.
+
+Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, 199, 202.
+
+Altdorfer, Albrecht, 231, 239.
+
+Alvarez, Don Luis, 184.
+
+Aman-Jean, E., 165.
+
+Andrea da Firenze, 52, 56.
+
+Angelico, Fra Giovanni, 54, 55, 56, 65, 67.
+
+Anselmi, Michelangelo, 108, 109.
+
+Antiochus Gabinius, 35.
+
+Antonio Veneziano, 52, 56.
+
+Apelles, 30.
+
+Apollodorus, 27, 28.
+
+Aranda, Luis Jiminez, 185.
+
+Aretino, Spinello, 53, 56.
+
+Aristides, 29.
+
+Artz, D. A. C., 220.
+
+Aubert, Ernest Jean, 155.
+
+
+Backer, Jacob, 210.
+
+Backhuisen, Ludolf, 218, 222.
+
+Bagnacavallo, Bartolommeo Ramenghi, 105, 109.
+
+Baker, George A., 266.
+
+Baldovinetti, Alessio, 63, 71.
+
+Baldung, Hans, 230, 239.
+
+Bargue, Charles, 167.
+
+Baroccio, Federigo, 125, 130.
+
+Bartolo, Taddeo di, 54, 56.
+
+Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), 90, 92, 95, 97.
+
+Basaiti, Marco, 83, 85.
+
+Bassano, Francesco, 119-121.
+
+Bassano, Jacopo, 119-121.
+
+Bastert, N., 221.
+
+Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 166.
+
+Baudry, Paul, 163.
+
+Beccafumi, Domenico, 103, 108.
+
+Becerra, Gaspar, 177, 185.
+
+Beckwith, J. Carroll, 270.
+
+Beechey, Sir William, 246.
+
+Beham, Barthel, 231.
+
+Beham, Sebald, 231.
+
+Bellini, Gentile, 81, 85, 94.
+
+Bellini, Giovanni, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 85, 112-115, 214, 229.
+
+Bellini, Jacopo, 79, 81, 85.
+
+Boltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, 102.
+
+Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, 165.
+
+Benson, Frank W., 270.
+
+Béraud, Jean, 170.
+
+Berchem, Claas Pietersz, 217, 222.
+
+Berne-Bellecour, Étienne Prosper, 167.
+
+Berrettini, Pietro (il Cortona), 127, 131.
+
+Berruguete, Alonzo, 176, 185.
+
+Bertin, Jean Victor, 149, 157.
+
+Besnard, Paul Albert, 170.
+
+Bierstadt, Albert, 265.
+
+Billet, Pierre, 161.
+
+Bink, Jakob, 231.
+
+Bissolo, Pier Francesco, 83, 85.
+
+Björck, O., 276.
+
+Blake, William, 247, 254.
+
+Blashfield, Edwin H., 270.
+
+Blommers, B. J., 220.
+
+Blum, Robert, 270.
+
+Böcklin, Arnold, 238, 240.
+
+Bol, Ferdinand, 210, 221.
+
+Boldini, Giuseppe, 130, 131.
+
+Bonfiglio, Benedetto, 66, 67, 72.
+
+Bonheur, Auguste, 160.
+
+Bonheur, Rosa, 160.
+
+Bonifazio Pitati, 119-121.
+
+Bonington, Richard Parkes, 157, 252.
+
+Bonnat, Léon, 164.
+
+Bonsignori, Francesco, 76, 84.
+
+Bonvin, François, 168.
+
+Bordone, Paris, 119, 121.
+
+Borgognone, Ambrogio, 71, 72.
+
+Bosboom, J., 220.
+
+Bosch, Hieronymus, 205, 221.
+
+Both, Jan, 217, 222.
+
+Botticelli, Sandro, 61, 63, 71.
+
+Boucher, François, 141, 145, 146.
+
+Boudin, Eugène, 171.
+
+Boughton, George H., 258.
+
+Bouguereau, W. Adolphe, 162, 163.
+
+Boulanger, Hippolyte, 200.
+
+Boulanger, Louis, 153.
+
+Bourdichon, Jean, 133.
+
+Bourdon, Sebastien, 138.
+
+Bouts, Dierich, 190, 191, 201, 205.
+
+Bradford, William, 265.
+
+Breton, Jules Adolphe, 161.
+
+Breughel, 193, 201.
+
+Bridgman, Frederick A., 272.
+
+Bril, Paul, 193, 201, 214, 222.
+
+Bristol, John B., 265.
+
+Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo), il, 124, 131.
+
+Brouwer, Adriaan, 198, 202.
+
+Brown, Ford Madox, 257.
+
+Brown, John Lewis, 170,
+
+Brush, George D. F., 270.
+
+Bugiardini, Giuliano di Piero, 91, 97.
+
+Bunce, W. Gedney, 273.
+
+Burkmair, Hans, 232, 233, 239.
+
+Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 257.
+
+Butler, Howard Russell, 274.
+
+
+Cabanel, Alexandre, 162, 163.
+
+Caillebotte, 170.
+
+Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, 258.
+
+Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, 251.
+
+Calvaert, Denis, 192.
+
+Campin, Robert, 189.
+
+Canaletto (Antonio Canale), il, 129, 131.
+
+Cano, Alonzo, 181, 185.
+
+Caracci, Agostino, 125-127, 130.
+
+Caracci, Annibale, 125-127, 130, 182.
+
+Caracci, Ludovico, 125-127, 130.
+
+Caravaggio, Michelangelo Amerighi da, 127, 128, 131, 136, 181, 182.
+
+Carolus-Duran, Charles Auguste Emil, 164.
+
+Caroto, Giovanni Francisco, 76, 84, 120, 121.
+
+Carpaccio, Vittore, 77, 82, 83, 85.
+
+Carrière, E., 165.
+
+Carstens, Asmus Jacob, 236.
+
+Cassatt, Mary, 170.
+
+Castagno, Andrea del, 63, 71, 176.
+
+Castro, Juan Sanchez de, 180, 185.
+
+Catena, Vincenzo di Biagio, 83, 85.
+
+Cattermole, George, 254.
+
+Cavazzola, Paolo (Moranda), 120, 121.
+
+Cazin, Jean Charles, 159.
+
+Cespedes, Pablo de, 180, 185.
+
+Champaigne, Philip de, 139.
+
+Champmartin, Callande de, 153.
+
+Chapman, Carlton T., 274.
+
+Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon, 142.
+
+Chase, William M., 269.
+
+Chintreuil, Antoine, 159.
+
+Church, Frederick E., 264.
+
+Cima da Conegliano, Giov. Battista, 82, 85.
+
+Cimabue, Giovanni, 51, 54, 56.
+
+Clays, Paul Jean, 200, 202.
+
+Clouet, Francois, 134.
+
+Clouet, Jean, 134.
+
+Cocxie, Michiel van, 192, 201.
+
+Coello, Claudio, 179, 185.
+
+Coffin, William A., 273.
+
+Cogniet, Leon, 153.
+
+Cole, Vicat, 258.
+
+Cole, Thomas, 264.
+
+Coleman, C. C., 272.
+
+Colman, Samuel, 273.
+
+Constable, John, 157, 216, 251-253, 259.
+
+Copley, John Singleton, 261, 264.
+
+Coques, Gonzales, 198, 202.
+
+Cormon, Fernand, 165.
+
+Cornelis van Haarlem, 206, 221.
+
+Cornelius, Peter von, 130, 236, 237, 239.
+
+Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, 157, 159, 221.
+
+Correggio (Antonio Allegri), il, 101, 105-109, 110, 124, 125, 177, 180,
+     245, 249.
+
+Cossa, Francesco, 69, 72.
+
+Costa, Lorenzo, 69, 72, 104, 107.
+
+Cotman, John Sell, 251.
+
+Cottet, 168.
+
+Courbet, G., 162, 165, 166, 199, 219.
+
+Cousin, Jean, 134, 135.
+
+Couture, Thomas, 155, 266.
+
+Cozens, John Robert, 254.
+
+Cox, David, 254.
+
+Cox, Kenyon, 270.
+
+Cranach (the Elder), Lucas, 199, 234, 235, 239.
+
+Cranach (the Younger), Lucas, 235, 239.
+
+Crane, R. Bruce, 273.
+
+Crawhall, Joseph, 259.
+
+Crayer, Kasper de, 196, 201.
+
+Credi, Lorenzo di, 64, 65, 71.
+
+Cristus, Peter, 189, 201.
+
+Crivelli, Carlo, 80, 81, 84.
+
+Crome, John (Old Crome), 251.
+
+Cuyp, Aelbert, 217, 218, 222.
+
+
+Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal A. J., 168.
+
+Damoye, Pierre Emmanuel, 159.
+
+Damophilos, 35.
+
+Dannat, William T., 272.
+
+Dantan, Joseph Édouard, 168.
+
+Daubigny, Charles François, 158.
+
+David, Gheeraert, 191, 192, 201.
+
+David, Jacques Louis, 130, 147-152, 153, 156, 162, 183, 198, 219.
+
+Dearth, Henry J., 273.
+
+Decamps, A. G., 153.
+
+Degas, 170.
+
+De Haas, M. F. H., 273.
+
+Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor E., 151, 152, 160, 162, 253, 259.
+
+Delaroche, Hippolyte (Paul), 153, 154, 199.
+
+Delaunay, Jules Elie, 165.
+
+De Neuville, Alphonse Maria, 167.
+
+De Nittis. See "Nittis."
+
+Denner, Balthasar, 236, 239.
+
+Detaille, Jean Baptiste Édouard, 167.
+
+Devéria, Eugene, 153.
+
+Dewey, Charles Melville, 273.
+
+Dewing, Thomas W., 270.
+
+Dewint, Peter, 254.
+
+Diana, Benedetto, 84, 85.
+
+Diaz de la Pena, Narciso Virgilio, 158.
+
+Diepenbeeck, Abraham van, 196, 201.
+
+Dionysius, 35.
+
+Dolci, Carlo, 126, 131, 182.
+
+Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), 126, 130.
+
+Domingo, J., 185.
+
+Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni di Lutero), 104, 107, 108.
+
+Dou, Gerard, 210, 221.
+
+Doughty, Thomas, 264.
+
+Du Breuil, Toussaint, 134.
+
+Duccio di Buoninsegna, 53, 56, 65.
+
+Duez, Ernest Ange, 168.
+
+Du Jardin, Karel, 217, 222.
+
+Dupré, Julien, 166.
+
+Dupré, Jules, 158.
+
+Durand, Asher Brown, 264.
+
+Dürer, Albrecht, 205, 229-235, 239.
+
+
+Eastlake, Sir Charles, 247.
+
+Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den, 210, 221.
+
+Elliott, Charles Loring, 265.
+
+Elzheimer, Adam, 235, 239.
+
+Engelbrechsten, Cornelis, 205.
+
+Etty, William, 247.
+
+Euphranor, 29.
+
+Eupompos, 28.
+
+Everdingen, Allart van, 215, 222.
+
+Eyck, Hubert van, 188, 201.
+
+Eyck, Jan van, 84, 174, 188-190, 193, 201, 204, 205.
+
+
+Fabius Pictor, 35.
+
+Fabriano, Gentile da, 54, 55, 56, 66, 74, 75, 79, 81.
+
+Fabritius, Karel, 210, 213, 221.
+
+Faed, Thomas, 258.
+
+Fantin-Latour, Henri, 168.
+
+Favretto, Giacomo, 130, 131.
+
+Ferrara, Gaudenzio, 102, 108.
+
+Fielding, Anthony V. D. Copley, 254.
+
+Filippino. See Lippi.
+
+Fiore, Jacobello del, 79, 84.
+
+Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 66, 72.
+
+Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, 154.
+
+Flinck, Govaert, 210, 221.
+
+Floris, Franz, 192, 201.
+
+Foppa, Vincenzo, 71, 72, 101.
+
+Forain, J. L., 170.
+
+Forbes, Stanhope, 258.
+
+Fortuny, Mariano, 130, 183-185.
+
+Fouquet, Jean, 133.
+
+Fragonard, Jean Honoré, 141.
+
+Français, François Louis, 159.
+
+Francesca, Piero della, 66, 72, 75.
+
+Francia, Francesco (Raibolini), 69, 72, 105, 107.
+
+Franciabigio (Francesco di Cristofano Bigi), 92, 97.
+
+Francken, 192.
+
+Fredi, Bartolo di, 54, 56.
+
+Fréminet, Martin, 135.
+
+Frere, T., 154.
+
+Friant, Emile, 168.
+
+Fromentin, E., 154.
+
+Fuller, George, 266.
+
+Fyt, Jan, 196, 201.
+
+
+Gaddi, Agnolo, 52, 56.
+
+Gaddi, Taddeo, 52, 56.
+
+Gainsborough, T., 245-247, 259.
+
+Gallait, Louis, 199.
+
+Garofolo (Benvenuto Tisi), il, 104, 107, 109.
+
+Gay, Edward, 273.
+
+Gay, Walter, 272.
+
+Geldorp, Gortzius, 192.
+
+Gérard, Baron François Pascal, 148.
+
+Géricault, Jean Louis, A. T., 151.
+
+Gérôme, Jean Léon, 155, 162, 163, 167, 184.
+
+Gervex, Henri, 168.
+
+Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 63, 64, 71, 92, 176.
+
+Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo, 91, 97.
+
+Giampietrino (Giovanni Pedrini), 102, 108.
+
+Gifford, Sandford, 265.
+
+Gifford, R. Swain, 273.
+
+Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), il, 83, 94, 112-121, 128.
+
+Giordano, Luca, 128, 131, 183.
+
+Giotto di Bondone, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 73.
+
+Giottino (Tommaso di Stefano), 52, 56.
+
+Giovanni da Milano, 52, 56.
+
+Giovanni da Udine, 97, 98
+
+Girodet de Roussy, Anne Louis, 148.
+
+Girtin, Thomas, 254.
+
+Giulio (Pippi), Romano, 96, 98, 120,  136.
+
+Gleyre, Marc Charles Gabriel, 154.
+
+Goes, Hugo van der, 190, 201.
+
+Gorgasos, 35.
+
+Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 183,  185.
+
+Goyen, Jan van, 214, 218, 222.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 63, 65, 71.
+
+Granacci, Francesco, 91, 97.
+
+Grandi, Ercole di Giulio, 69, 72.
+
+Greuze, Jean Baptiste, 142.
+
+Gros, Baron Antoine Jean, 149, 151, 152.
+
+Grünewald, Matthias, 234
+
+Guardi, Francesco, 129, 131.
+
+Guercino (Giov. Fran. Barbiera), il, 126, 131.
+
+Guérin, Pierre Narcisse, 148.
+
+Guido Reni, 126, 130, 136.
+
+Guido da Sienna, 53, 56.
+
+Guthrie, James, 259.
+
+
+Hals, Franz (the Younger), 207, 211, 212, 221.
+
+Hamilton, James, 259.
+
+Hamilton, McLure, 270.
+
+Hamon, Jean Louis, 155.
+
+Harding, Chester, 265.
+
+Harpignies, Henri, 159.
+
+Hassam, Childe, 270.
+
+Harrison, T. Alexander, 272.
+
+Healy, George P. A., 266.
+
+Hébert, Antoine Auguste Ernest, 164.
+
+Heem, Jan van, 218.
+
+Heemskerck, Marten van, 206, 221.
+
+Helst, Bartholomeus van der, 210, 221.
+
+Henner, Jean Jacques, 164.
+
+Henry, George, 259.
+
+Herkomer, Hubert, 258.
+
+Herrera, Francisco de, 177, 180, 185.
+
+Heyden, Jan van der, 218, 222.
+
+Hicks, Thomas, 266.
+
+Hill, Thomas, 265.
+
+Hitchcock, George, 272.
+
+Hobbema, Meindert, 215, 216, 222, 251.
+
+Hogarth, William, 243, 244.
+
+Holbein (the Elder), Hans, 233, 239.
+
+Holbein (the Younger), Hans, 134. 229-234, 239, 243.
+
+Holl, Frank, 258.
+
+Homer, Winslow, 268.
+
+Hondecoeter, Melchior d', 219, 222.
+
+Hooghe, Pieter de, 199, 213, 221.
+
+Hook, James Clarke, 259.
+
+Hoppner, John, 246.
+
+Hornell, E. A., 259.
+
+Hubbard, Richard W., 265.
+
+Huet, Paul, 159.
+
+Hunt, Holman, 255, 256.
+
+Hunt, William Henry, 254.
+
+Hunt, William Morris, 266.
+
+Huntington, Daniel, 266.
+
+Huysum, Jan van, 219-222.
+
+
+Imola, Innocenza da (Francucci), 97, 98, 105.
+
+Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, 148, 152-154, 161, 162.
+
+Inman, Henry, 265.
+
+Inness, George, 273.
+
+Israels, Jozef, 219, 220.
+
+
+Jacque, Charles, 159.
+
+Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham, 196, 201.
+
+Jarvis, John Wesley, 263.
+
+Joannes, Juan de, 182, 185.
+
+Johnson, David, 265.
+
+Johnson, Eastman, 268.
+
+Jongkind, 221.
+
+Jordaens, Jacob, 196.
+
+Justus van Ghent, 190, 201.
+
+
+Kalf, Willem, 219.
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 236, 239.
+
+Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 237, 239.
+
+Kendall, Sergeant, 272.
+
+Kensett, John F., 264.
+
+Kever, J. S. H., 221.
+
+Keyser, Thomas de, 207, 221.
+
+Klinger, Max, 238.
+
+Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 243.
+
+Koninck, Philip de, 210, 221.
+
+Kröyer, Peter S., 276.
+
+Kuehl, G., 238.
+
+Kulmbach, Hans von, 230, 239.
+
+Kunz, 227, 239.
+
+
+La Farge, John, 268.
+
+Lancret, Nicolas, 141.
+
+Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, 249.
+
+Largillière, Nicolas, 139.
+
+Lastman, Pieter, 207.
+
+Laurens, Jean Paul, 165.
+
+Lavery, John, 259.
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 247.
+
+Lawson, Cecil Gordon, 258.
+
+Lawson, John, 259.
+
+Lebrun, Charles, 138, 139.
+
+Lebrun, Marie Elizabeth Louise Vigée, 149.
+
+Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, 164.
+
+Legros, Alphonse, 161.
+
+Leibl, Wilhelm, 238, 240.
+
+Leighton, Sir Frederick, 258.
+
+Leloir, Alexandre Louis, 167.
+
+Lely, Sir Peter, 243.
+
+Lenbach, Franz, 238, 239.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 64, 66, 71, 90, 92, 95, 99-103, 107, 108, 134.
+
+Lerolle, Henri, 161.
+
+Leslie, Robert Charles, 264.
+
+Lessing, Karl Friedrich, 266.
+
+Le Sueur, Eustache, 138.
+
+Lethière, Guillaume Guillon, 148.
+
+Leutze, Emanuel, 266.
+
+Lewis, John Frederick, 254.
+
+Leyden, Lucas van, 205, 221.
+
+Leys, Baron Jean Auguste Henri, 199, 202.
+
+L'hermitte, Léon Augustin, 166.
+
+Liberale da Verona, 76, 84, 120.
+
+Libri, Girolamo dai, 120, 121.
+
+Liebermann, Max, 238.
+
+Liljefors, Bruno, 276.
+
+Lippi, Fra Filippo, 63, 71, 74.
+
+Lippi, Filippino, 63, 71.
+
+Lockwood, Wilton, 270.
+
+Lombard, Lambert, 192.
+
+Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56.
+
+Lorenzetti, Pietro, 54, 56, 65.
+
+Lorrain, Claude (Gellée), 136, 150, 217, 250, 251, 253.
+
+Lotto, Lorenzo, 118, 121.
+
+Low, Will H., 270.
+
+Luini, Bernardino, 101, 108.
+
+
+Mabuse, Jan (Gossart) van, 192, 201, 206, 243.
+
+McBride, A., 259.
+
+McEntee, Jervis, 265.
+
+McEwen, Walter, 272.
+
+Madrazo, Raimundo de, 184, 185.
+
+Maes, Nicolaas, 210, 221.
+
+Makart, Hans, 238, 240.
+
+Manet, Édouard, 168, 169, 170.
+
+Mansueti, Giovanni, 84, 85.
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, 61, 74, 76, 77, 81, 84, 107, 229, 234.
+
+Maratta, Carlo, 127, 131.
+
+Marconi, Rocco, 118, 119, 121.
+
+Marilhat, P., 154.
+
+Maris, James, 220.
+
+Maris, Matthew, 220.
+
+Maris, Willem, 221.
+
+Martin, Henri, 168.
+
+Martin, Homer, 273.
+
+Martino, Simone di, 54, 56.
+
+Masaccio, Tommaso, 54, 61, 71, 92, 93, 95.
+
+Masolino, Tommaso Fini, 61, 71.
+
+Massys, Quentin, 191, 192, 201, 234.
+
+Master of the Lyversberg Passion, 227.
+
+Mauve, Anton, 221.
+
+Mazo, Juan Bautista Martinez del, 179, 185.
+
+Mazzolino, Ludovico, 105, 109.
+
+Maynard, George W., 274.
+
+Meer of Delft, Jan van der, 213, 221.
+
+Meire, Gerard van der, 190, 201.
+
+Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, 167, 184.
+
+Meister, Stephen (Lochner), 225.
+
+Meister, Wilhelm, 222.
+
+Melchers, Gari, 272.
+
+Melozzo da Forli, 67, 72.
+
+Melville, Arthur, 259.
+
+Memling, Hans, 190, 201.
+
+Memmi, Lippo, 54, 56.
+
+Mengs, Raphael, 236, 239.
+
+Menzel, Adolf, 238, 239.
+
+Mesdag, Hendrik Willem, 221.
+
+Messina, Antonello da, 83, 84, 85, 102, 113.
+
+Metcalf, Willard L., 270.
+
+Metrodorus, 35.
+
+Metsu, Gabriel, 167, 211, 221.
+
+Mettling, V. Louis, 168.
+
+Michael Angelo (Buonarroti), 62, 90, 92, 97, 99, 112, 116, 122, 123-126,
+     144, 176, 181, 192, 206.
+
+Michallon, Achille Etna, 149.
+
+Michel, Georges, 159.
+
+Michetti, Francesco Paolo, 130, 131.
+
+Mierevelt, Michiel Jansz, 206, 221.
+
+Mieris, Franz van, 211, 221.
+
+Mignard, Pierre, 139.
+
+Millais, Sir John, 255, 256, 257.
+
+Millet, Francis D., 270.
+
+Millet, Jean Francois, 160-162, 165, 166, 219, 266.
+
+Miranda, Juan Carreño de, 179, 185.
+
+Molyn (the Elder), Pieter de, 215, 222.
+
+Monet, Claude, 170, 171.
+
+Montagna, Bartolommeo, 77, 84.
+
+Montenard, Frederic, 171.
+
+Moore, Albert, 258.
+
+Moore, Henry, 259.
+
+Morales, Luis de, 177, 185.
+
+Moran, Thomas, 265.
+
+Morelli, Domenico, 130, 131.
+
+Moretto (Alessandro Buonvicino) il, 120, 121.
+
+Morland, George, 248.
+
+Moro, Antonio, 177, 192, 201, 243.
+
+Moroni, Giovanni Battista, 120, 121.
+
+Morton, Thomas, 259.
+
+Mostert, Jan, 191, 201, 205.
+
+Mount, William S., 266.
+
+Mowbray, H. Siddons, 270.
+
+Mulready, William, 249.
+
+Munkacsy, Mihaly, 238, 240.
+
+Murillo, Bartolomé Estéban, 173, 180-182, 185.
+
+Murphy, J. Francis, 273.
+
+
+Navarette, Juan Fernandez, 177, 185.
+
+Navez, Francois, 199, 200, 202.
+
+Neer, Aart van der, 215, 222.
+
+Nelli, Ottaviano, 65, 71.
+
+Netscher, Kasper, 211, 221.
+
+Neuchatel, Nicolaus, 192.
+
+Neuhuys, Albert, 220.
+
+Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 264.
+
+Niccolo (Alunno) da Foligno, 65, 66, 72.
+
+Nicol, Erskine, 258.
+
+Nikias, 29.
+
+Nikomachus, 29.
+
+Nittis, Giuseppe de, 130, 131.
+
+Nono, Luigi, 130.
+
+Noort, Adam van, 195, 196, 201.
+
+
+Oggiono, Marco da, 102, 108.
+
+Opie, John, 246.
+
+Orcagna (Andrea di Cione), 52, 56.
+
+Orchardson, William Quiller, 258.
+
+Orley, Barent van, 192.
+
+Ostade, Adriaan van, 211, 212, 221.
+
+Ouwater, Aalbert van, 204.
+
+Overbeck, Johann Friedrich, 130, 236, 239.
+
+
+Pacchia, Girolamo della, 103, 108.
+
+Pacchiarotta, Giacomo, 103, 108.
+
+Pacheco, Francisco, 178, 180, 185.
+
+Pacuvius, 35.
+
+Padovanino (Ales. Varotari), il, 128, 131.
+
+Page, William, 266.
+
+Palma (il Vecchio), Jacopo, 118, 119, 121.
+
+Palma (il Giovine), Jacopo, 128, 131.
+
+Palmaroli, Vincente, 184.
+
+Parmigianino (Francesco Mazzola), il, 108, 109, 135.
+
+Pamphilos, 28.
+
+Panetti, Domenico, 104.
+
+Paolino (Fra) da Pistoja, 90, 97.
+
+Parrhasios, 28.
+
+Parsons, Alfred, 259.
+
+Pater, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 141.
+
+Paterson, James, 259.
+
+Patinir, Joachim, 191.
+
+Pausias, 28.
+
+Peale, Charles Wilson, 261.
+
+Peale, Rembrandt, 263.
+
+Pearce, Charles Sprague, 272.
+
+Pelouse, Léon Germaine, 159.
+
+Pencz, Georg, 231.
+
+Penni, Giovanni Francesco, 96, 98.
+
+Péreal, Jean, 133.
+
+Perino del Vaga, 94, 97, 98, 180.
+
+Perugino, Pietro (Vanucci), 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 95.
+
+Peruzzi, Baldassare, 103, 108.
+
+Petersen, Eilif, 276.
+
+Piero di Cosimo, 65, 71.
+
+Piloty, Carl Theodor von, 237, 239.
+
+Pinturricchio, Bernardino, 68, 70, 72.
+
+Piombo, Sebastiano del, 94, 98, 182.
+
+Pisano, Vittore (Pisanello), 73, 75, 79, 84.
+
+Pissarro, Camille, 170.
+
+Pizzolo, Niccolo, 75, 84.
+
+Platt, Charles A., 273.
+
+Plydenwurff, Wilhelm, 228.
+
+Poggenbeek, George, 221.
+
+Pointelin, 159.
+
+Pollajuolo, Antonio del, 63, 71.
+
+Polygnotus, 26.
+
+Pontormo, Jacopo (Carrucci), 92, 97, 124.
+
+Poorter, Willem de, 210, 221.
+
+Pordenone, Giovanni Ant., 119, 121.
+
+Potter, Paul, 216, 222.
+
+Pourbus, Peeter, 192, 201.
+
+Poussin, Gaspard (Dughet), 136.
+
+Poussin, Nicolas, 126, 136, 137, 150, 251.
+
+Pradilla, Francisco, 184.
+
+Previtali, Andrea, 83, 85.
+
+Primaticcio, Francesco, 97, 98, 134.
+
+Protogenes, 30.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 254.
+
+Prudhon, Pierre Paul, 147.
+
+Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 164.
+
+
+QUARTLEY, Arthur, 274.
+
+
+RAEBURN, Sir Henry, 246.
+
+Raffaelli, Jean François, 170.
+
+Raphael Sanzio, 62, 67, 90, 94, 98, 99, 103, 124, 125, 149, 182, 192,
+     206, 255.
+
+Ravesteyn, Jan van, 207, 221.
+
+Regnault, Henri, 165.
+
+Regnault, Jean Baptiste, 147, 148.
+
+Rehn, F. K. M., 274.
+
+Reid, Robert, 270.
+
+Reid-Murray, J., 259.
+
+Reinhart, Charles S., 270.
+
+Rembrandt van Ryn, 148, 196, 204, 207-213, 221, 249.
+
+René of Anjou, 133.
+
+Renoir, 170.
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 212, 244-247.
+
+Ribalta, Francisco de, 182, 185.
+
+Ribera, Roman, 185.
+
+Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), José di, 128, 168, 178, 182, 183, 185.
+
+Ribot, Augustin Theodule, 168.
+
+Richards, William T., 265.
+
+Rico, Martin, 185.
+
+Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 139.
+
+Rincon, Antonio, 176, 185.
+
+Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas, 153.
+
+Robie, Jean, 200.
+
+Robinson, Theodore, 273.
+
+Roche, Alex., 259.
+
+Rochegrosse, Georges, 165.
+
+Roelas, Juan de las, 180, 181, 185.
+
+Roll, Alfred Philippe, 170.
+
+Romanino, Girolamo Bresciano, 120, 121.
+
+Rombouts, Theodoor, 196, 201.
+
+Romney, George, 246.
+
+Rondinelli, Niccolo, 84, 85.
+
+Rosa, Salvator, 128, 131.
+
+Rosselli, Cosimo, 63, 71, 90.
+
+Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante, 255, 256, 257.
+
+Rosso, il, 134.
+
+Rottenhammer, Johann, 235, 239.
+
+Rousseau, Théodore, 158, 160, 162.
+
+Roybet, Ferdinand, 168.
+
+Rubens, Peter Paul, 135, 179, 193-201, 210, 243.
+
+Ruisdael, Jacob van, 215, 216, 222.
+
+Ruisdael, Solomon van, 215, 222.
+
+Ryder, Albert, 268.
+
+
+SABBATINI (Andrea da Salerno), 97, 98.
+
+St. Jan, Geertjen van, 205.
+
+Salaino (Andrea Sala), il, 101, 108.
+
+Salviati, Francesco Rossi, 124, 130.
+
+Sanchez-Coello, Alonzo, 177, 185.
+
+Santi, Giovanni, 67, 72.
+
+Sanzio. See "Raphael."
+
+Sargent, John S., 269, 270.
+
+Sarto, Andrea (Angeli) del, 91, 97, 101, 105, 134.
+
+Sassoferrato (Giov. Battista Salvi), il, 126, 131.
+
+Savoldo, Giovanni Girolamo, 120, 121.
+
+Schadow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, 236, 237, 239.
+
+Schaffner, Martin, 231, 239.
+
+Schalcken, Godfried, 211, 221.
+
+Schäufelin, Hans Leonhardt, 230, 239.
+
+Scheffer, Ary, 153.
+
+Schöngauer, Martin, 231, 232, 233, 239.
+
+Schnorr von Karolsfeld, J., 237, 239.
+
+Schüchlin, Hans, 231.
+
+Scorel, Jan van, 192, 206, 221.
+
+Segantini, Giovanni, 130.
+
+Semitecolo, Niccolo, 79, 84.
+
+Serapion, 35.
+
+Sesto, Cesare da, 102, 108.
+
+Shannon, J. J., 272.
+
+Shirlaw, Walter, 270.
+
+Shurtleff, Roswell M., 273.
+
+Sigalon, Xavier, 153.
+
+Signorelli, Luca, 66, 67, 72, 93.
+
+Simmons, Edward E., 270.
+
+Simonetti, 130.
+
+Sisley, Alfred, 171.
+
+Smedley, William T., 270.
+
+Smibert, John, 261.
+
+Snell, Henry B., 274.
+
+Snyders, Franz, 196, 201.
+
+Sodoma (Giov. Ant. Bazzi), il, 103, 108.
+
+Solario, Andrea (da Milano), 102, 108.
+
+Sopolis, 35.
+
+Sorolla, Joaquin, 185.
+
+Spagna, Lo (Giovanni di Pietro), 69, 72.
+
+Spence, Harry, 259.
+
+Spranger, Bartholomeus, 192.
+
+Squarcione, Francesco, 73, 74, 75, 81.
+
+Starnina, Gherardo, 54, 56.
+
+Steele, Edward, 246.
+
+Steen, Jan, 211, 212, 249.
+
+Steenwyck, Hendrik van, 206, 221.
+
+Stevens, Alfred, 200, 202.
+
+Stewart, Julius L., 272.
+
+Strigel, Bernard, 232, 239.
+
+Stothard, Thomas, 254.
+
+Stott of Oldham, 258.
+
+Stuart, Gilbert, 262, 263.
+
+Stuck, Franz, 238.
+
+Sully, Thomas, 263, 264.
+
+Swanenburch, Jakob Isaaks van, 207.
+
+
+TARBELL, Edmund C., 270.
+
+Teniers (the Younger), David, 197, 202.
+
+Terburg, Gerard, 167, 212, 221.
+
+Thaulow, Fritz, 276.
+
+Thayer, Abbott H., 270.
+
+Thegerström, R., 276.
+
+Theodorich of Prague, 227, 239.
+
+Theotocopuli, Domenico, 177, 185.
+
+Thoma, Hans, 238.
+
+Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 128, 131.
+
+Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, 129, 131.
+
+Timanthes, 28.
+
+Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), il, 115-117, 121, 123, 128.
+
+Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), 101, 113-121, 124, 125, 128, 177, 179, 194,
+     196, 212, 245.
+
+Tito, Ettore, 130.
+
+Torbido, Francisco (il Moro), 120, 121.
+
+Toulmouche, Auguste, 167.
+
+Tristan, Luis, 177, 178, 185.
+
+Troyon, Constant, 159, 160.
+
+Trumbull, John, 262, 265.
+
+Tryon, Dwight W., 273.
+
+Tura, Cosimo, 69, 72, 75.
+
+Turner, C. Y., 270.
+
+Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 251, 253, 254.
+
+Twachtman, John H., 273.
+
+
+UCCELLO, Paolo, 63, 71, 74.
+
+Uhde, Fritz von, 238, 240.
+
+Ulrich, Charles F., 272.
+
+
+VAENIUS, Otho, 195, 201.
+
+Van Beers, Jan, 200, 202.
+
+Vanderlyn, John, 263.
+
+Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 181, 195, 198, 201, 243, 244.
+
+Van Dyck, Philip, 219, 222.
+
+Van Loo, Jean Baptiste, 141, 145, 146.
+
+Van Marcke, Émil, 159.
+
+Vargas, Luis de, 180, 185.
+
+Vasari, Giorgio, 124, 130
+
+Vedder, Elihu, 268.
+
+Veit, Philipp, 236, 239.
+
+Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, 173, 174, 177-185, 194, 196, 207,
+     212, 249, 271.
+
+Velde, Adrien van de, 216, 222.
+
+Velde (the Elder), Willem van de, 218, 222.
+
+Velde (the Younger), Willem van de, 218, 222.
+
+Venusti, Marcello, 94, 98.
+
+Verboeckhoven, Eugène Joseph, 200, 202.
+
+Verhagen, Pierre Joseph, 198, 202.
+
+Vernet, Claude Joseph, 142, 250.
+
+Vernet, Émile Jean Horace, 149.
+
+Veronese, Paolo (Caliari), 116-121, 129, 136, 194.
+
+Verrocchio, Andrea del, 64, 71, 99.
+
+Vibert, Jehan Georges, 167.
+
+Victoors, Jan, 210, 221.
+
+Vien, Joseph Marie, 146.
+
+Villegas, José, 184, 185.
+
+Vincent, François André, 147.
+
+Vinci. See "Leonardo."
+
+Vinton, F. P., 270.
+
+Viti, Timoteo di, 97, 98.
+
+Vivarini, Antonio (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Vivarini, Bartolommeo (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Vivarini, Luigi or Alvise, 80, 85.
+
+Vlieger, Simon de, 218, 222.
+
+Vollon, Antoine, 168.
+
+Volterra, Daniele (Ricciarelli) da, 94, 97.
+
+Vos, Cornelis de, 196, 201.
+
+Vos, Marten de, 192.
+
+Vouet, Simon, 136, 139.
+
+
+WALKER, Frederick, 258.
+
+Walker, Horatio, 273.
+
+Walton, E. A., 259.
+
+Wappers, Baron Gustavus, 199, 202.
+
+Watelet, Louis Étienne, 149.
+
+Watson, John, 261.
+
+Watteau, Antoine, 140, 141.
+
+Watts, George Frederick, 258.
+
+Wauters, Émile, 200.
+
+Weeks, Edwin L., 272.
+
+Weenix, Jan, 219, 222.
+
+Weir, J. Alden, 270, 273.
+
+Werff, Adriaan van der, 219, 222.
+
+West, Benjamin, 261, 262, 264.
+
+Weyden, Roger van der, 189, 190, 201, 231.
+
+Whistler, James A. McNeill, 271.
+
+Whittredge, Worthington, 265.
+
+Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, 199, 202.
+
+Wiles, Irving R., 270.
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 249.
+
+Willems, Florent, 200, 202.
+
+Wilson, Richard, 250, 251.
+
+Wolgemut, Michael, 228, 239.
+
+Wouverman, Philips, 216, 222.
+
+Wright, Joseph, 250.
+
+Wurmser, Nicolaus, 227, 239.
+
+Wyant, Alexander H., 265, 273.
+
+Wyllie, W. L., 259
+
+Wynants, Jan, 215, 222.
+
+
+Yon, Edmund Charles, 159.
+
+
+Zamacois, Eduardo, 184, 185.
+
+Zegers, Daniel, 196, 201.
+
+Ziem, 154.
+
+Zeitblom, Bartholomäus, 231, 239.
+
+Zeuxis, 27.
+
+Zoppo, Marco, 75, 84.
+
+Zorn, Anders, 276.
+
+Zucchero, Federigo, 125, 130.
+
+Zuloaga, Ignacio, 185.
+
+Zurbaran, Francisco de, 180, 181, 185.
+
+
+
+
+ADDITIONS TO INDEX.
+
+
+Anglada, 185.
+
+
+Bartels, 238.
+
+Baur, 221.
+
+Bell, 259.
+
+Brangwyn, 259.
+
+Breitner, 221.
+
+Buysse, 200.
+
+
+Cariani, 119.
+
+Claus, 200.
+
+Clausen, 259.
+
+
+Fattori, 130.
+
+Fragiacomo, 130.
+
+Frederic, 200.
+
+
+Garcia y Remos, 185.
+
+Greiner, 238.
+
+
+Haverman, 221.
+
+Henri, Robert, 270.
+
+
+Keller, 238.
+
+Khnopff, 200.
+
+
+Lempoels, 200.
+
+Lie, Jonas, 273.
+
+
+McTaggart, 259.
+
+Mancini, 130.
+
+Marchetti, 130.
+
+
+Ouless, 259.
+
+
+Reid, Sir George, 259.
+
+
+Steer, 259.
+
+Swan, 259.
+
+
+Trübner, 238.
+
+
+Vierge, 185.
+
+
+Weissenbruch, 221.
+
+Witsen, 221.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE
+
+
+HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and
+110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M., Adjunct Professor of Architecture,
+Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations
+and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a
+General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+
+HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
+
+By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D., and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr.,
+Ph.D., Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A History of Architecture.
+
+By
+
+A. D. F. Hamlin, A.M.
+
+Adjunct Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia
+College.
+
+
+With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies,
+Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, pp.
+xx-453, $2.00.
+
+"The text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly
+intelligent view taken of each separate epoch.... The book is
+extremely well furnished with bibliographies, lists of monuments
+[which] are excellent.... If any reasonable part of the contents of
+this book can be got into the heads of those who study it, they will
+have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound
+knowledge of it."--THE NATION, NEW YORK.
+
+"A manual that will be invaluable to the student, while it will give
+to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for the purposes of
+the development of the various schools of architecture. What makes it
+of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical
+buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns, arches,
+windows and doorways. Each chapter is prefaced by a list of books
+recommended, and each ends with a list of monuments. The illustrations
+are numerous and well executed."--SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE.
+
+"Probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time
+concisely, the various periods and styles of architecture, with a
+characterization of the most important works of each period and style,
+than any other published work.... The volume fills a gap in
+architectural literature which has long existed."--ADVERTISER, BOSTON.
+
+"A neatly published work, adapted to the use either of student or
+general reader. As a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting
+forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different
+schools. The life history of each period is brief yet thorough.... The
+treatment is broad and not over-critical. The chief facts are so
+grouped that the student can easily grasp them. The plan-drawings are
+clear cut and serve their purpose admirably. The half-tone
+illustrations are modern in selection and treatment. The style is
+clear, easy and pleasing. The entire production shows a studious and
+orderly mind. A new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all
+discussion on disputed points. In its unity, clearness and simplicity
+lie its charm and interest."--NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, NOTRE DAME, IND.
+
+"This is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of
+architecture from the earliest times down to the present.... The work
+is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples, pictures,
+diagrams, etc. It is intended to be used as a school text-book, and is
+very conveniently arranged for this purpose, with suitable headings in
+bold-faced type, and a copious index. Teachers and students will find
+it a capital thing for the purpose."--PICAYUNE, NEW ORLEANS.
+
+
+
+
+A History of Sculpture,
+
+BY
+
+ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph. D., L. H. D.
+
+AND
+
+ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph. D.
+
+Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University.
+
+
+With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo,
+313 pages, $1.50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N. Y._
+
+"Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply
+invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists
+will be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students."
+
+CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_.
+
+"The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black
+background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so
+many half-tone prints."
+
+J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_.
+
+"These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book
+and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially
+interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_."
+
+CRITIC, _New York_.
+
+"This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in
+full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English--never in any language in convenient
+text-book form. This publication, then, should meet with an
+enthusiastic reception among students and amateurs of art, not so
+much, however, because it is the only book of its kind, as for its
+intrinsic merit and attractive form."
+
+OUTLOOK, _New York_.
+
+"A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A good feature of this book--and one which should be
+imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best
+be obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed."
+
+NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, _Notre Dame, Ind._
+
+"The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of
+style a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to
+pursue more fully any particular school."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers,
+
+91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by 
+John C. Van Dyke
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by 
+John C. Van Dyke
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Text-Book of the History of Painting
+
+Author: John C. Van Dyke
+
+Release Date: July 23, 2006 [EBook #18900]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PAINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_001" id="imag_001"></a>
+<img src="images/image_005.jpg" width="300" height="510" alt="Frontispiece. Velasquez. Head of &AElig;sop, Madrid."  />
+<span class="caption">Velasquez. Head of &AElig;sop, Madrid.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_005_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tr"><p class="center">Transcriber's Note.</p><p>
+The images in this e book of the paintings are from the original book.
+However many of the paintings have undergone extensive restoration. Some of the restored paintings are presented as modern color images with links.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h1>A TEXT-BOOK</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>OF THE</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>HISTORY OF PAINTING</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h2>
+<h4>PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE AND AUTHOR OF<br />
+
+  "ART FOR ART'S SAKE," "THE MEANING OF PICTURES," ETC.</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</h3>
+<h3>91 <span class="smcap">and</span> 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK</h3>
+<h3>LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA</h3>
+<h3>1909</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1894, <span class="smcap">by</span><br />
+
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The object of this series of text-books is to provide concise
+teachable histories of art for class-room use in schools and colleges.
+The limited time given to the study of art in the average educational
+institution has not only dictated the condensed style of the volumes,
+but has limited their scope of matter to the general features of art
+history. Arch&aelig;ological discussions on special subjects and &aelig;sthetic
+theories have been avoided. The main facts of history as settled by
+the best authorities are given. If the reader choose to enter into
+particulars the bibliography cited at the head of each chapter will be
+found helpful. Illustrations have been introduced as sight-help to the
+text, and, to avoid repetition, abbreviations have been used wherever
+practicable. The enumeration of the principal extant works of an
+artist, school, or period, and where they may be found, which follows
+each chapter, may be serviceable not only as a summary of individual
+or school achievement, but for reference by travelling students in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>This volume on painting, the first of the series, omits mention of
+such work in Arabic, Indian, Chinese, and Persian art as may come
+properly under the head of Ornament&mdash;a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> subject proposed for separate
+treatment hereafter. In treating of individual painters it has been
+thought best to give a short critical estimate of the man and his rank
+among the painters of his time rather than the detailed facts of his
+life. Students who wish accounts of the lives of the painters should
+use Vasari, Larousse, and the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i> in connection
+with this text-book.</p>
+
+<p>Acknowledgments are made to the respective publishers of Woltmann and
+Woermann's History of Painting, and the fine series of art histories
+by Perrot and Chipiez, for permission to reproduce some few
+illustrations from these publications.</p>
+
+<p class="sig"><span class="smcap">John C. Van Dyke.</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<table summary="Contents">
+<tr><td></td><td class="tocpg f1">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#GENERAL_BIBLIOGRAPHY">General Bibliography</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_xv">xv</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Egyptian Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chald&aelig;o-Assyrian, Persian, Ph&oelig;nician, Cypriote, and Asia Minor Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;Early Christian and Medi&aelig;val Period</span>, 200-1250</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;Gothic Period</span>, 1250-1400</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;Early Renaissance</span>, 1400-1500</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;Early Renaissance</span>, 1400-1500, <i>Continued</i></a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;High Renaissance</span>, 1500-1600</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="smcap">Italian Painting&mdash;High Renaissance</span>, 1500-1600, <i>Continued</i></a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Italian Painting&mdash;High Renaissance</a></span><a href="#CHAPTER_X">, 1500-1600, <i>Continued</i></a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Italian Painting&mdash;The Decadence and Modern Work</a></span><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">, 1600-1894</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">French Painting&mdash;Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">French Painting&mdash;Nineteenth Century</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">French Painting&mdash;Nineteenth Century</a></span><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">, <i>Continued</i></a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Spanish Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Flemish Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Dutch Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">German Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">British Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" class="center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">American Painting</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#POSTSCRIPT">Postscript</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p>
+
+<table class="tb1" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#imag_001">Velasquez, Head of &AElig;sop, Madrid</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg f1"><i><a href="#imag_001">Frontispiece</a></i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="tocpg f1">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1</td><td><a href="#imag_002">Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Ti, Saccarah</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>2</td><td><a href="#imag_003">Portrait of Queen Taia</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>3</td><td><a href="#imag_004">Offerings to the Dead. Wall painting</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>4</td><td><a href="#imag_005">Vignette on Papyrus</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>5</td><td><a href="#imag_006">Enamelled Brick, Nimroud</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>6</td><td><a href="#imag_007">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Khorsabad</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>7</td><td><a href="#imag_008">Wild Ass. Bas-relief</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>8</td><td><a href="#imag_009">Lions Frieze, Susa</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>9</td><td><a href="#imag_010">Painted Head from Edessa</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>10</td><td><a href="#imag_011">Cypriote Vase Decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>11</td><td><a href="#imag_012">Attic Grave Painting</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>12</td><td><a href="#imag_013">Muse of Cortona</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>13</td><td><a href="#imag_014">Odyssey Landscape</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>14</td><td><a href="#imag_015">Amphore, Lower Italy</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>15</td><td><a href="#imag_016">Ritual Scene, Palatine Wall painting</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>16</td><td><a href="#imag_017">Portrait, Fayoum, Graf Collection</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>17</td><td><a href="#imag_018">Chamber in Catacombs, with wall decorations</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>18</td><td><a href="#imag_019">Catacomb Fresco, S. Cecilia</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>19</td><td><a href="#imag_020">Christ as Good Shepherd, Ravenna mosaic</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>20</td><td><a href="#imag_021">Christ and Saints, fresco, S. Generosa</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>21</td><td><a href="#imag_022">Ezekiel before the Lord. MS. illumination</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>22</td><td><a href="#imag_023">Giotto, Flight into Egypt, Arena Chap.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>23</td><td><a href="#imag_024">Orcagna, Paradise (detail), S. M. Novella</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>24</td><td><a href="#imag_025">Lorenzetti, Peace (detail), Sienna</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>25</td><td><a href="#imag_026">Fra Angelico, Angel, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>26</td><td><a href="#imag_027">Fra Filippo, Madonna, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>27</td><td><a href="#imag_028">Botticelli, Coronation of Madonna, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>28</td><td><a href="#imag_029">Ghirlandajo, Visitation, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>29</td><td><a href="#imag_030">Francesca, Duke of Urbino, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>30</td><td><a href="#imag_031">Signorelli, The Curse (detail), Orvieto</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>31</td><td><a href="#imag_032">Perugino, Madonna, Saints, and Angels, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>32</td><td><a href="#imag_033">School of Francia, Madonna, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>33</td><td><a href="#imag_034">Mantegna, Gonzaga Family Group, Mantua</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>34</td><td><a href="#imag_035">B. Vivarini, Madonna and Child, Turin</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>35</td><td><a href="#imag_036">Giovanni Bellini, Madonna, Venice Acad.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>36</td><td><a href="#imag_037">Carpaccio, Presentation (detail), Venice Acad.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>37</td><td><a href="#imag_038">Antonello da Messina, Unknown Man, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>38</td><td><a href="#imag_039">Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from Cross, Pitti</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>39</td><td><a href="#imag_040">Andrea del Sarto, Madonna of St. Francis, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>40</td><td><a href="#imag_041">Michael Angelo, Athlete, Sistine Chap., Rome</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>41</td><td><a href="#imag_042">Raphael, La Belle Jardini&egrave;re, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>42</td><td><a href="#imag_043">Giulio Romano, Apollo and Muses, Pitti</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>43</td><td><a href="#imag_044">Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>44</td><td><a href="#imag_045">Luini, Daughter of Herodias, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>45</td><td><a href="#imag_046">Sodoma, Ecstasy of St. Catherine, Sienna</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>46</td><td><a href="#imag_047">Correggio, Marriage of St. Catherine, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>47</td><td><a href="#imag_048">Giorgione, Ordeal of Moses, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>48</td><td><a href="#imag_049">Titian, Venus Equipping Cupid, Borghese, Rome</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>49</td><td><a href="#imag_050">Tintoretto, Mercury and Graces, Ducal Pal., Venice</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>50</td><td><a href="#imag_051">Veronese, Venice Enthroned, Ducal Pal., Venice</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>51</td><td><a href="#imag_052">Lotto, Three Ages, Pitti</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>52</td><td><a href="#imag_053">Bronzino, Christ in Limbo, Uffizi</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>53</td><td><a href="#imag_054">Baroccio, Annunciation</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>54</td><td><a href="#imag_055">Annibale Caracci, Entombment of Christ, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>55</td><td><a href="#imag_056">Caravaggio, The Card Players, Dresden</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>56</td><td><a href="#imag_057">Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>57</td><td><a href="#imag_058">Claude Lorrain, Flight into Egypt, Dresden</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>58</td><td><a href="#imag_059">Watteau, Gilles, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>59</td><td><a href="#imag_060">Boucher, Pastoral, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_139" >139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>60</td><td><a href="#imag_061">David, The Sabines, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>61</td><td><a href="#imag_062">Ingres, &OElig;dipus and Sphinx, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>62</td><td><a href="#imag_063">Delacroix, Massacre of Scio, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>63</td><td><a href="#imag_064">G&eacute;r&ocirc;me, Pollice Verso</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>64</td><td><a href="#imag_065">Corot, Landscape</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>65</td><td><a href="#imag_066">Rousseau, Charcoal Burner's Hut, Fuller Collection</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>66</td><td><a href="#imag_067">Millet, The Gleaners, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>67</td><td><a href="#imag_068">Cabanel, Ph&aelig;dra</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>68</td><td><a href="#imag_069">Meissonier, Napoleon in 1814</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>69</td><td><a href="#imag_070">Sanchez-Coello, Daughter of Philip II., Madrid</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>70</td><td><a href="#imag_071">Murillo, St. Anthony of Padua, Dresden</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>71</td><td><a href="#imag_072">Ribera, St. Agnes, Dresden</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>72</td><td><a href="#imag_073">Fortuny, Spanish Marriage</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>73</td><td><a href="#imag_074">Madrazo, Unmasked</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>74</td><td><a href="#imag_075">Van Eycks, St. Bavon Altar-piece, Berlin</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>75</td><td><a href="#imag_076">Memling (?), St. Lawrence, Nat. Gal., Lon.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>76</td><td><a href="#imag_077">Massys, Head of Virgin, Antwerp</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>77</td><td><a href="#imag_078">Rubens, Portrait of Young Woman</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>78</td><td><a href="#imag_079">Van Dyck, Portrait of Cornelius van der Geest</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>79</td><td><a href="#imag_080">Teniers the Younger, Prodigal Son, Louvre</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>80</td><td><a href="#imag_081">Alfred Stevens, On the Beach</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>81</td><td><a href="#imag_082">Hals, Portrait of a Lady</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>82</td><td><a href="#imag_083">Rembrandt, Head of a Woman, Nat. Gal., Lon.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>83</td><td><a href="#imag_084">Ruisdael, Landscape</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>84</td><td><a href="#imag_085">Hobbema, The Water Wheel, Amsterdam Mus.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>85</td><td><a href="#imag_086">Israels, Alone in the World</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>86</td><td><a href="#imag_087">Mauve, Sheep</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>87</td><td><a href="#imag_088">Lochner, Sts. John, Catharine, Matthew, London</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>88</td><td><a href="#imag_089">Wolgemut, Crucifixion, Munich</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>89</td><td><a href="#imag_090">D&uuml;rer, Praying Virgin, Augsburg</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>90</td><td><a href="#imag_091">Holbein, Portrait, Hague Mus.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>91</td><td><a href="#imag_092">Piloty, Wise and Foolish Virgins</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>92</td><td><a href="#imag_093">Leibl, In Church</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>93</td><td><a href="#imag_094">Menzel, A Reader</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>94</td><td><a href="#imag_095">Hogarth, Shortly after Marriage, Nat. Gal., Lon.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>95</td><td><a href="#imag_096">Reynolds, Countess Spencer and Lord Althorp</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>96</td><td><a href="#imag_097">Gainsborough, Blue Boy</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>97</td><td><a href="#imag_098">Constable, Corn Field, Nat. Gal., Lon.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>98</td><td><a href="#imag_099">Turner, Fighting T&eacute;m&eacute;raire, Nat. Gal., Lon.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>99</td><td><a href="#imag_100">Burne-Jones, Flamma Vestalis</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>100</td><td><a href="#imag_101">Leighton, Helen of Troy</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>101</td><td><a href="#imag_102">Watts, Love and Death</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>102</td><td><a href="#imag_103">West, Peter Denying Christ, Hampton Court</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>103</td><td><a href="#imag_104">Gilbert Stuart, Washington, Boston Mus.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>104</td><td><a href="#imag_105">Hunt, Lute Player</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>105</td><td><a href="#imag_106">Eastman Johnson, Churning</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>106</td><td><a href="#imag_107">Inness, Landscape</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>107</td><td><a href="#imag_108">Winslow Homer, Undertow</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>108</td><td><a href="#imag_109">Whistler, The White Girl</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>109</td><td><a href="#imag_110">Sargent, "Carnation Lily, Lily Rose"</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>110</td><td><a href="#imag_111">Chase, Alice, Art Institute, Chicago</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="GENERAL_BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="GENERAL_BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>(This includes the leading accessible works that treat of painting in
+general. For works on special periods or schools, see the
+bibliographical references at the head of each chapter. For
+bibliography of individual painters consult, under proper names,
+Champlin and Perkins's <i>Cyclopedia</i>, as given below.)</p>
+
+
+<ul class="IX">
+
+<li class="li1">Champlin and Perkins, <i>Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings</i>, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Adeline, <i>Lexique des Termes d'Art</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1"><i>Gazette des Beaux Arts</i>, Paris.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Larousse, <i>Grand Dictionnaire Universel</i>, Paris.</li>
+
+<li class="li1"><i>L'Art, Revue hebdomadaire illustr&eacute;e</i>, Paris.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Bryan, <i>Dictionary of Painters</i>. <i>New edition</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Brockhaus, <i>Conversations-Lexikon</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Meyer, <i>Allgemeines K&uuml;nstler-Lexikon</i>, Berlin.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Muther, <i>History of Modern Painting</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Agincourt, <i>History of Art by its Monuments</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Bayet, <i>Pr&eacute;cis d'Histoire de l'Art</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Blanc, <i>Histoire des Peintres de toutes les &Eacute;coles</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Eastlake, <i>Materials for a History of Oil Painting</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">L&uuml;bke, <i>History of Art, trans. by Clarence Cook</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Reber, <i>History of Ancient Art</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Reber, <i>History of Medi&aelig;val Art</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Schnasse, <i>Geschichte der Bildenden K&uuml;nste</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Girard, <i>La Peinture Antique</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Viardot, <i>History of the Painters of all Schools</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Williamson (Ed.), <i>Handbooks of Great Masters</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="li1">Woltmann and Woermann, <i>History of Painting</i>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="HISTORY_OF_PAINTING" id="HISTORY_OF_PAINTING"></a>HISTORY OF PAINTING.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The origin of painting is unknown. The first important records of this
+art are met with in Egypt; but before the Egyptian civilization the
+men of the early ages probably used color in ornamentation and
+decoration, and they certainly scratched the outlines of men and
+animals upon bone and slate. Traces of this rude primitive work still
+remain to us on the pottery, weapons, and stone implements of the
+cave-dwellers. But while indicating the awakening of intelligence in
+early man, they can be reckoned with as art only in a slight
+arch&aelig;ological way. They show inclination rather than accomplishment&mdash;a
+wish to ornament or to represent, with only a crude knowledge of how
+to go about it.</p>
+
+<p>The first aim of this primitive painting was undoubtedly
+decoration&mdash;the using of colored forms for color and form only, as
+shown in the pottery designs or cross-hatchings on stone knives or
+spear-heads. The second, and perhaps later aim, was by imitating the
+shapes and colors of men, animals, and the like, to convey an idea of
+the proportions and characters of such things. An outline of a
+cave-bear or a mammoth was perhaps the cave-dweller's way of telling
+his fellows what monsters he had slain. We may assume that it was
+pictorial record, primitive picture-written history. This early method
+of conveying an idea is, in intent,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span> substantially the same as the
+later hieroglyphic writing and historical painting of the Egyptians.
+The difference between them is merely one of development. Thus there
+is an indication in the art of Primitive Man of the two great
+departments of painting existent to-day.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Decorative Painting</span>.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Expressive Painting</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Pure Decorative Painting is not usually expressive of ideas other than
+those of rhythmical line and harmonious color. It is not our subject.
+This volume treats of Expressive Painting; but in dealing with that it
+should be borne in mind that Expressive Painting has always a more or
+less decorative effect accompanying it, and that must be spoken of
+incidentally. We shall presently see the intermingling of both kinds
+of painting in the art of ancient Egypt&mdash;our first inquiry.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>EGYPTIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Brugsch, <i>History of Egypt under the
+Pharaohs</i>; Budge, <i>Dwellers on the Nile</i>; Duncker, <i>History
+of Antiquity; Egypt Exploration Fund Memoirs</i>; Ely, <i>Manual
+of Arch&aelig;ology</i>; Lepsius, <i>Denkmaler aus Aegypten und
+Aethiopen</i>; Maspero, <i>Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria</i>;
+Maspero, <i>Guide du Visiteur au Mus&eacute;e de Boulaq</i>; Maspero,
+<i>Egyptian Arch&aelig;ology</i>; Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art
+in Ancient Egypt</i>; Wilkinson, <i>Manners and Customs of the
+Ancient Egyptians</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>LAND AND PEOPLE:</b> Egypt, as Herodotus has said, is "the gift of the
+Nile," one of the latest of the earth's geological formations, and yet
+one of the earliest countries to be settled and dominated by man. It
+consists now, as in the ancient days, of the valley of the Nile,
+bounded on the east by the Arabian mountains and on the west by the
+Libyan desert. Well-watered and fertile, it was doubtless at first a
+pastoral and agricultural country; then, by its riverine traffic, a
+commercial country, and finally, by conquest, a land enriched with the
+spoils of warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Its earliest records show a strongly established monarchy. Dynasties
+of kings called Pharaohs succeeded one another by birth or conquest.
+The king made the laws, judged the people, declared war, and was
+monarch supreme. Next to him in rank came the priests, who were not
+only in the service of religion but in that of the state, as
+counsellors, secretaries, and the like. The common people, with true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+Oriental lack of individuality, depending blindly on leaders, were
+little more than the servants of the upper classes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_002" id="imag_002"></a>
+<img src="images/image_023.jpg" width="400" height="471" alt="FIG. 1.&mdash;HUNTING IN THE MARSHES. TOMB OF TI, SACCARAH.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 1.&mdash;HUNTING IN THE MARSHES. TOMB OF TI, SACCARAH.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_023_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian religion existing in the earliest days was a worship of
+the personified elements of nature. Each element had its particular
+controlling god, worshipped as such. Later on in Egyptian history the
+number of gods was increased, and each city had its trinity of godlike
+protectors symbolized by the propyl&aelig;a of the temples. Future life was
+a certainty, provided that the Ka, or spirit, did not fall a prey to
+Typhon, the God of Evil, during the long wait<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> in the tomb for the
+judgment-day. The belief that the spirit rested in the body until
+finally transported to the aaln fields (the Islands of the Blest,
+afterward adopted by the Greeks) was one reason for the careful
+preservation of the body by mummifying processes. Life itself was not
+more important than death. Hence the imposing ceremonies of the
+funeral and burial, the elaborate richness of the tomb and its wall
+paintings. Perhaps the first Egyptian art arose through religious
+observance, and certainly the first known to us was sepulchral.</p>
+
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES:</b> The centre of the Egyptian system was the monarch and his
+supposed relatives, the gods. They arrogated to themselves the chief
+thought of life, and the aim of the great bulk of the art was to
+glorify monarchy or deity. The massive buildings, still standing
+to-day in ruins, were built as the dwelling-places of kings or the
+sanctuaries of gods. The towers symbolized deity, the sculptures and
+paintings recited the functional duties of presiding spirits, or the
+Pharaoh's looks and acts. Almost everything about the public buildings
+in painting and sculpture was symbolic illustration, picture-written
+history&mdash;written with a chisel and brush, written large that all might
+read. There was no other safe way of preserving record. There were no
+books; the papyrus sheet, used extensively, was frail, and the
+Egyptians evidently wished their buildings, carvings, and paintings to
+last into eternity. So they wrought in and upon stone. The same
+hieroglyphic character of their papyrus writings appeared cut and
+colored on the palace walls, and above them and beside them the
+pictures ran as vignettes explanatory of the text. In a less
+ostentatious way the tombs perpetuated history in a similar manner,
+reciting the domestic scenes from the life of the individual, as the
+temples and palaces the religious and monarchical scenes.</p>
+
+<p>In one form or another it was all record of Egyptian life, but this
+was not the only motive of their painting. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> temples and palaces,
+designed to shut out light and heat, were long squares of heavy stone,
+gloomy as the cave from which their plan may have originated. Carving
+and color were used to brighten and enliven the interior. The battles,
+the judgment scenes, the Pharaoh playing at draughts with his wives,
+the religious rites and ceremonies, were all given with brilliant
+arbitrary color, surrounded oftentimes by bordering bands of green,
+yellow, and blue. Color showed everywhere from floor to ceiling. Even
+the explanatory hieroglyphic texts ran in colors, lining the walls and
+winding around the cylinders of stone. The lotus capitals, the frieze
+and architrave, all glowed with bright hues, and often the roof
+ceiling was painted in blue and studded with golden stars.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_003" id="imag_003"></a>
+<img src="images/image_025.jpg" width="400" height="594" alt="FIG. 2.&mdash;PORTRAIT OF QUEEN TAIA.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 2.&mdash;PORTRAIT OF QUEEN TAIA.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>All this shows a decorative motive in Egyptian painting, and how
+constantly this was kept in view may be seen at times in the
+arrangement of the different scenes, the large ones being placed in
+the middle of the wall and the smaller ones going at the top and
+bottom, to act as a frieze and dado. There were, then, two leading
+motives for Egyptian painting; (1) History, monarchical, religious, or
+domestic; and (2) Decoration.</p>
+
+<p><b>TECHNICAL METHODS:</b> Man in the early stages of civilization comprehends
+objects more by line than by color<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> or light. The figure is not
+studied in itself, but in its sun-shadow or silhouette. The Egyptian
+hieroglyph represented objects by outlines or arbitrary marks and
+conveyed a simple meaning without circumlocution. The Egyptian
+painting was substantially an enlargement of the hieroglyph. There was
+no attempt to place objects in the setting which they hold in nature.
+Perspective and light-and-shade were disregarded. Objects, of whatever
+nature, were shown in flat profile. In the human figure the shoulders
+were square, the hips slight, the legs and arms long, the feet and
+hands flat. The head, legs, and arms were shown in profile, while the
+chest and eye were twisted to show the flat front view. There are only
+one or two full-faced figures among the remains of Egyptian painting.
+After the outline was drawn the enclosed space was filled in with
+plain color. In the absence of high light, or composed groups,
+prominence was given to an important figure, like that of the king, by
+making it much larger than the other figures. This may be seen in any
+of the battle-pieces of Rameses II., in which the monarch in his
+chariot is a giant where his followers are mere pygmies. In the
+absence of perspective, receding figures of men or of horses were
+given by multiplied outlines of legs, or heads, placed before, or
+after, or raised above one another. Flat water was represented by
+zigzag lines, placed as it were upon a map, one tree symbolized a
+forest, and one fortification a town.</p>
+
+<p>These outline drawings were not realistic in any exact sense. The face
+was generally expressionless, the figure, evidently done from memory
+or pattern, did not reveal anatomical structure, but was nevertheless
+graceful, and in the representation of animals the sense of motion was
+often given with much truth. The color was usually an attempt at
+nature, though at times arbitrary or symbolic, as in the case of
+certain gods rendered with blue, yellow, or green skins. The
+backgrounds were always of flat color, arbitrary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> in hue, and
+decorative only. The only composition was a balance by numbers, and
+the processional scenes rose tier upon tier above one another in long
+panels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_004" id="imag_004"></a>
+<img src="images/image_027.jpg" width="400" height="420" alt="FIG. 3.&mdash;OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD, WALL PAINTING,
+EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 3.&mdash;OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD, WALL PAINTING,
+EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such work would seem almost ludicrous did we not keep in mind its
+reason for existence. It was, first, symbolic story-telling art, and
+secondly, architectural decoration. As a story-teller it was effective
+because of its simplicity and directness. As decoration, the repeated
+expressionless face and figure, the arbitrary color, the absence of
+perspective were not inappropriate then nor are they now. Egyptian
+painting never was free from the decorative motive. Wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> painting was
+little more than an adjunct of architecture, and probably grew out of
+sculpture. The early statues were colored, and on the wall the chisel,
+like the flint of Primitive Man, cut the outline of the figure. At
+first only this cut was filled with color, producing what has been
+called the koil-anaglyphic. In the final stage the line was made by
+drawing with chalk or coal on prepared stucco, and the color, mixed
+with gum-water (a kind of distemper), was applied to the whole
+enclosed space. Substantially the same method of painting was used
+upon other materials, such as wood, mummy cartonnage, papyrus; and in
+all its thousands of years of existence Egyptian painting never
+advanced upon or varied to any extent this one method of work.</p>
+
+<p><b>HISTORIC PERIODS:</b> Egyptian art may be traced back as far as the Third
+or Fourth Memphitic dynasty of kings. The date is uncertain, but it is
+somewhere near 3,500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> The seat of empire, at that time, was
+located at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and it is among the remains of this</p>
+
+<p><b>Memphitic Period</b> that the earliest and best painting is found. In
+fact, all Egyptian art, literature, language, civilization, seem at
+their highest point of perfection in the period farthest removed from
+us. In that earliest age the finest portrait busts were cut, and the
+painting, found chiefly in the tombs and on the mummy-cases, was the
+attempted realistic with not a little of spirited individuality. The
+figure was rather short and squat, the face a little squarer than the
+conventional type afterward adopted, the action better, and the
+positions, attitudes, and gestures more truthful to local
+characteristics. The domestic scenes&mdash;hunting, fishing, tilling,
+grazing&mdash;were all shown in the one flat, planeless, shadowless method
+of representation, but with better drawing and color and more variety
+than appeared later on. Still, more or less conventional types were
+used, even in this early time, and continued to be used all through
+Egyptian history.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_005" id="imag_005"></a>
+<img src="images/image_029_1.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="FIG. 4.&mdash;VIGNETTE ON PAPYRUS, LOUVRE.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 4.&mdash;VIGNETTE ON PAPYRUS, LOUVRE.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Memphitic Period comes down to the eleventh dynasty. In the
+fifteenth dynasty comes the invasion of the so-called Hyksos, or
+Shepherd Kings. Little is known of the Hyksos, and, in painting, the
+next stage is the</p>
+
+<p><b>Theban Period</b>, which, culminated in Thebes, in Upper Egypt, with
+Rameses II., of the nineteenth dynasty. Painting had then changed
+somewhat both in subject and character. The time was one of great
+temple and palace building, and, though the painting of <i>genre</i>
+subjects in tombs and sepulchres continued, the general body of art
+became more monumental and subservient to architecture. Painting was
+put to work on temple and palace-walls, depicting processional scenes,
+either religious or monarchical, and vast in extent. The figure, too,
+changed slightly. It became longer, slighter, with a pronounced nose,
+thick lips, and long eye. From constant repetition, rather than any
+set rule or canon, this figure grew conventional, and was re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>produced
+as a type in a mechanical and unvarying manner for hundreds of years.
+It was, in fact, only a variation from the original Egyptian type seen
+in the tombs of the earliest dynasties. There was a great quantity of
+art produced during the Theban Period, and of a graceful, decorative
+character, but it was rather monotonous by repetition and filled with
+established mannerisms. The Egyptian really never was a free worker,
+never an artist expressing himself; but, for his day, a skilled
+mechanic following time-honored example. In the</p>
+
+<p><b>Saitic Period</b> the seat of empire was once more in Lower Egypt, and art
+had visibly declined with the waning power of the country. All
+spontaneity seemed to have passed out of it, it was repetition of
+repetition by poor workmen, and the simplicity and purity of the
+technic were corrupted by foreign influences. With the Alexandrian
+epoch Egyptian art came in contact with Greek methods, and grew
+imitative of the new art, to the detriment of its own native
+character. Eventually it was entirely lost in the art of the
+Greco-Roman world. It was never other than conventional, produced by a
+method almost as unvarying as that of the hieroglyphic writing, and in
+this very respect characteristic and reflective of the unchanging
+Orientals. Technically it had its shortcomings, but it conveyed the
+proper information to its beholders and was serviceable and graceful
+decoration for Egyptian days.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>EXTANT PAINTINGS:</b> The temples, palaces, and tombs of Egypt
+still reveal Egyptian painting in almost as perfect a state
+as when originally executed; the Ghizeh Museum has many fine
+examples; and there are numerous examples in the museums at
+Turin, Paris, Berlin, London, New York, and Boston. An
+interesting collection belongs to the New York Historical
+Society, and some of the latest "finds" of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund are in the Boston Museum.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>CHALD&AElig;O-ASSYRIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Babelon, <i>Manual of Oriental
+Antiquities</i>; Botta, <i>Monument de Ninive</i>; Budge,
+<i>Babylonian Life and History</i>; Duncker, <i>History of
+Antiquity</i>; Layard, <i>Nineveh and its Remains</i>; Layard,
+<i>Discoveries Among Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon</i>; Lenormant,
+<i>Manual of the Ancient History of the East</i>; Loftus,
+<i>Travels in Chald&aelig;a and Susiana</i>; Maspero, <i>Life in Ancient
+Egypt and Assyria</i>; Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in
+Chald&aelig;a and Assyria</i>; Place, <i>Ninive et l'Assyrie</i>; Sayce,
+<i>Assyria: Its Palaces, Priests, and People</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>TIGRIS-EUPHRATES CIVILIZATION:</b> In many respects the civilization along
+the Tigris-Euphrates was like that along the Nile. Both valleys were
+settled by primitive peoples, who grew rapidly by virtue of favorable
+climate and soil, and eventually developed into great nations headed
+by kings absolute in power. The king was the state in Egypt, and in
+Assyria the monarch was even more dominant and absolute. For the
+Pharaohs shared architecture, painting, and sculpture with the gods;
+but the Sargonids seem to have arrogated the most of these things to
+themselves alone.</p>
+
+<p>Religion was perhaps as real in Assyria as in Egypt, but it was less
+apparent in art. Certain genii, called gods or demons, appear in the
+bas-reliefs, but it is not yet settled whether they represent gods or
+merely legendary heroes or monsters of fable. There was no great
+demonstration of religion by form and color, as in Egypt. The
+Assyrians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> were Semites, and religion with them was more a matter of
+the spirit than the senses&mdash;an image in the mind rather than an image
+in metal or stone. The temple was not eloquent with the actions and
+deeds of the gods, and even the tomb, that fruitful source of art in
+Egypt, was in Chald&aelig;a undecorated and in Assyria unknown. No one knows
+what the Assyrians did with their dead, unless they carried them back
+to the fatherland of the race, the Persian Gulf region, as the native
+tribes of Mesopotamia do to this day.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_006" id="imag_006"></a>
+<img src="images/image_032.jpg" width="400" height="401" alt="FIG. 5.&mdash;ENAMELLED BRICK. NIMROUD.
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 5.&mdash;ENAMELLED BRICK. NIMROUD.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES:</b> As in Egypt, there were two motives for art&mdash;illustration
+and decoration. Religion, as we have seen, hardly obtained at all. The
+king attracted the greatest attention. The countless bas-reliefs, cut
+on soft stone slabs, were pages from the history of the monarch in
+peace and war, in council, in the chase, or in processional rites.
+Beside him and around him his officers came in for a share of the
+background glory. Occasionally the common people had representations
+of their lives and their pursuits, but the main subject of all the
+valley art was the king and his doings. Sculpture and painting were
+largely illustrations accompanying a history written in the
+ever-present cuneiform characters.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>But, while serving as history, like the picture-writings of the
+Egyptians, this illustration was likewise decoration, and was designed
+with that end in view. Rows upon rows of partly colored bas-reliefs
+were arranged like a dado along the palace-wall, and above them
+wall-paintings, or glazed tiles in patterns, carried out the color
+scheme. Almost all of the color has now disappeared, but it must have
+been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>brilliant at one time, and was doubtless in harmony with the
+architecture. Both painting and sculpture were subordinate to and
+dependent upon architecture. Palace-building was the chief pursuit,
+and the other arts were called in mainly as adjuncts&mdash;ornamental
+records of the king who built.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_007" id="imag_007"></a>
+<img src="images/image_033.jpg" width="600" height="268" alt="FIG. 6.&mdash;ENAMELLED BRICK. KHORSABAD.
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 6.&mdash;ENAMELLED BRICK. KHORSABAD.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE TYPE, FORM, COLOR:</b> There were only two distinct faces in Assyrian
+art&mdash;one with and one without a beard. Neither of them was a portrait
+except as attributes or inscriptions designated. The type was
+unendingly repeated. Women appeared in only one or two isolated cases,
+and even these are doubtful. The warrior, a strong, coarse-membered,
+heavily muscled creation, with a heavy, expressionless, Semitic face,
+appeared everywhere. The figure was placed in profile, with eye and
+bust twisted to show the front view, and the long feet projected one
+beyond the other, as in the Nile pictures. This was the Assyrian ideal
+of strength, dignity, and majesty, established probably in the early
+ages, and repeated for centuries with few characteristic variations.
+The figure was usually given in motion, walking, or riding, and had
+little of that grace seen in Egyptian painting, but in its place a
+great deal of rude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> strength. In modelling, the human form was not so
+knowingly rendered as the animal. The long Eastern clothing probably
+prevented the close study of the figure. This failure in anatomical
+exactness was balanced in part by minute details in the dress and
+accessories, productive of a rich ornamental effect.</p>
+
+<p>Hard stone was not found in the Mesopotamian regions. Temples were
+built of burnt brick, bas-reliefs were made upon alabaster slabs and
+heightened by coloring, and painting was largely upon tiles, with
+mineral paints, afterward glazed by fire. These glazed brick or tiles,
+with figured designs, were fixed upon the walls, arches, and
+archivolts by bitumen mortar, and made up the first mosaics of which
+we have record. There was a further painting upon plaster in
+distemper, of which some few traces remain. It did not differ in
+design from the bas-reliefs or the tile mosaics.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects used were the Assyrian type, shown somewhat slighter in
+painting than in sculpture, animals, birds, and other objects; but
+they were obviously not attempts at nature. The color was arbitrary,
+not natural, and there was little perspective, light-and-shade, or
+relief. Heavy outline bands of color appeared about the object, and
+the prevailing hues were yellow and blue. There was perhaps less
+symbolism and more direct representation in Assyria than in Egypt.
+There was also more feeling for perspective and space, as shown in
+such objects as water and in the mountain landscapes of the late
+bas-reliefs; but, in the main, there was no advance upon Egypt. There
+was a difference which was not necessarily a development. Painting, as
+we know the art to-day, was not practised in Chald&aelig;a-Assyria. It was
+never free from a servitude to architecture and sculpture; it was
+hampered by conventionalities; and the painter was more artisan than
+artist, having little freedom or individuality.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_008" id="imag_008"></a>
+<img src="images/image_035.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="FIG. 7.&mdash;WILD ASS. BAS-RELIEF, BRITISH MUSEUM.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 7.&mdash;WILD ASS. BAS-RELIEF, BRITISH MUSEUM.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>HISTORIC PERIODS:</b> Chald&aelig;a, of unknown antiquity, with Babylon its
+capital, is accounted the oldest nation in the Tigris-Euphrates
+valley, and, so far as is known, it was an original nation producing
+an original art. Its sculpture (especially in the Tello heads), and
+presumably its painting, were more realistic and individual than any
+other in the valley. Assyria coming later, and the heir of Chald&aelig;a,
+was the</p>
+
+<p><b>Second Empire:</b> There are two distinct periods of this Second Empire,
+the first lasting from 1,400 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, down to about 900 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and in art
+showing a great profusion of bas-reliefs. The second closed about 625
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and in art produced much glazed-tile work and a more elaborate
+sculpture and painting. After this the Chald&aelig;an provinces gained the
+ascendency again, and Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, became the first
+city of Asia. But the new Babylon did not last long. It fell before
+Cyrus and the Persians 536 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> Again, as in Egypt, the earliest art
+appears the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> purest and the simplest, and the years of
+Chald&aelig;o-Assyrian history known to us carry a record of change rather
+than of progress in art.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>ART REMAINS:</b> The most valuable collections of
+Chald&aelig;o-Assyrian art are to be found in the Louvre and the
+British Museum. The other large museums of Europe have
+collections in this department, but all of them combined are
+little compared with the treasures that still lie buried in
+the mounds of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Excavations have
+been made at Mugheir, Warka, Khorsabad, Kouyunjik, and
+elsewhere, but many difficulties have thus far rendered
+systematic work impossible. The complete history of
+Chald&aelig;o-Assyria and its art has yet to be written.</p></div>
+
+<h3>PERSIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker,
+Lenormant, Ely; Dieulafoy, <i>L'Art Antique de la Perse</i>;
+Flandin et Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>; Justi, <i>Geschichte des
+alten Persiens</i>; Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in
+Persia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>HISTORY AND ART MOTIVES:</b> The Medes and Persians were the natural
+inheritors of Assyrian civilization, but they did not improve their
+birthright. The Medes soon lost their power. Cyrus conquered them, and
+established the powerful Persian monarchy upheld for two hundred years
+by Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes. Substantially the same conditions
+surrounded the Persians as the Assyrians&mdash;that is, so far as art
+production was concerned. Their conceptions of life were similar, and
+their use of art was for historic illustration of kingly doings and
+ornamental embellishment of kingly palaces. Both sculpture and
+painting were accessories of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Of Median art nothing remains. The Persians left the record, but it
+was not wholly of their own invention, nor was it very extensive or
+brilliant. It had little originality about it, and was really only an
+echo of Assyria. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> sculptors and painters copied their Assyrian
+predecessors, repeating at Persepolis what had been better told at
+Nineveh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_009" id="imag_009"></a>
+<img src="images/image_037.jpg" width="600" height="401" alt="FIG. 8.&mdash;LIONS&#39; FRIEZE, SUSA.
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 8.&mdash;LIONS&#39; FRIEZE, SUSA.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>TYPES AND TECHNIC:</b> The same subjects, types, and technical methods in
+bas-relief, tile, and painting on plaster were followed under Darius
+as under Shalmanezer. But the imitation was not so good as the
+original. The warrior, the winged monsters, the animals all lost
+something of their air of brutal defiance and their strength of
+modelling. Heroes still walked in procession along the bas-reliefs and
+glazed tiles, but the figure was smaller, more effeminate, the hair
+and beard were not so long, the drapery fell in slightly indicated
+folds at times, and there was a profusion of ornamental detail. Some
+of this detail and some modifications in the figure showed the
+influence of foreign nations other than the Greek; but, in the main,
+Persian art followed in the footsteps of Assyrian art. It was the last
+reflection of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> Mesopotamian splendor. For with the conquest of Persia
+by Alexander the book of expressive art in that valley was closed,
+and, under Islam, it remains closed to this day.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>ART REMAINS:</b> Persian painting is something about which
+little is known because little remains. The Louvre contains
+some reconstructed friezes made in mosaics of stamped brick
+and square tile, showing figures of lions and a number of
+archers. The coloring is particularly rich, and may give
+some idea of Persian pigments. Aside from the chief museums
+of Europe the bulk of Persian art is still seen half-buried
+in the ruins of Persepolis and elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<h3>PH&OElig;NICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker, Ely,
+Girard, Lenormant; Cesnola, <i>Cyprus</i>; Cesnola, <i>Cypriote
+Antiquities in Metropolitan Museum of Art</i>; Kenrick,
+<i>Ph&oelig;nicia</i>; Movers, <i>Die Phonizier</i>; Perrot and Chipiez,
+<i>History of Art in Ph&oelig;nicia and Cyprus</i>; Perrot and
+Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, Syria and Asia
+Minor</i>; Perrot and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Phrygia,
+Lydia, etc.</i>; Renan, <i>Mission de Ph&eacute;nicie</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE TRADING NATIONS:</b> The coast-lying nations of the Eastern
+Mediterranean were hardly original or creative nations in a large
+sense. They were at different times the conquered dependencies of
+Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and their lands were but bridges over
+which armies passed from east to west or from west to east. Located on
+the Mediterranean between the great civilizations of antiquity they
+naturally adapted themselves to circumstances, and became the
+middlemen, the brokers, traders, and carriers of the ancient world.
+Their lands were not favorable to agriculture, but their sea-coasts
+rendered commerce easy and lucrative. They made a kingdom of the sea,
+and their means of livelihood were gathered from it. There is no
+record that the Egyptians ever traversed the Mediterranean, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Assyrians were not sailors, the Greeks had not yet arisen, and so
+probably Ph&oelig;nicia and her neighbors had matters their own way.
+Colonies and trading stations were established at Cyprus, Carthage,
+Sardinia, the Greek islands, and the Greek mainland, and not only
+Eastern goods but Eastern ideas were thus carried to the West.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_010" id="imag_010"></a>
+<img src="images/image_039.jpg" width="300" height="568" alt="FIG. 9.&mdash;PAINTED HEAD FROM EDESSA.
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 9.&mdash;PAINTED HEAD FROM EDESSA.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Politically, socially, and religiously these small middle nations were
+inconsequential. They simply adapted their politics or faith to the
+nation that for the time had them under its heel. What semi-original
+religion they possessed was an amalgamation of the religions of other
+nations, and their gods of bronze, terra-cotta, and enamel were
+irreverently sold in the market like any other produce.</p>
+
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES AND METHODS:</b> Building, carving, and painting were
+practised among the coastwise nations, but upon no such extensive
+scale as in either Egypt or Assyria. The mere fact that they were
+people of the sea rather than of the land precluded extensive or
+concentrated development. Politically Ph&oelig;nicia was divided among
+five cities, and her artistic strength was distributed in a similar
+manner. Such art as was produced showed the religious and decorative
+motives, and in its spiritless materialistic make-up, the commercial
+motive. It was at the best a hybrid, mongrel art, borrowed from many
+sources and distributed to many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> points of the compass. At one time it
+had a strong Assyrian cast, at another an Egyptian cast, and after
+Greece arose it accepted a retroactive influence from there.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to characterize the Ph&oelig;nician type, and even the
+Cypriote type, though more pronounced, varies so with the different
+influences that it has no very striking individuality. Technically
+both the Ph&oelig;nician and Cypriote were fair workmen in bronze and
+stone, and doubtless taught many technical methods to the early
+Greeks, besides making known to them those deities afterward adopted
+under the names of Aphrodite, Adonis, and Heracles, and familiarizing
+them with the art forms of Egypt and Assyria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_011" id="imag_011"></a>
+<img src="images/image_040.jpg" width="400" height="277" alt="FIG. 10.&mdash;CYPRIOTE VASE DECORATION.
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 10.&mdash;CYPRIOTE VASE DECORATION.<br />
+
+
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As for painting, there was undoubtedly figured decoration upon walls
+of stone and plaster, but there is not enough left to us from all the
+small nations like Ph&oelig;nicia, Judea, Cyprus, and the kingdoms of
+Asia Minor, put together, to patch up a disjointed history. The first
+lands to meet the spoiler, their very ruins have perished. All that
+there is of painting comes to us in broken potteries and color traces
+on statuary. The remains of sculpture and architecture are of course
+better preserved. None of this intermediate art holds much rank by
+virtue of its inherent worth. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> its influence upon the West&mdash;the
+ideas, subjects, and methods it imparted to the Greeks&mdash;that gives it
+importance in art history.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>ART REMAINS:</b> In painting chiefly the vases in the
+Metropolitan Museum, New York, the Louvre, British and
+Berlin Museums. These give a poor and incomplete idea of the
+painting in Asia Minor, Ph&oelig;nicia and her colonies. The
+terra-cottas, figurines in bronze, and sculptures can be
+studied to more advantage. The best collection of Cypriote
+antiquities is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. A new
+collection of Judaic art has been recently opened in the
+Louvre.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>GREEK PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Baumeister, <i>Denkm&auml;ler des klassischen
+Altertums</i>&mdash;article "<i>Malerei</i>;" Birch, <i>History of Ancient
+Pottery</i>; Brunn, <i>Geschichte der griechischen K&uuml;nstler</i>;
+Collignon, <i>Mythologie figur&eacute;e de la Gr&egrave;ce</i>; Collignon,
+<i>Manuel d'Archaeologie Grecque</i>; Cros et Henry,
+<i>L'Encaustique et les autres proc&eacute;d&eacute;s de Peinture chez les
+Anciens</i>; Girard, <i>La Peinture Antique</i>; Murray, <i>Handbook
+of Greek Arch&aelig;ology</i>; Overbeck, <i>Antiken Schriftquellen zur
+geschichte der bildenen Kunste bie den Griechen</i>; Perrot and
+Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Greece</i>; Woerman, <i>Die
+Landschaft in der Kunst der antiken Volker</i>; <i>see also books
+on Etruscan and Roman painting</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>GREECE AND THE GREEKS:</b> The origin of the Greek race is not positively
+known. It is reasonably supposed that the early settlers in Greece
+came from the region of Asia Minor, either across the Hellespont or
+the sea, and populated the Greek islands and the mainland. When this
+was done has been matter of much conjecture. The early history is
+lost, but art remains show that in the period before Homer the Greeks
+were an established race with habits and customs distinctly
+individual. Egyptian and Asiatic influences are apparent in their art
+at this early time, but there is, nevertheless, the mark of a race
+peculiarly apart from all the races of the older world.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the Greek people was probably helped by favorable
+climate and soil, by commerce and conquest, by republican institutions
+and political faith, by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> freedom of mind and of body; but all these
+together are not sufficient to account for the keenness of intellect,
+the purity of taste, and the skill in accomplishment which showed in
+every branch of Greek life. The cause lies deeper in the fundamental
+make-up of the Greek mind, and its eternal aspiration toward mental,
+moral, and physical ideals. Perfect mind, perfect body, perfect
+conduct in this world were sought-for ideals. The Greeks aspired to
+completeness. The course of education and race development trained
+them physically as athletes and warriors, mentally as philosophers,
+law-makers, poets, artists, morally as heroes whose lives and actions
+emulated those of the gods, and were almost perfect for this world.</p>
+
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES:</b> Neither the monarchy nor the priesthood commanded the
+services of the artist in Greece, as in Assyria and Egypt. There was
+no monarch in an oriental sense, and the chosen leaders of the Greeks
+never, until the late days, arrogated art to themselves. It was
+something for all the people.</p>
+
+<p>In religion there was a pantheon of gods established and worshipped
+from the earliest ages, but these gods were more like epitomes of
+Greek ideals than spiritual beings. They were the personified virtues
+of the Greeks, exemplars of perfect living; and in worshipping them
+the Greek was really worshipping order, conduct, repose, dignity,
+perfect life. The gods and heroes, as types of moral and physical
+qualities, were continually represented in an allegorical or legendary
+manner. Athene represented noble warfare, Zeus was majestic dignity
+and power, Aphrodite love, Ph&oelig;bus song, Nik&eacute; triumph, and all the
+lesser gods, nymphs, and fauns stood for beauties of nature or of
+life. The great bulk of Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting
+was put forth to honor these gods or heroes, and by so doing the
+artist repeated the national ideals and honored himself. The first
+motive of Greek art, then, was to praise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> Hellas and the Hellenic view
+of life. In part it was a religious motive, but with little of that
+spiritual significance and belief which ruled in Egypt, and later on
+in Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_012" id="imag_012"></a>
+<img src="images/image_044.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="FIG. 11.&mdash;ATTIC GRAVE PAINTING.
+
+
+(FROM BAUMEISTER.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 11.&mdash;ATTIC GRAVE PAINTING.<br />
+
+
+(FROM BAUMEISTER.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A second and ever-present motive in Greek painting was decoration.
+This appears in the tomb pottery of the earliest ages, and was carried
+on down to the latest times. Vase painting, wall painting, tablet and
+sculpture painting were all done with a decorative motive in view.
+Even the easel or panel pictures had some decorative effect about
+them, though they were primarily intended to convey ideas other than
+those of form and color.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBJECTS AND METHODS:</b> The gods and heroes, their lives and adventures,
+formed the early subjects of Greek painting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> Certain themes taken
+from the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were as frequently shown as,
+afterward, the Annunciations in Italian painting. The traditional
+subjects, the Centaurs and Lapiths, the Amazon war, Theseus and
+Ariadne, Perseus and Andromeda, were frequently depicted. Humanity and
+actual Greek life came in for its share. Single figures, still-life,
+<i>genre</i>, caricature, all were shown, and as painting neared the
+Alexandrian age a semi-realistic portraiture came into vogue.</p>
+
+<p>The materials employed by the Greeks and their methods of work are
+somewhat difficult to ascertain, because there are few Greek pictures,
+except those on the vases, left to us. From the confusing accounts of
+the ancient writers, the vases, some Greek slabs in Italy, and the
+Roman paintings imitative of the Greek, we may gain a general idea.
+The early Greek work was largely devoted to pottery and tomb
+decoration, in which much in manner and method was borrowed from Asia,
+Ph&oelig;nicia, and Egypt. Later on, painting appeared in flat outline on
+stone or terra-cotta slabs, sometimes representing processional
+scenes, as in Egypt, and doubtless done in a hybrid fresco-work
+similar to the Egyptian method. Wall paintings were done in fresco and
+distemper, probably upon the walls themselves, and also upon panels
+afterward let into the wall. Encaustic painting (color mixed with wax
+upon the panel and fused with a hot spatula) came in with the
+Sikyonian school. It is possible that the oil medium and canvas were
+known, but not probable that either was ever used extensively.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt about the Greeks being expert draughtsmen, though
+this does not appear until late in history. They knew the outlines
+well, and drew them with force and grace. That they modelled in strong
+relief is more questionable. Light-and-shade was certainly employed in
+the figure, but not in any modern way. Perspective in both figures and
+landscape was used; but the landscape was at first symbolic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+rarely got beyond a decorative background for the figure. Greek
+composition we know little about, but may infer that it was largely a
+series of balances, a symmetrical adjustment of objects to fill a
+given space with not very much freedom allowed to the artist. In
+atmosphere, sunlight, color, and those peculiarly sensuous charms that
+belong to painting, there is no reason to believe that the Greeks
+approached the moderns. Their interest was chiefly centred in the
+human figure. Landscape, with its many beauties, was reserved for
+modern hands to disclose. Color was used in abundance, without doubt,
+but it was probably limited to the leading hues, with little of that
+refinement or delicacy known in painting to-day.</p>
+
+<p><b>ART HISTORY:</b> For the history of Greek painting we have to rely upon
+the words of Aristotle, Plutarch, Pliny, Quintilian, Lucian, Cicero,
+Pausanias. Their accounts appear to be partly substantiated by the
+vase paintings, and such few slabs and Roman frescos as remain to us.
+There is no consecutive narrative. The story of painting originating
+from a girl seeing the wall-silhouette of her lover and filling it in
+with color, and the conjecture of painting having developed from
+embroidery work, have neither of them a foundation in fact. The
+earliest settlers of Greece probably learned painting from the
+Ph&oelig;nicians, and employed it, after the Egyptian, Assyrian, and
+Ph&oelig;nician manner, on pottery, terra-cotta slabs, and rude
+sculpture. It developed slower than sculpture perhaps; but were there
+anything of importance left to judge from, we should probably find
+that it developed in much the same manner as sculpture. Down to 500
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> there was little more than outline filled in with flat
+monochromatic paint and with a decorative effect similar, perhaps, to
+that of the vase paintings. After that date come the more important
+names of artists mentioned by the ancient writers. It is difficult to
+assign these artists to certain periods or schools, owing to the
+insufficient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> knowledge we have about them. The following
+classifications and assignments may, therefore, in some instances, be
+questioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_013" id="imag_013"></a>
+<img src="images/image_047.jpg" width="400" height="506" alt="FIG. 12.&mdash;MUSE OF CORTONA, CORTONA MUSEUM."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 12.&mdash;MUSE OF CORTONA, CORTONA MUSEUM.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_047_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>OLDER ATTIC SCHOOL:</b> The first painter of rank was <b>Polygnotus</b> (fl.
+475-455 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), sometimes called the founder of Greek painting, because
+perhaps he was one of the first important painters in Greece proper.
+He seems to have been a good outline draughtsman, producing figures in
+profile, with little attempt at relief, perspective, or
+light-and-shade. His colors were local tones, but probably more like
+nature and more varied than anything in Egyptian painting. Landscapes,
+buildings, and the like, were given in a symbolic manner. Portraiture
+was a generalization, and in figure com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>positions the names of the
+principal characters were written near them for purposes of
+identification. The most important works of Polygnotus were the wall
+paintings for the Assembly Room of the Knidians at Delphi. The
+subjects related to the Trojan War and the adventures of Ulysses.</p>
+
+<p>Opposed to this flat, unrelieved style was the work of a follower,
+<b>Agatharchos</b> of Samos (fl. end of fifth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>). He was a
+scene-painter, and by the necessities of his craft was led toward
+nature. Stage effect required a study of perspective, variation of
+light, and a knowledge of the laws of optics. The slight outline
+drawing of his predecessor was probably superseded by effective masses
+to create illusion. This was a distinct advance toward nature.
+<b>Apollodorus</b> (fl. end of fifth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) applied the principles of
+Agatharchos to figures. According to Plutarch, he was the first to
+discover variation in the shade of colors, and, according to Pliny,
+the first master to paint objects as they appeared in nature. He had
+the title of <i>skiagraphos</i> (shadow-painter), and possibly gave a
+semi-natural background with perspective. This was an improvement, but
+not a perfection. It is not likely that the backgrounds were other
+than conventional settings for the figure. Even these were not at once
+accepted by the painters of the period, but were turned to profit in
+the hands of the followers.</p>
+
+<p>After the Peloponnesian Wars the art of painting seems to have
+flourished elsewhere than in Athens, owing to the Athenian loss of
+supremacy. Other schools sprang up in various districts, and one to
+call for considerable mention by the ancient writers was the</p>
+
+<p><b>IONIAN SCHOOL</b>, which in reality had existed from the sixth century.
+The painters of this school advanced upon the work of Apollodorus as
+regards realistic effect. <b>Zeuxis</b>, whose fame was at its height during
+the Peloponnesian Wars, seems to have regarded art as a matter of
+illusion, if one may judge by the stories told of his work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> The tale
+of his painting a bunch of grapes so like reality that the birds came
+to peck at them proves either that the painter's motive was deception,
+or that the narrator of the tale picked out the deceptive part of his
+picture for admiration. He painted many subjects, like Helen,
+Penelope, and many <i>genre</i> pieces on panel. Quintilian says he
+originated light-and-shade, an achievement credited by Plutarch to
+Apollodorus. It is probable that he advanced light-and-shade.</p>
+
+<p>In illusion he seems to have been outdone by a rival, <b>Parrhasios</b> of
+Ephesus. Zeuxis deceived the birds with painted grapes, but Parrhasios
+deceived Zeuxis with a painted curtain. There must have been knowledge
+of color, modelling, and relief to have produced such an illusion, but
+the aim was petty and unworthy of the skill. There was evidently an
+advance technically, but some decline in the true spirit of art.
+Parrhasios finally suffered defeat at the hands of <b>Timanthes</b> of
+Kythnos, by a Contest between Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of
+Achilles. Timanthes's famous work was the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, of
+which there is a supposed Pompeian copy.</p>
+
+<p><b>SIKYONIAN SCHOOL:</b> This school seems to have sprung up after the
+Peloponnesian Wars, and was perhaps founded by <b>Eupompos</b>, a
+contemporary of Parrhasios. His pupil <b>Pamphilos</b> brought the school to
+maturity. He apparently reacted from the deception motive of Zeuxis
+and Parrhasios, and taught academic methods of drawing, composing, and
+painting. He was also credited with bringing into use the encaustic
+method of painting, though it was probably known before his time. His
+pupil, <b>Pausias</b>, possessed some freedom of creation in <i>genre</i> and
+still-life subjects. Pliny says he had great technical skill, as shown
+in the foreshortening of a black ox by variations of the black tones,
+and he obtained some fame by a figure of Meth&egrave; (Intoxication) drinking
+from a glass, the face being seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> through the glass. Again the
+motives seem trifling, but again advancing technical power is shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_014" id="imag_014"></a>
+<img src="images/image_050.jpg" width="600" height="457" alt="FIG. 13.&mdash;ODYSSEY LANDSCAPE, VATICAN.
+
+(FROM WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 13.&mdash;ODYSSEY LANDSCAPE, VATICAN.<br />
+
+
+(FROM WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THEBAN-ATTIC SCHOOL:</b> This was the fourth school of Greek painting.
+<b>Nikomachus</b> (fl. about 360 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), a facile painter, was at its head.
+His pupil, <b>Aristides</b>, painted pathetic scenes, and was perhaps as
+remarkable for teaching art to the celebrated <b>Euphranor</b> (fl. 360 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>)
+as for his own productions. Euphranor had great versatility in the
+arts, and in painting was renowned for his pictures of the Olympian
+gods at Athens. His successor, <b>Nikias</b> (fl. 340-300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), was a
+contemporary of Praxiteles, the sculptor, and was possibly influenced
+by him in the painting of female figures. He was a technician of
+ability in composition, light-and-shade, and relief, and was praised
+for the roundness of his figures. He also did some tinting of
+sculpture, and is said to have tinted some of the works of
+Praxiteles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>LATE PAINTERS:</b> Contemporary with and following these last-named
+artists were some celebrated painters who really belong to the
+beginning of the Hellenistic Period (323 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>). At their head was
+<b>Apelles</b>, the painter of Philip and Alexander, and the climax of Greek
+painting. He painted many gods, heroes, and allegories, with much
+"gracefulness," as Pliny puts it. The Italian Botticelli, seventeen
+hundred years after him, tried to reproduce his celebrated Calumny,
+from Lucian's description of it. His chief works were his Aphrodite
+Anadyomene, carried to Rome by Augustus, and the portrait of Alexander
+with the Thunder-bolt. He was undoubtedly a superior man technically.
+<b>Protogenes</b> rivalled him, if we are to believe Petronius, by the foam
+on a dog's mouth and the wonder in the eye of a startled pheasant.
+<b>A&euml;tion</b>, the painter of Alexander's Marriage to Roxana, was not able to
+turn the aim of painting from this deceptive illusion. After
+Alexander, painting passed still further into the imitative and the
+theatrical, and when not grandiloquent was infinitely little over
+cobbler-shops and huckster-stalls. Landscape for purposes of
+decorative composition, and floor painting, done in mosaic, came in
+during the time of the Diadochi. There were no great names in the
+latter days, and such painters as still flourished passed on to Rome,
+there to produce copies of the works of their predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>It is hard to reconcile the unworthy motive attributed to Greek
+painting by the ancient writers with the high aim of Greek sculpture.
+It is easier to think (and it is more probable) that the writers knew
+very little about art, and that they missed the spirit of Greek
+painting in admiring its insignificant details. That painting
+technically was at a high point of perfection as regards the figure,
+even the imitative Roman works indicate, and it can hardly be doubted
+that in spirit it was at one time equally strong.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>EXTANT REMAINS:</b> There are few wall or panel pictures of
+Greek times in existence. Four slabs of stone in the Naples
+Museum, with red outline drawings of Theseus, Silenos, and
+some figures with masks, are probably Greek work from which
+the color has scaled. A number of Roman copies of Greek
+frescos and mosaics are in the Vatican, Capitoline, and
+Naples Museums. All these pieces show an imitation of late
+Hellenistic art&mdash;not the best period of Greek development.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a name="imag_015" id="imag_015"></a>
+<img src="images/image_052.jpg" width="250" height="410" alt="Fig. 14.&mdash;AMPHORE, LOWER ITALY."  />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;AMPHORE, LOWER ITALY.</span>
+</div>
+<p><b>THE VASES:</b> The history of Greek painting in its remains is
+traced with some accuracy in the decorative figures upon the
+vases. The first ware&mdash;dating before the seventh century
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;seems free from oriental influences in its designs.
+The vase is reddish, the decoration is in tiers, bands, or
+zig-zags, usually in black or brown, without the human
+figure. The second kind of ware dates from about the middle
+of the seventh century. It shows meander, wave, and other
+designs, and is called the "geometrical" style. Later on
+animals, rosettes, and vegetation appear that show Assyrian
+influence. The decoration is profuse and the rude human
+figure subordinate to it. The design is in black or
+dark-brown, on a cream-colored slip. The third kind of ware
+is the archaic or "strong" style. It dates from 500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to
+the Peloponnesian Wars, and is marked by black figures upon
+a yellow or red ground. White and purple are also used to
+define flesh, hair, and white objects. The figure is stiff,
+the action awkward, the composition is freer than before,
+but still conventional. The subjects are the gods,
+demi-gods, and heroes in scenes from their lives and
+adventures. The fourth kind of ware dates down into the
+Hellenistic age and shows red figures surrounded by a black
+ground. The figure, the drawing, the composition are better
+than at any other period and suggest a high excellence in
+other forms of Greek painting. After Alexander, vase
+painting seems to have shared the fate of wall and panel
+painting. There was a striving for effect, with ornateness
+and extravagance, and finally the art passed out entirely.</p>
+
+<p>There was an establishment founded in Southern Italy which
+imitated the Greek and produced the Apulian ware, but the
+Romans gave little encouragement to vase painting, and about
+65 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> it disappeared. Almost all the museums of the world
+have collections of Greek vases. The British, Berlin, and
+Paris collections are perhaps as complete as any.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: See Bibliography of Greek Painting and
+also Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>; Graul, <i>Die
+Portratgemalde aus den Grabstatten des Faiyum</i>; Helbig, <i>Die
+Wandgemalde Campaniens</i>; Helbig, <i>Untersuchungen uber die
+Campanische Wandmalerei</i>; Mau, <i>Geschichte der Decorativen
+Wandmalerei in Pompeii</i>; Martha, <i>L'Arch&eacute;ologie &Eacute;trusque et
+Romaine</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>ETRUSCAN PAINTING:</b> Painting in Etruria has not a great deal of
+interest for us just here. It was largely decorative and sepulchral in
+motive, and was employed in the painting of tombs, and upon vases and
+other objects placed in the tombs. It had a native way of expressing
+itself, which at first was neither Greek nor Oriental, and yet a
+reminder of both. Technically it was not well done. Before 500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> it
+was almost childish in the drawing. After that date the figures were
+better, though short and squat. Those on the vases usually show
+outline drawing filled in with dull browns and yellows. Finally there
+was a mingling of Etruscan with Greek elements, and an imitation of
+Greek methods. It was at best a hybrid art, but of some importance
+from an arch&aelig;ological point of view.</p>
+
+<p><b>ROMAN PAINTING:</b> Roman art is an appendix to the art history of Greece.
+It originated little in painting, and was content to perpetuate the
+traditions of Greece in an imitative way. What was worse, it copied
+the degeneracy of Greece by following the degenerate Hellenistic
+paintings. In motive and method it was substantially the same work as
+that of the Greeks under the Diadochi. The subjects, again, were often
+taken from Greek story, though there were Roman historical scenes,
+<i>genre</i> pieces, and many portraits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_016" id="imag_016"></a>
+<img src="images/image_054.jpg" width="600" height="523" alt="FIG. 15.&mdash;RITUAL SCENE, PALATINE WALL PAINTING.
+
+(FROM WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 15.&mdash;RITUAL SCENE, PALATINE WALL PAINTING.<br />
+
+
+(FROM WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the Empire tablet or panel painting was rather
+abandoned in favor of mural decoration. That<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> is to say, figures or
+groups were painted in fresco on the wall and then surrounded by
+geometrical, floral, or architectural designs to give the effect of a
+panel let into the wall. Thus painting assumed a more decorative
+nature. Vitruvius says in effect that in the early days nature was
+followed in these wall paintings, but later on they became ornate and
+overdone, showing many unsupported architectural fa&ccedil;ades and
+impossible decorative framings. This can be traced in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There were four kinds of these wall paintings. (1.)
+Those that covered all the walls of a room and did away with dado,
+frieze, and the like, such as figures with large landscape<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+backgrounds showing villas and trees. (2.) Small paintings separated
+or framed by pilasters. (3.) Panel pictures let into the wall or
+painted with that effect. (4.) Single figures with architectural
+backgrounds. The single figures were usually the best. They had grace
+of line and motion and all the truth to nature that decoration
+required. Some of the backgrounds were flat tints of red or black
+against which the figure was placed. In the larger pieces the
+com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>position was rather rambling and disjointed, and the color harsh.
+In light-and-shade and relief they probably followed the Greek
+example.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_017" id="imag_017"></a>
+<img src="images/image_055.jpg" width="300" height="507" alt="FIG. 16.&mdash;PORTRAIT-HEAD.
+
+
+(FROM FAYOUM, GRAF COL.)"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 16.&mdash;PORTRAIT-HEAD.<br />
+
+
+(FROM FAYOUM, GRAF COL.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>ROMAN PAINTERS:</b> During the first five centuries Rome was between the
+influences of Etruria and Greece. The first paintings in Rome of which
+there is record were done in the Temple of Ceres by the Greek artists
+of Lower Italy, <b>Gorgasos</b> and <b>Damophilos</b> (fl. 493 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>). They were
+doubtless somewhat like the vase paintings&mdash;profile work, without
+light, shade, or perspective. At the time and after Alexander Greek
+influence held sway. <b>Fabius Pictor</b> (fl. about 300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) is one of the
+celebrated names in historical painting, and later on <b>Pacuvius</b>,
+<b>Metrodorus</b>, and <b>Serapion</b> are mentioned. In the last century of the
+Republic, <b>Sopolis</b>, <b>Dionysius</b>, and <b>Antiochus Gabinius</b> excelled in
+portraiture. Ancient painting really ends for us with the destruction
+of Pompeii (79 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), though after that there were interesting
+portraits produced, especially those found in the Fayoum (Egypt).<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Scribner's Magazine, vol. v., p. 219, New Series.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>EXTANT REMAINS:</b> The frescos that are left to us to-day are
+largely the work of mechanical decorators rather than
+creative artists. They are to be seen in Rome, in the Baths
+of Titus, the Vatican, Livia's Villa, Farnesina,
+Rospigliosi, and Barberini Palaces, Baths of Caracalla,
+Capitoline and Lateran Museums, in the houses of excavated
+Pompeii, and the Naples Museum. Besides these there are
+examples of Roman fresco and distemper in the Louvre and
+other European Museums. Examples of Etruscan painting are to
+be seen in the Vatican, Cortona, the Louvre, the British
+Museum and elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDI&AElig;VAL PERIOD. 200-1250.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Bayet, <i>L'Art Byzantin</i>; Bennett,
+<i>Christian Arch&aelig;ology</i>; Bosio, <i>La Roma Sotterranea</i>;
+Burckhardt, <i>The Cicerone, an Art Guide to Painting in
+Italy, ed. by Crowe</i>; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <i>New History
+of Painting in Italy</i>; De Rossi, <i>La Roma Sotterranea
+Cristiana</i>; De Rossi, <i>Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana</i>;
+Didron, <i>Christian Iconography</i>; Eastlake (K&uuml;gler's),
+<i>Handbook of Painting&mdash;The Italian Schools</i>; Garrucci,
+<i>Storia dell' Arte Cristiana</i>; Gerspach, <i>La Mosa&iuml;que</i>;
+Lafenestre, <i>La Peinture Italienne</i>; Lanzi, <i>History of
+Painting in Italy</i>; Lecoy de la Marche, <i>Les Manuscrits et
+la Miniature</i>; Lindsay, <i>Sketches of the History of
+Christian Art</i>; Martigny, <i>Dictionnaire des Antiques
+Chr&eacute;tiennes</i>; P&eacute;rat&eacute;, <i>L'Archeologie Chretienne</i>; Reber,
+<i>History of Medi&aelig;val Art</i>; Rio, <i>Poetry of Christian Art</i>;
+Lethaby, <i>Medieval Art</i>; Smith and Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of
+Christian Antiquities</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>RISE OF CHRISTIANITY:</b> Out of the decaying civilization of Rome sprang
+into life that remarkable growth known as Christianity. It was not
+welcomed by the Romans. It was scoffed at, scourged, persecuted, and,
+at one time, nearly exterminated. But its vitality was stronger than
+that of its persecutor, and when Rome declined, Christianity utilized
+the things that were Roman, while striving to live for ideas that were
+Christian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_018" id="imag_018"></a>
+<img src="images/image_058.jpg" width="500" height="495" alt="FIG. 17.&mdash;CHAMBER IN CATACOMBS, SHOWING WALL
+DECORATION."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 17.&mdash;CHAMBER IN CATACOMBS, SHOWING WALL
+DECORATION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was no revolt, no sudden change. The Christian idea made haste
+slowly, and at the start it was weighed down with many paganisms. The
+Christians themselves in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> all save religious faith, were Romans, and
+inherited Roman tastes, manners, and methods. But the Roman world,
+with all its classicism and learning, was dying. The decline socially
+and intellectually was with the Christians as well as the Romans.
+There was good reason for it. The times were out of joint, and almost
+everything was disorganized, worn out, decadent. The military life of
+the Empire had begun to give way to the monastic and feudal life of
+the Church. Quarrels and wars between the powers kept life at fever
+heat. In the fifth century came the inpouring of the Goths and Huns,
+and with them the sacking and plunder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> of the land. Misery and
+squalor, with intellectual blackness, succeeded. Art, science,
+literature, and learning degenerated to mere shadows of their former
+selves, and a semi-barbarism reigned for five centuries. During all
+this dark period Christian painting struggled on in a feeble way,
+seeking to express itself. It started Roman in form, method, and even,
+at times, in subject; it ended Christian, but not without a long
+period of gradual transition, during which it was influenced from many
+sources and underwent many changes.</p>
+
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES:</b> As in the ancient world, there were two principal motives
+for painting in early Christian times&mdash;religion and decoration.
+Religion was the chief motive, but Christianity was a very different
+religion from that of the Greeks and Romans. The Hellenistic faith was
+a worship of nature, a glorification of humanity, an exaltation of
+physical and moral perfections. It dealt with the material and the
+tangible, and Greek art appealed directly to the sensuous and earthly
+nature of mankind. The Hebraic faith or Christianity was just the
+opposite of this. It decried the human, the flesh, and the worldly. It
+would have nothing to do with the beauty of this earth. Its hopes were
+centred upon the life hereafter. The teaching of Christ was the
+humility and the abasement of the human in favor of the spiritual and
+the divine. Where Hellenism appealed to the senses, Hebraism appealed
+to the spirit. In art the fine athletic figure, or, for that matter,
+any figure, was an abomination. The early Church fathers opposed it.
+It was forbidden by the Mosaic decalogue and savored of idolatry.</p>
+
+<p>But what should take its place in art? How could the new Christian
+ideas be expressed without form? Symbolism came in, but it was
+insufficient. A party in the Church rose up in favor of more direct
+representation. Art should be used as an engine of the Church to teach
+the Bible to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> those who could not read. This argument held good, and
+notwithstanding the opposition of the Iconoclastic party painting grew
+in favor. It lent itself to teaching and came under ecclesiastical
+domination. As it left the nature of the classic world and loosened
+its grasp on things tangible it became feeble and decrepit in its
+form. While it grew in sentiment and religious fervor it lost in
+bodily vigor and technical ability.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_019" id="imag_019"></a>
+<img src="images/image_060.jpg" width="600" height="317" alt="FIG. 18.&mdash;CATACOMB FRESCO. CRYPT OF S. CECILIA. THIRD
+CENTURY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 18.&mdash;CATACOMB FRESCO. CRYPT OF S. CECILIA. THIRD
+CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For many centuries the religious motive held strong, and art was the
+servant of the Church. It taught the Bible truths, but it also
+embellished and adorned the interiors of the churches. All the
+frescos, mosaics, and altar-pieces had a decorative motive in their
+coloring and setting. The church building was a house of refuge for
+the oppressed, and it was made attractive not only in its lines and
+proportions but in its ornamentation. Hence the two motives of the
+early work&mdash;religious teaching and decoration.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBJECTS AND TECHNICAL METHODS:</b> There was no distinct Judaic or
+Christian type used in the very early art. The painters took their
+models directly from the Roman frescos and marbles. It was the classic
+figure and the classic cos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>tume, and those who produced the painting
+of the early period were the degenerate painters of the classic world.
+The figure was rather short and squat, coarse in the joints, hands,
+and feet, and almost expressionless in the face. Christian life at
+that time was passion-strung, but the faces in art do not show it, for
+the reason that the Roman frescos were the painter's model, not the
+people of the Christian community about him. There was nothing like a
+realistic presentation at this time. The type alone was given.</p>
+
+<p>In the drawing it was not so good as that shown in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There was a mechanism about its production, a
+copying by unskilled hands, a negligence or an ignorance of form that
+showed everywhere. The coloring, again, was a conventional scheme of
+flat tints in reddish-browns and bluish-greens, with heavy outline
+bands of brown. There was little perspective or background, and the
+figures in panels were separated by vines, leaves, or other ornamental
+division lines. Some relief was given to the figure by the brown
+outlines. Light-and-shade was not well rendered, and composition was
+formal. The great part of this early work was done in fresco after the
+Roman formula, and was executed on the walls of the Catacombs. Other
+forms of art showed in the gilded glasses, in manuscript illumination,
+and, later, in the mosaics.</p>
+
+<p>Technically the work begins to decline from the beginning in
+proportion as painting was removed from the knowledge of the ancient
+world. About the fifth century the figure grew heavy and stiff. A new
+type began to show itself. The Roman toga was exchanged for the long
+liturgical garment which hid the proportions of the body, the lines
+grew hard and dark, a golden nimbus appeared about the head, and the
+patriarchal in appearance came into art. The youthful Orphic face of
+Christ changed to a solemn visage, with large, round eyes, saint-like
+beard, and melancholy air. The classic qualities were fast
+disappearing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> Eastern types and elements were being introduced
+through Byzantium. Oriental ornamentation, gold embossing, rich color
+were doing away with form, perspective, light-and-shade, and
+background.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_020" id="imag_020"></a>
+<img src="images/image_062.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="FIG. 19.&mdash;CHRIST AS GOOD SHEPHERD. MOSAIC, RAVENNA,
+FIFTH CENTURY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 19.&mdash;CHRIST AS GOOD SHEPHERD. MOSAIC, RAVENNA,
+FIFTH CENTURY.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_062_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The color was rich and the mechanical workmanship fair for the time,
+but the figure had become paralytic. It shrouded itself in a sack-like
+brocaded gown, had no feet at times, and instead of standing on the
+ground hung in the air. Facial expression ran to contorted features,
+holiness became moroseness, and sadness sulkiness. The flesh was
+brown, the shadows green-tinted, giving an unhealthy look to the
+faces. Add to this the gold ground (a Persian inheritance), the gilded
+high lights, the absence of perspective, and the composing of groups
+so that the figures looked piled one upon another instead of receding,
+and we have the style of painting that prevailed in Byzantium and
+Italy from about the ninth to the thirteenth century. Nothing of a
+technical nature was in its favor except the rich coloring and the
+mechanical adroitness of the fitting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING:</b> The earliest Christian painting appeared on
+the walls of the Catacombs in Rome. These were decorated with panels
+and within the panels were representations of trailing vines, leaves,
+fruits, flowers, with birds and little genii or cupids. It was
+painting similar to the Roman work, and had no Christian significance
+though in a Christian place. Not long after, however, the desire to
+express something of the faith began to show itself in a symbolic way.
+The cups and the vases became marked with the fish, because the Greek
+spelling of the word "icthus" gave the initials of the Christian
+confession of faith. The paintings of the shepherd bearing a sheep
+symbolized Christ and his flock; the anchor meant the Christian hope;
+the ph&oelig;nix immortality; the ship the Church; the cock watchfulness,
+and so on. And at this time the decorations began to have a double
+meaning. The vine came to represent the "I am the vine" and the birds
+grew longer wings and became doves, symbolizing pure Christian souls.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said this form of art came about through fear of
+persecution, that the Christians hid their ideas in symbols because
+open representation would be followed by violence and desecration.
+Such was hardly the case. The emperors persecuted the living, but the
+dead and their sepulchres were exempt from sacrilege by Roman law.
+They probably used the symbol because they feared the Roman figure and
+knew no other form to take its place. But symbolism did not supply the
+popular need; it was impossible to originate an entirely new figure;
+so the painters went back and borrowed the old Roman form. Christ
+appeared as a beardless youth in Phrygian costume, the Virgin Mary was
+a Roman matron, and the Apostles looked like Roman senators wearing
+the toga.</p>
+
+<p>Classic story was also borrowed to illustrate Bible truth. Hermes
+carrying the sheep was the Good Shepherd, Psyche discovering Cupid was
+the curiosity of Eve, Ulysses clos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>ing his ears to the Sirens was the
+Christian resisting the tempter. The pagan Orpheus charming the
+animals of the wood was finally adopted as a symbol, or perhaps an
+ideal likeness of Christ. Then followed more direct representation in
+classic form and manner, the Old Testament prefiguring and emphasizing
+the New. Jonah appeared cast into the sea and cast by the whale on dry
+land again as a symbol of the New Testament resurrection, and also as
+a representation of the actual occurrence. Moses striking the rock
+symbolized life eternal, and David slaying Goliath was Christ
+victorious.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_021" id="imag_021"></a>
+<img src="images/image_064.jpg" width="600" height="325" alt="FIG. 20.&mdash;CHRIST AND SAINTS. FRESCO. S. GENEROSA,
+SEVENTH CENTURY (?)."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 20.&mdash;CHRIST AND SAINTS. FRESCO. S. GENEROSA,
+SEVENTH CENTURY (?).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chronology of the Catacombs painting is very much mixed, but it is
+quite certain there was degeneracy from the start. The cause was
+neglect of form, neglect of art as art, mechanical copying instead of
+nature study, and finally, the predominance of the religious idea over
+the forms of nature. With Constantine Christianity was recognized as
+the national religion. Christian art came out of the Catacombs and
+began to show itself in illuminations, mosaics, and church
+decorations. Notwithstanding it was now free from restraint it did not
+improve. Church traditions prevailed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> sentiment bordered upon
+sentimentality, and the technic of painting passed from bad to worse.</p>
+
+<p>The decline continued during the sixth and seventh centuries, owing
+somewhat perhaps to the influence of Byzantium and the introduction
+into Italy of Eastern types and elements. In the eighth century the
+Iconoclastic controversy broke out again in fury with the edict of Leo
+the Isaurian. This controversy was a renewal of the old quarrel in the
+Church about the use of pictures and images. Some wished them for
+instruction in the Word; others decried them as leading to idolatry.
+It was a long quarrel of over a hundred years' duration, and a deadly
+one for art. When it ended, the artists were ordered to follow the
+traditions, not to make any new creations, and not to model any figure
+in the round. The nature element in art was quite dead at that time,
+and the order resulted only in diverting the course of painting toward
+the unrestricted miniatures and manuscripts. The native Italian art
+was crushed for a time by this new ecclesiastical burden. It did not
+entirely disappear, but it gave way to the stronger, though equally
+restricted art that had been encroaching upon it for a long time&mdash;the
+art of Byzantium.</p>
+
+<p><b>BYZANTINE PAINTING:</b> Constantinople was rebuilt and rechristened by
+Constantine, a Christian emperor, in the year 328 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> It became a
+stronghold of Christian traditions, manners, customs, art. But it was
+not quite the same civilization as that of Rome and the West. It was
+bordered on the south and east by oriental influences, and much of
+Eastern thought, method, and glamour found its way into the Christian
+community. The artists fought this influence, stickling a long time
+for the severer classicism of ancient Greece. For when Rome fell the
+traditions of the Old World centred around Constantinople. But classic
+form was ever being encroached upon by oriental richness of material
+and color. The struggle was a long but hopeless one. As in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> Italy,
+form failed century by century. When, in the eighth century, the
+Iconoclastic controversy cut away the little Greek existing in it, the
+oriental ornament was about all that remained.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_022" id="imag_022"></a>
+<img src="images/image_066.jpg" width="300" height="509" alt="FIG. 21.&mdash;EZEKIEL BEFORE THE LORD. MS. ILLUMINATION.
+PARIS, NINTH CENTURY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 21.&mdash;EZEKIEL BEFORE THE LORD. MS. ILLUMINATION.
+PARIS, NINTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was no chance for painting to rise under the prevailing
+conditions. Free artistic creation was denied the artist. An advocate
+of painting at the Second Nicene Council declared that: "It is not the
+invention of the painter that creates the picture, but an inviolable
+law of the Catholic Church. It is not the painter but the holy fathers
+who have to invent and dictate. To them manifestly belongs the
+composition, to the painter only the execution." Painting was in a
+strait-jacket. It had to follow precedent and copy what had gone
+before in old Byzantine patterns. Both in Italy and in Byzantium the
+creative artist had passed away in favor of the skilled artisan&mdash;the
+repeater of time-honored forms or colors. The workmanship was good for
+the time, and the coloring and ornamental borders made a rich setting,
+but the real life of art had gone. A long period of heavy, morose,
+almost formless art, eloquent of medi&aelig;val darkness and ignorance,
+followed.</p>
+
+
+<p>It is strange that such an art should be adopted by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> foreign nations,
+and yet it was. Its bloody crucifixions and morbid madonnas were well
+fitted to the dark view of life held during the Middle Ages, and its
+influence was wide-spread and of long duration. It affected French and
+German art, it ruled at the North, and in the East it lives even to
+this day. That it strongly affected Italy is a very apparent fact.
+Just when it first began to show its influence there is matter of
+dispute. It probably gained a foothold at Ravenna in the sixth
+century, when that province became a part of the empire of Justinian.
+Later it permeated Rome, Sicily, and Naples at the south, and Venice
+at the north. With the decline of the early Christian art of Italy
+this richer, and in many ways more acceptable, Byzantine art came in,
+and, with Italian modifications, usurped the field. It did not
+literally crush out the native Italian art, but practically it
+superseded it, or held it in check, from the ninth to the twelfth
+century. After that the corrupted Italian art once more came to the
+front.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE REMAINS:</b> The best examples of
+Early Christian painting are still to be seen in the
+Catacombs at Rome. Mosaics in the early churches of Rome,
+Ravenna, Naples, Venice, Constantinople. Sculptures,
+ivories, and glasses in the Lateran, Ravenna, and Vatican
+museums. Illuminations in Vatican and Paris libraries.
+Almost all the museums of Europe, those of the Vatican and
+Naples particularly, have some examples of Byzantine work.
+The older altar-pieces of the early Italian churches date
+back to the medi&aelig;val period and show Byzantine influence.
+The altar-pieces of the Greek and Russian churches show the
+same influence even in modern work.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>GOTHIC PERIOD. 1250-1400.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Lindsay, Reber;
+also Burton, <i>Catalogue of Pictures in the National Gallery,
+London</i> (<i>unabridged edition</i>); Cartier, <i>Vie de Fra
+Angelico</i>; F&ouml;rster, <i>Leben und Werke des Fra Angelico</i>;
+Habich, <i>Vade Mecum pour la Peinture Italienne des Anciens
+Ma&icirc;tres</i>; Lacroix, <i>Les Arts au Moyen-Age et &agrave; la &Eacute;poque de
+la Renaissance</i>; Mantz, <i>Les Chefs-d'&oelig;uvre de la Peinture
+Italienne</i>; Morelli, <i>Italian Masters in German Galleries</i>;
+Morelli, <i>Italian Masters, Critical Studies in their Works</i>;
+Rumohr, <i>Italienische Forschungen</i>; Selincourt, <i>Giotto</i>;
+Stillman, <i>Old Italian Masters</i>; Vasari, <i>Lives of the Most
+Eminent Painters</i>; consult also General Bibliography (p.
+xv).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>SIGNS OF THE AWAKENING:</b> It would seem at first as though nothing but
+self-destruction could come to that struggling, praying,
+throat-cutting population that terrorized Italy during the Medi&aelig;val
+Period. The people were ignorant, the rulers treacherous, the passions
+strong, and yet out of the Dark Ages came light. In the thirteenth
+century the light grew brighter, but the internal dissensions did not
+cease. The Hohenstaufen power was broken, the imperial rule in Italy
+was crushed. Pope and emperor no longer warred each other, but the
+cries of "Guelf" and "Ghibelline" had not died out.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the entire Romanesque and Gothic periods (1000-1400) Italy
+was torn by political wars, though the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> free cities, through their
+leagues of protection and their commerce, were prosperous. A
+commercial rivalry sprang up among the cities. Trade with the East,
+manufactures, banking, all flourished; and even the philosophies, with
+law, science, and literature, began to be studied. The spirit of
+learning showed itself in the founding of schools and universities.
+Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, reflecting respectively religion,
+classic learning, and the inclination toward nature, lived and gave
+indication of the trend of thought. Finally the arts, architecture,
+sculpture, painting, began to stir and take upon themselves new
+appearances.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBJECTS AND METHODS:</b> In painting, though there were some portraits
+and allegorical scenes produced during the Gothic period, the chief
+theme was Bible story. The Church was the patron, and art was only the
+servant, as it had been from the beginning. It was the instructor and
+consoler of the faithful, a means whereby the Church made converts,
+and an adornment of wall and altar. It had not entirely escaped from
+symbolism. It was still the portrayal of things for what they meant,
+rather than for what they looked. There was no such thing then as art
+for art's sake. It was art for religion's sake.</p>
+
+<p>The demand for painting increased, and its subjects multiplied with
+the establishment at this time of the two powerful orders of Dominican
+and Franciscan monks. The first exacted from the painters more learned
+and instructive work; the second wished for the crucifixions, the
+martyrdoms, the dramatic deaths, wherewith to move people by emotional
+appeal. To offset this the ultra-religious character of painting was
+encroached upon somewhat by the growth of the painters' guilds, and
+art production largely passing into the hands of laymen. In
+consequence painting produced many themes, but, as yet, only after the
+Byzantine style. The painter was more of a workman than an artist. The
+Church had more use for his fingers than for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> his creative ability. It
+was his business to transcribe what had gone before. This he did, but
+not without signs here and there of uneasiness and discontent with the
+pattern. There was an inclination toward something truer to nature,
+but, as yet, no great realization of it. The study of nature came in
+very slowly, and painting was not positive in statement until the time
+of Giotto and Lorenzetti.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_023" id="imag_023"></a>
+<img src="images/image_070.jpg" width="500" height="531" alt="FIG. 22.&mdash;GIOTTO, FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. ARENA CHAP.
+PADUA."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 22.&mdash;GIOTTO, FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. ARENA CHAP.
+PADUA.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_070_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best paintings during the Gothic period were executed upon the
+walls of the churches in fresco. The prepared color was laid on wet
+plaster, and allowed to soak in. The small altar and panel pictures
+were painted in distemper, the gold ground and many Byzantine features
+being retained by most of the painters, though discarded by some few.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>CHANGES IN THE TYPE, ETC.:</b> The advance of Italian art in the Gothic
+age was an advance through the development of the imposed Byzantine
+pattern. It was not a revolt or a starting out anew on a wholly
+original path. When people began to stir intellectually the artists
+found that the old Byzantine model did not look like nature. They
+began, not by rejecting it, but by improving it, giving it slight
+movements here and there, turning the head, throwing out a hand, or
+shifting the folds of drapery. The Eastern type was still seen in the
+long pathetic face, oblique eyes, green flesh tints, stiff robes, thin
+fingers, and absence of feet; but the painters now began to modify and
+enliven it. More realistic Italian faces were introduced,
+architectural and landscape backgrounds encroached upon the Byzantine
+gold grounds, even portraiture was taken up.</p>
+
+<p>This looks very much like realism, but we must not lay too much stress
+upon it. The painters were taking notes of natural appearances. It
+showed in features like the hands, feet, and drapery; but the anatomy
+of the body had not yet been studied, and there is no reason to
+believe their study of the face was more than casual, nor their
+portraits more than records from memory.</p>
+
+<p>No one painter began this movement. The whole artistic region of Italy
+was at that time ready for the advance. That all the painters moved at
+about the same pace, and continued to move at that pace down to the
+fifteenth century, that they all based themselves upon Byzantine
+teaching, and that they all had a similar style of working is proved
+by the great difficulty in attributing their existing pictures to
+certain masters, or even certain schools. There are plenty of pictures
+in Italy to-day that might be attributed to either Florence or Sienna,
+Giotto or Lorenzetti, or some other master; because though each master
+and each school had slight peculiarities, yet they all had a common
+origin in the art traditions of the time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_024" id="imag_024"></a>
+<img src="images/image_072.jpg" width="500" height="648" alt="FIG. 23.&mdash;ORCAGNA, PARADISE (DETAIL).
+
+S. M. NOVELLA, FLORENCE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 23.&mdash;ORCAGNA, PARADISE (DETAIL).
+
+S. M. NOVELLA, FLORENCE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>FLORENTINE SCHOOL:</b> <b>Cimabue</b> (1240?-1302?) seems the most notable
+instance in early times of a Byzantine-educated painter who improved
+upon the traditions. He has been called the father of Italian
+painting, but Italian painting had no father. Cimabue was simply a man
+of more originality and ability than his contemporaries, and departed
+further from the art teachings of the time without decidedly opposing
+them. He retained the Byzantine pattern, but loosened the lines of
+drapery somewhat, turned the head to one side, infused the figure with
+a little appearance of life. His contemporaries elsewhere in Italy
+were doing the same thing, and none of them was any more than a link
+in the progressive chain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cimabue's pupil, <b>Giotto</b> (1266?-1337), was a great improver on all his
+predecessors because he was a man of extraordinary genius. He would
+have been great in any time, and yet he was not great enough to throw
+off wholly the Byzantine traditions. He tried to do it. He studied
+nature in a general way, changed the type of face somewhat by making
+the jaw squarer, and gave it expression and nobility. To the figure he
+gave more motion, dramatic gesture, life. The drapery was cast in
+broader, simpler masses, with some regard for line, and the form and
+movement of the body were somewhat emphasized through it. In methods
+Giotto was more knowing, but not essentially different from his
+contemporaries; his subjects were from the common stock of religious
+story; but his imaginative force and invention were his own. Bound by
+the conventionalities of his time he could still create a work of
+nobility and power. He came too early for the highest achievement. He
+had genius, feeling, fancy, almost everything except accurate
+knowledge of the laws of nature and art. His art was the best of its
+time, but it still lacked, nor did that of his immediate followers go
+much beyond it technically.</p>
+
+<p><b>Taddeo Gaddi</b> (1300?-1366?) was Giotto's chief pupil, a painter of much
+feeling, but lacking in the large elements of construction and in the
+dramatic force of his master. <b>Agnolo Gaddi</b> (1333?-1396?), <b>Antonio
+Veneziano</b> (1312?-1388?), <b>Giovanni da Milano</b> (fl. 1366), <b>Andrea da
+Firenze</b> (fl. 1377), were all followers of the Giotto methods, and were
+so similar in their styles that their works are often confused and
+erroneously attributed. <b>Giottino</b> (1324?-1357?) was a supposed imitator
+of Giotto, of whom little is known. <b>Orcagna</b> (1329?-1376?) still
+further advanced the Giottesque type and method. He gathered up and
+united in himself all the art teachings of his time. In working out
+problems of form and in delicacy and charm of expression he went
+beyond his predecessors. He was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> a many-sided genius, knowing not only
+in a matter of natural appearance, but in color problems, in
+perspective, shadows, and light. His art was further along toward the
+Renaissance than that of any other Giottesque. He almost changed the
+character of painting, and yet did not live near enough to the
+fifteenth century to accomplish it completely. <b>Spinello Aretino</b>
+(1332?-1410?) was the last of the great Giotto followers. He carried
+out the teachings of the school in technical features, such as
+composition, drawing, and relief by color rather than by light, but he
+lacked the creative power of Giotto. In fact, none of the Giottesque
+can be said to have improved upon the master, taking him as a whole.
+Toward the beginning of the fifteenth century the school rather
+declined.</p>
+
+<p><b>SIENNESE SCHOOL:</b> The art teachings and traditions of the past seemed
+deeper rooted at Sienna than at Florence. Nor was there so much
+attempt to shake them off as at Florence. Giotto broke the immobility
+of the Byzantine model by showing the draped figure in action. So also
+did the Siennese to some extent, but they cared more for the
+expression of the spiritual than the beauty of the natural. The
+Florentines were robust, resolute, even a little coarse at times; the
+Siennese were more refined and sentimental. Their fancy ran to
+sweetness of face rather than to bodily vigor. Again, their art was
+more ornate, richer in costume, color, and detail than Florentine art;
+but it was also more finical and narrow in scope.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_025" id="imag_025"></a>
+<img src="images/image_074.jpg" width="300" height="357" alt="FIG. 24.&mdash;A. LORENZETTI. PEACE (DETAIL). TOWN-HALL, SIENNA."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 24.&mdash;A. LORENZETTI. PEACE (DETAIL). <br />
+TOWN-HALL, SIENNA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was little advance upon Byzantinism in the work of <b>Guido da
+Sienna</b> (fl. 1275). Even <b>Duccio</b> (1260?&mdash;&mdash;?), the real founder of the
+Siennese school, retained Byzantine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> methods and adopted the school
+subjects, but he perfected details of form, such as the hands and
+feet, and while retaining the long Byzantine face, gave it a
+melancholy tenderness of expression. He possessed no dramatic force,
+but had a refined workmanship for his time&mdash;a workmanship perhaps
+better, all told, than that of his Florentine contemporary, Cimabue.
+<b>Simone di Martino</b> (1283?-1344?) changed the type somewhat by rounding
+the form. His drawing was not always correct, but in color he was good
+and in detail exact and minute. He probably profited somewhat by the
+example of Giotto.</p>
+
+<p>The Siennese who came the nearest to Giotto's excellence were the
+brothers <b>Ambrogio</b> (fl. 1342) and <b>Pietro</b> (fl. 1350) <b>Lorenzetti</b>. There
+is little known about them except that they worked together in a
+similar manner. The most of their work has perished, but what remains
+shows an intellectual grasp equal to any of the age. The Sienna
+frescos by Ambrogio Lorenzetti are strong in facial character, and
+some of the figures, like that of the white-robed Peace, are beautiful
+in their flow of line. <b>Lippo Memmi</b> (?-1356), <b>Bartolo di Fredi</b>
+(1330-1410), and <b>Taddeo di Bartolo</b> (1362-1422), were other painters of
+the school. The late men rather carried detail to excess, and the
+school grew conventional instead of advancing.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRANSITION PAINTERS:</b> Several painters, <b>Starnina</b> (1354-1413), <b>Gentile
+da Fabriano</b> (1360?-1440?), <b>Fra Angelico</b> (1387-1455), have been put
+down in art history as the makers of the transition from Gothic to
+Renaissance painting. They hardly deserve the title. There was no
+transition. The development went on, and these painters, coming late
+in the fourteenth century and living into the fifteenth, simply showed
+the changing style, the advance in the study of nature and the technic
+of art. Starnina's work gave strong evidence of the study of form, but
+it was no such work as Masaccio's. There is always a little of the
+past in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> the present, and these painters showed traces of Byzantinism
+in details of the face and figure, in coloring, and in gold embossing.</p>
+
+<p>Gentile had all that nicety of finish and richness of detail and color
+characteristic of the Siennese. Being closer to the Renaissance than
+his predecessors he was more of a nature student. He was the first man
+to show the effect of sunlight in landscape, the first one to put a
+gold sun in the sky. He never, however, outgrew Gothic methods and
+really belongs in the fourteenth century. This is true of Fra
+Angelico. Though he lived far into the Early Renaissance he did not
+change his style and manner of work in conformity with the work of
+others about him. He was the last inheritor of the Giottesque
+traditions. Religious sentiment was the strong feature of his art. He
+was behind Giotto and Lorenzetti in power and in imagination, and
+behind Orcagna as a painter. He knew little of light, shade,
+perspective, and color, and in characterization was feeble, except in
+some late work. One face or type answered him for all classes of
+people&mdash;a sweet, fair face, full of divine tenderness. His art had
+enough nature in it to express his meanings, but little more. He was
+pre-eminently a devout painter, and really the last of the great
+religionists in painting.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="imag_026" id="imag_026"></a>
+<img src="images/image_076.jpg" width="200" height="533" alt="FIG. 25.&mdash;FRA ANGELICO. ANGEL (DETAIL). UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 25.&mdash;FRA ANGELICO. ANGEL (DETAIL). UFFIZI.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other regions of Italy had not at this time developed schools of
+painting of sufficient consequence to mention.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Florentines</span>&mdash;<b>Cimabue</b>, Madonnas S. M.
+Novella and Acad. Florence, frescos Upper Church of Assisi
+(?); <b>Giotto</b>, frescos Upper and Lower churches Assisi, best
+work Arena chapel Padua, Bardi and Peruzzi chapels S. Croce,
+injured frescos Bargello Florence; <b>Taddeo Gaddi</b>, frescos
+entrance wall Baroncelli chapel S. Croce, Spanish chapel S.
+M. Novella (designed by Gaddi (?)); <b>Agnolo Gaddi</b> frescos in
+choir S. Croce, S. Jacopo tra Fossi Florence, panel pictures
+Florence Acad.; <b>Giovanni da Milano</b>, Bewailing of Christ
+Florence Acad., Virgin enthroned Prato Gal., altar-piece
+Uffizi Gal., frescos S. Croce Florence; <b>Antonio Veneziano</b>,
+frescos in ceiling of Spanish chapel, S. M. Novella, Campo
+Santo Pisa; <b>Orcagna</b>, altar-piece Last Judgment and Paradise
+Strozzi chapel S. M. Novella, S. Zenobio Duomo, Saints
+Medici chapel S. Croce, Descent of Holy Spirit Badia
+Florence, altar-piece Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Spinello Aretino</b>, Life
+of St. Benedict S. Miniato al Monte near Florence,
+Annunciation Convent degl' Innocenti Arezzo, frescos Campo
+Santo Pisa, Coronation Florence Acad., Barbarossa frescos
+Palazzo Publico Sienna; <b>Andrea da Firenze</b>, Church Militant,
+Calvary, Crucifixion Spanish chapel, Upper series of Life of
+S. Raniera Campo Santo Pisa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siennese</span>&mdash;<b>Guido da Sienna</b>, Madonna S. Domenico Sienna;
+<b>Duccio</b>, panels Duomo and Acad. Sienna, Madonna Nat. Gal.
+Lon.; <b>Simone di Martino</b>, frescos Palazzo Pubblico, Sienna,
+altar-piece and panels Seminario Vescovile, Pisa Gal.,
+altar-piece and Madonna Opera del Duomo Orvieto; <b>Lippo
+Memmi</b>, frescos Palazzo del Podesta S. Gemignano,
+Annunciation Uffizi Florence; <b>Bartolo di Fredi</b>, altar-pieces
+Acad. Sienna, S. Francesco Montalcino; <b>Taddeo di Bartolo</b>,
+Palazzo Pubblico Sienna, Duomo, S. Gemignano, S. Francesco
+Pisa; <b>Ambrogio Lorenzetti</b>, frescos Palazzo Pubblico Sienna,
+Triumph of Death (with Pietro Lorenzetti) Campo Santo Pisa,
+St. Francis frescos Lower Church Assisi, S. Francesco and S.
+Agostino Sienna, Annunciation Sienna Acad., Presentation
+Florence Acad.; <b>Pietro Lorenzetti</b>, Virgin S. Ansano,
+altar-pieces Duomo Sienna, Parish Church of Arezzo (worked
+with his brother Ambrogio).</p>
+
+<p><b>TRANSITION PAINTERS:</b> <b>Starnina</b>, frescos Duomo Prato
+(completed by pupil); <b>Gentile da Fabriano</b>, Adoration
+Florence Acad., Coronation Brera Milan, Madonna Duomo
+Orvieto; <b>Fra Angelico</b>, Coronation and many small panels
+Uffizi, many pieces Life of Christ Florence Acad., other
+pieces S. Marco Florence, Last Judgment Duomo, Orvieto.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>EARLY RENAISSANCE. 1400-1500.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Habich, Lacroix,
+Mantz, Morelli, Burton, Rumohr, Stillman, Vasari; also Crowe
+and Cavalcaselle, <i>History of Painting in North Italy</i>;
+Berenson, <i>Florentine Painters of Renaissance</i>; Berenson,
+<i>Venetian Painters of Renaissance</i>; Berenson, <i>Central
+Italian Painters of Renaissance</i>; <i>Study and Criticism of
+Italian Art</i>; Boschini, <i>La Carta del Navegar</i>; Calvi,
+<i>Memorie della Vita ed opere di Francesco Raibolini</i>; Cibo,
+<i>Niccolo Alunno e la scuola Umbra</i>; Citadella, <i>Notizie
+relative a Ferrara</i>; Cruttwell, <i>Verrocchio</i>; Cruttwell,
+<i>Pollaiuolo</i>; Morelli, Anonimo, <i>Notizie</i>; Mezzanotte,
+<i>Commentario della Vita di Pietro Vanucci</i>; Mundler, <i>Essai
+d'une Analyse critique de la Notice des tableaux Italiens au
+Louvre</i>; Muntz, <i>Les Pr&eacute;curseurs de la Renaissance</i>; Muntz,
+<i>La Renaissance en Italie et en France</i>; Patch, <i>Life of
+Masaccio</i>; Hill, Pisanello, <i>Publications of the Arundel
+Society</i>; Richter, <i>Italian Art in National Gallery,
+London</i>; Ridolfi, <i>Le Meraviglie dell' Arte</i>; Rosini,
+<i>Storia della Pittura Italiana</i>; Schnaase, <i>Geschichte der
+bildenden Kunste</i>; Symonds, <i>Renaissance in Italy&mdash;the Fine
+Arts</i>; Vischer, <i>Lucas Signorelli und die Italienische
+Renaissance</i>; Waagen, <i>Art Treasures</i>; Waagen, <i>Andrea
+Mantegna und Luca Signorelli</i> (in <i>Raumer's Taschenbuch</i>,
+(1850)); Zanetti, <i>Della Pittura Veneziana</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE ITALIAN MIND:</b> There is no way of explaining the Italian fondness
+for form and color other than by considering the necessities of the
+people and the artistic character of the Italian mind. Art in all its
+phases was not only an adornment but a necessity of Christian
+civilization. The Church taught people by sculpture, mosaic,
+miniature, and fresco. It was an object-teaching, a grasping of ideas
+by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> forms seen in the mind, not a presenting of abstract ideas as in
+literature. Printing was not known. There were few manuscripts, and
+the majority of people could not read. Ideas came to them for
+centuries through form and color, until at last the Italian mind took
+on a plastic and pictorial character. It saw things in symbolic
+figures, and when the Renaissance came and art took the lead as one of
+its strongest expressions, painting was but the color-thought and
+form-language of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_027" id="imag_027"></a>
+<img src="images/image_079.jpg" width="400" height="605" alt="FIG. 26.&mdash;FRA FILIPPO. MADONNA. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 26.&mdash;FRA FILIPPO. MADONNA. UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_079_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And these people, by reason of their peculiar education, were an
+exacting people, knowing what was good and demanding it from the
+artists. Every Italian was, in a way, an art critic, because every
+church in Italy was an art school. The artists may have led the
+people, but the people spurred on the artists, and so the Italian mind
+went on developing and unfolding until at last it produced the great
+art of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE AWAKENING:</b> The Italian civilization of the fourteenth century was
+made up of many impulses and inclinations, none of them very strongly
+defined. There was a feeling about in the dark, a groping toward the
+light, but the lead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>ers stumbled often on the road. There was good
+reason for it. The knowledge of the ancient world lay buried under the
+ruins of Rome. The Italians had to learn it all over again, almost
+without a precedent, almost without a preceptor. With the fifteenth
+century the horizon began to brighten. The Early Renaissance was
+begun. It was not a revolt, a reaction, or a starting out on a new
+path. It was a development of the Gothic period; and the three
+inclinations of the Gothic period&mdash;religion, the desire for classic
+knowledge, and the study of nature&mdash;were carried into the art of the
+time with greater realization.</p>
+
+<p>The inference must not be made that because nature and the antique
+came to be studied in Early Renaissance times that therefore religion
+was neglected. It was not. It still held strong, and though with the
+Renaissance there came about a strange mingling of crime and
+corruption, &aelig;stheticism and immorality, yet the Church was never
+abandoned for an hour. When enlightenment came, people began to doubt
+the spiritual power of the Papacy. They did not cringe to it so
+servilely as before. Religion was not violently embraced as in the
+Middle Ages, but there was no revolt. The Church held the power and
+was still the patron of art. The painter's subjects extended over
+nature, the antique, the fable, allegory, history, portraiture; but
+the religious subject was not neglected. Fully three-quarters of all
+the fifteenth-century painting was done for the Church, at her
+command, and for her purposes.</p>
+
+<p>But art was not so wholly pietistic as in the Gothic age. The study of
+nature and the antique materialized painting somewhat. The outside
+world drew the painter's eyes, and the beauty of the religious subject
+and its sentiment were somewhat slurred for the beauty of natural
+appearances. There was some loss of religious power, but religion had
+much to lose. In the fifteenth century it was still dominant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_028" id="imag_028"></a>
+<img src="images/image_081.jpg" width="500" height="510" alt="FIG. 27.&mdash;BOTTICELLI. CORONATION OF MADONNA. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 27.&mdash;BOTTICELLI. CORONATION OF MADONNA. UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_081_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANTIQUE AND NATURE:</b> The revival of antique learning
+came about in real earnest during this period. The scholars set
+themselves the task of restoring the polite learning of ancient
+Greece, studying coins and marbles, collecting manuscripts, founding
+libraries and schools of philosophy. The wealthy nobles, Palla
+Strozzi, the Albizzi, the Medici, and the Dukes of Urbino, encouraged
+it. In 1440 the Greek was taught in five cities. Immediately
+afterward, with Constantinople falling into the hands of the Turks,
+came an influx of Greek scholars into Italy. Then followed the
+invention of printing and the age of discovery on land and sea. Not
+the antique alone but the natural were being pried into by the spirit
+of inquiry. Botany, geology, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, anatomy,
+law, lit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>erature&mdash;nothing seemed to escape the keen eye of the time.
+Knowledge was being accumulated from every source, and the arts were
+all reflecting it.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the newly discovered classic marbles upon painting
+was not so great as is usually supposed. The painters studied them,
+but did not imitate them. Occasionally in such men as Botticelli and
+Mantegna we see a following of sculpturesque example&mdash;a taking of
+details and even of whole figures&mdash;but the general effect of the
+antique marbles was to impress the painters with the idea that nature
+was at the bottom of it all. They turned to the earth not only to
+study form and feature, but to learn perspective, light, shadow,
+color&mdash;in short, the technical features of art. True, religion was the
+chief subject, but nature and the antique were used to give it
+setting. All the fifteenth-century painting shows nature study, force,
+character, sincerity; but it does not show elegance, grace, or the
+full complement of color. The Early Renaissance was the promise of
+great things; the High Renaissance was the fulfilment.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLORENTINE SCHOOL:</b> The Florentines were draughtsmen more than
+colorists. The chief medium was fresco on the walls of buildings, and
+architectural necessities often dictated the form of compositions.
+Distemper in easel pictures was likewise used, and oil-painting,
+though known, was not extensively employed until the last quarter of
+the century. In technical knowledge and intellectual grasp Florence
+was at this time the leader and drew to her many artists from
+neighboring schools. <b>Masaccio</b> (1401?-1428?) was the first great nature
+student of the Early Renaissance, though his master, <b>Masolino</b>
+(1383-1447), had given proof positive of severe nature study in bits
+of modelling, in drapery, and in portrait heads. Masaccio, however,
+seems the first to have gone into it thoroughly and to have grasped
+nature as a whole. His mastery of form, his plastic composition, his
+free, broad folds of drapery, and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> knowledge of light and
+perspective, all placed him in the front rank of fifteenth-century
+painters. Though an exact student he was not a literalist. He had a
+large artistic sense, a breadth of view, and a comprehension of nature
+as a mass that Michael Angelo and Raphael did not disdain to follow.
+He was not a pietist, and there was no great religious feeling in his
+work. Dignified truthful appearance was his creed, and in this he was
+possibly influenced by Donatello the sculptor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_029" id="imag_029"></a>
+<img src="images/image_083.jpg" width="500" height="619" alt="FIG. 28.&mdash;GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 28.&mdash;GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_083_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He came early in the century and died early, but his contemporaries
+did not continue the advance from where he carried it. There was
+wavering all along the line. Some from lack of genius could not equal
+him, others took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> up nature with indecision, and others clung fondly
+to the gold-embossed ornaments and gilded halos of the past. <b>Paolo
+Uccello</b> (1397?-1475), <b>Andrea Castagno</b> (1390-1457), <b>Benozzo Gozzoli</b>
+(1420?-1497?), <b>Baldovinetti</b> (1427-1499), <b>Antonio del Pollajuolo</b>
+(1426-1498), <b>Cosimo Rosselli</b> (1439-1507), can hardly be looked upon as
+improvements upon the young leader. The first real successor of
+Masaccio was his contemporary, and possibly his pupil, the monk <b>Fra
+Filippo Lippi</b> (1406-1469). He was a master of color and
+light-and-shade for his time, though in composition and command of
+line he did not reach up to Masaccio. He was among the first of the
+painters to take the individual faces of those about him as models for
+his sacred characters, and clothe them in contemporary costume. Piety
+is not very pronounced in any of his works, though he is not without
+imagination and feeling, and there is in his women a charm of
+sweetness. His tendency was to materialize the sacred characters.</p>
+
+<p>With <b>Filippino</b> (1457?-1504), <b>Botticelli</b> (1446-1510), and <b>Ghirlandajo</b>
+(1449-1494) we find a degree of imagination, culture, and independence
+not surpassed by any of the Early Florentines. Filippino modelled his
+art upon that of his father, Fra Filippo, and was influenced by
+Botticelli. He was the weakest of the trio, without being by any means
+a weak man. On the contrary, he was an artist of fine ability, much
+charm and tenderness, and considerable style, but not a great deal of
+original force, though occasionally doing forceful things. Purity in
+his type and graceful sentiment in pose and feature seem more
+characteristic of his work. Botticelli, even, was not so remarkable
+for his strength as for his culture, and an individual way of looking
+at things. He was a pupil of Fra Filippo, a man imbued with the
+religious feeling of Dante and Savonarola, a learned student of the
+antique and one of the first to take subjects from it, a severe nature
+student, and a painter of much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> technical skill. Religion, classicism,
+and nature all met in his work, but the mingling was not perfect.
+Religious feeling and melancholy warped it. His willowy figures,
+delicate and refined in drawing, are more passionate than powerful,
+more individual than comprehensive, but they are nevertheless very
+attractive in their tenderness and grace.</p>
+
+<p>Without being so original or so attractive an artist as Botticelli,
+his contemporary, Ghirlandajo, was a stronger one. His strength came
+more from assimilation than from invention. He combined in his work
+all the art learning of his time. He drew well, handled drapery simply
+and beautifully, was a good composer, and, for Florence, a good
+colorist. In addition, his temperament was robust, his style
+dignified, even grand, and his execution wonderfully free. He was the
+most important of the fifteenth-century technicians, without having
+any peculiar distinction or originality, and in spite of being rather
+prosaic at times.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="imag_030" id="imag_030"></a>
+<img src="images/image_085.jpg" width="350" height="517" alt="FIG. 29.&mdash;FRANCESCA. DUKE OF URBINO. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 29.&mdash;FRANCESCA. DUKE OF URBINO. UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_085_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Verrocchio</b> (1435-1488) was more of a sculptor than a painter, but in
+his studio were three celebrated pupils&mdash;Perugino, Leonardo da Vinci,
+and Lorenzo di Credi&mdash;who were half-way between the Early and the High
+Renaissance. Only one of them, Leonardo, can be classed among the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+High Renaissance men. Perugino belongs to the Umbrian school, and
+<b>Lorenzo di Credi</b> (1450-1537), though Florentine, never outgrew the
+fifteenth century. He was a pure painter, with much feeling, but weak
+at times. His drawing was good, but his painting lacked force, and he
+was too pallid in flesh color. There is much detail, study, and
+considerable grace about his work, but little of strength. <b>Piero di
+Cosimo</b> (1462-1521) was fond of mythological and classical studies, was
+somewhat fantastic in composition, pleasant in color, and rather
+distinguished in landscape backgrounds. His work strikes one as
+eccentric, and eccentricity was the strong characteristic of the man.</p>
+
+<p><b>UMBRIAN AND PERUGIAN SCHOOLS:</b> At the beginning of the fifteenth
+century the old Siennese school founded by Duccio and the Lorenzetti
+was in a state of decline. It had been remarkable for intense
+sentiment, and just what effect this sentiment of the old Siennese
+school had upon the painters of the neighboring Umbrian school of the
+early fifteenth century is a matter of speculation with historians. It
+must have had some, though the early painters, like <b>Ottaviano Nelli</b>,
+do not show it. That which afterward became known as the Umbrian
+sentiment probably first appeared in the work of <b>Niccol&ograve; da Foligno</b>
+(1430?-1502), who was probably a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli, who was, in
+turn, a pupil of Fra Angelico. That would indicate Florentine
+influence, but there were many influences at work in this upper-valley
+country. Sentiment had been prevalent enough all through Central
+Italian painting during the Gothic age&mdash;more so at Sienna than
+elsewhere. With the Renaissance Florence rather forsook sentiment for
+precision of forms and equilibrium of groups; but the Umbrian towns
+being more provincial, held fast to their sentiment, their detail, and
+their gold ornamentation. Their influence upon Florence was slight,
+but the influence of Florence upon them was considerable. The larger
+city drew the provincials its way to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> learn the new methods. The
+result was a group of Umbro-Florentine painters, combining some
+up-country sentiment with Florentine technic. Gentile da Fabriano,
+Niccolo da Foligno, <b>Bonfiglio</b> (1425?-1496?), and <b>Fiorenzo di Lorenzo</b>
+(1444?-1520) were of this mixed character.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_031" id="imag_031"></a>
+<img src="images/image_087.jpg" width="400" height="514" alt="FIG. 30.&mdash;SIGNORELLI. THE CURSE (DETAIL). ORVIETO."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 30.&mdash;SIGNORELLI. THE CURSE (DETAIL). ORVIETO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most positive in methods among the early men was <b>Piero della
+Francesca</b> (1420?-1492). Umbrian born, but Florentine trained, he
+became more scientific than sentimental, and excelled as a craftsman.
+He knew drawing, perspective, atmosphere, light-and-shade in a way
+that rather foreshadowed Leonardo da Vinci. From working in the
+Umbrian country his influence upon his fellow-Umbrians was large. It
+showed directly in <b>Signorelli</b> (1441?-1523), whose master he was, and
+whose style he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> probably formed. Signorelli was Umbrian born, like
+Piero, but there was not much of the Umbrian sentiment about him. He
+was a draughtsman and threw his strength in line, producing athletic,
+square-shouldered figures in violent action, with complicated
+foreshortenings quite astonishing. The most daring man of his time, he
+was a master in anatomy, composition, motion. There was nothing select
+about his type, and nothing charming about his painting. His color was
+hot and coarse, his lights lurid, his shadows brick red. He was,
+however, a master-draughtsman, and a man of large conceptions and
+great strength. <b>Melozzo da Forli</b> (1438-1494), of whom little is known,
+was another pupil of Piero, and <b>Giovanni Santi</b> (1435?-1494), the
+father of Raphael, was probably influenced by both of these last
+named.</p>
+
+<p>The true descent of the Umbrian sentiment was through Foligno and
+Bonfiglio to <b>Perugino</b> (1446-1524). Signorelli and Perugino seem
+opposed to each other in their art. The first was the forerunner of
+Michael Angelo, the second was the master of Raphael; and the
+difference between Michael Angelo and Raphael was, in a less varied
+degree, the difference between Signorelli and Perugino. The one showed
+Florentine line, the other Umbrian sentiment and color. It is in
+Perugino that we find the old religious feeling. Fervor, tenderness,
+and devotion, with soft eyes, delicate features, and pathetic looks
+characterized his art. The figure was slight, graceful, and in pose
+sentimentally inclined to one side. The head was almost affectedly
+placed on the shoulders, and the round olive face was full of wistful
+tenderness. This Perugino type, used in all his paintings, is well
+described by Taine as a "body belonging to the Renaissance containing
+a soul that belonged to the Middle Ages." The sentiment was more
+purely human, however, than in such a painter, for instance, as Fra
+Angelico. Religion still held with Perugino and the Umbrians, but
+even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> with them it was becoming materialized by the beauty of the
+world about them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_032" id="imag_032"></a>
+<img src="images/image_089.jpg" width="500" height="528" alt="FIG. 31.&mdash;PERUGINO. MADONNA, SAINTS, AND ANGELS.
+LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 31.&mdash;PERUGINO. MADONNA, SAINTS, AND ANGELS.
+LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_089_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a technician Perugino was excellent. There was no dramatic fire and
+fury about him. The composition was simple, with graceful figures in
+repose. The coloring was rich, and there were many brilliant effects
+obtained by the use of oils. He was among the first of his school to
+use that medium. His friend and fellow-worker, <b>Pinturricchio</b>
+(1454-1513), did not use oils, but was a superior man in fresco. In
+type and sentiment he was rather like Perugino, in composition a
+little extravagant and huddled, in landscape backgrounds quite
+original and inventive. He never was a serious rival of Perugino,
+though a more varied and interesting painter. Perugino's best pupil,
+after Raphael,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> was <b>Lo Spagna</b> (?-1530?), who followed his master's
+style until the High Renaissance, when he became a follower of
+Raphael.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOLS OF FERRARA AND BOLOGNA:</b> The painters of Ferrara, in the
+fifteenth century, seemed to have relied upon Padua for their
+teaching. The best of the early men was <b>Cosimo Tura</b> (1430-1495), who
+showed the Paduan influence of Squarcione in anatomical insistences,
+coarse joints, infinite detail, and fantastic ornamentation. He was
+probably the founder of the school in which <b>Francesco Cossa</b> (fl.
+1435-1480), a <i>naif</i> and strong, if somewhat morbid painter, <b>Ercole di
+Giulio Grandi</b> (fl. 1465-1535), and <b>Lorenzo Costa</b> (1460?-1535) were the
+principal masters. Cossa and Grandi, it seems, afterward removed to
+Bologna, and it was probably their move that induced Lorenzo Costa to
+follow them. In that way the Ferrarese school became somewhat
+complicated with the Bolognese school, and is confused in its history
+to this day. Costa was not unlikely the real founder, or, at the
+least, the strongest influencer of the Bolognese school. He was a
+painter of a rugged, manly type, afterward tempered by Southern
+influences to softness and sentiment. This was the result of Paduan
+methods meeting at Bologna with Umbrian sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>The Perugino type and influence had found its way to Bologna, and
+showed in the work of <b>Francia</b> (1450-1518), a contemporary and
+fellow-worker with Costa. Though trained as a goldsmith, and learning
+painting in a different school, Francia, as regards his sentiment,
+belongs in the same category with Perugino. Even his subjects, types,
+and treatment were, at times, more Umbrian than Bolognese. He was not
+so profound in feeling as Perugino, but at times he appeared loftier
+in conception. His color was usually rich, his drawing a little sharp
+at first, as showing the goldsmith's hand, the surfaces smooth, the
+detail elaborate. Later on, his work had a Raphaelesque tinge,
+show<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>ing perhaps the influence of that rising master. It is probable
+that Francia at first was influenced by Costa's methods, and it is
+quite certain that he in turn influenced Costa in the matter of
+refined drawing and sentiment, though Costa always adhered to a
+certain detail and ornament coming from the north, and a landscape
+background that is peculiar to himself, and yet reminds one of
+Pinturricchio's landscapes. These two men, Francia and Costa, were the
+Perugino and Pinturricchio of the Ferrara-Bolognese school, and the
+most important painters in that school.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_033" id="imag_033"></a>
+<img src="images/image_091.jpg" width="400" height="517" alt="FIG. 32.&mdash;SCHOOL OF FRANCIA. MADONNA AND CHILD.
+LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 32.&mdash;SCHOOL OF FRANCIA. MADONNA AND CHILD.
+LOUVRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE LOMBARD SCHOOL:</b> The designation of the Lombard school is rather a
+vague one in the history of painting, and is used by historians to
+cover a number of isolated schools<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> or men in the Lombardy region. In
+the fifteenth century these schools counted for little either in men
+or in works. The principal activity was about Milan, which drew
+painters from Brescia, Vincenza, and elsewhere to form what is known
+as the Milanese school. <b>Vincenzo Foppa</b> (fl. 1455-1492), of Brescia,
+and afterward at Milan, was probably the founder of this Milanese
+school. His painting is of rather a harsh, exacting nature, and points
+to the influence of Padua, at which place he perhaps got his early art
+training. <b>Borgognone</b> (1450-1523) is set down as his pupil, a painter
+of much sentiment and spiritual feeling. The school was afterward
+greatly influenced by the example of Leonardo da Vinci, as will be
+shown further on.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Florentines</span>&mdash;<b>Masaccio</b>, frescos in Brancacci
+Chapel Carmine Florence (the series completed by Filippino);
+<b>Masolino</b>, frescos Church and Baptistery Castiglione d'
+Olona; <b>Paolo Uccello</b>, frescos S. M. Novella, equestrian
+portrait Duomo Florence, battle-pieces in Louvre and Nat.
+Gal. Lon.; <b>Andrea Castagno</b>, heroes and sibyls Uffizi,
+altar-piece Acad. Florence, equestrian portrait Duomo
+Florence; <b>Benozzo Gozzoli</b>, Francesco Montefalco, Magi
+Ricardi palace Florence, frescos Campo Santo Pisa;
+<b>Baldovinetti</b>, Portico of the Annunziata Florence,
+altar-pieces Uffizi; <b>Antonio Pollajuolo</b>, Hercules Uffizi,
+St. Sebastian Pitti and Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Cosimo Rosselli</b>,
+frescos S. Ambrogio Florence, Sistine Chapel Rome, Madonna
+Uffizi; <b>Fra Filippo</b>, frescos Cathedral Prato, altar-pieces
+Florence Acad., Uffizi, Pitti and Berlin Gals., Nat. Gal.
+Lon.; <b>Filippino</b>, frescos Carmine Florence, Caraffa Chapel
+Minerva Rome, S. M. Novella and Acad. Florence, S. Domenico
+Bologna, easel pictures in Pitti, Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Berlin Mus., Old Pinacothek Munich; <b>Botticelli</b>, frescos
+Sistine Chapel Rome, Spring and Coronation Florence Acad.,
+Venus, Calumny, Madonnas Uffizi, Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Louvre, etc.; <b>Ghirlandajo</b>, frescos Sistine Chapel Rome, S.
+Trinit&agrave; Florence, S. M. Novella, Palazzo Vecchio,
+altar-pieces Uffizi and Acad. Florence, Visitation Louvre;
+<b>Verrocchio</b>, Baptism of Christ Acad. Florence; <b>Lorenzo di
+Credi</b>, Nativity Acad. Florence, Madonnas Louvre and Nat.
+Gal. Lon., Holy Family Borghese Gal. Rome; <b>Piero di Cosimo</b>,
+Perseus and Andromeda Uffizi, Procris Nat. Gal. Lon., Venus
+and Mars Berlin Gal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Umbrians</span>&mdash;<b>Ottaviano Nelli</b>, altar-piece S. M. Nuovo Gubbio,
+St. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Augustine legends S. Agostino Gubbio; <b>Niccol&ograve; da
+Foligno</b>, altar-piece S. Niccol&ograve; Foligno; <b>Bonfigli</b>, frescos
+Palazzo Communale, altar-pieces Acad. Perugia; <b>Fiorenzo di
+Lorenzo</b>, many pictures Acad. Perugia, Madonna Berlin Gal.;
+<b>Piero della Francesca</b>, frescos Communit&aacute; and Hospital Borgo
+San Sepolcro, San Francesco Arezzo, Chapel of the Relicts
+Rimini, portraits Uffizi, pictures Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+<b>Signorelli</b>, frescos Cathedral Orvieto, Sistine Rome, Palazzo
+Petrucci Sienna, altar-pieces Arezzo, Cortona, Perugia,
+pictures Pitti, Uffizi, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+<b>Melozzo da Forli</b>, angels St. Peter's Rome, frescos Vatican,
+pictures Berlin and Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Giovanni Santi</b>,
+Annunciation Milan, Pieta Urbino, Madonnas Berlin, Nat. Gal.
+Lon., S. Croce Fano; <b>Perugino</b>, frescos Sistine Rome,
+Crucifixion S. M. Maddalena Florence, Sala del Cambio
+Perugia, altar-pieces Pitti, Fano, Cremona, many pictures in
+European galleries; <b>Pinturricchio</b>, frescos S. M. del Popolo,
+Appartamento Borgo Vatican, Bufolini Chapel Aracoeli Rome,
+Duomo Library Sienna, altar-pieces Perugia and Sienna
+Acads., Pitti, Louvre; <b>Lo Spagna</b>, Madonna Lower Church
+Assisi, frescos at Spoleto, Turin, Perugia, Assisi.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ferrarese and Bolognese</span>&mdash;<b>Cosimo Tura</b>, altar-pieces Berlin
+Mus., Bergamo, Museo Correr Venice, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+<b>Francesco Cossa</b>, altar-pieces S. Petronio and Acad. Bologna,
+Dresden Gal.; Grandi, St. George Corsini Pal. Rome, several
+canvases Constabili Collection Ferrara; <b>Lorenzo Costa</b>,
+frescos S. Giacomo Maggiore, altar-pieces S. Petronio, S.
+Giovanni in Monte and Acad. Bologna, also Louvre, Berlin,
+and Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Francia</b>, altar-pieces S. Giacomo
+Maggiore, S. Martino Maggiore, and many altar-pieces in
+Acad. Bologna, Annunciation Brera Milan, Rose Garden Munich,
+Pieta Nat. Gal. Lon., Scappi Portrait Uffizi, Baptism
+Dresden.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lombards</span>&mdash;<b>Foppa</b>, altar-pieces S. Maria di Castello Savona,
+Borromeo Col. Milan, Carmine Brescia, panels Brera Milan;
+<b>Borgognone</b>, altar-pieces Certosa of Pavia, Church of
+Melegnano, S. Ambrogio, Ambrosian Lib., Brera Milan, Nat.
+Gal. Lon.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>EARLY RENAISSANCE&mdash;1400-1500&mdash;CONTINUED.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Those on Italian art before mentioned;
+also consult the General Bibliography (page xv.)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>PADUAN SCHOOL:</b> It was at Padua in the north that the influence of the
+classic marbles made itself strongly apparent. Umbria remained true to
+the religious sentiment, Florence engaged itself largely with nature
+study and technical problems, introducing here and there draperies and
+poses that showed knowledge of ancient sculpture, but at Padua much of
+the classic in drapery, figures, and architecture seems to have been
+taken directly from the rediscovered antique or the modern bronze.</p>
+
+<p>The early men of the school were hardly great enough to call for
+mention. During the fourteenth century there was some Giotto influence
+felt&mdash;that painter having been at Padua working in the Arena Chapel.
+Later on there was a slight influence from Gentile da Fabriano and his
+fellow-worker Vittore Pisano, of Verona. But these influences seem to
+have died out and the real direction of the school in the early
+fifteenth century was given by <b>Francesco Squarcione</b> (1394-1474). He
+was an enlightened man, a student, a collector and an admirer of
+ancient sculpture, and though no great painter himself he taught an
+anatomical statuesque art, based on ancient marbles and nature, to
+many pupils.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Squarcione's work has perished, but his teaching was reflected in the
+work of his great pupil <b>Andrea Mantegna</b> (1431-1506). Yet Mantegna
+never received the full complement of his knowledge from Squarcione.
+He was of an observing nature and probably studied Paolo Uccello and
+Fra Filippo, some of whose works were then in Paduan edifices. He
+gained color knowledge from the Venetian Bellinis, who lived at Padua
+at one time and who were connected with Mantegna by marriage. But the
+sculpturesque side of his art came from Squarcione, from a study of
+the antique, and from a deeper study of Donatello, whose bronzes to
+this day are to be seen within and without the Paduan Duomo of S.
+Antonio.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_034" id="imag_034"></a>
+<img src="images/image_095.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="FIG. 33.&mdash;MANTEGNA. GONZAGA FAMILY GROUP (DETAIL).
+MANTUA."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 33.&mdash;MANTEGNA. GONZAGA FAMILY GROUP (DETAIL).
+MANTUA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sculpturesque is characteristic of Mantegna's work. His people are
+hard, rigid at times, immovable human beings, not so much turned to
+stone as turned to bronze&mdash;the bronze of Donatello. There is little
+sense of motion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> about them. The figure is sharp and harsh, the
+drapery, evidently studied from sculpture, is "liney," and the
+arch&aelig;ology is often more scientific than artistic. Mantegna was not,
+however, entirely devoted to the sculpturesque. He was one of the
+severest nature students of the Early Renaissance, knew about nature,
+and carried it out in more exacting detail than was perhaps well for
+his art. In addition he was a master of light-and-shade, understood
+composition, space, color, atmosphere, and was as scientific in
+perspective as Piero della Francesca. There is stiffness in his
+figures but nevertheless great truth and character. The forms are
+noble, even grand, and for invention and imagination they were never,
+in his time, carried further or higher. He was little of a
+sentimentalist or an emotionalist, not much of a brush man or a
+colorist, but as a draughtsman, a creator of noble forms, a man of
+power, he stood second to none in the century.</p>
+
+<p>Of Squarcione's other pupils <b>Pizzolo</b> (fl. 1470) was the most
+promising, but died early. <b>Marco Zoppo</b> (1440-1498) seems to have
+followed the Paduan formula of hardness, dryness, and exacting detail.
+He was possibly influenced by Cosimo Tura, and in turn influenced
+somewhat the Ferrara-Bolognese school. Mantegna, however, was the
+greatest of the school, and his influence was far-reaching. It
+affected the school of Venice in matters of drawing, beside
+influencing the Lombard and Veronese schools in their beginnings.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOLS OF VERONA AND VICENZA:</b> Artistically Verona belonged with the
+Venetian provinces, because it was largely an echo of Venice except at
+the very start. <b>Vittore Pisano</b> (1380-1456), called Pisanello, was the
+earliest painter of note, but he was not distinctly Veronese in his
+art. He was medallist and painter both, worked with Gentile da
+Fabriano in the Ducal Palace at Venice and elsewhere, and his art
+seems to have an affinity with that of his companion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Liberale da Verona</b> (1451-1536?) was at first a miniaturist, but
+afterward developed a larger style based on a following of Mantegna's
+work, with some Venetian influences showing in the coloring and
+backgrounds. <b>Francesco Bonsignori</b> (1455-1519) was of the Verona
+school, but established himself later at Mantua and was under the
+Mantegna influence. His style at first was rather severe, but he
+afterward developed much ability in portraiture, historical work,
+animals, and architectural features. <b>Francesco Caroto</b> (1470-1546), a
+pupil of Liberale, really belongs to the next century&mdash;the High
+Renaissance&mdash;but his early works show his education in Veronese and
+Paduan methods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_035" id="imag_035"></a>
+<img src="images/image_097.jpg" width="400" height="532" alt="FIG. 34.&mdash;B. VIVARINI. MADONNA AND CHILD. TURIN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 34.&mdash;B. VIVARINI. MADONNA AND CHILD. TURIN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the school of Vicenza the only master of much note<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> in this Early
+Renaissance time was <b>Bartolommeo Montagna</b> (1450?-1523), a painter in
+both oil and fresco of much severity and at times grandeur of style.
+In drawing he was influenced by Mantegna, in composition and coloring
+he showed a study of Giovanni Bellini and Carpaccio.</p>
+
+<p><b>VENETIAN LIFE AND ART:</b> The conditions of art production in Venice
+during the Early Renaissance were quite different from those in
+Florence or Umbria. By the disposition of her people Venice was not a
+learned or devout city. Religion, though the chief subject, was not
+the chief spirit of Venetian art. Christianity was accepted by the
+Venetians, but with no fevered enthusiasm. The Church was strong
+enough there to defy the Papacy at one time, and yet religion with the
+people was perhaps more of a civic function or a duty than a spiritual
+worship. It was sincere in its way, and the early painters painted its
+subjects with honesty, but the Venetians were much too proud and
+worldly minded to take anything very seriously except their own
+splendor and their own power.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the Venetians were not humanists or students of the revived
+classic. They housed manuscripts, harbored exiled humanists, received
+the influx of Greek scholars after the fall of Constantinople, and
+later the celebrated Aldine press was established in Venice; but, for
+all that, classic learning was not the fancy of the Venetians. They
+made no quarrel over the relative merits of Plato and Aristotle, dug
+up no classic marbles, had no revival of learning in a Florentine
+sense. They were merchant princes, winning wealth by commerce and
+expending it lavishly in beautifying their island home. Not to attain
+great learning, but to revel in great splendor, seems to have been
+their aim. Life in the sovereign city of the sea was a worthy
+existence in itself. And her geographical and political position aided
+her prosperity. Unlike Florence she was not torn by contending princes
+within and foreign foes without&mdash;at least not to her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> harm. She had
+her wars, but they were generally on distant seas. Popery, Paganism,
+Despotism, all the convulsions of Renaissance life threatened but
+harmed her not. Free and independent, her kingdom was the sea, and her
+livelihood commerce, not agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>The worldly spirit of the Venetian people brought about a worldly and
+luxurious art. Nothing in the disposition or education of the
+Venetians called for the severe or the intellectual. The demand was
+for rich decoration that would please the senses without stimulating
+the intellect or firing the imagination to any great extent. Line and
+form were not so well suited to them as color&mdash;the most sensuous of
+all mediums. Color prevailed through Venetian art from the very
+beginning, and was its distinctive characteristic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_036" id="imag_036"></a>
+<img src="images/image_099.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="FIG. 35.&mdash;GIOVANNI BELLINI. MADONNA OF SS. GEORGE AND
+PAUL. VENICE ACAD."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 35.&mdash;GIOVANNI BELLINI. MADONNA OF SS. GEORGE AND
+PAUL. VENICE ACAD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where this love of color came from is matter of specula<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>tion. Some say
+out of Venetian skies and waters, and, doubtless, these had something
+to do with the Venetian color-sense; but Venice in its color was also
+an example of the effect of commerce on art. She was a trader with the
+East from her infancy&mdash;not Constantinople and the Byzantine East
+alone, but back of these the old Mohammedan East, which for a thousand
+years has cast its art in colors rather than in forms. It was Eastern
+ornament in mosaics, stuffs, porcelains, variegated marbles, brought
+by ship to Venice and located in S. Marco, in Murano, and in Torcello,
+that first gave the color-impulse to the Venetians. If Florence was
+the heir of Rome and its austere classicism, Venice was the heir of
+Constantinople and its color-charm. The two great color spots in Italy
+at this day are Venice and Ravenna, commercial footholds of the
+Byzantines in Medi&aelig;val and Renaissance days. It may be concluded
+without error that Venice derived her color-sense and much of her
+luxurious and material view of life from the East.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE EARLY VENETIAN PAINTERS:</b> Painting began at Venice with the
+fabrication of mosaics and ornamental altar-pieces of rich gold
+stucco-work. The "Greek manner"&mdash;that is, the Byzantine&mdash;was practised
+early in the fifteenth century by <b>Jacobello del Fiore</b> and <b>Semitecolo</b>,
+but it did not last long. Instead of lingering for a hundred years, as
+at Florence, it died a natural death in the first half of the
+fifteenth century. Gentile da Fabriano, who was at Venice about 1420,
+painting in the Ducal Palace with Pisano as his assistant, may have
+brought this about. He taught there in Venice, was the master of
+Jacopo Bellini, and if not the teacher then the influencer of the
+Vivarinis of Murano. There were two of the Vivarinis in the early
+times, so far as can be made out, <b>Antonio Vivarini</b> (?-1470) and
+<b>Bartolommeo Vivarini</b> (fl. 1450-1499), who worked with <b>Johannes
+Alemannus</b>, a painter of supposed German birth and training. They all
+signed themselves from Murano (an outlying Ve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>netian island), where
+they were producing church altars and ornaments with some Paduan
+influence showing in their work. They made up the Muranese school,
+though this school was not strongly marked apart either in
+characteristics or subjects from the Venetian school, of which it was,
+in fact, a part.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_037" id="imag_037"></a>
+<img src="images/image_101.jpg" width="400" height="525" alt="FIG. 36.&mdash;CARPACCIO. PRESENTATION (DETAIL). VENICE
+ACAD."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 36.&mdash;CARPACCIO. PRESENTATION (DETAIL). VENICE
+ACAD.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_101_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bartolommeo was the best of the group, and contended long time in
+rivalry with the Bellinis at Venice, but toward 1470 he fell away and
+died comparatively forgotten. <b>Luigi Vivarini</b> (fl. 1461-1503) was the
+latest of this family, and with his death the history of the Muranese
+merges into the Venetian school proper, except as it continues to
+appear in some pupils and followers. Of these latter <b>Carlo Crivelli</b>
+(1430?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>1493?) was the only one of much mark. He apparently gathered
+his art from many sources&mdash;ornament and color from the Vivarini, a
+lean and withered type from the early Paduans under Squarcione,
+architecture from Mantegna, and a rather repulsive sentiment from the
+same school. His faces were contorted and sulky, his hands and feet
+stringy, his drawing rather bad; but he had a transparent color,
+beautiful ornamentation and not a little tragic power.</p>
+
+<p>Venetian art practically dates from the Bellinis. They did not begin
+where the Vivarini left off. The two families of painters seem to have
+started about the same time, worked along together from like
+inspirations, and in somewhat of a similar manner as regards the early
+men. <b>Jacopo Bellini</b> (1400?-1464?) was the pupil of Gentile da
+Fabriano, and a painter of considerable rank. His son, <b>Gentile Bellini</b>
+(1426?-1507), was likewise a painter of ability, and an extremely
+interesting one on account of his Venetian subjects painted with much
+open-air effect and knowledge of light and atmosphere. The younger
+son, <b>Giovanni Bellini</b> (1428?-1516), was the greatest of the family and
+the true founder of the Venetian school.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the fifteenth century the Bellini family lived at
+Padua and came in contact with the classic-realistic art of Mantegna.
+In fact, Mantegna married Giovanni Bellini's sister, and there was a
+mingling of family as well as of art. There was an influence upon
+Mantegna of Venetian color, and upon the Bellinis of Paduan line. The
+latter showed in Giovanni Bellini's early work, which was rather hard,
+angular in drapery, and anatomical in the joints, hands, and feet; but
+as the century drew to a close this melted away into the growing
+splendor of Venetian color. Giovanni Bellini lived into the sixteenth
+century, but never quite attained the rank of a High Renaissance
+painter. He had religious feeling, earnestness, honesty, simplicity,
+character, force, knowledge; but not the full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> complement of
+brilliancy and painter's power. He went beyond all his contemporaries
+in technical strength and color-harmony, and was in fact the
+epoch-making man of early Venice. Some of his pictures, like the S.
+Zaccaria Madonna, will compare favorably with any work of any age, and
+his landscape backgrounds (see the St. Peter Martyr in the National
+Gallery, London) were rather wonderful for the period in which they
+were produced.</p>
+
+<p>Of Bellini's contemporaries and followers there were many, and as a
+school there was a similarity of style, subject, and color-treatment
+carrying through them all, with individual peculiarities in each
+painter. After Giovanni Bellini comes <b>Carpaccio</b> (?-1522?), a younger
+contemporary, about whose history little is known. He worked with
+Gentile Bellini, and was undoubtedly influenced by Giovanni Bellini.
+In subject he was more romantic and chivalric than religious, though
+painting a number of altar-pieces. The legend was his delight, and his
+great success, as the St. Ursula and St. George pictures in Venice
+still indicate. He was remarkable for his knowledge of architecture,
+costumes, and Oriental settings, put forth in a realistic way, with
+much invention and technical ability in the handling of landscape,
+perspective, light, and color. There is a truthfulness of
+appearance&mdash;an out-of-doors feeling&mdash;about his work that is quite
+captivating. In addition, the spirit of his art was earnestness,
+honesty, and sincerity, and even the awkward bits of drawing which
+occasionally appeared in his work served to add to the general naive
+effect of the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_038" id="imag_038"></a>
+<img src="images/image_104.jpg" width="400" height="455" alt="FIG. 37.&mdash;ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. UNKNOWN MAN. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 37.&mdash;ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. UNKNOWN MAN. LOUVRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Cima da Conegliano</b> (1460?-1517?) was probably a pupil of Giovanni
+Bellini, with some Carpaccio influence about him. He was the best of
+the immediate followers, none of whom came up to the master. They were
+trammelled somewhat by being educated in distemper work, and then
+midway in their careers changing to the oil medium, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> medium
+having been introduced into Venice by Antonello da Messina in 1473.
+Cima's subjects were largely half-length madonnas, given with strong
+qualities of light-and-shade and color. He was not a great originator,
+though a man of ability. <b>Catena</b> (?-1531) had a wide reputation in his
+day, but it came more from a smooth finish and pretty accessories than
+from creative power. He imitated Bellini's style so well that a number
+of his pictures pass for works by the master even to this day. Later
+he followed Giorgione and Carpaccio. A man possessed of knowledge, he
+seemed to have no original propelling purpose behind him. That was
+largely the make-up of the other men of the school, <b>Basaiti</b>
+(1490-1521?), <b>Previtali</b> (1470?-1525?), <b>Bissolo</b> (1464<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>1528), <b>Rondinelli</b>
+(1440?-1500?), <b>Diana</b> (?-1500?), <b>Mansueti</b> (fl. 1500).</p>
+
+<p><b>Antonello da Messina</b> (1444?-1493), though Sicilian born, is properly
+classed with the Venetian school. He obtained a knowledge of Flemish
+methods probably from Flemish painters or pictures in Italy (he never
+was a pupil of Jan van Eyck, as Vasari relates, and probably never saw
+Flanders), and introduced the use of oil as a medium in the Venetian
+school. His early work was Flemish in character, and was very accurate
+and minute. His late work showed the influence of the Bellinis. His
+counter-influence upon Venetian portraiture has never been quite
+justly estimated. That fine, exact, yet powerful work, of which the
+Doge Loredano by Bellini, in the National Gallery, London, is a type,
+was perhaps brought about by an amalgamation of Flemish and Venetian
+methods, and Antonello was perhaps the means of bringing it about. He
+was an excellent, if precise, portrait-painter.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Paduans</span>&mdash;<b>Andrea Mantegna</b>, Eremitani Padua,
+Madonna of S. Xeno Verona, St. Sebastian Vienna Mus., St.
+George Venice Acad., Camera di Sposi Castello di Corte
+Mantua, Madonna and Allegories Louvre, Scipio Summer Autumn
+Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Pizzoli</b> (with Mantegna), Eremitani Padua;
+<b>Marco Zoppo</b> frescos Casa Colonna Bologna, Madonna Berlin
+Gal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Veronese and Vicentine Painters</span>&mdash;<b>Vittore Pisano</b>, St. Anthony
+and George Nat. Gal. Lon., St. George S. Anastasia Verona;
+<b>Liberale da Verona</b>, miniatures Duomo Sienna, St. Sebastian
+Brera Milan, Madonna Berlin Mus., other works Duomo and Gal.
+Verona; <b>Bonsignori</b>, S. Bernardino and Gal. Verona, Mantua,
+and Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Caroto</b>, In S. Tommaso, S. Giorgio, S.
+Caterina and Gal. Verona, Dresden and Frankfort Gals.;
+<b>Montagna</b>, Madonnas Brera, Venice Acad., Bergamo, Berlin,
+Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Venetians</span>&mdash;<b>Jacobello del Fiore</b> and <b>Semitecolo</b>, all
+attributions doubtful; <b>Antonio Vivarini</b> and <b>Johannes
+Alemannus</b>, together altar-pieces Venice Acad., S. Zaccaria
+Venice; Antonio alone, Adoration of Kings Berlin Gal.;
+<b>Bartolommeo Vivarini</b>, Madonna Bologna Gal. (with Antonio),
+altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Frari, Venice; <b>Luigi
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>Vivarini</b>, Madonna Berlin Gal., Frari and Acad. Venice;
+<b>Carlo Crivelli</b>, Madonnas and altar-pieces Brera, Nat. Gal.
+Lon., Lateran, Berlin Gals.; <b>Jacopo Bellini</b>, Crucifixion
+Verona Gal., Sketch-book Brit. Mus.; <b>Gentile Bellini</b>, Organ
+Doors S. Marco, Procession and Miracle of Cross Acad.
+Venice, St. Mark Brera; <b>Giovanni Bellini</b>, many pictures in
+European galleries, Acad., Frari, S. Zaccaria SS. Giovanni e
+Paolo Venice; <b>Carpaccio</b>, Presentation and Ursula pictures
+Acad., St. George and St. Jerome S. Giorgio da Schiavone
+Venice, St. Stephen Berlin Gal.; <b>Cima</b>, altar-pieces S. Maria
+dell Orte, S. Giovanni in Bragora, Acad. Venice, Louvre,
+Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and other galleries;
+<b>Catena</b>, Altar-pieces S. Simeone, S. M. Mater Domini, SS.
+Giovanni e Paolo, Acad. Venice, Dresden, and in Nat. Gal.
+Lon. (the Warrior and Horse attributed to "School of
+Bellini"); <b>Basaiti</b>, Venice Acad. Nat. Gal. Lon., Vienna, and
+Berlin Gals.; <b>Previtali</b>, altar-pieces S. Spirito Bergamo,
+Brera, Berlin, and Dresden Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Venice
+Acad.; <b>Bissolo</b>, Resurrection Berlin Gal., S. Caterina Venice
+Acad.; <b>Rondinelli</b>, two pictures Palazzo Doria Rome, Holy
+Family (No. 6) Louvre (attributed to Giovanni Bellini);
+<b>Diana</b>, Altar-pieces Venice Acad.; <b>Mansueti</b>, large pictures
+Venice Acad.; <b>Antonella da Messina</b>, Portraits Louvre, Berlin
+and Nat. Gal. Lon., Crucifixion Antwerp Mus.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE HIGH RENAISSANCE&mdash;1500-1600.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Those on Italian art before mentioned,
+and also, Berenson, <i>Lorenzo Lotto</i>; Clement, <i>Michel Ange,
+L. da Vinci, Raphael</i>; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <i>Titian</i>;
+same authors, <i>Raphael</i>; Grimm, <i>Michael Angelo</i>; Gronau,
+<i>Titian</i>; Holroyd, <i>Michael Angelo</i>; Meyer, <i>Correggio</i>;
+Moore, <i>Correggio</i>; Muntz, <i>Leonardo da Vinci</i>; Passavant,
+<i>Raphael</i>; Pater, <i>Studies in History of Renaissance</i>;
+Phillips, <i>Titian</i>; Reumont, <i>Andrea del Sarto</i>; Ricci,
+<i>Correggio</i>; Richter, <i>Leonardo di Vinci</i>; Ridolfi, <i>Vita di
+Paolo Cagliari Veronese</i>; Springer, <i>Rafael und Michel
+Angelo</i>; Symonds, <i>Michael Angelo</i>; Taine, <i>Italy&mdash;Florence
+and Venice</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT:</b> The word "Renaissance" has a broader meaning
+than its strict etymology would imply. It was a "new birth," but
+something more than the revival of Greek learning and the study of
+nature entered into it. It was the grand consummation of Italian
+intelligence in many departments&mdash;the arrival at maturity of the
+Christian trained mind tempered by the philosophy of Greece, and the
+knowledge of the actual world. Fully aroused at last, the Italian
+intellect became inquisitive, inventive, scientific, skeptical&mdash;yes,
+treacherous, immoral, polluted. It questioned all things, doubted
+where it pleased, saturated itself with crime, corruption, and
+sensuality, yet bowed at the shrine of the beautiful and knelt at the
+altar of Christianity. It is an illustration of the contradictions
+that may exist when the intellectual, the religious,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> and the moral
+are brought together, with the intellectual in predominance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_039" id="imag_039"></a>
+<img src="images/image_108.jpg" width="600" height="487" alt="FIG. 38.&mdash;FRA BARTOLOMMEO. DESCENT FROM CROSS. PITTI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 38.&mdash;FRA BARTOLOMMEO. DESCENT FROM CROSS. PITTI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_108_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And that keen Renaissance intellect made swift progress. It remodelled
+the philosophy of Greece, and used its literature as a mould for its
+own. It developed Roman law and introduced modern science. The world
+without and the world within were rediscovered. Land and sea, starry
+sky and planetary system, were fixed upon the chart. Man himself, the
+animals, the planets, organic and inorganic life, the small things of
+the earth gave up their secrets. Inventions utilized all classes of
+products, commerce flourished, free cities were builded, universities
+arose, learning spread itself on the pages of newly invented books of
+print, and, perhaps, greatest of all, the arts arose on strong wings
+of life to the very highest altitude.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For the moral side of the Renaissance intellect it had its tastes and
+refinements, as shown in its high quality of art; but it also had its
+polluting and degrading features, as shown in its political and social
+life. Religion was visibly weakening though the ecclesiastical still
+held strong. People were forgetting the faith of the early days, and
+taking up with the material things about them. They were glorifying
+the human and exalting the natural. The story of Greece was being
+repeated in Italy. And out of this new worship came jewels of rarity
+and beauty, but out of it also came faithlessness, corruption, vice.</p>
+
+<p>Strictly speaking, the Renaissance had been accomplished before the
+year 1500, but so great was its impetus that, in the arts at least, it
+extended half-way through the sixteenth century. Then it began to fail
+through exhaustion.</p>
+
+<p><b>MOTIVES AND METHODS:</b> The religious subject still held with the
+painters, but this subject in High-Renaissance days did not carry with
+it the religious feeling as in Gothic days. Art had grown to be
+something else than a teacher of the Bible. In the painter's hands it
+had come to mean beauty for its own sake&mdash;a picture beautiful for its
+form and color, regardless of its theme. This was the teaching of
+antique art, and the study of nature but increased the belief. A new
+love had arisen in the outer and visible world, and when the Church
+called for altar-pieces the painters painted their new love,
+christened it with a religious title, and handed it forth in the name
+of the old. Thus art began to free itself from Church domination and
+to live as an independent beauty. The general motive, then, of
+painting during the High Renaissance, though apparently religious from
+the subject, and in many cases still religious in feeling, was largely
+to show the beauty of form or color, in which religion, the antique,
+and the natural came in as modifying elements.</p>
+
+<p>In technical methods, though extensive work was still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> done in fresco,
+especially at Florence and Rome, yet the bulk of High-Renaissance
+painting was in oils upon panel and canvas. At Venice even the
+decorative wall paintings were upon canvas, afterward inserted in wall
+or ceiling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_040" id="imag_040"></a>
+<img src="images/image_110.jpg" width="400" height="487" alt="FIG. 39.&mdash;ANDREA DEL SARTO. MADONNA OF ST. FRANCIS.
+UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 39.&mdash;ANDREA DEL SARTO. MADONNA OF ST. FRANCIS.
+UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_110_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE FLORENTINES AND ROMANS:</b> There was a severity and austerity about
+the Florentine art, even at its climax. It was never too sensuous and
+luxurious, but rather exact and intellectual. The Florentines were
+fond of lustreless fresco, architectural composition, towering or
+sweeping lines, rather sharp color as compared with the Venetians, and
+theological, classical, even literary and allegorical subjects.
+Probably this was largely due to the classic bias of the painters and
+the intellectual and social influences of Florence and Rome. Line and
+composition were means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> expressing abstract thought better than
+color, though some of the Florentines employed both line and color
+knowingly.</p>
+
+<p>This was the case with <b>Fra Bartolommeo</b> (1475-1517), a monk of San
+Marco, who was a transition painter from the fifteenth to the
+sixteenth century. He was a religionist, a follower of Savonarola, and
+a man of soul who thought to do work of a religious character and
+feeling; but he was also a fine painter, excelling in composition,
+drawing, drapery, color. The painter's element in his work, its
+material and earthly beauty, rather detracted from its spiritual
+significance. He opposed the sensuous and the nude, and yet about the
+only nude he ever painted&mdash;a St. Sebastian for San Marco&mdash;had so much
+of the earthly about it that people forgot the suffering saint in
+admiring the fine body, and the picture had to be removed from the
+convent. In such ways religion in art was gradually undermined, not
+alone by naturalism and classicism but by art itself. Painting brought
+into life by religion no sooner reached maturity than it led people
+away from religion by pointing out sensuous beauties in the type
+rather than religious beauties in the symbol.</p>
+
+<p>Fra Bartolommeo was among the last of the pietists in art. He had no
+great imagination, but some feeling and a fine color-sense for
+Florence. Naturally he was influenced somewhat by the great ones about
+him, learning perspective from Raphael, grandeur from Michael Angelo,
+and contours from Leonardo da Vinci. He worked in collaboration with
+<b>Albertinelli</b> (1474-1515), a skilled artist and a fellow-pupil with
+Bartolommeo in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli. Their work is so much
+alike that it is often difficult to distinguish the painters apart.
+Albertinelli was not so devout as his companion, but he painted the
+religious subject with feeling, as his Visitation in the Uffizi
+indicates. Among the followers of Bartolommeo and Albertinelli were
+<b>Fra Paolino</b> (1490<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>1547), <b>Bugiardini</b> (1475-1554), <b>Granacci</b> (1477-1543),
+who showed many influences, and <b>Ridolfo Ghirlandajo</b> (1483-1561).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_041" id="imag_041"></a>
+<img src="images/image_112.jpg" width="400" height="535" alt="FIG. 40.&mdash;MICHAEL ANGELO. ATHLETE. SISTINE, ROME."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 40.&mdash;MICHAEL ANGELO. ATHLETE. SISTINE, ROME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Andrea del Sarto</b> (1486-1531) was a Florentine pure and simple&mdash;a
+painter for the Church producing many madonnas and altar-pieces, and
+yet possessed of little religious feeling or depth. He was a painter
+more than a pietist, and was called by his townsmen "the faultless
+painter." So he was as regards the technical features of his art. He
+was the best brushman and colorist of the Florentine school. Dealing
+largely with the material side his craftsmanship was excellent and his
+pictures exuberant with life and color, but his madonnas and saints
+were decidedly of the earth&mdash;handsome Florentine models garbed as
+sacred characters&mdash;well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>-drawn and easily painted, with little
+devotional feeling about them. He was influenced by other painters to
+some extent. Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Michael Angelo were his models
+in drawing; Leonardo and Bartolommeo in contours; while in warmth of
+color, brush-work, atmospheric and landscape effects he was quite by
+himself. He had a large number of pupils and followers, but most of
+them deserted him later on to follow Michael Angelo. <b>Pontormo</b>
+(1493-1558) and <b>Franciabigio</b> (1482-1525) were among the best of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Michael Angelo</b> (1474-1564) has been called the "Prophet of the
+Renaissance," and perhaps deserves the title, since he was more of the
+Old Testament than the New&mdash;more of the austere and imperious than the
+loving or the forgiving. There was no sentimental feature about his
+art. His conception was intellectual, highly imaginative, mysterious,
+at times disordered and turbulent in its strength. He came the nearest
+to the sublime of any painter in history through the sole attribute of
+power. He had no tenderness nor any winning charm. He did not win, but
+rather commanded. Everything he saw or felt was studied for the
+strength that was in it. Religion, Old-Testament history, the antique,
+humanity, all turned in his hands into symbolic forms of power, put
+forth apparently in the white heat of passion, and at times in
+defiance of every rule and tradition of art. Personal feeling was very
+apparent in his work, and in this he was as far removed as possible
+from the Greeks, and nearer to what one would call to-day a
+romanticist. There was little of the objective about him. He was not
+an imitator of facts but a creator of forms and ideas. His art was a
+reflection of himself&mdash;a self-sufficient man, positive, creative,
+standing alone, a law unto himself.</p>
+
+<p>Technically he was more of a sculptor than a painter. He said so
+himself when Julius commanded him to paint the Sistine ceiling, and he
+told the truth. He was a magnificent draughtsman, and drew magnificent
+sculpturesque figures on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> the Sistine vault. That was about all his
+achievement with the brush. In color, light, air, perspective&mdash;in all
+those features peculiar to the painter&mdash;he was behind his
+contemporaries. Composition he knew a great deal about, and in drawing
+he had the most positive, far-reaching command of line of any painter
+of any time. It was in drawing that he showed his power. Even this is
+severe and harsh at times, and then again filled with a grace that is
+majestic and in scope universal, as witness the Creation of Adam in
+the Sistine.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_042" id="imag_042"></a>
+<img src="images/image_114.jpg" width="400" height="636" alt="FIG. 41.&mdash;RAPHAEL. LA BELLE JARDINI&Egrave;RE. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 41.&mdash;RAPHAEL. LA BELLE JARDINI&Egrave;RE. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_114_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He came out of Florence, a pupil of Ghirlandajo, with a school feeling
+for line, stimulated by the frescos of Masaccio and Signorelli. At an
+early age he declared himself, and hewed a path of his own through
+art, sweeping along with him many of the slighter painters of his age.
+Long-lived he saw his contemporaries die about him and Humanism end in
+bloodshed with the coming of the Jesuits; but alone, gloomy, resolute,
+steadfast to his belief, he held his way, the last great
+representative of Florentine art, the first great representative of
+individualism in art. With him and after him came many followers who
+strove to imitate his "terrible style," but they did not succeed any
+too well.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The most of these followers find classification under the Mannerists
+of the Decadence. Of those who were immediate pupils of Michael
+Angelo, or carried out his designs, <b>Daniele da Volterra</b> (1509-1566)
+was one of the most satisfactory. His chief work, the Descent from the
+Cross, was considered by Poussin as one of the three great pictures of
+the world. It is sometimes said to have been designed by Michael
+Angelo, but that is only a conjecture. It has much action and life in
+it, but is somewhat affected in pose and gesture, and Volterra's work
+generally was deficient in real energy of conception and execution.
+<b>Marcello Venusti</b> (1515-1585?) painted directly from Michael Angelo's
+designs in a delicate and precise way, probably imbibed from his
+master, Perino del Vaga, and from association with Venetians like
+<b>Sebastiano del Piombo</b> (1485-1547). This last-named painter was born in
+Venice and trained under Bellini and Giorgione, inheriting the color
+and light-and-shade qualities of the Venetians; but later on he went
+to Rome and came under the influence of Michael Angelo and Raphael. He
+tried, under Michael Angelo's inspiration it is said, to unite the
+Florentine grandeur of line with the Venetian coloring, and thus outdo
+Raphael. It was not wholly successful, though resulting in an
+excellent quality of art. As a portrait-painter he was above reproach.
+His early works were rather free in impasto, the late ones smooth and
+shiny, in imitation of Raphael.</p>
+
+<p><b>Raphael Sanzio</b> (1483-1520) was more Greek in method than any of the
+great Renaissance painters. In subject he was not more classic than
+others of his time; he painted all subjects. In thought he was not
+particularly classic; he was chiefly intellectual, with a leaning
+toward the sensuous that was half-pagan. It was in method and
+expression more than elsewhere that he showed the Greek spirit. He
+aimed at the ideal and the universal, independent, so far as possible,
+of the individual, and sought by a union of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> elements to produce
+perfect harmony. The Harmonist of the Renaissance is his title. And
+this harmony extended to a blending of thought, form, and expression,
+heightening or modifying every element until they ran together with
+such rhythm that it could not be seen where one left off and another
+began. He was the very opposite of Michael Angelo. The art of the
+latter was an expression of individual power and was purely
+subjective. Raphael's art was largely a unity of objective beauties,
+with the personal element as much in abeyance as was possible for his
+time.</p>
+
+<p>His education was a cultivation of every grace of mind and hand. He
+assimilated freely whatever he found to be good in the art about him.
+A pupil of Perugino originally, he levied upon features of excellence
+in Masaccio, Fra Bartolommeo, Leonardo, Michael Angelo. From the first
+he got tenderness, from the second drawing, from the third color and
+composition, from the fourth charm, from the fifth force. Like an
+eclectic Greek he drew from all sources, and then blended and united
+these features in a peculiar style of his own and stamped them with
+his peculiar Raphaelesque stamp.</p>
+
+<p>In subject Raphael was religious and mythological, but he was imbued
+with neither of these so far as the initial spirit was concerned. He
+looked at all subjects in a calm, intellectual, artistic way. Even the
+celebrated Sistine Madonna is more intellectual than pietistic, a
+Christian Minerva ruling rather than helping to save the world. The
+same spirit ruled him in classic and theological themes. He did not
+feel them keenly or execute them passionately&mdash;at least there is no
+indication of it in his work. The doing so would have destroyed unity,
+symmetry, repose. The theme was ever held in check by a regard for
+proportion and rhythm. To keep all artistic elements in perfect
+equilibrium, allowing no one to predominate, seemed the mainspring of
+his action, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> doing this he created that harmony which his
+admirers sometimes refer to as pure beauty.</p>
+
+<p>For his period and school he was rather remarkable technically. He
+excelled in everything except brush-work, which was never brought to
+maturity in either Florence or Rome. Even in color he was fine for
+Florence, though not equal to the Venetians. In composition,
+modelling, line, even in texture painting (see his portraits) he was a
+man of accomplishment; while in grace, purity, serenity, loftiness he
+was the Florentine leader easily first.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_043" id="imag_043"></a>
+<img src="images/image_117.jpg" width="600" height="278" alt="FIG. 42.&mdash;GIULIO ROMANO. APOLLO AND MUSES. PITTI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 42.&mdash;GIULIO ROMANO. APOLLO AND MUSES. PITTI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_117_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The influence of Raphael's example was largely felt throughout Central
+Italy, and even at the north, resulting in many imitators and
+followers, who tried to produce Raphaelesque effects. Their efforts
+were usually successful in precipitating charm into sweetness and
+sentiment into sentimentality. <b>Francesco Penni</b> (1488?-1528) seems to
+have been content to work under Raphael with some ability. <b>Giulio
+Romano</b> (1492-1546) was the strongest of the pupils, and became the
+founder and leader of the Roman school, which had considerable
+influence upon the painters of the Decadence. He adopted the classic
+subject and tried to adopt Raphael's style, but he was not completely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+successful. Raphael's refinement in Giulio's hands became exaggerated
+coarseness. He was a good draughtsman, but rather hot as a colorist,
+and a composer of violent, restless, and, at times, contorted groups.
+He was a prolific painter, but his work tended toward the baroque
+style, and had a bad influence on the succeeding schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>Primaticcio</b> (1504-1570) was one of his followers, and had much to do
+with the founding of the school of Fontainebleau in France. <b>Giovanni
+da Udine</b> (1487-1564), a Venetian trained painter, became a follower of
+Raphael, his only originality showing in decorative designs. <b>Perino
+del Vaga</b> (1500-1547) was of the same cast of mind. <b>Andrea Sabbatini</b>
+(1480?-1545) carried Raphael's types and methods to the south of
+Italy, and some artists at Bologna, and in Umbria, like <b>Innocenza da
+Imola</b> (1494-1550?), and <b>Timoteo di Viti</b> (1467-1523), adopted the
+Raphael type and method to the detriment of what native talent they
+may have possessed, though about Timoteo there is some doubt whether
+he adopted Raphael's type, or Raphael his type.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Florentines</span>&mdash;<b>Fra Bartolommeo</b>, Descent from
+the Cross Salvator Mundi St. Mark Pitti, Madonnas and
+Prophets Uffizi, other pictures Florence Acad., Louvre,
+Vienna Gal.; <b>Albertinelli</b>, Visitation Uffizi, Christ
+Magdalene Madonna Louvre, Trinity Madonna Florence Acad.,
+Annunciation Munich Gal.; <b>Fra Paolino</b>, works at San Spirito
+Sienna, S. Domenico and S. Paolo Pistoia, Madonna Florence
+Acad.; <b>Bugiardini</b>, Madonna Uffizi, St. Catherine S. M.
+Novella Florence, Nativity Berlin, St. Catherine Bologna
+Gal.; <b>Granacci</b>, altar-pieces Uffizi, Pitti, Acad. Florence,
+Berlin and Munich Gals.; <b>Ridolfo Ghirlandajo</b>, S. Zenobio
+pictures Uffizi, also Louvre and Berlin Gal.; <b>Andrea del
+Sarto</b>, many pictures in Uffizi and Pitti, Louvre, Berlin,
+Dresden, Madrid, Nat. Gal. Lon., frescos S. Annunziata and
+the Scalzo Florence; <b>Pontormo</b>, frescos Annunziata Florence,
+Visitation and Madonna Louvre, portrait Berlin Gal., Supper
+at Emmaus Florence Acad., other works Uffizi; <b>Franciabigio</b>,
+frescos courts of the Servi and Scalzo Florence, Bathsheba
+Dresden Gal., many portraits in Louvre, Pitti, Berlin Gal.;
+<b>Michael Angelo</b>, frescos Sistine Rome, Holy Family Uffizi;
+<b>Daniele da Volterra</b>, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>frescos Hist. of Cross Trinit&agrave; de'
+Monti Rome, Innocents Uffizi; <b>Venusti</b>, frescos Castel San
+Angelo, S. Spirito Rome, Annunciation St. John Lateran Rome;
+<b>Sebastiano del Piombo</b>, Lazarus Nat. Gal. Lon., Piet&agrave;
+Viterbo, Fornarina Uffizi (ascribed to Raphael) Fornarina
+and Christ Bearing Cross Berlin and Dresden Gals., Agatha
+Pitti, Visitation Louvre, portrait Doria Gal. Rome; <b>Raphael</b>,
+Marriage of Virgin Brera, Madonna and Vision of Knight Nat.
+Gal. Lon., Madonnas St. Michael and St. George Louvre, many
+Madonnas and portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Munich, Vienna, St.
+Petersburgh, Madrid Gals., Sistine Madonna Dresden, chief
+frescos Vatican Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Romans</span>: <b>Giulio Romano</b>, frescos Sala di Constantino Vatican
+Rome (with Francesco Penni after Raphael), Palazzo del T&egrave;
+Mantua, St. Stephen, S. Stefano Genoa, Holy Family Dresden
+Gal., other works in Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Pitti, Uffizi;
+<b>Primaticcio</b>, works attributed to him doubtful&mdash;Scipio
+Louvre, Lady at Toilet and Venus Mus&eacute;e de Cluny; <b>Giovanni da
+Udine</b>, decorations, arabesques and grotesques in Vatican
+Loggia; <b>Perino del Vaga</b>, Hist. of Joshua and David Vatican
+(with Raphael), frescos Trinit&agrave; de' Monti and Castel S.
+Angelo Rome, Creation of Eve S. Marcello Rome; <b>Sabbatini</b>,
+Adoration Naples Mus., altar-pieces in Naples and Salerno
+churches; <b>Innocenza da Imola</b>, works in Bologna, Berlin and
+Munich Gals.; <b>Timoteo di Viti</b>, Church of the Pace Rome
+(after Raphael), madonnas and Magdalene Brera, Acad. of St.
+Luke Rome, Bologna Gal., S. Domenico Urbino, Gubbio
+Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600.&mdash;CONTINUED.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+and consult also the General Bibliography (p. xv.)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>LEONARDO DA VINCI AND THE MILANESE:</b> The third person in the great
+Florentine trinity of painters was <b>Leonardo da Vinci</b> (1452-1519), the
+other two being Michael Angelo and Raphael. He greatly influenced the
+school of Milan, and has usually been classed with the Milanese, yet
+he was educated in Florence, in the workshop of Verrocchio, and was so
+universal in thought and methods that he hardly belongs to any school.</p>
+
+<p>He has been named a realist, an idealist, a magician, a wizard, a
+dreamer, and finally a scientist, by different writers, yet he was
+none of these things while being all of them&mdash;a full-rounded,
+universal man, learned in many departments and excelling in whatever
+he undertook. He had the scientific and experimental way of looking at
+things. That is perhaps to be regretted, since it resulted in his
+experimenting with everything and completing little of anything. His
+different tastes and pursuits pulled him different ways, and his
+knowledge made him sceptical of his own powers. He pondered and
+thought how to reach up higher, how to penetrate deeper, how to
+realize more comprehensively, and in the end he gave up in despair. He
+could not fulfil his ideal of the head of Christ nor the head of Mona
+Lisa, and after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> years of labor he left them unfinished. The problem
+of human life, the spirit, the world engrossed him, and all his
+creations seem impregnated with the psychological, the mystical, the
+unattainable, the hidden.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_044" id="imag_044"></a>
+<img src="images/image_121.jpg" width="400" height="548" alt="FIG. 43.&mdash;LEONARDO DA VINCI. MONA LISA. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 43.&mdash;LEONARDO DA VINCI. MONA LISA. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_121_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He was no religionist, though painting the religious subject with
+feeling; he was not in any sense a classicist, nor had he any care for
+the antique marbles, which he considered a study of nature at
+second-hand. He was more in love with physical life without being an
+enthusiast over it. His regard for contours, rhythm of line, blend of
+light with shade, study of atmosphere, perspective, trees, animals,
+humanity, show that though he examined nature scientifically, he
+pictured it &aelig;sthetically. In his types there is much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> sweetness of
+soul, charm of disposition, dignity of mien, even grandeur and majesty
+of presence. His people we would like to know better. They are full of
+life, intelligence, sympathy; they have fascination of manner,
+winsomeness of mood, grace of bearing. We see this in his best-known
+work&mdash;the Mona Lisa of the Louvre. It has much allurement of personal
+presence, with a depth and abundance of soul altogether charming.</p>
+
+<p>Technically, Leonardo was not a handler of the brush superior in any
+way to his Florentine contemporaries. He knew all the methods and
+mediums of the time, and did much to establish oil-painting among the
+Florentines, but he was never a painter like Titian, or even Correggio
+or Andrea del Sarto. A splendid draughtsman, a man of invention,
+imagination, grace, elegance, and power, he nevertheless carried more
+by mental penetration and &aelig;sthetic sense than by his technical skill.
+He was one of the great men of the Renaissance, and deservedly holds a
+place in the front rank.</p>
+
+<p>Though Leonardo's accomplishment seems slight because of the little
+that is left to us, yet he had a great following not only among the
+Florentines but at Milan, where Vincenza Foppa had started a school in
+the Early Renaissance time. Leonardo was there for fourteen years, and
+his artistic personality influenced many painters to adopt his type
+and methods. <b>Bernardino Luini</b> (1475?-1532?) was the most prominent of
+the disciples. He cultivated Leonardo's sentiment, style, subjects,
+and composition in his middle period, but later on developed
+independence and originality. He came at a period of art when that
+earnestness of characterization which marked the early men was giving
+way to gracefulness of recitation, and that was the chief feature of
+his art. For that matter gracefulness and pathetic sweetness of mood,
+with purity of line and warmth of color characterized all the Milanese
+painters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_045" id="imag_045"></a>
+<img src="images/image_123.jpg" width="600" height="526" alt="FIG. 44.&mdash;LUINI. DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS WITH HEAD OF JOHN
+THE BAPTIST. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 44.&mdash;LUINI. DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS WITH HEAD OF JOHN
+THE BAPTIST. UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_123_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The more prominent lights of the school were <b>Salaino</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> (fl. 1495-1518),
+of whose work nothing authentic exists, <b>Boltraffio</b> (1467-1516), a
+painter of limitations but of much refinement and purity, and <b>Marco da
+Oggiono</b> (1470?-1530) a close follower of Leonardo. <b>Solario</b>
+(1458?-1515?) probably became acquainted early with the Flemish mode
+of working practised by Antonello da Messina, but he afterward came
+under Leonardo's spell at Milan. He was a careful, refined painter,
+possessed of feeling and tenderness, producing pictures with enamelled
+surfaces and much detail. <b>Gianpietrino</b> (fl. 1520-1540) and <b>Cesare da
+Sesto</b> (1477-1523?) were also of the Milanese school, the latter
+afterward falling under the Raphael influence. <b>Gaudenzio Ferrara</b>
+(1481?-1547?), an exceptionally brilliant colorist and a painter of
+much dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>tinction, was under Leonardo's influence at one time, and
+with the teachings of that master he mingled a little of Raphael in
+the type of face. He was an uneven painter, often excessive in
+sentiment, but at his best one of the most charming of the northern
+painters.</p>
+
+<p><b>SODOMA AND THE SIENNESE:</b> Sienna, alive in the fourteenth century to
+all that was stirring in art, in the fifteenth century was in complete
+eclipse, no painters of consequence emanating from there or being
+established there. In the sixteenth century there was a revival of art
+because of a northern painter settling there and building up a new
+school. This painter was <b>Sodoma</b> (1477?-1549). He was one of the best
+pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, a master of the human figure, handling it
+with much grace and charm of expression, but not so successful with
+groups or studied compositions, wherein he was inclined to huddle and
+over-crowd space. He was afterward led off by the brilliant success of
+Raphael, and adopted something of that master's style. His best work
+was done in fresco, though he did some easel pictures that have
+darkened very much through time. He was a friend of Raphael, and his
+portrait appears beside Raphael's in the latter painter's celebrated
+School of Athens. The pupils and followers of the Siennese School were
+not men of great strength. <b>Pacchiarotta</b> (1474-1540?), <b>Girolamo della
+Pacchia</b> (1477-1535), <b>Peruzzi</b> (1481-1536), a half-Lombard half-Umbrian
+painter of ability, and <b>Beccafumi</b> (1486-1551) were the principal
+lights. The influence of the school was slight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_046" id="imag_046"></a>
+<img src="images/image_125.jpg" width="400" height="528" alt="FIG. 45.&mdash;SODOMA. ECSTASY OF ST. CATHERINE. SIENNA."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 45.&mdash;SODOMA. ECSTASY OF ST. CATHERINE. SIENNA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>FERRARA AND BOLOGNESE SCHOOLS:</b> The painters of these schools during
+the sixteenth century have usually been classed among the followers
+and imitators of Raphael, but not without some injustice. The
+influence of Raphael was great throughout Central Italy, and the
+Ferrarese and Bolognese felt it, but not to the extinction of their
+native thought and methods. Moreover, there was some influence in
+color coming from the Venetian school, but again not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> the entire
+extinction of Ferrarese individuality. <b>Dosso Dossi</b> (1479?-1541), at
+Ferrara, a pupil of Lorenzo Costa, was the chief painter of the time,
+and he showed more of Giorgione in color and light-and-shade than
+anyone else, yet he never abandoned the yellows, greens, and reds
+peculiar to Ferrara, and both he and Garofolo were strikingly original
+in their background landscapes. <b>Garofolo</b> (1481-1559) was a pupil of
+Panetti and Costa, who made several visits to Rome and there fell in
+love with Raphael's work, which showed in a fondness for the sweep and
+flow of line, in the type of face adopted, and in the calmness of his
+many easel pictures. He was not so dramatic a painter as Dosso, and in
+addition he had certain mannerisms or earmarks, such as sootiness in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+his flesh tints and brightness in his yellows and greens, with dulness
+in his reds. He was always Ferrarese in his landscapes and in the main
+characteristics of his technic. <b>Mazzolino</b> (1478?-1528?) was another of
+the school, probably a pupil of Panetti. He was an elaborate painter,
+fond of architectural backgrounds and glowing colors enlivened with
+gold in the high lights. <b>Bagnacavallo</b> (1484-1542) was a pupil of
+Francia at Bologna, but with much of Dosso and Ferrara about him. He,
+in common with Imola, already mentioned, was indebted to the art of
+Raphael.</p>
+
+<p><b>CORREGGIO AT PARMA:</b> In <b>Correggio</b> (1494?-1534) all the Boccaccio nature
+of the Renaissance came to the surface. It was indicated in Andrea del
+Sarto&mdash;this nature-worship&mdash;but Correggio was the consummation. He was
+the Faun of the Renaissance, the painter with whom the beauty of the
+human as distinguished from the religious and the classic showed at
+its very strongest. Free animal spirits, laughing madonnas, raving
+nymphs, excited children of the wood, and angels of the sky pass and
+repass through his pictures in an atmosphere of pure sensuousness.
+They appeal to us not religiously, not historically, not
+intellectually, but sensuously and artistically through their rhythmic
+lines, their palpitating flesh, their beauty of color, and in the
+light and atmosphere that surround them. He was less of a religionist
+than Andrea del Sarto. Religion in art was losing ground in his day,
+and the liberality and worldliness of its teachers appeared clearly
+enough in the decorations of the Convent of St. Paul at Parma, where
+Correggio was allowed to paint mythological Dianas and Cupids in the
+place of saints and madonnas. True enough, he painted the religious
+subject very often, but with the same spirit of life and joyousness as
+profane subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_047" id="imag_047"></a>
+<img src="images/image_127.jpg" width="500" height="514" alt="FIG. 46&mdash;CORREGGIO. MARRIAGE OF ST. CATHERINE AND
+CHRIST. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 46&mdash;CORREGGIO. MARRIAGE OF ST. CATHERINE AND
+CHRIST. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_127_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The classic subject seemed more appropriate to his spirit, and yet he
+knew and probably cared less about it than the religious subject. His
+Dianas and Ledas are only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> so in name. They have little of the
+Hellenic spirit about them, and for the sterner, heroic phases of
+classicism&mdash;the lofty, the grand&mdash;Correggio never essayed them. The
+things of this earth and the sweetness thereof seemed ever his aim.
+Women and children were beautiful to him in the same way that flowers
+and trees and skies and sunsets were beautiful. They were revelations
+of grace, charm, tenderness, light, shade, color. Simply to exist and
+be glad in the sunlight was sweetness to Correggio. He would have no
+Sibylesque mystery, no prophetic austerity, no solemnity, no great
+intellectuality. He was no leader of a tragic chorus. The dramatic,
+the forceful, the powerful, were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>foreign to his mood. He was a singer
+of lyrics and pastorals, a lover of the material beauty about him, and
+it is because he passed by the pietistic, the classic, the literary,
+and showed the beauty of physical life as an art motive that he is
+called the Faun of the Renaissance. The appellation is not
+inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>How or why he came to take this course would be hard to determine. It
+was reflective of the times; but Correggio, so far as history tells
+us, had little to do with the movements and people of his age. He was
+born and lived and died near Parma, and is sometimes classed among the
+Bologna-Ferrara painters, but the reasons for the classification are
+not too strong. His education, masters, and influences are all shadowy
+and indefinite. He seems, from his drawing and composition, to have
+known something of Mantegna at Mantua; from his coloring something of
+Dosso and Garofolo, especially in his straw-yellows; from his early
+types and faces something of Costa and Francia, and his contours and
+light-and-shade indicate a knowledge of Leonardo's work. But there is
+no positive certainty that he saw the work of any of these men.</p>
+
+<p>His drawing was faulty at times, but not obtrusively so; his color and
+brush-work rich, vivacious, spirited; his light brilliant, warm,
+penetrating; his contours melting, graceful; his atmosphere
+omnipresent, enveloping. In composition he rather pushed aside line in
+favor of light and color. It was his technical peculiarity that he
+centralized his light and surrounded it by darks as a foil. And in
+this very feature he was one of the first men in Renaissance Italy to
+paint a picture for the purpose of weaving a scheme of lights and
+darks through a tapestry of rich colors. That is art for art's sake,
+and that, as will be seen further on, was the picture motive of the
+great Venetians.</p>
+
+<p>Correggio's immediate pupils and followers, like those of Raphael and
+Andrea del Sarto, did him small honor. As was usually the case in
+Renaissance art-history they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> caught at the method and lost the spirit
+of the master. His son, <b>Pomponio Allegri</b> (1521-1593?), was a painter
+of some mark without being in the front rank. <b>Michelangelo Anselmi</b>
+(1491-1554?), though not a pupil, was an indifferent imitator of
+Correggio. <b>Parmigianino</b> (1504-1540), a mannered painter of some
+brilliancy, and of excellence in portraits, was perhaps the best of
+the immediate followers. It was not until after Correggio's death, and
+with the painters of the Decadence, that his work was seriously taken
+up and followed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Milanese</span>&mdash;<b>Leonardo da Vinci</b>, Last Supper S.
+M. delle Grazie Milan (in ruins), Mona Lisa, Madonna with
+St. Anne (badly damaged) Louvre, Adoration (unfinished)
+Uffizi, Angel at left in Verrocchio's Baptism Florence
+Acad.; <b>Luini</b>, frescos Monastero Maggiore, 71 fragments in
+Brera Milan, Church of the Pilgrims Sarrona, S. M. degli
+Angeli Lugano, altar-pieces Duomo Como, Ambrosian Library
+Milan, Brera, Uffizi, Louvre, Madrid, St. Petersburgh, and
+other galleries; <b>Beltraffio</b>, Madonna Louvre, Barbara Berlin
+Gal., Madonna Nat. Gal. Lon., fresco Convent of S. Onofrio
+Rome (ascribed to Da Vinci); <b>Marco da Oggiono</b>, Archangels
+and other works Brera, Holy Family Madonna Louvre; <b>Solario</b>,
+Ecce Homo Repose Poldi-Pezzoli Gal. Milan, Holy Family
+Brera, Madonna Portrait Louvre, Portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Assumption Certosa of Pavia; <b>Giampietrino</b>, Magdalene Brera,
+Madonna S. Sepolcro Milan, Magdalene and Catherine Berlin
+Gal.; <b>Cesare da Sesto</b>, Madonna Brera, Magi Naples Mus.;
+<b>Gaudenzio Ferrara</b>, frescos Church of Pilgrims Saronna, other
+pictures in Brera, Turin Gal., S. Gaudenzio Novara, S. Celso
+Milan.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Siennese</span>&mdash;<b>Sodoma</b>, frescos Convent of St. Anne near Pienza,
+Benedictine Convent of Mont' Oliveto Maggiore, Alexander and
+Roxana Villa Farnesina Rome, S. Bernardino Palazzo Pubblico,
+S. Domenico Sienna, pictures Uffizi, Brera, Munich, Vienna
+Gals.; <b>Pacchiarotto</b>, Ascension Visitation Sienna Gal.;
+<b>Girolamo del Pacchia</b>, frescos (3) S. Bernardino,
+altar-pieces S. Spirito and Sienna Acad., Munich and Nat.
+Gal. Lon.; <b>Peruzzi</b>, fresco Fontegiuste Sienna, S. Onofrio,
+S. M. della Pace Rome; <b>Beccafumi</b>, St. Catherine Saints
+Sienna Acad., frescos S. Bernardino Hospital and S. Martino
+Sienna, Palazzo Doria Rome, Pitti, Berlin, Munich Gals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ferrarese and Bolognese</span>&mdash;<b>Dosso Dossi</b>, many works Ferrara
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>Modena Gals., Duomo S. Pietro Modena, Brera, Borghese,
+Doria, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, Gals.; <b>Garofolo</b>, many works
+Ferrara churches and Gal., Borghese, Campigdoglio, Louvre,
+Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Mazzolino</b>, Ferrara,
+Berlin, Dresden, Louvre, Doria, Borghese, Pitti, Uffizi, and
+Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Bagnacavallo</b>, Misericordia and Gal. Bologna,
+Louvre, Berlin, Dresden Gals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parmese</span>&mdash;<b>Correggio</b>, frescos Convent of S. Paolo, S. Giovanni
+Evangelista, Duomo Parma, altar-pieces Dresden (4), Parma
+Gals., Louvre, mythological pictures Antiope Louvre, Danae
+Borghese, Leda Jupiter and Io Berlin, Venus Mercury and
+Cupid Nat. Gal. Lon., Ganymede Vienna Gal.; <b>Pomponio
+Allegri</b>, frescos Capella del Popolo Parma; <b>Anselmi</b>, frescos
+S. Giovanni Evangelista, altar-pieces Madonna della
+Steccata, Duomo, Gal. Parma, Louvre; <b>Parmigianino</b>, frescos
+Moses Steccata, S. Giovanni Parma, altar-pieces Santa
+Margherita, Bologna Gal., Madonna Pitti, portraits Uffizi,
+Vienna, Naples Mus., other works Dresden, Vienna, and Nat.
+Gal. Lon.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE HIGH RENAISSANCE. 1500-1600. (<i>Continued.</i>)</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+and also consult General Bibliography, (page xv.).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE VENETIAN SCHOOL:</b> It was at Venice and with the Venetian painters
+of the sixteenth century that a new art-motive was finally and fully
+adopted. This art-motive was not religion. For though the religious
+subject was still largely used, the religious or pietistic belief was
+not with the Venetians any more than with Correggio. It was not a
+classic, antique, realistic, or naturalistic motive. The Venetians
+were interested in all phases of nature, and they were students of
+nature, but not students of truth for truth's sake.</p>
+
+<p>What they sought, primarily, was the light and shade on a nude
+shoulder, the delicate contours of a form, the flow and fall of silk
+or brocade, the richness of a robe, a scheme of color or of light, the
+character of a face, the majesty of a figure. They were seeking
+effects of line, light, color&mdash;mere sensuous and pictorial effects, in
+which religion and classicism played secondary parts. They believed in
+art for art's sake; that painting was a creation, not an illustration;
+that it should exist by its pictorial beauties, not by its subject or
+story. No matter what their subjects, they invariably painted them so
+as to show the beauties they prized the highest. The Venetian
+conception was less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> austere, grand, intellectual, than pictorial,
+sensuous, concerning the beautiful as it appealed to the eye. And this
+was not a slight or unworthy conception. True it dealt with the
+fulness of material life, but regarded as it was by the Venetians&mdash;a
+thing full-rounded, complete, harmonious, splendid&mdash;it became a great
+ideal of existence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_048" id="imag_048"></a>
+<img src="images/image_132.jpg" width="500" height="610" alt="FIG. 47.&mdash;GIORGIONE(?). ORDEAL OF MOSES. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 47.&mdash;GIORGIONE(?). ORDEAL OF MOSES. UFFIZI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_132_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In technical expression color was the note of all the school, with
+hardly an exception. This in itself would seem to imply a lightness of
+spirit, for color is somehow associated in the popular mind with
+decorative gayety; but nothing could be further removed from the
+Venetian school than triviality. Color was taken up with the greatest
+seriousness, and handled in such masses and with such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> dignified power
+that while it pleased it also awed the spectator. Without having quite
+the severity of line, some of the Venetian chromatic schemes rise in
+sublimity almost to the Sistine modellings of Michael Angelo. We do
+not feel this so much in Giovanni Bellini, fine in color as he was. He
+came too early for the full splendor, but he left many pupils who
+completed what he had inaugurated.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE GREAT VENETIANS:</b> The most positive in influence upon his
+contemporaries of all the great Venetians was <b>Giorgione</b> (1477?-1511).
+He died young, and what few pictures by him are left to us have been
+so torn to pieces by historical criticism that at times one begins to
+doubt if there ever was such a painter. His different styles have been
+confused, and his pictures in consequence thereof attributed to
+followers instead of to the master. Painters change their styles, but
+seldom their original bent of mind. With Giorgione there was a lyric
+feeling as shown in music. The voluptuous swell of line, the melting
+tone of color, the sharp dash of light, the undercurrent of
+atmosphere, all mingled for him into radiant melody. He sought pure
+pictorial beauty and found it in everything of nature. He had little
+grasp of the purely intellectual, and the religious was something he
+dealt with in no strong devotional way. The f&ecirc;te, the concert, the
+fable, the legend, with a landscape setting, made a stronger appeal to
+him. More of a recorder than a thinker he was not the less a leader
+showing the way into that new Arcadian grove of pleasure whose
+inhabitants thought not of creeds and faiths and histories and
+literatures, but were content to lead the life that was sweet in its
+glow and warmth of color, its light, its shadows, its bending trees,
+and arching skies. A strong full-blooded race, sober-minded,
+dignified, rationally happy with their lot, Giorgione portrayed them
+with an art infinite in variety and consummate in skill. Their least
+features under his brush seemed to glow like jewels. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> sheen of
+armor and rich robe, a bare forearm, a nude back, or loosened
+hair&mdash;mere morsels of color and light&mdash;all took on a new beauty. Even
+landscape with him became more significant. His master, Bellini, had
+been realistic enough in the details of trees and hills, but Giorgione
+grasped the meaning of landscape as an entirety, and rendered it with
+poetic breadth.</p>
+
+<p>Technically he adopted the oil medium brought to Venice by Antonello
+da Messina, introducing scumbling and glazing to obtain brilliancy and
+depth of color. Of light-and-shade he was a master, and in atmosphere
+excellent. He, in common with all the Venetians, is sometimes said to
+be lacking in drawing, but that is the result of a misunderstanding.
+The Venetians never cared to accent line, choosing rather to model in
+masses of light and shadow and color. Giorgione was a superior man
+with the brush, but not quite up to his contemporary Titian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_049" id="imag_049"></a>
+<img src="images/image_134.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="FIG. 48.&mdash;TITIAN. VENUS EQUIPPING CUPID. BORGHESE PAL.,
+ROME."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 48.&mdash;TITIAN. VENUS EQUIPPING CUPID. BORGHESE PAL.,
+ROME.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_134_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That is not surprising, for <b>Titian</b> (1477-1576) was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> painter easily
+first in the whole range of Italian art. He was the first man in the
+history of painting to handle a brush with freedom, vigor, and gusto.
+And Titian's brush-work was probably the least part of his genius.
+Calm in mood, dignified, and often majestic in conception, learned
+beyond all others in his craft, he mingled thought, feeling, color,
+brush-work into one grand and glowing whole. He emphasized nothing,
+yet elevated everything. In pure intellectual thought he was not so
+strong as Raphael. He never sought to make painting a vehicle for
+theological, literary, or classical ideas. His tale was largely of
+humanity under a religious or classical name, but a noble, majestic
+humanity. In his art dignified senators, stern doges, and solemn
+ecclesiastics mingle with open-eyed madonnas, winning Ariadnes, and
+youthful Bacchuses. Men and women they are truly, but the very noblest
+of the Italian race, the mountain race of the Cadore country&mdash;proud,
+active, glowing with life; the sea race of Venice&mdash;worldly wise, full
+of character, luxurious in power.</p>
+
+<p>In himself he was an epitome of all the excellences of painting. He
+was everything, the sum of Venetian skill, the crowning genius of
+Renaissance art. He had force, power, invention, imagination, point of
+view; he had the infinite knowledge of nature and the infinite mastery
+of art. In addition, Fortune smiled upon him as upon a favorite child.
+Trained in mind and hand he lived for ninety-nine years and worked
+unceasingly up to a few months of his death. His genius was great and
+his accomplishment equally so. He was celebrated and independent at
+thirty-five, though before that he showed something of the influence
+of Giorgione. After the death of Giorgione and his master, Bellini,
+Titian was the leader in Venice to the end of his long life, and
+though having few scholars of importance his influence was spread
+through all North Italian painting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Taking him for all in all, perhaps it is not too much to say that he
+was the greatest painter known to history. If it were possible to
+describe that greatness in one word, that word would be
+"universality." He saw and painted that which was universal in its
+truth. The local and particular, the small and the accidental, were
+passed over for those great truths which belong to all the world of
+life. In this respect he was a veritable Shakespeare, with all the
+calmness and repose of one who overlooked the world from a lofty
+height.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_050" id="imag_050"></a>
+<img src="images/image_136.jpg" width="600" height="573" alt="FIG. 49.&mdash;TINTORETTO. MERCURY AND GRACES. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 49.&mdash;TINTORETTO. MERCURY AND GRACES. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_136_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The restfulness and easy strength of Titian were not characteristics
+of his follower <b>Tintoretto</b> (1518-1592). He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> was violent, headlong,
+impulsive, more impetuous than Michael Angelo, and in some respects a
+strong reminder of him. He had not Michael Angelo's austerity, and
+there was more clash and tumult and fire about him, but he had a
+command of line like the Florentine, and a way of hurling things, as
+seen in the Fall of the Damned, that reminds one of the Last Judgment
+of the Sistine. It was his aim to combine the line of Michael Angelo
+and the color of Titian; but without reaching up to either of his
+models he produced a powerful amalgam of his own.</p>
+
+<p>He was one of the very great artists of the world, and the most rapid
+workman in the whole Renaissance period. There are to-day, after
+centuries of decay, fire, theft, and repainting, yards upon yards of
+Tintoretto's canvases rotting upon the walls of the Venetian churches.
+He produced an enormous amount of work, and, what is to be regretted,
+much of it was contract work or experimental sketching. This has given
+his art a rather bad name, but judged by his best works in the Ducal
+Palace and the Academy at Venice, he will not be found lacking. Even
+in his masterpiece (The Miracle of the Slave) he is "Il Furioso," as
+they used to call him; but his thunderbolt style is held in check by
+wonderful grace, strength of modelling, superb contrasts of light with
+shade, and a coloring of flesh and robes not unworthy of the very
+greatest. He was a man who worked in the white heat of passion, with
+much imagination and invention. As a technician he sought difficulties
+rather than avoided them. There is some antagonism between form and
+color, but Tintoretto tried to reconcile them. The result was
+sometimes clashing, but no one could have done better with them than
+he did. He was a fine draughtsman, a good colorist, and a master of
+light. As a brushman he was a superior man, but not equal to Titian.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paolo Veronese</b> (1528-1588), the fourth great Venetian,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> did not follow
+the line direction set by Tintoretto, but carried out the original
+color-leaning of the school. He came a little later than Tintoretto,
+and his art was a reflection of the advancing Renaissance, wherein
+simplicity was destined to lose itself in complexity, grandeur, and
+display. Paolo came on the very crest of the Renaissance wave, when
+art, risen to its greatest height, was gleaming in that transparent
+splendor that precedes the fall.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_051" id="imag_051"></a>
+<img src="images/image_138.jpg" width="400" height="536" alt="FIG. 50.&mdash;P. VERONESE. VENICE ENTHRONED. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 50.&mdash;P. VERONESE. VENICE ENTHRONED. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_138_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The great bulk of his work had a large decorative motive behind it.
+Almost all of the late Venetian work was of that character. Hence it
+was brilliant in color, elaborate in subject, and grand in scale.
+Splendid robes, hangings, furniture, architecture, jewels, armor,
+appeared everywhere, and not in flat, lustreless hues, but with that
+brilliancy which they possess in nature. Drapery gave way to clothing,
+and texture-painting was introduced even in the largest canvases.
+Scenes from Scripture and legend turned into grand pageants of
+Venetian glory, and the facial expression of the characters rather
+passed out in favor of telling masses of color to be seen at a
+distance upon wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> or ceiling. It was pomp and glory carried to the
+highest pitch, but with all seriousness of mood and truthfulness in
+art. It was beyond Titian in variety, richness, ornament, facility;
+but it was perhaps below Titian in sentiment, sobriety, and depth of
+insight. Titian, with all his sensuous beauty, did appeal to the
+higher intelligence, while Paolo and his companions appealed more
+positively to the eye by luxurious color-setting and magnificence of
+invention. The decadence came after Paolo, but not with him. His art
+was the most gorgeous of the Venetian school, and by many is ranked
+the highest of all, but perhaps it is better to say it was the height.
+Those who came after brought about the decline by striving to imitate
+his splendor, and thereby falling into extravagance.</p>
+
+<p>These are the four great Venetians&mdash;the men of first rank. Beside them
+and around them were many other painters, placed in the second rank,
+who in any other time or city would have held first place. <b>Palma il
+Vecchio</b> (1480?-1528) was so excellent in many ways that it seems
+unjust to speak of him as a secondary painter. He was not, however, a
+great original mind, though in many respects a perfect painter. He was
+influenced by Bellini at first, and then by Giorgione. In subject
+there was nothing dramatic about him, and he carries chiefly by his
+portrayal of quiet, dignified, and beautiful Venetians under the names
+of saints and holy families. The St. Barbara is an example of this,
+and one of the most majestic figures in all painting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_052" id="imag_052"></a>
+<img src="images/image_140.jpg" width="600" height="479" alt="FIG. 51.&mdash;LOTTO. THREE AGES. PITTI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 51.&mdash;LOTTO. THREE AGES. PITTI.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_140_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Palma's friend and fellow-worker, <b>Lorenzo Lotto</b> (1480?-1556?) came
+from the school of the Bellini, and at different times was under the
+influence of several Venetian painters&mdash;Palma, Giorgione,
+Titian&mdash;without obliterating a sensitive individuality of his own. He
+was a somewhat mannered but very charming painter, and in portraits
+can hardly be classed below Titian. <b>Rocco Marconi</b> (fl. 1505-1520) was
+another Bellini-educated painter, showing the influence of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> Palma and
+even of Paris Bordone. In color and landscape he was excellent.
+<b>Pordenone</b> (1483-1540) rather followed after Giorgione, and
+unsuccessfully competed with Titian. He was inclined to exaggeration
+in dramatic composition, but was a painter of undeniable power.
+<b>Cariani</b> (1480-1541) was another Giorgione follower. <b>Bonifazio Pitati</b>
+probably came from a Veronese family. He showed the influence of
+Palma, and was rather deficient in drawing, though exceedingly
+brilliant and rich in coloring. This latter may be said for <b>Paris
+Bordone</b> (1495-1570), a painter of Titian's school, gorgeous in color,
+but often lacking in truth of form. His portraits are very fine.
+Another painter family, the Bassani&mdash;there were six of them, of whom
+<b>Jacopo Bassano</b> (1510-1592)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> and his son <b>Francesco Bassano</b> (1550-1591),
+were the most noted&mdash;formed themselves after Venetian masters, and
+were rather remarkable for violent contrasts of light and dark,
+<i>genre</i> treatment of sacred subjects, and still-life and animal
+painting.</p>
+
+<p><b>PAINTING IN VENETIAN TERRITORIES:</b> Venetian painting was not confined
+to Venice, but extended through all the Venetian territories in
+Renaissance times, and those who lived away from the city were, in
+their art, decidedly Venetian, though possessing local
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>At Brescia <b>Savoldo</b> (1480?-1548), a rather superficial painter, fond of
+weird lights and sheeny draperies, and <b>Romanino</b> (1485?-1566), a
+follower of Giorgione, good in composition but unequal and careless in
+execution, were the earliest of the High Renaissance men. <b>Moretto</b>
+(1498?-1555) was the strongest and most original, a man of
+individuality and power, remarkable technically for his delicacy and
+unity of color under a veil of "silvery tone." In composition he was
+dignified and noble, and in brush-work simple and direct. One of the
+great painters of the time, he seemed to stand more apart from
+Venetian influence than any other on Venetian territory. He left one
+remarkable pupil, <b>Moroni</b> (fl. 1549-1578) whose portraits are to-day
+the gems of several galleries, and greatly admired for their modern
+spirit and treatment.</p>
+
+<p>At Verona <b>Caroto</b> and <b>Girolamo dai Libri</b> (1474-1555), though living
+into the sixteenth century were more allied to the art of the
+fifteenth century. <b>Torbido</b> (1486?-1546?) was a vacillating painter,
+influenced by Liberale da Verona, Giorgione, Bonifazio Veronese, and
+later, even by Giulio Romano. <b>Cavazzola</b> (1486-1522) was more original,
+and a man of talent. There were numbers of other painters scattered
+all through the Venetian provinces at this time, but they were not of
+the first, or even the second rank, and hence call for no mention
+here.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <b>Giorgione</b>, F&ecirc;te Rustique Louvre, Sleeping
+Venus Dresden, altar-piece Castelfranco, Ordeal of Moses
+Judgment of Solomon Knight of Malta Uffizi; <b>Titian</b>, Sacred
+and Profane Love Borghese, Tribute Money Dresden,
+Annunciation S. Rocco, Pesaro Madonna Frari Venice,
+Entombment Man with Glove Louvre, Bacchus Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Charles V. Madrid, Dan&aelig; Naples, many other works in almost
+every European gallery; <b>Tintoretto</b>, many works in Venetian
+churches, Salute SS. Giovanni e Paolo S. Maria dell' Orto
+Scuola and Church of S. Rocco Ducal Palace Venice Acad.
+(best work Miracle of Slave); <b>Paolo Veronese</b>, many Pictures
+in S. Sebastiano Ducal Palace Academy Venice, Pitti, Uffizi,
+Brera, Capitoline and Borghese Galleries Rome, Turin,
+Dresden, Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Palma il Vecchio</b>,
+Jacob and Rachel Three Sisters Dresden, Barbara S. M.
+Formosa Venice, other altar-pieces Venice Acad., Colonna
+Palace Rome, Brera, Naples Mus., Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+<b>Lotto</b>, Three Ages Pitti, Portraits Brera, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice and churches at
+Bergamo, Treviso, Recanti, also Uffizi, Vienna, Madrid
+Gals.; <b>Marconi</b>, Descent Venice Acad., altar-pieces S.
+Giorgio Maggiore SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice; <b>Pordenone</b>, S.
+Lorenzo Madonna Venice Acad., Salome Doria St. George
+Quirinale Rome, other works Madrid, Dresden, St. Petersburg,
+Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Bonifazio</b>, St. John, St. Joseph, etc.
+Ambrosian Library Milan (attributed to Giorgione), Holy
+Family Colonna Pal. Rome, Ducal Pal., Pitti, Dresden Gals.;
+Supper at Emmaus Brera, other works Venice Acad.; <b>Paris
+Bordone</b>, Fisherman and Doge, Venice Acad., Madonna Casa
+Tadini Lovere, portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Louvre, Munich,
+Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon., Brignola Pal. Genoa; <b>Jacopo Bassano</b>,
+altar-pieces in Bassano churches, also Ducal Pal. Venice,
+Nat. Gal. Lon., Uffizi, Naples Mus.; <b>Francesco Bassano</b>,
+large pictures Ducal Pal., St. Catherine Pitti, Sabines
+Turin, Adoration and Christ in Temple Dresden, Adoration and
+Last Supper Madrid; <b>Savoldo</b>, altar-pieces Brera, S. Niccol&ograve;
+Treviso, Uffizi, Turin Gal., S. Giobbe Venice, Nat. Gal.
+Lon.; <b>Romanino</b>, altar-pieces S. Francesco Brescia, Berlin
+Gal., S. Giovanni Evangelista Brescia, Duomo Cremona, Padua,
+and Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Moretto</b>, altar-pieces Brera, Staedel
+Mus., S. M. della Pieta Venice, Vienna, Berlin, Louvre,
+Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Moroni</b>, portraits Bergamo Gal.,
+Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Berlin, Dresden, Madrid; <b>Girolamo
+dai Libri</b>, Madonna Berlin, Conception S. Paolo Verona,
+Virgin Verona Gal., S. Giorgio Maggiore Verona, Nat. Gal.
+Lon.; <b>Torbido</b>, frescos Duomo, altar-pieces S. Zeno and S.
+Eufemia Verona; <b>Cavazzola</b>, altar-pieces, Verona Gal. and
+Nat. Gal. Lon.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALIAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK. 1600-1894.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before, also General Bibliography,
+(page xv.); Calvi, <i>Notizie della vita e delle opere di Gio.
+Francesco Barbiera</i>; Malvasia, <i>Felsina Pittrice</i>; Sir
+Joshua Reynolds, <i>Discourses</i>; Symonds, <i>Renaissance in
+Italy&mdash;The Catholic Reaction</i>; Willard, <i>Modern Italian
+Art</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE DECLINE:</b> An art movement in history seems like a wave that rises
+to a height, then breaks, falls, and parts of it are caught up from
+beneath to help form the strength of a new advance. In Italy
+Christianity was the propelling force of the wave. In the Early
+Renaissance, the antique, and the study of nature came in as
+additions. At Venice in the High Renaissance the art-for-art's-sake
+motive made the crest of light and color. The highest point was
+reached then, and there was nothing that could follow but the breaking
+and the scattering of the wave. This took place in Central Italy after
+1540, in Venice after 1590.</p>
+
+<p>Art had typified in form, thought, and expression everything of which
+the Italian race was capable. It had perfected all the graces and
+elegancies of line and color, and adorned them with a superlative
+splendor. There was nothing more to do. The idea was completed, the
+motive power had served its purpose, and that store of race-impulse
+which seems necessary to the making of every great art was exhausted.
+For the men that came after Michael Angelo and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> Tintoretto there was
+nothing. All that they could do was to repeat what others had said, or
+to recombine the old thoughts and forms. This led inevitably to
+imitation, over-refinement of style, and conscious study of beauty,
+resulting in mannerism and affectation. Such qualities marked the art
+of those painters who came in the latter part of the sixteenth century
+and the first of the seventeenth. They were unfortunate men in the
+time of their birth. No painter could have been great in the
+seventeenth century of Italy. Art lay prone upon its face under Jesuit
+rule, and the late men were left upon the barren sands by the receding
+wave of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_053" id="imag_053"></a>
+<img src="images/image_144.jpg" width="400" height="623" alt="FIG. 52.&mdash;BRONZINO. CHRIST IN LIMBO. UFFIZI."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 52.&mdash;BRONZINO. CHRIST IN LIMBO. UFFIZI.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>ART MOTIVES AND SUBJECTS:</b> As before, the chief subject of the art of
+the Decadence was religion, with many heads and busts of the Madonna,
+though nature and the classic still played their parts. After the
+Reformation at the North the Church in Italy started the
+Counter-Reformation. One of the chief means employed by this Catholic
+reaction was the embellishment of church worship, and painting on a
+large scale, on panel rather than in fresco, was demanded for
+decorative purposes. But the religious motive had passed out, though
+its subject was retained, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> the pictorial motive had reached its
+climax at Venice. The faith of the one and the taste and skill of the
+other were not attainable by the late men, and, while consciously
+striving to achieve them, they fell into exaggerated sentiment and
+technical weakness. It seems perfectly apparent in their works that
+they had nothing of their own to say, and that they were trying to say
+over again what Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Titian had said before
+them much better. There were earnest men and good painters among them,
+but they could produce only the empty form of art. The spirit had
+fled.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE MANNERISTS:</b> Immediately after the High Renaissance leaders of
+Florence and Rome came the imitators and exaggerators of their styles.
+They produced large, crowded compositions, with a hasty facility of
+the brush and striking effects of light. Seeking the grand they
+overshot the temperate. Their elegance was affected, their sentiment
+forced, their brilliancy superficial glitter. When they thought to be
+ideal they lost themselves in incomprehensible allegories; when they
+thought to be real they grew prosaic in detail. These men are known in
+art history as the Mannerists, and the men whose works they imitated
+were chiefly Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Correggio. There were many
+of them, and some of them have already been spoken of as the followers
+of Michael Angelo.</p>
+
+<p><b>Agnolo Bronzino</b> (1502?-1572) was a pupil of Pontormo, and an imitator
+of Michael Angelo, painting in rather heavy colors with a thin brush.
+His characters were large, but never quite free from weakness, except
+in portraiture, where he appeared at his best. <b>Vasari</b> (1511-1574)&mdash;the
+same Vasari who wrote the lives of the painters&mdash;had versatility and
+facility, but his superficial imitations of Michael Angelo were too
+grandiose in conception and too palpably false in modelling. <b>Salviati</b>
+(1510-1563) was a friend of Vasari, a painter of about the same cast
+of mind and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> hand as Vasari, and <b>Federigo Zucchero</b> (1543-1609) belongs
+with him in producing things muscularly big but intellectually small.
+<b>Baroccio</b> (1528-1612), though classed among the Mannerists as an
+imitator of Correggio and Raphael, was really one of the strong men of
+the late times. There was affectation and sentimentality about his
+work, a prettiness of face, rosy flesh tints, and a general lightness
+of color, but he was a superior brushman, a good colorist, and, at
+times, a man of earnestness and power.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_054" id="imag_054"></a>
+<img src="images/image_146.jpg" width="400" height="560" alt="FIG. 53.&mdash;BAROCCIO. ANNUNCIATION."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 53.&mdash;BAROCCIO. ANNUNCIATION.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_146_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE ECLECTICS:</b> After the Mannerists came the Eclectics of Bologna, led
+by the <b>Caracci</b>, who, about 1585, sought to "revive" art. They started
+out to correct the faults of the Mannerists, and yet their own art was
+based more on the art of their great predecessors than on nature. They
+thought to make a union of Renaissance excellences by combining
+Michael Angelo's line, Titian's color, Correggio's light-and-shade and
+Raphael's symmetry and grace. The attempt was praiseworthy for the
+time, but hardly successful. They caught the lines and lights and
+colors of the great men, but they overlooked the fact that the
+excellence of the imitated lay largely in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> their inimitable
+individualities, which could not be combined. The Eclectic work was
+done with intelligence, but their system was against them and their
+baroque age was against them. Midway in their career the Caracci
+themselves modified their eclecticism and placed more reliance upon
+nature. But their pupils paid little heed to the modification.</p>
+
+<p>There were five of the Caracci, but three of them&mdash;<b>Ludovico</b>
+(1555-1619), <b>Agostino</b> (1557-1602), and <b>Annibale</b> (1560-1609)&mdash;led the
+school, and of these Annibale was the most distinguished. They had
+many pupils, and their influence was widely spread over Italy. In Sir
+Joshua Reynolds's day they were ranked with Raphael, but at the
+present time criticism places them where they belong&mdash;painters of the
+Decadence with little originality or spontaneity in their art, though
+much technical skill. <b>Domenichino</b> (1581-1641) was the strongest of the
+pupils. His St. Jerome was rated by Poussin as one of the three great
+paintings of the world, but it never deserved such rank. It is
+powerfully composed, but poor in coloring and handling. The painter
+had great repute in his time, and was one of the best of the
+seventeenth century men. <b>Guido Reni</b> (1575-1642) was a painter of many
+gifts and accomplishments, combined with many weaknesses. His works
+are well composed and painted, but excessive in sentiment and overdone
+in pathos. <b>Albani</b> (1578-1660) ran to elegance and a porcelain-like
+prettiness. <b>Guercino</b> (1591-1666) was originally of the Eclectic School
+at Bologna, but later took up with the methods of the Naturalists at
+Naples. He was a painter of far more than the average ability.
+<b>Sassoferrato</b> (1605-1685) and <b>Carlo Dolci</b> (1616-1686) were so
+super-saturated with sentimentality that often their skill as painters
+is overlooked or forgotten. In spirit they were about the weakest of
+the century. There were other eclectic schools started throughout
+Italy&mdash;at Milan, Cremona,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> Ferrara&mdash;but they produced little worth
+recording. At Rome certain painters like <b>Cristofano Allori</b>
+(1577-1621), an exceptionally strong man for the time, <b>Berrettini</b>
+(1596-1669), and <b>Maratta</b> (1625-1713), manufactured a facile kind of
+painting from what was attractive in the various schools, but it was
+never other than meretricious work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_055" id="imag_055"></a>
+<img src="images/image_148.jpg" width="400" height="525" alt="FIG. 54.&mdash;ANNIBALE CARACCI. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST.
+LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 54.&mdash;ANNIBALE CARACCI. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST.
+LOUVRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE NATURALISTS:</b> Contemporary with the Eclectics sprang up the
+Neapolitan school of the Naturalists, led by <b>Caravaggio</b> (1569-1609)
+and his pupils. These schools opposed each other, and yet influenced
+each other. Especially was this true with the later men, who took what
+was best in both schools. The Naturalists were, perhaps, more firmly
+based upon nature than the Bolognese Eclectics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> Their aim was to take
+nature as they found it, and yet, in conformity with the extravagance
+of the age, they depicted extravagant nature. Caravaggio thought to
+represent sacred scenes more truthfully by taking his models from the
+harsh street life about him and giving types of saints and apostles
+from Neapolitan brawlers and bandits. It was a brutal, coarse
+representation, rather fierce in mood and impetuous in action, yet not
+without a good deal of tragic power. His subjects were rather dismal
+or morose, but there was knowledge in the drawing of them, some good
+color and brush-work and a peculiar darkness of shadow masses
+(originally gained from Giorgione), that stood as an ear-mark of his
+whole school. From the continuous use of black shadows the school got
+the name of the "Darklings," by which they are still known. <b>Giordano</b>
+(1632-1705), a painter of prodigious facility and invention, <b>Salvator
+Rosa</b> (1615-1673), best known as one of the early painters of
+landscape, and <b>Ribera</b>, a Spanish painter, were the principal pupils.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE LATE VENETIANS:</b> The Decadence at Venice, like the Renaissance,
+came later than at Florence, but after the death of Tintoretto
+mannerisms and the imitation of the great men did away with
+originality. There was still much color left, and fine ceiling
+decorations were done, but the nobility and calm splendor of Titian's
+days had passed. <b>Palma il Giovine</b> (1544-1628) with a hasty brush
+produced imitations of Tintoretto with some grace and force, and in
+remarkable quantity. He and Tintoretto were the most rapid and
+productive painters of the century; but Palma's was not good in
+spirit, though quite dashing in technic. <b>Padovanino</b> (1590-1650) was
+more of a Titian follower, but, like all the other painters of the
+time, he was proficient with the brush and lacking in the stronger
+mental elements. The last great Italian painter was <b>Tiepolo</b>
+(1696-1770), and he was really great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> beyond his age. With an art
+founded on Paolo Veronese, he produced decorative ceilings and panels
+of high quality, with wonderful invention, a limpid brush, and a light
+flaky color peculiarly appropriate to the walls of churches and
+palaces. He was, especially in easel pictures, a brilliant, vivacious
+brushman, full of dash and spirit, tempered by a large knowledge of
+what was true and pictorial. Some of his best pictures are still in
+Venice, and modern painters are unstinted in their praise of them. He
+left a son, <b>Domenico Tiepolo</b> (1726-1795), who followed his methods. In
+the late days of Venetian painting, <b>Canaletto</b> (1697-1768) and <b>Guardi</b>
+(1712-1793) achieved reputation by painting Venetian canals and
+architecture with much color effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_056" id="imag_056"></a>
+<img src="images/image_150.jpg" width="600" height="414" alt="FIG. 55.&mdash;CARAVAGGIO. THE CARD PLAYERS. DRESDEN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 55.&mdash;CARAVAGGIO. THE CARD PLAYERS. DRESDEN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN ITALY:</b> There is little in the art of
+Italy during the present century that shows a positive national
+spirit. It has been leaning on the rest of Europe for many years, and
+the best that the living<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> painters show is largely an echo of
+Dusseldorf, Munich, or Paris. The revived classicism of David in
+France affected nineteenth-century painting in Italy somewhat. Then it
+was swayed by Cornelius and Overbeck from Germany. <b>Morelli</b> (1826-<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>)
+shows this latter influence, though one of the most important of the
+living men.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In the 1860's Mariano Fortuny, a Spaniard at Rome, led
+the younger element in the glittering and the sparkling, and this
+style mingled with much that is more strikingly Parisian than Italian,
+may be found in the works of painters like <b>Michetti</b>, <b>De Nittis</b>
+(1846-1884), <b>Favretto</b>, <b>Tito</b>, <b>Nono</b>, <b>Simonetti</b>, and others.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Died, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, Neapolitan Art, Dec., 1890,
+Feb., 1891.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of recent days the impressionistic view of light and color has had its
+influence; but the Italian work at its best is below that of France.
+<b>Segantini</b><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> was one of the most promising of the younger men in
+subjects that have an archaic air about them. <b>Boldini</b>, though Italian
+born and originally following Fortuny's example, is really more
+Parisian than anything else. He is an artist of much power and
+technical strength in <i>genre</i> subjects and portraits. The newer men
+are <b>Fragiocomo</b>, <b>Fattori</b>, <b>Mancini</b>, <b>Marchetti</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Died, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Mannerists</span>&mdash;<b>Agnolo Bronzino</b>, Christ in
+Limbo and many portraits in Uffizi and Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+<b>Vasari</b>, many pictures in galleries at Arezzo, Bologna,
+Berlin, Munich, Louvre, Madrid; <b>Salviati</b>, Charity Christ
+Uffizi, Patience Pitti, St. Thomas Louvre, Love and Psyche
+Berlin; <b>Federigo Zucchero</b>, Duomo Florence, Ducal Palace
+Venice, Allegories Uffizi, Calumny Hampton Court; <b>Baroccio</b>,
+Pardon of St. Francis Urbino, Annunciation Loreto, several
+pictures in Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Dresden Gal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eclectics</span>&mdash;<b>Ludovico Caracci</b>, Cathedral frescos Bologna,
+thirteen pictures Bologna Gal.; <b>Agostino Caracci</b>, frescos
+(with Annibale) Farnese Pal. Rome, altar-pieces Bologna
+Gal.; <b>Annibale Carracci</b>, frescos (with Agostino) Farnese
+Pal. Rome, other pictures Bologna Gal., Uffizi, Naples Mus.,
+Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Domenichino</b>, St.
+Jerome Vatican, S. Pietro in Vincoli, Diana Borghese,
+Bologna, Pitti, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Guido Reni</b>, frescos
+Aurora Rospigliosi Pal. Rome, many pictures Bologna,
+Borghese Gal., Pitti, Uffizi, Brera, Naples, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>Louvre, and
+other galleries of Europe; <b>Albani</b>, <b>Guercino</b>, <b>Sassoferrato</b>,
+and <b>Carlo Dolci</b>, works in almost every European gallery,
+especially Bologna; <b>Cristofano Allori</b>, Judith Pitti, also
+pictures in Uffizi; <b>Berrettini</b> and <b>Maratta</b>, many examples in
+Italian galleries, also Louvre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Naturalists</span>&mdash;<b>Caravaggio</b>, Entombment Vatican, many other
+works in Pitti, Uffizi, Naples, Louvre, Dresden, St.
+Petersburg; <b>Giordano</b>, Judgment of Paris Berlin, many
+pictures in Dresden and Italian galleries; <b>Salvator Rosa</b>,
+best marine in Pitti, other works Uffizi, Brera, Naples,
+Madrid galleries and Colonna, Corsini, Doria, Chigi Palaces
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Late Venetians</span>&mdash;<b>Palma il Giovine</b>, Ducal Palace Venice,
+Cassel, Dresden, Munich, Madrid, Naples, Vienna galleries;
+<b>Padovanino</b>, Marriage in Cana Kneeling Angel and other works
+Venice Acad., Carmina Venice, also galleries of Louvre,
+Uffizi, Borghese, Dresden, London; <b>Tiepolo</b>, large fresco
+Villa Pisani Stra, Palazzo Labia Scuola Carmina, Venice,
+Villa Valmarana, and at Wurtzburg, easel pictures Venice
+Acad., Louvre, Berlin, Madrid; <b>Canaletto</b> and <b>Guardi</b>, many
+pictures in European galleries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Modern Italians</span><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>&mdash;<b>Morelli</b>, Madonna Royal chap.
+Castiglione, Assumption Royal chap. Naples; <b>Michetti</b>, The
+Vow Nat. Gal. Rome; <b>De Nittis</b>, Place du Carrousel Luxembourg
+Paris; <b>Boldini</b>, Gossips Met. Mus. New York.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Only works in public places are given. Those in private
+hands change too often for record here. For detailed list of works see
+Champlin and Perkins, <i>Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Amorini, <i>Vita del celebre pittore
+Francesco Primaticcio</i>; Berger, <i>Histoire de l'&Eacute;cole
+Fran&ccedil;aise de Peinture au XVII<sup>me</sup> Si&egrave;cle</i>; Bland, <i>Les
+Peintres des f&ecirc;tes galantes, Watteau, Boucher, et al.</i>;
+Curmer, <i>L'&OElig;uvre de Jean Fouquet</i>; Delaborde, <i>&Eacute;tudes sur
+les Beaux Arts en France et en Italie</i>; Didot, <i>&Eacute;tudes sur
+Jean Cousin</i>; Dimier, <i>French Painting in XVI Century</i>;
+Dumont, <i>Antoine Watteau</i>; Dussieux, <i>Nouvelles Recherches
+sur la Vie de E. Lesueur</i>; Genevay, <i>Le Style Louis XIV.,
+Charles Le Brun</i>; Goncourt, <i>L'Art du XVIII<sup>me</sup> Si&egrave;cle</i>;
+Guibel, <i>&Eacute;loge de Nicolas Poussin</i>; Guiffrey, <i>La Famille de
+Jean Cousin</i>; Laborde, <i>La Renaissance des Arts &agrave; la Cour de
+France</i>; Lagrange, <i>J. Vernet et la Peinture au XVIII<sup>me</sup>
+Si&egrave;cle</i>; Lecoy de la Marche, <i>Le Roi Ren&eacute;</i>; Mantz, <i>Fran&ccedil;ois
+Boucher</i>; Michiels, <i>&Eacute;tudes sur l'Art Flamand dans l'est et
+le midi de la France</i>; Muntz, <i>La Renaissance en Italie et
+en France</i>; Palustre, <i>La Renaissance en France</i>; Pattison,
+<i>Renaissance of Art in France</i>; Pattison, <i>Claude Lorrain</i>;
+Poillon, <i>Nicolas Poussin</i>; Stranahan, <i>History of French
+Painting</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>EARLY FRENCH ART:</b> Painting in France did not, as in Italy, spring
+directly from Christianity, though it dealt with the religious
+subject. From the beginning a decorative motive&mdash;the strong feature of
+French art&mdash;appears as the chief motive of painting. This showed
+itself largely in church ornament, garments, tapestries, miniatures,
+and illuminations. Mural paintings were produced during the fifth
+century, probably in imitation of Italian or Roman example.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> Under
+Charlemagne, in the eighth century, Byzantine influences were at work.
+In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries much stained-glass
+work appeared, and also many missal paintings and furniture
+decorations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_057" id="imag_057"></a>
+<img src="images/image_154.jpg" width="600" height="463" alt="Fig. 56.&mdash;POUSSIN. ET IN ARCADIA EGO. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;POUSSIN. ET IN ARCADIA EGO. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_154_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century <b>Ren&eacute; of Anjou</b> (1408-1480), king and painter,
+gave an impetus to art which he perhaps originally received from
+Italy. His work showed some Italian influence mingled with a great
+deal of Flemish precision, and corresponded for France to the early
+Renaissance work of Italy, though by no means so advanced.
+Contemporary with Ren&eacute; was <b>Jean Fouquet</b> (1415?-1480?) an illuminator
+and portrait-painter, one of the earliest in French history. He was an
+artist of some original characteristics and produced an art detailed
+and exact in its realism. <b>Jean P&eacute;real</b> (?-1528?) and <b>Jean Bourdichon</b>
+(1457?-1521?) with Fouquet's pupils and sons, formed a school at Tours
+which afterward came to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> show some Italian influence. The native
+workmen at Paris&mdash;they sprang up from illuminators to painters in all
+probability&mdash;showed more of the Flemish influence. Neither of the
+schools of the fifteenth century reflected much life or thought, but
+what there was of it was native to the soil, though their methods were
+influenced from without.</p>
+
+<p><b>SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING:</b> During this century Francis I., at
+Fontainebleau, seems to have encouraged two schools of painting, one
+the native French and the other an imported Italian, which afterward
+took to itself the name of the "School of Fontainebleau." Of the
+native artists the <b>Clouets</b> were the most conspicuous. They were of
+Flemish origin, and followed Flemish methods both in technic and
+mediums. There were four of them, of whom <b>Jean</b> (1485?-1541?) and
+<b>Fran&ccedil;ois</b> (1500?-1572?) were the most noteworthy. They painted many
+portraits, and Fran&ccedil;ois' work, bearing some resemblance to that of
+Holbein, it has been doubtfully said that he was a pupil of that
+painter. All of their work was remarkable for detail and closely
+followed facts.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian importation came about largely through the travels of
+Francis I. in Italy. He invited to Fontainebleau Leonardo da Vinci,
+Andrea del Sarto, Il Rosso, Primaticcio, and Niccol&ograve; dell' Abbate.
+These painters rather superseded and greatly influenced the French
+painters. The result was an Italianized school of French art which
+ruled in France for many years. Primaticcio was probably the greatest
+of the influencers, remaining as he did for thirty years in France.
+The native painters, <b>Jean Cousin</b> (1500?-1589) and <b>Toussaint du Breuil</b>
+(1561-1602) followed his style, and in the next century the painters
+were even more servile imitators of Italy&mdash;imitating not the best
+models either, but the Mannerists, the Eclectics, and the Roman
+painters of the Decadence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_058" id="imag_058"></a>
+<img src="images/image_156.jpg" width="600" height="478" alt="FIG. 57.&mdash;CLAUDE LORRAIN. FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. DRESDEN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 57.&mdash;CLAUDE LORRAIN. FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. DRESDEN.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_156_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING:</b> This was a century of great development
+and production in France, the time of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> the founding of the French
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and the formation of many picture
+collections. In the first part of the century the Flemish and native
+tendencies existed, but they were overawed, outnumbered by the
+Italian. Not even Rubens's painting for Marie de' Medici, in the
+palace of the Luxembourg, could stem the tide of Italy. The French
+painters flocked to Rome to study the art of their great predecessors
+and were led astray by the flashy elegance of the late Italians. Among
+the earliest of this century was <b>Fr&eacute;minet</b> (1567-1619). He was first
+taught by his father and Jean Cousin, but afterward spent fifteen
+years in Italy studying Parmigianino and Michael Angelo. His work had
+something of the Mannerist style about it and was overwrought and
+exaggerated. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> shadows he seemed to have borrowed from Caravaggio.
+<b>Vouet</b> (1590-1649) was a student in Italy of Veronese's painting and
+afterward of Guido Reni and Caravaggio. He was a mediocre artist, but
+had a great vogue in France and left many celebrated pupils.</p>
+
+<p>By all odds the best painter of this time was <b>Nicolas Poussin</b>
+(1593-1665). He lived almost all of his life in Italy, and might be
+put down as an Italian of the Decadence. He was well versed in
+classical arch&aelig;ology, and had much of the classic taste and feeling
+prevalent at that time in the Roman school of Giulio Romano. His work
+showed great intelligence and had an elevated grandiloquent style
+about it that was impressive. It reflected nothing French, and had
+little more root in present human sympathy than any of the other
+painting of the time, but it was better done. The drawing was correct
+if severe, the composition agreeable if formal, the coloring
+variegated if violent. Many of his pictures have now changed for the
+worse in coloring owing to the dissipation of surface pigments. He was
+the founder of the classic and academic in French art, and in
+influence was the most important man of the century. He was especially
+strong in the heroic landscape, and in this branch helped form the
+style of his brother-in-law, <b>Gaspard (Dughet) Poussin</b> (1613-1675).</p>
+
+<p>The landscape painter of the period, however, was <b>Claude Lorrain</b>
+(1600-1682). He differed from Poussin in making his pictures depend
+more strictly upon landscape than upon figures. With both painters,
+the trees, mountains, valleys, buildings, figures, were of the grand
+classic variety. Hills and plains, sylvan groves, flowing streams,
+peopled harbors, Ionic and Corinthian temples, Roman aqueducts,
+mythological groups, were the materials used, and the object of their
+use was to show the ideal dwelling-place of man&mdash;the former Garden of
+the Gods. Panoramic and slightly theatrical at times, Claude's work
+was not without its poetic side,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> shrewd knowledge, and skilful
+execution. He was a leader in landscape, the man who first painted
+real golden sunlight and shed its light upon earth. There is a soft
+summer's-day drowsiness, a golden haze of atmosphere, a feeling of
+composure and restfulness about his pictures that are attractive. Like
+Poussin he depended much upon long sweeping lines in composition, and
+upon effects of linear perspective.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_059" id="imag_059"></a>
+<img src="images/image_158.jpg" width="400" height="515" alt="FIG. 58&mdash;WATTEAU. GILLES. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 58&mdash;WATTEAU. GILLES. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_158_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>COURT PAINTING:</b> When Louis XIV. came to the throne painting took on a
+decided character, but it was hardly national or race character. The
+popular idea, if the people had an idea, did not obtain. There was no
+motive springing from the French except an inclination to follow
+Italy;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> and in Italy all the great art-motives were dead. In method
+the French painters followed the late Italians, and imitated an
+imitation; in matter they bowed to the dictates of the court and
+reflected the king's mock-heroic spirit. Echoing the fashion of the
+day, painting became pompous, theatrical, grandiloquent&mdash;a mass of
+vapid vanity utterly lacking in sincerity and truth. <b>Lebrun</b>
+(1619-1690), painter in ordinary to the king, directed substantially
+all the painting of the reign. He aimed at pleasing royalty with
+flattering allusions to C&aelig;sarism and extravagant personifications of
+the king as a classic conqueror. His art had neither truth, nor
+genius, nor great skill, and so sought to startle by subject or size.
+Enormous canvases of Alexander's triumphs, in allusion to those of the
+great Louis, were turned out to order, and Versailles to this day is
+tapestried with battle-pieces in which Louis is always victor.
+Considering the amount of work done, Lebrun showed great fecundity and
+industry, but none of it has much more than a mechanical ingenuity
+about it. It was rather original in composition, but poor in drawing,
+lighting, and coloring; and its example upon the painters of the time
+was pernicious.</p>
+
+<p>His contemporary, <b>Le Sueur</b> (1616-1655), was a more sympathetic and
+sincere painter, if not a much better technician. Both were pupils of
+Vouet, but Le Sueur's art was religious in subject, while Lebrun's was
+military and monarchical. Le Sueur had a feeling for his theme, but
+was a weak painter, inclined to the sentimental, thin in coloring, and
+not at all certain in his drawing. French allusions to him as "the
+French Raphael" show more national complacency than correctness.
+<b>Sebastian Bourdon</b> (1616-1671) was another painter of history, but a
+little out of the Lebrun circle. He was not, however, free from the
+influence of Italy, where he spent three years studying color more
+than drawing. This shows in his works, most of which are lacking in
+form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with these men was a group of portrait-painters who
+gained celebrity perhaps as much by their subjects as by their own
+powers. They were facile flatterers given over to the pomps of the
+reign and mirroring all its absurdities of fashion. Their work has a
+graceful, smooth appearance, and, for its time, it was undoubtedly
+excellent portraiture. Even to this day it has qualities of drawing
+and coloring to commend it, and at times one meets with exceptionally
+good work. The leaders among these portrait-painters were <b>Philip de
+Champaigne</b> (1602-1674), the best of his time; <b>Pierre Mignard</b>
+(1610?-1695), a pupil of Vouet, who studied in Rome and afterward
+returned to France to become the successful rival of Lebrun;
+<b>Largilli&egrave;re</b> (1656-1746) and <b>Rigaud</b> (1659-1743).</p>
+
+<p><b>EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING:</b> The painting of Louis XIV.'s time was
+continued into the eighteenth century for some fifteen years or more
+with little change. With the advent of Louis XV. art took upon itself
+another character, and one that reflected perfectly the moral, social,
+and political France of the eighteenth century. The first Louis
+clamored for glory, the second Louis revelled in gayety, frivolity,
+and sensuality. This was the difference between both monarchs and both
+arts. The gay and the coquettish in painting had already been
+introduced by the Regent, himself a dilettante in art, and when Louis
+XV. came to the throne it passed from the gay to the insipid, the
+flippant, even the erotic. Shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in
+court silks and satins with cottony sheep beside them posed in
+stage-set Arcadias, pretty gods and goddesses reclined indolently upon
+gossamer clouds, and court gallants lounged under artificial trees by
+artificial ponds making love to pretty soubrettes from the theatre.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, in spite of the lack of moral and intellectual elevation, in
+spite of frivolity and make-believe, this art was infinitely better
+than the pompous imitation of foreign ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>ample set up by Louis XIV. It
+was more spontaneous, more original, more French. The influence of
+Italy began to fail, and the painters began to mirror French life. It
+was largely court life, lively, vivacious, licentious, but in that
+very respect characteristic of the time. Moreover, there was another
+quality about it that showed French taste at its best&mdash;the decorative
+quality. It can hardly be supposed that the fairy creations of the age
+were intended to represent actual nature. They were designed to
+ornament hall and boudoir, and in pure decorative delicacy of design,
+lightness of touch, color charm, they have never been excelled. The
+serious spirit was lacking, but the gayety of line and color was well
+given.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_060" id="imag_060"></a>
+<img src="images/image_161.jpg" width="600" height="438" alt="FIG. 59.&mdash;BOUCHER. PASTORAL. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 59.&mdash;BOUCHER. PASTORAL. LOUVRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Watteau</b> (1684-1721) was the one chiefly responsible for the coquette
+and soubrette of French art, and Watteau was, practically speaking,
+the first French painter. His subjects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> were trifling bits of
+fashionable love-making, scenes from the opera, f&ecirc;tes, balls, and the
+like. All his characters played at life in parks and groves that never
+grew, and most of his color was beautifully unreal; but for all that
+the work was original, decorative, and charming. Moreover, Watteau was
+a brushman, and introduced not only a new spirit and new subject into
+art, but a new method. The epic treatment of the Italians was laid
+aside in favor of a genre treatment, and instead of line and flat
+surface Watteau introduced color and cleverly laid pigment. He was a
+brilliant painter; not a great man in thought or imagination, but one
+of fancy, delicacy, and skill. Unfortunately he set a bad example by
+his gay subjects, and those who came after him carried his gayety and
+lightness of spirit into exaggeration. Watteau's best pupils were
+<b>Lancret</b> (1690-1743) and <b>Pater</b> (1695-1736), who painted in his style
+with fair results.</p>
+
+<p>After these men came <b>Van Loo</b> (1705-1765) and <b>Boucher</b> (1703-1770), who
+turned Watteau's charming f&ecirc;tes, showing the costumes and manners of
+the Regency, into flippant extravagance. Not only was the moral tone
+and intellectual stamina of their art far below that of Watteau, but
+their workmanship grew defective. Both men possessed a remarkable
+facility of the hand and a keen decorative color-sense; but after a
+time both became stereotyped and mannered. Drawing and modelling were
+neglected, light was wholly conventional, and landscape turned into a
+piece of embroidered background with a Dresden china-tapestry effect
+about it. As decoration the general effect was often excellent, as a
+serious expression of life it was very weak, as an intellectual or
+moral force it was worse than worthless. <b>Fragonard</b> (1732-1806)
+followed in a similar style, but was a more knowing man, clever in
+color, and a much freer and better brushman.</p>
+
+<p>A few painters in the time of Louis XV. remained appar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>ently
+unaffected by the court influence, and stand in conspicuous isolation.
+<b>Claude Joseph Vernet</b> (1712-1789) was a landscape and marine painter of
+some repute in his time. He had a sense of the pictorial, but not a
+remarkable sense of the truthful in nature. <b>Chardin</b> (1699-1779) and
+<b>Greuze</b> (1725-1805), clung to portrayals of humble life and sought to
+popularize the <i>genre</i> subject. Chardin was not appreciated by the
+masses. His frank realism, his absolute sincerity of purpose, his play
+of light and its effect upon color, and his charming handling of
+textures were comparatively unnoticed. Yet as a colorist he may be
+ranked second to none in French art, and in freshness of handling his
+work is a model for present-day painters. Diderot early recognized
+Chardin's excellence, and many artists since his day have admired his
+pictures; but he is not now a well-known or popular painter. The
+populace fancies Greuze and his sentimental heads of young girls. They
+have a prettiness about them that is attractive, but as art they lack
+in force, and in workmanship they are too smooth, finical, and thin in
+handling.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> All of these French painters are best
+represented in the collections of the Louvre. Some of the
+other galleries, like the Dresden, Berlin, and National at
+London, have examples of their work; but the masterpieces
+are with the French people in the Louvre and in the other
+municipal galleries of France.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before, Stranahan, <i>et al.</i>; also
+Balli&egrave;re, <i>Henri Regnault</i>; Blanc, <i>Les Artistes de mon
+Temps</i>; Blanc, <i>Histoire des Peintres fran&ccedil;ais au XIX<sup>me</sup>
+Si&egrave;cle</i>; Blanc, <i>Ingres et son &OElig;uvre</i>; Bigot, <i>Peintres
+fran&ccedil;ais contemporains</i>; Breton, <i>La Vie d'un Artiste</i>
+(<i>English Translation</i>); Brownell, <i>French Art</i>; Burty,
+<i>Ma&icirc;tres et Petit-Ma&icirc;tres</i>; Chesneau, <i>Peinture fran&ccedil;aise au
+XIX<sup>me</sup> Si&egrave;cle</i>; Cl&eacute;ment, <i>&Eacute;tudes sur les Beaux Arts en
+France</i>; Cl&eacute;ment, <i>Prudhon</i>; Delaborde, <i>&OElig;uvre de Paul
+Delaroche</i>; Del&eacute;cluze, <i>Jacques Louis David, son &Eacute;cole, et
+son Temps</i>; Duret, <i>Les Peintres fran&ccedil;ais en 1867</i>; Gautier,
+<i>L'Art Moderne</i>; Gautier, <i>Romanticisme</i>; Gonse, <i>Eug&egrave;ne
+Fromentin</i>; Hamerton, <i>Contemporary French Painting</i>;
+Hamerton, <i>Painting in France after the Decline of
+Classicism</i>; Henley, <i>Memorial Catalogue of French and Dutch
+Loan Collection</i> (1886); Henriet, <i>Charles Daubigny et son
+&OElig;uvre</i>; Lenormant, <i>Les Artistes Contemporains</i>;
+Lenormant, <i>Ary Scheffer</i>; Merson, <i>Ingres, sa Vie et son
+&OElig;uvre</i>; Moreau, <i>Decamps et son &OElig;uvre</i>; Planche,
+<i>&Eacute;tudes sur l'&Eacute;cole fran&ccedil;aise</i>; Robaut et Chesneau,
+<i>L'&OElig;uvre complet d'Eug&egrave;ne Delacroix</i>; Sensier, <i>Th&eacute;odore
+Rousseau</i>; Sensier, <i>Life and Works of J. F. Millet</i>;
+Silvestre, <i>Histoire des Artistes vivants et &eacute;trangers</i>;
+Strahan, <i>Modern French Art</i>; Thor&eacute;, <i>L'Art Contemporain</i>;
+Theuriet, <i>Jules Bastien-Lepage</i>; Van Dyke, <i>Modern French
+Masters</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE REVOLUTIONARY TIME:</b> In considering this century's art in Europe,
+it must be remembered that a great social and intellectual change has
+taken place since the days of the Medici. The power so long pent up in
+Italy during the Renaissance finally broke and scattered itself upon
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> western nations; societies and states were torn down and
+rebuilded, political, social, and religious ideas shifted into new
+garbs; the old order passed away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_061" id="imag_061"></a>
+<img src="images/image_165.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="FIG. 60.&mdash;DAVID. THE SABINES. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 60.&mdash;DAVID. THE SABINES. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_165_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Religion as an art-motive, or even as an art-subject, ceased to obtain
+anywhere. The Church failed as an art-patron, and the walls of
+cloister and cathedral furnished no new Bible readings to the
+unlettered. Painting, from being a necessity of life, passed into a
+luxury, and the king, the state, or the private collector became the
+patron. Nature and actual life were about the only sources left from
+which original art could draw its materials. These have been freely
+used, but not so much in a national as in an individual manner. The
+tendency to-day is not to put forth a universal conception but an
+individual belief. Individualism&mdash;the same quality that appeared so
+strongly in Michael Angelo's art&mdash;has become a keynote in modern work.
+It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> is not the only kind of art that has been shown in this century,
+nor is nature the only theme from which art has been derived. We must
+remember and consider the influence of the past upon modern men, and
+the attempts to restore the classic beauty of the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian, which practically ruled French painting in the first part of
+this century.</p>
+
+<p><b>FRENCH CLASSICISM OF DAVID:</b> This was a revival of Greek form in art,
+founded on the belief expressed by Winckelmann, that beauty lay in
+form, and was best shown by the ancient Greeks. It was the objective
+view of art which saw beauty in the external and tolerated no
+individuality in the artist except that which was shown in technical
+skill. It was little more than an imitation of the Greek and Roman
+marbles as types, with insistence upon perfect form, correct drawing,
+and balanced composition. In theme and spirit it was pseudo-heroic,
+the incidents of Greek and Roman history forming the chief subjects,
+and in method it rather despised color, light-and-shade, and natural
+surroundings. It was elevated, lofty, ideal in aspiration, but coldly
+unsympathetic because lacking in contemporary interest; and, though
+correct enough in classic form, was lacking in the classic spirit.
+Like all reanimated art, it was derivative as regards its forms and
+lacking in spontaneity. The reason for the existence of Greek art died
+with its civilization, and those, like the French classicists, who
+sought to revive it, brought a copy of the past into the present,
+expecting the world to accept it.</p>
+
+<p>There was some social, and perhaps artistic, reason, however, for the
+revival of the classic in the French art of the late eighteenth
+century. It was a revolt, and at that time revolts were popular. The
+art of Boucher and Van Loo had become quite unbearable. It was
+flippant, careless, licentious. It had no seriousness or dignity about
+it. Moreover, it smacked of the Bourbon monarchy, which people had
+come to hate. Classicism was severe, elevated,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> respectable at least,
+and had the air of the heroic republic about it. It was a return to a
+sterner view of life, with the martial spirit behind it as an impetus,
+and it had a great vogue. For many years during the Revolution, the
+Consulate, and the Empire, classicism was accepted by the sovereigns
+and the Institute of France, and to this day it lives in a modified
+form in that semi-classic work known as academic art.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE CLASSIC SCHOOL:</b> <b>Vien</b> (1716-1809) was the first painter to protest
+against the art of Boucher and Van Loo by advocating more nobility of
+form and a closer study of nature. He was, however, more devoted to
+the antique forms he had studied in Rome than to nature. In subject
+and line his tendency was classic, with a leaning toward the Italians
+of the Decadence. He lacked the force to carry out a complete reform
+in painting, but his pupil <b>David</b> (1748-1825) accomplished what he had
+begun. It was David who established the reign of classicism, and by
+native power became the leader. The time was appropriate, the
+Revolution called for pictures of Romulus, Brutus and Achilles, and
+Napoleon encouraged the military theme. David had studied the marbles
+at Rome, and he used them largely for models, reproducing scenes from
+Greek and Roman life in an elevated and sculpturesque style, with much
+arch&aelig;ological knowledge and a great deal of skill. In color, relief,
+sentiment, individuality, his painting was lacking. He despised all
+that. The rhythm of line, the sweep of composed groups, the heroic
+subject and the heroic treatment, made up his art. It was thoroughly
+objective, and what contemporary interest it possessed lay largely in
+the martial spirit then prevalent. Of course it was upheld by the
+Institute, and it really set the pace for French painting for nearly
+half a century. When David was called upon to paint Napoleonic
+pictures he painted them under protest, and yet these, with his
+portraits, constitute his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> best work. In portraiture he was uncommonly
+strong at times.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_062" id="imag_062"></a>
+<img src="images/image_168.jpg" width="400" height="518" alt="FIG. 61.&mdash;INGRES. &OElig;DIPUS AND SPHINX. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 61.&mdash;INGRES. &OElig;DIPUS AND SPHINX. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_168_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>After the Restoration David, who had been a revolutionist, and then an
+adherent of Napoleon, was sent into exile; but the influence he had
+left and the school he had established were carried on by his
+contemporaries and pupils. Of the former <b>Regnault</b> (1754-1829), <b>Vincent</b>
+(1746-1816), and <b>Prudhon</b> (1758-1823) were the most conspicuous. The
+last one was considered as out of the classic circle, but so far as
+making his art depend upon drawing and composition, he was a genuine
+classicist. His subjects, instead of being heroic, inclined to the
+mythological and the allegorical. In Italy he had been a student of
+the Renaissance painters, and from them borrowed a method of shadow
+gradation that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> rendered his figures misty and phantom-like. They
+possessed an ease of movement sometimes called "Prudhonesque grace,"
+and in composition were well placed and effective.</p>
+
+<p>Of David's pupils there were many. Only a few of them, however, had
+pronounced ability, and even these carried David's methods into the
+theatrical. <b>Girodet</b> (1766-1824) was a draughtsman of considerable
+power, but with poor taste in color and little repose in composition.
+Most of his work was exaggeration and strained effect. <b>Lethi&egrave;re</b>
+(1760-1832) and <b>Gu&eacute;rin</b> (1774-1833), pupils of Regnault, were painters
+akin to Girodet, but inferior to him. <b>G&eacute;rard</b> (1770-1837) was a weak
+David follower, who gained some celebrity by painting portraits of
+celebrated men and women. The two pupils of David who brought him the
+most credit were <b>Ingres</b> (1780-1867) and <b>Gros</b> (1771-1835). Ingres was a
+cold, persevering man, whose principles had been well settled by David
+early in life, and were adhered to with conviction by the pupil to the
+last. He modified the classic subject somewhat, studied Raphael and
+the Italians, and reintroduced the single figure into art (the Source,
+and the Odalisque, for example). For color he had no fancy. "In nature
+all is form," he used to say. Painting he thought not an independent
+art, but "a development of sculpture." To consider emotion, color, or
+light as the equal of form was monstrous, and to compare Rembrandt
+with Raphael was blasphemy. To this belief he clung to the end,
+faithfully reproducing the human figure, and it is not to be wondered
+at that eventually he became a learned draughtsman. His single figures
+and his portraits show him to the best advantage. He had a strong
+grasp of modelling and an artistic sense of the beauty and dignity of
+line not excelled by any artist of this century. And to him more than
+any other painter is due the cultured draughtsmanship which is to-day
+the just pride of the French school.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gros was a more vacillating man, and by reason of forsaking the
+classic subject for Napoleonic battle-pieces, he unconsciously led the
+way toward romanticism. He excelled as a draughtsman, but when he came
+to paint the Field of Eylau and the Pest of Jaffa he mingled color,
+light, air, movement, action, sacrificing classic composition and
+repose to reality. This was heresy from the Davidian point of view,
+and David eventually convinced him of it. Gros returned to the classic
+theme and treatment, but soon after was so reviled by the changing
+criticism of the time that he committed suicide in the Seine. His art,
+however, was the beginning of romanticism.</p>
+
+<p>The landscape painting of this time was rather academic and
+unsympathetic. It was a continuation of the Claude-Poussin tradition,
+and in its insistence upon line, grandeur of space, and imposing trees
+and mountains, was a fit companion to the classic figure-piece. It had
+little basis in nature, and little in color or feeling to commend it.
+<b>Watelet</b> (1780-1866), <b>Bertin</b> (1775-1842), <b>Michallon</b> (1796-1822), and
+<b>Aligny</b> (1798-1871), were its exponents.</p>
+
+<p>A few painters seemed to stand apart from the contemporary influences.
+<b>Madame Vig&eacute;e-Lebrun</b> (1755-1842), a successful portrait-painter of
+nobility, and <b>Horace Vernet</b> (1789-1863), a popular battle-painter,
+many of whose works are to be seen at Versailles, were of this class.</p>
+
+<p><b>ROMANTICISM:</b> The movement in French painting which began about 1822
+and took the name of Romanticism was but a part of the
+"storm-and-stress" feeling that swept Germany, England, and France at
+the beginning of this century, appearing first in literature and
+afterward in art. It had its origin in a discontent with the present,
+a passionate yearning for the unattainable, an intensity of sentiment,
+gloomy melancholy imaginings, and a desire to express the
+inexpressible. It was emphatically subjective, self-conscious, a mood
+of mind or feeling. In this respect it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> diametrically opposed to
+the academic and the classic. In French painting it came forward in
+opposition to the classicism of David. People had begun to weary of
+Greek and Roman heroes and their deeds, of impersonal line-bounded
+statuesque art. There was a demand for something more representative,
+spontaneous, expressive of the intense feeling of the time. The very
+gist of romanticism was passion. Freedom to express itself in what
+form it would was a condition of its existence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_063" id="imag_063"></a>
+<img src="images/image_171.jpg" width="400" height="484" alt="FIG. 62.&mdash;DELACROIX. MASSACRE OF SCIO. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 62.&mdash;DELACROIX. MASSACRE OF SCIO. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_171_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The classic subject was abandoned by the romanticists for dramatic
+scenes of medi&aelig;val and modern times. The romantic hero and heroine in
+scenes of horror, perils by land and sea, flame and fury, love and
+anguish, came upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> boards. Much of this was illustration of
+history, the novel, and poetry, especially the poetry of Goethe,
+Byron, and Scott. Line was slurred in favor of color, symmetrical
+composition gave way to wild disordered groups in headlong action, and
+atmospheres, skies, and lights were twisted and distorted to convey
+the sentiment of the story. It was thus, more by suggestion than
+realization, that romanticism sought to give the poetic sentiment of
+life. Its position toward classicism was antagonistic, a rebound, a
+flying to the other extreme. One virtually said that beauty was in the
+Greek form, the other that it was in the painter's emotional nature.
+The disagreement was violent, and out of it grew the so-called
+romantic quarrel of the 1820's.</p>
+
+<p><b>LEADERS OF ROMANTICISM:</b> Symptoms of the coming movement were apparent
+long before any open revolt. Gros had made innovations on the classic
+in his battle-pieces, but the first positive dissent from classic
+teachings was made in the Salon of 1819 by <b>G&eacute;ricault</b> (1791-1824) with
+his Raft of the Medusa. It represented the starving, the dead, and the
+dying of the Medusa's crew on a raft in mid-ocean. The subject was not
+classic. It was literary, romantic, dramatic, almost theatric in its
+seizing of the critical moment. Its theme was restless, harrowing,
+horrible. It met with instant opposition from the old men and applause
+from the young men. It was the trumpet-note of the revolt, but
+G&eacute;ricault did not live long enough to become the leader of
+romanticism. That position fell to his contemporary and fellow-pupil,
+<b>Delacroix</b> (1799-1863). It was in 1822 that Delacroix's first Salon
+picture (the Dante and Virgil) appeared. A strange, ghost-like scene
+from Dante's <i>Inferno</i>, the black atmosphere of the nether world,
+weird faces, weird colors, weird flames, and a modelling of the
+figures by patches of color almost savage as compared to the tinted
+drawing of classicism. Delacroix's youth saved the picture from
+condemnation, but it was different with his Massacre of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> Scio two
+years later. This was decried by the classicists, and even Gros called
+it "the massacre of art." The painter was accused of establishing the
+worship of the ugly, he was no draughtsman, had no selection, no
+severity, nothing but brutality. But Delacroix was as obstinate as
+Ingres, and declared that the whole world could not prevent him from
+seeing and painting things in his own way. It was thus the quarrel
+started, the young men siding with Delacroix, the older men following
+David and Ingres.</p>
+
+<p>In himself Delacroix embodied all that was best and strongest in the
+romantic movement. His painting was intended to convey a romantic mood
+of mind by combinations of color, light, air, and the like. In subject
+it was tragic and passionate, like the poetry of Hugo, Byron, and
+Scott. The figures were usually given with anguish-wrung brows, wild
+eyes, dishevelled hair, and impetuous, contorted action. The painter
+never cared for technical details, seeking always to gain the effect
+of the whole rather than the exactness of the part. He purposely
+slurred drawing at times, and was opposed to formal composition. In
+color he was superior, though somewhat violent at times, and in
+brush-work he was often labored and patchy. His strength lay in
+imagination displayed in color and in action.</p>
+
+<p>The quarrel between classicism and romanticism lasted some years, with
+neither side victorious. Delacroix won recognition for his view of
+art, but did not crush the belief in form which was to come to the
+surface again. He fought almost alone. Many painters rallied around
+him, but they added little strength to the new movement. <b>Dev&eacute;ria</b>
+(1805-1865) and <b>Champmartin</b> (1797-1883) were highly thought of at
+first, but they rapidly degenerated. <b>Sigalon</b> (1788-1837), <b>Cogniet</b>
+(1794-1880), <b>Robert-Fleury</b> (1797-), and <b>Boulanger</b> (1806-1867), were
+romanticists, but achieved more as teachers than as painters.
+<b>Delaroche</b> (1797-1856) was an eclectic&mdash;in fact, founded a school of
+that name<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>&mdash;thinking to take what was best from both parties.
+Inventing nothing, he profited by all invented. He employed the
+romantic subject and color, but adhered to classic drawing. His
+composition was good, his costume careful in detail, his brush-work
+smooth, and his story-telling capacity excellent. All these qualities
+made him a popular painter, but not an original or powerful one. <b>Ary
+Scheffer</b> (1797-1858) was an illustrator of Goethe and Byron, frail in
+both sentiment and color, a painter who started as a romanticist, but
+afterward developed line under Ingres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_064" id="imag_064"></a>
+<img src="images/image_174.jpg" width="600" height="414" alt="FIG. 63.&mdash;G&Eacute;R&Ocirc;ME. POLLICE VERSO."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 63.&mdash;G&Eacute;R&Ocirc;ME. POLLICE VERSO.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_174_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE ORIENTALISTS:</b> In both literature and painting one phase of
+romanticism showed itself in a love for the life, the light, the color
+of the Orient. From Paris <b>Decamps</b> (1803-1860) was the first painter to
+visit the East and paint Eastern life. He was a <i>genre</i> painter more
+than a figure painter, giving naturalistic street scenes in Turkey and
+Asia Minor, courts, and interiors, with great feeling for air,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> warmth
+of color, and light. At about the same time <b>Marilhat</b> (1811-1847) was
+in Egypt picturing the life of that country in a similar manner; and
+later, <b>Fromentin</b> (1820-1876), painter and writer, following Delacroix,
+went to Algiers and portrayed there Arab life with fast-flying horses,
+the desert air, sky, light, and color. <b>Th&eacute;odore Frere</b> and <b>Ziem</b> belong
+further on in the century, but were no less exponents of romanticism
+in the East.</p>
+
+<p>Fifteen years after the starting of romanticism the movement had
+materially subsided. It had never been a school in the sense of having
+rules and laws of art. Liberty of thought and perfect freedom for
+individual expression were all it advocated. As a result there was no
+unity, for there was nothing to unite upon; and with every painter
+painting as he pleased, regardless of law, extravagance was
+inevitable. This was the case, and when the next generation came in
+romanticism began to be ridiculed for its excesses. A reaction started
+in favor of more line and academic training. This was first shown by
+the students of Delaroche, though there were a number of movements at
+the time, all of them leading away from romanticism. A recoil from too
+much color in favor of more form was inevitable, but romanticism was
+not to perish entirely. Its influence was to go on, and to appear in
+the work of later men.</p>
+
+<p><b>ECLECTICS AND TRANSITIONAL PAINTERS:</b> After Ingres his follower
+<b>Flandrin</b> (1809-1864) was the most considerable draughtsman of the
+time. He was not classic but religious in subject, and is sometimes
+called "the religious painter of France." He had a delicate beauty of
+line and a fine feeling for form, but never was strong in color,
+brush-work, or sentiment. His best work appears in his very fine
+portraits. <b>Gleyre</b> (1806-1874) was a man of classic methods, but
+romantic tastes, who modified the heroic into the idyllic and
+mythologic. He was a sentimental day-dreamer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> with a touch of
+melancholy about the vanished past, appearing in Arcadian fancies,
+pretty nymphs, and idealized memories of youth. In execution he was
+not at all romantic. His color was pale, his drawing delicate, and his
+lighting misty and uncertain. It was the etherealized classic method,
+and this method he transmitted to a little band of painters called the</p>
+
+<p><b>NEW-GREEKS</b>, who, in point of time, belong much further along in the
+century, but in their art are with Gleyre. Their work never rose above
+the idyllic and the graceful, and calls for no special mention. <b>Hamon</b>
+(1821-1874) and <b>Aubert</b> (1824-) belonged to the band, and <b>G&eacute;r&ocirc;me</b>
+(1824-<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>) was at one time its leader, but he afterward emerged from
+it to a higher place in French art, where he will find mention
+hereafter.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Died, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Couture</b> (1815-1879) stood quite by himself, a mingling of several
+influences. His chief picture, The Romans of the Decadence, is classic
+in subject, romantic in sentiment (and this very largely expressed by
+warmth of color), and rather realistic in natural appearance. He was
+an eclectic in a way, and yet seems to stand as the forerunner of a
+large body of artists who find classification hereafter under the
+title of the Semi-Classicists.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> All the painters mentioned in this chapter
+are best represented in the Louvre at Paris, at Versailles,
+and in the museums of the chief French cities. Some works of
+the late or living men may be found in the Luxembourg, where
+pictures bought by the state are kept for ten years after
+the painter's death, and then are either sent to the Louvre
+or to the other municipal galleries of France. Some pictures
+by these men are also to be seen in the Metropolitan Museum,
+New York, the Boston Museum, and the Chicago Art Institute.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>FRENCH PAINTING.</h3>
+<h3>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (<i>Continued</i>).</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: The books before mentioned, consult also
+General Bibliography, (page xv.)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS:</b> The influence of either the classic or
+romantic example may be traced in almost all of the French painting of
+this century. The opposed teachings find representatives in new men,
+and under different names the modified dispute goes on&mdash;the dispute of
+the academic <i>versus</i> the individual, the art of form and line
+<i>versus</i> the art of sentiment and color.</p>
+
+<p>With the classicism of David not only the figure but the landscape
+setting of it, took on an ideal heroic character. Trees and hills and
+rivers became supernaturally grand and impressive. Everything was
+elevated by method to produce an imaginary Arcadia fit for the deities
+of the classic world. The result was that nature and the humanity of
+the painter passed out in favor of school formula and academic
+traditions. When romanticism came in this was changed, but nature
+falsified in another direction. Landscape was given an interest in
+human affairs, and made to look gay or sad, peaceful or turbulent, as
+the day went well or ill with the hero of the story portrayed. It was,
+however, truer to the actual than the classic, more studied in the
+parts, more united in the whole. About the year 1830 the influence of
+romanticism began to show in a new landscape art. That is to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> say, the
+emotional impulse springing from romanticism combined with the study
+of the old Dutch landscapists, and the English contemporary painters,
+Constable and Bonington, set a large number of painters to the close
+study of nature and ultimately developed what has been vaguely called
+the</p>
+
+<p><b>FONTAINEBLEAU-BARBIZON SCHOOL:</b> This whole school was primarily devoted
+to showing the sentiment of color and light. It took nature just as it
+found it in the forest of Fontainebleau, on the plain of Barbizon, and
+elsewhere, and treated it with a poetic feeling for light, shadow,
+atmosphere, color, that resulted in the best landscape painting yet
+known to us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_065" id="imag_065"></a>
+<img src="images/image_178.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="FIG. 64.&mdash;COROT. LANDSCAPE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 64.&mdash;COROT. LANDSCAPE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Corot</b> (1796-1875) though classically trained under Bertin, and though
+somewhat apart from the other men in his life, belongs with this
+group. He was a man whose artistic life was filled with the beauty of
+light and air. These he painted with great singleness of aim and great
+poetic charm. Most of his work is in a light silvery key of color,
+usually slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> in composition, simple in masses of light and dark,
+and very broadly but knowingly handled with the brush. He began
+painting by using the minute brush, but changed it later on for a
+freer style which recorded only the great omnipresent truths and
+suppressed the small ones. He has never had a superior in producing
+the permeating light of morning and evening. For this alone, if for no
+other excellence, he deservedly holds high rank.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rousseau</b> (1812-1867) was one of the foremost of the recognized
+leaders, and probably the most learned landscapist of this century. A
+man of many moods and methods he produced in variety with rare
+versatility. Much of his work was experimental, but at his best he had
+a majestic conception of nature, a sense of its power and permanence,
+its volume and mass, that often resulted in the highest quality of
+pictorial poetry. In color he was rich and usually warm, in technic
+firm and individual, in sentiment at times quite sublime. At first he
+painted broadly and won friends among the artists and sneers from the
+public; then in his middle style he painted in detail, and had a
+period of popular success; in his late style he went back to the broad
+manner, and died amid quarrels and vexations of spirits. His long-time
+friend and companion, <b>Jules Dupr&eacute;</b> (1812-1889), hardly reached up to
+him, though a strong painter in landscape and marine. He was a good
+but not great colorist, and, technically, his brush was broad enough
+but sometimes heavy. His late work is inferior in sentiment and
+labored in handling. <b>Diaz</b> (1808-1876) was allied to Rousseau in aim
+and method, though not so sure nor so powerful a painter. He had fancy
+and variety in creation that sometimes ran to license, and in color he
+was clear and brilliant. Never very well trained, his drawing is often
+indifferent and his light distorted, but these are more than atoned
+for by delicacy and poetic charm. At times he painted with much power.
+<b>Daubigny</b> (1817-1878) seemed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> more like Corot in his charm of style and
+love of atmosphere and light than any of the others. He was fond of
+the banks of the Seine and the Marne at twilight, with evening
+atmospheres and dark trees standing in silent ranks against the warm
+sky. He was also fond of the gray day along the coast, and even the
+sea attracted him not a little. He was a painter of high abilities,
+and in treatment strongly individual, even distinguished, by his
+simplicity and directness. Unity of the whole, grasp of the mass
+entire, was his technical aim, and this he sought to get not so much
+by line as by color-tones of varying value. In this respect he seemed
+a connecting link between Corot and the present-day impressionists.
+<b>Michel</b> (1763-1842), <b>Huet</b> (1804-1869), <b>Chintreuil</b> (1814-1873), and
+<b>Fran&ccedil;ais</b> (1814-) were all allied in point of view with this group of
+landscape painters, and among the late men who have carried out their
+beliefs are <b>Cazin</b>,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> <b>Yon</b>,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> <b>Damoye</b>, <b>Pointelin</b>, <b>Harpignies</b> and
+<b>Pelouse</b><a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> seem a little more inclined to the realistic than the
+poetic view, though producing work of much virility and intelligence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Died, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Died, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Died, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<p>Contemporary and associated with the Fontainebleau painters were a
+number of men who won high distinction as</p>
+
+<p><b>PAINTERS OF ANIMALS:</b> <b>Troyon</b> (1810-1865) was the most prominent among
+them. His work shows the same sentiment of light and color as the
+Fontainebleau landscapists, and with it there is much keen insight
+into animal life. As a technician he was rather hard at first, and he
+never was a correct draughtsman, but he had a way of giving the
+character of the objects he portrayed which is the very essence of
+truth. He did many landscapes with and without cattle. His best pupil
+was <b>Van Marcke</b> (1827-1890), who followed his methods but never
+possessed the feeling of his master. <b>Jacque</b> (1813-<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>) is also of the
+Fontainebleau-Barbizon group, and is justly celebrated for his
+paintings and etchings of sheep. The poetry of the school is his, and
+technically he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>is fine in color at times, if often rather dark in
+illumination. Like Troyon he knows his subject well, and can show the
+nature of sheep with true feeling. <b>Rosa Bonheur</b> (1822-<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>) and her
+brother, <b>Auguste Bonheur</b> (1824-1884), have both dealt with animal
+life, but never with that fine artistic feeling which would warrant
+their popularity. Their work is correct enough, but prosaic and
+commonplace in spirit. They do not belong in the same group with
+Troyon and Rousseau.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Died, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Died, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_066" id="imag_066"></a>
+<img src="images/image_181.jpg" width="600" height="455" alt="FIG. 65.&mdash;ROUSSEAU, CHARCOAL BURNERS&#39; HUT. FULLER
+COLLECTION."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 65.&mdash;ROUSSEAU, CHARCOAL BURNERS&#39; HUT. FULLER
+COLLECTION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE PEASANT PAINTERS:</b> Allied again in feeling and sentiment with the
+Fontainebleau landscapists were some celebrated painters of peasant
+life, chief among whom stood <b>Millet</b> (1814-1875), of Barbizon. The
+pictorial inclination of Millet was early grounded by a study of
+Delacroix, the master romanticist, and his work is an expression of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+romanticism modified by an individual study of nature and applied to
+peasant life. He was peasant born, living and dying at Barbizon,
+sympathizing with his class, and painting them with great poetic force
+and simplicity. His sentiment sometimes has a literary bias, as in his
+far-famed but indifferent Angelus, but usually it is strictly
+pictorial and has to do with the beauty of light, air, color, motion,
+life, as shown in The Sower or The Gleaners. Technically he was not
+strong as a draughtsman or a brushman, but he had a large feeling for
+form, great simplicity in line, keen perception of the relations of
+light and dark, and at times an excellent color-sense. He was
+virtually the discoverer of the peasant as an art subject, and for
+this, as for his original point of view and artistic feeling, he is
+ranked as one of the foremost artists of the century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jules Breton</b> (1827-), though painting little besides the peasantry, is
+no Millet follower, for he started painting peasant scenes at about
+the same time as Millet. His affinities were with the New-Greeks early
+in life, and ever since he has inclined toward the academic in style,
+though handling the rustic subject. He is a good technician, except in
+his late work; but as an original thinker, as a pictorial poet, he
+does not show the intensity or profundity of Millet. The followers of
+the Millet-Breton tradition are many. The blue-frocked and sabot-shod
+peasantry have appeared in salon and gallery for twenty years and
+more, but with not very good results. The imitators, as usual, have
+caught at the subject and missed the spirit. <b>Billet</b> and <b>Legros</b>,
+contemporaries of Millet, still living, and <b>Lerolle</b>, a man of
+present-day note, are perhaps the most considerable of the painters of
+rural subjects to-day.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE SEMI-CLASSICISTS:</b> It must not be inferred that the classic
+influence of David and Ingres disappeared from view with the coming of
+the romanticists, the Fontainebleau landscapists, and the Barbizon
+painters. On the contrary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> side by side with these men, and opposed
+to them, were the believers in line and academic formulas of the
+beautiful. The whole tendency of academic art in France was against
+Delacroix, Rousseau, and Millet. During their lives they were regarded
+as heretics in art and without the pale of the Academy. Their art,
+however, combined with nature study and the realism of Courbet,
+succeeded in modifying the severe classicism of Ingres into what has
+been called semi-classicism. It consists in the elevated, heroic, or
+historical theme, academic form well drawn, some show of bright
+colors, smoothness of brush-work, and precision and nicety of detail.
+In treatment it attempts the realistic, but in spirit it is usually
+stilted, cold, unsympathetic.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cabanel</b> (1823-1889) and <b>Bouguereau</b> (1825-1905) have both represented
+semi-classic art well. They are justly ranked as famous draughtsmen
+and good portrait-painters, but their work always has about it the
+stamp of the academy machine, a something done to order, knowing and
+exact, but lacking in the personal element. It is a weakness of the
+academic method that it virtually banishes the individuality of eye
+and hand in favor of school formulas. Cabanel and Bouguereau have
+painted many incidents of classic and historic story, but with never a
+dash of enthusiasm or a suggestion of the great qualities of painting.
+Their drawing has been as thorough as could be asked for, but their
+colorings have been harsh and their brushes cold and thin.</p>
+
+<p><b>G&eacute;r&ocirc;me</b> (1824-<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>) is a man of classic training and inclination, but
+his versatility hardly allows him to be classified anywhere. He was
+first a leader of the New-Greeks, painting delicate mythological
+subjects; then a historical painter, showing deaths of C&aelig;sar and the
+like; then an Orientalist, giving scenes from Cairo and
+Constantinople; then a <i>genre</i> painter, depicting contemporary
+subjects in the many lands through which he has travelled. Whatever he
+has done shows semi-classic drawing, ethnological and arch&aelig;ological
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>knowledge, Parisian technic, and exact detail. His travels have not
+changed his precise scientific point of view. He is a true academician
+at bottom, but a more versatile and cultured painter than either
+Cabanel or Bouguereau. He draws well, sometimes uses color well, and
+is an excellent painter of textures. A man of great learning in many
+departments he is no painter to be sneered at, and yet not a painter
+to make the pulse beat faster or to arouse the &aelig;sthetic emotions. His
+work is impersonal, objective fact, showing a brilliant exterior but
+inwardly devoid of feeling.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Died, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_067" id="imag_067"></a>
+<img src="images/image_184.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="FIG. 66.&mdash;MILLET. THE GLEANERS. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 66.&mdash;MILLET. THE GLEANERS. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_184_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Paul Baudry</b> (1828-1886), though a disciple of line, was not precisely
+a semi-classicist, and perhaps for that reason was superior to any of
+the academic painters of his time. He was a follower of the old
+masters in Rome more than the <i>&Eacute;cole des Beaux Arts</i>. His subjects,
+aside from many splendid portraits, were almost all classical,
+allegorical, or mythological. He was a fine draughtsman, and, what is
+more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> remarkable in conjunction therewith, a fine colorist. He was
+hardly a great originator, and had not passion, dramatic force, or
+much sentiment, except such as may be found in his delicate coloring
+and rhythm of line. Nevertheless he was an artist to be admired for
+his purity of purpose and breadth of accomplishment. His chief work is
+to be seen in the Opera at Paris. <b>Puvis de Chavannes</b> (1824-<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>) is
+quite a different style of painter, and is remarkable for fine
+delicate tones of color which hold their place well on wall or
+ceiling, and for a certain grandeur of composition. In his desire to
+revive the monumental painting of the Renaissance he has met with much
+praise and much blame. He is an artist of sincerity and learning, and
+as a wall-painter has no superior in contemporary France.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Died, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>H&eacute;bert</b> (1817-1908), an early painter of academic tendencies, and
+<b>Henner</b> (1829-), fond of form and yet a brushman with an idyllic
+feeling for light and color in dark surroundings, are painters who may
+come under the semi-classic grouping. <b>Lefebvre</b> (1834-) is probably the
+most pronounced in academic methods among the present men, a
+draughtsman of ability.</p>
+
+<p><b>PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS:</b> Under this heading may be included those
+painters who stand by themselves, showing no positive preference for
+either the classic or romantic followings. <b>Bonnat</b> (1833-) has painted
+all kinds of subjects&mdash;<i>genre</i>, figure, and historical pieces&mdash;but is
+perhaps best known as a portrait-painter. He has done forcible work.
+Some of it indeed is astonishing in its realistic modelling&mdash;the
+accentuation of light and shadow often causing the figures to advance
+unnaturally. From this feature and from his detail he has been known
+for years as a "realist." His anatomical Christ on the Cross and mural
+paintings in the Pantheon are examples. As a portrait-painter he is
+acceptable, if at times a little raw in color. Another
+portrait-painter of celebrity is <b>Carolus-Duran</b> (1837-). He is rather
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>startling at times in his portrayal of robes and draperies, has a
+facility of the brush that is frequently deceptive, and in color is
+sometimes vivid. He has had great success as a teacher, and is, all
+told, a painter of high rank. <b>Delaunay</b> (1828-1892) in late years
+painted little besides portraits, and was one of the conservatives of
+French art. <b>Laurens</b> (1838-) has been more of a historical painter than
+the others, and has dealt largely with death scenes. He is often
+spoken of as "the painter of the dead," a man of sound training and
+excellent technical power. <b>Regnault</b> (1843-1871) was a figure and
+<i>genre</i> painter with much feeling for oriental light and color, who
+unfortunately was killed in battle at twenty-seven years of age. He
+was an artist of promise, and has left several notable canvases. Among
+the younger men who portray the historical subject in an elevated
+style mention should be made of <b>Cormon</b> (1845-), <b>Benjamin-Constant</b>
+(1845-<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>), and <b>Rochegrosse</b>. As painters of portraits <b>Aman-Jean</b> and
+<b>Carri&egrave;re</b><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> have long held rank, and each succeeding Salon brings new
+portraitists to the front.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Died, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Died, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE REALISTS:</b> About the time of the appearance of Millet, say 1848,
+there also came to the front a man who scorned both classicism and
+romanticism, and maintained that the only model and subject of art
+should be nature. This man, <b>Courbet</b> (1819-1878), really gave a third
+tendency to the art of this century in France, and his influence
+undoubtedly had much to do with modifying both the classic and
+romantic tendencies. Courbet was a man of arrogant, dogmatic
+disposition, and was quite heartily detested during his life, but that
+he was a painter of great ability few will deny. His theory was the
+abolition of both sentiment and academic law, and the taking of nature
+just as it was, with all its beauties and all its deformities. This,
+too, was his practice to a certain extent. His art is material, and
+yet at times lofty in conception even to the sublime. And while he
+believed in realism he did not believe in petty detail, but rather in
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>great truths of nature. These he saw with a discerning eye and
+portrayed with a masterful brush. He believed in what he saw only, and
+had more the observing than the reflective or emotional disposition.
+As a technician he was coarse but superbly strong, handling sky,
+earth, air, with the ease and power of one well trained in his craft.
+His subjects were many&mdash;the peasantry of France, landscape, and the
+sea holding prominent places&mdash;and his influence, though not direct
+because he had no pupils of consequence, has been most potent with the
+late men.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_068" id="imag_068"></a>
+<img src="images/image_187.jpg" width="600" height="406" alt="FIG. 67.&mdash;CABANEL. PH&AElig;DRA."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 67.&mdash;CABANEL. PH&AElig;DRA.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_187_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The young painter of to-day who does things in a "realistic" way is
+frequently met with in French art. <b>L'hermitte</b> (1844-), <b>Julien Dupr&eacute;</b>
+(1851-), and others have handled the peasant subject with skill, after
+the Millet-Courbet initiative; and <b>Bastien-Lepage</b> (1848-1884) excited
+a good deal of admiration in his lifetime for the truth and evident
+sincerity of his art. Bastien's point of view was realistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> enough,
+but somewhat material. He never handled the large composition with
+success, but in small pieces and in portraits he was quite above
+criticism. His following among the young men was considerable, and the
+so-called impressionists have ranked him among their disciples or
+leaders.</p>
+
+<p><b>PAINTERS OF MILITARY SCENES, GENRE, ETC.:</b> The art of <b>Meissonier</b>
+(1815-1891), while extremely realistic in modern detail, probably
+originated from a study of the seventeenth-century Dutchmen like
+Terburg and Metsu. It does not portray low life, but rather the
+half-aristocratic&mdash;the scholar, the cavalier, the gentleman of
+leisure. This is done on a small scale with microscopic nicety, and
+really more in the historical than the <i>genre</i> spirit. Single figures
+and interiors were his preference, but he also painted a cycle of
+Napoleonic battle-pictures with much force. There is little or no
+sentiment about his work&mdash;little more than in that of G&eacute;r&ocirc;me. His
+success lay in exact technical accomplishment. He drew well, painted
+well, and at times was a superior colorist. His art is more admired by
+the public than by the painters; but even the latter do not fail to
+praise his skill of hand. He was a great craftsman in the infinitely
+little. As a great artist his rank is still open to question.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>genre</i> painting of fashionable life has been carried out by many
+followers of Meissonier, whose names need not be mentioned since they
+have not improved upon their forerunner. <b>Toulmouche</b> (1829-), <b>Leloir</b>
+(1843-1884), <b>Vibert</b> (1840-), <b>Bargue</b> (?-1883), and others, though
+somewhat different from Meissonier, belong among those painters of
+<i>genre</i> who love detail, costumes, stories, and pretty faces. Among
+the painters of military <i>genre</i> mention should be made of <b>De Neuville</b>
+(1836-1885), <b>Berne-Bellecour</b> (1838-), <b>Detaille</b> (1848-), and <b>Aim&eacute;-Morot</b>
+(1850-), all of them painters of merit.</p>
+
+<p>Quite a different style of painting&mdash;half figure-piece half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+<i>genre</i>&mdash;is to be found in the work of <b>Ribot</b> (1823-), a strong
+painter, remarkable for his apposition of high flesh lights with deep
+shadows, after the manner of Ribera, the Spanish painter. <b>Roybet</b>
+(1840-) is fond of rich stuffs and tapestries with velvet-clad
+characters in interiors, out of which he makes good color effects.
+<b>Bonvin</b> (1817-1887) and <b>Mettling</b> have painted the interior with small
+figures, copper-kettles, and other still-life that have given
+brilliancy to their pictures. As a still-life painter <b>Vollon</b> (1833-)
+has never had a superior. His fruits, flowers, armors, even his small
+marines and harbor pieces, are painted with one of the surest brushes
+of this century. He is called the "painter's painter," and is a man of
+great force in handling color, and in large realistic effect. <b>Dantan</b>
+and <b>Friant</b> have both produced canvases showing figures in interiors.</p>
+
+<p>A number of excellent <i>genre</i> painters have been claimed by the
+impressionists as belonging to their brotherhood. There is little to
+warrant the claim, except the adoption to some extent of the modern
+ideas of illumination and flat painting. <b>Dagnan-Bouveret</b> (1852-) is
+one of these men, a good draughtsman, and a finished clean painter who
+by his recent use of high color finds himself occasionally looked upon
+as an impressionist. As a matter of fact he is one of the most
+conservative of the moderns&mdash;a man of feeling and imagination, and a
+fine technician. <b>Fantin-Latour</b> (1836-1904) is half romantic, half
+allegorical in subject, and in treatment oftentimes designedly vague
+and shadowy, more suggestive than realistic. <b>Duez</b> (1843-) and <b>Gervex</b>
+(1848-) are perhaps nearer to impressionism in their works than the
+others, but they are not at all advance advocates of this latest phase
+of art. In addition there are <b>Cottet</b> and <b>Henri Martin</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_069" id="imag_069"></a>
+<img src="images/image_190.jpg" width="400" height="512" alt="FIG. 68.&mdash;MEISSONIER. NAPOLEON IN 1814."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 68.&mdash;MEISSONIER. NAPOLEON IN 1814.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE IMPRESSIONISTS:</b> The name is a misnomer. Every painter is an
+impressionist in so far as he records his impressions, and all art is
+impressionistic. What <b>Manet</b> (1833-1883), the leader of the original
+movement, meant to say was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> that nature should not be painted as it
+actually is, but as it "impresses" the painter. He and his few
+followers tried to change the name to Independents, but the original
+name has clung to them and been mistakenly fastened to a present band
+of landscape painters who are seeking effects of light and air and
+should be called luminists if it is necessary for them to be named at
+all. Manet was extravagant in method and disposed toward low life for
+a subject, which has always militated against his popularity; but he
+was a very important man for his technical discoveries regarding the
+relations of light and shadow, the flat appearance of nature, the
+exact value of color tones. Some of his works, like The Boy with a
+Sword and The Toreador<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> Dead, are excellent pieces of painting. The
+higher imaginative qualities of art Manet made no great effort at
+attaining.</p>
+
+<p><b>Degas</b> stands quite by himself, strong in effects of motion, especially
+with race-horses, fine in color, and a delightful brushman in such
+subjects as ballet-girls and scenes from the theatre. <b>Besnard</b> is one
+of the best of the present men. He deals with the figure, and is
+usually concerned with the problem of harmonizing color under
+conflicting lights, such as twilight and lamplight. <b>B&eacute;raud</b> and
+<b>Raffaelli</b> are exceedingly clever in street scenes and character
+pieces; <b>Pissarro</b><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> handles the peasantry in high color; <b>Brown</b>
+(1829-1890), the race-horse, and <b>Renoir</b>, the middle class of social
+life. <b>Caillebotte</b>, <b>Roll</b>, <b>Forain</b>, and <b>Miss Cassatt</b>, an American, are
+also classed with the impressionists.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Died, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>IMPRESSIONIST LANDSCAPE PAINTERS:</b> Of recent years there has been a
+disposition to change the key of light in landscape painting, to get
+nearer the truth of nature in the height of light and in the height of
+shadows. In doing this <b>Claude Monet</b>, the present leader of the
+movement, has done away with the dark brown or black shadow and
+substituted the light-colored shadow, which is nearer the actual truth
+of nature. In trying to raise the pitch of light he has not been quite
+so successful, though accomplishing something. His method is to use
+pure prismatic colors on the principle that color is light in a
+decomposed form, and that its proper juxtaposition on canvas will
+recompose into pure light again. Hence the use of light shadows and
+bright colors. The aim of these modern men is chiefly to gain the
+effect of light and air. They do not apparently care for subject,
+detail, or composition.</p>
+
+<p>At present their work is in the experimental stage, but from the way
+in which it is being accepted and followed by the painters of to-day
+we may be sure the movement is of considerable importance. There will
+probably be a reaction <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> in favor of more form and solidity than the
+present men give, but the high key of light will be retained. There
+are so many painters following these modern methods, not only in
+France but all over the world, that a list of their names would be
+impossible. In France <b>Sisley</b> with Monet are the two important
+landscapists. In marines <b>Boudin</b> and <b>Montenard</b> should be mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> The modern French painters are seen to
+advantage in the Louvre, Luxembourg, Pantheon, Sorbonne, and
+the municipal galleries of France. Also Metropolitan Museum
+New York, Chicago Art Institute, Boston Museum, and many
+private collections in France and America. Consult for works
+in public or private hands, Champlin and Perkins,
+<i>Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings</i>, under names of
+artists.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<h3>SPANISH PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Bermudez, <i>Diccionario de las Bellas
+Artes en Espa&ntilde;a</i>; Davillier, <i>M&eacute;moire de Velasquez</i>;
+Davillier, <i>Fortuny</i>; Eusebi, <i>Los Differentes Escuelas de
+Pintura</i>; Ford, <i>Handbook of Spain</i>; Head, <i>History of
+Spanish and French Schools of Painting</i>; Justi, <i>Velasquez
+and his Times</i>; Lefort, <i>Velasquez</i>; Lefort, <i>Francisco
+Goya</i>; Lefort, <i>Murillo et son &Eacute;cole</i>; Lefort, <i>La Peinture
+Espagnole</i>; Palomino de Castro y Velasco, <i>Vidas de los
+Pintores y Estatuarios Eminentes Espa&ntilde;oles</i>; Passavant, <i>Die
+Christliche Kunst in Spanien</i>; Plon, <i>Les Ma&icirc;tres Italiens
+au Service de la Maison d'Autriche</i>; Stevenson, <i>Velasquez</i>;
+Stirling, <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain</i>; Stirling,
+<i>Velasquez and his Works</i>; Tubino, <i>El Arte y los Artistas
+contempor&aacute;neos en la Peninsula</i>; Tubino, <i>Murillo</i>; Viardot,
+<i>Notices sur les Principaux Peintres de l'Espagne</i>; Yriarte,
+<i>Goya, sa Biographie</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>SPANISH ART MOTIVES:</b> What may have been the early art of Spain we are
+at a loss to conjecture. The reigns of the Moor, the Iconoclast, and,
+finally, the Inquisitor, have left little that dates before the
+fourteenth century. The miniatures and sacred relics treasured in the
+churches and said to be of the apostolic period, show the traces of a
+much later date and a foreign origin. Even when we come down to the
+fifteenth century and meet with art produced in Spain, we have a
+following of Italy or the Netherlands. In methods and technic it was
+derivative more than original, though almost from the beginning
+peculiarly Spanish in spirit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_070" id="imag_070"></a>
+<img src="images/image_194.jpg" width="500" height="705" alt="FIG. 69.&mdash;SANCHEZ COELLO. CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF
+PHILIP II. MADRID."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 69.&mdash;SANCHEZ COELLO. CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF
+PHILIP II. MADRID.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_194_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That spirit was a dark and savage one, a something that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> cringed under
+the lash of the Church, bowed before the Inquisition, and played the
+executioner with the paint-brush. The bulk of Spanish art was Church
+art, done under ecclesiastical domination, and done in form without
+question or protest. The religious subject ruled. True enough, there
+was portraiture of nobility, and under Philip and Velasquez a
+half-monarchical art of military scenes and <i>genre</i>; but this was not
+the bent of Spanish painting as a whole. Even in late days, when
+Velasquez was reflecting the haughty court, Murillo was more widely
+and nationally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> reflecting the believing provinces and the Church
+faith of the people. It is safe to say, in a general way, that the
+Church was responsible for Spanish art, and that religion was its
+chief motive.</p>
+
+<p>There was no revived antique, little of the nude or the pagan, little
+of consequence in landscape, little, until Velasquez's time, of the
+real and the actual. An ascetic view of life, faith, and the hereafter
+prevailed. The pietistic, the fervent, and the devout were not so
+conspicuous as the morose, the ghastly, and the horrible. The saints
+and martyrs, the crucifixions and violent deaths, were eloquent of the
+torture-chamber. It was more ecclesiasticism by blood and violence
+than Christianity by peace and love. And Spain welcomed this. For of
+all the children of the Church she was the most faithful to rule,
+crushing out heresy with an iron hand, gaining strength from the
+Catholic reaction, and upholding the Jesuits and the Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p><b>METHODS OF PAINTING:</b> Spanish art worthy of mention did not appear
+until the fifteenth century. At that time Spain was in close relations
+with the Netherlands, and Flemish painting was somewhat followed. How
+much the methods of the Van Eycks influenced Spain would be hard to
+determine, especially as these Northern methods were mixed with
+influences coming from Italy. Finally, the Italian example prevailed
+by reason of Spanish students in Italy and Italian painters in Spain.
+Florentine line, Venetian color, and Neapolitan light-and-shade ruled
+almost everywhere, and it was not until the time of Velasquez&mdash;the
+period just before the eighteenth-century decline&mdash;that distinctly
+Spanish methods, founded on nature, really came forcibly to the front.</p>
+
+<p><b>SPANISH SCHOOLS OF PAINTING:</b> There is difficulty in classifying these
+schools of painting because our present knowledge of them is limited.
+Isolated somewhat from the rest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> of Europe, the Spanish painters have
+never been critically studied as the Italians have been, and what is
+at present known about the schools must be accepted subject to
+critical revision hereafter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_071" id="imag_071"></a>
+<img src="images/image_196.jpg" width="600" height="519" alt="FIG. 70.&mdash;MURILLO. ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA. BERLIN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 70.&mdash;MURILLO. ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA. BERLIN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest school seems to have been made up from a gathering of
+artists at Toledo, who limned, carved, and gilded in the cathedral;
+but this school was not of long duration. It was merged into the
+Castilian school, which, after the building of Madrid, made its home
+in that capital and drew its forces from the towns of Toledo,
+Valladolid, and Badajoz. The Andalusian school, which rose about the
+middle of the sixteenth century, was made up from the local schools of
+Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> Valencian school, to the
+southeast, rose about the same time, and was finally merged into the
+Andalusian. The Aragonese school, to the east, was small and of no
+great consequence, though existing in a feeble way to the end of the
+seventeenth century. The painters of these schools are not very
+strongly marked apart by methods or school traditions, and perhaps the
+divisions would better be looked upon as more geographical than
+otherwise. None of the schools really began before the sixteenth
+century, though there are names of artists and some extant pictures
+before that date, and with the seventeenth century all art in Spain
+seems to have centred about Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish painting started into life concurrently with the rise to
+prominence of Spain as a political kingdom. What, if any, direct
+effect the maritime discoveries, the conquests of Granada and Naples,
+the growth of literature, and the decline of Italy, may have had upon
+Spanish painting can only be conjectured; but certainly the sudden
+advance of the nation politically and socially was paralleled by the
+advance of its art.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE CASTILIAN SCHOOL:</b> This school probably had no so-called founder.
+It was a growth from early art traditions at Toledo, and afterward
+became the chief school of the kingdom owing to the patronage of
+Philip II. and Philip IV. at Madrid. The first painter of importance
+in the school seems to have been <b>Antonio Rincon</b> (1446?-1500?). He is
+sometimes spoken of as the father of Spanish painting, and as having
+studied in Italy with Castagno and Ghirlandajo, but there is little
+foundation for either statement. He painted chiefly at Toledo, painted
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and had some skill in hard
+drawing. <b>Berruguete</b> (1480?-1561) studied with Michael Angelo, and is
+supposed to have helped him in the Vatican. He afterward returned to
+Spain, painted many altar-pieces, and was patronized as painter,
+sculptor, and architect by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> Charles V. and Philip II. He was probably
+the first to introduce pure Italian methods into Spain, with some
+coldness and dryness of coloring and handling. <b>Becerra</b> (1520?-1570)
+was born in Andalusia, but worked in Castile, and was a man of Italian
+training similar to Berruguete. He was an exceptional man, perhaps, in
+his use of mythological themes and nude figures.</p>
+
+<p>There is not a great deal known about <b>Morales</b> (1509?-1586), called
+"the Divine," except that he was allied to the Castilian school, and
+painted devotional heads of Christ with the crown of thorns, and many
+afflicted and weeping madonnas. There was Florentine drawing in his
+work, great regard for finish, and something of Correggio's softness
+in shadows pitched in a browner key. His sentiment was rather
+exaggerated. <b>Sanchez-Coello</b> (1513?-1590) was painter and courtier to
+Philip II., and achieved reputation as a portrait-painter, though also
+doing some altar-pieces. It is doubtful whether he ever studied in
+Italy, but in Spain he was for a time with Antonio Moro, and probably
+learned from him something of rich costumes, ermines, embroideries,
+and jewels, for which his portraits were remarkable. <b>Navarette</b>
+(1526?-1579), called "El Mudo" (the dumb one), certainly was in Italy
+for something like twenty years, and was there a disciple of Titian,
+from whom he doubtless learned much of color and the free flow of
+draperies. He was one of the best of the middle-period painters.
+<b>Theotocopuli</b> (1548?-1625), called "El Greco" (the Greek), was another
+Venetian-influenced painter, with enough Spanish originality about him
+to make most of his pictures striking in color and drawing. <b>Tristan</b>
+(1586-1640) was his best follower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_072" id="imag_072"></a>
+<img src="images/image_199.jpg" width="400" height="559" alt="FIG. 71.&mdash;RIBERA. ST. AGNES. DRESDEN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 71.&mdash;RIBERA. ST. AGNES. DRESDEN.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_199_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Velasquez</b> (1599-1660) is the greatest name in the history of Spanish
+painting. With him Spanish art took upon itself a decidedly
+naturalistic and national stamp. Before his time Italy had been freely
+imitated; but though Velasquez<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> himself was in Italy for quite a long
+time, and intimately acquainted with great Italian art, he never
+seemed to have been led away from his own individual way of seeing and
+doing. He was a pupil of Herrera, afterward with Pacheco, and learned
+much from Ribera and Tristan, but more from a direct study of nature
+than from all the others. He was in a broad sense a realist&mdash;a man who
+recorded the material and the actual without emendation or
+transposition. He has never been surpassed in giving the solidity and
+substance of form and the placing of objects in atmosphere. And this,
+not in a small, finical way, but with a breadth of view and of
+treatment which are to-day the despair of painters. There was nothing
+of the ethereal, the spiritual,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> the pietistic, or the pathetic about
+him. He never for a moment left the firm basis of reality. Standing
+upon earth he recorded the truths of the earth, but in their largest,
+fullest, most universal forms.</p>
+
+<p>Technically his was a master-hand, doing all things with ease, giving
+exact relations of colors and lights, and placing everything so
+perfectly that no addition or alteration is thought of. With the brush
+he was light, easy, sure. The surface looks as though touched once, no
+more. It is the perfection of handling through its simplicity and
+certainty, and has not the slightest trace of affectation or
+mannerism. He was one of the few Spanish painters who were enabled to
+shake off the yoke of the Church. Few of his canvases are religious in
+subject. Under royal patronage he passed almost all of his life in
+painting portraits of the royal family, ministers of state, and great
+dignitaries. As a portrait-painter he is more widely known than as a
+figure-painter. Nevertheless he did many canvases like The Tapestry
+Weavers and The Surrender at Breda, which attest his remarkable genius
+in that field; and even in landscape, in <i>genre</i>, in animal painting,
+he was a very superior man. In fact Velasquez is one of the few great
+painters in European history for whom there is nothing but praise. He
+was the full-rounded complete painter, intensely individual and
+self-assertive, and yet in his art recording in a broad way the
+Spanish type and life. He was the climax of Spanish painting, and
+after him there was a rather swift decline, as had been the case in
+the Italian schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mazo</b> (1610?-1667), pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez, was one of his
+most facile imitators, and <b>Carre&ntilde;o de Miranda</b> (1614-1685) was
+influenced by Velasquez, and for a time his assistant. The Castilian
+school may be said to have closed with these late men and with <b>Claudio
+Coello</b> (1635?-1693), a painter with a style founded on Titian and
+Rubens, whose best work was of extraordinary power. Spanish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> painting
+went out with Spanish power, and only isolated men of small rank
+remained.</p>
+
+<p><b>ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL:</b> This school came into existence about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief
+patron the Church rather than the king. <b>Vargas</b> (1502-1568) was
+probably the real founder of the school, though <b>De Castro</b> (fl. 1454)
+and others preceded him. Vargas was a man of much reputation and
+ability in his time, and introduced Italian methods and elegance into
+the Andalusian school after twenty odd years of residence in Italy. He
+is said to have studied under Perino del Vaga, and there is some
+sweetness of face and grace of form about his work that point that
+way, though his composition suggests Correggio. Most of his frescos
+have perished; some of his canvases are still in existence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cespedes</b> (1538?-1608) is little known through extant works, but he
+achieved fame in many departments during his life, and is said to have
+been in Italy under Florentine influence. His coloring was rather
+cold, and his drawing large and flat. The best early painter of the
+school was <b>Roelas</b> (1558?-1625), the inspirer of Murillo and the master
+of Zurbaran. He is supposed to have studied at Venice, because of his
+rich, glowing color. Most of his works are religious and are found
+chiefly at Seville. He was greatly patronized by the Jesuits. <b>Pacheco</b>
+(1571-1654) was more of a pedant than a painter, a man of rule, who
+to-day might be written down an academician. His drawing was hard, and
+perhaps the best reason for his being remembered is that he was one of
+the masters and the father-in-law of Velasquez. His rival, <b>Herrera the
+Elder</b> (1576?-1656) was a stronger man&mdash;in fact, the most original
+artist of his school. He struck off by himself and created a bold
+realism with a broad brush that anticipated Velasquez&mdash;in fact,
+Velasquez was under him for a time.</p>
+
+<p>The pure Spanish school in Andalusia, as distinct from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> Italian
+imitation, may be said to have started with Herrera. It was further
+advanced by another independent painter, <b>Zurbaran</b> (1598-1662), a pupil
+of Roelas. He was a painter of the emaciated monk in ecstasy, and many
+other rather dismal religious subjects expressive of tortured rapture.
+From using a rather dark shadow he acquired the name of the Spanish
+Caravaggio. He had a good deal of Caravaggio's strength, together with
+a depth and breadth of color suggestive of the Venetians. <b>Cano</b>
+(1601-1667), though he never was in Italy, had the name of the Spanish
+Michael Angelo, probably because he was sculptor, painter, and
+architect. His painting was rather sharp in line and statuesque in
+pose, with a coloring somewhat like that of Van Dyck. It was eclectic
+rather than original work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="imag_073" id="imag_073"></a>
+<img src="images/image_202.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="FIG. 72.&mdash;FORTUNY. SPANISH MARRIAGE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 72.&mdash;FORTUNY. SPANISH MARRIAGE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Murillo</b> (1618-1682) is generally placed at the head of the Andalusian
+school, as Velasquez at the head of the Castilian. There is good
+reason for it, for though Murillo was not the great painter he was
+sometime supposed, yet he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> not the weak man his modern critics
+would make him out. A religious painter largely, though doing some
+<i>genre</i> subjects like his beggar-boy groups, he sought for religious
+fervor and found, only too often, sentimentality. His madonnas are
+usually after the Carlo Dolci pattern, though never so excessive in
+sentiment. This was not the case with his earlier works, mostly of
+humble life, which were painted in rather a hard, positive manner.
+Later on he became misty, veiled in light and effeminate in outline,
+though still holding grace. His color varied with his early and later
+styles. It was usually gay and a little thin. While basing his work on
+nature like Velasquez, he never had the supreme poise of that master,
+either mentally or technically; howbeit he was an excellent painter,
+who perhaps justly holds second place in Spanish art.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOL OF VALENCIA:</b> This school rose contemporary with the Andalusian
+school, into which it was finally merged after the importance of
+Madrid had been established. It was largely modelled upon Italian
+painting, as indeed were all the schools of Spain at the start. <b>Juan
+de Joanes</b> (1507?-1579) apparently was its founder, a man who painted a
+good portrait, but in other respects was only a fair imitator of
+Raphael, whom he had studied at Rome. A stronger man was <b>Francisco de
+Ribalta</b> (1550?-1628), who was for a time in Italy under the Caracci,
+and learned from them free draughtsmanship and elaborate composition.
+He was also fond of Sebastiano del Piombo, and in his best works (at
+Valencia) reflected him. Ribalta gave an early training to <b>Ribera</b>
+(1588-1656), who was the most important man of this school. In reality
+Ribera was more Italian than Valencian, for he spent the greater part
+of his life in Italy, where he was called Lo Spagnoletto, and was
+greatly influenced by Caravaggio. He was a Spaniard in the horrible
+subjects that he chose, but in coarse strength of line, heaviness of
+shadows, harsh handling of the brush, he was a true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> Neapolitan
+Darkling. A pronounced mannerist he was no less a man of strength, and
+even in his shadow-saturated colors a painter with the color instinct.
+In Italy his influence in the time of the Decadence was wide-spread,
+and in Spain his Italian pupil, Giordano, introduced his methods for
+late imitation. There were no other men of much rank in the Valencian
+school, and, as has been said, the school was eventually merged in
+Andalusian painting.</p>
+
+<p><b>EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN:</b> Almost directly
+after the passing of Velasquez and Murillo Spanish art failed. The
+eighteenth-century, as in Italy, was quite barren of any considerable
+art until near its close. Then <b>Goya</b> (1746-1828) seems to have made a
+partial restoration of painting. He was a man of peculiarly Spanish
+turn of mind, fond of the brutal and the bloody, picturing inquisition
+scenes, bull-fights, battle pieces, and revelling in caricature,
+sarcasm, and ridicule. His imagination was grotesque and horrible, but
+as a painter his art was based on the natural, and was exceedingly
+strong. In brush-work he followed Velasquez; in a peculiar forcing of
+contrasts in light and dark he was apparently quite himself, though
+possibly influenced by Ribera's work. His best work shows in his
+portraits and etchings.</p>
+
+<p>After Goya's death Spanish art, such as it was, rather followed
+France, with the extravagant classicism of David as a model. What was
+produced may be seen to this day in the Madrid Museum. It does not
+call for mention here. About the beginning of the 1860's Spanish
+painting made a new advance with <b>Mariano Fortuny</b> (1838-1874). In his
+early years he worked at historical painting, but later on he went to
+Algiers and Rome, finding his true vent in a bright sparkling painting
+of <i>genre</i> subjects, oriental scenes, streets, interiors, single
+figures, and the like. He excelled in color, sunlight effects, and
+particularly in a vivacious facile handling of the brush. His work is
+brilliant, and in his late pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>ductions often spotty from excessive
+use of points of light in high color. He was a technician of much
+brilliancy and originality, his work exciting great admiration in his
+day, and leading the younger painters of Spain into that ornate
+handling visible in their works at the present time. Many of these
+latter, from association with art and artists in Paris, have adopted
+French methods, and hardly show such a thing as Spanish nationality.
+Fortuny's brother-in-law, <b>Madrazo</b> (1841-), is an example of a Spanish
+painter turned French in his methods&mdash;a facile and brilliant
+portrait-painter. <b>Zamacois</b> (1842-1871) died early, but with a
+reputation as a successful portrayer of seventeenth-century subjects a
+little after the style of Meissonier and not unlike G&eacute;r&ocirc;me. He was a
+good colorist and an excellent painter of textures.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_074" id="imag_074"></a>
+<img src="images/image_205.jpg" width="300" height="537" alt="FIG. 73.&mdash;MADRAZO, UNMASKED."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 73.&mdash;MADRAZO, UNMASKED.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The historical scene of Medi&aelig;val or Renaissance times, pageants and
+f&ecirc;tes with rich costume, fine architecture and vivid effects of color,
+are characteristic of a number of the modern Spaniards&mdash;<b>Villegas</b>,
+<b>Pradilla</b>, <b>Alvarez</b>. As a general thing their canvases are a little
+flashy, likely to please at first sight but grow wearisome after a
+time. <b>Palmaroli</b> has a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> style that resembles a mixture of Fortuny and
+Meissonier; and some other painters, like <b>Luis Jiminez Aranda</b>,
+<b>Sorolla</b>, <b>Zuloaga</b>, <b>Anglada</b>, <b>Garcia y Remos</b>, <b>Vierge</b>, <b>Roman Ribera</b>, and
+<b>Domingo</b>, have done excellent work. In landscape and Venetian scenes
+<b>Rico</b> leads among the Spaniards with a vivacity and brightness not
+always seen to good advantage in his late canvases.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> Generally speaking, Spanish art cannot be
+seen to advantage outside of Spain. Both its ancient and
+modern masterpieces are at Madrid, Seville, Toledo, and
+elsewhere. The Royal Gallery at Madrid has the most and the
+best examples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Castilian School</span>&mdash;<b>Rincon</b>, altar-piece church of Robleda de
+Chavilla; <b>Berruguete</b>, altar-pieces Saragossa, Valladolid,
+Madrid, Toledo; <b>Morales</b>, Madrid and Louvre; <b>Sanchez-Coello</b>,
+Madrid and Brussels Mus.; <b>Navarette</b>, Escorial, Madrid, St.
+Petersburg; <b>Theotocopuli</b>, Cathedral and S. Tom&eacute; Toledo,
+Madrid Mus.; <b>Velasquez</b>, best works in Madrid Mus., Escorial,
+Salamanca, Montpensier Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Infanta
+Marguerita Louvre, Borro portrait (?) Berlin, Innocent X.
+Doria Rome; <b>Mazo</b>, landscapes Madrid Mus.; <b>Carre&ntilde;o de
+Miranda</b>, Madrid Mus.; <b>Claudio Coello</b>, Escorial, Madrid,
+Brussels, Berlin, and Munich Mus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Andalusian School</span>&mdash;<b>Vargas</b>, Seville Cathedral; <b>Cespedes</b>,
+Cordova Cathedral; <b>Roelas</b>, S. Isidore Cathedral, Museum
+Seville; <b>Pacheco</b>, Madrid Mus.; <b>Herrera</b>, Seville Cathedral
+and Mus. and Archbishop's Palace, Dresden Mus.; <b>Zurbaran</b>,
+Seville Cathedral and Mus. Madrid, Dresden, Louvre, Nat.
+Gal. Lon.; <b>Cano</b>, Madrid, Seville Mus. and Cathedral, Berlin,
+Dresden, Munich; <b>Murillo</b>, best pictures in Madrid Mus. and
+Acad. of S. Fernando Madrid, Seville Mus. Hospital and
+Capuchin Church, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Munich,
+Hermitage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Valencian School</span>&mdash;<b>Juan de Joanes</b>, Madrid Mus., Cathedral
+Valencia, Hermitage; <b>Ribalta</b>, Madrid and Valencian Mus.,
+Hermitage; <b>Ribera</b>, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Naples,
+Hermitage, and other European museums, chief works at
+Madrid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Modern Men and Their Works</span>&mdash;<b>Goya</b>, Madrid Mus., Acad. of S.
+Fernando, Valencian Cathedral and Mus., two portraits in
+Louvre. The works of the contemporary painters are largely
+in private hands where reference to them is of little use to
+the average student. Thirty Fortunys are in the collection
+of William H. Stewart in Paris. His best work, The Spanish
+Marriage, belongs to Madame de Cassin, in Paris. Examples of
+Villegas, Madrazo, Rico, Domingo, and others, in the
+Vanderbilt Gallery, Metropolitan Mus., New York; Boston,
+Chicago, and Philadelphia Mus.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>FLEMISH PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Busscher, <i>Recherches sur les Peintres
+Gantois</i>; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <i>Early Flemish Painters</i>;
+Cust, <i>Van Dyck</i>; Dehaisnes, <i>L'Art dans la Flandre</i>; Du
+Jardin, <i>L'art Flamand</i>; Eisenmann, <i>The Brothers Van Eyck</i>;
+F&eacute;tis, <i>Les Artistes Belges &agrave; l'&Eacute;tranger</i>; Fromentin, <i>Old
+Masters of Belgium and Holland</i>; Gerrits, <i>Rubens zyn Tyd,
+etc.</i>; Guiffrey, <i>Van Dyck</i>; Hasselt, <i>Histoire de Rubens</i>;
+(Waagen's) K&uuml;gler, <i>Handbook of Painting&mdash;German, Flemish,
+and Dutch Schools</i>; Lemonnier, <i>Histoire des Arts en
+Belgique</i>; Mantz, <i>Adrien Brouwer</i>; Michel, <i>Rubens</i>;
+Michiels, <i>Rubens en l'&Eacute;cole d'Anvers</i>; Michiels, <i>Histoire
+de la Peinture Flamande</i>; Stevenson, <i>Rubens</i>; Van den
+Branden, <i>Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilderschool</i>; Van
+Mander, <i>Le Livre des Peintres</i>; Waagen, <i>Uber Hubert und
+Jan Van Eyck</i>; Waagen, <i>Peter Paul Rubens</i>; Wauters, <i>Rogier
+van der Weyden</i>; Wauters, <i>La Peinture Flamande</i>; Weale,
+<i>Hans Memling</i> (<i>Arundel Soc.</i>); Weale, <i>Notes sur Jean Van
+Eyck</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE FLEMISH PEOPLE:</b> Individually and nationally the Flemings were
+strugglers against adverse circumstances from the beginning. A
+realistic race with practical ideas, a people rather warm of impulse
+and free in habits, they combined some German sentiment with French
+liveliness and gayety. The solidarity of the nation was not
+accomplished until after 1385, when the Dukes of Burgundy began to
+extend their power over the Low Countries. Then the Flemish people
+became strong enough to defy both Germany and France, and wealthy
+enough, through their com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>merce with Spain, Italy, and France to
+encourage art not only at the Ducal court but in the churches, and
+among the citizens of the various towns.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_075" id="imag_075"></a>
+<img src="images/image_208.jpg" width="300" height="723" alt="FIG. 74.&mdash;VAN EYCKS. ST. BAVON ALTAR-PIECE (WING).
+BERLIN."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 74.&mdash;VAN EYCKS. ST. BAVON ALTAR-PIECE (WING).
+BERLIN.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_208_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>FLEMISH SUBJECTS AND METHODS:</b> As in all the countries of Europe, the
+early Flemish painting pictured Christian subjects primarily. The
+great bulk of it was church altar-pieces, though side by side with
+this was an admirable portraiture, some knowledge of landscape, and
+some exposition of allegorical subjects. In means and methods it was
+quite original. The early history is lost, but if Flemish painting was
+beholden to the painting of any other nation, it was to the miniature
+painting of France. There is, however, no positive record of this. The
+Flemings seem to have begun by themselves, and pictured the life about
+them in their own way. They were apparently not influenced at first by
+Italy. There were no antique influences, no excavated marbles to copy,
+no Byzantine traditions left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> to follow. At first their art was exact
+and minute in detail, but not well grasped in the mass. The
+compositions were huddled, the landscapes pure but finical, the
+figures inclined to slimness, awkwardness, and angularity in the lines
+of form or drapery, and uncertain in action. To offset this there was
+a positive realism in textures, perspective, color, tone, light, and
+atmosphere. The effect of the whole was odd and strained, but the
+effect of the part was to convince one that the Flemish painters were
+excellent craftsmen in detail, skilled with the brush, and shrewd
+observers of nature in a purely picturesque way.</p>
+
+<p>To the Flemish painters of the fifteenth century belongs, not the
+invention of oil-painting, for it was known before their time, but its
+acceptable application in picture-making. They applied oil with color
+to produce brilliancy and warmth of effect, to insure firmness and
+body in the work, and to carry out textural effects in stuffs,
+marbles, metals, and the like. So far as we know there never was much
+use of distemper, or fresco-work upon the walls of buildings. The oil
+medium came into vogue when the miniatures and illuminations of the
+early days had expanded into panel pictures. The size of the miniature
+was increased, but the minute method of finishing was not laid aside.
+Some time afterward painting with oil upon canvas was adopted.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOL OF BRUGES:</b> Painting in Flanders starts abruptly with the
+fifteenth century. What there was before that time more than
+miniatures and illuminations is not known. Time and the Iconoclasts
+have left no remains of consequence. Flemish art for us begins with
+<b>Hubert van Eyck</b> (?-1426) and his younger brother <b>Jan van Eyck</b>
+(?-1440). The elder brother is supposed to have been the better
+painter, because the most celebrated work of the brothers&mdash;the St.
+Bavon altar-piece, parts of which are in Ghent, Brussels, and
+Berlin&mdash;bears the inscription that Hubert began it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>and Jan finished
+it. Hubert was no doubt an excellent painter, but his pictures are few
+and there is much discussion whether he or Jan painted them. For
+historical purposes Flemish art was begun, and almost completed, by
+Jan van Eyck. He had all the attributes of the early men, and was one
+of the most perfect of Flemish painters. He painted real forms and
+real life, gave them a setting in true perspective and light, and put
+in background landscapes with a truthful if minute regard for the
+facts. His figures in action had some awkwardness, they were small of
+head, slim of body, and sometimes stumbled; but his modelling of
+faces, his rendering of textures in cloth, metal, stone, and the like,
+his delicate yet firm <i>facture</i> were all rather remarkable for his
+time. None of this early Flemish art has the grandeur of Italian
+composition, but in realistic detail, in landscape, architecture,
+figure, and dress, in pathos, sincerity, and sentiment it is
+unsurpassed by any fifteenth-century art.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="imag_076" id="imag_076"></a>
+<img src="images/image_210.jpg" width="150" height="501" alt="FIG. 75.&mdash;MEMLING (?). ST. LAWRENCE (DETAIL). NAT.
+GAL., LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 75.&mdash;MEMLING (?). ST. LAWRENCE (DETAIL).<br />
+NAT. GAL., LONDON.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Little is known of the personal history of either of the Van Eycks.
+They left an influence and had many followers, but whether these were
+direct pupils or not is an open question. <b>Peter Cristus</b> (1400?-1472)
+was perhaps a pupil of Jan, though more likely a follower of his
+methods in color and general technic. <b>Roger van der Weyden</b>
+(1400?-1464), whether a pupil of the Van Eycks or a rival, produced a
+similar style of art. His first master was an obscure Robert Campin.
+He was afterward at Bruges, and from there went to Brussels and
+founded a school of his own called the</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOL OF BRABANT:</b> He was more emotional and dramatic than Jan van
+Eyck, giving much excited action and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> pathetic expression to his
+figures in scenes from the passion of Christ. He had not Van Eyck's
+skill, nor his detail, nor his color. More of a draughtsman than a
+colorist, he was angular in figure and drapery, but had honesty,
+pathos, and sincerity, and was very charming in bright background
+landscapes. Though spending some time in Italy, he was never
+influenced by Italian art. He was always Flemish in type, subject, and
+method, a trifle repulsive at first through angularity and emotional
+exaggeration, but a man to be studied.</p>
+
+<p>By <b>Van der Goes</b> (1430?-1482) there are but few good examples, the
+chief one being an altar-piece in the Uffizi at Florence. It is
+angular in drawing but full of character, and in beauty of detail and
+ornamentation is a remarkable picture. He probably followed Van der
+Weyden, as did also <b>Justus van Ghent</b> (last half of fifteenth century).
+Contemporary with these men <b>Dierick Bouts</b> (1410-1475) established a
+school at Haarlem. He was Dutch by birth, but after 1450 settled in
+Louvain, and in his art belongs to the Flemish school. He was
+influenced by Van der Weyden, and shows it in his detail of hands and
+melancholy face, though he differed from him in dramatic action and in
+type. His figure was awkward, his color warm and rich, and in
+landscape backgrounds he greatly advanced the painting of the time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Memling</b> (1425?-1495?), one of the greatest of the school, is another
+man about whose life little is known. He was probably associated with
+Van der Weyden in some way. His art is founded on the Van Eyck school,
+and is remarkable for sincerity, purity, and frankness of attitude. As
+a religious painter, he was perhaps beyond all his contemporaries in
+tenderness and pathos. In portraiture he was exceedingly strong in
+characterization, and in his figures very graceful. His flesh painting
+was excellent, but in textures or landscape work he was not
+remarkable. His best followers were <b>Van der Meire</b> (1427?-1474?) and
+<b>Gheeraert<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> David</b> (1450?-1523). The latter was famous for the fine,
+broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his pictures, said, however, by
+critics to have been painted by Joachim Patinir. He was realistically
+horrible in many subjects, and though a close recorder of detail he
+was much broader than any of his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLEMISH SCHOOLS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY:</b> In this century Flemish
+painting became rather widely diffused. The schools of Bruges and
+Ghent gave place to the schools in the large commercial cities like
+Antwerp and Brussels, and the commercial relations between the Low
+Countries and Italy finally led to the dissipation of national
+characteristics in art and the imitation of the Italian Renaissance
+painters. There is no sharp line of demarcation between those painters
+who clung to Flemish methods and those who adopted Italian methods.
+The change was gradual.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a name="imag_077" id="imag_077"></a>
+<img src="images/image_212.jpg" width="250" height="326" alt="FIG. 76.&mdash;MASSYS. HEAD OF VIRGIN. ANTWERP."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 76.&mdash;MASSYS. HEAD OF VIRGIN. ANTWERP.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Quentin Massys</b> (1460?-1530) and <b>Mostert</b> (1474-1556?), a Dutchman by
+birth, but, like Bouts, Flemish by influence, were among the last of
+the Gothic painters in Flanders, and yet they began the introduction
+of Italian features in their painting. Massys led in architectural
+backgrounds, and from that the Italian example spread to subjects,
+figures, methods, until the indigenous Flemish art became a thing of
+the past. Massys was, at Antwerp, the most important painter of his
+day, following the old Flemish methods with many improvements. His
+work was detailed, and yet executed with a broader, freer brush than
+formerly, and with more variety in color, modelling, expression of
+character. He increased figures to almost life-size, giving them
+greater importance than landscape or architecture. The type was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> still
+lean and angular, and often contorted with emotion. His Money-Changers
+and Misers (many of them painted by his son) were a <i>genre</i> of his
+own. With him closed the Gothic school, and with him began the</p>
+
+<p><b>ANTWERP SCHOOL</b>, the pupils of which went to Italy, and eventually
+became Italianized. <b>Mabuse</b> (1470?-1541) was the first to go. His early
+work shows the influence of Massys and David. He was good in
+composition, color, and brush-work, but lacked in originality, as did
+all the imitators of Italy. <b>Franz Floris</b> (1518?-1570) was a man of
+talent, much admired in his time, because he brought back
+reminiscences of Michael Angelo to Antwerp. His influence was fatal
+upon his followers, of whom there were many, like the <b>Franckens</b> and <b>De
+Vos</b>. Italy and Roman methods, models, architecture, subjects, began to
+rule everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>From Brussels <b>Barent van Orley</b> (1491?-1542) left early for Italy, and
+became essentially Italian, though retaining some Flemish color. He
+painted in oil, tempera, and for glass, and is supposed to have gained
+his brilliant colors by using a gilt ground. His early works remind
+one of David. <b>Cocxie</b> (1499-1592), the Flemish Raphael, was but an
+indifferent imitator of the Italian Raphael. At Li&eacute;ge the Romanists,
+so called, began with <b>Lambert Lombard</b> (1505-1566), of whose work
+nothing authentic remains except drawings. At Bruges <b>Peeter Pourbus</b>
+(1510?-1584) was about the last one of the good portrait-painters of
+the time. Another excellent portrait-painter, a pupil of Scorel, was
+<b>Antonio Moro</b> (1512?-1578?). He had much dignity, force, and
+elaborateness of costume, and stood quite by himself. There were other
+painters of the time who were born or trained in Flanders, and yet
+became so naturalized in other countries that in their work they do
+not belong to Flanders. <b>Neuchatel</b> (1527?-1590?), <b>Geldorp</b> (1553-1616?),
+<b>Calvaert</b> (1540?-1619), <b>Spranger</b> (1546-1627?), and others, were of this
+group.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among all the strugglers in Italian imitation only a few landscapists
+held out for the Flemish view. <b>Paul Bril</b> (1554-1626) was the first of
+them. He went to Italy, but instead of following the methods taught
+there, he taught Italians his own view of landscape. His work was a
+little dry and formal, but graceful in composition, and good in light
+and color. The <b>Brueghels</b>&mdash;there were three of them&mdash;also stood out for
+Flemish landscape, introducing it nominally as a background for small
+figures, but in reality for the beauty of the landscape itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_078" id="imag_078"></a>
+<img src="images/image_214.jpg" width="325" height="437" alt="FIG. 77.&mdash;RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN. HERMITAGE,
+ST. PETERSBURGH."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 77.&mdash;RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN.<br />
+HERMITAGE, ST. PETERSBURGH.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_214_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING:</b> This was the great century of Flemish
+painting, though the painting was not entirely Flemish in method or
+thought. The influence of Italy had done away with the early
+simplicity, purity, and religious pathos of the Van Eycks. During the
+sixteenth century everything had run to bald imitation of Renaissance
+methods. Then came a new master-genius, <b>Rubens</b> (1577-1640), who formed
+a new art founded in method upon Italy, yet distinctly northern in
+character. Rubens chose all subjects for his brush, but the religious
+altar-piece probably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> occupied him as much as any. To this he gave
+little of Gothic sentiment, but everything of Renaissance splendor.
+His art was more material than spiritual, more brilliant and startling
+in sensuous qualities, such as line and color, than charming by facial
+expression or tender feeling. Something of the Paolo Veronese cast of
+mind, he conceived things largely, and painted them
+proportionately&mdash;large Titanic types, broad schemes and masses of
+color, great sweeping lines of beauty. One value of this largeness was
+its ability to hold at a distance upon wall or altar. Hence, when seen
+to-day, close at hand, in museums, people are apt to think Rubens's
+art coarse and gross.</p>
+
+<p>There is no prettiness about his type. It is not effeminate or
+sentimental, but rather robust, full of life and animal spirits, full
+of blood, bone, and muscle&mdash;of majestic dignity, grace, and power, and
+glowing with splendor of color. In imagination, in conception of art
+purely as art, and not as a mere vehicle to convey religious or
+mythological ideas, in mental grasp of the pictorial world, Rubens
+stands with Titian and Velasquez in the very front rank of painters.
+As a technician, he was unexcelled. A master of composition,
+modelling, and drawing, a master of light, and a color-harmonist of
+the rarest ability, he, in addition, possessed the most certain,
+adroit, and facile hand that ever handled a paint-brush. Nothing could
+be more sure than the touch of Rubens, nothing more easy and
+masterful. He was trained in both mind and eye, a genius by birth and
+by education, a painter who saw keenly, and was able to realize what
+he saw with certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Well-born, ennobled by royalty, successful in both court and studio,
+Rubens lived brilliantly and his life was a series of triumphs. He
+painted enormous canvases, and the number of pictures, altar-pieces,
+mythological decorations, landscapes, portraits scattered throughout
+the galleries of Europe, and attributed to him, is simply amazing. He
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> undoubtedly helped in many of his canvases by his pupils, but the
+works painted by his own hand make a world of art in themselves. He
+was the greatest painter of the North, a full-rounded, complete
+genius, comparable to Titian in his universality. His precursors and
+masters, <b>Van Noort</b> (1562-1641) and <b>Vaenius</b> (1558-1629), gave no strong
+indication of the greatness of Ruben's art, and his many pupils,
+though echoing his methods, never rose to his height in mental or
+artistic grasp.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="imag_079" id="imag_079"></a>
+<img src="images/image_216.jpg" width="350" height="434" alt="FIG. 78.&mdash;VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF CORNELIUS VAN DER
+GEEST. NAT. GAL. LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 78.&mdash;VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF CORNELIUS VAN DER GEEST.<br />
+NAT. GAL. LONDON.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_216_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Van Dyck</b> (1599-1641) was his principal pupil. He followed Rubens
+closely at first, though in a slighter manner technically, and with a
+cooler coloring. After visiting Italy he took up with the warmth of
+Titian. Later, in England,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> he became careless and less certain. His
+rank is given him not for his figure-pieces. They were not always
+successful, lacking as they did in imagination and originality, though
+done with force. His best work was his portraiture, for which he
+became famous, painting nobility in every country of Europe in which
+he visited. At his best he was a portrait-painter of great power, but
+not to be placed in the same rank with Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, and
+Velasquez. His characters are gracefully posed, and appear to be
+aristocratic. There is a noble distinction about them, and yet even
+this has the feeling of being somewhat affected. The serene
+complacency of his lords and ladies finally became almost a mannerism
+with him, though never a disagreeable one. He died early, a painter of
+mark, but not the greatest portrait-painter of the world, as is
+sometimes said of him.</p>
+
+<p>There were a number of Rubens's pupils, like <b>Diepenbeeck</b> (1596-1675),
+who learned from their master a certain brush facility, but were not
+sufficiently original to make deep impressions. When Rubens died the
+best painter left in Belgium was <b>Jordaens</b> (1593-1678). He was a pupil
+of Van Noort, but submitted to the Rubens influence and followed in
+Rubens's style, though more florid in coloring and grosser in types.
+He painted all sorts of subjects, but was seen at his best in
+mythological scenes with groups of drunken satyrs and bacchants,
+surrounded by a close-placed landscape. He was the most independent
+and original of the followers, of whom there was a host. <b>Crayer</b>
+(1582-1669), <b>Janssens</b> (1575-1632), <b>Zegers</b> (1591-1651), <b>Rombouts</b>
+(1597-1637), were the prominent ones. They all took an influence more
+or less pronounced from Rubens. <b>Cornelius de Vos</b> (1585-1651) was a
+more independent man&mdash;a realistic portrait-painter of much ability.
+<b>Snyders</b> (1579-1657), and <b>Fyt</b> (1609?-1661), devoted their brushes to
+the painting of still-life, game, fruits, flowers, landscape&mdash;Snyders
+often in collaboration with Rubens himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_080" id="imag_080"></a>
+<img src="images/image_218.jpg" width="500" height="387" alt="FIG. 79.&mdash;TENIERS THE YOUNGER. PRODIGAL SON. LOUVRE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 79.&mdash;TENIERS THE YOUNGER. PRODIGAL SON. LOUVRE.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_218_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Living at the same time with these half-Italianized painters, and
+continuing later in the century, there was another group of painters
+in the Low Countries who were emphatically of the soil, believing in
+themselves and their own country and picturing scenes from commonplace
+life in a manner quite their own. These were the "Little Masters," the
+<i>genre</i> painters, of whom there was even a stronger representation
+appearing contemporaneously in Holland. In Belgium there were not so
+many nor such talented men, but some of them were very interesting in
+their work as in their subjects. <b>Teniers the Younger</b> (1610-1690) was
+among the first of them to picture peasant, burgher, alewife, and
+nobleman in all scenes and places. Nothing escaped him as a subject,
+and yet his best work was shown in the handling of low life in
+taverns. There is coarse wit in his work, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> it is atoned for by
+good color and easy handling. He was influenced by Rubens, though
+decidedly different from him in many respects. <b>Brouwer</b> (1606?-1638)
+has often been catalogued with the Holland school, but he really
+belongs with Teniers, in Belgium. He died early, but left a number of
+pictures remarkable for their fine "fat" quality and their beautiful
+color. He was not a man of Italian imagination, but a painter of low
+life, with coarse humor and not too much good taste, yet a superb
+technician and vastly beyond many of his little Dutch contemporaries
+at the North. Teniers and Brouwer led a school and had many followers.</p>
+
+<p>In a slightly different vein was <b>Gonzales Coques</b> (1618-1684), who is
+generally seen to advantage in pictures of interiors with family
+groups. In subject he was more refined than the other <i>genre</i>
+painters, and was influenced to some extent by Van Dyck. As a colorist
+he held rank, and his portraiture (rarely seen) was excellent. At this
+time there were also many painters of landscape, marine, battles,
+still-life&mdash;in fact Belgium was alive with painters&mdash;but none of them
+was sufficiently great to call for individual mention. Most of them
+were followers of either Holland or Italy, and the gist of their work
+will be spoken of hereafter under Dutch painting.</p>
+
+<p><b>EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM:</b> Decline had set in before the
+seventeenth century ended. Belgium was torn by wars, her commerce
+flagged, her art-spirit seemed burned out. A long line of petty
+painters followed whose works call for silence. One man alone seemed
+to stand out like a star by comparison with his contemporaries,
+<b>Verhagen</b> (1728-1811), a portrait-painter of talent.</p>
+
+<p><b>NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM:</b> During this century Belgium
+has been so closely related to France that the influence of the larger
+country has been quite apparent upon the art of the smaller. In 1816
+David, the leader of the French classic school, sent into exile by the
+Restoration,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> settled at Brussels, and immediately drew around him
+many pupils. His influence was felt at once, and <b>Francois Navez</b>
+(1787-1869) was the chief one among his pupils to establish the
+revived classic art in Belgium. In 1830, with Belgian independence and
+almost concurrently with the romantic movement in France, there began
+a romantic movement in Belgium with <b>Wappers</b> (1803-1874). His art was
+founded substantially on Rubens; but, like the Paris romanticists, he
+chose the dramatic subject of the times and treated it more for color
+than for line. He drew a number of followers to himself, but the
+movement was not more lasting than in France.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiertz</b> (1806-1865), whose collection of works is to be seen in
+Brussels, was a partial exposition of romanticism mixed with a
+what-not of eccentricity entirely his own. Later on came a
+comparatively new man, <b>Louis Gallait</b> (1810-?), who held in Brussels
+substantially the same position that Delaroche did in Paris. His art
+was eclectic and never strong, though he had many pupils at Brussels,
+and started there a rivalry to Wappers at Antwerp. <b>Leys</b> (1815-1869)
+holds a rather unique position in Belgian art by reason of his
+affectation. He at first followed Pieter de Hooghe and other early
+painters. Then, after a study of the old German painters like Cranach,
+he developed an archaic style, producing a Gothic quaintness of line
+and composition, mingled with old Flemish coloring. The result was
+something popular, but not original or far-reaching, though
+technically well done. His chief pupil was <b>Alma Tadema</b> (1836-), alive
+to-day in London, and belonging to no school in particular. He is a
+technician of ability, mannered in composition and subject, and
+somewhat perfunctory in execution. His work is very popular with those
+who enjoy minute detail and smooth texture-painting.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 the influence of the French realism of Courbet began to be
+felt at Brussels, and since then Belgian art has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> followed closely the
+art movements at Paris. Men like <b>Alfred Stevens</b> (1828-), a pupil of
+Navez, are really more French than Belgian. Stevens is one of the best
+of the moderns, a painter of power in fashionable or high-life
+<i>genre</i>, and a colorist of the first rank in modern art. Among the
+recent painters but a few can be mentioned. <b>Willems</b> (1823-), a weak
+painter of fashionable <i>genre</i>; <b>Verboeckhoven</b> (1799-1881), a vastly
+over-estimated animal painter; <b>Clays</b> (1819-), an excellent marine
+painter; <b>Boulanger</b>, a landscapist; <b>Wauters</b> (1846-), a history, and
+portrait-painter; <b>Jan van Beers</b> and <b>Robie</b>. The new men are <b>Claus</b>,
+<b>Buysse</b>, <b>Frederic</b>, <b>Khnopff</b>, <b>Lempoels</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="imag_081" id="imag_081"></a>
+<img src="images/image_221.jpg" width="350" height="446" alt="FIG. 80.&mdash;ALFRED STEVENS. ON THE BEACH."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 80.&mdash;ALFRED STEVENS. ON THE BEACH.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b>&mdash;<b>Hubert van Eyck</b>, Adoration of the Lamb
+(with Jan van Eyck) St. Bavon Ghent (wings at Brussels and
+Berlin supposed to be by Jan, the rest by Hubert); <b>Jan van
+Eyck</b>, as above, also Arnolfini portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Virgin and Donor Louvre, Madonna Staedel Mus., Man with
+Pinks Berlin, Triumph of Church Madrid; <b>Van der Weyden</b>, a
+number of pictures in Brussels and Antwerp Mus., also at
+Staedel Mus., Berlin, Munich, Vienna; <b>Cristus</b>, Berlin,
+Staedel Mus., Hermitage, Madrid; <b>Justus van Ghent</b>, Last
+Supper Urbino Gal.; <b>Bouts</b>, St. Peter Louvain, Munich,
+Berlin, Brussels, Vienna; <b>Memling</b>, Brussels Mus. and Bruges
+Acad., and Hospital Antwerp, Turin, Uffizi, Munich, Vienna;
+<b>Van der Meire</b>, triptych St. Bavon Ghent; <b>Ghaeraert David</b>,
+Bruges, Berlin, Rouen, Munich.</p>
+
+<p><b>Massys</b>, Brussels, Antwerp, Berlin, St. Petersburg; best
+works Deposition in Antwerp Gal. and Merchant and Wife
+Louvre; <b>Mostert</b>, altar-piece Notre Dame Bruges; <b>Mabuse</b>,
+Madonnas Palermo, Milan Cathedral, Prague, other works
+Vienna, Berlin, Munich, Antwerp; <b>Floris</b>, Antwerp, Amsterdam,
+Brussels, Berlin, Munich, Vienna; <b>Barent van Orley</b>,
+altar-pieces Church of the Saviour Antwerp, and Brussels
+Mus.; <b>Cocxie</b>, Antwerp, Brussels, and Madrid Mus.; <b>Pourbus</b>,
+Bruges, Brussels, Vienna Mus.; <b>Moro</b>, portraits Madrid,
+Vienna, Hague, Brussels, Cassel, Louvre, St. Petersburg
+Mus.; <b>Bril</b>, landscapes Madrid, Louvre, Dresden, Berlin Mus.;
+the landscapes of the three <b>Breughels</b> are to be seen in most
+of the museums of Europe, especially at Munich, Dresden, and
+Madrid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rubens</b>, many works, 93 in Munich, 35 in Dresden, 15 at
+Cassel, 16 at Berlin, 14 in London, 90 in Vienna, 66 in
+Madrid, 54 in Paris, 63 at St. Petersburg (as given by
+Wauters), best works at Antwerp, Vienna, Munich, and Madrid;
+<b>Van Noort</b>, Antwerp, Brussels Mus., Ghent and Antwerp
+Cathedrals; <b>Van Dyck</b>, Windsor Castle, Nat. Gal. Lon., 41 in
+Munich, 19 in Dresden, 15 in Cassel, 13 in Berlin, 67 in
+Vienna, 21 in Madrid, 24 in Paris, and 38 in St. Petersburg
+(Wauters), best examples in Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+and Madrid, good example in Met. Mus. N. Y.; <b>Diepenbeeck</b>,
+Antwerp Churches and Mus., Berlin, Vienna, Munich,
+Frankfort; <b>Jordaens</b>, Brussels, Antwerp, Munich, Vienna,
+Cassel, Madrid, Paris; <b>Crayer</b>, Brussels, Munich, Vienna;
+<b>Janssens</b>, Antwerp Mus., St. Bavon Ghent, Brussels and
+Cologne Mus.; <b>Zegers</b>, Cathedral Ghent, Notre Dame Bruges,
+Antwerp Mus.; <b>Rombouts</b>, Mus. and Cathedral Ghent, Antwerp
+Mus., Beguin Convent Mechlin, Hospital of St. John Bruges;
+<b>De Vos</b>, Cathedral and Mus. Antwerp, Munich, Oldenburg,
+Berlin Mus.; <b>Snyders</b>, Munich, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid,
+Paris, St. Petersburg; <b>Fyt</b>, Munich, Dresden, Cassel, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>Berlin,
+Vienna, Madrid, Paris; <b>Teniers the Younger</b>, 29 pictures in
+Munich, 24 in Dresden, 8 in Berlin, 19 in Nat. Gal. Lon., 33
+in Vienna, 52 in Madrid, 34 in Louvre, 40 in St. Petersburg
+(Wauters); <b>Brauwer</b>, 19 in Munich, 6 in Dresden, 4 in Berlin,
+5 in Paris, 5 in St. Petersburgh (Wauters); <b>Coques</b>, Nat.
+Gal. Lon., Amsterdam, Berlin, Munich Mus.</p>
+
+<p><b>Verhagen</b>, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Vienna Mus.; <b>Navez</b>,
+Ghent, Antwerp, and Amsterdam Mus., Nat. Gal. Berlin;
+<b>Wappers</b>, Amsterdam, Brussels, Versailles Mus.; <b>Wiertz</b>, in
+Wiertz Gal. Brussels; <b>Gallait</b>, Li&eacute;ge, Versailles, Tournay,
+Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin; <b>Leys</b>, Amsterdam Mus., New
+Pinacothek, Munich, Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin, Antwerp Mus.
+and City Hall; <b>Alfred Stevens</b>, Marseilles, Brussels, frescos
+Royal Pal. Brussels; <b>Willems</b>, Brussels Mus. and Foder Mus.
+Amsterdam, Met. Mus. N. Y.; <b>Verboeckhoven</b>, Amsterdam, Foder,
+Nat. Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek, Brussels, Ghent, Met. Mus.
+N. Y.; <b>Clays</b>, Ghent Mus.; <b>Wauters</b>, Brussels, Li&eacute;ge Mus.; <b>Van
+Beers</b>, Burial of Charles the Good Amsterdam Mus.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>DUTCH PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: As before Fromentin, (Waagen's) K&uuml;gler;
+Amand-Durand, <i>&OElig;uvre de Rembrandt</i>; <i>Archief voor
+Nederlandsche Kunst-geschiedenis</i>; Blanc, <i>&OElig;uvre de
+Rembrandt</i>; Bode, <i>Franz Hals und seine Schule</i>; Bode,
+<i>Studien zur Geschichte der Hollandischen Malerei</i>; Bode,
+<i>Adriaan van Ostade</i>; Brown, <i>Rembrandt</i>; Burger (Th.
+Thor&eacute;), <i>Les Mus&eacute;es de la Hollande</i>; Havard, <i>La Peinture
+Hollandaise</i>; Michel, <i>Rembrandt</i>; Michel, <i>Gerard Terburg
+et sa Famille</i>; Mantz, <i>Adrien Brouwer</i>; Rooses, <i>Dutch
+Painters of the Nineteenth Century</i>; Rooses, <i>Rubens</i>;
+Schmidt, <i>Das Leben des Malers Adriaen Brouwer</i>; Van der
+Willigen, <i>Les Artistes de Harlem</i>; Van Mander, <i>Leven der
+Nederlandsche en Hoogduitsche Schilders</i>; Vosmaer,
+<i>Rembrandt, sa Vie et ses &OElig;uvres</i>; Westrheene, <i>Jan
+Steen, &Eacute;tude sur l'Art en Hollande</i>; Van Dyke, <i>Old Dutch
+and Flemish Masters</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>THE DUTCH PEOPLE AND THEIR ART:</b> Though Holland produced a somewhat
+different quality of art from Flanders and Belgium, yet in many
+respects the people at the north were not very different from those at
+the south of the Netherlands. They were perhaps less versatile, less
+volatile, less like the French and more like the Germans. Fond of
+homely joys and the quiet peace of town and domestic life, the Dutch
+were matter-of-fact in all things, sturdy, honest, coarse at times,
+sufficient unto themselves, and caring little for what other people
+did. Just so with their painters. They were realistic at times to
+grotesqueness. Little troubled with fine poetic frenzies they painted
+their own lives in street, town-hall, tavern, and kitchen, conscious
+that it was good because true to themselves.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At first Dutch art was influenced, even confounded, with that of
+Flanders. The Van Eycks led the way, and painters like Bouts and
+others, though Dutch by birth, became Flemish by adoption in their art
+at least. When the Flemish painters fell to copying Italy some of the
+Dutch followed them, but with no great enthusiasm. Suddenly, at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, when Holland had gained
+political independence, Dutch art struck off by itself, became
+original, became famous. It pictured native life with verve, skill,
+keenness of insight, and fine pictorial view. Limited it was; it never
+soared like Italian art, never became universal or world-embracing. It
+was distinct, individual, national, something that spoke for Holland,
+but little beyond it.</p>
+
+<p>In subject there were few historical canvases such as the Italians and
+French produced. The nearest approach to them were the paintings of
+shooting companies, or groups of burghers and syndics, and these were
+merely elaborations and enlargements of the portrait which the Dutch
+loved best of all. As a whole their subjects were single figures or
+small groups in interiors, quiet scenes, family conferences, smokers,
+card-players, drinkers, landscapes, still-life, architectural pieces.
+When they undertook the large canvas with many figures, they were
+often unsatisfactory. Even Rembrandt was so. The chief medium was oil,
+used upon panel or canvas. Fresco was probably used in the early days,
+but the climate was too damp for it and it was abandoned. It was
+perhaps the dampness of the northern climate that led to the
+adaptation of the oil medium, something the Van Eycks are credited
+with inaugurating.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_082" id="imag_082"></a>
+<img src="images/image_226.jpg" width="325" height="422" alt="FIG. 81.&mdash;HALS. PORTRAIT OF A LADY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 81.&mdash;HALS. PORTRAIT OF A LADY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE EARLY PAINTING:</b> The early work has, for the great part, perished
+through time and the fierceness with which the Iconoclastic warfare
+was waged. That which remains to-day is closely allied in method and
+style to Flemish painting under the Van Eycks. <b>Ouwater</b> is one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+earliest names that appears, and perhaps for that reason he has been
+called the founder of the school. He was remarked in his time for the
+excellent painting of background landscapes; but there is little
+authentic by him left to us from which we may form an opinion.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+<b>Geertjen van St. Jan</b> (about 1475) was evidently a pupil of his, and
+from him there are two wings of an altar in the Vienna Gallery,
+supposed to be genuine. Bouts and Mostert have been spoken of under
+the Flemish school. <b>Bosch</b> (1460?-1516) was a man of some individuality
+who produced fantastic purgatories that were popular in their time and
+are known to-day through engravings. <b>Engelbrechsten</b> (1468-1533) was
+Dutch by birth and in his art, and yet probably got his inspiration
+from the Van Eyck school. The works attributed to him are doubtful,
+though two in the Leyden Gallery seem to be authentic. He was the
+master of <b>Lucas van Leyden</b> (1494-1533), the leading artist of the
+early period. Lucas van Leyden was a personal friend of Albrecht
+D&uuml;rer, the German painter, and in his art he was not unlike <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>him. A
+man with a singularly lean type, a little awkward in composition,
+brilliant in color, and warm in tone, he was, despite his
+archaic-looking work, an artist of much ability and originality. At
+first he was inclined toward Flemish methods, with an exaggerated
+realism in facial expression. In his middle period he was distinctly
+Dutch, but in his later days he came under Italian influence, and with
+a weakening effect upon his art. Taking his work as a whole, it was
+the strongest of all the early Dutch painters.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> A Raising of Lazarus is in the Berlin Gallery.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>SIXTEENTH CENTURY:</b> This century was a period of Italian imitation,
+probably superinduced by the action of the Flemings at Antwerp. The
+movement was somewhat like the Flemish one, but not so extensive or so
+productive. There was hardly a painter of rank in Holland during the
+whole century. <b>Scorel</b> (1495-1562) was the leader, and he probably got
+his first liking for Italian art through Mabuse at Antwerp. He
+afterward went to Italy, studied Raphael and Michael Angelo, and
+returned to Utrecht to open a school and introduce Italian art into
+Holland. A large number of pupils followed him, but their work was
+lacking in true originality. <b>Heemskerck</b> (1498-1574) and <b>Cornelis van
+Haarlem</b> (1562-1638), with <b>Steenwyck</b> (1550?-1604), were some of the
+more important men of the century, but none of them was above a common
+average.</p>
+
+<p><b>SEVENTEENTH CENTURY:</b> Beginning with the first quarter of this century
+came the great art of the Dutch people, founded on themselves and
+rooted in their native character. Italian methods were abandoned, and
+the Dutch told the story of their own lives in their own manner, with
+truth, vigor, and skill. There were so many painters in Holland during
+this period that it will be necessary to divide them into groups and
+mention only the prominent names.</p>
+
+<p><b>PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS:</b> The real inaugurators of Dutch
+portraiture were Mierevelt, Hals, Ravesteyn, and De Keyser. <b>Mierevelt</b>
+(1567-1641) was one of the earliest,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> a prolific painter, fond of the
+aristocratic sitter, and indulging in a great deal of elegance in his
+accessories of dress and the like. He had a slight, smooth brush, much
+detail, and a profusion of color. Quite the reverse of him was <b>Franz
+Hals</b> (1584?-1666), one of the most remarkable painters of portraits
+with which history acquaints us. In giving the sense of life and
+personal physical presence, he was unexcelled by any one. What he saw
+he could portray with the most telling reality. In drawing and
+modelling he was usually good; in coloring he was excellent, though in
+his late work sombre; in brush-handling he was one of the great
+masters. Strong, virile, yet easy and facile, he seemed to produce
+without effort. His brush was very broad in its sweep, very sure, very
+true. Occasionally in his late painting facility ran to the
+ineffectual, but usually he was certainty itself. His best work was in
+portraiture, and the most important of this is to be seen at Haarlem,
+where he died after a rather careless life. As a painter, pure and
+simple, he is almost to be ranked beside Velasquez; as a poet, a
+thinker, a man of lofty imagination, his work gives us little
+enlightenment except in so far as it shows a fine feeling for masses
+of color and problems of light. Though excellent portrait-painters,
+<b>Ravesteyn</b> (1572?-1657) and <b>De Keyser</b> (1596?-1679) do not provoke
+enthusiasm. They were quiet, conservative, dignified, painting civic
+guards and societies with a knowing brush and lively color, giving the
+truth of physiognomy, but not with that verve of the artist so
+conspicuous in Hals, nor with that unity of the group so essential in
+the making of a picture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="imag_083" id="imag_083"></a>
+<img src="images/image_229.jpg" width="350" height="418" alt="FIG. 82.&mdash;REMBRANDT. HEAD OF WOMAN. NAT. GAL. LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 82.&mdash;REMBRANDT. HEAD OF WOMAN. NAT. GAL. LONDON.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next man in chronological order is <b>Rembrandt</b> (1607?-1669), the
+greatest painter in Dutch art. He was a pupil of Swanenburch and
+Lastman, but his great knowledge of nature and his craft came largely
+from the direct study of the model. Settled at Amsterdam, he quickly
+rose to fame, had a large following of pupils, and his influence was
+felt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> through all Dutch painting. The portrait was emphatically his
+strongest work. The many-figured group he was not always successful in
+composing or lighting. His method of work rather fitted him for the
+portrait and unfitted him for the large historical piece. He built up
+the importance of certain features by dragging down all other
+features. This was largely shown in his handling of illumination.
+Strong in a few high lights on cheek, chin, or white linen, the rest
+of the picture was submerged in shadow, under which color was
+unmercifully sacrificed. This was not the best method for a large,
+many-figured piece, but was singularly well suited to the portrait. It
+produced strength by contrast. "Forced" it was undoubtedly, and not
+always true to nat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>ure, yet nevertheless most potent in Rembrandt's
+hands. He was an arbitrary though perfect master of light-and-shade,
+and unusually effective in luminous and transparent shadows. In color
+he was again arbitrary but forcible and harmonious. In brush-work he
+was at times labored, but almost always effective.</p>
+
+<p>Mentally he was a man keen to observe, assimilate, and express his
+impressions in a few simple truths. His conception was localized with
+his own people and time (he never built up the imaginary or followed
+Italy), and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of
+Amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent
+sympathy with man. Dramatic, even tragic, he was; yet this was not so
+apparent in vehement action as in passionate expression. He had a
+powerful way of striking universal truths through the human face, the
+turned head, bent body, or outstretched hand. His people have
+character, dignity, and a pervading feeling that they are the great
+types of the Dutch race&mdash;people of substantial physique, slow in
+thought and impulse, yet capable of feeling, comprehending, enjoying,
+suffering.</p>
+
+<p>His landscapes, again, were a synthesis of all landscapes, a grouping
+of the great truths of light, air, shadow, space. Whatever he turned
+his hand to was treated with that breadth of view that overlooked the
+little and grasped the great. He painted many subjects. His earliest
+work dates from 1627, and is a little hard and sharp in detail and
+cold in coloring. After 1654 he grew broader in handling and warmer in
+tone, running to golden browns, and, toward the end of his career, to
+rather hot tones. His life was embittered by many misfortunes, but
+these never seem to have affected his art except to deepen it. He
+painted on to the last, convinced that his own view was the true one,
+and producing works that rank second to none in the history of
+painting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt's influence upon Dutch art was far-reaching, and appeared
+immediately in the works of his many pupils. They all followed his
+methods of handling light-and-shade, but no one of them ever equalled
+him, though they produced work of much merit. <b>Bol</b> (1611-1680) was
+chiefly a portrait-painter, with a pervading yellow tone and some
+pallor of flesh-coloring&mdash;a man of ability who mistakenly followed
+Rubens in the latter part of his life. <b>Flinck</b> (1615-1660) at one time
+followed Rembrandt so closely that his work has passed for that of the
+master; but latterly he, too, came under Flemish influence. Next to
+Eeckhout he was probably the nearest to Rembrandt in methods of all
+the pupils. <b>Eeckhout</b> (1621-1674) was really a Rembrandt imitator, but
+his hand was weak and his color hot. <b>Maes</b> (1632-1693) was the most
+successful manager of light after the school formula, and succeeded
+very well with warmth and richness of color, especially with his reds.
+The other Rembrandt pupils and followers were <b>Poorter</b> (fl. 1635-1643),
+<b>Victoors</b> (1620?-1672?), <b>Koninck</b> (1619-1688), <b>Fabritius</b> (1624-1654),
+and <b>Backer</b> (1608?-1651).</p>
+
+<p><b>Van der Helst</b> (1612?-1670) stands apart from this school, and seems to
+have followed more the portrait style of De Keyser. He was a
+realistic, precise painter, with much excellence of modelling in head
+and hands, and with fine carriage and dignity in the figure. In
+composition he hardly held his characters in group owing to a
+sacrifice of values, and in color he was often "spotty," and lacking
+in the unity of mass.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE GENRE PAINTERS:</b> This heading embraces those who may be called the
+"Little Dutchmen," because of the small scale of their pictures and
+their <i>genre</i> subjects. <b>Gerard Dou</b> (1613-1675) is indicative of the
+class without fully representing it. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, but
+his work gave little report of this. It was smaller, more delicate in
+detail, more petty in conception. He was a man great in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> little
+things, one who wasted strength on the minuti&aelig; of dress, or
+table-cloth, or the texture of furniture without grasping the mass or
+color significance of the whole scene. There was infinite detail about
+his work, and that gave it popularity; but as art it held, and holds
+to-day, little higher place than the work of <b>Metsu</b> (1630-1667), <b>Van
+Mieris</b> (1635-1681), <b>Netscher</b> (1639-1684), or <b>Schalcken</b> (1643-1706),
+all of whom produced the interior piece with figures elaborate in
+accidental effects. <b>Van Ostade</b> (1610-1685), though dealing with the
+small canvas, and portraying peasant life with perhaps unnecessary
+coarseness, was a much stronger painter than the men just mentioned.
+He was the favorite pupil of Hals and the master of Jan Steen. With
+little delicacy in choice of subject he had much delicacy in color,
+taste in arrangement, and skill in handling. His brush was precise but
+not finical.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_084" id="imag_084"></a>
+<img src="images/image_232.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="FIG. 83.&mdash;J. VAN RUISDAEL. LANDSCAPE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 83.&mdash;J. VAN RUISDAEL. LANDSCAPE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By far the best painter among all the "Little Dutchmen" was <b>Terburg</b>
+(1617?-1681), a painter of interiors, small portraits, conversation
+pictures, and the like. Though of diminutive scale his work has the
+largeness of view characteristic of genius, and the skilled technic of
+a thorough craftsman. Terburg was a travelled man, visiting Italy,
+where he studied Titian, returning to Holland to study Rembrandt,
+finally at Madrid studying Velasquez. He was a painter of much
+culture, and the keynote of his art is refinement. Quiet and dignified
+he carried taste through all branches of his art. In subject he was
+rather elevated, in color subdued with broken tones, in composition
+simple, in brush-work sure, vivacious, and yet unobtrusive. Selection
+in his characters was followed by reserve in using them. Detail was
+not very apparent. A few people with some accessory objects were all
+that he required to make a picture. Perhaps his best qualities appear
+in a number of small portraits remarkable for their distinction and
+aristocratic grace.</p>
+
+<p><b>Steen</b> (1626?-1679) was almost the opposite of Terburg, a man of
+sarcastic flings and coarse humor who satirized his own time with
+little reserve. He developed under Hals and Van Ostade, favoring the
+latter in his interiors, family scenes, and drunken debauches. He was
+a master of physiognomy, and depicted it with rare if rather
+unpleasant truth. If he had little refinement in his themes he
+certainly handled them as a painter with delicacy. At his best his
+many figured groups were exceedingly well composed, his color was of
+good quality (with a fondness for yellows), and his brush was as
+limpid and graceful as though painting angels instead of Dutch boors.
+He was really one of the fine brushmen of Holland, a man greatly
+admired by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many an artist since; but not a
+man of high intellectual pitch as compared with Terburg, for
+instance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Pieter de Hooghe</b> (1632?-1681) was a painter of purely pictorial
+effects, beginning and ending a picture in a scheme of color,
+atmosphere, clever composition, and above all the play of
+light-and-shade. He was one of the early masters of full sunlight,
+painting it falling across a court-yard or streaming through a window
+with marvellous truth and poetry. His subjects were commonplace
+enough. An interior with a figure or two in the middle distance, and a
+passage-way leading into a lighted background were sufficient for him.
+These formed a skeleton which he clothed in a half-tone shadow,
+pierced with warm yellow light, enriched with rare colors, usually
+garnet reds and deep yellows repeated in the different planes, and
+surrounded with a subtle pervading atmosphere. As a brushman he was
+easy but not distinguished, and often his drawing was not correct; but
+in the placing of color masses and in composing by color and light he
+was a master of the first rank. Little is known about his life. He
+probably formed himself on Fabritius or Rembrandt at second-hand, but
+little trace of the latter is apparent in his work. He seems not to
+have achieved much fame until late years, and then rather in England
+than in his own country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jan van der Meer of Delft</b> (1632-1675), one of the most charming of all
+the <i>genre</i> painters, was allied to De Hooghe in his pictorial point
+of view and interior subjects. Unfortunately there is little left to
+us of this master, but the few extant examples serve to show him a
+painter of rare qualities in light, in color, and in atmosphere. He
+was a remarkable man for his handling of blues, reds, and yellows; and
+in the tonic relations of a picture he was a master second to no one.
+Fabritius is supposed to have influenced him.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS:</b> The painters of the Netherlands were probably
+the first, beginning with Bril, to paint landscape for its own sake,
+and as a picture motive in itself. Before them it had been used as a
+background for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> the figure, and was so used by many of the Dutchmen
+themselves. It has been said that these landscape-painters were also
+the first ones to paint landscape realistically, but that is true only
+in part. They studied natural forms, as did, indeed, Bellini in the
+Venetian school; they learned something of perspective, air, tree
+anatomy, and the appearance of water; but no Dutch painter of
+landscape in the seventeenth century grasped the full color of Holland
+or painted its many varied lights. They indulged in a meagre
+conventional palette of grays, greens, and browns, whereas Holland is
+full of brilliant hues.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_085" id="imag_085"></a>
+<img src="images/image_235.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="FIG. 84.&mdash;HOBBEMA. THE WATER-WHEEL. AMSTERDAM MUS."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 84.&mdash;HOBBEMA. THE WATER-WHEEL. AMSTERDAM MUS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Van Goyen</b> (1596-1656) was one of the earliest of the
+seventeenth-century landscapists. In subject he was fond of the Dutch
+bays, harbors, rivers, and canals with shipping, windmills, and
+houses. His sky line was generally given low, his water silvery, and
+his sky misty and lumi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>nous with bursts of white light. In color he
+was subdued, and in perspective quite cunning at times. <b>Salomon van
+Ruisdael</b> (1600?-1670) was his follower, if not his pupil. He had the
+same sobriety of color as his master, and was a mannered and prosaic
+painter in details, such as leaves and tree-branches. In composition
+he was good, but his art had only a slight basis upon reality, though
+it looks to be realistic at first sight. He had a formula for doing
+landscape which he varied only in a slight way, and this
+conventionality ran through all his work. <b>Molyn</b> (1600?-1661) was a
+painter who showed limited truth to nature in flat and hilly
+landscapes, transparent skies, and warm coloring. His extant works are
+few in number. <b>Wynants</b> (1615?-1679?) was more of a realist in natural
+appearance than any of the others, a man who evidently studied
+directly from nature in details of vegetation, plants, trees, roads,
+grasses, and the like. Most of the figures and animals in his
+landscapes were painted by other hands. He himself was a pure
+landscape-painter, excelling in light and a&euml;rial perspective, but not
+remarkable in color. <b>Van der Neer</b> (1603-1677) and <b>Everdingen</b>
+(1621?-1675) were two other contemporary painters of merit.</p>
+
+<p>The best landscapist following the first men of the century was <b>Jacob
+van Ruisdael</b> (1625?-1682), the nephew of Salomon van Ruisdael. He is
+put down, with perhaps unnecessary emphasis, as the greatest
+landscape-painter of the Dutch school. He was undoubtedly the equal of
+any of his time, though not so near to nature, perhaps, as Hobbema. He
+was a man of imagination, who at first pictured the Dutch country
+about Haarlem, and afterward took up with the romantic landscape of
+Van Everdingen. This landscape bears a resemblance to the Norwegian
+country, abounding, as it does, in mountains, heavy dark woods, and
+rushing torrents. There is considerable poetry in its composition, its
+gloomy skies, and darkened lights. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> mournful, suggestive, wild,
+usually unpeopled. There was much of the methodical in its putting
+together, and in color it was cold, and limited to a few tones. Many
+of Ruisdael's works have darkened through time. Little is known about
+the painter's life except that he was not appreciated in his own time
+and died in the almshouse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hobbema</b> (1638?-1709) was probably the pupil of Jacob van Ruisdael, and
+ranks with him, if not above him, in seventeenth-century landscape
+painting. Ruisdael hardly ever painted sunlight, whereas Hobbema
+rather affected it in quiet wood-scenes or roadways with little pools
+of water and a mill. He was a freer man with the brush than Ruisdael,
+and knew more about the natural appearance of trees, skies, and
+lights; but, like his master, his view of nature found no favor in his
+own land. Most of his work is in England, where it had not a little to
+do with influencing such painters as Constable and others at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_086" id="imag_086"></a>
+<img src="images/image_238.jpg" width="500" height="295" alt="FIG. 85.&mdash;ISRAELS. ALONE IN THE WORLD."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 85.&mdash;ISRAELS. ALONE IN THE WORLD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>LANDSCAPE WITH CATTLE:</b> Here we meet with <b>Wouverman</b> (1619-1668), a
+painter of horses, cavalry, battles, and riding parties placed in
+landscape. His landscape is bright and his horses are spirited in
+action. There is some mannerism apparent in his reiterated
+concentration of light on a white horse, and some repetition in his
+canvases, of which there are many; but on the whole he was an
+interesting, if smooth and neat painter. <b>Paul Potter</b> (1625-1654)
+hardly merited his great repute. He was a harsh, exact recorder of
+facts, often tin-like or woodeny in his cattle, and not in any way
+remarkable in his landscapes, least of all in their composition. The
+Young Bull at the Hague is an ambitious piece of drawing, but is not
+successful in color, light, or <i>ensemble</i>. It is a brittle work all
+through, and not nearly so good as some smaller things in the National
+Gallery London, and in the Louvre. <b>Adrien van de Velde</b> (1635?-1672)
+was short-lived, like Potter, but managed to do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> a prodigious amount
+of work, showing cattle and figures in landscape with much technical
+ability and good feeling. He was particularly good in composition and
+the subtle gradation of neutral tints. A little of the Italian
+influence appeared in his work, and with the men who came with him and
+after him the Italian imitation became very pronounced. <b>Aelbert Cuyp</b>
+(1620-1691) was a many-sided painter, adopting at various times
+different styles, but was enough of a genius to be himself always. He
+is best known to us, perhaps, by his yellow sunlight effects along
+rivers, with cattle in the foreground, though he painted still-life,
+and even portraits and marines. In composing a group he was knowing,
+recording natural effects with power; in light and atmosphere he was
+one of the best of his time, and in texture and color refined, and
+frequently brilliant. <b>Both</b> (1610-1650?), <b>Berchem</b> (1620-1683), <b>Du
+Jardin</b> (1622?-1678), followed the Italian tradition of Claude Lorrain,
+producing semi-classic landscapes, never very convincing in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+originality. <b>Van der Heyden</b> (1637-1712), should be mentioned as an
+excellent, if minute, painter of architecture with remarkable
+atmospheric effects.</p>
+
+<p><b>MARINE AND STILL-LIFE PAINTERS:</b> There were two pre-eminent marine
+painters in this seventeenth century, <b>Willem van de Velde</b> (1633-1707)
+and <b>Backhuisen</b> (1631-1708). The sea was not an unusual subject with
+the Dutch landscapists. Van Goyen, <b>Simon de Vlieger</b> (1601?-1660?),
+Cuyp, <b>Willem van de Velde the Elder</b> (1611?-1693), all employed it; but
+it was Van de Velde the Younger who really stood at the head of the
+marine painters. He knew his subject thoroughly, having been well
+grounded in it by his father and De Vlieger, so that the painting of
+the Dutch fleets and harbors was a part of his nature. He preferred
+the quiet haven to the open sea. Smooth water, calm skies, silvery
+light, and boats lying listlessly at anchor with drooping sails, made
+up his usual subject. The color was almost always in a key of silver
+and gray, very charming in its harmony and serenity, but a little
+thin. Both he and his father went to England and entered the service
+of the English king, and thereafter did English fleets rather than
+Dutch ones. Backhuisen was quite the reverse of Van de Velde in
+preferring the tempest to the calm of the sea. He also used more
+brilliant and varied colors, but he was not so happy in harmony as Van
+de Velde. There was often dryness in his handling, and something too
+much of the theatrical in his wrecks on rocky shores.</p>
+
+<p>The still-life painters of Holland were all of them rather petty in
+their emphasis of details such as figures on table-covers, water-drops
+on flowers, and fur on rabbits. It was labored work with little of the
+art spirit about it, except as the composition showed good masses. A
+number of these painters gained celebrity in their day by their
+microscopic labor over fruits, flowers, and the like, but they have no
+great rank at the present time. <b>Jan van Heem</b> (1600?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>1684?) was perhaps
+the best painter of flowers among them. <b>Van Huysum</b> (1682-1749)
+succeeded with the same subject beyond his deserts. <b>Hondecoeter</b>
+(1636-1695) was a unique painter of poultry; <b>Weenix</b> (1640-1719) and
+<b>Van Aelst</b> (1620-1679), of dead game; <b>Kalf</b> (1630?-1693), of pots, pans,
+dishes, and vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>EIGHTEENTH CENTURY:</b> This was a period of decadence during which there
+was no originality worth speaking about among the Dutch painters.
+Realism in minute features was carried to the extreme, and imitation
+of the early men took the place of invention. Everything was
+prettified and elaborated until there was a porcelain smoothness and a
+photographic exactness inconsistent with true art. <b>Adriaan van der
+Werff</b> (1659-1722), and <b>Philip van Dyck</b> (1683-1753) with their "ideal"
+inanities are typical of the century's art. There was nothing to
+commend it. The lowest point of affectation had been reached.</p>
+
+<p><b>NINETEENTH CENTURY:</b> The Dutch painters, unlike the Belgians, have
+almost always been true to their own traditions and their own country.
+Even in decadence the most of them feebly followed their own painters
+rather than those of Italy and France, and in the early nineteenth
+century they were not affected by the French classicism of David.
+Later on there came into vogue an art that had some affinity with that
+of Millet and Courbet in France. It was the Dutch version of modern
+sentiment about the laboring classes, founded on the modern life of
+Holland, yet in reality a continuation of the style or <i>genre</i>
+practised by the early Dutchmen. <b>Israels</b> (1824-) is a revival or a
+survival of Rembrandtesque methods with a sentiment and feeling akin
+to the French Millet. He deals almost exclusively with peasant life,
+showing fisher-folk and the like in their cottage interiors, at the
+table, or before the fire, with good effects of light, atmosphere, and
+much pathos. Technically he is rather labored and heavy in handling,
+but usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> effective with sombre color in giving the unity of a
+scene. <b>Artz</b> (1837-1890) considered himself in measure a follower of
+Israels, though he never studied under him. His pictures in subject
+are like those of Israels, but without the depth of the latter.
+<b>Blommers</b> (1845-) is another peasant painter who follows Israels at a
+distance, and <b>Neuhuys</b> (1844-) shows a similar style of work. <b>Bosboom</b>
+(1817-1891) excelled in representing interiors, showing, with much
+pictorial effect, the light, color, shadow, and feeling of space and
+air in large cathedrals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"><a name="imag_087" id="imag_087"></a>
+<img src="images/image_241.jpg" width="425" height="291" alt="FIG. 86.&mdash;MAUVE. SHEEP."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 86.&mdash;MAUVE. SHEEP.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The brothers Maris have made a distinct impression on modern Dutch
+art, and, strange enough, each in a different way from the others.
+<b>James Maris</b> (1837-) studied at Paris, and is remarkable for fine,
+vigorous views of canals, towns, and landscapes. He is broad in
+handling, rather bleak in coloring, and excels in fine luminous skies
+and voyaging clouds. <b>Matthew Maris</b> (1835-), Parisian trained like his
+brother, lives in London, where little is seen of his work. He paints
+for himself and his friends, and is rather melancholy and mystical in
+his art. He is a recorder of visions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> and dreams rather than the
+substantial things of the earth, but always with richness of color and
+a fine decorative feeling. <b>Willem Maris</b> (1839-), sometimes called the
+"Silvery Maris," is a portrayer of cattle and landscape in warm
+sunlight and haze with a charm of color and tone often suggestive of
+Corot. <b>Jongkind</b> (1819-1891) stands by himself, <b>Mesdag</b> (1831-) is a
+fine painter of marines and sea-shores, and <b>Mauve</b> (1838-1888), a
+cattle and sheep painter, with nice sentiment and tonality, whose
+renown is just now somewhat disproportionate to his artistic ability.
+In addition there are <b>Kever</b>, <b>Poggenbeek</b>, <b>Bastert</b>, <b>Baur</b>, <b>Breitner</b>,
+<b>Witsen</b>, <b>Haverman</b>, <b>Weissenbruch</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>EXTANT WORKS:</b> Generally speaking the best examples of the
+Dutch schools are still to be seen in the local museums of
+Holland, especially the Amsterdam and Hague Mus.; <b>Bosch</b>,
+Madrid, Antwerp, Brussels Mus.; <b>Lucas van Leyden</b>, Antwerp,
+Leyden, Munich Mus.; <b>Scorel</b>, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Haarlem
+Mus.; <b>Heemskerck</b>, Haarlem, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden;
+Steenwyck, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels; <b>Cornelis van Haarlem</b>,
+Amsterdam, Haarlem, Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Portrait and Figure Painters</span>&mdash;<b>Mierevelt</b>, Hague, Amsterdam,
+Rotterdam, Brunswick, Dresden, Copenhagen; <b>Hals</b>, best works
+to be seen at Haarlem, others at Amsterdam, Brussels, Hague,
+Berlin, Cassel, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Met. Mus. New York,
+Art Institute Chicago; <b>Rembrandt</b>, Amsterdam, Hermitage,
+Louvre, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Madrid, London; <b>Bol</b>,
+Amsterdam, Hague, Dresden, Louvre; <b>Flinck</b>, Amsterdam, Hague,
+Berlin; <b>Eeckhout</b>, Amsterdam, Brunswick, Berlin, Munich;
+<b>Maes</b>, Nat. Gal. Lon., Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels;
+<b>Poorter</b>, Amsterdam, Brussels, Dresden; <b>Victoors</b>, Amsterdam,
+Copenhagen, Brunswick, Dresden; <b>Fabritius</b>, Rotterdam,
+Amsterdam, Berlin; <b>Van der Helst</b>, best works at Amsterdam
+Mus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Genre Painters</span>&mdash;Examples of <b>Dou</b>, <b>Metsu</b>, <b>Van Mieris</b>,
+<b>Netscher</b>, <b>Schalcken</b>, <b>Van Ostade</b>, are to be seen in almost
+all the galleries of Europe, especially the Dutch, Belgian,
+German, and French galleries; <b>Terburg</b>, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+Dresden, Berlin (fine portraits); <b>Steen</b>, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+Rotterdam, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden, Vienna; <b>De
+Hooghe</b>, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Hermitage; <b>Van
+der Meer of Delft</b>, Louvre, Hague, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+Dresden, Met. Mus. New York.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Landscape Painters</span>&mdash;<b>Van Goyen</b>, Amsterdam, Fitz-William Mus.
+Cambridge, Louvre, Brussels, Cassel, Dresden, Berlin;
+<b>Salomon van Ruisdael</b>, Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Dresden,
+Munich; <b>Van der Neer</b>, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Brussels,
+Amsterdam, Berlin, Dresden; <b>Everdingen</b>, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+Louvre, Brunswick, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort; <b>Jacob van
+Ruisdael</b>, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+Dresden; <b>Hobbema</b>, best works in England, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dresden; <b>Wouvermans</b>, many works, best
+at Amsterdam, Cassel, Louvre; Potter, Amsterdam, Hague,
+Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; <b>Van de Velde</b>, Amsterdam, Hague,
+Cassel, Dresden, Frankfort, Munich, Louvre; <b>Cuyp</b>, Amsterdam,
+Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Munich, Dresden; examples of <b>Both</b>,
+<b>Berchem</b>, <b>Du Jardin</b>, and <b>Van der Heyden</b>, in almost all of the
+Dutch and German galleries, besides the Louvre and Nat. Gal.
+Lon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marine Painters</span>&mdash;<b>Willem van de Velde Elder and Younger</b>,
+<b>Backhuisen</b>, <b>Vlieger</b>, together with the flower and fruit
+painters like <b>Huysum</b>, <b>Hondecoeter</b>, <b>Weenix</b>, have all been
+prolific workers, and almost every European gallery,
+especially those at London, Amsterdam, and in Germany, have
+examples of their works; <b>Van der Werff</b> and <b>Philip van Dyck</b>
+are seen at their best at Dresden.</p>
+
+<p>The best works of the modern men are in private collections,
+many in the United States, some examples of them in the
+Amsterdam and Hague Museums. Also some examples of the old
+Dutch masters in New York Hist. Society Library, Yale School
+of Fine Arts, Met. Mus. New York, Boston Mus., and Chicago
+Institute.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>GERMAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: Colvin, <i>A. Durer, his Teachers, his
+Rivals, and his Scholars</i>; Eye, <i>Leben und Werke Albrecht
+Durers</i>; F&ouml;rster, <i>Peter von Cornelius</i>; F&ouml;rster,
+<i>Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst</i>; Keane, <i>Early Teutonic,
+Italian, and French Painters</i>; K&uuml;gler, <i>Handbook to German
+and Netherland Schools, trans. by Crowe</i>; Merlo, <i>Die
+Meister der altkolnischer Malerschule</i>; Moore, <i>Albert
+Durer</i>; Pecht, <i>Deutsche Kunstler des Neunzehnten
+Jahrhunderts</i>; Reber, <i>Geschichte der neueren Deutschen
+Kunst</i>; Riegel, <i>Deutsche Kunststudien</i>; Rosenberg, <i>Die
+Berliner Malerschule</i>; Rosenberg, <i>Sebald und Barthel
+Beham</i>; Rumohr, <i>Hans Holbein der Jungere</i>; Sandrart,
+<i>Teutsche Akademie der Edlen Bau, Bild-und Malerey-Kunste</i>;
+Schuchardt, <i>Lucas Cranach's Leben</i>; Thausig, <i>Albert Durer,
+His Life and Works</i>; Waagen, <i>Kunstwerke und Kunstler in
+Deutschland</i>; E. aus'm Weerth, <i>Wandmalereien des
+Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden</i>; Wessely, <i>Adolph Menzel</i>;
+Woltmann, <i>Holbein and his Time</i>; Woltmann, <i>Geschichte der
+Deutschen Kunst im Elsass</i>; Wurtzbach, <i>Martin Schongauer</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>EARLY GERMAN PAINTING:</b> The Teutonic lands, like almost all of the
+countries of Europe, received their first art impulse from
+Christianity through Italy. The centre of the faith was at Rome, and
+from there the influence in art spread west and north, and in each
+land it was modified by local peculiarities of type and temperament.
+In Germany, even in the early days, though Christianity was the theme
+of early illuminations, miniatures, and the like, and though there was
+a traditional form reaching back to Italy and Byzantium, yet under it
+was the Teutonic type&mdash;the material, awkward, rather coarse Germanic
+point of view. The wish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> to realize native surroundings was apparent
+from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the earliest painting in Germany took the form of
+illuminations. At what date it first appeared is unknown. In
+wall-painting a poor quality of work was executed in the churches as
+early as the ninth century, and probably earlier. The oldest now
+extant are those at Oberzell, dating back to the last part of the
+tenth century. Better examples are seen in the Lower Church of
+Schwarzrheindorf, of the twelfth century, and still better in the
+choir and transept of the Brunswick cathedral, ascribed to the early
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"><a name="imag_088" id="imag_088"></a>
+<img src="images/image_245.jpg" width="375" height="439" alt="FIG. 87.&mdash;LOCHNER. STS. JOHN, CATHERINE, AND MATTHEW.
+NAT. GAL. LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 87.&mdash;LOCHNER. STS. JOHN, CATHERINE, AND MATTHEW.<br />
+
+NAT. GAL. LONDON.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_245_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All of these works have an archaic appearance about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> them, but they
+are better in composition and drawing than the productions of Italy
+and Byzantium at that time. It is likely that all the German churches
+at this time were decorated, but most of the paintings have been
+destroyed. The usual method was to cover the walls and wooden ceilings
+with blue grounds, and upon these to place figures surrounded by
+architectural ornaments. Stained glass was also used extensively.
+Panel painting seems to have come into existence before the thirteenth
+century (whether developed from miniature or wall-painting is
+unknown), and was used for altar decorations. The panels were done in
+tempera with figures in light colors upon gold grounds. The
+spirituality of the age with a mingling of northern sentiment appeared
+in the figure. This figure was at times graceful, and again awkward
+and archaic, according to the place of production and the influence of
+either France or Italy. The oldest panels extant are from the
+Wiesenkirche at Soest, now in the Berlin Museum. They do not date
+before the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES:</b> In the fourteenth century the
+influence of France began to show strongly in willowy figures, long
+flowing draperies, and sentimental poses. The artists along the Rhine
+showed this more than those in the provinces to the east, where a
+ruder if freer art appeared. The best panel-painting of the time was
+done at Cologne, where we meet with the name of the first painter,
+<b>Meister Wilhelm</b>, and where a school was established usually known as
+the</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOOL OF COLOGNE:</b> This school probably got its sentimental
+inclination, shown in slight forms and tender expression, from France,
+but derived much of its technic from the Netherlands. Stephen Lochner,
+or <b>Meister Stephen</b>, (fl. 1450) leaned toward the Flemish methods, and
+in his celebrated picture, the Madonna of the Rose Garden, in the
+Cologne Museum, there is an indication of this; but there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> is also an
+individuality showing the growth of German independence in painting.
+The figures of his Dombild have little manliness or power, but
+considerable grace, pathos, and religious feeling. They are not
+abstract types but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> spiritualized people of the country in native
+costumes, with much gold, jewelry, and armor. Gold was used instead of
+a landscape background, and the foreground was spattered with flowers
+and leaves. The outlines are rather hard, and none of the a&euml;rial
+perspective of the Flemings is given. After a time French sentiment
+was still further encroached upon by Flemish realism, as shown in the
+works of the <b>Master of the Lyversberg Passion</b> (fl. about 1463-1480),
+to be seen in the Cologne Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_089" id="imag_089"></a>
+<img src="images/image_247.jpg" width="400" height="660" alt="FIG. 88.&mdash;WOLGEMUT. CRUCIFIXION. MUNICH."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 88.&mdash;WOLGEMUT. CRUCIFIXION. MUNICH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BOHEMIAN SCHOOL:</b> It was not on the Lower Rhine alone that German
+painting was practised. The Bohemian school, located near Prague,
+flourished for a short time in the fourteenth century, under Charles
+IV., with <b>Theodorich of Prague</b> (fl. 1348-1378), <b>Wurmser</b>, and <b>Kunz</b>, as
+the chief masters. Their art was quite the reverse of the Cologne
+painters. It was heavy, clumsy, bony, awkward. If more original it was
+less graceful, not so pathetic, not so religious. Sentiment was
+slurred through a harsh attempt at realism, and the religious subject
+met with something of a check in the romantic medi&aelig;val chivalric
+theme, painted quite as often on the castle wall as the scriptural
+theme on the church wall. After the close of the fourteenth century
+wall-painting began to die out in favor of panel pictures.</p>
+
+<p><b>NUREMBERG SCHOOL:</b> Half-way between the sentiment of Cologne and the
+realism of Prague stood the early school of Nuremberg, with no known
+painter at its head. Its chief work, the Imhof altar-piece, shows,
+however, that the Nuremberg masters of the early and middle fifteenth
+century were between eastern and western influences. They inclined to
+the graceful swaying figure, following more the sculpture of the time
+than the Cologne type.</p>
+
+<p><b>FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES:</b> German art, if begun in the
+fourteenth century, hardly showed any depth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> or breadth until the
+fifteenth century, and no real individual strength until the sixteenth
+century. It lagged behind the other countries of Europe and produced
+the cramped archaic altar-piece. Then when printing was invented the
+painter-engraver came into existence. He was a man who painted panels,
+but found his largest audience through the circulation of engravings.
+The two kinds of arts being produced by the one man led to much
+detailed line work with the brush. Engraving is an influence to be
+borne in mind in examining the painting of this period.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_090" id="imag_090"></a>
+<img src="images/image_249.jpg" width="325" height="448" alt="FIG. 89.&mdash;D&Uuml;RER. PRAYING VIRGIN. AUGSBURG."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 89.&mdash;D&Uuml;RER. PRAYING VIRGIN. AUGSBURG.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>FRANCONIAN SCHOOL:</b> Nuremberg was the centre of this school, and its
+most famous early master was <b>Wolgemut</b> (1434-1519), though <b>Plydenwurff</b>
+is the first-named painter. After the latter's death Wolgemut married
+his widow and became the head of the school. His paintings were
+chiefly altar-pieces, in which the figures were rather lank and
+narrow-shouldered, with sharp outlines, indicative perhaps of the
+influence of wood-engraving, in which he was much interested. There
+was, however, in his work an advance in characterization, nobility of
+expression, and quiet dignity, and it was his good fortune to be the
+master of one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> most thoroughly original painters of all the
+German schools&mdash;<b>Albrecht D&uuml;rer</b> (1471-1528).</p>
+
+<p>With D&uuml;rer and Holbein German art reached its apogee in the first half
+of the sixteenth century, yet their work was not different in spirit
+from that of their predecessors. Painting simply developed and became
+forceful and expressive technically without abandoning its early
+character. There is in D&uuml;rer a naive awkwardness of figure, some
+angularity of line, strain of pose, and in composition oftentimes
+huddling and overloading of the scene with details. There is not that
+largeness which seemed native to his Italian contemporaries. He was
+hampered by that German exactness, which found its best expression in
+engraving, and which, though unsuited to painting, nevertheless crept
+into it. Within these limitations D&uuml;rer produced the typical art of
+Germany in the Renaissance time&mdash;an art more attractive for the charm
+and beauty of its parts than for its unity, or its general impression.
+D&uuml;rer was a travelled man, visited Italy and the Netherlands, and,
+though he always remained a German in art, yet he picked up some
+Italian methods from Bellini and Mantegna that are faintly apparent in
+some of his works. In subject he was almost exclusively religious,
+painting the altar-piece with infinite care upon wooden panel, canvas,
+or parchment. He never worked in fresco, preferring oil and tempera.
+In drawing he was often harsh and faulty, in draperies cramped at
+times, and then, again, as in the Apostle panels at Munich, very
+broad, and effective. Many of his pictures show a hard, dry brush, and
+a few, again, are so free and mellow that they look as though done by
+another hand. He was usually minute in detail, especially in such
+features as hair, cloth, flesh. His portraits were uneven and not his
+best productions. He was too close a scrutinizer of the part and not
+enough of an observer of the whole for good portraiture. Indeed, that
+is the criticism to be made upon all his work. He was an ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>quisite
+realist of certain features, but not always of the <i>ensemble</i>.
+Nevertheless he holds first rank in the German art of the Renaissance,
+not only on account of his technical ability, but also because of his
+imagination, sincerity, and striking originality.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_091" id="imag_091"></a>
+<img src="images/image_251.jpg" width="325" height="441" alt="FIG. 90.&mdash;HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. PORTRAIT. HAGUE MUS."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 90.&mdash;HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. PORTRAIT. HAGUE MUS.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_251_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer's influence was wide-spread throughout Germany, especially in
+engraving, of which he was a master. In painting <b>Sch&auml;ufelin</b>
+(1490?-1540?) was probably his apprentice, and in his work followed
+the master so closely that many of his works have been attributed to
+D&uuml;rer. This is true in measure of <b>Hans Baldung</b> (1476?-1552?). <b>Hans von
+Kulmbach</b> (?-1522) was a painter of more than ordinary importance,
+brilliant in coloring, a follower of D&uuml;rer, who was in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>clined toward
+Italian methods, an inclination that afterward developed all through
+German art. Following D&uuml;rer's formulas came a large number of
+so-called "Little Masters" (from the size of their engraved plates),
+who were more engravers than painters. Among the more important of
+those who were painters as well as engravers were <b>Altdorfer</b>
+(1480?-1538), a rival rather than an imitator of D&uuml;rer; <b>Barthel Beham</b>
+(1502-1540), <b>Sebald Beham</b> (1500-1550), <b>Pencz</b> (1500?-1550), <b>Aldegrever</b>
+(1502-1558), and <b>Bink</b> (1490?-1569?).</p>
+
+<p><b>SWABIAN SCHOOL:</b> This school includes a number of painters who were
+located at different places, like Colmar and Ulm, and later on it
+included the Holbeins at Augsburg, who were really the consummation of
+the school. In the fifteenth century one of the early leaders was
+<b>Martin Sch&ouml;ngauer</b> (1446?-1488), at Colmar. He is supposed to have been
+a pupil of Roger Van der Weyden, of the Flemish school, and is better
+known by his engravings than his paintings, none of the latter being
+positively authenticated. He was thoroughly German in his type and
+treatment, though, perhaps, indebted to the Flemings for his coloring.
+There was some angularity in his figures and draperies, and a tendency
+to get nearer nature and further away from the ecclesiastical and
+ascetic conception in all that he did.</p>
+
+<p>At Ulm a local school came into existence with <b>Zeitblom</b> (fl.
+1484-1517), who was probably a pupil of Sch&uuml;chlin. He had neither
+Sch&ouml;ngauer's force nor his fancy, but was a simple, straightforward
+painter of one rather strong type. His drawing was not good, except in
+the draperies, but he was quite remarkable for the solidity and
+substance of his painting, considering the age he lived in was given
+to hard, thin brush-work. <b>Schaffner</b> (fl. 1500-1535) was another Ulm
+painter, a junior to Zeitblom, of whom little is known, save from a
+few pictures graceful and free in composition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> A recently discovered
+man, <b>Bernard Strigel</b> (1461?-1528?) seems to have been excellent in
+portraiture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_092" id="imag_092"></a>
+<img src="images/image_253.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="FIG. 91.&mdash;PILOTY. WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 91.&mdash;PILOTY. WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Augsburg there was still another school, which came into prominence
+in the sixteenth century with Burkmair and the Holbeins. It was only a
+part of the Swabian school, a concentration of artistic force about
+Augsburg, which, toward the close of the fifteenth century, had come
+into competition with Nuremberg, and rather outranked it in splendor.
+It was at Augsburg that the Renaissance art in Germany showed in more
+restful composition, less angularity, better modelling and painting,
+and more sense of the <i>ensemble</i> of a picture. <b>Hans Burkmair</b>
+(1473-1531) was the founder of the school, a pupil of Sch&ouml;ngauer,
+later influenced by D&uuml;rer, and finally showing the influence of
+Italian art. He was not, like D&uuml;rer, a religious painter, though doing
+religious subjects. He was more concerned with worldly appearance, of
+which he had a large knowledge, as may be seen from his illustrations
+for engraving. As a painter he was a rather fine colorist, indulging
+in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> fantastic of architecture but with good taste, crude in
+drawing but forceful, and at times giving excellent effects of motion.
+He was rounder, fuller, calmer in composition than D&uuml;rer, but never so
+strong an artist.</p>
+
+<p>Next to Burkmair comes the celebrated Holbein family. There were four
+of them all told, but only two of them, Hans the Elder and Hans the
+Younger, need be mentioned. <b>Holbein the Elder</b> (1460?-1524), after
+Burkmair, was the best painter of his time and school without being in
+himself a great artist. Sch&ouml;ngauer was at first his guide, though he
+soon submitted to some Flemish and Cologne influence, and later on
+followed Italian form and method in composition to some extent. He was
+a good draughtsman, and very clever at catching realistic points of
+physiognomy&mdash;a gift he left his son Hans. In addition he had some
+feeling for architecture and ornament, and in handling was a bit hard,
+and oftentimes careless. The best half of his life fell in the latter
+part of the fifteenth century, and he never achieved the free
+painter's quality of his son.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hans Holbein the Younger</b> (1497-1543) holds, with D&uuml;rer, the high place
+in German art. He was a more mature painter than D&uuml;rer, coming as he
+did a quarter of a century later. He was the Renaissance artist of
+Germany, whereas D&uuml;rer always had a little of the Gothic clinging to
+him. The two men were widely different in their points of view and in
+their work. D&uuml;rer was an idealist seeking after a type, a religious
+painter, a painter of panels with the spirit of an engraver. Holbein
+was emphatically a realist finding material in the actual life about
+him, a designer of cartoons and large wall paintings in something of
+the Italian spirit, a man who painted religious themes but with little
+spiritual significance.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that he got his first instruction from his father and
+from Burkmair. He was an infant prodigy, developed early, saw much
+foreign art, and showed a number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> of tendencies in his work. In
+composition and drawing he appeared at times to be following Mantegna
+and the northern Italians; in brush-work he resembled the Flemings,
+especially Massys; yet he was never an imitator of either Italian or
+Flemish painting. Decidedly a self-sufficient and an observing man, he
+travelled in Italy and the Netherlands, and spent much of his life in
+England, where he met with great success at court as a
+portrait-painter. From seeing much he assimilated much, yet always
+remained German, changing his style but little as he grew older. His
+wall paintings have perished, but the drawings from them are preserved
+and show him as an artist of much invention. He is now known chiefly
+by his portraits, of which there are many of great excellence. His
+facility in grasping physiognomy and realizing character, the quiet
+dignity of his composition, his firm modelling, clear outline,
+harmonious coloring, excellent detail, and easy solid painting, all
+place him in the front rank of great painters. That he was not always
+bound down to literal facts may be seen in his many designs for
+wood-engravings. His portrait of Hubert Morett, in the Dresden
+Gallery, shows his art to advantage, and there are many portraits by
+him of great spirit in England, in the Louvre, and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><b>SAXON SCHOOL:</b> <b>Lucas Cranach</b> (1472-1553) was a Franconian master, who
+settled in Saxony and was successively court-painter to three Electors
+and the leader of a small local school there. He, perhaps, studied
+under <b>Gr&uuml;newald</b>, but was so positive a character that he showed no
+strong school influence. His work was fantastic, odd in conception and
+execution, sometimes ludicrous, and always archaic-looking. His type
+was rather strained in proportions, not always well drawn, but
+graceful even when not truthful. This type was carried into all his
+works, and finally became a mannerism with him. In subject he was
+religious, mythological, romantic, pastoral, with a preference for
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> nude figure. In coloring he was at first golden, then brown, and
+finally cold and sombre. The lack of a&euml;rial perspective and shadow
+masses gave his work a queer look, and he was never much of a
+brushman. His pictures were typical of the time and country, and for
+that and for their strong individuality they are ranked among the most
+interesting paintings of the German school. Perhaps his most
+satisfactory works are his portraits. <b>Lucas Cranach the Younger</b>
+(1515-1586) was the best of the elder Cranach's pupils. Many of his
+pictures are attributed to his father. He followed the elder closely,
+but was a weaker man, with a smoother brush and a more rosy color.
+Though there were many pupils the school did not go beyond the Cranach
+family. It began with the father and died with the son.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a name="imag_093" id="imag_093"></a>
+<img src="images/image_256.jpg" width="250" height="403" alt="FIG. 92.&mdash;LEIBL. IN CHURCH."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 92.&mdash;LEIBL. IN CHURCH.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_256_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES:</b> These were unrelieved centuries
+of decline in German painting. After D&uuml;rer, Holbein, and Cranach had
+passed there came about a senseless imitation of Italy, combined with
+an equally senseless imitation of detail in nature that produced
+nothing worthy of the name of original or genuine art. It is not
+probable that the Reformation had any more to do with this than with
+the decline in Italy. It was a period of barrenness in both countries.
+The Italian imitators in Germany were chiefly <b>Rottenhammer</b>
+(1564-1623), and <b>Elzheimer</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> (1574?-1620). After them came the
+representative of the other extreme in <b>Denner</b> (1685-1749), who thought
+to be great in portraiture by the minute imitation of hair, freckles,
+and three-days'-old beard&mdash;a petty and unworthy realism which excited
+some curiosity but never held rank as art. <b>Mengs</b> (1728-1779) sought
+for the sublime through eclecticism, but never reached it. His work,
+though academic and correct, is lacking in spirit and originality.
+<b>Angelica Kauffman</b> (1741-1807) succeeded in pleasing her inartistic age
+with the simply pretty, while <b>Carstens</b> (1754-1798) was a conscientious
+if mistaken student of the great Italians&mdash;a man of some severity in
+form and of academic inclinations.</p>
+
+<p><b>NINETEENTH CENTURY:</b> In the first part of this century there started in
+Germany a so-called "revival of art" led by <b>Overbeck</b> (1789-1869),
+<b>Cornelius</b> (1783-1867), <b>Veit</b> (1793-1877), and <b>Schadow</b> (1789-1862), but
+like many another revival of art it did not amount to much. The
+attempt to "revive" the past is usually a failure. The forms are
+caught, but the spirit is lost. The nineteenth-century attempt in
+Germany was brought about by the study of monumental painting in
+Italy, and the taking up of the religious spirit in a pre-Raphaelite
+manner. Something also of German romanticism was its inspiration.
+Overbeck remained in Rome, but the others, after some time in Italy,
+returned to Germany, diffused their teaching, and really formed a new
+epoch in German painting. A modern art began with ambitions and
+subjects entirely disproportionate to its skill. The monumental, the
+ideal, the classic, the exalted, were spread over enormous spaces, but
+there was no reason for such work in the contemporary German life, and
+nothing to warrant its appearance save that its better had appeared in
+Italy during the Renaissance. Cornelius after his return became the
+head of the</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNICH SCHOOL</b> and painted pictures of the heroes of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> classic and
+the Christian world upon a large scale. Nothing but their size and
+good intention ever brought them into notice, for their form and
+coloring were both commonplace. <b>Schnorr</b> (1794-1872) followed in the
+same style with the Niebelungen Lied, Charlemagne, and Barbarossa for
+subjects. <b>Kaulbach</b> (1805-1874) was a pupil of Cornelius, and had some
+ability but little taste, and not enough originality to produce great
+art. <b>Piloty</b> (1826-1886) was more realistic, more of a painter and
+ranks as one of the best of the early Munich masters. After him Munich
+art became <i>genre</i>-like in subject, with greater attention given to
+truthful representation in light, color, texture. To-day there are a
+large number of painters in the school who are remarkable for
+realistic detail.</p>
+
+<p><b>DUSSELDORF SCHOOL:</b> After 1826 this school came into prominence under
+the guidance of Schadow. It did not fancy monumental painting so much
+as the common easel picture, with the sentimental, the dramatic, or
+the romantic subject. It was no better in either form or color than
+the Munich school, in fact not so good, though there were painters who
+emanated from it who had ability. At Berlin the inclination was to
+follow the methods and ideas held at Dusseldorf.</p>
+
+<p>The whole academic tendency of modern painting in Germany and Austria
+for the past fifty years has not been favorable to the best kind of
+pictorial art. There is a disposition on the part of artists to tell
+stories, to encroach upon the sentiment of literature, to paint with a
+dry brush in harsh unsympathetic colors, to ignore relations of
+light-and-shade, and to slur beauties of form. The subject seems to
+count for more than the truth of representation, or the individuality
+of view. From time to time artists of much ability have appeared, but
+these form an exception rather than a rule. The men to-day who are the
+great artists of Germany are less followers of the German tradition
+than individuals each working in a style peculiar to himself. A few
+only of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> them call for mention. <b>Menzel</b> (1815-1905) is easily first, a
+painter of group pictures, a good colorist, and a powerful pen-and-ink
+draughtsman; <b>Lenbach</b> (1836-1904), a forceful portraitist; <b>Uhde</b>
+(1848-), a portrayer of scriptural scenes in modern costumes with much
+sincerity, good color, and light; <b>Leibl</b> (1844-1900), an artist with
+something of the Holbein touch and realism; <b>Thoma</b>, a Frankfort painter
+of decorative friezes and panels; <b>Liebermann</b>, <b>Gotthardt Kuehl</b>, <b>Franz
+Stuck</b>, <b>Max Klinger</b>, <b>Greiner</b>, <b>Tr&uuml;bner</b>, <b>Bartels</b>, <b>Keller</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"><a name="imag_094" id="imag_094"></a>
+<img src="images/image_259.jpg" width="425" height="352" alt="FIG. 93.&mdash;MENZEL. A READER."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 93.&mdash;MENZEL. A READER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Aside from these men there are several notable painters with German
+affinities, like <b>Makart</b> (1840-1884), an Austrian, who possessed good
+technical qualities and indulged in a profusion of color; <b>Munkacsy</b>
+(1846-1900), a Hungarian, who is perhaps more Parisian than German in
+technic, and <b>B&ouml;cklin</b> (1827-1901), a Swiss, who is quite by himself in
+fantastic and grotesque subjects, a weird and uncanny imagination, and
+a brilliant prismatic coloring.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> <span class="smcap">Bohemian School</span>&mdash;<b>Theoderich of Prague</b>,
+Karlstein chap. and University Library Prague, Vienna Mus.;
+<b>Wurmser</b>, same places.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Franconian School</span>&mdash;<b>Wolgemut</b>, Aschaffenburg, Munich,
+Nuremberg, Cassel Mus.; <b>D&uuml;rer</b>, Crucifixion Dresden, Trinity
+Vienna Mus., other works Munich, Nuremberg, Madrid Mus.;
+<b>Sch&auml;ufelin</b>, Basle, Bamberg, Cassel, Munich, Nuremberg,
+Nordlingen Mus., and Ulm Cathedral; <b>Baldung</b>, Aschaffenburg,
+Basle, Berlin, Kunsthalle Carlsruhe, Freiburg Cathedral;
+<b>Kulmbach</b>, Munich, Nuremberg, Oldenburg; <b>Altdorfer</b> and the
+"Little Masters" are seen in the Augsburg, Nuremberg,
+Berlin, Munich and F&uuml;rstenberg Mus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swabian School</span>&mdash;<b>Sch&ouml;ngauer</b>, attributed pictures Colmar Mus.;
+<b>Zeitblom</b>, Augsburg, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich, Nuremberg,
+Simaringen Mus.; <b>Schaffner</b>, Munich, Schliessheim, Nuremberg,
+Ulm Cathedral; <b>Strigel</b>, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich,
+Nuremberg; <b>Burkmair</b>, Augsburg, Berlin, Munich, Maurice chap.
+Nuremberg; <b>Holbein the Elder</b>, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Basle,
+St&auml;del Mus., Frankfort; <b>Holbein the Younger</b>, Basle,
+Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Windsor
+Castle, Vienna Mus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saxon School</span>&mdash;<b>Cranach</b>, Bamberg Cathedral and Gallery,
+Munich, Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cassel; <b>Cranach
+the Younger</b>, Stadtkirche Wittenberg, Leipsic, Vienna,
+Nuremberg Mus.</p>
+
+<p><b>SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS:</b> <b>Rottenhammer</b>,
+Louvre, Berlin, Munich, Schliessheim, Vienna, Kunsthalle
+Hamburg; <b>Elzheimer</b>, Stadel, Brunswick, Louvre, Munich,
+Berlin, Dresden; <b>Denner</b>, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Berlin,
+Brunswick, Dresden, Vienna, Munich; <b>Mengs</b>, Madrid, Vienna,
+Dresden, Munich, St. Petersburg; <b>Angelica Kauffman</b>, Vienna,
+Hermitage, Turin, Dresden, Nat. Gal. Lon., Phila. Acad.</p>
+
+<p><b>NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS:</b> <b>Overbeck</b>, frescos in S. Maria
+degli Angeli Assisi, Villa Massimo Rome, Carlsruhe, New
+Pinacothek, Munich, St&auml;del Mus., Dusseldorf; <b>Cornelius</b>,
+frescos Glyptothek and Ludwigkirche Munich, Casa Zuccaro
+Rome, Royal Cemetery Berlin; <b>Veit</b>, frescos Villa Bartholdi
+Rome, St&auml;del, Nat. Gal. Berlin; <b>Schadow</b>, Nat. Gal. Berlin,
+Antwerp, St&auml;del, Munich Mus., frescos Villa Bartholdi Rome;
+<b>Schnorr</b>, Dresden, Cologne, Carlsruhe, New Pinacothek Munich,
+St&auml;del Mus.; <b>Kaulbach</b>, wall paintings Berlin Mus., Raczynski
+Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Stuttgart, Phila. Acad.;
+<b>Piloty</b>, best pictures in the New Pinacothek and
+Maximilianeum Munich, Nat. Gal. Berlin; <b>Menzel</b>, Nat. Gal.,
+Raczynski Mus. Berlin, Breslau Mus.; <b>Lenbach</b>, Nat. Gal.
+Berlin, New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>Pinacothek Munich, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Z&uuml;rich
+Gal.; <b>Uhde</b>, Leipsic Mus.; <b>Leibl</b>, Dresden Mus. The
+contemporary paintings have not as yet found their way, to
+any extent, into public museums, but may be seen in the
+expositions at Berlin and Munich from year to year. <b>Makart</b>
+has one work in the Metropolitan Mus., N. Y., as has also
+<b>Munkacsy</b>; other works by them and by <b>B&ouml;cklin</b> may be seen in
+the Nat. Gal. Berlin.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h2>
+
+<h3>BRITISH PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended:</span> Armstrong, <i>Sir Henry Raeburn</i>;
+Armstrong, <i>Gainsborough</i>; Armstrong, <i>Sir Joshua Reynolds</i>;
+Burton, <i>Catalogue of Pictures in National Gallery</i>;
+Chesneau, <i>La Peinture Anglaise</i>; Cook, <i>Art in England</i>;
+Cunningham, <i>Lives of the most Eminent British Artists</i>;
+Dobson, <i>Life of Hogarth</i>; Gilchrist, <i>Life of Etty</i>;
+Gilchrist, <i>Life of Blake</i>; Hamerton, <i>Life of Turner</i>;
+Henderson, <i>Constable</i>; Hunt, <i>The Pre-Raphaelite
+Brotherhood</i> (<i>Contemporary Review, Vol. 49</i>); Leslie, <i>Sir
+Joshua Reynolds</i>; Leslie, <i>Life of Constable</i>; Martin and
+Newbery, <i>Glasgow School of Painting</i>; McKay, <i>Scottish
+School of Painting</i>; Monkhouse, <i>British Contemporary
+Artists</i>; Redgrave, <i>Dictionary of Artists of the English
+School</i>; Romney, <i>Life of George Romney</i>; Rossetti, <i>Fine
+Art, chiefly Contemporary</i>; Ruskin, <i>Pre-Raphaelitism</i>;
+Ruskin, <i>Art of England</i>; Sandby, <i>History of Royal Academy
+of Arts</i>; William Bell Scott, <i>Autobiography</i>; Scott,
+<i>British Landscape Painters</i>; Stephens, <i>Catalogue of Prints
+and Drawings in the British Museum</i>; Swinburne, <i>William
+Blake</i>; Temple, <i>Painting in the Queen's Reign</i>; Van Dyke,
+<i>Old English Masters</i>; Wedmore, <i>Studies in English Art</i>;
+Wilmot-Buxton, <i>English Painters</i>; Wright, <i>Life of Richard
+Wilson</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_095" id="imag_095"></a>
+<img src="images/image_263.jpg" width="500" height="389" alt="FIG. 94.&mdash;HOGARTH. SHORTLY AFTER MARRIAGE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 94.&mdash;HOGARTH. SHORTLY AFTER MARRIAGE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_263_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BRITISH PAINTING:</b> It may be premised in a general way, that the
+British painters have never possessed the pictorial cast of mind in
+the sense that the Italians, the French, or the Dutch have possessed
+it. Painting, as a purely pictorial arrangement of line and color, has
+been somewhat foreign to their conception. Whether this failure to
+appreciate painting as painting is the result of geographical
+position, isolation, race temperament, or mental disposition, would be
+hard to determine. It is quite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> certain that from time immemorable the
+English people have not been lacking in the appreciation of beauty;
+but beauty has appealed to them, not so much through the eye in
+painting and sculpture, as through the ear in poetry and literature.
+They have been thinkers, reasoners, moralists, rather than observers
+and artists in color. Images have been brought to their minds by words
+rather than by forms. English poetry has existed since the days of
+Arthur and the Round Table, but English painting is of comparatively
+modern origin, and it is not wonderful that the original leaning of
+the people toward literature and its sentiment should find its way
+into pictorial representation. As a result one may say in a very
+general way that English painting is more illustrative than creative.
+It endeavors to record things that might be more pertinently and
+com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>pletely told in poetry, romance, or history. The conception of
+large art&mdash;creative work of the Rubens-Titian type&mdash;has not been given
+to the English painters, save in exceptional cases. Their success has
+been in portraiture and landscape, and this largely by reason of
+following the model.</p>
+
+<p><b>EARLY PAINTING:</b> The earliest decorative art appeared in Ireland. It
+was probably first planted there by missionaries from Italy, and it
+reached its height in the seventh century. In the ninth and tenth
+centuries missal illumination of a Byzantine cast, with local
+modifications, began to show. This lasted, in a feeble way, until the
+fifteenth century, when work of a Flemish and French nature took its
+place. In the Middle Ages there were wall paintings and church
+decorations in England, as elsewhere in Europe, but these have now
+perished, except some fragments in Kempley Church, Gloucestershire,
+and Chaldon Church, Surrey. These are supposed to date back to the
+twelfth century, and there are some remains of painting in Westminster
+Abbey that are said to be of thirteenth and fourteenth-century origin.
+From the fifteenth to the eighteenth century the English people
+depended largely upon foreign painters who came and lived in England.
+Mabuse, Moro, Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Lely, Kneller&mdash;all were there
+at different times, in the service of royalty, and influencing such
+local English painters as then lived. The outcome of missal
+illumination and Holbein's example produced in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries a local school of miniature-painters of much
+interest, but painting proper did not begin to rise in England until
+the beginning of the eighteenth century&mdash;that century so dead in art
+over all the rest of Europe.</p>
+
+<p><b>FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS:</b> Aside from a few inconsequential
+precursors the first English artist of note was <b>Hogarth</b> (1697-1764).
+He was an illustrator, a moralist, and a satirist as well as a
+painter. To point a moral upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> canvas by depicting the vices of his
+time was his avowed aim, but in doing so he did not lose sight of
+pictorial beauty. Charm of color, the painter's taste in arrangement,
+light, air, setting, were his in a remarkable degree. He was not
+successful in large compositions, but in small pictures like those of
+the Rake's Progress he was excellent. An early man, a rigid stickler
+for the representation, a keen observer of physiognomy, a satirist
+with a sense of the absurd, he was often warped in his art by the
+necessities of his subject and was sometimes hard and dry in method,
+but in his best work he was quite a perfect painter. He was the first
+of the English school, and perhaps the most original of that school.
+This is quite as true of his technic as of his point of view. Both
+were of his own creation. His subjects have been talked about a great
+deal in the past; but his painting is not to this day valued as it
+should be.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_096" id="imag_096"></a>
+<img src="images/image_265.jpg" width="325" height="451" alt="FIG. 95.&mdash;REYNOLDS. COUNTESS SPENCER AND LORD ALTHORP."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 95.&mdash;REYNOLDS. COUNTESS SPENCER AND LORD ALTHORP.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_265_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next man to be mentioned, one of the most considerable of all the
+English school, is <b>Sir Joshua Reynolds</b> (1723-1792). He was a pupil of
+Hudson, but owed his art to many sources. Besides the influence of Van
+Dyck he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> was for some years in Italy, a diligent student of the great
+Italians, especially the Venetians, Correggio, and the Bolognese
+Eclectics. Sir Joshua was inclined to be eclectic himself, and from
+Italy he brought back a formula of art which, modified by his own
+individuality, answered him for the rest of his life. He was not a man
+of very lofty imagination or great invention. A few figure-pieces,
+after the Titian initiative, came from his studio, but his reputation
+rests upon his many portraits. In portraiture he was often beyond
+criticism, giving the realistic representation with dignity, an
+elevated spirit, and a suave brush. Even here he was more impressive
+by his broad truth of facts than by his artistic feeling. He was not a
+painter who could do things enthusiastically or excite enthusiasm in
+the spectator. There was too much of rule and precedent, too much
+regard for the traditions, for him to do anything strikingly original.
+His brush-work and composition were more learned than individual, and
+his color, though usually good, was oftentimes conventional in
+contrasts. Taking him for all in all he was a very cultivated painter,
+a man to be respected and admired, but he had not quite the original
+spirit that we meet with in Gainsborough.</p>
+
+<p>Reynolds was well-grounded in Venetian color, Bolognese composition,
+Parmese light-and-shade, and paid them the homage of assimilation; but
+if <b>Gainsborough</b> (1727-1788) had such school knowledge he positively
+disregarded it. He disliked all conventionalities and formulas. With a
+natural taste for form and color, and with a large decorative sense,
+he went directly to nature, and took from her the materials which he
+fashioned into art after his own peculiar manner. His celebrated Blue
+Boy was his protest against the conventional rule of Reynolds that a
+composition should be warm in color and light. All through his work we
+meet with departures from academic ways. By dint of native force and
+grace he made rules unto himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> Some of them were not entirely
+successful, and in drawing he might have profited by school training;
+but he was of a peculiar poetic temperament, with a dash of melancholy
+about him, and preferred to work in his own way. In portraiture his
+color was rather cold; in landscape much warmer. His brush-work was as
+odd as himself, but usually effective, and his accessories in
+figure-painting were little more than decorative after-thoughts. Both
+in portraiture and landscape he was one of the most original and most
+English of all the English painters&mdash;a man not yet entirely
+appreciated, though from the first ranked among the foremost in
+English art.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="imag_097" id="imag_097"></a>
+<img src="images/image_267.jpg" width="350" height="546" alt="FIG. 96.&mdash;GAINSBOROUGH. BLUE BOY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 96.&mdash;GAINSBOROUGH. BLUE BOY.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_267_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Romney</b> (1734-1802), a pupil of Steele, was often quite as masterful a
+portrait-painter as either Reynolds or Gainsborough. He was never an
+artist elaborate in composition, and his best works are bust-portraits
+with a plain background. These he did with much dash and vivacity of
+manner. His women, particularly, are fine in life-like pose and
+winsomeness of mood. He was a very cunning observer, and knew how to
+arrange for grace of line and charm of color.</p>
+
+<p>After Romney came <b>Beechey</b> (1753-1839), <b>Raeburn</b> (1756-1823), <b>Opie</b>
+(1761-1807), and <b>John Hoppner</b> (1759-1810).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> Then followed <b>Lawrence</b>
+(1769-1830), a mixture of vivacious style and rather meretricious
+method. He was the most celebrated painter of his time, largely
+because he painted nobility to look more noble and grace to look more
+gracious. Fond of fine types, garments, draperies, colors, he was
+always seeking the sparkling rather than the true, and forcing
+artificial effects for the sake of startling one rather than stating
+facts simply and frankly. He was facile with the brush, clever in line
+and color, brilliant to the last degree, but lacking in that
+simplicity of view and method which marks the great mind. His
+composition was rather fine in its decorative effect, and, though his
+lights were often faulty when compared with nature, they were no less
+telling from the stand-point of picture-making. He is much admired by
+artists to-day, and, as a technician, he certainly had more than
+average ability. He was hardly an artist like Reynolds or
+Gainsborough, but among the mediocre painters of his day he shone like
+a star. It is not worth while to say much about his contemporaries.
+<b>Etty</b> (1787-1849) was one of the best of the figure men, but his Greek
+types and classic aspirations grow wearisome on acquaintance; and <b>Sir
+Charles Eastlake</b> (1793-1865), though a learned man in art and doing
+great service to painting as a writer, never was a painter of
+importance.</p>
+
+<p><b>William Blake</b> (1757-1827) was hardly a painter at all, though he drew
+and colored the strange figures of his fancy and cannot be passed over
+in any history of English art. He was perhaps the most imaginative
+artist of English birth, though that imagination was often disordered
+and almost incoherent. He was not a correct draughtsman, a man with no
+great color-sense, and a workman without technical training; and yet,
+in spite of all this, he drew some figures that are almost sublime in
+their sweep of power. His decorative sense in filling space with lines
+is well shown in his illustrations to the Book of Job. In grace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> of
+form and feeling of motion he was excellent. Weird and uncanny in
+thought, delving into the unknown, he opened a world of mystery,
+peopled with a strange Apocalyptic race, whose writhing, flowing
+bodies are the epitome of graceful grandeur.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"><a name="imag_098" id="imag_098"></a>
+<img src="images/image_269.jpg" width="375" height="441" alt="FIG. 97.&mdash;CONSTABLE. CORN FIELD. NAT. GAL. LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 97.&mdash;CONSTABLE. CORN FIELD. NAT. GAL. LONDON.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_269_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>GENRE-PAINTERS:</b> From Blake to <b>Morland</b> (1763-1804) is a step across
+space from heaven to earth. Morland was a realist of English country
+life, horses at tavern-doors, cattle, pigs. His life was not the most
+correct, but his art in truthfulness of representation, simplicity of
+painting, richness of color and light, was often of a fine quality. As
+a skilful technician he stood quite alone in his time, and seemed to
+show more affinity with the Dutch <i>genre</i>-painters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> than his own
+countrymen. His works are much prized to-day, and were so during the
+painter's life.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir David Wilkie</b> (1785-1841) was also somewhat like the Dutch in
+subject, a <i>genre</i>-painter, fond of the village f&ecirc;te and depicting it
+with careful detail, a limpid brush, and good textural effects. In
+1825 he travelled abroad, was gone some years, was impressed by
+Velasquez, Correggio, and Rembrandt, and completely changed his style.
+He then became a portrait and historical painter. He never outlived
+the nervous constraint that shows in all his pictures, and his brush,
+though facile within limits, was never free or bold as compared with a
+Dutchman like Steen. In technical methods <b>Landseer</b> (1802-1873), the
+painter of animals, was somewhat like him. That is to say, they both
+had a method of painting surfaces and rendering textures that was more
+"smart" than powerful. There is little solidity or depth to the
+brush-work of either, though both are impressive to the spectator at
+first sight. Landseer knew the habits and the anatomy of animals very
+well, but he never had an appreciation of the brute in the animal,
+such as we see in the pictures of Velasquez or the bronzes of Barye.
+The Landseer animal has too much sentiment about it. The dogs, for
+instance, are generally given those emotions pertinent to humanity,
+and which are only exceptionally true of the canine race. This very
+feature&mdash;the tendency to humanize the brute and make it tell a
+story&mdash;accounts in large measure for the popularity of Landseer's art.
+The work is perhaps correct enough, but the aim of it is somewhat
+afield from pure painting. It illustrates the literary rather than the
+pictorial. Following Wilkie the most distinguished painter was
+<b>Mulready</b> (1786-1863), whose pictures of village boys are well known
+through engravings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_099" id="imag_099"></a>
+<img src="images/image_271.jpg" width="500" height="365" alt="FIG. 98.&mdash;TURNER. FIGHTING T&Eacute;M&Eacute;RAIRE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 98.&mdash;TURNER. FIGHTING T&Eacute;M&Eacute;RAIRE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_271_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS:</b> In landscape the English have had something to
+say peculiarly their own. It has not always been well said, the
+coloring is often hot, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> brush-work brittle, the attention to
+detail inconsistent with the large view of nature, yet such as it is
+it shows the English point of view and is valuable on that account.
+<b>Richard Wilson</b> (1713-1782) was the first landscapist of importance,
+though he was not so English in view as some others to follow. In
+fact, Wilson was nurtured on Claude Lorrain and Joseph Vernet and
+instead of painting the realistic English landscape he painted the
+pseudo-Italian landscape. He began working in portraiture under the
+tutorship of Wright, and achieved some success in this department; but
+in 1749 he went to Italy and devoted himself wholly to landscapes.
+These were of the classic type and somewhat conventional. The
+composition was usually a dark foreground with trees or buildings to
+right and left, an opening in the middle distance leading into the
+background, and a broad expanse of sunset sky. In the foreground he
+usually introduced a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> few figures for romantic or classic association.
+Considerable elevation of theme and spirit marks most of his pictures.
+There was good workmanship about the skies and the light, and an
+attentive study of nature was shown throughout. His canvases did not
+meet with much success at the time they were painted. In more modern
+days Wilson has been ranked as the true founder of landscape in
+England, and one of the most sincere of English painters.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE NORWICH SCHOOL:</b> <b>Old Crome</b> (1769-1821), though influenced to some
+extent by Wilson and the Dutch painters, was an original talent,
+painting English scenery with much simplicity and considerable power.
+He was sometimes rasping with his brush, and had a small method of
+recording details combined with mannerisms of drawing and composition,
+and yet gave an out-of-doors feeling in light and air that was
+astonishing. His large trees have truth of mass and accuracy of
+drawing, and his foregrounds are painted with solidity. He was a keen
+student of nature, and drew about him a number of landscape painters
+at Norwich, who formed the Norwich School. Crome was its leader, and
+the school made its influence felt upon English landscape painting.
+<b>Cotman</b> (1782-1842) was the best painter of the group after Crome, a
+man who depicted landscape and harbor scenes in a style that recalls
+Girtin and Turner.</p>
+
+<p>The most complete, full-rounded landscapist in England was <b>John
+Constable</b> (1776-1837). His foreign bias, such as it was, came from a
+study of the Dutch masters. There were two sources from which the
+English landscapists drew. Those who were inclined to the ideal, men
+like Wilson, <b>Calcott</b> (1779-1844), and Turner, drew from the Italian of
+Poussin and Claude; those who were content to do nature in her real
+dress, men like Gainsborough and Constable, drew from the Dutch of
+Hobbema and his contemporaries. A certain sombreness of color and
+manner of composition show in Constable that may be attributed to
+Holland; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> these were slight features as compared with the
+originality of the man. He was a close student of nature who painted
+what he saw in English country life, especially about Hampstead, and
+painted it with a knowledge and an artistic sensitiveness never
+surpassed in England. The rural feeling was strong with him, and his
+evident pleasure in simple scenes is readily communicated to the
+spectator. There is no attempt at the grand or the heroic. He never
+cared much for mountains or water, but was fond of cultivated uplands,
+trees, bowling clouds, and torn skies. Bursts of sunlight, storms,
+atmospheres, all pleased him. With detail he was little concerned. He
+saw landscape in large patches of form and color, and so painted it.
+His handling was broad and solid, and at times a little heavy. His
+light was often forced by sharp contrast with shadows, and often his
+pictures appear spotty from isolated glitters of light strewn here and
+there. In color he helped eliminate the brown landscape and
+substituted in its place the green and blue of nature. In atmosphere
+he was excellent. His influence upon English art was impressive, and
+in 1824 the exhibition at Paris of his Hay Wain, together with some
+work by Bonington and Fielding had a decided effect upon the then
+rising landscape school of France. The French realized that nature lay
+at the bottom of Constable's art, and they profited, not by imitating
+Constable, but by studying his nature model.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;"><a name="imag_100" id="imag_100"></a>
+<img src="images/image_273.jpg" width="160" height="459" alt="FIG. 99.&mdash;BURNE JONES. FLAMMA VESTALIS."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 99.&mdash;BURNE JONES. FLAMMA VESTALIS.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_273_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Bonington</b> (1801-1828) died young, and though of English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> parents his
+training was essentially French, and he really belonged to the French
+school, an associate of Delacroix. His study of the Venetians turned
+his talent toward warm coloring, in which he excelled. In landscape
+his broad handling was somewhat related to that of Constable, and from
+the fact of their works appearing together in the Salon of 1824 they
+are often spoken of as influencers of the modern French landscape
+painters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Turner</b> (1775-1851) is the best known name in English art. His
+celebrity is somewhat disproportionate to his real merits, though it
+is impossible to deny his great ability. He was a man learned in all
+the forms of nature and schooled in all the formulas of art; yet he
+was not a profound lover of nature nor a faithful recorder of what
+things he saw in nature, except in his early days. In the bulk of his
+work he shows the traditions of Claude, with additions of his own. His
+taste was classic (he possessed all the knowledge and the belongings
+of the historical landscape), and he delighted in great stretches of
+country broken by sea-shores, rivers, high mountains, fine buildings,
+and illumined by blazing sunlight and gorgeous skies. His composition
+was at times grotesque in imagination; his light was usually
+bewildering in intensity and often unrelieved by shadows of sufficient
+depth; his tone was sometimes faulty; and in color he was not always
+harmonious, but inclined to be capricious, uneven, showing fondness
+for arbitrary schemes of color. The object of his work seems to have
+been to dazzle, to impress with a wilderness of lines and hues, to
+overawe by imposing scale and grandeur. His paintings are impressive,
+decoratively splendid, but they often smack of the stage, and are more
+frequently grandiloquent than grand. His early works, especially in
+water-colors, where he shows himself a follower of Girtin, are much
+better than his later canvases in oil, many of which have changed
+color. The water-colors are carefully done, subdued in color, and true
+in light. From<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> 1802, or thereabouts, to 1830 was his second period,
+in which Italian composition and much color were used. The last twenty
+years of his life he inclined to the <i>bizarre</i>, and turned his
+canvases into almost incoherent color masses. He had an artistic
+feeling for composition, linear perspective, and the sweep of horizon
+lines; skies and hills he knew and drew with power; color he
+comprehended only as decoration; and light he distorted for effect.
+Yet with all his shortcomings Turner was an artist to be respected and
+admired. He knew his craft, in fact, knew it so well that he relied
+too much on artificial effects, drew away from the model of nature,
+and finally passed into the extravagant.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE WATER-COLORISTS:</b> About the beginning of this century a school of
+water-colorists, founded originally by <b>Cozens</b> (1752-1799) and <b>Girtin</b>
+(1775-1802), came into prominence and developed English art in a new
+direction. It began to show with a new force the transparency of
+skies, the luminosity of shadows, the delicacy and grace of clouds,
+the brilliancy of light and color. Cozens and Blake were primitives in
+the use of the medium, but <b>Stothard</b> (1755-1834) employed it with much
+sentiment, charm, and <i>plein-air</i> effect. Turner was quite a master of
+it, and his most permanent work was done with it. Later on, when he
+rather abandoned form to follow color, he also abandoned water-color
+for oils. <b>Fielding</b> (1787-1849) used water-color effectively in giving
+large feeling for space and air, and also for fogs and mists; <b>Prout</b>
+(1783-1852) employed it in architectural drawings of the principal
+cathedrals of Europe; and <b>Cox</b> (1783-1859), <b>Dewint</b> (1784-1849), <b>Hunt</b>
+(1790-1864), <b>Cattermole</b> (1800-1868), <b>Lewis</b> (1805-1876), men whose
+names only can be mentioned, all won recognition with this medium.
+Water-color drawing is to-day said to be a department of art that
+expresses the English pictorial feeling better than any other, though
+this is not an undisputed statement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_101" id="imag_101"></a>
+<img src="images/image_276.jpg" width="325" height="445" alt="FIG. 100.&mdash;LEIGHTON. HELEN OF TROY."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 100.&mdash;LEIGHTON. HELEN OF TROY.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_276_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most important movement in English painting of recent
+times was that which took the name of</p>
+
+<p><b>PRE-RAPHAELITISM:</b> It was started about 1847, primarily by <b>Rossetti</b>
+(1828-1882), <b>Holman Hunt</b> (1827-), and <b>Sir John Millais</b> (1829-1896),
+associated with several sculptors and poets, seven in all. It was an
+emulation of the sincerity, the loving care, and the scrupulous
+exactness in truth that characterized the Italian painters before
+Raphael. Its advocates, including Mr. Ruskin the critic, maintained
+that after Raphael came that fatal facility in art which seeking grace
+of composition lost truth of fact, and that the proper course for
+modern painters was to return to the sincerity and veracity of the
+early masters. Hence the name pre-Ra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>phaelitism, and the signatures on
+their early pictures, P. R. B., pre-Raphaelite Brother. To this
+attempt to gain the true regardless of the sensuous, was added a
+morbidity of thought mingled with mysticism, a moral and religious
+pose, and a studied simplicity. Some of the painters of the
+Brotherhood went even so far as following the habits of the early
+Italians, seeking retirement from the world and carrying with them a
+Gothic earnestness of air. There is no doubt about the sincerity that
+entered into this movement. It was an honest effort to gain the true,
+the good, and as a result, the beautiful; but it was no less a
+striven-after honesty and an imitated earnestness. The Brotherhood did
+not last for long, the members drifted from each other and began to
+paint each after his own style, and pre-Raphaelitism passed away as it
+had arisen, though not without leaving a powerful stamp on English
+art, especially in decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Rossetti, an Italian by birth though English by adoption, was the type
+of the Brotherhood. He was more of a poet than a painter, took most of
+his subjects from Dante, and painted as he wrote, in a mystical
+romantic spirit. He was always of a retiring disposition and never
+exhibited publicly after he was twenty-eight years of age. As a
+draughtsman he was awkward in line and not always true in modelling.
+In color he was superior to his associates and had considerable
+decorative feeling. The shortcoming of his art, as with that of the
+others of the Brotherhood, was that in seeking truth of detail he lost
+truth of <i>ensemble</i>. This is perhaps better exemplified in the works
+of Holman Hunt. He has spent infinite pains in getting the truth of
+detail in his pictures, has travelled in the East and painted types,
+costumes, and scenery in Palestine to gain the historic truths of his
+Scriptural scenes; but all that he has produced has been little more
+than a survey, a report, a record of the facts. He has not made a
+picture. The insistence upon every detail has isolated all the facts
+and left them isolated in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> picture. In seeking the minute truths
+he has overlooked the great truths of light, air, and setting. His
+color has always been crude, his values or relations not well
+preserved, and his brush-work hard and tortured.</p>
+
+<p>Millais showed some of this disjointed effect in his early work when
+he was a member of the Brotherhood. He did not hold to his early
+convictions however, and soon abandoned the pre-Raphaelite methods for
+a more conventional style. He has painted some remarkable portraits
+and some excellent figure pieces, and to-day holds high rank in
+English art; but he is an uneven painter, often doing weak,
+harshly-colored work. Moreover, the English tendency to tell stories
+with the paint-brush finds in Millais a faithful upholder. At his best
+he is a strong painter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Madox Brown</b> (1821-1893) never joined the Brotherhood, though his
+leaning was toward its principles. He had considerable dramatic power,
+with which he illustrated historic scenes, and among contemporary
+artists stood well. The most decided influence of pre-Raphaelitism
+shows in <b>Burne-Jones</b> (1833-), a pupil of Rossetti, and perhaps the
+most original painter now living<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> of the English school. From
+Rossetti he got mysticism, sentiment, poetry, and from association
+with Swinburne and William Morris, the poets, something of the
+literary in art, which he has put forth with artistic effect. He has
+not followed the Brotherhood in its pursuit of absolute truth of fact,
+but has used facts for decorative effect in line and color. His
+ability to fill a given space gracefully, shows with fine results in
+his pictures, as in his stained-glass designs. He is a good
+draughtsman and a rather rich colorist, but in brush-work somewhat
+labored, stippled, and unique in dryness. He is a man of much
+imagination, and his conceptions, though illustrative of literature,
+do not suffer thereby, because his treatment does not sacrifice the
+artistic. He has been the butt of considerable shallow laughter from
+time to time, like many another <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>man of power. <b>Albert Moore</b>
+(1840-1893), a graceful painter of a decorative ideal type, rather
+follows the Rossetti-Burne-Jones example, and is an illustration of
+the influence of pre-Raphaelitism.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Died 1898.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>OTHER FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS:</b> Among the contemporary painters
+<b>Sir Frederick Leighton</b> (1830-1896), President of the Royal Academy, is
+ranked as a fine academic draughtsman, but not a man with the
+color-sense or the brushman's quality in his work. <b>Watts</b> (1818-1904)
+is perhaps an inferior technician, and in color is often sombre and
+dirty; but he is a man of much imagination, occasionally rises to
+grandeur in conception, and has painted some superb portraits, notably
+the one of Walter Crane. <b>Orchardson</b> (1835-) is more of a painter, pure
+and simple, than any of his contemporaries, and is a knowing if
+somewhat mannered colorist. <b>Erskine Nicol</b> (1825-), <b>Faed</b><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> (1826-),
+<b>Calderon</b> (1833-), <b>Boughton</b> (1834-1905), <b>Frederick Walker</b> (1840-1875),
+<b>Stanhope Forbes</b>, <b>Stott of Oldham</b> and in portraiture <b>Holl</b> (1845-1890)
+and <b>Herkomer</b> may be mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Died 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="imag_102" id="imag_102"></a>
+<img src="images/image_279.jpg" width="200" height="447" alt="FIG. 101.&mdash;WATTS. LOVE AND DEATH."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 101.&mdash;WATTS. LOVE AND DEATH.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_279_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS:</b> In the department of landscape there
+are many painters in England of contemporary importance. <b>Vicat Cole</b>
+(1833-1893) had considerable exaggerated reputation as a depicter of
+sunsets and twilights; <b>Cecil Lawson</b> (1851-1882) gave promise of great
+accomplishment, and lived long enough to do some excellent work in the
+style <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>of the French Rousseau, mingled with an influence from
+Gainsborough; <b>Alfred Parsons</b> is a little hard and precise in his work,
+but one of the best of the living men; and <b>W. L. Wyllie</b> is a painter
+of more than average merit. In marines <b>Hook</b> (1819-) belongs to the
+older school, and is not entirely satisfactory. The most modern and
+the best sea-painter in England is <b>Henry Moore</b> (1831-1895), a man who
+paints well and gives the large feeling of the ocean with fine color
+qualities. Some other men of mark are <b>Clausen, Brangwyn, Ouless,
+Steer, Bell, Swan, McTaggart, Sir George Reid</b>.</p>
+
+<p><b>MODERN SCOTCH SCHOOL:</b> There is at the present time a school of art in
+Scotland that seems to have little or no affinity with the
+contemporary school of England. Its painters are more akin to the
+Dutch and the French, and in their coloring resemble, in depth and
+quality, the work of Delacroix. Much of their art is far enough
+removed from the actual appearance of nature, but it is strong in the
+sentiment of color and in decorative effect. The school is represented
+by such men as <b>James Guthrie, E. A. Walton, James Hamilton, George
+Henry, E. A. Hornel, Lavery, Melville, Crawhall, Roche, Lawson,
+McBride, Morton, Reid Murray, Spence, Paterson</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> English art cannot be seen to advantage,
+outside of England. In the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., and
+in private collections like that of Mr. William H. Fuller in
+New York,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> there are some good examples of the older
+men&mdash;Reynolds, Constable, Gainsborough, and their
+contemporaries. In the Louvre there are some indifferent
+Constables and some good Boningtons. In England the best
+collection is in the National Gallery. Next to this the
+South Kensington Museum for Constable sketches. Elsewhere
+the Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Windsor galleries, and
+the private collections of the late Sir Richard Wallace, the
+Duke of Westminster, and others. Turner is well represented
+in the National Gallery, though his oils have suffered
+through time and the use of fugitive pigments. For the
+living men, their work may be seen in the yearly exhibitions
+at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. There are comparatively
+few English pictures in America.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Dispersed, 1898.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h2>
+
+<h3>AMERICAN PAINTING.</h3>
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Books Recommended</span>: <i>American Art Review</i>; Amory, <i>Life of
+Copley</i>; <i>The Art Review</i>; Benjamin, <i>Contemporary Art in
+America</i>; <i>Century Magazine</i>; Caffin, <i>American Painters</i>;
+Clement and Hutton, <i>Artists of the Nineteenth Century</i>;
+Cummings, <i>Historic Annals of the National Academy of
+Design</i>; Downes, <i>Boston Painters</i> (<i>in Atlantic Monthly
+Vol. 62</i>); Dunlap, <i>Arts of Design in United States</i>; Flagg,
+<i>Life and Letters of Washington Allston</i>; Galt, <i>Life of
+West</i>; Isham, <i>History of American Painting</i>; Knowlton, <i>W.
+M. Hunt</i>; Lester, <i>The Artists of America</i>; Mason, <i>Life and
+Works of Gilbert Stuart</i>; Perkins, <i>Copley</i>; <i>Scribner's
+Magazine</i>; Sheldon, <i>American Painters</i>; Tuckerman, <i>Book of
+the Artists</i>; Van Dyke, <i>Art for Art's Sake</i>; Van
+Rensselaer, <i>Six Portraits</i>; Ware, <i>Lectures on Allston</i>;
+White, <i>A Sketch of Chester A. Harding</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>AMERICAN ART:</b> It is hardly possible to predicate much about the
+environment as it affects art in America. The result of the climate,
+the temperament, and the mixture of nations in the production or
+non-production of painting in America cannot be accurately computed at
+this early stage of history. One thing only is certain, and that is,
+that the building of a new commonwealth out of primeval nature does
+not call for the production of art in the early periods of
+development. The first centuries in the history of America were
+devoted to securing the necessities of life, the energies of the time
+were of a practical nature, and art as an indigenous product was
+hardly known.</p>
+
+<p>After the Revolution, and indeed before it, a hybrid portraiture,
+largely borrowed from England, began to appear, and after 1825 there
+was an attempt at landscape painting;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> but painting as an art worthy
+of very serious consideration, came in only with the sudden growth in
+wealth and taste following the War of the Rebellion and the Centennial
+Exhibition of 1876. The best of American art dates from about 1878,
+though during the earlier years there were painters of note who cannot
+be passed over unmentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"><a name="imag_103" id="imag_103"></a>
+<img src="images/image_282.jpg" width="225" height="230" alt="FIG. 102.&mdash;WEST. PETER DENYING CHRIST. HAMPTON CT."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 102.&mdash;WEST. PETER DENYING CHRIST. HAMPTON CT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE EARLY PAINTERS:</b> The "limner," or the man who could draw and color
+a portrait, seems to have existed very early in American history.
+<b>Smibert</b> (1684-1751), a Scotch painter, who settled in Boston, and
+<b>Watson</b> (1685?-1768), another Scotchman, who settled in New Jersey,
+were of this class&mdash;men capable of giving a likeness, but little more.
+They were followed by English painters of even less consequence. Then
+came <b>Copley</b> (1737-1815) and <b>West</b> (1738-1820), with whom painting in
+America really began. They were good men for their time, but it must
+be borne in mind that the times for art were not at all favorable.
+West was a man about whom all the infant prodigy tales have been told,
+but he never grew to be a great artist. He was ambitious beyond his
+power, indulged in theatrical composition, was hot in color, and never
+was at ease in handling the brush. Most of his life was passed in
+England, where he had a vogue, was elected President of the Royal
+Academy, and became practically a British painter. Copley was more of
+an American than West, and more of a painter. Some of his portraits
+are exceptionally fine, and his figure pieces, like Charles I.
+demanding the Five Members of House of Commons are excellent in color
+and composition. <b>C. W. Peale</b> (1741-1827), a pupil of both Copley and
+West, was perhaps <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>more fortunate in having celebrated characters like
+Washington for sitters than in his art. <b>Trumbull</b> (1756-1843) preserved
+on canvas the Revolutionary history of America and, all told, did it
+very well. Some of his compositions, portraits, and miniature heads in
+the Yale Art School at New Haven are drawn and painted in a masterful
+manner and are as valuable for their art as for the incidents which
+they portray.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;"><a name="imag_104" id="imag_104"></a>
+<img src="images/image_283.jpg" width="325" height="435" alt="FIG. 103.&mdash;GILBERT STUART. WASHINGTON (UNFINISHED).
+BOSTON MUS."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 103.&mdash;GILBERT STUART. WASHINGTON (UNFINISHED).
+BOSTON MUS.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_283_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Gilbert Stuart</b> (1755-1828) was the best portrait-painter of all the
+early men, and his work holds very high rank even in the schools of
+to-day. He was one of the first in American art-history to show
+skilful accuracy of the brush, a good knowledge of color, and some
+artistic sense of dignity and carriage in the sitter. He was not
+always a good draughtsman, and he had a manner of laying on pure
+colors without blending them that sometimes produced sharpness in
+modelling; but as a general rule he painted a portrait with force and
+with truth. He was a pupil of Alexander, a Scotchman, and afterward an
+assistant to West. He settled in Boston, and during his life painted
+most of the great men of his time, including Washington.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_105" id="imag_105"></a>
+<img src="images/image_284.jpg" width="300" height="429" alt="FIG. 104.&mdash;W. M. HUNT. LUTE PLAYER."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 104.&mdash;W. M. HUNT. LUTE PLAYER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Vanderlyn</b> (1776-1852) met with adversity all his life long, and
+perhaps never expressed himself fully. He was a pupil of Stuart,
+studied in Paris and Italy, and his associations with Aaron Burr made
+him quite as famous as his pictures. <b>Washington Allston</b> (1779-1843)
+was a painter whom the Bostonians have ranked high in their
+art-history, but he hardly deserved such position. Intellectually he
+was a man of lofty and poetic aspirations, but as an artist he never
+had the painter's sense or the painter's skill. He was an aspiration
+rather than a consummation. He cherished notions about ideals, dealt
+in imaginative allegories, and failed to observe the pictorial
+character of the world about him. As a result of this, and poor
+artistic training, his art had too little basis on nature, though it
+was very often satisfactory as decoration. <b>Rembrandt Peale</b>
+(1787-1860), like his father, was a painter of Washington portraits of
+mediocre quality. <b>Jarvis</b> (1780-1834) and <b>Sully</b> (1783-1872) were both
+British born, but their work belongs here in America, where most of
+their days were spent. Sully could paint a very good portrait
+occasionally, though he always inclined toward the weak and the
+sentimental, especially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> in his portraits of women. <b>Leslie</b> (1794-1859)
+and <b>Newton</b> (1795-1835) were Americans, but, like West and Copley, they
+belong in their art more to England than to America. In all the early
+American painting the British influence may be traced, with sometimes
+an inclination to follow Italy in large compositions.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE MIDDLE PERIOD</b> in American art dates from 1825 to about 1878.
+During that time, something distinctly American began to appear in the
+landscape work of <b>Doughty</b> (1793-1856) and <b>Thomas Cole</b> (1801-1848).
+Both men were substantially self-taught, though Cole received some
+instruction from a portrait-painter named Stein. Cole during his life
+was famous for his Hudson River landscapes, and for two series of
+pictures called The Voyage of Life and The Course of Empire. The
+latter were really epic poems upon canvas, done with much blare of
+color and literary explanation in the title. His best work was in pure
+landscape, which he pictured with considerable accuracy in drawing,
+though it was faulty in lighting and gaudy in coloring. Brilliant
+autumn scenes were his favorite subjects. His work had the merit of
+originality and, moreover, it must be remembered that Cole was one of
+the beginners in American landscape art. <b>Durand</b> (1796-1886) was an
+engraver until 1835, when he began painting portraits, and afterward
+developed landscape with considerable power. He was usually simple in
+subject and realistic in treatment, with not so much insistence upon
+brilliant color as some of his contemporaries. <b>Kensett</b> (1818-1872) was
+a follower in landscape of the so-called Hudson River School of Cole
+and others, though he studied seven years in Europe. His color was
+rather warm, his air hazy, and the general effect of his landscape
+that of a dreamy autumn day with poetic suggestions. <b>F. E. Church</b>
+(1826-[A]) was a pupil of Cole, and has followed him in seeking the
+grand and the startling in mountain scenery. With Church should be
+mentioned a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>number of artists&mdash;<b>Hubbard</b> (1817-1888), <b>Hill</b> (1829-,)
+<b>Bierstadt</b> (1830-),<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> <b>Thomas Moran</b> (1837-)&mdash;who have achieved
+reputation by canvases of the Rocky Mountains and other expansive
+scenes. Some other painters of smaller canvases belong in point of
+time, and also in spirit, with the Hudson River
+landscapists&mdash;painters, too, of considerable merit, as <b>David Johnson</b>
+(1827-), <b>Bristol</b> (1826-), <b>Sandford Gifford</b> (1823-1880), <b>McEntee</b>
+(1828-1891), and <b>Whittredge</b> (1820-), the last two very good portrayers
+of autumn scenes; <b>A. H. Wyant</b> (1836-1892), one of the best and
+strongest of the American landscapists; <b>Bradford</b> (1830-1892) and <b>W. T.
+Richards</b> (1833-), the marine-painters.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Died, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_106" id="imag_106"></a>
+<img src="images/image_286.jpg" width="300" height="413" alt="FIG. 105.&mdash;EASTMAN JOHNSON. CHURNING."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 105.&mdash;EASTMAN JOHNSON. CHURNING.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>PORTRAIT, HISTORY, AND GENRE-PAINTERS:</b> Contemporary with the early
+landscapists were a number of figure-painters, most of them
+self-taught, or taught badly by foreign or native artists, and yet men
+who produced creditable work. <b>Chester Harding</b> (1792-1866) was one of
+the early portrait-painters of this century who achieved enough
+celebrity in Boston to be the subject of what was called "the Harding
+craze." <b>Elliott</b> (1812-1868) was a pupil of Trumbull, and a man of
+considerable reputation, as was also <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> <b>Inman</b> (1801-1846), a portrait
+and <i>genre</i>-painter with a smooth, detailed brush. <b>Page</b> (1811-1885),
+<b>Baker</b> (1821-1880), <b>Huntington</b> (1816-), the third President of the
+Academy of Design; <b>Healy</b> (1808-<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>), a portrait-painter of more than
+average excellence; <b>Mount</b> (1807-1868), one of the earliest of American
+<i>genre</i>-painters, were all men of note in this middle period.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Died 1894.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Leutze</b> (1816-1868) was a German by birth but an American by adoption,
+who painted many large historical scenes of the American Revolution,
+such as Washington Crossing the Delaware, besides many scenes taken
+from European history. He was a pupil of Lessing at Dusseldorf, and
+had something to do with introducing Dusseldorf methods into America.
+He was a painter of ability, if at times hot in color and dry in
+handling. Occasionally he did a fine portrait, like the Seward in the
+Union League Club, New York.</p>
+
+<p>During this period, in addition to the influence of Dusseldorf and
+Rome upon American art, there came the influence of French art with
+<b>Hicks</b> (1823-1890) and <b>Hunt</b> (1824-1879), both of them pupils of Couture
+at Paris, and Hunt also of Millet at Barbizon. Hunt was the real
+introducer of Millet and the Barbizon-Fontainebleau artists to the
+American people. In 1855 he established himself at Boston, had a large
+number of pupils, and met with great success as a teacher. He was a
+painter of ability, but perhaps his greatest influence was as a
+teacher and an instructor in what was good art as distinguished from
+what was false and meretricious. He certainly was the first painter in
+America who taught catholicity of taste, truth and sincerity in art,
+and art in the artist rather than in the subject. Contemporary with
+Hunt lived <b>George Fuller</b> (1822-1884), a unique man in American art for
+the sentiment he conveyed in his pictures by means of color and
+atmosphere. Though never proficient in the grammar of art he managed
+by blendings of color to suggest certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> sentiments regarding light
+and air that have been rightly esteemed poetic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="imag_107" id="imag_107"></a>
+<img src="images/image_288.jpg" width="450" height="290" alt="FIG. 106.&mdash;INNESS. LANDSCAPE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 106.&mdash;INNESS. LANDSCAPE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>THE THIRD PERIOD</b> in American art began immediately after the
+Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. Undoubtedly the display
+of art, both foreign and domestic, at that time, together with the
+national prosperity and great growth of the United States had much to
+do with stimulating activity in painting. Many young men at the
+beginning of this period went to Europe to study in the studios at
+Munich, and later on at Paris. Before 1880 some of them had returned
+to the United States, bringing with them knowledge of the technical
+side of art, which they immediately began to give out to many pupils.
+Gradually the influence of the young men from Munich and Paris spread.
+The Art Students' League, founded in 1875, was incorporated in 1878,
+and the Society of American Artists was established in the same year.
+Societies and painters began to spring up all over the country, and as
+a result there is in the United States to-day an artist body
+technically as well trained and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> in spirit as progressive as in almost
+any country of Europe. The late influence shown in painting has been
+largely a French influence, and the American artists have been accused
+from time to time of echoing French methods. The accusation is true in
+part. Paris is the centre of all art-teaching to-day, and the
+Americans, in common with the European nations, accept French methods,
+not because they are French, but because they are the best extant. In
+subjects and motives, however, the American school is as original as
+any school can be in this cosmopolitan age.</p>
+
+<p><b>PORTRAIT, FIGURE, AND GENRE PAINTERS</b> (<b>1878-1894</b>): It must not be
+inferred that the painters now prominent in American art are all young
+men schooled since 1876. On the contrary, some of the best of them are
+men past middle life who began painting long before 1876, and have by
+dint of observation and prolonged study continued with the modern
+spirit. For example, <b>Winslow Homer</b> (1836-) is one of the strongest and
+most original of all the American artists, a man who never had the
+advantage of the highest technical training, yet possesses a feeling
+for color, a dash and verve in execution, an originality in subject,
+and an individuality of conception that are unsurpassed. <b>Eastman
+Johnson</b> (1824-) is one of the older portrait and figure-painters who
+stands among the younger generations without jostling, because he has
+in measure kept himself informed with modern thought and method. He is
+a good, conservative painter, possessed of taste, judgment, and
+technical ability. <b>Elihu Vedder</b> (1836-) is more of a draughtsman than
+a brushman. His color-sense is not acute nor his handling free, but he
+has an imagination which, if somewhat more literary than pictorial, is
+nevertheless very effective. <b>John La Farge</b> (1835-) and <b>Albert Ryder</b>
+(1847-) are both colorists, and La Farge in artistic feeling is a man
+of much power. Almost all of his pictures have fine decorative quality
+in line and color and are thoroughly pictorial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="imag_108" id="imag_108"></a>
+<img src="images/image_290.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="FIG. 107.&mdash;WINSLOW HOMER. UNDERTOW."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 107.&mdash;WINSLOW HOMER. UNDERTOW.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_290_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "young men," so-called, though some of them are now on toward
+middle life, are perhaps more facile in brush-work and better trained
+draughtsmen than those we have just mentioned. They have cultivated
+vivacity of style and cleverness in statement, frequently at the
+expense of the larger qualities of art. <b>Sargent</b> (1856-) is, perhaps,
+the most considerable portrait-painter now living, a man of unbounded
+resources technically and fine natural abilities. He is draughtsman,
+colorist, brushman&mdash;in fact, almost everything in art that can be
+cultivated. His taste is not yet mature, and he is just now given to
+dashing effects that are more clever than permanent; but that he is a
+master in portraiture has already been abundantly demonstrated. <b>Chase</b>
+(1849-) is also an exceptionally good portrait painter, and he handles
+the <i>genre</i> subject with brilliant color and a swift, sure brush. In
+brush-work he is exceed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>ingly clever, and is an excellent technician
+in almost every respect. Not always profound in matter he generally
+manages to be entertaining in method. <b>Blum</b> (1857-) is well known to
+magazine readers through many black-and-white illustrations. He is
+also a painter of <i>genre</i> subjects taken from many lands, and handles
+his brush with brilliancy and force. <b>Dewing</b> (1851-) is a painter with
+a refined sense not only in form but in color. His pictures are
+usually small, but exquisite in delicacy and decorative charm. <b>Thayer</b>
+(1849-) is fond of large canvases, a man of earnestness, sincerity,
+and imagination, but not a good draughtsman, not a good colorist, and
+a rather clumsy brushman. He has, however, something to say, and in a
+large sense is an artist of uncommon ability. <b>Kenyon Cox</b> (1856-) is a
+draughtsman, with a strong command of line and taste in its
+arrangement. He is not a strong colorist, though in recent work he has
+shown a new departure in this feature that promises well. He renders
+the nude with power, and is fond of the allegorical subject.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="imag_109" id="imag_109"></a>
+<img src="images/image_292.jpg" width="200" height="427" alt="FIG. 108.&mdash;WHISTLER. WHITE GIRL."  /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FIG. 108.&mdash;WHISTLER. WHITE GIRL.</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_292_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>The number of good portrait-painters at present working in America is
+quite large, and mention can be made of but a few in addition to those
+already spoken of&mdash;<b>Lockwood</b>, <b>McLure Hamilton</b>, <b>Tarbell</b>, <b>Beckwith</b>,
+<b>Benson</b>, <b>Vinton</b>. In figure and <i>genre</i>-painting the list of really good
+painters could be drawn out indefinitely, and again mention must be
+confined to a few only, like <b>Simmons</b>, <b>Shirlaw</b>, <b>Smedley</b>, <b>Brush</b>, <b>Millet</b>,
+<b>Hassam</b>, <b>Reid</b>, <b>Wiles</b>, <b>Mowbray</b>, <b>Reinhart</b>, <b>Blashfield</b>, <b>Metcalf</b>, <b>Low</b>, <b>C.
+Y. Turner</b>, <b>Henri</b>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Most of the men whose names are given above are resident in America;
+but, in addition, there is a large contingent of young men, American
+born but resident abroad, who can hardly be claimed by the American
+school, and yet belong to it as much as to any school. They are
+cosmopolitan in their art, and reside in Paris, Munich, London, or
+elsewhere, as the spirit moves them. Sargent, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> portrait-painter,
+really belongs to this group, as does also <b>Whistler</b> (1834-<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>), one
+of the most artistic of all the moderns. Whistler was long resident in
+London, but has now removed to Paris. He belongs to no school, and
+such art as he produces is peculiarly his own, save a leaven of
+influences from Velasquez and the Japanese. His art is the perfection
+of delicacy, both in color and in line. Apparently very sketchy, it is
+in reality the maximum of effect with the minimum of display. It has
+the pictorial charm of mystery and suggestiveness, and the technical
+effect of light, air, and space. There is nothing better produced in
+modern painting than his present work, and in earlier years he painted
+portraits like that of his mother, which are justly ranked as great
+art. <b>E. A. Abbey</b> (1852-) is better known by his pen-and-ink work than
+by his paintings, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>howbeit he has done good work in color. He is
+resident in England.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Died, 1903.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In Paris there are many American-born painters, who really belong more
+with the French school than the American. <b>Bridgman</b> is an example, and
+<b>Dannat</b>, <b>Alexander Harrison</b>, <b>Hitchcock</b>, <b>McEwen</b>, <b>Melchers</b>, <b>Pearce</b>,
+<b>Julius Stewart</b>, <b>Weeks</b> (1849-1903), <b>J. W. Alexander</b>, <b>Walter Gay</b>,
+<b>Sergeant Kendall</b> have nothing distinctly American about their art. It
+is semi-cosmopolitan with a leaning toward French methods. There are
+also some American-born painters at Munich, like <b>C. F. Ulrich</b>; <b>Shannon</b>
+is in London and <b>Coleman</b> in Italy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="imag_110" id="imag_110"></a>
+<img src="images/image_293.jpg" width="400" height="457" alt="FIG. 109.&mdash;SARGENT. &quot;CARNATION LILY, LILY ROSE.&quot;"  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 109.&mdash;SARGENT. &quot;CARNATION LILY, LILY ROSE.&quot;</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_293_1.jpg">Please click here for a modern color image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS, 1878-1894:</b> In the department of
+landscape America has had since 1825 something distinctly national,
+and has at this day. In recent years the impressionist <i>plein-air</i>
+school of France has influenced many painters, and the prismatic
+landscape is quite as frequently seen in American exhibitions as in
+the Paris salons; but American landscape art rather dates ahead of
+French impressionism. The strongest landscapist of our times, <b>George
+Inness</b> (1825-<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>), is not a young man except in his artistic
+aspirations. His style has undergone many changes, yet still remains
+distinctly individual. He has always been an experimenter and an
+uneven painter, at times doing work of wonderful force, and then again
+falling into weakness. The solidity of nature, the mass and bulk of
+landscape, he has shown with a power second to none. He is fond of the
+sentiment of nature's light, air, and color, and has put it forth more
+in his later than in his earlier canvases. At his best, he is one of
+the first of the American landscapists. Among his contemporaries Wyant
+(already mentioned), <b>Swain Gifford</b>,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> <b>Colman</b>, <b>Gay</b>, <b>Shurtleff</b>, have
+all done excellent work uninfluenced by foreign schools of to-day.
+<b>Homer Martin's</b><a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> landscapes, from their breadth of treatment, are
+popularly considered rather indifferent work, but in reality they are
+excellent in color and poetic feeling.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Died 1894.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Died 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Died 1897.</p></div>
+
+<p>The "young men" again, in landscape as in the figure, are working in
+the modern spirit, though in substance they are based on the
+traditions of the older American landscape school. There has been much
+achievement, and there is still greater promise in such landscapists
+as <b>Tryon</b>, <b>Platt</b>, <b>Murphy</b>, <b>Dearth</b>, <b>Crane</b>, <b>Dewey</b>, <b>Coffin</b>, <b>Horatio Walker</b>,
+<b>Jonas Lie</b>. Among those who favor the so-called impressionistic view
+are <b>Weir</b>, <b>Twachtman</b>, and <b>Robinson</b>,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> three landscape-painters of
+undeniable power. In marines <b>Gedney Bunce</b> has portrayed many Venetian
+scenes of charming color-tone, and De Haas<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> has long been known as
+a sea-painter of some power. <b>Quartley</b>, who died young, was brilliant
+in color and broadly realistic. The present marine-painters are
+<b>Maynard</b>, <b>Snell</b>, <b>Rehn</b>, <b>Butler</b>, <b>Chapman</b>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Died 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Died 1895.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;"><a name="imag_111" id="imag_111"></a>
+<img src="images/image_295.jpg" width="360" height="519" alt="FIG. 110.&mdash;CHASE. ALICE."  />
+<span class="caption">FIG. 110.&mdash;CHASE. ALICE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>PRINCIPAL WORKS:</b> The works of the early American painters
+are to be seen principally in the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts, the Athen&aelig;um, Boston Mus., Mass. Hist. Soc., Harvard
+College, Redwood Library, Newport, Metropolitan Mus., Lenox
+and Hist. Soc. Libraries, the City Hall, Century Club,
+Chamber of Commerce, National Acad. of Design, N. Y. In New
+Haven, at Yale School of Fine Arts, in Philadelphia at
+Penna. Acad. of Fine Arts, in Rochester Powers's Art Gal.,
+in Washington Corcoran Gal. and the Capitol.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The works of the younger men are seen in the exhibitions
+held from year to year at the Academy of Design, the Society
+of American Artists, N. Y., in Philadelphia, Chicago,
+Boston, and elsewhere throughout the country. Some of their
+works belong to permanent institutions like the Metropolitan
+Mus., the Pennsylvania Acad., the Art Institute of Chicago,
+but there is no public collection of pictures that
+represents American art as a whole. Mr. T. B. Clarke, of New
+York, had perhaps as complete a collection of paintings by
+contemporary American artists as anyone.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="POSTSCRIPT" id="POSTSCRIPT"></a>POSTSCRIPT.</h2>
+
+<h3>SCATTERING SCHOOLS AND INFLUENCES IN ART.</h3>
+<p>In this brief history of painting it has been necessary to omit some
+countries and some painters that have not seemed to be directly
+connected with the progress or development of painting in the western
+world. The arts of China and Japan, while well worthy of careful
+chronicling, are somewhat removed from the arts of the other nations
+and from our study. Moreover, they are so positively decorative that
+they should be treated under the head of Decoration, though it is not
+to be denied that they are also realistically expressive. Portugal has
+had some history in the art of painting, but it is slight and so bound
+up with Spanish and Flemish influences that its men do not stand out
+as a distinct school. This is true in measure of Russian painting. The
+early influences with it were Byzantine through the Greek Church. In
+late years what has been produced favors the Parisian or German
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>In Denmark and Scandinavia there has recently come to the front a
+remarkable school of high-light painters, based on Parisian methods,
+that threatens to outrival Paris itself. The work of such men as
+<b>Kr&ouml;yer</b>, <b>Zorn</b>, <b>Petersen</b>, <b>Liljefors</b>, <b>Thaulow</b>, <b>Bj&ouml;rck</b>, <b>Thegerstr&ouml;m</b>, is as
+startling in its realism as it is brilliant in its color. The pictures
+in the Scandinavian section of the Paris Exposition of 1889 were a
+revelation of new strength from the North, and this has been somewhat
+increased by the Scandinavian pictures at the World's Fair in 1893. It
+is impossible to predict what will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> be the outcome of this northern
+art, nor what will be the result of the recent movement here in
+America. All that can be said is that the tide seems to be setting
+westward and northward, though Paris has been the centre of art for
+many years, and will doubtless continue to be the centre for many
+years to come.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>For additions to Index see page <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Abbate, Niccol&ograve; dell', <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abbey, Edwin A., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aelst, Willem Van, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>A&euml;tion, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agatharchos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aim&eacute;-Morot, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albani, Francesco, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albertinelli, Mariotto, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alemannus, Johannes (da Murano), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aldegrever, Heinrich, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander, John, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander, J. W., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aligny, Claude Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allegri, Pomponio, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allori, Cristofano, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allston, Washington, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Altdorfer, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alvarez, Don Luis, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aman-Jean, E., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andrea da Firenze, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angelico, Fra Giovanni, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anselmi, Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antiochus Gabinius, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio Veneziano, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apelles, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apollodorus, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aranda, Luis Jiminez, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aretino, Spinello, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aristides, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artz, D. A. C., <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aubert, Ernest Jean, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Backer, Jacob, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Backhuisen, Ludolf, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bagnacavallo, Bartolommeo Ramenghi, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baker, George A., <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baldovinetti, Alessio, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baldung, Hans, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bargue, Charles, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baroccio, Federigo, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bartolo, Taddeo di, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Basaiti, Marco, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bassano, Francesco, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bassano, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bastert, N., <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bastien-Lepage, Jules, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baudry, Paul, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beccafumi, Domenico, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Becerra, Gaspar, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beckwith, J. Carroll, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beechey, Sir William, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beham, Barthel, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beham, Sebald, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Gentile, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-115</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benson, Frank W., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>B&eacute;raud, Jean, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berchem, Claas Pietersz, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Berne-Bellecour, &Eacute;tienne Prosper, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berrettini, Pietro (il Cortona), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berruguete, Alonzo, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bertin, Jean Victor, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Besnard, Paul Albert, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bierstadt, Albert, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Billet, Pierre, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bink, Jakob, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bissolo, Pier Francesco, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bj&ouml;rck, O., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blake, William, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blashfield, Edwin H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blommers, B. J., <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blum, Robert, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>B&ouml;cklin, Arnold, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bol, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boldini, Giuseppe, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonfiglio, Benedetto, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonheur, Auguste, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonheur, Rosa, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonifazio Pitati, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonington, Richard Parkes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonnat, L&eacute;on, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonsignori, Francesco, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonvin, Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bordone, Paris, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Borgognone, Ambrogio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bosboom, J., <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bosch, Hieronymus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Both, Jan, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Botticelli, Sandro, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boucher, Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boudin, Eug&egrave;ne, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boughton, George H., <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouguereau, W. Adolphe, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boulanger, Hippolyte, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boulanger, Louis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourdichon, Jean, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourdon, Sebastien, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouts, Dierich, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradford, William, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breton, Jules Adolphe, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breughel, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bridgman, Frederick A., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bril, Paul, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bristol, John B., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo), il, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brouwer, Adriaan, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brown, Ford Madox, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brown, John Lewis, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,</li>
+
+<li>Brush, George D. F., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bugiardini, Giuliano di Piero, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bunce, W. Gedney, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burkmair, Hans, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Butler, Howard Russell, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Cabanel, Alexandre, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caillebotte, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calvaert, Denis, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campin, Robert, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canaletto (Antonio Canale), il, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cano, Alonzo, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caracci, Agostino, <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caracci, Annibale, <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caracci, Ludovico, <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caravaggio, Michelangelo Amerighi da, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carolus-Duran, Charles Auguste Emil, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caroto, Giovanni Francisco, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carpaccio, Vittore, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carri&egrave;re, E., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carstens, Asmus Jacob, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassatt, Mary, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Castagno, Andrea del, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Castro, Juan Sanchez de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catena, Vincenzo di Biagio, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cattermole, George, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cavazzola, Paolo (Moranda), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cazin, Jean Charles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cespedes, Pablo de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Champaigne, Philip de, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Champmartin, Callande de, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chapman, Carlton T., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chase, William M., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chintreuil, Antoine, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Church, Frederick E., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cima da Conegliano, Giov. Battista, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cimabue, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clays, Paul Jean, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clouet, Francois, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clouet, Jean, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cocxie, Michiel van, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coello, Claudio, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coffin, William A., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cogniet, Leon, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cole, Vicat, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cole, Thomas, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coleman, C. C., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colman, Samuel, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, John, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251-253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Copley, John Singleton, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coques, Gonzales, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cormon, Fernand, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelis van Haarlem, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelius, Peter von, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Correggio (Antonio Allegri), il, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cossa, Francesco, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Costa, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotman, John Sell, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cottet, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Courbet, G., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cousin, Jean, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Couture, Thomas, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cozens, John Robert, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cox, David, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cox, Kenyon, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cranach (the Elder), Lucas, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cranach (the Younger), Lucas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crane, R. Bruce, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crawhall, Joseph, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crayer, Kasper de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Credi, Lorenzo di, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cristus, Peter, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crivelli, Carlo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crome, John (Old Crome), <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cuyp, Aelbert, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal A. J., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Damoye, Pierre Emmanuel, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Damophilos, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dannat, William T., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dantan, Joseph &Eacute;douard, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Daubigny, Charles Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>David, Gheeraert, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>David, Jacques Louis, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147-152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dearth, Henry J., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Decamps, A. G., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Degas, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Haas, M. F. H., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor E., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delaroche, Hippolyte (Paul), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delaunay, Jules Elie, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Neuville, Alphonse Maria, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Nittis. See "<a href="#Nittis">Nittis</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Denner, Balthasar, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Detaille, Jean Baptiste &Eacute;douard, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dev&eacute;ria, Eugene, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dewey, Charles Melville, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dewing, Thomas W., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dewint, Peter, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diana, Benedetto, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diaz de la Pena, Narciso Virgilio, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diepenbeeck, Abraham van, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dionysius, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dolci, Carlo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Domingo, J., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni di Lutero), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dou, Gerard, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Doughty, Thomas, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Du Breuil, Toussaint, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duccio di Buoninsegna, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duez, Ernest Ange, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Du Jardin, Karel, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dupr&eacute;, Julien, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dupr&eacute;, Jules, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Durand, Asher Brown, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>D&uuml;rer, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229-235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Eastlake, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elliott, Charles Loring, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elzheimer, Adam, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Engelbrechsten, Cornelis, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Etty, William, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euphranor, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eupompos, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Everdingen, Allart van, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Hubert van, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Jan van, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188-190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Fabius Pictor, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabriano, Gentile da, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabritius, Karel, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Faed, Thomas, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fantin-Latour, Henri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Favretto, Giacomo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrara, Gaudenzio, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fielding, Anthony V. D. Copley, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Filippino. See <a href="#Lippi">Lippi</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fiore, Jacobello del, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flinck, Govaert, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Floris, Franz, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foppa, Vincenzo, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forain, J. L., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forbes, Stanhope, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fortuny, Mariano, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fouquet, Jean, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fragonard, Jean Honor&eacute;, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fran&ccedil;ais, Fran&ccedil;ois Louis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Francesca, Piero della, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Francia, Francesco (Raibolini), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franciabigio (Francesco di Cristofano Bigi), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Francken, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fredi, Bartolo di, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fr&eacute;minet, Martin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frere, T., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Friant, Emile, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fromentin, E., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fuller, George, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fyt, Jan, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Gaddi, Agnolo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gaddi, Taddeo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gainsborough, T., <a href="#Page_245">245-247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallait, Louis, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garofolo (Benvenuto Tisi), il, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gay, Edward, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gay, Walter, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Geldorp, Gortzius, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>G&eacute;rard, Baron Fran&ccedil;ois Pascal, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>G&eacute;ricault, Jean Louis, A. T., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>G&eacute;r&ocirc;me, Jean L&eacute;on, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gervex, Henri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghirlandajo, Domenico, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giampietrino (Giovanni Pedrini), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gifford, Sandford, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gifford, R. Swain, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), il, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giordano, Luca, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giotto di Bondone, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giottino (Tommaso di Stefano), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Giovanni da Milano, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giovanni da Udine, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li>Girodet de Roussy, Anne Louis, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Girtin, Thomas, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giulio (Pippi), Romano, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,  <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gleyre, Marc Charles Gabriel, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goes, Hugo van der, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gorgasos, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,  <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goyen, Jan van, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gozzoli, Benozzo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Granacci, Francesco, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grandi, Ercole di Giulio, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greuze, Jean Baptiste, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gros, Baron Antoine Jean, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gr&uuml;newald, Matthias, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Guardi, Francesco, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guercino (Giov. Fran. Barbiera), il, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gu&eacute;rin, Pierre Narcisse, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guido Reni, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guido da Sienna, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guthrie, James, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Hals, Franz (the Younger), <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamilton, James, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamilton, McLure, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamon, Jean Louis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harding, Chester, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harpignies, Henri, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hassam, Childe, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harrison, T. Alexander, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Healy, George P. A., <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>H&eacute;bert, Antoine Auguste Ernest, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heem, Jan van, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heemskerck, Marten van, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Helst, Bartholomeus van der, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henner, Jean Jacques, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry, George, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herkomer, Hubert, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herrera, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heyden, Jan van der, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hicks, Thomas, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hill, Thomas, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hitchcock, George, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hobbema, Meindert, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hogarth, William, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holbein (the Elder), Hans, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holbein (the Younger), Hans, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holl, Frank, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Homer, Winslow, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hondecoeter, Melchior d', <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hooghe, Pieter de, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hook, James Clarke, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hoppner, John, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hornell, E. A., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hubbard, Richard W., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huet, Paul, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt, Holman, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt, William Henry, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt, William Morris, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huntington, Daniel, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huysum, Jan van, <a href="#Page_219">219-222</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Imola, Innocenza da (Francucci), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Inman, Henry, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Inness, George, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Israels, Jozef, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Jacque, Charles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jarvis, John Wesley, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joannes, Juan de, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, David, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, Eastman, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jongkind, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jordaens, Jacob, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Justus van Ghent, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Kalf, Willem, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kauffman, Angelica, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kendall, Sergeant, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kensett, John F., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kever, J. S. H., <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Keyser, Thomas de, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Klinger, Max, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kneller, Sir Godfrey, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Koninck, Philip de, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kr&ouml;yer, Peter S., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kuehl, G., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kulmbach, Hans von, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kunz, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>La Farge, John, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lancret, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Largilli&egrave;re, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lastman, Pieter, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laurens, Jean Paul, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lavery, John, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lawrence, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lawson, Cecil Gordon, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lawson, John, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lebrun, Charles, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lebrun, Marie Elizabeth Louise Vig&eacute;e, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legros, Alphonse, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leibl, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leighton, Sir Frederick, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leloir, Alexandre Louis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lely, Sir Peter, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lenbach, Franz, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Leonardo" id="Leonardo"></a>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lerolle, Henri, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leslie, Robert Charles, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lessing, Karl Friedrich, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Le Sueur, Eustache, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lethi&egrave;re, Guillaume Guillon, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leutze, Emanuel, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lewis, John Frederick, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leyden, Lucas van, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leys, Baron Jean Auguste Henri, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>L'hermitte, L&eacute;on Augustin, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liberale da Verona, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Libri, Girolamo dai, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liebermann, Max, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liljefors, Bruno, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lippi, Fra Filippo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Lippi" id="Lippi"></a>Lippi, Filippino, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lockwood, Wilton, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lombard, Lambert, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lorenzetti, Pietro, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lorrain, Claude (Gell&eacute;e), <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lotto, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Low, Will H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Luini, Bernardino, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Mabuse, Jan (Gossart) van, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>McBride, A., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>McEntee, Jervis, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>McEwen, Walter, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Madrazo, Raimundo de, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maes, Nicolaas, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Makart, Hans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manet, &Eacute;douard, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mansueti, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mantegna, Andrea, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maratta, Carlo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marconi, Rocco, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marilhat, P., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maris, James, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maris, Matthew, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maris, Willem, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martin, Henri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martin, Homer, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martino, Simone di, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Masaccio, Tommaso, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Masolino, Tommaso Fini, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Massys, Quentin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Master of the Lyversberg Passion, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mauve, Anton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mazo, Juan Bautista Martinez del, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mazzolino, Ludovico, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maynard, George W., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meer of Delft, Jan van der, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meire, Gerard van der, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meister, Stephen (Lochner), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meister, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Melchers, Gari, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Melozzo da Forli, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Melville, Arthur, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Memling, Hans, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Memmi, Lippo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mengs, Raphael, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Menzel, Adolf, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mesdag, Hendrik Willem, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Messina, Antonello da, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metcalf, Willard L., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metrodorus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metsu, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mettling, V. Louis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Michael Angelo (Buonarroti), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Michallon, Achille Etna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Michel, Georges, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Michetti, Francesco Paolo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mierevelt, Michiel Jansz, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mieris, Franz van, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mignard, Pierre, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Millais, Sir John, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Millet, Francis D., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Millet, Jean Francois, <a href="#Page_160">160-162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miranda, Juan Carre&ntilde;o de, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Molyn (the Elder), Pieter de, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monet, Claude, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Montagna, Bartolommeo, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Montenard, Frederic, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moore, Albert, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moore, Henry, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morales, Luis de, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moran, Thomas, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morelli, Domenico, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moretto (Alessandro Buonvicino) il, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morland, George, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moro, Antonio, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moroni, Giovanni Battista, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mostert, Jan, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mount, William S., <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mowbray, H. Siddons, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mulready, William, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Munkacsy, Mihaly, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murillo, Bartolom&eacute; Est&eacute;ban, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180-182</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murphy, J. Francis, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Navarette, Juan Fernandez, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Navez, Francois, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neer, Aart van der, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nelli, Ottaviano, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Netscher, Kasper, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neuchatel, Nicolaus, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neuhuys, Albert, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newton, Gilbert Stuart, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Niccolo (Alunno) da Foligno, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nicol, Erskine, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nikias, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nikomachus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Nittis" id="Nittis"></a>Nittis, Giuseppe de, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nono, Luigi, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Noort, Adam van, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Oggiono, Marco da, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Opie, John, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orcagna (Andrea di Cione), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orchardson, William Quiller, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orley, Barent van, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ostade, Adriaan van, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ouwater, Aalbert van, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Overbeck, Johann Friedrich, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Pacchia, Girolamo della, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pacchiarotta, Giacomo, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pacheco, Francisco, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pacuvius, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Padovanino (Ales. Varotari), il, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Page, William, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palma (il Vecchio), Jacopo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palma (il Giovine), Jacopo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palmaroli, Vincente, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parmigianino (Francesco Mazzola), il, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pamphilos, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Panetti, Domenico, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paolino (Fra) da Pistoja, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parrhasios, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parsons, Alfred, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pater, Jean Baptiste Joseph, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paterson, James, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Patinir, Joachim, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pausias, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peale, Charles Wilson, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peale, Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pearce, Charles Sprague, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pelouse, L&eacute;on Germaine, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pencz, Georg, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Penni, Giovanni Francesco, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>P&eacute;real, Jean, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Perino del Vaga, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Perugino, Pietro (Vanucci), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peruzzi, Baldassare, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petersen, Eilif, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piero di Cosimo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piloty, Carl Theodor von, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pinturricchio, Bernardino, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piombo, Sebastiano del, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pisano, Vittore (Pisanello), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pissarro, Camille, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pizzolo, Niccolo, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Platt, Charles A., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plydenwurff, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poggenbeek, George, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pointelin, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pollajuolo, Antonio del, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Polygnotus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pontormo, Jacopo (Carrucci), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poorter, Willem de, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pordenone, Giovanni Ant., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Potter, Paul, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pourbus, Peeter, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poussin, Gaspard (Dughet), <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poussin, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pradilla, Francisco, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Previtali, Andrea, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Primaticcio, Francesco, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Protogenes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prout, Samuel, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prudhon, Pierre Paul, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Quartley</span>, Arthur, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Raeburn</span>, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raffaelli, Jean Fran&ccedil;ois, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Raphael" id="Raphael"></a>Raphael Sanzio, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ravesteyn, Jan van, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Regnault, Henri, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Regnault, Jean Baptiste, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rehn, F. K. M., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reid, Robert, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reid-Murray, J., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reinhart, Charles S., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rembrandt van Ryn, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207-213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ren&eacute; of Anjou, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Renoir, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reynolds, Sir Joshua, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribalta, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribera, Roman, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), Jos&eacute; di, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribot, Augustin Theodule, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Richards, William T., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rico, Martin, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rigaud, Hyacinthe, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rincon, Antonio, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robie, Jean, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robinson, Theodore, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roche, Alex., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rochegrosse, Georges, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roelas, Juan de las, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roll, Alfred Philippe, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Romanino, Girolamo Bresciano, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rombouts, Theodoor, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Romney, George, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rondinelli, Niccolo, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rosa, Salvator, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rosselli, Cosimo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rosso, il, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rottenhammer, Johann, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rousseau, Th&eacute;odore, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roybet, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rubens, Peter Paul, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193-201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruisdael, Jacob van, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruisdael, Solomon van, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ryder, Albert, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Sabbatini</span> (Andrea da Salerno), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Jan, Geertjen van, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salaino (Andrea Sala), il, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salviati, Francesco Rossi, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanchez-Coello, Alonzo, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Santi, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanzio. See "<a href="#Raphael">Raphael</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Sargent, John S., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sarto, Andrea (Angeli) del, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sassoferrato (Giov. Battista Salvi), il, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Savoldo, Giovanni Girolamo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schadow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schaffner, Martin, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schalcken, Godfried, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sch&auml;ufelin, Hans Leonhardt, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scheffer, Ary, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sch&ouml;ngauer, Martin, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schnorr von Karolsfeld, J., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sch&uuml;chlin, Hans, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scorel, Jan van, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Segantini, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Semitecolo, Niccolo, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Serapion, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sesto, Cesare da, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shannon, J. J., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shirlaw, Walter, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shurtleff, Roswell M., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sigalon, Xavier, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Signorelli, Luca, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simmons, Edward E., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simonetti, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sisley, Alfred, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smedley, William T., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smibert, John, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snell, Henry B., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snyders, Franz, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sodoma (Giov. Ant. Bazzi), il, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Solario, Andrea (da Milano), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sopolis, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sorolla, Joaquin, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spagna, Lo (Giovanni di Pietro), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spence, Harry, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spranger, Bartholomeus, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Squarcione, Francesco, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Starnina, Gherardo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steele, Edward, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steen, Jan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steenwyck, Hendrik van, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stevens, Alfred, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stewart, Julius L., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strigel, Bernard, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stothard, Thomas, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stott of Oldham, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stuart, Gilbert, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stuck, Franz, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sully, Thomas, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swanenburch, Jakob Isaaks van, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Tarbell</span>, Edmund C., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Teniers (the Younger), David, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Terburg, Gerard, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thaulow, Fritz, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thayer, Abbott H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thegerstr&ouml;m, R., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theodorich of Prague, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theotocopuli, Domenico, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thoma, Hans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Timanthes, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), il, <a href="#Page_115">115-117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113-121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tito, Ettore, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Torbido, Francisco (il Moro), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toulmouche, Auguste, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tristan, Luis, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Troyon, Constant, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trumbull, John, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tryon, Dwight W., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tura, Cosimo, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turner, C. Y., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turner, Joseph Mallord William, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Twachtman, John H., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Uccello</span>, Paolo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Uhde, Fritz von, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ulrich, Charles F., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="smcap">Vaenius</span>, Otho, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Beers, Jan, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vanderlyn, John, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Dyck, Philip, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Loo, Jean Baptiste, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Marcke, &Eacute;mil, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vargas, Luis de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vasari, Giorgio, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Vedder, Elihu, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veit, Philipp, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Velde, Adrien van de, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Velde (the Elder), Willem van de, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Velde (the Younger), Willem van de, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Venusti, Marcello, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verboeckhoven, Eug&egrave;ne Joseph, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verhagen, Pierre Joseph, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vernet, Claude Joseph, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vernet, &Eacute;mile Jean Horace, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veronese, Paolo (Caliari), <a href="#Page_116">116-121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verrocchio, Andrea del, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vibert, Jehan Georges, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Victoors, Jan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vien, Joseph Marie, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Villegas, Jos&eacute;, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vincent, Fran&ccedil;ois Andr&eacute;, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vinci. See "<a href="#Leonardo">Leonardo</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Vinton, F. P., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Viti, Timoteo di, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vivarini, Antonio (da Murano), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vivarini, Bartolommeo (da Murano), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vivarini, Luigi or Alvise, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vlieger, Simon de, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vollon, Antoine, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Volterra, Daniele (Ricciarelli) da, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vos, Cornelis de, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vos, Marten de, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vouet, Simon, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Walker</span>, Frederick, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walker, Horatio, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walton, E. A., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wappers, Baron Gustavus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watelet, Louis &Eacute;tienne, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watson, John, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watteau, Antoine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watts, George Frederick, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wauters, &Eacute;mile, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weeks, Edwin L., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weenix, Jan, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weir, J. Alden, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Werff, Adriaan van der, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>West, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weyden, Roger van der, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whistler, James A. McNeill, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Whittredge, Worthington, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wiles, Irving R., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilkie, Sir David, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Willems, Florent, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilson, Richard, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolgemut, Michael, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wouverman, Philips, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, Joseph, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wurmser, Nicolaus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wyant, Alexander H., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wyllie, W. L., <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Wynants, Jan, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Yon, Edmund Charles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Zamacois, Eduardo, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zegers, Daniel, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ziem, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeitblom, Bartholom&auml;us, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeuxis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zoppo, Marco, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zorn, Anders, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zucchero, Federigo, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zuloaga, Ignacio, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zurbaran, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ADDITIONS_TO_INDEX" id="ADDITIONS_TO_INDEX"></a>ADDITIONS TO INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Anglada, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Bartels, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baur, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bell, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brangwyn, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breitner, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buysse, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Cariani, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Claus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clausen, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Fattori, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fragiacomo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frederic, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Garcia y Remos, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greiner, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Haverman, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henri, Robert, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Keller, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khnopff, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Lempoels, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lie, Jonas, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>McTaggart, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mancini, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marchetti, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Ouless, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Reid, Sir George, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+
+<li>Steer, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swan, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Tr&uuml;bner, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Vierge, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+</ul><ul class="IX">
+<li>Weissenbruch, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Witsen, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+</ul></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2>COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART</h2>
+<h4>EDITED BY</h4>
+<h3>JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.</h3>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3>HISTORY OF PAINTING</h3>
+<p>By <span class="smcap">John C. Van Dyke</span>, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and
+110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p>
+
+<h3>HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE</h3>
+<p>By <span class="smcap">Alfred D. F. Hamlin</span>, A.M., Adjunct Professor of Architecture,
+Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations
+and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a
+General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<h3>HISTORY OF SCULPTURE</h3>
+<p>By <span class="smcap">Allan Marquand</span>, Ph.D., L.H.D., and <span class="smcap">Arthur L. Frothingham</span>, Jr.,
+Ph.D., Professors of Arch&aelig;ology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A History of Architecture.</h2>
+
+<h4>By</h4>
+<h3>A. D. F. Hamlin, A.M.</h3>
+<p class="center">Adjunct Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia
+College.</p>
+
+<p><b>With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies,
+Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, pp.
+xx-453, $2.00.</b></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"The text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly
+intelligent view taken of each separate epoch.... The book is
+extremely well furnished with bibliographies, lists of monuments
+[which] are excellent.... If any reasonable part of the contents of
+this book can be got into the heads of those who study it, they will
+have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound
+knowledge of it."&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Nation, New York</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"A manual that will be invaluable to the student, while it will give
+to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for the purposes of
+the development of the various schools of architecture. What makes it
+of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical
+buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns, arches,
+windows and doorways. Each chapter is prefaced by a list of books
+recommended, and each ends with a list of monuments. The illustrations
+are numerous and well executed."&mdash;<span class="smcap">San Francisco Chronicle</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"Probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time
+concisely, the various periods and styles of architecture, with a
+characterization of the most important works of each period and style,
+than any other published work.... The volume fills a gap in
+architectural literature which has long existed."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Advertiser, Boston</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"A neatly published work, adapted to the use either of student or
+general reader. As a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting
+forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different
+schools. The life history of each period is brief yet thorough.... The
+treatment is broad and not over-critical. The chief facts are so
+grouped that the student can easily grasp them. The plan-drawings are
+clear cut and serve their purpose admirably. The half-tone
+illustrations are modern in selection and treatment. The style is
+clear, easy and pleasing. The entire production shows a studious and
+orderly mind. A new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all
+discussion on disputed points. In its unity, clearness and simplicity
+lie its charm and interest."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Notre Dame Scholastic, Notre Dame, Ind.</span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"This is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of
+architecture from the earliest times down to the present.... The work
+is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples, pictures,
+diagrams, etc. It is intended to be used as a school text-book, and is
+very conveniently arranged for this purpose, with suitable headings in
+bold-faced type, and a copious index. Teachers and students will find
+it a capital thing for the purpose."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Picayune, New Orleans</span>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A History of Sculpture,</h2>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<h3>ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph. D., L. H. D.</h3>
+<h5>AND</h5>
+<h3>ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph. D.</h3>
+<p class="center">Professors of Arch&aelig;ology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University.</p>
+
+<p><b>With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo,
+313 pages, $1.50.</b></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Henry W. Kent</span>, <i>Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N. Y.</i></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply
+invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists
+will be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Charles H. Moore</span>, <i>Harvard University</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black
+background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so
+many half-tone prints."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">J. M. Hoppin</span>, <i>Yale University</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book
+and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially
+interested in the chapter on <i>Renaissance Sculpture in Italy</i>."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Critic</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in
+full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English&mdash;never in any language in convenient
+text-book form. This publication, then, should meet with an
+enthusiastic reception among students and amateurs of art, not so
+much, however, because it is the only book of its kind, as for its
+intrinsic merit and attractive form."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Outlook</span>, <i>New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A good feature of this book&mdash;and one which should be
+imitated&mdash;is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best
+be obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Notre Dame Scholastic</span>, <i>Notre Dame, Ind.</i></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">"The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of
+style a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to
+pursue more fully any particular school."</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+
+<h3>LONGMANS, GREEN &amp; CO., Publishers,</h3>
+<h3>91 &amp; 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK.</h3>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by 
+John C. Van Dyke
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PAINTING ***
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,10294 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Text-Book of the History of Painting, by
+John C. Van Dyke
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Text-Book of the History of Painting
+
+Author: John C. Van Dyke
+
+Release Date: July 23, 2006 [EBook #18900]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF PAINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+           [Illustration: VELASQUEZ. HEAD OF AESOP, MADRID.]
+
+
+                             A TEXT-BOOK
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                         HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+   PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE AND AUTHOR OF
+        "ART FOR ART'S SAKE," "THE MEANING OF PICTURES," ETC.
+
+
+
+                       LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+                   91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+                     LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
+                                 1909
+
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY
+                       LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The object of this series of text-books is to provide concise
+teachable histories of art for class-room use in schools and colleges.
+The limited time given to the study of art in the average educational
+institution has not only dictated the condensed style of the volumes,
+but has limited their scope of matter to the general features of art
+history. Archaeological discussions on special subjects and aesthetic
+theories have been avoided. The main facts of history as settled by
+the best authorities are given. If the reader choose to enter into
+particulars the bibliography cited at the head of each chapter will be
+found helpful. Illustrations have been introduced as sight-help to the
+text, and, to avoid repetition, abbreviations have been used wherever
+practicable. The enumeration of the principal extant works of an
+artist, school, or period, and where they may be found, which follows
+each chapter, may be serviceable not only as a summary of individual
+or school achievement, but for reference by travelling students in
+Europe.
+
+This volume on painting, the first of the series, omits mention of
+such work in Arabic, Indian, Chinese, and Persian art as may come
+properly under the head of Ornament--a subject proposed for separate
+treatment hereafter. In treating of individual painters it has been
+thought best to give a short critical estimate of the man and his rank
+among the painters of his time rather than the detailed facts of his
+life. Students who wish accounts of the lives of the painters should
+use Vasari, Larousse, and the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ in connection
+with this text-book.
+
+Acknowledgments are made to the respective publishers of Woltmann and
+Woermann's History of Painting, and the fine series of art histories
+by Perrot and Chipiez, for permission to reproduce some few
+illustrations from these publications.
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPTIAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CHALDAEO-ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN, PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GREEK, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIAEVAL PERIOD, 200-1250
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--GOTHIC PERIOD, 1250-1400
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING--THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK, 1600-1894
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING--NINETEENTH CENTURY, _Continued_
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+SPANISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FLEMISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+DUTCH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GERMAN PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+BRITISH PAINTING
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+AMERICAN PAINTING
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+     Velasquez, Head of AEsop, Madrid           _Frontispiece_
+
+1    Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Ti, Saccarah
+
+2    Portrait of Queen Taia
+
+3    Offerings to the Dead. Wall painting
+
+4    Vignette on Papyrus
+
+5    Enamelled Brick, Nimroud
+
+6        "       "    Khorsabad
+
+7    Wild Ass. Bas-relief
+
+8    Lions Frieze, Susa
+
+9    Painted Head from Edessa
+
+10   Cypriote Vase Decoration
+
+11   Attic Grave Painting
+
+12   Muse of Cortona
+
+13   Odyssey Landscape
+
+14   Amphore, Lower Italy
+
+15   Ritual Scene, Palatine Wall painting
+
+16   Portrait, Fayoum, Graf Collection
+
+17   Chamber in Catacombs, with wall decorations
+
+18   Catacomb Fresco, S. Cecilia
+
+19   Christ as Good Shepherd, Ravenna mosaic
+
+20   Christ and Saints, fresco, S. Generosa
+
+21   Ezekiel before the Lord. MS. illumination
+
+22   Giotto, Flight into Egypt, Arena Chap.
+
+23   Orcagna, Paradise (detail), S. M. Novella
+
+24   Lorenzetti, Peace (detail), Sienna
+
+25   Fra Angelico, Angel, Uffizi
+
+26   Fra Filippo, Madonna, Uffizi
+
+27   Botticelli, Coronation of Madonna, Uffizi
+
+28   Ghirlandajo, Visitation, Louvre
+
+29   Francesca, Duke of Urbino, Uffizi
+
+30   Signorelli, The Curse (detail), Orvieto
+
+31   Perugino, Madonna, Saints, and Angels, Louvre
+
+32   School of Francia, Madonna, Louvre
+
+33   Mantegna, Gonzaga Family Group, Mantua
+
+34   B. Vivarini, Madonna and Child, Turin
+
+35   Giovanni Bellini, Madonna, Venice Acad.
+
+36   Carpaccio, Presentation (detail), Venice Acad.
+
+37   Antonello da Messina, Unknown Man, Louvre
+
+38   Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from Cross, Pitti
+
+39   Andrea del Sarto, Madonna of St. Francis, Uffizi
+
+40   Michael Angelo, Athlete, Sistine Chap., Rome
+
+41   Raphael, La Belle Jardiniere, Louvre
+
+42   Giulio Romano, Apollo and Muses, Pitti
+
+43   Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, Louvre
+
+44   Luini, Daughter of Herodias, Uffizi
+
+45   Sodoma, Ecstasy of St. Catherine, Sienna
+
+46   Correggio, Marriage of St. Catherine, Louvre
+
+47   Giorgione, Ordeal of Moses, Uffizi
+
+48   Titian, Venus Equipping Cupid, Borghese, Rome
+
+49   Tintoretto, Mercury and Graces, Ducal Pal., Venice
+
+50   Veronese, Venice Enthroned, Ducal Pal., Venice
+
+51   Lotto, Three Ages, Pitti
+
+52   Bronzino, Christ in Limbo, Uffizi
+
+53   Baroccio, Annunciation
+
+54   Annibale Caracci, Entombment of Christ, Louvre
+
+55   Caravaggio, The Card Players, Dresden
+
+56   Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, Louvre
+
+57   Claude Lorrain, Flight into Egypt, Dresden
+
+58   Watteau, Gilles, Louvre
+
+59   Boucher, Pastoral, Louvre
+
+60   David, The Sabines, Louvre
+
+61   Ingres, Oedipus and Sphinx, Louvre
+
+62   Delacroix, Massacre of Scio, Louvre
+
+63   Gerome, Pollice Verso
+
+64   Corot, Landscape
+
+65   Rousseau, Charcoal Burner's Hut, Fuller Collection
+
+66   Millet, The Gleaners, Louvre
+
+67   Cabanel, Phaedra
+
+68   Meissonier, Napoleon in 1814
+
+69   Sanchez-Coello, Daughter of Philip II., Madrid
+
+70   Murillo, St. Anthony of Padua, Dresden
+
+71   Ribera, St. Agnes, Dresden
+
+72   Fortuny, Spanish Marriage
+
+73   Madrazo, Unmasked
+
+74   Van Eycks, St. Bavon Altar-piece, Berlin
+
+75   Memling (?), St. Lawrence, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+76   Massys, Head of Virgin, Antwerp
+
+77   Rubens, Portrait of Young Woman
+
+78   Van Dyck, Portrait of Cornelius van der Geest
+
+79   Teniers the Younger, Prodigal Son, Louvre
+
+80   Alfred Stevens, On the Beach
+
+81   Hals, Portrait of a Lady
+
+82   Rembrandt, Head of a Woman, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+83   Ruisdael, Landscape
+
+84   Hobbema, The Water Wheel, Amsterdam Mus.
+
+85   Israels, Alone in the World
+
+86   Mauve, Sheep
+
+87   Lochner, Sts. John, Catharine, Matthew, London
+
+88   Wolgemut, Crucifixion, Munich
+
+89   Duerer, Praying Virgin, Augsburg
+
+90   Holbein, Portrait, Hague Mus.
+
+91   Piloty, Wise and Foolish Virgins
+
+92   Leibl, In Church
+
+93   Menzel, A Reader
+
+94   Hogarth, Shortly after Marriage, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+95   Reynolds, Countess Spencer and Lord Althorp
+
+96   Gainsborough, Blue Boy
+
+97   Constable, Corn Field, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+98   Turner, Fighting Temeraire, Nat. Gal., Lon.
+
+99   Burne-Jones, Flamma Vestalis
+
+100  Leighton, Helen of Troy
+
+101  Watts, Love and Death
+
+102  West, Peter Denying Christ, Hampton Court
+
+103  Gilbert Stuart, Washington, Boston Mus.
+
+104  Hunt, Lute Player
+
+105  Eastman Johnson, Churning
+
+106  Inness, Landscape
+
+107  Winslow Homer, Undertow
+
+108  Whistler, The White Girl
+
+109  Sargent, "Carnation Lily, Lily Rose"
+
+110  Chase, Alice, Art Institute, Chicago
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+(This includes the leading accessible works that treat of painting in
+general. For works on special periods or schools, see the
+bibliographical references at the head of each chapter. For
+bibliography of individual painters consult, under proper names,
+Champlin and Perkins's _Cyclopedia_, as given below.)
+
+
+Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, New York.
+
+Adeline, _Lexique des Termes d'Art_.
+
+_Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Paris.
+
+Larousse, _Grand Dictionnaire Universel_, Paris.
+
+_L'Art, Revue hebdomadaire illustree_, Paris.
+
+Bryan, _Dictionary of Painters_. _New edition_.
+
+Brockhaus, _Conversations-Lexikon_.
+
+Meyer, _Allgemeines Kuenstler-Lexikon_, Berlin.
+
+Muther, _History of Modern Painting_.
+
+Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_.
+
+Bayet, _Precis d'Histoire de l'Art_.
+
+Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres de toutes les Ecoles_.
+
+Eastlake, _Materials for a History of Oil Painting_.
+
+Luebke, _History of Art, trans. by Clarence Cook_.
+
+Reber, _History of Ancient Art_.
+
+Reber, _History of Mediaeval Art_.
+
+Schnasse, _Geschichte der Bildenden Kuenste_.
+
+Girard, _La Peinture Antique_.
+
+Viardot, _History of the Painters of all Schools_.
+
+Williamson (Ed.), _Handbooks of Great Masters_.
+
+Woltmann and Woermann, _History of Painting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF PAINTING.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The origin of painting is unknown. The first important records of this
+art are met with in Egypt; but before the Egyptian civilization the
+men of the early ages probably used color in ornamentation and
+decoration, and they certainly scratched the outlines of men and
+animals upon bone and slate. Traces of this rude primitive work still
+remain to us on the pottery, weapons, and stone implements of the
+cave-dwellers. But while indicating the awakening of intelligence in
+early man, they can be reckoned with as art only in a slight
+archaeological way. They show inclination rather than accomplishment--a
+wish to ornament or to represent, with only a crude knowledge of how
+to go about it.
+
+The first aim of this primitive painting was undoubtedly
+decoration--the using of colored forms for color and form only, as
+shown in the pottery designs or cross-hatchings on stone knives or
+spear-heads. The second, and perhaps later aim, was by imitating the
+shapes and colors of men, animals, and the like, to convey an idea of
+the proportions and characters of such things. An outline of a
+cave-bear or a mammoth was perhaps the cave-dweller's way of telling
+his fellows what monsters he had slain. We may assume that it was
+pictorial record, primitive picture-written history. This early method
+of conveying an idea is, in intent, substantially the same as the
+later hieroglyphic writing and historical painting of the Egyptians.
+The difference between them is merely one of development. Thus there
+is an indication in the art of Primitive Man of the two great
+departments of painting existent to-day.
+
+1. DECORATIVE PAINTING.
+
+2. EXPRESSIVE PAINTING.
+
+Pure Decorative Painting is not usually expressive of ideas other than
+those of rhythmical line and harmonious color. It is not our subject.
+This volume treats of Expressive Painting; but in dealing with that it
+should be borne in mind that Expressive Painting has always a more or
+less decorative effect accompanying it, and that must be spoken of
+incidentally. We shall presently see the intermingling of both kinds
+of painting in the art of ancient Egypt--our first inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EGYPTIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Brugsch, _History of Egypt under the
+     Pharaohs_; Budge, _Dwellers on the Nile_; Duncker, _History
+     of Antiquity; Egypt Exploration Fund Memoirs_; Ely, _Manual
+     of Archaeology_; Lepsius, _Denkmaler aus Aegypten und
+     Aethiopen_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_;
+     Maspero, _Guide du Visiteur au Musee de Boulaq_; Maspero,
+     _Egyptian Archaeology_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art
+     in Ancient Egypt_; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the
+     Ancient Egyptians_.
+
+
+LAND AND PEOPLE: Egypt, as Herodotus has said, is "the gift of the
+Nile," one of the latest of the earth's geological formations, and yet
+one of the earliest countries to be settled and dominated by man. It
+consists now, as in the ancient days, of the valley of the Nile,
+bounded on the east by the Arabian mountains and on the west by the
+Libyan desert. Well-watered and fertile, it was doubtless at first a
+pastoral and agricultural country; then, by its riverine traffic, a
+commercial country, and finally, by conquest, a land enriched with the
+spoils of warfare.
+
+Its earliest records show a strongly established monarchy. Dynasties
+of kings called Pharaohs succeeded one another by birth or conquest.
+The king made the laws, judged the people, declared war, and was
+monarch supreme. Next to him in rank came the priests, who were not
+only in the service of religion but in that of the state, as
+counsellors, secretaries, and the like. The common people, with true
+Oriental lack of individuality, depending blindly on leaders, were
+little more than the servants of the upper classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--HUNTING IN THE MARSHES. TOMB OF TI, SACCARAH.
+(FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+The Egyptian religion existing in the earliest days was a worship of
+the personified elements of nature. Each element had its particular
+controlling god, worshipped as such. Later on in Egyptian history the
+number of gods was increased, and each city had its trinity of godlike
+protectors symbolized by the propylaea of the temples. Future life was
+a certainty, provided that the Ka, or spirit, did not fall a prey to
+Typhon, the God of Evil, during the long wait in the tomb for the
+judgment-day. The belief that the spirit rested in the body until
+finally transported to the aaln fields (the Islands of the Blest,
+afterward adopted by the Greeks) was one reason for the careful
+preservation of the body by mummifying processes. Life itself was not
+more important than death. Hence the imposing ceremonies of the
+funeral and burial, the elaborate richness of the tomb and its wall
+paintings. Perhaps the first Egyptian art arose through religious
+observance, and certainly the first known to us was sepulchral.
+
+ART MOTIVES: The centre of the Egyptian system was the monarch and his
+supposed relatives, the gods. They arrogated to themselves the chief
+thought of life, and the aim of the great bulk of the art was to
+glorify monarchy or deity. The massive buildings, still standing
+to-day in ruins, were built as the dwelling-places of kings or the
+sanctuaries of gods. The towers symbolized deity, the sculptures and
+paintings recited the functional duties of presiding spirits, or the
+Pharaoh's looks and acts. Almost everything about the public buildings
+in painting and sculpture was symbolic illustration, picture-written
+history--written with a chisel and brush, written large that all might
+read. There was no other safe way of preserving record. There were no
+books; the papyrus sheet, used extensively, was frail, and the
+Egyptians evidently wished their buildings, carvings, and paintings to
+last into eternity. So they wrought in and upon stone. The same
+hieroglyphic character of their papyrus writings appeared cut and
+colored on the palace walls, and above them and beside them the
+pictures ran as vignettes explanatory of the text. In a less
+ostentatious way the tombs perpetuated history in a similar manner,
+reciting the domestic scenes from the life of the individual, as the
+temples and palaces the religious and monarchical scenes.
+
+In one form or another it was all record of Egyptian life, but this
+was not the only motive of their painting. The temples and palaces,
+designed to shut out light and heat, were long squares of heavy stone,
+gloomy as the cave from which their plan may have originated. Carving
+and color were used to brighten and enliven the interior. The battles,
+the judgment scenes, the Pharaoh playing at draughts with his wives,
+the religious rites and ceremonies, were all given with brilliant
+arbitrary color, surrounded oftentimes by bordering bands of green,
+yellow, and blue. Color showed everywhere from floor to ceiling. Even
+the explanatory hieroglyphic texts ran in colors, lining the walls and
+winding around the cylinders of stone. The lotus capitals, the frieze
+and architrave, all glowed with bright hues, and often the roof
+ceiling was painted in blue and studded with golden stars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTRAIT OF QUEEN TAIA. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+All this shows a decorative motive in Egyptian painting, and how
+constantly this was kept in view may be seen at times in the
+arrangement of the different scenes, the large ones being placed in
+the middle of the wall and the smaller ones going at the top and
+bottom, to act as a frieze and dado. There were, then, two leading
+motives for Egyptian painting; (1) History, monarchical, religious, or
+domestic; and (2) Decoration.
+
+TECHNICAL METHODS: Man in the early stages of civilization comprehends
+objects more by line than by color or light. The figure is not
+studied in itself, but in its sun-shadow or silhouette. The Egyptian
+hieroglyph represented objects by outlines or arbitrary marks and
+conveyed a simple meaning without circumlocution. The Egyptian
+painting was substantially an enlargement of the hieroglyph. There was
+no attempt to place objects in the setting which they hold in nature.
+Perspective and light-and-shade were disregarded. Objects, of whatever
+nature, were shown in flat profile. In the human figure the shoulders
+were square, the hips slight, the legs and arms long, the feet and
+hands flat. The head, legs, and arms were shown in profile, while the
+chest and eye were twisted to show the flat front view. There are only
+one or two full-faced figures among the remains of Egyptian painting.
+After the outline was drawn the enclosed space was filled in with
+plain color. In the absence of high light, or composed groups,
+prominence was given to an important figure, like that of the king, by
+making it much larger than the other figures. This may be seen in any
+of the battle-pieces of Rameses II., in which the monarch in his
+chariot is a giant where his followers are mere pygmies. In the
+absence of perspective, receding figures of men or of horses were
+given by multiplied outlines of legs, or heads, placed before, or
+after, or raised above one another. Flat water was represented by
+zigzag lines, placed as it were upon a map, one tree symbolized a
+forest, and one fortification a town.
+
+These outline drawings were not realistic in any exact sense. The face
+was generally expressionless, the figure, evidently done from memory
+or pattern, did not reveal anatomical structure, but was nevertheless
+graceful, and in the representation of animals the sense of motion was
+often given with much truth. The color was usually an attempt at
+nature, though at times arbitrary or symbolic, as in the case of
+certain gods rendered with blue, yellow, or green skins. The
+backgrounds were always of flat color, arbitrary in hue, and
+decorative only. The only composition was a balance by numbers, and
+the processional scenes rose tier upon tier above one another in long
+panels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD, WALL PAINTING, EIGHTEENTH
+DYNASTY. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+Such work would seem almost ludicrous did we not keep in mind its
+reason for existence. It was, first, symbolic story-telling art, and
+secondly, architectural decoration. As a story-teller it was effective
+because of its simplicity and directness. As decoration, the repeated
+expressionless face and figure, the arbitrary color, the absence of
+perspective were not inappropriate then nor are they now. Egyptian
+painting never was free from the decorative motive. Wall painting was
+little more than an adjunct of architecture, and probably grew out of
+sculpture. The early statues were colored, and on the wall the chisel,
+like the flint of Primitive Man, cut the outline of the figure. At
+first only this cut was filled with color, producing what has been
+called the koil-anaglyphic. In the final stage the line was made by
+drawing with chalk or coal on prepared stucco, and the color, mixed
+with gum-water (a kind of distemper), was applied to the whole
+enclosed space. Substantially the same method of painting was used
+upon other materials, such as wood, mummy cartonnage, papyrus; and in
+all its thousands of years of existence Egyptian painting never
+advanced upon or varied to any extent this one method of work.
+
+HISTORIC PERIODS: Egyptian art may be traced back as far as the Third
+or Fourth Memphitic dynasty of kings. The date is uncertain, but it is
+somewhere near 3,500 B.C. The seat of empire, at that time, was
+located at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and it is among the remains of this
+
+Memphitic Period that the earliest and best painting is found. In
+fact, all Egyptian art, literature, language, civilization, seem at
+their highest point of perfection in the period farthest removed from
+us. In that earliest age the finest portrait busts were cut, and the
+painting, found chiefly in the tombs and on the mummy-cases, was the
+attempted realistic with not a little of spirited individuality. The
+figure was rather short and squat, the face a little squarer than the
+conventional type afterward adopted, the action better, and the
+positions, attitudes, and gestures more truthful to local
+characteristics. The domestic scenes--hunting, fishing, tilling,
+grazing--were all shown in the one flat, planeless, shadowless method
+of representation, but with better drawing and color and more variety
+than appeared later on. Still, more or less conventional types were
+used, even in this early time, and continued to be used all through
+Egyptian history.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--VIGNETTE ON PAPYRUS, LOUVRE. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+The Memphitic Period comes down to the eleventh dynasty. In the
+fifteenth dynasty comes the invasion of the so-called Hyksos, or
+Shepherd Kings. Little is known of the Hyksos, and, in painting, the
+next stage is the
+
+Theban Period, which, culminated in Thebes, in Upper Egypt, with
+Rameses II., of the nineteenth dynasty. Painting had then changed
+somewhat both in subject and character. The time was one of great
+temple and palace building, and, though the painting of _genre_
+subjects in tombs and sepulchres continued, the general body of art
+became more monumental and subservient to architecture. Painting was
+put to work on temple and palace-walls, depicting processional scenes,
+either religious or monarchical, and vast in extent. The figure, too,
+changed slightly. It became longer, slighter, with a pronounced nose,
+thick lips, and long eye. From constant repetition, rather than any
+set rule or canon, this figure grew conventional, and was reproduced
+as a type in a mechanical and unvarying manner for hundreds of years.
+It was, in fact, only a variation from the original Egyptian type seen
+in the tombs of the earliest dynasties. There was a great quantity of
+art produced during the Theban Period, and of a graceful, decorative
+character, but it was rather monotonous by repetition and filled with
+established mannerisms. The Egyptian really never was a free worker,
+never an artist expressing himself; but, for his day, a skilled
+mechanic following time-honored example. In the
+
+Saitic Period the seat of empire was once more in Lower Egypt, and art
+had visibly declined with the waning power of the country. All
+spontaneity seemed to have passed out of it, it was repetition of
+repetition by poor workmen, and the simplicity and purity of the
+technic were corrupted by foreign influences. With the Alexandrian
+epoch Egyptian art came in contact with Greek methods, and grew
+imitative of the new art, to the detriment of its own native
+character. Eventually it was entirely lost in the art of the
+Greco-Roman world. It was never other than conventional, produced by a
+method almost as unvarying as that of the hieroglyphic writing, and in
+this very respect characteristic and reflective of the unchanging
+Orientals. Technically it had its shortcomings, but it conveyed the
+proper information to its beholders and was serviceable and graceful
+decoration for Egyptian days.
+
+     EXTANT PAINTINGS: The temples, palaces, and tombs of Egypt
+     still reveal Egyptian painting in almost as perfect a state
+     as when originally executed; the Ghizeh Museum has many fine
+     examples; and there are numerous examples in the museums at
+     Turin, Paris, Berlin, London, New York, and Boston. An
+     interesting collection belongs to the New York Historical
+     Society, and some of the latest "finds" of the Egypt
+     Exploration Fund are in the Boston Museum.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CHALDAEO-ASSYRIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Babelon, _Manual of Oriental
+     Antiquities_; Botta, _Monument de Ninive_; Budge,
+     _Babylonian Life and History_; Duncker, _History of
+     Antiquity_; Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_; Layard,
+     _Discoveries Among Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_; Lenormant,
+     _Manual of the Ancient History of the East_; Loftus,
+     _Travels in Chaldaea and Susiana_; Maspero, _Life in Ancient
+     Egypt and Assyria_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in
+     Chaldaea and Assyria_; Place, _Ninive et l'Assyrie_; Sayce,
+     _Assyria: Its Palaces, Priests, and People_.
+
+
+TIGRIS-EUPHRATES CIVILIZATION: In many respects the civilization along
+the Tigris-Euphrates was like that along the Nile. Both valleys were
+settled by primitive peoples, who grew rapidly by virtue of favorable
+climate and soil, and eventually developed into great nations headed
+by kings absolute in power. The king was the state in Egypt, and in
+Assyria the monarch was even more dominant and absolute. For the
+Pharaohs shared architecture, painting, and sculpture with the gods;
+but the Sargonids seem to have arrogated the most of these things to
+themselves alone.
+
+Religion was perhaps as real in Assyria as in Egypt, but it was less
+apparent in art. Certain genii, called gods or demons, appear in the
+bas-reliefs, but it is not yet settled whether they represent gods or
+merely legendary heroes or monsters of fable. There was no great
+demonstration of religion by form and color, as in Egypt. The
+Assyrians were Semites, and religion with them was more a matter of
+the spirit than the senses--an image in the mind rather than an image
+in metal or stone. The temple was not eloquent with the actions and
+deeds of the gods, and even the tomb, that fruitful source of art in
+Egypt, was in Chaldaea undecorated and in Assyria unknown. No one knows
+what the Assyrians did with their dead, unless they carried them back
+to the fatherland of the race, the Persian Gulf region, as the native
+tribes of Mesopotamia do to this day.
+
+ART MOTIVES: As in Egypt, there were two motives for art--illustration
+and decoration. Religion, as we have seen, hardly obtained at all. The
+king attracted the greatest attention. The countless bas-reliefs, cut
+on soft stone slabs, were pages from the history of the monarch in
+peace and war, in council, in the chase, or in processional rites.
+Beside him and around him his officers came in for a share of the
+background glory. Occasionally the common people had representations
+of their lives and their pursuits, but the main subject of all the
+valley art was the king and his doings. Sculpture and painting were
+largely illustrations accompanying a history written in the
+ever-present cuneiform characters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENAMELLED BRICK. NIMROUD. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+But, while serving as history, like the picture-writings of the
+Egyptians, this illustration was likewise decoration, and was designed
+with that end in view. Rows upon rows of partly colored bas-reliefs
+were arranged like a dado along the palace-wall, and above them
+wall-paintings, or glazed tiles in patterns, carried out the color
+scheme. Almost all of the color has now disappeared, but it must have
+been brilliant at one time, and was doubtless in harmony with the
+architecture. Both painting and sculpture were subordinate to and
+dependent upon architecture. Palace-building was the chief pursuit,
+and the other arts were called in mainly as adjuncts--ornamental
+records of the king who built.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ENAMELLED BRICK. KHORSABAD. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+THE TYPE, FORM, COLOR: There were only two distinct faces in Assyrian
+art--one with and one without a beard. Neither of them was a portrait
+except as attributes or inscriptions designated. The type was
+unendingly repeated. Women appeared in only one or two isolated cases,
+and even these are doubtful. The warrior, a strong, coarse-membered,
+heavily muscled creation, with a heavy, expressionless, Semitic face,
+appeared everywhere. The figure was placed in profile, with eye and
+bust twisted to show the front view, and the long feet projected one
+beyond the other, as in the Nile pictures. This was the Assyrian ideal
+of strength, dignity, and majesty, established probably in the early
+ages, and repeated for centuries with few characteristic variations.
+The figure was usually given in motion, walking, or riding, and had
+little of that grace seen in Egyptian painting, but in its place a
+great deal of rude strength. In modelling, the human form was not so
+knowingly rendered as the animal. The long Eastern clothing probably
+prevented the close study of the figure. This failure in anatomical
+exactness was balanced in part by minute details in the dress and
+accessories, productive of a rich ornamental effect.
+
+Hard stone was not found in the Mesopotamian regions. Temples were
+built of burnt brick, bas-reliefs were made upon alabaster slabs and
+heightened by coloring, and painting was largely upon tiles, with
+mineral paints, afterward glazed by fire. These glazed brick or tiles,
+with figured designs, were fixed upon the walls, arches, and
+archivolts by bitumen mortar, and made up the first mosaics of which
+we have record. There was a further painting upon plaster in
+distemper, of which some few traces remain. It did not differ in
+design from the bas-reliefs or the tile mosaics.
+
+The subjects used were the Assyrian type, shown somewhat slighter in
+painting than in sculpture, animals, birds, and other objects; but
+they were obviously not attempts at nature. The color was arbitrary,
+not natural, and there was little perspective, light-and-shade, or
+relief. Heavy outline bands of color appeared about the object, and
+the prevailing hues were yellow and blue. There was perhaps less
+symbolism and more direct representation in Assyria than in Egypt.
+There was also more feeling for perspective and space, as shown in
+such objects as water and in the mountain landscapes of the late
+bas-reliefs; but, in the main, there was no advance upon Egypt. There
+was a difference which was not necessarily a development. Painting, as
+we know the art to-day, was not practised in Chaldaea-Assyria. It was
+never free from a servitude to architecture and sculpture; it was
+hampered by conventionalities; and the painter was more artisan than
+artist, having little freedom or individuality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WILD ASS. BAS-RELIEF, BRITISH MUSEUM. (FROM
+PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+HISTORIC PERIODS: Chaldaea, of unknown antiquity, with Babylon its
+capital, is accounted the oldest nation in the Tigris-Euphrates
+valley, and, so far as is known, it was an original nation producing
+an original art. Its sculpture (especially in the Tello heads), and
+presumably its painting, were more realistic and individual than any
+other in the valley. Assyria coming later, and the heir of Chaldaea,
+was the
+
+Second Empire: There are two distinct periods of this Second Empire, the
+first lasting from 1,400 B.C., down to about 900 B.C., and in art
+showing a great profusion of bas-reliefs. The second closed about 625
+B.C., and in art produced much glazed-tile work and a more elaborate
+sculpture and painting. After this the Chaldaean provinces gained the
+ascendency again, and Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, became the first
+city of Asia. But the new Babylon did not last long. It fell before
+Cyrus and the Persians 536 B.C. Again, as in Egypt, the earliest art
+appears the purest and the simplest, and the years of Chaldaeo-Assyrian
+history known to us carry a record of change rather than of progress in
+art.
+
+     ART REMAINS: The most valuable collections of
+     Chaldaeo-Assyrian art are to be found in the Louvre and the
+     British Museum. The other large museums of Europe have
+     collections in this department, but all of them combined are
+     little compared with the treasures that still lie buried in
+     the mounds of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Excavations have
+     been made at Mugheir, Warka, Khorsabad, Kouyunjik, and
+     elsewhere, but many difficulties have thus far rendered
+     systematic work impossible. The complete history of
+     Chaldaeo-Assyria and its art has yet to be written.
+
+
+PERSIAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker,
+     Lenormant, Ely; Dieulafoy, _L'Art Antique de la Perse_;
+     Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_; Justi, _Geschichte des
+     alten Persiens_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in
+     Persia_.
+
+
+HISTORY AND ART MOTIVES: The Medes and Persians were the natural
+inheritors of Assyrian civilization, but they did not improve their
+birthright. The Medes soon lost their power. Cyrus conquered them, and
+established the powerful Persian monarchy upheld for two hundred years
+by Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes. Substantially the same conditions
+surrounded the Persians as the Assyrians--that is, so far as art
+production was concerned. Their conceptions of life were similar, and
+their use of art was for historic illustration of kingly doings and
+ornamental embellishment of kingly palaces. Both sculpture and
+painting were accessories of architecture.
+
+Of Median art nothing remains. The Persians left the record, but it
+was not wholly of their own invention, nor was it very extensive or
+brilliant. It had little originality about it, and was really only an
+echo of Assyria. The sculptors and painters copied their Assyrian
+predecessors, repeating at Persepolis what had been better told at
+Nineveh.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LIONS' FRIEZE, SUSA. (FROM PERROT AND CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+TYPES AND TECHNIC: The same subjects, types, and technical methods in
+bas-relief, tile, and painting on plaster were followed under Darius
+as under Shalmanezer. But the imitation was not so good as the
+original. The warrior, the winged monsters, the animals all lost
+something of their air of brutal defiance and their strength of
+modelling. Heroes still walked in procession along the bas-reliefs and
+glazed tiles, but the figure was smaller, more effeminate, the hair
+and beard were not so long, the drapery fell in slightly indicated
+folds at times, and there was a profusion of ornamental detail. Some
+of this detail and some modifications in the figure showed the
+influence of foreign nations other than the Greek; but, in the main,
+Persian art followed in the footsteps of Assyrian art. It was the last
+reflection of Mesopotamian splendor. For with the conquest of Persia
+by Alexander the book of expressive art in that valley was closed,
+and, under Islam, it remains closed to this day.
+
+     ART REMAINS: Persian painting is something about which
+     little is known because little remains. The Louvre contains
+     some reconstructed friezes made in mosaics of stamped brick
+     and square tile, showing figures of lions and a number of
+     archers. The coloring is particularly rich, and may give
+     some idea of Persian pigments. Aside from the chief museums
+     of Europe the bulk of Persian art is still seen half-buried
+     in the ruins of Persepolis and elsewhere.
+
+
+PHOENICIAN, CYPRIOTE, AND ASIA MINOR PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before cited, Babelon, Duncker, Ely,
+     Girard, Lenormant; Cesnola, _Cyprus_; Cesnola, _Cypriote
+     Antiquities in Metropolitan Museum of Art_; Kenrick,
+     _Phoenicia_; Movers, _Die Phonizier_; Perrot and Chipiez,
+     _History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus_; Perrot and
+     Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, Syria and Asia
+     Minor_; Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Phrygia,
+     Lydia, etc._; Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_.
+
+
+THE TRADING NATIONS: The coast-lying nations of the Eastern
+Mediterranean were hardly original or creative nations in a large
+sense. They were at different times the conquered dependencies of
+Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and their lands were but bridges over
+which armies passed from east to west or from west to east. Located on
+the Mediterranean between the great civilizations of antiquity they
+naturally adapted themselves to circumstances, and became the
+middlemen, the brokers, traders, and carriers of the ancient world.
+Their lands were not favorable to agriculture, but their sea-coasts
+rendered commerce easy and lucrative. They made a kingdom of the sea,
+and their means of livelihood were gathered from it. There is no
+record that the Egyptians ever traversed the Mediterranean, the
+Assyrians were not sailors, the Greeks had not yet arisen, and so
+probably Phoenicia and her neighbors had matters their own way.
+Colonies and trading stations were established at Cyprus, Carthage,
+Sardinia, the Greek islands, and the Greek mainland, and not only
+Eastern goods but Eastern ideas were thus carried to the West.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PAINTED HEAD FROM EDESSA. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+Politically, socially, and religiously these small middle nations were
+inconsequential. They simply adapted their politics or faith to the
+nation that for the time had them under its heel. What semi-original
+religion they possessed was an amalgamation of the religions of other
+nations, and their gods of bronze, terra-cotta, and enamel were
+irreverently sold in the market like any other produce.
+
+ART MOTIVES AND METHODS: Building, carving, and painting were
+practised among the coastwise nations, but upon no such extensive
+scale as in either Egypt or Assyria. The mere fact that they were
+people of the sea rather than of the land precluded extensive or
+concentrated development. Politically Phoenicia was divided among
+five cities, and her artistic strength was distributed in a similar
+manner. Such art as was produced showed the religious and decorative
+motives, and in its spiritless materialistic make-up, the commercial
+motive. It was at the best a hybrid, mongrel art, borrowed from many
+sources and distributed to many points of the compass. At one time it
+had a strong Assyrian cast, at another an Egyptian cast, and after
+Greece arose it accepted a retroactive influence from there.
+
+It is impossible to characterize the Phoenician type, and even the
+Cypriote type, though more pronounced, varies so with the different
+influences that it has no very striking individuality. Technically
+both the Phoenician and Cypriote were fair workmen in bronze and
+stone, and doubtless taught many technical methods to the early
+Greeks, besides making known to them those deities afterward adopted
+under the names of Aphrodite, Adonis, and Heracles, and familiarizing
+them with the art forms of Egypt and Assyria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--CYPRIOTE VASE DECORATION. (FROM PERROT AND
+CHIPIEZ.)]
+
+As for painting, there was undoubtedly figured decoration upon walls
+of stone and plaster, but there is not enough left to us from all the
+small nations like Phoenicia, Judea, Cyprus, and the kingdoms of
+Asia Minor, put together, to patch up a disjointed history. The first
+lands to meet the spoiler, their very ruins have perished. All that
+there is of painting comes to us in broken potteries and color traces
+on statuary. The remains of sculpture and architecture are of course
+better preserved. None of this intermediate art holds much rank by
+virtue of its inherent worth. It is its influence upon the West--the
+ideas, subjects, and methods it imparted to the Greeks--that gives it
+importance in art history.
+
+     ART REMAINS: In painting chiefly the vases in the
+     Metropolitan Museum, New York, the Louvre, British and
+     Berlin Museums. These give a poor and incomplete idea of the
+     painting in Asia Minor, Phoenicia and her colonies. The
+     terra-cottas, figurines in bronze, and sculptures can be
+     studied to more advantage. The best collection of Cypriote
+     antiquities is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. A new
+     collection of Judaic art has been recently opened in the
+     Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GREEK PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Baumeister, _Denkmaeler des klassischen
+     Altertums_--article "_Malerei_;" Birch, _History of Ancient
+     Pottery_; Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kuenstler_;
+     Collignon, _Mythologie figuree de la Grece_; Collignon,
+     _Manuel d'Archaeologie Grecque_; Cros et Henry,
+     _L'Encaustique et les autres procedes de Peinture chez les
+     Anciens_; Girard, _La Peinture Antique_; Murray, _Handbook
+     of Greek Archaeology_; Overbeck, _Antiken Schriftquellen zur
+     geschichte der bildenen Kunste bie den Griechen_; Perrot and
+     Chipiez, _History of Art in Greece_; Woerman, _Die
+     Landschaft in der Kunst der antiken Volker_; _see also books
+     on Etruscan and Roman painting_.
+
+
+GREECE AND THE GREEKS: The origin of the Greek race is not positively
+known. It is reasonably supposed that the early settlers in Greece
+came from the region of Asia Minor, either across the Hellespont or
+the sea, and populated the Greek islands and the mainland. When this
+was done has been matter of much conjecture. The early history is
+lost, but art remains show that in the period before Homer the Greeks
+were an established race with habits and customs distinctly
+individual. Egyptian and Asiatic influences are apparent in their art
+at this early time, but there is, nevertheless, the mark of a race
+peculiarly apart from all the races of the older world.
+
+The development of the Greek people was probably helped by favorable
+climate and soil, by commerce and conquest, by republican institutions
+and political faith, by freedom of mind and of body; but all these
+together are not sufficient to account for the keenness of intellect,
+the purity of taste, and the skill in accomplishment which showed in
+every branch of Greek life. The cause lies deeper in the fundamental
+make-up of the Greek mind, and its eternal aspiration toward mental,
+moral, and physical ideals. Perfect mind, perfect body, perfect
+conduct in this world were sought-for ideals. The Greeks aspired to
+completeness. The course of education and race development trained
+them physically as athletes and warriors, mentally as philosophers,
+law-makers, poets, artists, morally as heroes whose lives and actions
+emulated those of the gods, and were almost perfect for this world.
+
+ART MOTIVES: Neither the monarchy nor the priesthood commanded the
+services of the artist in Greece, as in Assyria and Egypt. There was
+no monarch in an oriental sense, and the chosen leaders of the Greeks
+never, until the late days, arrogated art to themselves. It was
+something for all the people.
+
+In religion there was a pantheon of gods established and worshipped
+from the earliest ages, but these gods were more like epitomes of
+Greek ideals than spiritual beings. They were the personified virtues
+of the Greeks, exemplars of perfect living; and in worshipping them
+the Greek was really worshipping order, conduct, repose, dignity,
+perfect life. The gods and heroes, as types of moral and physical
+qualities, were continually represented in an allegorical or legendary
+manner. Athene represented noble warfare, Zeus was majestic dignity
+and power, Aphrodite love, Phoebus song, Nike triumph, and all the
+lesser gods, nymphs, and fauns stood for beauties of nature or of
+life. The great bulk of Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting
+was put forth to honor these gods or heroes, and by so doing the
+artist repeated the national ideals and honored himself. The first
+motive of Greek art, then, was to praise Hellas and the Hellenic view
+of life. In part it was a religious motive, but with little of that
+spiritual significance and belief which ruled in Egypt, and later on
+in Italy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--ATTIC GRAVE PAINTING. (FROM BAUMEISTER.)]
+
+A second and ever-present motive in Greek painting was decoration.
+This appears in the tomb pottery of the earliest ages, and was carried
+on down to the latest times. Vase painting, wall painting, tablet and
+sculpture painting were all done with a decorative motive in view.
+Even the easel or panel pictures had some decorative effect about
+them, though they were primarily intended to convey ideas other than
+those of form and color.
+
+SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The gods and heroes, their lives and adventures,
+formed the early subjects of Greek painting. Certain themes taken
+from the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were as frequently shown as,
+afterward, the Annunciations in Italian painting. The traditional
+subjects, the Centaurs and Lapiths, the Amazon war, Theseus and
+Ariadne, Perseus and Andromeda, were frequently depicted. Humanity and
+actual Greek life came in for its share. Single figures, still-life,
+_genre_, caricature, all were shown, and as painting neared the
+Alexandrian age a semi-realistic portraiture came into vogue.
+
+The materials employed by the Greeks and their methods of work are
+somewhat difficult to ascertain, because there are few Greek pictures,
+except those on the vases, left to us. From the confusing accounts of
+the ancient writers, the vases, some Greek slabs in Italy, and the
+Roman paintings imitative of the Greek, we may gain a general idea.
+The early Greek work was largely devoted to pottery and tomb
+decoration, in which much in manner and method was borrowed from Asia,
+Phoenicia, and Egypt. Later on, painting appeared in flat outline on
+stone or terra-cotta slabs, sometimes representing processional
+scenes, as in Egypt, and doubtless done in a hybrid fresco-work
+similar to the Egyptian method. Wall paintings were done in fresco and
+distemper, probably upon the walls themselves, and also upon panels
+afterward let into the wall. Encaustic painting (color mixed with wax
+upon the panel and fused with a hot spatula) came in with the
+Sikyonian school. It is possible that the oil medium and canvas were
+known, but not probable that either was ever used extensively.
+
+There is no doubt about the Greeks being expert draughtsmen, though
+this does not appear until late in history. They knew the outlines
+well, and drew them with force and grace. That they modelled in strong
+relief is more questionable. Light-and-shade was certainly employed in
+the figure, but not in any modern way. Perspective in both figures and
+landscape was used; but the landscape was at first symbolic and
+rarely got beyond a decorative background for the figure. Greek
+composition we know little about, but may infer that it was largely a
+series of balances, a symmetrical adjustment of objects to fill a
+given space with not very much freedom allowed to the artist. In
+atmosphere, sunlight, color, and those peculiarly sensuous charms that
+belong to painting, there is no reason to believe that the Greeks
+approached the moderns. Their interest was chiefly centred in the
+human figure. Landscape, with its many beauties, was reserved for
+modern hands to disclose. Color was used in abundance, without doubt,
+but it was probably limited to the leading hues, with little of that
+refinement or delicacy known in painting to-day.
+
+ART HISTORY: For the history of Greek painting we have to rely upon
+the words of Aristotle, Plutarch, Pliny, Quintilian, Lucian, Cicero,
+Pausanias. Their accounts appear to be partly substantiated by the
+vase paintings, and such few slabs and Roman frescos as remain to us.
+There is no consecutive narrative. The story of painting originating
+from a girl seeing the wall-silhouette of her lover and filling it in
+with color, and the conjecture of painting having developed from
+embroidery work, have neither of them a foundation in fact. The
+earliest settlers of Greece probably learned painting from the
+Phoenicians, and employed it, after the Egyptian, Assyrian, and
+Phoenician manner, on pottery, terra-cotta slabs, and rude
+sculpture. It developed slower than sculpture perhaps; but were there
+anything of importance left to judge from, we should probably find
+that it developed in much the same manner as sculpture. Down to 500
+B.C. there was little more than outline filled in with flat
+monochromatic paint and with a decorative effect similar, perhaps, to
+that of the vase paintings. After that date come the more important
+names of artists mentioned by the ancient writers. It is difficult to
+assign these artists to certain periods or schools, owing to the
+insufficient knowledge we have about them. The following
+classifications and assignments may, therefore, in some instances, be
+questioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MUSE OF CORTONA, CORTONA MUSEUM.]
+
+OLDER ATTIC SCHOOL: The first painter of rank was Polygnotus (fl.
+475-455 B.C.), sometimes called the founder of Greek painting, because
+perhaps he was one of the first important painters in Greece proper.
+He seems to have been a good outline draughtsman, producing figures in
+profile, with little attempt at relief, perspective, or
+light-and-shade. His colors were local tones, but probably more like
+nature and more varied than anything in Egyptian painting. Landscapes,
+buildings, and the like, were given in a symbolic manner. Portraiture
+was a generalization, and in figure compositions the names of the
+principal characters were written near them for purposes of
+identification. The most important works of Polygnotus were the wall
+paintings for the Assembly Room of the Knidians at Delphi. The
+subjects related to the Trojan War and the adventures of Ulysses.
+
+Opposed to this flat, unrelieved style was the work of a follower,
+Agatharchos of Samos (fl. end of fifth century B.C.). He was a
+scene-painter, and by the necessities of his craft was led toward
+nature. Stage effect required a study of perspective, variation of
+light, and a knowledge of the laws of optics. The slight outline
+drawing of his predecessor was probably superseded by effective masses
+to create illusion. This was a distinct advance toward nature.
+Apollodorus (fl. end of fifth century B.C.) applied the principles of
+Agatharchos to figures. According to Plutarch, he was the first to
+discover variation in the shade of colors, and, according to Pliny,
+the first master to paint objects as they appeared in nature. He had
+the title of _skiagraphos_ (shadow-painter), and possibly gave a
+semi-natural background with perspective. This was an improvement, but
+not a perfection. It is not likely that the backgrounds were other
+than conventional settings for the figure. Even these were not at once
+accepted by the painters of the period, but were turned to profit in
+the hands of the followers.
+
+After the Peloponnesian Wars the art of painting seems to have
+flourished elsewhere than in Athens, owing to the Athenian loss of
+supremacy. Other schools sprang up in various districts, and one to
+call for considerable mention by the ancient writers was the
+
+IONIAN SCHOOL, which in reality had existed from the sixth century.
+The painters of this school advanced upon the work of Apollodorus as
+regards realistic effect. Zeuxis, whose fame was at its height during
+the Peloponnesian Wars, seems to have regarded art as a matter of
+illusion, if one may judge by the stories told of his work. The tale
+of his painting a bunch of grapes so like reality that the birds came
+to peck at them proves either that the painter's motive was deception,
+or that the narrator of the tale picked out the deceptive part of his
+picture for admiration. He painted many subjects, like Helen,
+Penelope, and many _genre_ pieces on panel. Quintilian says he
+originated light-and-shade, an achievement credited by Plutarch to
+Apollodorus. It is probable that he advanced light-and-shade.
+
+In illusion he seems to have been outdone by a rival, Parrhasios of
+Ephesus. Zeuxis deceived the birds with painted grapes, but Parrhasios
+deceived Zeuxis with a painted curtain. There must have been knowledge
+of color, modelling, and relief to have produced such an illusion, but
+the aim was petty and unworthy of the skill. There was evidently an
+advance technically, but some decline in the true spirit of art.
+Parrhasios finally suffered defeat at the hands of Timanthes of
+Kythnos, by a Contest between Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of
+Achilles. Timanthes's famous work was the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, of
+which there is a supposed Pompeian copy.
+
+SIKYONIAN SCHOOL: This school seems to have sprung up after the
+Peloponnesian Wars, and was perhaps founded by Eupompos, a
+contemporary of Parrhasios. His pupil Pamphilos brought the school to
+maturity. He apparently reacted from the deception motive of Zeuxis
+and Parrhasios, and taught academic methods of drawing, composing, and
+painting. He was also credited with bringing into use the encaustic
+method of painting, though it was probably known before his time. His
+pupil, Pausias, possessed some freedom of creation in _genre_ and
+still-life subjects. Pliny says he had great technical skill, as shown
+in the foreshortening of a black ox by variations of the black tones,
+and he obtained some fame by a figure of Methe (Intoxication) drinking
+from a glass, the face being seen through the glass. Again the
+motives seem trifling, but again advancing technical power is shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ODYSSEY LANDSCAPE, VATICAN. (FROM WOLTMANN AND
+WOERMANN.)]
+
+THEBAN-ATTIC SCHOOL: This was the fourth school of Greek painting.
+Nikomachus (fl. about 360 B.C.), a facile painter, was at its head.
+His pupil, Aristides, painted pathetic scenes, and was perhaps as
+remarkable for teaching art to the celebrated Euphranor (fl. 360 B.C.)
+as for his own productions. Euphranor had great versatility in the
+arts, and in painting was renowned for his pictures of the Olympian
+gods at Athens. His successor, Nikias (fl. 340-300 B.C.), was a
+contemporary of Praxiteles, the sculptor, and was possibly influenced
+by him in the painting of female figures. He was a technician of
+ability in composition, light-and-shade, and relief, and was praised
+for the roundness of his figures. He also did some tinting of
+sculpture, and is said to have tinted some of the works of
+Praxiteles.
+
+LATE PAINTERS: Contemporary with and following these last-named
+artists were some celebrated painters who really belong to the
+beginning of the Hellenistic Period (323 B.C.). At their head was
+Apelles, the painter of Philip and Alexander, and the climax of Greek
+painting. He painted many gods, heroes, and allegories, with much
+"gracefulness," as Pliny puts it. The Italian Botticelli, seventeen
+hundred years after him, tried to reproduce his celebrated Calumny,
+from Lucian's description of it. His chief works were his Aphrodite
+Anadyomene, carried to Rome by Augustus, and the portrait of Alexander
+with the Thunder-bolt. He was undoubtedly a superior man technically.
+Protogenes rivalled him, if we are to believe Petronius, by the foam
+on a dog's mouth and the wonder in the eye of a startled pheasant.
+Aetion, the painter of Alexander's Marriage to Roxana, was not able to
+turn the aim of painting from this deceptive illusion. After
+Alexander, painting passed still further into the imitative and the
+theatrical, and when not grandiloquent was infinitely little over
+cobbler-shops and huckster-stalls. Landscape for purposes of
+decorative composition, and floor painting, done in mosaic, came in
+during the time of the Diadochi. There were no great names in the
+latter days, and such painters as still flourished passed on to Rome,
+there to produce copies of the works of their predecessors.
+
+It is hard to reconcile the unworthy motive attributed to Greek
+painting by the ancient writers with the high aim of Greek sculpture.
+It is easier to think (and it is more probable) that the writers knew
+very little about art, and that they missed the spirit of Greek
+painting in admiring its insignificant details. That painting
+technically was at a high point of perfection as regards the figure,
+even the imitative Roman works indicate, and it can hardly be doubted
+that in spirit it was at one time equally strong.
+
+     EXTANT REMAINS: There are few wall or panel pictures of
+     Greek times in existence. Four slabs of stone in the Naples
+     Museum, with red outline drawings of Theseus, Silenos, and
+     some figures with masks, are probably Greek work from which
+     the color has scaled. A number of Roman copies of Greek
+     frescos and mosaics are in the Vatican, Capitoline, and
+     Naples Museums. All these pieces show an imitation of late
+     Hellenistic art--not the best period of Greek development.
+
+     THE VASES: The history of Greek painting in its remains is
+     traced with some accuracy in the decorative figures upon the
+     vases. The first ware--dating before the seventh century
+     B.C.--seems free from oriental influences in its designs.
+     The vase is reddish, the decoration is in tiers, bands, or
+     zig-zags, usually in black or brown, without the human
+     figure. The second kind of ware dates from about the middle
+     of the seventh century. It shows meander, wave, and other
+     designs, and is called the "geometrical" style. Later on
+     animals, rosettes, and vegetation appear that show Assyrian
+     influence. The decoration is profuse and the rude human
+     figure subordinate to it. The design is in black or
+     dark-brown, on a cream-colored slip. The third kind of ware
+     is the archaic or "strong" style. It dates from 500 B.C. to
+     the Peloponnesian Wars, and is marked by black figures upon
+     a yellow or red ground. White and purple are also used to
+     define flesh, hair, and white objects. The figure is stiff,
+     the action awkward, the composition is freer than before,
+     but still conventional. The subjects are the gods,
+     demi-gods, and heroes in scenes from their lives and
+     adventures. The fourth kind of ware dates down into the
+     Hellenistic age and shows red figures surrounded by a black
+     ground. The figure, the drawing, the composition are better
+     than at any other period and suggest a high excellence in
+     other forms of Greek painting. After Alexander, vase
+     painting seems to have shared the fate of wall and panel
+     painting. There was a striving for effect, with ornateness
+     and extravagance, and finally the art passed out entirely.
+
+     There was an establishment founded in Southern Italy which
+     imitated the Greek and produced the Apulian ware, but the
+     Romans gave little encouragement to vase painting, and about
+     65 B.C. it disappeared. Almost all the museums of the world
+     have collections of Greek vases. The British, Berlin, and
+     Paris collections are perhaps as complete as any.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--AMPHORE, LOWER ITALY.]
+
+
+ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: See Bibliography of Greek Painting and
+     also Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_; Graul, _Die
+     Portratgemalde aus den Grabstatten des Faiyum_; Helbig, _Die
+     Wandgemalde Campaniens_; Helbig, _Untersuchungen uber die
+     Campanische Wandmalerei_; Mau, _Geschichte der Decorativen
+     Wandmalerei in Pompeii_; Martha, _L'Archeologie Etrusque et
+     Romaine_.
+
+
+ETRUSCAN PAINTING: Painting in Etruria has not a great deal of
+interest for us just here. It was largely decorative and sepulchral in
+motive, and was employed in the painting of tombs, and upon vases and
+other objects placed in the tombs. It had a native way of expressing
+itself, which at first was neither Greek nor Oriental, and yet a
+reminder of both. Technically it was not well done. Before 500 B.C. it
+was almost childish in the drawing. After that date the figures were
+better, though short and squat. Those on the vases usually show
+outline drawing filled in with dull browns and yellows. Finally there
+was a mingling of Etruscan with Greek elements, and an imitation of
+Greek methods. It was at best a hybrid art, but of some importance
+from an archaeological point of view.
+
+ROMAN PAINTING: Roman art is an appendix to the art history of Greece.
+It originated little in painting, and was content to perpetuate the
+traditions of Greece in an imitative way. What was worse, it copied
+the degeneracy of Greece by following the degenerate Hellenistic
+paintings. In motive and method it was substantially the same work as
+that of the Greeks under the Diadochi. The subjects, again, were often
+taken from Greek story, though there were Roman historical scenes,
+_genre_ pieces, and many portraits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--RITUAL SCENE, PALATINE WALL PAINTING. (FROM
+WOLTMANN AND WOERMANN.)]
+
+In the beginning of the Empire tablet or panel painting was rather
+abandoned in favor of mural decoration. That is to say, figures or
+groups were painted in fresco on the wall and then surrounded by
+geometrical, floral, or architectural designs to give the effect of a
+panel let into the wall. Thus painting assumed a more decorative
+nature. Vitruvius says in effect that in the early days nature was
+followed in these wall paintings, but later on they became ornate and
+overdone, showing many unsupported architectural facades and
+impossible decorative framings. This can be traced in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There were four kinds of these wall paintings. (1.)
+Those that covered all the walls of a room and did away with dado,
+frieze, and the like, such as figures with large landscape
+backgrounds showing villas and trees. (2.) Small paintings separated
+or framed by pilasters. (3.) Panel pictures let into the wall or
+painted with that effect. (4.) Single figures with architectural
+backgrounds. The single figures were usually the best. They had grace
+of line and motion and all the truth to nature that decoration
+required. Some of the backgrounds were flat tints of red or black
+against which the figure was placed. In the larger pieces the
+composition was rather rambling and disjointed, and the color harsh.
+In light-and-shade and relief they probably followed the Greek
+example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PORTRAIT-HEAD. (FROM FAYOUM, GRAF COL.)]
+
+ROMAN PAINTERS: During the first five centuries Rome was between the
+influences of Etruria and Greece. The first paintings in Rome of which
+there is record were done in the Temple of Ceres by the Greek artists
+of Lower Italy, Gorgasos and Damophilos (fl. 493 B.C.). They were
+doubtless somewhat like the vase paintings--profile work, without
+light, shade, or perspective. At the time and after Alexander Greek
+influence held sway. Fabius Pictor (fl. about 300 B.C.) is one of the
+celebrated names in historical painting, and later on Pacuvius,
+Metrodorus, and Serapion are mentioned. In the last century of the
+Republic, Sopolis, Dionysius, and Antiochus Gabinius excelled in
+portraiture. Ancient painting really ends for us with the destruction
+of Pompeii (79 A.D.), though after that there were interesting
+portraits produced, especially those found in the Fayoum (Egypt).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Scribner's Magazine, vol. v., p. 219, New Series.]
+
+     EXTANT REMAINS: The frescos that are left to us to-day are
+     largely the work of mechanical decorators rather than
+     creative artists. They are to be seen in Rome, in the Baths
+     of Titus, the Vatican, Livia's Villa, Farnesina,
+     Rospigliosi, and Barberini Palaces, Baths of Caracalla,
+     Capitoline and Lateran Museums, in the houses of excavated
+     Pompeii, and the Naples Museum. Besides these there are
+     examples of Roman fresco and distemper in the Louvre and
+     other European Museums. Examples of Etruscan painting are to
+     be seen in the Vatican, Cortona, the Louvre, the British
+     Museum and elsewhere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 200-1250.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bayet, _L'Art Byzantin_; Bennett,
+     _Christian Archaeology_; Bosio, _La Roma Sotterranea_;
+     Burckhardt, _The Cicerone, an Art Guide to Painting in
+     Italy, ed. by Crowe_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _New History
+     of Painting in Italy_; De Rossi, _La Roma Sotterranea
+     Cristiana_; De Rossi, _Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana_;
+     Didron, _Christian Iconography_; Eastlake (Kuegler's),
+     _Handbook of Painting--The Italian Schools_; Garrucci,
+     _Storia dell' Arte Cristiana_; Gerspach, _La Mosaique_;
+     Lafenestre, _La Peinture Italienne_; Lanzi, _History of
+     Painting in Italy_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Les Manuscrits et
+     la Miniature_; Lindsay, _Sketches of the History of
+     Christian Art_; Martigny, _Dictionnaire des Antiques
+     Chretiennes_; Perate, _L'Archeologie Chretienne_; Reber,
+     _History of Mediaeval Art_; Rio, _Poetry of Christian Art_;
+     Lethaby, _Medieval Art_; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+     Christian Antiquities_.
+
+
+RISE OF CHRISTIANITY: Out of the decaying civilization of Rome sprang
+into life that remarkable growth known as Christianity. It was not
+welcomed by the Romans. It was scoffed at, scourged, persecuted, and,
+at one time, nearly exterminated. But its vitality was stronger than
+that of its persecutor, and when Rome declined, Christianity utilized
+the things that were Roman, while striving to live for ideas that were
+Christian.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CHAMBER IN CATACOMBS, SHOWING WALL
+DECORATION.]
+
+There was no revolt, no sudden change. The Christian idea made haste
+slowly, and at the start it was weighed down with many paganisms. The
+Christians themselves in all save religious faith, were Romans, and
+inherited Roman tastes, manners, and methods. But the Roman world,
+with all its classicism and learning, was dying. The decline socially
+and intellectually was with the Christians as well as the Romans.
+There was good reason for it. The times were out of joint, and almost
+everything was disorganized, worn out, decadent. The military life of
+the Empire had begun to give way to the monastic and feudal life of
+the Church. Quarrels and wars between the powers kept life at fever
+heat. In the fifth century came the inpouring of the Goths and Huns,
+and with them the sacking and plunder of the land. Misery and
+squalor, with intellectual blackness, succeeded. Art, science,
+literature, and learning degenerated to mere shadows of their former
+selves, and a semi-barbarism reigned for five centuries. During all
+this dark period Christian painting struggled on in a feeble way,
+seeking to express itself. It started Roman in form, method, and even,
+at times, in subject; it ended Christian, but not without a long
+period of gradual transition, during which it was influenced from many
+sources and underwent many changes.
+
+ART MOTIVES: As in the ancient world, there were two principal motives
+for painting in early Christian times--religion and decoration.
+Religion was the chief motive, but Christianity was a very different
+religion from that of the Greeks and Romans. The Hellenistic faith was
+a worship of nature, a glorification of humanity, an exaltation of
+physical and moral perfections. It dealt with the material and the
+tangible, and Greek art appealed directly to the sensuous and earthly
+nature of mankind. The Hebraic faith or Christianity was just the
+opposite of this. It decried the human, the flesh, and the worldly. It
+would have nothing to do with the beauty of this earth. Its hopes were
+centred upon the life hereafter. The teaching of Christ was the
+humility and the abasement of the human in favor of the spiritual and
+the divine. Where Hellenism appealed to the senses, Hebraism appealed
+to the spirit. In art the fine athletic figure, or, for that matter,
+any figure, was an abomination. The early Church fathers opposed it.
+It was forbidden by the Mosaic decalogue and savored of idolatry.
+
+But what should take its place in art? How could the new Christian
+ideas be expressed without form? Symbolism came in, but it was
+insufficient. A party in the Church rose up in favor of more direct
+representation. Art should be used as an engine of the Church to teach
+the Bible to those who could not read. This argument held good, and
+notwithstanding the opposition of the Iconoclastic party painting grew
+in favor. It lent itself to teaching and came under ecclesiastical
+domination. As it left the nature of the classic world and loosened
+its grasp on things tangible it became feeble and decrepit in its
+form. While it grew in sentiment and religious fervor it lost in
+bodily vigor and technical ability.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CATACOMB FRESCO. CRYPT OF S. CECILIA. THIRD
+CENTURY.]
+
+For many centuries the religious motive held strong, and art was the
+servant of the Church. It taught the Bible truths, but it also
+embellished and adorned the interiors of the churches. All the
+frescos, mosaics, and altar-pieces had a decorative motive in their
+coloring and setting. The church building was a house of refuge for
+the oppressed, and it was made attractive not only in its lines and
+proportions but in its ornamentation. Hence the two motives of the
+early work--religious teaching and decoration.
+
+SUBJECTS AND TECHNICAL METHODS: There was no distinct Judaic or
+Christian type used in the very early art. The painters took their
+models directly from the Roman frescos and marbles. It was the classic
+figure and the classic costume, and those who produced the painting
+of the early period were the degenerate painters of the classic world.
+The figure was rather short and squat, coarse in the joints, hands,
+and feet, and almost expressionless in the face. Christian life at
+that time was passion-strung, but the faces in art do not show it, for
+the reason that the Roman frescos were the painter's model, not the
+people of the Christian community about him. There was nothing like a
+realistic presentation at this time. The type alone was given.
+
+In the drawing it was not so good as that shown in the Roman and
+Pompeian frescos. There was a mechanism about its production, a
+copying by unskilled hands, a negligence or an ignorance of form that
+showed everywhere. The coloring, again, was a conventional scheme of
+flat tints in reddish-browns and bluish-greens, with heavy outline
+bands of brown. There was little perspective or background, and the
+figures in panels were separated by vines, leaves, or other ornamental
+division lines. Some relief was given to the figure by the brown
+outlines. Light-and-shade was not well rendered, and composition was
+formal. The great part of this early work was done in fresco after the
+Roman formula, and was executed on the walls of the Catacombs. Other
+forms of art showed in the gilded glasses, in manuscript illumination,
+and, later, in the mosaics.
+
+Technically the work begins to decline from the beginning in
+proportion as painting was removed from the knowledge of the ancient
+world. About the fifth century the figure grew heavy and stiff. A new
+type began to show itself. The Roman toga was exchanged for the long
+liturgical garment which hid the proportions of the body, the lines
+grew hard and dark, a golden nimbus appeared about the head, and the
+patriarchal in appearance came into art. The youthful Orphic face of
+Christ changed to a solemn visage, with large, round eyes, saint-like
+beard, and melancholy air. The classic qualities were fast
+disappearing. Eastern types and elements were being introduced
+through Byzantium. Oriental ornamentation, gold embossing, rich color
+were doing away with form, perspective, light-and-shade, and
+background.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--CHRIST AS GOOD SHEPHERD. MOSAIC, RAVENNA,
+FIFTH CENTURY.]
+
+The color was rich and the mechanical workmanship fair for the time,
+but the figure had become paralytic. It shrouded itself in a sack-like
+brocaded gown, had no feet at times, and instead of standing on the
+ground hung in the air. Facial expression ran to contorted features,
+holiness became moroseness, and sadness sulkiness. The flesh was
+brown, the shadows green-tinted, giving an unhealthy look to the
+faces. Add to this the gold ground (a Persian inheritance), the gilded
+high lights, the absence of perspective, and the composing of groups
+so that the figures looked piled one upon another instead of receding,
+and we have the style of painting that prevailed in Byzantium and
+Italy from about the ninth to the thirteenth century. Nothing of a
+technical nature was in its favor except the rich coloring and the
+mechanical adroitness of the fitting.
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING: The earliest Christian painting appeared on
+the walls of the Catacombs in Rome. These were decorated with panels
+and within the panels were representations of trailing vines, leaves,
+fruits, flowers, with birds and little genii or cupids. It was
+painting similar to the Roman work, and had no Christian significance
+though in a Christian place. Not long after, however, the desire to
+express something of the faith began to show itself in a symbolic way.
+The cups and the vases became marked with the fish, because the Greek
+spelling of the word "icthus" gave the initials of the Christian
+confession of faith. The paintings of the shepherd bearing a sheep
+symbolized Christ and his flock; the anchor meant the Christian hope;
+the phoenix immortality; the ship the Church; the cock watchfulness,
+and so on. And at this time the decorations began to have a double
+meaning. The vine came to represent the "I am the vine" and the birds
+grew longer wings and became doves, symbolizing pure Christian souls.
+
+It has been said this form of art came about through fear of
+persecution, that the Christians hid their ideas in symbols because
+open representation would be followed by violence and desecration.
+Such was hardly the case. The emperors persecuted the living, but the
+dead and their sepulchres were exempt from sacrilege by Roman law.
+They probably used the symbol because they feared the Roman figure and
+knew no other form to take its place. But symbolism did not supply the
+popular need; it was impossible to originate an entirely new figure;
+so the painters went back and borrowed the old Roman form. Christ
+appeared as a beardless youth in Phrygian costume, the Virgin Mary was
+a Roman matron, and the Apostles looked like Roman senators wearing
+the toga.
+
+Classic story was also borrowed to illustrate Bible truth. Hermes
+carrying the sheep was the Good Shepherd, Psyche discovering Cupid was
+the curiosity of Eve, Ulysses closing his ears to the Sirens was the
+Christian resisting the tempter. The pagan Orpheus charming the
+animals of the wood was finally adopted as a symbol, or perhaps an
+ideal likeness of Christ. Then followed more direct representation in
+classic form and manner, the Old Testament prefiguring and emphasizing
+the New. Jonah appeared cast into the sea and cast by the whale on dry
+land again as a symbol of the New Testament resurrection, and also as
+a representation of the actual occurrence. Moses striking the rock
+symbolized life eternal, and David slaying Goliath was Christ
+victorious.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--CHRIST AND SAINTS. FRESCO. S. GENEROSA,
+SEVENTH CENTURY (?).]
+
+The chronology of the Catacombs painting is very much mixed, but it is
+quite certain there was degeneracy from the start. The cause was
+neglect of form, neglect of art as art, mechanical copying instead of
+nature study, and finally, the predominance of the religious idea over
+the forms of nature. With Constantine Christianity was recognized as
+the national religion. Christian art came out of the Catacombs and
+began to show itself in illuminations, mosaics, and church
+decorations. Notwithstanding it was now free from restraint it did not
+improve. Church traditions prevailed, sentiment bordered upon
+sentimentality, and the technic of painting passed from bad to worse.
+
+The decline continued during the sixth and seventh centuries, owing
+somewhat perhaps to the influence of Byzantium and the introduction
+into Italy of Eastern types and elements. In the eighth century the
+Iconoclastic controversy broke out again in fury with the edict of Leo
+the Isaurian. This controversy was a renewal of the old quarrel in the
+Church about the use of pictures and images. Some wished them for
+instruction in the Word; others decried them as leading to idolatry.
+It was a long quarrel of over a hundred years' duration, and a deadly
+one for art. When it ended, the artists were ordered to follow the
+traditions, not to make any new creations, and not to model any figure
+in the round. The nature element in art was quite dead at that time,
+and the order resulted only in diverting the course of painting toward
+the unrestricted miniatures and manuscripts. The native Italian art
+was crushed for a time by this new ecclesiastical burden. It did not
+entirely disappear, but it gave way to the stronger, though equally
+restricted art that had been encroaching upon it for a long time--the
+art of Byzantium.
+
+BYZANTINE PAINTING: Constantinople was rebuilt and rechristened by
+Constantine, a Christian emperor, in the year 328 A.D. It became a
+stronghold of Christian traditions, manners, customs, art. But it was
+not quite the same civilization as that of Rome and the West. It was
+bordered on the south and east by oriental influences, and much of
+Eastern thought, method, and glamour found its way into the Christian
+community. The artists fought this influence, stickling a long time
+for the severer classicism of ancient Greece. For when Rome fell the
+traditions of the Old World centred around Constantinople. But classic
+form was ever being encroached upon by oriental richness of material
+and color. The struggle was a long but hopeless one. As in Italy,
+form failed century by century. When, in the eighth century, the
+Iconoclastic controversy cut away the little Greek existing in it, the
+oriental ornament was about all that remained.
+
+There was no chance for painting to rise under the prevailing
+conditions. Free artistic creation was denied the artist. An advocate
+of painting at the Second Nicene Council declared that: "It is not the
+invention of the painter that creates the picture, but an inviolable
+law of the Catholic Church. It is not the painter but the holy fathers
+who have to invent and dictate. To them manifestly belongs the
+composition, to the painter only the execution." Painting was in a
+strait-jacket. It had to follow precedent and copy what had gone
+before in old Byzantine patterns. Both in Italy and in Byzantium the
+creative artist had passed away in favor of the skilled artisan--the
+repeater of time-honored forms or colors. The workmanship was good for
+the time, and the coloring and ornamental borders made a rich setting,
+but the real life of art had gone. A long period of heavy, morose,
+almost formless art, eloquent of mediaeval darkness and ignorance,
+followed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--EZEKIEL BEFORE THE LORD. MS. ILLUMINATION.
+PARIS, NINTH CENTURY.]
+
+It is strange that such an art should be adopted by foreign nations,
+and yet it was. Its bloody crucifixions and morbid madonnas were well
+fitted to the dark view of life held during the Middle Ages, and its
+influence was wide-spread and of long duration. It affected French and
+German art, it ruled at the North, and in the East it lives even to
+this day. That it strongly affected Italy is a very apparent fact.
+Just when it first began to show its influence there is matter of
+dispute. It probably gained a foothold at Ravenna in the sixth
+century, when that province became a part of the empire of Justinian.
+Later it permeated Rome, Sicily, and Naples at the south, and Venice
+at the north. With the decline of the early Christian art of Italy
+this richer, and in many ways more acceptable, Byzantine art came in,
+and, with Italian modifications, usurped the field. It did not
+literally crush out the native Italian art, but practically it
+superseded it, or held it in check, from the ninth to the twelfth
+century. After that the corrupted Italian art once more came to the
+front.
+
+     EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE REMAINS: The best examples of
+     Early Christian painting are still to be seen in the
+     Catacombs at Rome. Mosaics in the early churches of Rome,
+     Ravenna, Naples, Venice, Constantinople. Sculptures,
+     ivories, and glasses in the Lateran, Ravenna, and Vatican
+     museums. Illuminations in Vatican and Paris libraries.
+     Almost all the museums of Europe, those of the Vatican and
+     Naples particularly, have some examples of Byzantine work.
+     The older altar-pieces of the early Italian churches date
+     back to the mediaeval period and show Byzantine influence.
+     The altar-pieces of the Greek and Russian churches show the
+     same influence even in modern work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+GOTHIC PERIOD. 1250-1400.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+     Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Lindsay, Reber;
+     also Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in the National Gallery,
+     London_ (_unabridged edition_); Cartier, _Vie de Fra
+     Angelico_; Foerster, _Leben und Werke des Fra Angelico_;
+     Habich, _Vade Mecum pour la Peinture Italienne des Anciens
+     Maitres_; Lacroix, _Les Arts au Moyen-Age et a la Epoque de
+     la Renaissance_; Mantz, _Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de la Peinture
+     Italienne_; Morelli, _Italian Masters in German Galleries_;
+     Morelli, _Italian Masters, Critical Studies in their Works_;
+     Rumohr, _Italienische Forschungen_; Selincourt, _Giotto_;
+     Stillman, _Old Italian Masters_; Vasari, _Lives of the Most
+     Eminent Painters_; consult also General Bibliography (p.
+     xv).
+
+
+SIGNS OF THE AWAKENING: It would seem at first as though nothing but
+self-destruction could come to that struggling, praying,
+throat-cutting population that terrorized Italy during the Mediaeval
+Period. The people were ignorant, the rulers treacherous, the passions
+strong, and yet out of the Dark Ages came light. In the thirteenth
+century the light grew brighter, but the internal dissensions did not
+cease. The Hohenstaufen power was broken, the imperial rule in Italy
+was crushed. Pope and emperor no longer warred each other, but the
+cries of "Guelf" and "Ghibelline" had not died out.
+
+Throughout the entire Romanesque and Gothic periods (1000-1400) Italy
+was torn by political wars, though the free cities, through their
+leagues of protection and their commerce, were prosperous. A
+commercial rivalry sprang up among the cities. Trade with the East,
+manufactures, banking, all flourished; and even the philosophies, with
+law, science, and literature, began to be studied. The spirit of
+learning showed itself in the founding of schools and universities.
+Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, reflecting respectively religion,
+classic learning, and the inclination toward nature, lived and gave
+indication of the trend of thought. Finally the arts, architecture,
+sculpture, painting, began to stir and take upon themselves new
+appearances.
+
+SUBJECTS AND METHODS: In painting, though there were some portraits
+and allegorical scenes produced during the Gothic period, the chief
+theme was Bible story. The Church was the patron, and art was only the
+servant, as it had been from the beginning. It was the instructor and
+consoler of the faithful, a means whereby the Church made converts,
+and an adornment of wall and altar. It had not entirely escaped from
+symbolism. It was still the portrayal of things for what they meant,
+rather than for what they looked. There was no such thing then as art
+for art's sake. It was art for religion's sake.
+
+The demand for painting increased, and its subjects multiplied with
+the establishment at this time of the two powerful orders of Dominican
+and Franciscan monks. The first exacted from the painters more learned
+and instructive work; the second wished for the crucifixions, the
+martyrdoms, the dramatic deaths, wherewith to move people by emotional
+appeal. To offset this the ultra-religious character of painting was
+encroached upon somewhat by the growth of the painters' guilds, and
+art production largely passing into the hands of laymen. In
+consequence painting produced many themes, but, as yet, only after the
+Byzantine style. The painter was more of a workman than an artist. The
+Church had more use for his fingers than for his creative ability. It
+was his business to transcribe what had gone before. This he did, but
+not without signs here and there of uneasiness and discontent with the
+pattern. There was an inclination toward something truer to nature,
+but, as yet, no great realization of it. The study of nature came in
+very slowly, and painting was not positive in statement until the time
+of Giotto and Lorenzetti.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--GIOTTO, FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. ARENA CHAP.
+PADUA.]
+
+The best paintings during the Gothic period were executed upon the
+walls of the churches in fresco. The prepared color was laid on wet
+plaster, and allowed to soak in. The small altar and panel pictures
+were painted in distemper, the gold ground and many Byzantine features
+being retained by most of the painters, though discarded by some few.
+
+CHANGES IN THE TYPE, ETC.: The advance of Italian art in the Gothic
+age was an advance through the development of the imposed Byzantine
+pattern. It was not a revolt or a starting out anew on a wholly
+original path. When people began to stir intellectually the artists
+found that the old Byzantine model did not look like nature. They
+began, not by rejecting it, but by improving it, giving it slight
+movements here and there, turning the head, throwing out a hand, or
+shifting the folds of drapery. The Eastern type was still seen in the
+long pathetic face, oblique eyes, green flesh tints, stiff robes, thin
+fingers, and absence of feet; but the painters now began to modify and
+enliven it. More realistic Italian faces were introduced,
+architectural and landscape backgrounds encroached upon the Byzantine
+gold grounds, even portraiture was taken up.
+
+This looks very much like realism, but we must not lay too much stress
+upon it. The painters were taking notes of natural appearances. It
+showed in features like the hands, feet, and drapery; but the anatomy
+of the body had not yet been studied, and there is no reason to
+believe their study of the face was more than casual, nor their
+portraits more than records from memory.
+
+No one painter began this movement. The whole artistic region of Italy
+was at that time ready for the advance. That all the painters moved at
+about the same pace, and continued to move at that pace down to the
+fifteenth century, that they all based themselves upon Byzantine
+teaching, and that they all had a similar style of working is proved
+by the great difficulty in attributing their existing pictures to
+certain masters, or even certain schools. There are plenty of pictures
+in Italy to-day that might be attributed to either Florence or Sienna,
+Giotto or Lorenzetti, or some other master; because though each master
+and each school had slight peculiarities, yet they all had a common
+origin in the art traditions of the time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ORCAGNA, PARADISE (DETAIL). S. M. NOVELLA,
+FLORENCE.]
+
+FLORENTINE SCHOOL: Cimabue (1240?-1302?) seems the most notable
+instance in early times of a Byzantine-educated painter who improved
+upon the traditions. He has been called the father of Italian
+painting, but Italian painting had no father. Cimabue was simply a man
+of more originality and ability than his contemporaries, and departed
+further from the art teachings of the time without decidedly opposing
+them. He retained the Byzantine pattern, but loosened the lines of
+drapery somewhat, turned the head to one side, infused the figure with
+a little appearance of life. His contemporaries elsewhere in Italy
+were doing the same thing, and none of them was any more than a link
+in the progressive chain.
+
+Cimabue's pupil, Giotto (1266?-1337), was a great improver on all his
+predecessors because he was a man of extraordinary genius. He would
+have been great in any time, and yet he was not great enough to throw
+off wholly the Byzantine traditions. He tried to do it. He studied
+nature in a general way, changed the type of face somewhat by making
+the jaw squarer, and gave it expression and nobility. To the figure he
+gave more motion, dramatic gesture, life. The drapery was cast in
+broader, simpler masses, with some regard for line, and the form and
+movement of the body were somewhat emphasized through it. In methods
+Giotto was more knowing, but not essentially different from his
+contemporaries; his subjects were from the common stock of religious
+story; but his imaginative force and invention were his own. Bound by
+the conventionalities of his time he could still create a work of
+nobility and power. He came too early for the highest achievement. He
+had genius, feeling, fancy, almost everything except accurate
+knowledge of the laws of nature and art. His art was the best of its
+time, but it still lacked, nor did that of his immediate followers go
+much beyond it technically.
+
+Taddeo Gaddi (1300?-1366?) was Giotto's chief pupil, a painter of much
+feeling, but lacking in the large elements of construction and in the
+dramatic force of his master. Agnolo Gaddi (1333?-1396?), Antonio
+Veneziano (1312?-1388?), Giovanni da Milano (fl. 1366), Andrea da
+Firenze (fl. 1377), were all followers of the Giotto methods, and were
+so similar in their styles that their works are often confused and
+erroneously attributed. Giottino (1324?-1357?) was a supposed imitator
+of Giotto, of whom little is known. Orcagna (1329?-1376?) still
+further advanced the Giottesque type and method. He gathered up and
+united in himself all the art teachings of his time. In working out
+problems of form and in delicacy and charm of expression he went
+beyond his predecessors. He was a many-sided genius, knowing not only
+in a matter of natural appearance, but in color problems, in
+perspective, shadows, and light. His art was further along toward the
+Renaissance than that of any other Giottesque. He almost changed the
+character of painting, and yet did not live near enough to the
+fifteenth century to accomplish it completely. Spinello Aretino
+(1332?-1410?) was the last of the great Giotto followers. He carried
+out the teachings of the school in technical features, such as
+composition, drawing, and relief by color rather than by light, but he
+lacked the creative power of Giotto. In fact, none of the Giottesque
+can be said to have improved upon the master, taking him as a whole.
+Toward the beginning of the fifteenth century the school rather
+declined.
+
+SIENNESE SCHOOL: The art teachings and traditions of the past seemed
+deeper rooted at Sienna than at Florence. Nor was there so much
+attempt to shake them off as at Florence. Giotto broke the immobility
+of the Byzantine model by showing the draped figure in action. So also
+did the Siennese to some extent, but they cared more for the
+expression of the spiritual than the beauty of the natural. The
+Florentines were robust, resolute, even a little coarse at times; the
+Siennese were more refined and sentimental. Their fancy ran to
+sweetness of face rather than to bodily vigor. Again, their art was
+more ornate, richer in costume, color, and detail than Florentine art;
+but it was also more finical and narrow in scope.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A. LORENZETTI. PEACE (DETAIL). TOWN-HALL,
+SIENNA.]
+
+There was little advance upon Byzantinism in the work of Guido da
+Sienna (fl. 1275). Even Duccio (1260?----?), the real founder of the
+Siennese school, retained Byzantine methods and adopted the school
+subjects, but he perfected details of form, such as the hands and
+feet, and while retaining the long Byzantine face, gave it a
+melancholy tenderness of expression. He possessed no dramatic force,
+but had a refined workmanship for his time--a workmanship perhaps
+better, all told, than that of his Florentine contemporary, Cimabue.
+Simone di Martino (1283?-1344?) changed the type somewhat by rounding
+the form. His drawing was not always correct, but in color he was good
+and in detail exact and minute. He probably profited somewhat by the
+example of Giotto.
+
+The Siennese who came the nearest to Giotto's excellence were the
+brothers Ambrogio (fl. 1342) and Pietro (fl. 1350) Lorenzetti. There
+is little known about them except that they worked together in a
+similar manner. The most of their work has perished, but what remains
+shows an intellectual grasp equal to any of the age. The Sienna
+frescos by Ambrogio Lorenzetti are strong in facial character, and
+some of the figures, like that of the white-robed Peace, are beautiful
+in their flow of line. Lippo Memmi (?-1356), Bartolo di Fredi
+(1330-1410), and Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422), were other painters of
+the school. The late men rather carried detail to excess, and the
+school grew conventional instead of advancing.
+
+TRANSITION PAINTERS: Several painters, Starnina (1354-1413), Gentile
+da Fabriano (1360?-1440?), Fra Angelico (1387-1455), have been put
+down in art history as the makers of the transition from Gothic to
+Renaissance painting. They hardly deserve the title. There was no
+transition. The development went on, and these painters, coming late
+in the fourteenth century and living into the fifteenth, simply showed
+the changing style, the advance in the study of nature and the technic
+of art. Starnina's work gave strong evidence of the study of form, but
+it was no such work as Masaccio's. There is always a little of the
+past in the present, and these painters showed traces of Byzantinism
+in details of the face and figure, in coloring, and in gold embossing.
+
+Gentile had all that nicety of finish and richness of detail and color
+characteristic of the Siennese. Being closer to the Renaissance than
+his predecessors he was more of a nature student. He was the first man
+to show the effect of sunlight in landscape, the first one to put a
+gold sun in the sky. He never, however, outgrew Gothic methods and
+really belongs in the fourteenth century. This is true of Fra
+Angelico. Though he lived far into the Early Renaissance he did not
+change his style and manner of work in conformity with the work of
+others about him. He was the last inheritor of the Giottesque
+traditions. Religious sentiment was the strong feature of his art. He
+was behind Giotto and Lorenzetti in power and in imagination, and
+behind Orcagna as a painter. He knew little of light, shade,
+perspective, and color, and in characterization was feeble, except in
+some late work. One face or type answered him for all classes of
+people--a sweet, fair face, full of divine tenderness. His art had
+enough nature in it to express his meanings, but little more. He was
+pre-eminently a devout painter, and really the last of the great
+religionists in painting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--FRA ANGELICO. ANGEL (DETAIL). UFFIZI.]
+
+The other regions of Italy had not at this time developed schools of
+painting of sufficient consequence to mention.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Cimabue, Madonnas S. M.
+     Novella and Acad. Florence, frescos Upper Church of Assisi
+     (?); Giotto, frescos Upper and Lower churches Assisi, best
+     work Arena chapel Padua, Bardi and Peruzzi chapels S. Croce,
+     injured frescos Bargello Florence; Taddeo Gaddi, frescos
+     entrance wall Baroncelli chapel S. Croce, Spanish chapel S.
+     M. Novella (designed by Gaddi (?)); Agnolo Gaddi frescos in
+     choir S. Croce, S. Jacopo tra Fossi Florence, panel pictures
+     Florence Acad.; Giovanni da Milano, Bewailing of Christ
+     Florence Acad., Virgin enthroned Prato Gal., altar-piece
+     Uffizi Gal., frescos S. Croce Florence; Antonio Veneziano,
+     frescos in ceiling of Spanish chapel, S. M. Novella, Campo
+     Santo Pisa; Orcagna, altar-piece Last Judgment and Paradise
+     Strozzi chapel S. M. Novella, S. Zenobio Duomo, Saints
+     Medici chapel S. Croce, Descent of Holy Spirit Badia
+     Florence, altar-piece Nat. Gal. Lon.; Spinello Aretino, Life
+     of St. Benedict S. Miniato al Monte near Florence,
+     Annunciation Convent degl' Innocenti Arezzo, frescos Campo
+     Santo Pisa, Coronation Florence Acad., Barbarossa frescos
+     Palazzo Publico Sienna; Andrea da Firenze, Church Militant,
+     Calvary, Crucifixion Spanish chapel, Upper series of Life of
+     S. Raniera Campo Santo Pisa.
+
+     SIENNESE--Guido da Sienna, Madonna S. Domenico Sienna;
+     Duccio, panels Duomo and Acad. Sienna, Madonna Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Simone di Martino, frescos Palazzo Pubblico, Sienna,
+     altar-piece and panels Seminario Vescovile, Pisa Gal.,
+     altar-piece and Madonna Opera del Duomo Orvieto; Lippo
+     Memmi, frescos Palazzo del Podesta S. Gemignano,
+     Annunciation Uffizi Florence; Bartolo di Fredi, altar-pieces
+     Acad. Sienna, S. Francesco Montalcino; Taddeo di Bartolo,
+     Palazzo Pubblico Sienna, Duomo, S. Gemignano, S. Francesco
+     Pisa; Ambrogio Lorenzetti, frescos Palazzo Pubblico Sienna,
+     Triumph of Death (with Pietro Lorenzetti) Campo Santo Pisa,
+     St. Francis frescos Lower Church Assisi, S. Francesco and S.
+     Agostino Sienna, Annunciation Sienna Acad., Presentation
+     Florence Acad.; Pietro Lorenzetti, Virgin S. Ansano,
+     altar-pieces Duomo Sienna, Parish Church of Arezzo (worked
+     with his brother Ambrogio).
+
+     TRANSITION PAINTERS: Starnina, frescos Duomo Prato
+     (completed by pupil); Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration
+     Florence Acad., Coronation Brera Milan, Madonna Duomo
+     Orvieto; Fra Angelico, Coronation and many small panels
+     Uffizi, many pieces Life of Christ Florence Acad., other
+     pieces S. Marco Florence, Last Judgment Duomo, Orvieto.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE. 1400-1500.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Crowe and
+     Cavalcaselle, Eastlake, Lafenestre, Lanzi, Habich, Lacroix,
+     Mantz, Morelli, Burton, Rumohr, Stillman, Vasari; also Crowe
+     and Cavalcaselle, _History of Painting in North Italy_;
+     Berenson, _Florentine Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson,
+     _Venetian Painters of Renaissance_; Berenson, _Central
+     Italian Painters of Renaissance_; _Study and Criticism of
+     Italian Art_; Boschini, _La Carta del Navegar_; Calvi,
+     _Memorie della Vita ed opere di Francesco Raibolini_; Cibo,
+     _Niccolo Alunno e la scuola Umbra_; Citadella, _Notizie
+     relative a Ferrara_; Cruttwell, _Verrocchio_; Cruttwell,
+     _Pollaiuolo_; Morelli, Anonimo, _Notizie_; Mezzanotte,
+     _Commentario della Vita di Pietro Vanucci_; Mundler, _Essai
+     d'une Analyse critique de la Notice des tableaux Italiens au
+     Louvre_; Muntz, _Les Precurseurs de la Renaissance_; Muntz,
+     _La Renaissance en Italie et en France_; Patch, _Life of
+     Masaccio_; Hill, Pisanello, _Publications of the Arundel
+     Society_; Richter, _Italian Art in National Gallery,
+     London_; Ridolfi, _Le Meraviglie dell' Arte_; Rosini,
+     _Storia della Pittura Italiana_; Schnaase, _Geschichte der
+     bildenden Kunste_; Symonds, _Renaissance in Italy--the Fine
+     Arts_; Vischer, _Lucas Signorelli und die Italienische
+     Renaissance_; Waagen, _Art Treasures_; Waagen, _Andrea
+     Mantegna und Luca Signorelli_ (in _Raumer's Taschenbuch_,
+     (1850)); Zanetti, _Della Pittura Veneziana_.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN MIND: There is no way of explaining the Italian fondness
+for form and color other than by considering the necessities of the
+people and the artistic character of the Italian mind. Art in all its
+phases was not only an adornment but a necessity of Christian
+civilization. The Church taught people by sculpture, mosaic,
+miniature, and fresco. It was an object-teaching, a grasping of ideas
+by forms seen in the mind, not a presenting of abstract ideas as in
+literature. Printing was not known. There were few manuscripts, and
+the majority of people could not read. Ideas came to them for
+centuries through form and color, until at last the Italian mind took
+on a plastic and pictorial character. It saw things in symbolic
+figures, and when the Renaissance came and art took the lead as one of
+its strongest expressions, painting was but the color-thought and
+form-language of the people.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--FRA FILIPPO. MADONNA. UFFIZI.]
+
+And these people, by reason of their peculiar education, were an
+exacting people, knowing what was good and demanding it from the
+artists. Every Italian was, in a way, an art critic, because every
+church in Italy was an art school. The artists may have led the
+people, but the people spurred on the artists, and so the Italian mind
+went on developing and unfolding until at last it produced the great
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+THE AWAKENING: The Italian civilization of the fourteenth century was
+made up of many impulses and inclinations, none of them very strongly
+defined. There was a feeling about in the dark, a groping toward the
+light, but the leaders stumbled often on the road. There was good
+reason for it. The knowledge of the ancient world lay buried under the
+ruins of Rome. The Italians had to learn it all over again, almost
+without a precedent, almost without a preceptor. With the fifteenth
+century the horizon began to brighten. The Early Renaissance was
+begun. It was not a revolt, a reaction, or a starting out on a new
+path. It was a development of the Gothic period; and the three
+inclinations of the Gothic period--religion, the desire for classic
+knowledge, and the study of nature--were carried into the art of the
+time with greater realization.
+
+The inference must not be made that because nature and the antique
+came to be studied in Early Renaissance times that therefore religion
+was neglected. It was not. It still held strong, and though with the
+Renaissance there came about a strange mingling of crime and
+corruption, aestheticism and immorality, yet the Church was never
+abandoned for an hour. When enlightenment came, people began to doubt
+the spiritual power of the Papacy. They did not cringe to it so
+servilely as before. Religion was not violently embraced as in the
+Middle Ages, but there was no revolt. The Church held the power and
+was still the patron of art. The painter's subjects extended over
+nature, the antique, the fable, allegory, history, portraiture; but
+the religious subject was not neglected. Fully three-quarters of all
+the fifteenth-century painting was done for the Church, at her
+command, and for her purposes.
+
+But art was not so wholly pietistic as in the Gothic age. The study of
+nature and the antique materialized painting somewhat. The outside
+world drew the painter's eyes, and the beauty of the religious subject
+and its sentiment were somewhat slurred for the beauty of natural
+appearances. There was some loss of religious power, but religion had
+much to lose. In the fifteenth century it was still dominant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--BOTTICELLI. CORONATION OF MADONNA. UFFIZI.]
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANTIQUE AND NATURE: The revival of antique learning
+came about in real earnest during this period. The scholars set
+themselves the task of restoring the polite learning of ancient
+Greece, studying coins and marbles, collecting manuscripts, founding
+libraries and schools of philosophy. The wealthy nobles, Palla
+Strozzi, the Albizzi, the Medici, and the Dukes of Urbino, encouraged
+it. In 1440 the Greek was taught in five cities. Immediately
+afterward, with Constantinople falling into the hands of the Turks,
+came an influx of Greek scholars into Italy. Then followed the
+invention of printing and the age of discovery on land and sea. Not
+the antique alone but the natural were being pried into by the spirit
+of inquiry. Botany, geology, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, anatomy,
+law, literature--nothing seemed to escape the keen eye of the time.
+Knowledge was being accumulated from every source, and the arts were
+all reflecting it.
+
+The influence of the newly discovered classic marbles upon painting
+was not so great as is usually supposed. The painters studied them,
+but did not imitate them. Occasionally in such men as Botticelli and
+Mantegna we see a following of sculpturesque example--a taking of
+details and even of whole figures--but the general effect of the
+antique marbles was to impress the painters with the idea that nature
+was at the bottom of it all. They turned to the earth not only to
+study form and feature, but to learn perspective, light, shadow,
+color--in short, the technical features of art. True, religion was the
+chief subject, but nature and the antique were used to give it
+setting. All the fifteenth-century painting shows nature study, force,
+character, sincerity; but it does not show elegance, grace, or the
+full complement of color. The Early Renaissance was the promise of
+great things; the High Renaissance was the fulfilment.
+
+FLORENTINE SCHOOL: The Florentines were draughtsmen more than
+colorists. The chief medium was fresco on the walls of buildings, and
+architectural necessities often dictated the form of compositions.
+Distemper in easel pictures was likewise used, and oil-painting,
+though known, was not extensively employed until the last quarter of
+the century. In technical knowledge and intellectual grasp Florence
+was at this time the leader and drew to her many artists from
+neighboring schools. Masaccio (1401?-1428?) was the first great nature
+student of the Early Renaissance, though his master, Masolino
+(1383-1447), had given proof positive of severe nature study in bits
+of modelling, in drapery, and in portrait heads. Masaccio, however,
+seems the first to have gone into it thoroughly and to have grasped
+nature as a whole. His mastery of form, his plastic composition, his
+free, broad folds of drapery, and his knowledge of light and
+perspective, all placed him in the front rank of fifteenth-century
+painters. Though an exact student he was not a literalist. He had a
+large artistic sense, a breadth of view, and a comprehension of nature
+as a mass that Michael Angelo and Raphael did not disdain to follow.
+He was not a pietist, and there was no great religious feeling in his
+work. Dignified truthful appearance was his creed, and in this he was
+possibly influenced by Donatello the sculptor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. LOUVRE.]
+
+He came early in the century and died early, but his contemporaries
+did not continue the advance from where he carried it. There was
+wavering all along the line. Some from lack of genius could not equal
+him, others took up nature with indecision, and others clung fondly
+to the gold-embossed ornaments and gilded halos of the past. Paolo
+Uccello (1397?-1475), Andrea Castagno (1390-1457), Benozzo Gozzoli
+(1420?-1497?), Baldovinetti (1427-1499), Antonio del Pollajuolo
+(1426-1498), Cosimo Rosselli (1439-1507), can hardly be looked upon as
+improvements upon the young leader. The first real successor of
+Masaccio was his contemporary, and possibly his pupil, the monk Fra
+Filippo Lippi (1406-1469). He was a master of color and
+light-and-shade for his time, though in composition and command of
+line he did not reach up to Masaccio. He was among the first of the
+painters to take the individual faces of those about him as models for
+his sacred characters, and clothe them in contemporary costume. Piety
+is not very pronounced in any of his works, though he is not without
+imagination and feeling, and there is in his women a charm of
+sweetness. His tendency was to materialize the sacred characters.
+
+With Filippino (1457?-1504), Botticelli (1446-1510), and Ghirlandajo
+(1449-1494) we find a degree of imagination, culture, and independence
+not surpassed by any of the Early Florentines. Filippino modelled his
+art upon that of his father, Fra Filippo, and was influenced by
+Botticelli. He was the weakest of the trio, without being by any means
+a weak man. On the contrary, he was an artist of fine ability, much
+charm and tenderness, and considerable style, but not a great deal of
+original force, though occasionally doing forceful things. Purity in
+his type and graceful sentiment in pose and feature seem more
+characteristic of his work. Botticelli, even, was not so remarkable
+for his strength as for his culture, and an individual way of looking
+at things. He was a pupil of Fra Filippo, a man imbued with the
+religious feeling of Dante and Savonarola, a learned student of the
+antique and one of the first to take subjects from it, a severe nature
+student, and a painter of much technical skill. Religion, classicism,
+and nature all met in his work, but the mingling was not perfect.
+Religious feeling and melancholy warped it. His willowy figures,
+delicate and refined in drawing, are more passionate than powerful,
+more individual than comprehensive, but they are nevertheless very
+attractive in their tenderness and grace.
+
+Without being so original or so attractive an artist as Botticelli,
+his contemporary, Ghirlandajo, was a stronger one. His strength came
+more from assimilation than from invention. He combined in his work
+all the art learning of his time. He drew well, handled drapery simply
+and beautifully, was a good composer, and, for Florence, a good
+colorist. In addition, his temperament was robust, his style
+dignified, even grand, and his execution wonderfully free. He was the
+most important of the fifteenth-century technicians, without having
+any peculiar distinction or originality, and in spite of being rather
+prosaic at times.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--FRANCESCA. DUKE OF URBINO. UFFIZI.]
+
+Verrocchio (1435-1488) was more of a sculptor than a painter, but in
+his studio were three celebrated pupils--Perugino, Leonardo da Vinci,
+and Lorenzo di Credi--who were half-way between the Early and the High
+Renaissance. Only one of them, Leonardo, can be classed among the
+High Renaissance men. Perugino belongs to the Umbrian school, and
+Lorenzo di Credi (1450-1537), though Florentine, never outgrew the
+fifteenth century. He was a pure painter, with much feeling, but weak
+at times. His drawing was good, but his painting lacked force, and he
+was too pallid in flesh color. There is much detail, study, and
+considerable grace about his work, but little of strength. Piero di
+Cosimo (1462-1521) was fond of mythological and classical studies, was
+somewhat fantastic in composition, pleasant in color, and rather
+distinguished in landscape backgrounds. His work strikes one as
+eccentric, and eccentricity was the strong characteristic of the man.
+
+UMBRIAN AND PERUGIAN SCHOOLS: At the beginning of the fifteenth
+century the old Siennese school founded by Duccio and the Lorenzetti
+was in a state of decline. It had been remarkable for intense
+sentiment, and just what effect this sentiment of the old Siennese
+school had upon the painters of the neighboring Umbrian school of the
+early fifteenth century is a matter of speculation with historians. It
+must have had some, though the early painters, like Ottaviano Nelli,
+do not show it. That which afterward became known as the Umbrian
+sentiment probably first appeared in the work of Niccolo da Foligno
+(1430?-1502), who was probably a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli, who was, in
+turn, a pupil of Fra Angelico. That would indicate Florentine
+influence, but there were many influences at work in this upper-valley
+country. Sentiment had been prevalent enough all through Central
+Italian painting during the Gothic age--more so at Sienna than
+elsewhere. With the Renaissance Florence rather forsook sentiment for
+precision of forms and equilibrium of groups; but the Umbrian towns
+being more provincial, held fast to their sentiment, their detail, and
+their gold ornamentation. Their influence upon Florence was slight,
+but the influence of Florence upon them was considerable. The larger
+city drew the provincials its way to learn the new methods. The
+result was a group of Umbro-Florentine painters, combining some
+up-country sentiment with Florentine technic. Gentile da Fabriano,
+Niccolo da Foligno, Bonfiglio (1425?-1496?), and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
+(1444?-1520) were of this mixed character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--SIGNORELLI. THE CURSE (DETAIL). ORVIETO.]
+
+The most positive in methods among the early men was Piero della
+Francesca (1420?-1492). Umbrian born, but Florentine trained, he
+became more scientific than sentimental, and excelled as a craftsman.
+He knew drawing, perspective, atmosphere, light-and-shade in a way
+that rather foreshadowed Leonardo da Vinci. From working in the
+Umbrian country his influence upon his fellow-Umbrians was large. It
+showed directly in Signorelli (1441?-1523), whose master he was, and
+whose style he probably formed. Signorelli was Umbrian born, like
+Piero, but there was not much of the Umbrian sentiment about him. He
+was a draughtsman and threw his strength in line, producing athletic,
+square-shouldered figures in violent action, with complicated
+foreshortenings quite astonishing. The most daring man of his time, he
+was a master in anatomy, composition, motion. There was nothing select
+about his type, and nothing charming about his painting. His color was
+hot and coarse, his lights lurid, his shadows brick red. He was,
+however, a master-draughtsman, and a man of large conceptions and
+great strength. Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), of whom little is known,
+was another pupil of Piero, and Giovanni Santi (1435?-1494), the
+father of Raphael, was probably influenced by both of these last
+named.
+
+The true descent of the Umbrian sentiment was through Foligno and
+Bonfiglio to Perugino (1446-1524). Signorelli and Perugino seem
+opposed to each other in their art. The first was the forerunner of
+Michael Angelo, the second was the master of Raphael; and the
+difference between Michael Angelo and Raphael was, in a less varied
+degree, the difference between Signorelli and Perugino. The one showed
+Florentine line, the other Umbrian sentiment and color. It is in
+Perugino that we find the old religious feeling. Fervor, tenderness,
+and devotion, with soft eyes, delicate features, and pathetic looks
+characterized his art. The figure was slight, graceful, and in pose
+sentimentally inclined to one side. The head was almost affectedly
+placed on the shoulders, and the round olive face was full of wistful
+tenderness. This Perugino type, used in all his paintings, is well
+described by Taine as a "body belonging to the Renaissance containing
+a soul that belonged to the Middle Ages." The sentiment was more
+purely human, however, than in such a painter, for instance, as Fra
+Angelico. Religion still held with Perugino and the Umbrians, but
+even with them it was becoming materialized by the beauty of the
+world about them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PERUGINO. MADONNA, SAINTS, AND ANGELS.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+As a technician Perugino was excellent. There was no dramatic fire and
+fury about him. The composition was simple, with graceful figures in
+repose. The coloring was rich, and there were many brilliant effects
+obtained by the use of oils. He was among the first of his school to
+use that medium. His friend and fellow-worker, Pinturricchio
+(1454-1513), did not use oils, but was a superior man in fresco. In
+type and sentiment he was rather like Perugino, in composition a
+little extravagant and huddled, in landscape backgrounds quite
+original and inventive. He never was a serious rival of Perugino,
+though a more varied and interesting painter. Perugino's best pupil,
+after Raphael, was Lo Spagna (?-1530?), who followed his master's
+style until the High Renaissance, when he became a follower of
+Raphael.
+
+SCHOOLS OF FERRARA AND BOLOGNA: The painters of Ferrara, in the
+fifteenth century, seemed to have relied upon Padua for their
+teaching. The best of the early men was Cosimo Tura (1430-1495), who
+showed the Paduan influence of Squarcione in anatomical insistences,
+coarse joints, infinite detail, and fantastic ornamentation. He was
+probably the founder of the school in which Francesco Cossa (fl.
+1435-1480), a _naif_ and strong, if somewhat morbid painter, Ercole di
+Giulio Grandi (fl. 1465-1535), and Lorenzo Costa (1460?-1535) were the
+principal masters. Cossa and Grandi, it seems, afterward removed to
+Bologna, and it was probably their move that induced Lorenzo Costa to
+follow them. In that way the Ferrarese school became somewhat
+complicated with the Bolognese school, and is confused in its history
+to this day. Costa was not unlikely the real founder, or, at the
+least, the strongest influencer of the Bolognese school. He was a
+painter of a rugged, manly type, afterward tempered by Southern
+influences to softness and sentiment. This was the result of Paduan
+methods meeting at Bologna with Umbrian sentiment.
+
+The Perugino type and influence had found its way to Bologna, and
+showed in the work of Francia (1450-1518), a contemporary and
+fellow-worker with Costa. Though trained as a goldsmith, and learning
+painting in a different school, Francia, as regards his sentiment,
+belongs in the same category with Perugino. Even his subjects, types,
+and treatment were, at times, more Umbrian than Bolognese. He was not
+so profound in feeling as Perugino, but at times he appeared loftier
+in conception. His color was usually rich, his drawing a little sharp
+at first, as showing the goldsmith's hand, the surfaces smooth, the
+detail elaborate. Later on, his work had a Raphaelesque tinge,
+showing perhaps the influence of that rising master. It is probable
+that Francia at first was influenced by Costa's methods, and it is
+quite certain that he in turn influenced Costa in the matter of
+refined drawing and sentiment, though Costa always adhered to a
+certain detail and ornament coming from the north, and a landscape
+background that is peculiar to himself, and yet reminds one of
+Pinturricchio's landscapes. These two men, Francia and Costa, were the
+Perugino and Pinturricchio of the Ferrara-Bolognese school, and the
+most important painters in that school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--SCHOOL OF FRANCIA. MADONNA AND CHILD.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+THE LOMBARD SCHOOL: The designation of the Lombard school is rather a
+vague one in the history of painting, and is used by historians to
+cover a number of isolated schools or men in the Lombardy region. In
+the fifteenth century these schools counted for little either in men
+or in works. The principal activity was about Milan, which drew
+painters from Brescia, Vincenza, and elsewhere to form what is known
+as the Milanese school. Vincenzo Foppa (fl. 1455-1492), of Brescia,
+and afterward at Milan, was probably the founder of this Milanese
+school. His painting is of rather a harsh, exacting nature, and points
+to the influence of Padua, at which place he perhaps got his early art
+training. Borgognone (1450-1523) is set down as his pupil, a painter
+of much sentiment and spiritual feeling. The school was afterward
+greatly influenced by the example of Leonardo da Vinci, as will be
+shown further on.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Masaccio, frescos in Brancacci
+     Chapel Carmine Florence (the series completed by Filippino);
+     Masolino, frescos Church and Baptistery Castiglione d' Olona;
+     Paolo Uccello, frescos S. M. Novella, equestrian
+     portrait Duomo Florence, battle-pieces in Louvre and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Andrea Castagno, heroes and sibyls Uffizi,
+     altar-piece Acad. Florence, equestrian portrait Duomo
+     Florence; Benozzo Gozzoli, Francesco Montefalco, Magi
+     Ricardi palace Florence, frescos Campo Santo Pisa;
+     Baldovinetti, Portico of the Annunziata Florence,
+     altar-pieces Uffizi; Antonio Pollajuolo, Hercules Uffizi,
+     St. Sebastian Pitti and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Cosimo Rosselli,
+     frescos S. Ambrogio Florence, Sistine Chapel Rome, Madonna
+     Uffizi; Fra Filippo, frescos Cathedral Prato, altar-pieces
+     Florence Acad., Uffizi, Pitti and Berlin Gals., Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Filippino, frescos Carmine Florence, Caraffa Chapel
+     Minerva Rome, S. M. Novella and Acad. Florence, S. Domenico
+     Bologna, easel pictures in Pitti, Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Berlin Mus., Old Pinacothek Munich; Botticelli, frescos
+     Sistine Chapel Rome, Spring and Coronation Florence Acad.,
+     Venus, Calumny, Madonnas Uffizi, Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Louvre, etc.; Ghirlandajo, frescos Sistine Chapel Rome, S.
+     Trinita Florence, S. M. Novella, Palazzo Vecchio,
+     altar-pieces Uffizi and Acad. Florence, Visitation Louvre;
+     Verrocchio, Baptism of Christ Acad. Florence; Lorenzo di
+     Credi, Nativity Acad. Florence, Madonnas Louvre and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Holy Family Borghese Gal. Rome; Piero di Cosimo,
+     Perseus and Andromeda Uffizi, Procris Nat. Gal. Lon., Venus
+     and Mars Berlin Gal.
+
+     UMBRIANS--Ottaviano Nelli, altar-piece S. M. Nuovo Gubbio,
+     St. Augustine legends S. Agostino Gubbio; Niccolo da
+     Foligno, altar-piece S. Niccolo Foligno; Bonfigli, frescos
+     Palazzo Communale, altar-pieces Acad. Perugia; Fiorenzo di
+     Lorenzo, many pictures Acad. Perugia, Madonna Berlin Gal.;
+     Piero della Francesca, frescos Communita and Hospital Borgo
+     San Sepolcro, San Francesco Arezzo, Chapel of the Relicts
+     Rimini, portraits Uffizi, pictures Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Signorelli, frescos Cathedral Orvieto, Sistine Rome, Palazzo
+     Petrucci Sienna, altar-pieces Arezzo, Cortona, Perugia,
+     pictures Pitti, Uffizi, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Melozzo da Forli, angels St. Peter's Rome, frescos Vatican,
+     pictures Berlin and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Giovanni Santi,
+     Annunciation Milan, Pieta Urbino, Madonnas Berlin, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon., S. Croce Fano; Perugino, frescos Sistine Rome,
+     Crucifixion S. M. Maddalena Florence, Sala del Cambio
+     Perugia, altar-pieces Pitti, Fano, Cremona, many pictures in
+     European galleries; Pinturricchio, frescos S. M. del Popolo,
+     Appartamento Borgo Vatican, Bufolini Chapel Aracoeli Rome,
+     Duomo Library Sienna, altar-pieces Perugia and Sienna
+     Acads., Pitti, Louvre; Lo Spagna, Madonna Lower Church
+     Assisi, frescos at Spoleto, Turin, Perugia, Assisi.
+
+     FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Cosimo Tura, altar-pieces Berlin
+     Mus., Bergamo, Museo Correr Venice, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Francesco Cossa, altar-pieces S. Petronio and Acad. Bologna,
+     Dresden Gal.; Grandi, St. George Corsini Pal. Rome, several
+     canvases Constabili Collection Ferrara; Lorenzo Costa,
+     frescos S. Giacomo Maggiore, altar-pieces S. Petronio, S.
+     Giovanni in Monte and Acad. Bologna, also Louvre, Berlin,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Francia, altar-pieces S. Giacomo
+     Maggiore, S. Martino Maggiore, and many altar-pieces in
+     Acad. Bologna, Annunciation Brera Milan, Rose Garden Munich,
+     Pieta Nat. Gal. Lon., Scappi Portrait Uffizi, Baptism
+     Dresden.
+
+     LOMBARDS--Foppa, altar-pieces S. Maria di Castello Savona,
+     Borromeo Col. Milan, Carmine Brescia, panels Brera Milan;
+     Borgognone, altar-pieces Certosa of Pavia, Church of
+     Melegnano, S. Ambrogio, Ambrosian Lib., Brera Milan, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+EARLY RENAISSANCE--1400-1500--CONTINUED.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned;
+     also consult the General Bibliography (page xv.)
+
+
+PADUAN SCHOOL: It was at Padua in the north that the influence of the
+classic marbles made itself strongly apparent. Umbria remained true to
+the religious sentiment, Florence engaged itself largely with nature
+study and technical problems, introducing here and there draperies and
+poses that showed knowledge of ancient sculpture, but at Padua much of
+the classic in drapery, figures, and architecture seems to have been
+taken directly from the rediscovered antique or the modern bronze.
+
+The early men of the school were hardly great enough to call for
+mention. During the fourteenth century there was some Giotto influence
+felt--that painter having been at Padua working in the Arena Chapel.
+Later on there was a slight influence from Gentile da Fabriano and his
+fellow-worker Vittore Pisano, of Verona. But these influences seem to
+have died out and the real direction of the school in the early
+fifteenth century was given by Francesco Squarcione (1394-1474). He
+was an enlightened man, a student, a collector and an admirer of
+ancient sculpture, and though no great painter himself he taught an
+anatomical statuesque art, based on ancient marbles and nature, to
+many pupils.
+
+Squarcione's work has perished, but his teaching was reflected in the
+work of his great pupil Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). Yet Mantegna
+never received the full complement of his knowledge from Squarcione.
+He was of an observing nature and probably studied Paolo Uccello and
+Fra Filippo, some of whose works were then in Paduan edifices. He
+gained color knowledge from the Venetian Bellinis, who lived at Padua
+at one time and who were connected with Mantegna by marriage. But the
+sculpturesque side of his art came from Squarcione, from a study of
+the antique, and from a deeper study of Donatello, whose bronzes to
+this day are to be seen within and without the Paduan Duomo of S.
+Antonio.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--MANTEGNA. GONZAGA FAMILY GROUP (DETAIL).
+MANTUA.]
+
+The sculpturesque is characteristic of Mantegna's work. His people are
+hard, rigid at times, immovable human beings, not so much turned to
+stone as turned to bronze--the bronze of Donatello. There is little
+sense of motion about them. The figure is sharp and harsh, the
+drapery, evidently studied from sculpture, is "liney," and the
+archaeology is often more scientific than artistic. Mantegna was not,
+however, entirely devoted to the sculpturesque. He was one of the
+severest nature students of the Early Renaissance, knew about nature,
+and carried it out in more exacting detail than was perhaps well for
+his art. In addition he was a master of light-and-shade, understood
+composition, space, color, atmosphere, and was as scientific in
+perspective as Piero della Francesca. There is stiffness in his
+figures but nevertheless great truth and character. The forms are
+noble, even grand, and for invention and imagination they were never,
+in his time, carried further or higher. He was little of a
+sentimentalist or an emotionalist, not much of a brush man or a
+colorist, but as a draughtsman, a creator of noble forms, a man of
+power, he stood second to none in the century.
+
+Of Squarcione's other pupils Pizzolo (fl. 1470) was the most
+promising, but died early. Marco Zoppo (1440-1498) seems to have
+followed the Paduan formula of hardness, dryness, and exacting detail.
+He was possibly influenced by Cosimo Tura, and in turn influenced
+somewhat the Ferrara-Bolognese school. Mantegna, however, was the
+greatest of the school, and his influence was far-reaching. It
+affected the school of Venice in matters of drawing, beside
+influencing the Lombard and Veronese schools in their beginnings.
+
+SCHOOLS OF VERONA AND VICENZA: Artistically Verona belonged with the
+Venetian provinces, because it was largely an echo of Venice except at
+the very start. Vittore Pisano (1380-1456), called Pisanello, was the
+earliest painter of note, but he was not distinctly Veronese in his
+art. He was medallist and painter both, worked with Gentile da
+Fabriano in the Ducal Palace at Venice and elsewhere, and his art
+seems to have an affinity with that of his companion.
+
+Liberale da Verona (1451-1536?) was at first a miniaturist, but
+afterward developed a larger style based on a following of Mantegna's
+work, with some Venetian influences showing in the coloring and
+backgrounds. Francesco Bonsignori (1455-1519) was of the Verona
+school, but established himself later at Mantua and was under the
+Mantegna influence. His style at first was rather severe, but he
+afterward developed much ability in portraiture, historical work,
+animals, and architectural features. Francesco Caroto (1470-1546), a
+pupil of Liberale, really belongs to the next century--the High
+Renaissance--but his early works show his education in Veronese and
+Paduan methods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--B. VIVARINI. MADONNA AND CHILD. TURIN.]
+
+In the school of Vicenza the only master of much note in this Early
+Renaissance time was Bartolommeo Montagna (1450?-1523), a painter in
+both oil and fresco of much severity and at times grandeur of style.
+In drawing he was influenced by Mantegna, in composition and coloring
+he showed a study of Giovanni Bellini and Carpaccio.
+
+VENETIAN LIFE AND ART: The conditions of art production in Venice
+during the Early Renaissance were quite different from those in
+Florence or Umbria. By the disposition of her people Venice was not a
+learned or devout city. Religion, though the chief subject, was not
+the chief spirit of Venetian art. Christianity was accepted by the
+Venetians, but with no fevered enthusiasm. The Church was strong
+enough there to defy the Papacy at one time, and yet religion with the
+people was perhaps more of a civic function or a duty than a spiritual
+worship. It was sincere in its way, and the early painters painted its
+subjects with honesty, but the Venetians were much too proud and
+worldly minded to take anything very seriously except their own
+splendor and their own power.
+
+Again, the Venetians were not humanists or students of the revived
+classic. They housed manuscripts, harbored exiled humanists, received
+the influx of Greek scholars after the fall of Constantinople, and
+later the celebrated Aldine press was established in Venice; but, for
+all that, classic learning was not the fancy of the Venetians. They
+made no quarrel over the relative merits of Plato and Aristotle, dug
+up no classic marbles, had no revival of learning in a Florentine
+sense. They were merchant princes, winning wealth by commerce and
+expending it lavishly in beautifying their island home. Not to attain
+great learning, but to revel in great splendor, seems to have been
+their aim. Life in the sovereign city of the sea was a worthy
+existence in itself. And her geographical and political position aided
+her prosperity. Unlike Florence she was not torn by contending princes
+within and foreign foes without--at least not to her harm. She had
+her wars, but they were generally on distant seas. Popery, Paganism,
+Despotism, all the convulsions of Renaissance life threatened but
+harmed her not. Free and independent, her kingdom was the sea, and her
+livelihood commerce, not agriculture.
+
+The worldly spirit of the Venetian people brought about a worldly and
+luxurious art. Nothing in the disposition or education of the
+Venetians called for the severe or the intellectual. The demand was
+for rich decoration that would please the senses without stimulating
+the intellect or firing the imagination to any great extent. Line and
+form were not so well suited to them as color--the most sensuous of
+all mediums. Color prevailed through Venetian art from the very
+beginning, and was its distinctive characteristic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--GIOVANNI BELLINI. MADONNA OF SS. GEORGE AND
+PAUL. VENICE ACAD.]
+
+Where this love of color came from is matter of speculation. Some say
+out of Venetian skies and waters, and, doubtless, these had something
+to do with the Venetian color-sense; but Venice in its color was also
+an example of the effect of commerce on art. She was a trader with the
+East from her infancy--not Constantinople and the Byzantine East
+alone, but back of these the old Mohammedan East, which for a thousand
+years has cast its art in colors rather than in forms. It was Eastern
+ornament in mosaics, stuffs, porcelains, variegated marbles, brought
+by ship to Venice and located in S. Marco, in Murano, and in Torcello,
+that first gave the color-impulse to the Venetians. If Florence was
+the heir of Rome and its austere classicism, Venice was the heir of
+Constantinople and its color-charm. The two great color spots in Italy
+at this day are Venice and Ravenna, commercial footholds of the
+Byzantines in Mediaeval and Renaissance days. It may be concluded
+without error that Venice derived her color-sense and much of her
+luxurious and material view of life from the East.
+
+THE EARLY VENETIAN PAINTERS: Painting began at Venice with the
+fabrication of mosaics and ornamental altar-pieces of rich gold
+stucco-work. The "Greek manner"--that is, the Byzantine--was practised
+early in the fifteenth century by Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo,
+but it did not last long. Instead of lingering for a hundred years, as
+at Florence, it died a natural death in the first half of the
+fifteenth century. Gentile da Fabriano, who was at Venice about 1420,
+painting in the Ducal Palace with Pisano as his assistant, may have
+brought this about. He taught there in Venice, was the master of
+Jacopo Bellini, and if not the teacher then the influencer of the
+Vivarinis of Murano. There were two of the Vivarinis in the early
+times, so far as can be made out, Antonio Vivarini (?-1470) and
+Bartolommeo Vivarini (fl. 1450-1499), who worked with Johannes
+Alemannus, a painter of supposed German birth and training. They all
+signed themselves from Murano (an outlying Venetian island), where
+they were producing church altars and ornaments with some Paduan
+influence showing in their work. They made up the Muranese school,
+though this school was not strongly marked apart either in
+characteristics or subjects from the Venetian school, of which it was,
+in fact, a part.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--CARPACCIO. PRESENTATION (DETAIL). VENICE
+ACAD.]
+
+Bartolommeo was the best of the group, and contended long time in
+rivalry with the Bellinis at Venice, but toward 1470 he fell away and
+died comparatively forgotten. Luigi Vivarini (fl. 1461-1503) was the
+latest of this family, and with his death the history of the Muranese
+merges into the Venetian school proper, except as it continues to
+appear in some pupils and followers. Of these latter Carlo Crivelli
+(1430?1493?) was the only one of much mark. He apparently gathered
+his art from many sources--ornament and color from the Vivarini, a
+lean and withered type from the early Paduans under Squarcione,
+architecture from Mantegna, and a rather repulsive sentiment from the
+same school. His faces were contorted and sulky, his hands and feet
+stringy, his drawing rather bad; but he had a transparent color,
+beautiful ornamentation and not a little tragic power.
+
+Venetian art practically dates from the Bellinis. They did not begin
+where the Vivarini left off. The two families of painters seem to have
+started about the same time, worked along together from like
+inspirations, and in somewhat of a similar manner as regards the early
+men. Jacopo Bellini (1400?-1464?) was the pupil of Gentile da
+Fabriano, and a painter of considerable rank. His son, Gentile Bellini
+(1426?-1507), was likewise a painter of ability, and an extremely
+interesting one on account of his Venetian subjects painted with much
+open-air effect and knowledge of light and atmosphere. The younger
+son, Giovanni Bellini (1428?-1516), was the greatest of the family and
+the true founder of the Venetian school.
+
+About the middle of the fifteenth century the Bellini family lived at
+Padua and came in contact with the classic-realistic art of Mantegna.
+In fact, Mantegna married Giovanni Bellini's sister, and there was a
+mingling of family as well as of art. There was an influence upon
+Mantegna of Venetian color, and upon the Bellinis of Paduan line. The
+latter showed in Giovanni Bellini's early work, which was rather hard,
+angular in drapery, and anatomical in the joints, hands, and feet; but
+as the century drew to a close this melted away into the growing
+splendor of Venetian color. Giovanni Bellini lived into the sixteenth
+century, but never quite attained the rank of a High Renaissance
+painter. He had religious feeling, earnestness, honesty, simplicity,
+character, force, knowledge; but not the full complement of
+brilliancy and painter's power. He went beyond all his contemporaries
+in technical strength and color-harmony, and was in fact the
+epoch-making man of early Venice. Some of his pictures, like the S.
+Zaccaria Madonna, will compare favorably with any work of any age, and
+his landscape backgrounds (see the St. Peter Martyr in the National
+Gallery, London) were rather wonderful for the period in which they
+were produced.
+
+Of Bellini's contemporaries and followers there were many, and as a
+school there was a similarity of style, subject, and color-treatment
+carrying through them all, with individual peculiarities in each
+painter. After Giovanni Bellini comes Carpaccio (?-1522?), a younger
+contemporary, about whose history little is known. He worked with
+Gentile Bellini, and was undoubtedly influenced by Giovanni Bellini.
+In subject he was more romantic and chivalric than religious, though
+painting a number of altar-pieces. The legend was his delight, and his
+great success, as the St. Ursula and St. George pictures in Venice
+still indicate. He was remarkable for his knowledge of architecture,
+costumes, and Oriental settings, put forth in a realistic way, with
+much invention and technical ability in the handling of landscape,
+perspective, light, and color. There is a truthfulness of
+appearance--an out-of-doors feeling--about his work that is quite
+captivating. In addition, the spirit of his art was earnestness,
+honesty, and sincerity, and even the awkward bits of drawing which
+occasionally appeared in his work served to add to the general naive
+effect of the whole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. UNKNOWN MAN. LOUVRE.]
+
+Cima da Conegliano (1460?-1517?) was probably a pupil of Giovanni
+Bellini, with some Carpaccio influence about him. He was the best of
+the immediate followers, none of whom came up to the master. They were
+trammelled somewhat by being educated in distemper work, and then
+midway in their careers changing to the oil medium, that medium
+having been introduced into Venice by Antonello da Messina in 1473.
+Cima's subjects were largely half-length madonnas, given with strong
+qualities of light-and-shade and color. He was not a great originator,
+though a man of ability. Catena (?-1531) had a wide reputation in his
+day, but it came more from a smooth finish and pretty accessories than
+from creative power. He imitated Bellini's style so well that a number
+of his pictures pass for works by the master even to this day. Later
+he followed Giorgione and Carpaccio. A man possessed of knowledge, he
+seemed to have no original propelling purpose behind him. That was
+largely the make-up of the other men of the school, Basaiti
+(1490-1521?), Previtali (1470?-1525?), Bissolo (14641528), Rondinelli
+(1440?-1500?), Diana (?-1500?), Mansueti (fl. 1500).
+
+Antonello da Messina (1444?-1493), though Sicilian born, is properly
+classed with the Venetian school. He obtained a knowledge of Flemish
+methods probably from Flemish painters or pictures in Italy (he never
+was a pupil of Jan van Eyck, as Vasari relates, and probably never saw
+Flanders), and introduced the use of oil as a medium in the Venetian
+school. His early work was Flemish in character, and was very accurate
+and minute. His late work showed the influence of the Bellinis. His
+counter-influence upon Venetian portraiture has never been quite
+justly estimated. That fine, exact, yet powerful work, of which the
+Doge Loredano by Bellini, in the National Gallery, London, is a type,
+was perhaps brought about by an amalgamation of Flemish and Venetian
+methods, and Antonello was perhaps the means of bringing it about. He
+was an excellent, if precise, portrait-painter.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: PADUANS--Andrea Mantegna, Eremitani Padua,
+     Madonna of S. Xeno Verona, St. Sebastian Vienna Mus., St.
+     George Venice Acad., Camera di Sposi Castello di Corte
+     Mantua, Madonna and Allegories Louvre, Scipio Summer Autumn
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Pizzoli (with Mantegna), Eremitani Padua;
+     Marco Zoppo frescos Casa Colonna Bologna, Madonna Berlin
+     Gal.
+
+     VERONESE AND VICENTINE PAINTERS--Vittore Pisano, St. Anthony
+     and George Nat. Gal. Lon., St. George S. Anastasia Verona;
+     Liberale da Verona, miniatures Duomo Sienna, St. Sebastian
+     Brera Milan, Madonna Berlin Mus., other works Duomo and Gal.
+     Verona; Bonsignori, S. Bernardino and Gal. Verona, Mantua,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Caroto, In S. Tommaso, S. Giorgio, S.
+     Caterina and Gal. Verona, Dresden and Frankfort Gals.;
+     Montagna, Madonnas Brera, Venice Acad., Bergamo, Berlin,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre.
+
+     VENETIANS--Jacobello del Fiore and Semitecolo, all
+     attributions doubtful; Antonio Vivarini and Johannes
+     Alemannus, together altar-pieces Venice Acad., S. Zaccaria
+     Venice; Antonio alone, Adoration of Kings Berlin Gal.;
+     Bartolommeo Vivarini, Madonna Bologna Gal. (with Antonio),
+     altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Frari, Venice; Luigi
+     Vivarini, Madonna Berlin Gal., Frari and Acad. Venice;
+     Carlo Crivelli, Madonnas and altar-pieces Brera, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon., Lateran, Berlin Gals.; Jacopo Bellini, Crucifixion
+     Verona Gal., Sketch-book Brit. Mus.; Gentile Bellini, Organ
+     Doors S. Marco, Procession and Miracle of Cross Acad.
+     Venice, St. Mark Brera; Giovanni Bellini, many pictures in
+     European galleries, Acad., Frari, S. Zaccaria SS. Giovanni e
+     Paolo Venice; Carpaccio, Presentation and Ursula pictures
+     Acad., St. George and St. Jerome S. Giorgio da Schiavone
+     Venice, St. Stephen Berlin Gal.; Cima, altar-pieces S. Maria
+     dell Orte, S. Giovanni in Bragora, Acad. Venice, Louvre,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and other galleries;
+     Catena, Altar-pieces S. Simeone, S. M. Mater Domini, SS.
+     Giovanni e Paolo, Acad. Venice, Dresden, and in Nat. Gal.
+     Lon. (the Warrior and Horse attributed to "School of
+     Bellini"); Basaiti, Venice Acad. Nat. Gal. Lon., Vienna, and
+     Berlin Gals.; Previtali, altar-pieces S. Spirito Bergamo,
+     Brera, Berlin, and Dresden Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Venice
+     Acad.; Bissolo, Resurrection Berlin Gal., S. Caterina Venice
+     Acad.; Rondinelli, two pictures Palazzo Doria Rome, Holy
+     Family (No. 6) Louvre (attributed to Giovanni Bellini);
+     Diana, Altar-pieces Venice Acad.; Mansueti, large pictures
+     Venice Acad.; Antonella da Messina, Portraits Louvre, Berlin
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon., Crucifixion Antwerp Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE--1500-1600.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Those on Italian art before mentioned,
+     and also, Berenson, _Lorenzo Lotto_; Clement, _Michel Ange,
+     L. da Vinci, Raphael_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Titian_;
+     same authors, _Raphael_; Grimm, _Michael Angelo_; Gronau,
+     _Titian_; Holroyd, _Michael Angelo_; Meyer, _Correggio_;
+     Moore, _Correggio_; Muntz, _Leonardo da Vinci_; Passavant,
+     _Raphael_; Pater, _Studies in History of Renaissance_;
+     Phillips, _Titian_; Reumont, _Andrea del Sarto_; Ricci,
+     _Correggio_; Richter, _Leonardo di Vinci_; Ridolfi, _Vita di
+     Paolo Cagliari Veronese_; Springer, _Rafael und Michel
+     Angelo_; Symonds, _Michael Angelo_; Taine, _Italy--Florence
+     and Venice_.
+
+
+THE HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT: The word "Renaissance" has a broader meaning
+than its strict etymology would imply. It was a "new birth," but
+something more than the revival of Greek learning and the study of
+nature entered into it. It was the grand consummation of Italian
+intelligence in many departments--the arrival at maturity of the
+Christian trained mind tempered by the philosophy of Greece, and the
+knowledge of the actual world. Fully aroused at last, the Italian
+intellect became inquisitive, inventive, scientific, skeptical--yes,
+treacherous, immoral, polluted. It questioned all things, doubted
+where it pleased, saturated itself with crime, corruption, and
+sensuality, yet bowed at the shrine of the beautiful and knelt at the
+altar of Christianity. It is an illustration of the contradictions
+that may exist when the intellectual, the religious, and the moral
+are brought together, with the intellectual in predominance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--FRA BARTOLOMMEO. DESCENT FROM CROSS. PITTI.]
+
+And that keen Renaissance intellect made swift progress. It remodelled
+the philosophy of Greece, and used its literature as a mould for its
+own. It developed Roman law and introduced modern science. The world
+without and the world within were rediscovered. Land and sea, starry
+sky and planetary system, were fixed upon the chart. Man himself, the
+animals, the planets, organic and inorganic life, the small things of
+the earth gave up their secrets. Inventions utilized all classes of
+products, commerce flourished, free cities were builded, universities
+arose, learning spread itself on the pages of newly invented books of
+print, and, perhaps, greatest of all, the arts arose on strong wings
+of life to the very highest altitude.
+
+For the moral side of the Renaissance intellect it had its tastes and
+refinements, as shown in its high quality of art; but it also had its
+polluting and degrading features, as shown in its political and social
+life. Religion was visibly weakening though the ecclesiastical still
+held strong. People were forgetting the faith of the early days, and
+taking up with the material things about them. They were glorifying
+the human and exalting the natural. The story of Greece was being
+repeated in Italy. And out of this new worship came jewels of rarity
+and beauty, but out of it also came faithlessness, corruption, vice.
+
+Strictly speaking, the Renaissance had been accomplished before the
+year 1500, but so great was its impetus that, in the arts at least, it
+extended half-way through the sixteenth century. Then it began to fail
+through exhaustion.
+
+MOTIVES AND METHODS: The religious subject still held with the
+painters, but this subject in High-Renaissance days did not carry with
+it the religious feeling as in Gothic days. Art had grown to be
+something else than a teacher of the Bible. In the painter's hands it
+had come to mean beauty for its own sake--a picture beautiful for its
+form and color, regardless of its theme. This was the teaching of
+antique art, and the study of nature but increased the belief. A new
+love had arisen in the outer and visible world, and when the Church
+called for altar-pieces the painters painted their new love,
+christened it with a religious title, and handed it forth in the name
+of the old. Thus art began to free itself from Church domination and
+to live as an independent beauty. The general motive, then, of
+painting during the High Renaissance, though apparently religious from
+the subject, and in many cases still religious in feeling, was largely
+to show the beauty of form or color, in which religion, the antique,
+and the natural came in as modifying elements.
+
+In technical methods, though extensive work was still done in fresco,
+especially at Florence and Rome, yet the bulk of High-Renaissance
+painting was in oils upon panel and canvas. At Venice even the
+decorative wall paintings were upon canvas, afterward inserted in wall
+or ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--ANDREA DEL SARTO. MADONNA OF ST. FRANCIS.
+UFFIZI.]
+
+THE FLORENTINES AND ROMANS: There was a severity and austerity about
+the Florentine art, even at its climax. It was never too sensuous and
+luxurious, but rather exact and intellectual. The Florentines were
+fond of lustreless fresco, architectural composition, towering or
+sweeping lines, rather sharp color as compared with the Venetians, and
+theological, classical, even literary and allegorical subjects.
+Probably this was largely due to the classic bias of the painters and
+the intellectual and social influences of Florence and Rome. Line and
+composition were means of expressing abstract thought better than
+color, though some of the Florentines employed both line and color
+knowingly.
+
+This was the case with Fra Bartolommeo (1475-1517), a monk of San
+Marco, who was a transition painter from the fifteenth to the
+sixteenth century. He was a religionist, a follower of Savonarola, and
+a man of soul who thought to do work of a religious character and
+feeling; but he was also a fine painter, excelling in composition,
+drawing, drapery, color. The painter's element in his work, its
+material and earthly beauty, rather detracted from its spiritual
+significance. He opposed the sensuous and the nude, and yet about the
+only nude he ever painted--a St. Sebastian for San Marco--had so much
+of the earthly about it that people forgot the suffering saint in
+admiring the fine body, and the picture had to be removed from the
+convent. In such ways religion in art was gradually undermined, not
+alone by naturalism and classicism but by art itself. Painting brought
+into life by religion no sooner reached maturity than it led people
+away from religion by pointing out sensuous beauties in the type
+rather than religious beauties in the symbol.
+
+Fra Bartolommeo was among the last of the pietists in art. He had no
+great imagination, but some feeling and a fine color-sense for
+Florence. Naturally he was influenced somewhat by the great ones about
+him, learning perspective from Raphael, grandeur from Michael Angelo,
+and contours from Leonardo da Vinci. He worked in collaboration with
+Albertinelli (1474-1515), a skilled artist and a fellow-pupil with
+Bartolommeo in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli. Their work is so much
+alike that it is often difficult to distinguish the painters apart.
+Albertinelli was not so devout as his companion, but he painted the
+religious subject with feeling, as his Visitation in the Uffizi
+indicates. Among the followers of Bartolommeo and Albertinelli were
+Fra Paolino (14901547), Bugiardini (1475-1554), Granacci (1477-1543),
+who showed many influences, and Ridolfo Ghirlandajo (1483-1561).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--MICHAEL ANGELO. ATHLETE. SISTINE, ROME.]
+
+Andrea del Sarto (1486-1531) was a Florentine pure and simple--a
+painter for the Church producing many madonnas and altar-pieces, and
+yet possessed of little religious feeling or depth. He was a painter
+more than a pietist, and was called by his townsmen "the faultless
+painter." So he was as regards the technical features of his art. He
+was the best brushman and colorist of the Florentine school. Dealing
+largely with the material side his craftsmanship was excellent and his
+pictures exuberant with life and color, but his madonnas and saints
+were decidedly of the earth--handsome Florentine models garbed as
+sacred characters--well-drawn and easily painted, with little
+devotional feeling about them. He was influenced by other painters to
+some extent. Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Michael Angelo were his models
+in drawing; Leonardo and Bartolommeo in contours; while in warmth of
+color, brush-work, atmospheric and landscape effects he was quite by
+himself. He had a large number of pupils and followers, but most of
+them deserted him later on to follow Michael Angelo. Pontormo
+(1493-1558) and Franciabigio (1482-1525) were among the best of them.
+
+Michael Angelo (1474-1564) has been called the "Prophet of the
+Renaissance," and perhaps deserves the title, since he was more of the
+Old Testament than the New--more of the austere and imperious than the
+loving or the forgiving. There was no sentimental feature about his
+art. His conception was intellectual, highly imaginative, mysterious,
+at times disordered and turbulent in its strength. He came the nearest
+to the sublime of any painter in history through the sole attribute of
+power. He had no tenderness nor any winning charm. He did not win, but
+rather commanded. Everything he saw or felt was studied for the
+strength that was in it. Religion, Old-Testament history, the antique,
+humanity, all turned in his hands into symbolic forms of power, put
+forth apparently in the white heat of passion, and at times in
+defiance of every rule and tradition of art. Personal feeling was very
+apparent in his work, and in this he was as far removed as possible
+from the Greeks, and nearer to what one would call to-day a
+romanticist. There was little of the objective about him. He was not
+an imitator of facts but a creator of forms and ideas. His art was a
+reflection of himself--a self-sufficient man, positive, creative,
+standing alone, a law unto himself.
+
+Technically he was more of a sculptor than a painter. He said so
+himself when Julius commanded him to paint the Sistine ceiling, and he
+told the truth. He was a magnificent draughtsman, and drew magnificent
+sculpturesque figures on the Sistine vault. That was about all his
+achievement with the brush. In color, light, air, perspective--in all
+those features peculiar to the painter--he was behind his
+contemporaries. Composition he knew a great deal about, and in drawing
+he had the most positive, far-reaching command of line of any painter
+of any time. It was in drawing that he showed his power. Even this is
+severe and harsh at times, and then again filled with a grace that is
+majestic and in scope universal, as witness the Creation of Adam in
+the Sistine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--RAPHAEL. LA BELLE JARDINIERE. LOUVRE.]
+
+He came out of Florence, a pupil of Ghirlandajo, with a school feeling
+for line, stimulated by the frescos of Masaccio and Signorelli. At an
+early age he declared himself, and hewed a path of his own through
+art, sweeping along with him many of the slighter painters of his age.
+Long-lived he saw his contemporaries die about him and Humanism end in
+bloodshed with the coming of the Jesuits; but alone, gloomy, resolute,
+steadfast to his belief, he held his way, the last great
+representative of Florentine art, the first great representative of
+individualism in art. With him and after him came many followers who
+strove to imitate his "terrible style," but they did not succeed any
+too well.
+
+The most of these followers find classification under the Mannerists
+of the Decadence. Of those who were immediate pupils of Michael
+Angelo, or carried out his designs, Daniele da Volterra (1509-1566)
+was one of the most satisfactory. His chief work, the Descent from the
+Cross, was considered by Poussin as one of the three great pictures of
+the world. It is sometimes said to have been designed by Michael
+Angelo, but that is only a conjecture. It has much action and life in
+it, but is somewhat affected in pose and gesture, and Volterra's work
+generally was deficient in real energy of conception and execution.
+Marcello Venusti (1515-1585?) painted directly from Michael Angelo's
+designs in a delicate and precise way, probably imbibed from his
+master, Perino del Vaga, and from association with Venetians like
+Sebastiano del Piombo (1485-1547). This last-named painter was born in
+Venice and trained under Bellini and Giorgione, inheriting the color
+and light-and-shade qualities of the Venetians; but later on he went
+to Rome and came under the influence of Michael Angelo and Raphael. He
+tried, under Michael Angelo's inspiration it is said, to unite the
+Florentine grandeur of line with the Venetian coloring, and thus outdo
+Raphael. It was not wholly successful, though resulting in an
+excellent quality of art. As a portrait-painter he was above reproach.
+His early works were rather free in impasto, the late ones smooth and
+shiny, in imitation of Raphael.
+
+Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) was more Greek in method than any of the
+great Renaissance painters. In subject he was not more classic than
+others of his time; he painted all subjects. In thought he was not
+particularly classic; he was chiefly intellectual, with a leaning
+toward the sensuous that was half-pagan. It was in method and
+expression more than elsewhere that he showed the Greek spirit. He
+aimed at the ideal and the universal, independent, so far as possible,
+of the individual, and sought by a union of all elements to produce
+perfect harmony. The Harmonist of the Renaissance is his title. And
+this harmony extended to a blending of thought, form, and expression,
+heightening or modifying every element until they ran together with
+such rhythm that it could not be seen where one left off and another
+began. He was the very opposite of Michael Angelo. The art of the
+latter was an expression of individual power and was purely
+subjective. Raphael's art was largely a unity of objective beauties,
+with the personal element as much in abeyance as was possible for his
+time.
+
+His education was a cultivation of every grace of mind and hand. He
+assimilated freely whatever he found to be good in the art about him.
+A pupil of Perugino originally, he levied upon features of excellence
+in Masaccio, Fra Bartolommeo, Leonardo, Michael Angelo. From the first
+he got tenderness, from the second drawing, from the third color and
+composition, from the fourth charm, from the fifth force. Like an
+eclectic Greek he drew from all sources, and then blended and united
+these features in a peculiar style of his own and stamped them with
+his peculiar Raphaelesque stamp.
+
+In subject Raphael was religious and mythological, but he was imbued
+with neither of these so far as the initial spirit was concerned. He
+looked at all subjects in a calm, intellectual, artistic way. Even the
+celebrated Sistine Madonna is more intellectual than pietistic, a
+Christian Minerva ruling rather than helping to save the world. The
+same spirit ruled him in classic and theological themes. He did not
+feel them keenly or execute them passionately--at least there is no
+indication of it in his work. The doing so would have destroyed unity,
+symmetry, repose. The theme was ever held in check by a regard for
+proportion and rhythm. To keep all artistic elements in perfect
+equilibrium, allowing no one to predominate, seemed the mainspring of
+his action, and in doing this he created that harmony which his
+admirers sometimes refer to as pure beauty.
+
+For his period and school he was rather remarkable technically. He
+excelled in everything except brush-work, which was never brought to
+maturity in either Florence or Rome. Even in color he was fine for
+Florence, though not equal to the Venetians. In composition,
+modelling, line, even in texture painting (see his portraits) he was a
+man of accomplishment; while in grace, purity, serenity, loftiness he
+was the Florentine leader easily first.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--GIULIO ROMANO. APOLLO AND MUSES. PITTI.]
+
+The influence of Raphael's example was largely felt throughout Central
+Italy, and even at the north, resulting in many imitators and
+followers, who tried to produce Raphaelesque effects. Their efforts
+were usually successful in precipitating charm into sweetness and
+sentiment into sentimentality. Francesco Penni (1488?-1528) seems to
+have been content to work under Raphael with some ability. Giulio
+Romano (1492-1546) was the strongest of the pupils, and became the
+founder and leader of the Roman school, which had considerable
+influence upon the painters of the Decadence. He adopted the classic
+subject and tried to adopt Raphael's style, but he was not completely
+successful. Raphael's refinement in Giulio's hands became exaggerated
+coarseness. He was a good draughtsman, but rather hot as a colorist,
+and a composer of violent, restless, and, at times, contorted groups.
+He was a prolific painter, but his work tended toward the baroque
+style, and had a bad influence on the succeeding schools.
+
+Primaticcio (1504-1570) was one of his followers, and had much to do
+with the founding of the school of Fontainebleau in France. Giovanni
+da Udine (1487-1564), a Venetian trained painter, became a follower of
+Raphael, his only originality showing in decorative designs. Perino
+del Vaga (1500-1547) was of the same cast of mind. Andrea Sabbatini
+(1480?-1545) carried Raphael's types and methods to the south of
+Italy, and some artists at Bologna, and in Umbria, like Innocenza da
+Imola (1494-1550?), and Timoteo di Viti (1467-1523), adopted the
+Raphael type and method to the detriment of what native talent they
+may have possessed, though about Timoteo there is some doubt whether
+he adopted Raphael's type, or Raphael his type.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: FLORENTINES--Fra Bartolommeo, Descent from
+     the Cross Salvator Mundi St. Mark Pitti, Madonnas and
+     Prophets Uffizi, other pictures Florence Acad., Louvre,
+     Vienna Gal.; Albertinelli, Visitation Uffizi, Christ
+     Magdalene Madonna Louvre, Trinity Madonna Florence Acad.,
+     Annunciation Munich Gal.; Fra Paolino, works at San Spirito
+     Sienna, S. Domenico and S. Paolo Pistoia, Madonna Florence
+     Acad.; Bugiardini, Madonna Uffizi, St. Catherine S. M.
+     Novella Florence, Nativity Berlin, St. Catherine Bologna
+     Gal.; Granacci, altar-pieces Uffizi, Pitti, Acad. Florence,
+     Berlin and Munich Gals.; Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, S. Zenobio
+     pictures Uffizi, also Louvre and Berlin Gal.; Andrea del
+     Sarto, many pictures in Uffizi and Pitti, Louvre, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Madrid, Nat. Gal. Lon., frescos S. Annunziata and
+     the Scalzo Florence; Pontormo, frescos Annunziata Florence,
+     Visitation and Madonna Louvre, portrait Berlin Gal., Supper
+     at Emmaus Florence Acad., other works Uffizi; Franciabigio,
+     frescos courts of the Servi and Scalzo Florence, Bathsheba
+     Dresden Gal., many portraits in Louvre, Pitti, Berlin Gal.;
+     Michael Angelo, frescos Sistine Rome, Holy Family Uffizi;
+     Daniele da Volterra, frescos Hist. of Cross Trinita de'
+     Monti Rome, Innocents Uffizi; Venusti, frescos Castel San
+     Angelo, S. Spirito Rome, Annunciation St. John Lateran Rome;
+     Sebastiano del Piombo, Lazarus Nat. Gal. Lon., Pieta
+     Viterbo, Fornarina Uffizi (ascribed to Raphael) Fornarina
+     and Christ Bearing Cross Berlin and Dresden Gals., Agatha
+     Pitti, Visitation Louvre, portrait Doria Gal. Rome; Raphael,
+     Marriage of Virgin Brera, Madonna and Vision of Knight Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Madonnas St. Michael and St. George Louvre, many
+     Madonnas and portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Munich, Vienna, St.
+     Petersburgh, Madrid Gals., Sistine Madonna Dresden, chief
+     frescos Vatican Rome.
+
+     ROMANS: Giulio Romano, frescos Sala di Constantino Vatican
+     Rome (with Francesco Penni after Raphael), Palazzo del Te
+     Mantua, St. Stephen, S. Stefano Genoa, Holy Family Dresden
+     Gal., other works in Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Pitti, Uffizi;
+     Primaticcio, works attributed to him doubtful--Scipio
+     Louvre, Lady at Toilet and Venus Musee de Cluny; Giovanni da
+     Udine, decorations, arabesques and grotesques in Vatican
+     Loggia; Perino del Vaga, Hist. of Joshua and David Vatican
+     (with Raphael), frescos Trinita de' Monti and Castel S.
+     Angelo Rome, Creation of Eve S. Marcello Rome; Sabbatini,
+     Adoration Naples Mus., altar-pieces in Naples and Salerno
+     churches; Innocenza da Imola, works in Bologna, Berlin and
+     Munich Gals.; Timoteo di Viti, Church of the Pace Rome
+     (after Raphael), madonnas and Magdalene Brera, Acad. of St.
+     Luke Rome, Bologna Gal., S. Domenico Urbino, Gubbio
+     Cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE, 1500-1600.--CONTINUED.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+     and consult also the General Bibliography (p. xv.)
+
+
+LEONARDO DA VINCI AND THE MILANESE: The third person in the great
+Florentine trinity of painters was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the
+other two being Michael Angelo and Raphael. He greatly influenced the
+school of Milan, and has usually been classed with the Milanese, yet
+he was educated in Florence, in the workshop of Verrocchio, and was so
+universal in thought and methods that he hardly belongs to any school.
+
+He has been named a realist, an idealist, a magician, a wizard, a
+dreamer, and finally a scientist, by different writers, yet he was
+none of these things while being all of them--a full-rounded,
+universal man, learned in many departments and excelling in whatever
+he undertook. He had the scientific and experimental way of looking at
+things. That is perhaps to be regretted, since it resulted in his
+experimenting with everything and completing little of anything. His
+different tastes and pursuits pulled him different ways, and his
+knowledge made him sceptical of his own powers. He pondered and
+thought how to reach up higher, how to penetrate deeper, how to
+realize more comprehensively, and in the end he gave up in despair. He
+could not fulfil his ideal of the head of Christ nor the head of Mona
+Lisa, and after years of labor he left them unfinished. The problem
+of human life, the spirit, the world engrossed him, and all his
+creations seem impregnated with the psychological, the mystical, the
+unattainable, the hidden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--LEONARDO DA VINCI. MONA LISA. LOUVRE.]
+
+He was no religionist, though painting the religious subject with
+feeling; he was not in any sense a classicist, nor had he any care for
+the antique marbles, which he considered a study of nature at
+second-hand. He was more in love with physical life without being an
+enthusiast over it. His regard for contours, rhythm of line, blend of
+light with shade, study of atmosphere, perspective, trees, animals,
+humanity, show that though he examined nature scientifically, he
+pictured it aesthetically. In his types there is much sweetness of
+soul, charm of disposition, dignity of mien, even grandeur and majesty
+of presence. His people we would like to know better. They are full of
+life, intelligence, sympathy; they have fascination of manner,
+winsomeness of mood, grace of bearing. We see this in his best-known
+work--the Mona Lisa of the Louvre. It has much allurement of personal
+presence, with a depth and abundance of soul altogether charming.
+
+Technically, Leonardo was not a handler of the brush superior in any
+way to his Florentine contemporaries. He knew all the methods and
+mediums of the time, and did much to establish oil-painting among the
+Florentines, but he was never a painter like Titian, or even Correggio
+or Andrea del Sarto. A splendid draughtsman, a man of invention,
+imagination, grace, elegance, and power, he nevertheless carried more
+by mental penetration and aesthetic sense than by his technical skill.
+He was one of the great men of the Renaissance, and deservedly holds a
+place in the front rank.
+
+Though Leonardo's accomplishment seems slight because of the little
+that is left to us, yet he had a great following not only among the
+Florentines but at Milan, where Vincenza Foppa had started a school in
+the Early Renaissance time. Leonardo was there for fourteen years, and
+his artistic personality influenced many painters to adopt his type
+and methods. Bernardino Luini (1475?-1532?) was the most prominent of
+the disciples. He cultivated Leonardo's sentiment, style, subjects,
+and composition in his middle period, but later on developed
+independence and originality. He came at a period of art when that
+earnestness of characterization which marked the early men was giving
+way to gracefulness of recitation, and that was the chief feature of
+his art. For that matter gracefulness and pathetic sweetness of mood,
+with purity of line and warmth of color characterized all the Milanese
+painters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--LUINI. DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS WITH HEAD OF JOHN
+THE BAPTIST. UFFIZI.]
+
+The more prominent lights of the school were Salaino (fl. 1495-1518),
+of whose work nothing authentic exists, Boltraffio (1467-1516), a
+painter of limitations but of much refinement and purity, and Marco da
+Oggiono (1470?-1530) a close follower of Leonardo. Solario
+(1458?-1515?) probably became acquainted early with the Flemish mode
+of working practised by Antonello da Messina, but he afterward came
+under Leonardo's spell at Milan. He was a careful, refined painter,
+possessed of feeling and tenderness, producing pictures with enamelled
+surfaces and much detail. Gianpietrino (fl. 1520-1540) and Cesare da
+Sesto (1477-1523?) were also of the Milanese school, the latter
+afterward falling under the Raphael influence. Gaudenzio Ferrara
+(1481?-1547?), an exceptionally brilliant colorist and a painter of
+much distinction, was under Leonardo's influence at one time, and
+with the teachings of that master he mingled a little of Raphael in
+the type of face. He was an uneven painter, often excessive in
+sentiment, but at his best one of the most charming of the northern
+painters.
+
+SODOMA AND THE SIENNESE: Sienna, alive in the fourteenth century to
+all that was stirring in art, in the fifteenth century was in complete
+eclipse, no painters of consequence emanating from there or being
+established there. In the sixteenth century there was a revival of art
+because of a northern painter settling there and building up a new
+school. This painter was Sodoma (1477?-1549). He was one of the best
+pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, a master of the human figure, handling it
+with much grace and charm of expression, but not so successful with
+groups or studied compositions, wherein he was inclined to huddle and
+over-crowd space. He was afterward led off by the brilliant success of
+Raphael, and adopted something of that master's style. His best work
+was done in fresco, though he did some easel pictures that have
+darkened very much through time. He was a friend of Raphael, and his
+portrait appears beside Raphael's in the latter painter's celebrated
+School of Athens. The pupils and followers of the Siennese School were
+not men of great strength. Pacchiarotta (1474-1540?), Girolamo della
+Pacchia (1477-1535), Peruzzi (1481-1536), a half-Lombard half-Umbrian
+painter of ability, and Beccafumi (1486-1551) were the principal
+lights. The influence of the school was slight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SODOMA. ECSTASY OF ST. CATHERINE. SIENNA.]
+
+FERRARA AND BOLOGNESE SCHOOLS: The painters of these schools during
+the sixteenth century have usually been classed among the followers
+and imitators of Raphael, but not without some injustice. The
+influence of Raphael was great throughout Central Italy, and the
+Ferrarese and Bolognese felt it, but not to the extinction of their
+native thought and methods. Moreover, there was some influence in
+color coming from the Venetian school, but again not to the entire
+extinction of Ferrarese individuality. Dosso Dossi (1479?-1541), at
+Ferrara, a pupil of Lorenzo Costa, was the chief painter of the time,
+and he showed more of Giorgione in color and light-and-shade than
+anyone else, yet he never abandoned the yellows, greens, and reds
+peculiar to Ferrara, and both he and Garofolo were strikingly original
+in their background landscapes. Garofolo (1481-1559) was a pupil of
+Panetti and Costa, who made several visits to Rome and there fell in
+love with Raphael's work, which showed in a fondness for the sweep and
+flow of line, in the type of face adopted, and in the calmness of his
+many easel pictures. He was not so dramatic a painter as Dosso, and in
+addition he had certain mannerisms or earmarks, such as sootiness in
+his flesh tints and brightness in his yellows and greens, with dulness
+in his reds. He was always Ferrarese in his landscapes and in the main
+characteristics of his technic. Mazzolino (1478?-1528?) was another of
+the school, probably a pupil of Panetti. He was an elaborate painter,
+fond of architectural backgrounds and glowing colors enlivened with
+gold in the high lights. Bagnacavallo (1484-1542) was a pupil of
+Francia at Bologna, but with much of Dosso and Ferrara about him. He,
+in common with Imola, already mentioned, was indebted to the art of
+Raphael.
+
+CORREGGIO AT PARMA: In Correggio (1494?-1534) all the Boccaccio nature
+of the Renaissance came to the surface. It was indicated in Andrea del
+Sarto--this nature-worship--but Correggio was the consummation. He was
+the Faun of the Renaissance, the painter with whom the beauty of the
+human as distinguished from the religious and the classic showed at
+its very strongest. Free animal spirits, laughing madonnas, raving
+nymphs, excited children of the wood, and angels of the sky pass and
+repass through his pictures in an atmosphere of pure sensuousness.
+They appeal to us not religiously, not historically, not
+intellectually, but sensuously and artistically through their rhythmic
+lines, their palpitating flesh, their beauty of color, and in the
+light and atmosphere that surround them. He was less of a religionist
+than Andrea del Sarto. Religion in art was losing ground in his day,
+and the liberality and worldliness of its teachers appeared clearly
+enough in the decorations of the Convent of St. Paul at Parma, where
+Correggio was allowed to paint mythological Dianas and Cupids in the
+place of saints and madonnas. True enough, he painted the religious
+subject very often, but with the same spirit of life and joyousness as
+profane subjects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--CORREGGIO. MARRIAGE OF ST. CATHERINE AND
+CHRIST. LOUVRE.]
+
+The classic subject seemed more appropriate to his spirit, and yet he
+knew and probably cared less about it than the religious subject. His
+Dianas and Ledas are only so in name. They have little of the
+Hellenic spirit about them, and for the sterner, heroic phases of
+classicism--the lofty, the grand--Correggio never essayed them. The
+things of this earth and the sweetness thereof seemed ever his aim.
+Women and children were beautiful to him in the same way that flowers
+and trees and skies and sunsets were beautiful. They were revelations
+of grace, charm, tenderness, light, shade, color. Simply to exist and
+be glad in the sunlight was sweetness to Correggio. He would have no
+Sibylesque mystery, no prophetic austerity, no solemnity, no great
+intellectuality. He was no leader of a tragic chorus. The dramatic,
+the forceful, the powerful, were foreign to his mood. He was a singer
+of lyrics and pastorals, a lover of the material beauty about him, and
+it is because he passed by the pietistic, the classic, the literary,
+and showed the beauty of physical life as an art motive that he is
+called the Faun of the Renaissance. The appellation is not
+inappropriate.
+
+How or why he came to take this course would be hard to determine. It
+was reflective of the times; but Correggio, so far as history tells
+us, had little to do with the movements and people of his age. He was
+born and lived and died near Parma, and is sometimes classed among the
+Bologna-Ferrara painters, but the reasons for the classification are
+not too strong. His education, masters, and influences are all shadowy
+and indefinite. He seems, from his drawing and composition, to have
+known something of Mantegna at Mantua; from his coloring something of
+Dosso and Garofolo, especially in his straw-yellows; from his early
+types and faces something of Costa and Francia, and his contours and
+light-and-shade indicate a knowledge of Leonardo's work. But there is
+no positive certainty that he saw the work of any of these men.
+
+His drawing was faulty at times, but not obtrusively so; his color and
+brush-work rich, vivacious, spirited; his light brilliant, warm,
+penetrating; his contours melting, graceful; his atmosphere
+omnipresent, enveloping. In composition he rather pushed aside line in
+favor of light and color. It was his technical peculiarity that he
+centralized his light and surrounded it by darks as a foil. And in
+this very feature he was one of the first men in Renaissance Italy to
+paint a picture for the purpose of weaving a scheme of lights and
+darks through a tapestry of rich colors. That is art for art's sake,
+and that, as will be seen further on, was the picture motive of the
+great Venetians.
+
+Correggio's immediate pupils and followers, like those of Raphael and
+Andrea del Sarto, did him small honor. As was usually the case in
+Renaissance art-history they caught at the method and lost the spirit
+of the master. His son, Pomponio Allegri (1521-1593?), was a painter
+of some mark without being in the front rank. Michelangelo Anselmi
+(1491-1554?), though not a pupil, was an indifferent imitator of
+Correggio. Parmigianino (1504-1540), a mannered painter of some
+brilliancy, and of excellence in portraits, was perhaps the best of
+the immediate followers. It was not until after Correggio's death, and
+with the painters of the Decadence, that his work was seriously taken
+up and followed.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: MILANESE--Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper S.
+     M. delle Grazie Milan (in ruins), Mona Lisa, Madonna with
+     St. Anne (badly damaged) Louvre, Adoration (unfinished)
+     Uffizi, Angel at left in Verrocchio's Baptism Florence
+     Acad.; Luini, frescos Monastero Maggiore, 71 fragments in
+     Brera Milan, Church of the Pilgrims Sarrona, S. M. degli
+     Angeli Lugano, altar-pieces Duomo Como, Ambrosian Library
+     Milan, Brera, Uffizi, Louvre, Madrid, St. Petersburgh, and
+     other galleries; Beltraffio, Madonna Louvre, Barbara Berlin
+     Gal., Madonna Nat. Gal. Lon., fresco Convent of S. Onofrio
+     Rome (ascribed to Da Vinci); Marco da Oggiono, Archangels
+     and other works Brera, Holy Family Madonna Louvre; Solario,
+     Ecce Homo Repose Poldi-Pezzoli Gal. Milan, Holy Family
+     Brera, Madonna Portrait Louvre, Portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Assumption Certosa of Pavia; Giampietrino, Magdalene Brera,
+     Madonna S. Sepolcro Milan, Magdalene and Catherine Berlin
+     Gal.; Cesare da Sesto, Madonna Brera, Magi Naples Mus.;
+     Gaudenzio Ferrara, frescos Church of Pilgrims Saronna, other
+     pictures in Brera, Turin Gal., S. Gaudenzio Novara, S. Celso
+     Milan.
+
+     SIENNESE--Sodoma, frescos Convent of St. Anne near Pienza,
+     Benedictine Convent of Mont' Oliveto Maggiore, Alexander and
+     Roxana Villa Farnesina Rome, S. Bernardino Palazzo Pubblico,
+     S. Domenico Sienna, pictures Uffizi, Brera, Munich, Vienna
+     Gals.; Pacchiarotto, Ascension Visitation Sienna Gal.;
+     Girolamo del Pacchia, frescos (3) S. Bernardino,
+     altar-pieces S. Spirito and Sienna Acad., Munich and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Peruzzi, fresco Fontegiuste Sienna, S. Onofrio,
+     S. M. della Pace Rome; Beccafumi, St. Catherine Saints
+     Sienna Acad., frescos S. Bernardino Hospital and S. Martino
+     Sienna, Palazzo Doria Rome, Pitti, Berlin, Munich Gals.
+
+     FERRARESE AND BOLOGNESE--Dosso Dossi, many works Ferrara
+     Modena Gals., Duomo S. Pietro Modena, Brera, Borghese,
+     Doria, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, Gals.; Garofolo, many works
+     Ferrara churches and Gal., Borghese, Campigdoglio, Louvre,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Mazzolino, Ferrara,
+     Berlin, Dresden, Louvre, Doria, Borghese, Pitti, Uffizi, and
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bagnacavallo, Misericordia and Gal. Bologna,
+     Louvre, Berlin, Dresden Gals.
+
+     PARMESE--Correggio, frescos Convent of S. Paolo, S. Giovanni
+     Evangelista, Duomo Parma, altar-pieces Dresden (4), Parma
+     Gals., Louvre, mythological pictures Antiope Louvre, Danae
+     Borghese, Leda Jupiter and Io Berlin, Venus Mercury and
+     Cupid Nat. Gal. Lon., Ganymede Vienna Gal.; Pomponio
+     Allegri, frescos Capella del Popolo Parma; Anselmi, frescos
+     S. Giovanni Evangelista, altar-pieces Madonna della
+     Steccata, Duomo, Gal. Parma, Louvre; Parmigianino, frescos
+     Moses Steccata, S. Giovanni Parma, altar-pieces Santa
+     Margherita, Bologna Gal., Madonna Pitti, portraits Uffizi,
+     Vienna, Naples Mus., other works Dresden, Vienna, and Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE HIGH RENAISSANCE. 1500-1600. (_Continued._)
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The works on Italian art before mentioned
+     and also consult General Bibliography, (page xv.).
+
+
+THE VENETIAN SCHOOL: It was at Venice and with the Venetian painters
+of the sixteenth century that a new art-motive was finally and fully
+adopted. This art-motive was not religion. For though the religious
+subject was still largely used, the religious or pietistic belief was
+not with the Venetians any more than with Correggio. It was not a
+classic, antique, realistic, or naturalistic motive. The Venetians
+were interested in all phases of nature, and they were students of
+nature, but not students of truth for truth's sake.
+
+What they sought, primarily, was the light and shade on a nude
+shoulder, the delicate contours of a form, the flow and fall of silk
+or brocade, the richness of a robe, a scheme of color or of light, the
+character of a face, the majesty of a figure. They were seeking
+effects of line, light, color--mere sensuous and pictorial effects, in
+which religion and classicism played secondary parts. They believed in
+art for art's sake; that painting was a creation, not an illustration;
+that it should exist by its pictorial beauties, not by its subject or
+story. No matter what their subjects, they invariably painted them so
+as to show the beauties they prized the highest. The Venetian
+conception was less austere, grand, intellectual, than pictorial,
+sensuous, concerning the beautiful as it appealed to the eye. And this
+was not a slight or unworthy conception. True it dealt with the
+fulness of material life, but regarded as it was by the Venetians--a
+thing full-rounded, complete, harmonious, splendid--it became a great
+ideal of existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GIORGIONE(?). ORDEAL OF MOSES. UFFIZI.]
+
+In technical expression color was the note of all the school, with
+hardly an exception. This in itself would seem to imply a lightness of
+spirit, for color is somehow associated in the popular mind with
+decorative gayety; but nothing could be further removed from the
+Venetian school than triviality. Color was taken up with the greatest
+seriousness, and handled in such masses and with such dignified power
+that while it pleased it also awed the spectator. Without having quite
+the severity of line, some of the Venetian chromatic schemes rise in
+sublimity almost to the Sistine modellings of Michael Angelo. We do
+not feel this so much in Giovanni Bellini, fine in color as he was. He
+came too early for the full splendor, but he left many pupils who
+completed what he had inaugurated.
+
+THE GREAT VENETIANS: The most positive in influence upon his
+contemporaries of all the great Venetians was Giorgione (1477?-1511).
+He died young, and what few pictures by him are left to us have been
+so torn to pieces by historical criticism that at times one begins to
+doubt if there ever was such a painter. His different styles have been
+confused, and his pictures in consequence thereof attributed to
+followers instead of to the master. Painters change their styles, but
+seldom their original bent of mind. With Giorgione there was a lyric
+feeling as shown in music. The voluptuous swell of line, the melting
+tone of color, the sharp dash of light, the undercurrent of
+atmosphere, all mingled for him into radiant melody. He sought pure
+pictorial beauty and found it in everything of nature. He had little
+grasp of the purely intellectual, and the religious was something he
+dealt with in no strong devotional way. The fete, the concert, the
+fable, the legend, with a landscape setting, made a stronger appeal to
+him. More of a recorder than a thinker he was not the less a leader
+showing the way into that new Arcadian grove of pleasure whose
+inhabitants thought not of creeds and faiths and histories and
+literatures, but were content to lead the life that was sweet in its
+glow and warmth of color, its light, its shadows, its bending trees,
+and arching skies. A strong full-blooded race, sober-minded,
+dignified, rationally happy with their lot, Giorgione portrayed them
+with an art infinite in variety and consummate in skill. Their least
+features under his brush seemed to glow like jewels. The sheen of
+armor and rich robe, a bare forearm, a nude back, or loosened
+hair--mere morsels of color and light--all took on a new beauty. Even
+landscape with him became more significant. His master, Bellini, had
+been realistic enough in the details of trees and hills, but Giorgione
+grasped the meaning of landscape as an entirety, and rendered it with
+poetic breadth.
+
+Technically he adopted the oil medium brought to Venice by Antonello
+da Messina, introducing scumbling and glazing to obtain brilliancy and
+depth of color. Of light-and-shade he was a master, and in atmosphere
+excellent. He, in common with all the Venetians, is sometimes said to
+be lacking in drawing, but that is the result of a misunderstanding.
+The Venetians never cared to accent line, choosing rather to model in
+masses of light and shadow and color. Giorgione was a superior man
+with the brush, but not quite up to his contemporary Titian.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--TITIAN. VENUS EQUIPPING CUPID. BORGHESE PAL.,
+ROME.]
+
+That is not surprising, for Titian (1477-1576) was the painter easily
+first in the whole range of Italian art. He was the first man in the
+history of painting to handle a brush with freedom, vigor, and gusto.
+And Titian's brush-work was probably the least part of his genius.
+Calm in mood, dignified, and often majestic in conception, learned
+beyond all others in his craft, he mingled thought, feeling, color,
+brush-work into one grand and glowing whole. He emphasized nothing,
+yet elevated everything. In pure intellectual thought he was not so
+strong as Raphael. He never sought to make painting a vehicle for
+theological, literary, or classical ideas. His tale was largely of
+humanity under a religious or classical name, but a noble, majestic
+humanity. In his art dignified senators, stern doges, and solemn
+ecclesiastics mingle with open-eyed madonnas, winning Ariadnes, and
+youthful Bacchuses. Men and women they are truly, but the very noblest
+of the Italian race, the mountain race of the Cadore country--proud,
+active, glowing with life; the sea race of Venice--worldly wise, full
+of character, luxurious in power.
+
+In himself he was an epitome of all the excellences of painting. He
+was everything, the sum of Venetian skill, the crowning genius of
+Renaissance art. He had force, power, invention, imagination, point of
+view; he had the infinite knowledge of nature and the infinite mastery
+of art. In addition, Fortune smiled upon him as upon a favorite child.
+Trained in mind and hand he lived for ninety-nine years and worked
+unceasingly up to a few months of his death. His genius was great and
+his accomplishment equally so. He was celebrated and independent at
+thirty-five, though before that he showed something of the influence
+of Giorgione. After the death of Giorgione and his master, Bellini,
+Titian was the leader in Venice to the end of his long life, and
+though having few scholars of importance his influence was spread
+through all North Italian painting.
+
+Taking him for all in all, perhaps it is not too much to say that he
+was the greatest painter known to history. If it were possible to
+describe that greatness in one word, that word would be
+"universality." He saw and painted that which was universal in its
+truth. The local and particular, the small and the accidental, were
+passed over for those great truths which belong to all the world of
+life. In this respect he was a veritable Shakespeare, with all the
+calmness and repose of one who overlooked the world from a lofty
+height.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--TINTORETTO. MERCURY AND GRACES. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.]
+
+The restfulness and easy strength of Titian were not characteristics
+of his follower Tintoretto (1518-1592). He was violent, headlong,
+impulsive, more impetuous than Michael Angelo, and in some respects a
+strong reminder of him. He had not Michael Angelo's austerity, and
+there was more clash and tumult and fire about him, but he had a
+command of line like the Florentine, and a way of hurling things, as
+seen in the Fall of the Damned, that reminds one of the Last Judgment
+of the Sistine. It was his aim to combine the line of Michael Angelo
+and the color of Titian; but without reaching up to either of his
+models he produced a powerful amalgam of his own.
+
+He was one of the very great artists of the world, and the most rapid
+workman in the whole Renaissance period. There are to-day, after
+centuries of decay, fire, theft, and repainting, yards upon yards of
+Tintoretto's canvases rotting upon the walls of the Venetian churches.
+He produced an enormous amount of work, and, what is to be regretted,
+much of it was contract work or experimental sketching. This has given
+his art a rather bad name, but judged by his best works in the Ducal
+Palace and the Academy at Venice, he will not be found lacking. Even
+in his masterpiece (The Miracle of the Slave) he is "Il Furioso," as
+they used to call him; but his thunderbolt style is held in check by
+wonderful grace, strength of modelling, superb contrasts of light with
+shade, and a coloring of flesh and robes not unworthy of the very
+greatest. He was a man who worked in the white heat of passion, with
+much imagination and invention. As a technician he sought difficulties
+rather than avoided them. There is some antagonism between form and
+color, but Tintoretto tried to reconcile them. The result was
+sometimes clashing, but no one could have done better with them than
+he did. He was a fine draughtsman, a good colorist, and a master of
+light. As a brushman he was a superior man, but not equal to Titian.
+
+Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), the fourth great Venetian, did not follow
+the line direction set by Tintoretto, but carried out the original
+color-leaning of the school. He came a little later than Tintoretto,
+and his art was a reflection of the advancing Renaissance, wherein
+simplicity was destined to lose itself in complexity, grandeur, and
+display. Paolo came on the very crest of the Renaissance wave, when
+art, risen to its greatest height, was gleaming in that transparent
+splendor that precedes the fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--P. VERONESE. VENICE ENTHRONED. DUCAL PAL.,
+VENICE.]
+
+The great bulk of his work had a large decorative motive behind it.
+Almost all of the late Venetian work was of that character. Hence it
+was brilliant in color, elaborate in subject, and grand in scale.
+Splendid robes, hangings, furniture, architecture, jewels, armor,
+appeared everywhere, and not in flat, lustreless hues, but with that
+brilliancy which they possess in nature. Drapery gave way to clothing,
+and texture-painting was introduced even in the largest canvases.
+Scenes from Scripture and legend turned into grand pageants of
+Venetian glory, and the facial expression of the characters rather
+passed out in favor of telling masses of color to be seen at a
+distance upon wall or ceiling. It was pomp and glory carried to the
+highest pitch, but with all seriousness of mood and truthfulness in
+art. It was beyond Titian in variety, richness, ornament, facility;
+but it was perhaps below Titian in sentiment, sobriety, and depth of
+insight. Titian, with all his sensuous beauty, did appeal to the
+higher intelligence, while Paolo and his companions appealed more
+positively to the eye by luxurious color-setting and magnificence of
+invention. The decadence came after Paolo, but not with him. His art
+was the most gorgeous of the Venetian school, and by many is ranked
+the highest of all, but perhaps it is better to say it was the height.
+Those who came after brought about the decline by striving to imitate
+his splendor, and thereby falling into extravagance.
+
+These are the four great Venetians--the men of first rank. Beside them
+and around them were many other painters, placed in the second rank,
+who in any other time or city would have held first place. Palma il
+Vecchio (1480?-1528) was so excellent in many ways that it seems
+unjust to speak of him as a secondary painter. He was not, however, a
+great original mind, though in many respects a perfect painter. He was
+influenced by Bellini at first, and then by Giorgione. In subject
+there was nothing dramatic about him, and he carries chiefly by his
+portrayal of quiet, dignified, and beautiful Venetians under the names
+of saints and holy families. The St. Barbara is an example of this,
+and one of the most majestic figures in all painting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--LOTTO. THREE AGES. PITTI.]
+
+Palma's friend and fellow-worker, Lorenzo Lotto (1480?-1556?) came
+from the school of the Bellini, and at different times was under the
+influence of several Venetian painters--Palma, Giorgione,
+Titian--without obliterating a sensitive individuality of his own. He
+was a somewhat mannered but very charming painter, and in portraits
+can hardly be classed below Titian. Rocco Marconi (fl. 1505-1520) was
+another Bellini-educated painter, showing the influence of Palma and
+even of Paris Bordone. In color and landscape he was excellent.
+Pordenone (1483-1540) rather followed after Giorgione, and
+unsuccessfully competed with Titian. He was inclined to exaggeration
+in dramatic composition, but was a painter of undeniable power.
+Cariani (1480-1541) was another Giorgione follower. Bonifazio Pitati
+probably came from a Veronese family. He showed the influence of
+Palma, and was rather deficient in drawing, though exceedingly
+brilliant and rich in coloring. This latter may be said for Paris
+Bordone (1495-1570), a painter of Titian's school, gorgeous in color,
+but often lacking in truth of form. His portraits are very fine.
+Another painter family, the Bassani--there were six of them, of whom
+Jacopo Bassano (1510-1592) and his son Francesco Bassano (1550-1591),
+were the most noted--formed themselves after Venetian masters, and
+were rather remarkable for violent contrasts of light and dark,
+_genre_ treatment of sacred subjects, and still-life and animal
+painting.
+
+PAINTING IN VENETIAN TERRITORIES: Venetian painting was not confined to
+Venice, but extended through all the Venetian territories in Renaissance
+times, and those who lived away from the city were, in their art,
+decidedly Venetian, though possessing local characteristics.
+
+At Brescia Savoldo (1480?-1548), a rather superficial painter, fond of
+weird lights and sheeny draperies, and Romanino (1485?-1566), a
+follower of Giorgione, good in composition but unequal and careless in
+execution, were the earliest of the High Renaissance men. Moretto
+(1498?-1555) was the strongest and most original, a man of
+individuality and power, remarkable technically for his delicacy and
+unity of color under a veil of "silvery tone." In composition he was
+dignified and noble, and in brush-work simple and direct. One of the
+great painters of the time, he seemed to stand more apart from
+Venetian influence than any other on Venetian territory. He left one
+remarkable pupil, Moroni (fl. 1549-1578) whose portraits are to-day
+the gems of several galleries, and greatly admired for their modern
+spirit and treatment.
+
+At Verona Caroto and Girolamo dai Libri (1474-1555), though living
+into the sixteenth century were more allied to the art of the
+fifteenth century. Torbido (1486?-1546?) was a vacillating painter,
+influenced by Liberale da Verona, Giorgione, Bonifazio Veronese, and
+later, even by Giulio Romano. Cavazzola (1486-1522) was more original,
+and a man of talent. There were numbers of other painters scattered
+all through the Venetian provinces at this time, but they were not of
+the first, or even the second rank, and hence call for no mention
+here.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: Giorgione, Fete Rustique Louvre, Sleeping
+     Venus Dresden, altar-piece Castelfranco, Ordeal of Moses
+     Judgment of Solomon Knight of Malta Uffizi; Titian, Sacred
+     and Profane Love Borghese, Tribute Money Dresden,
+     Annunciation S. Rocco, Pesaro Madonna Frari Venice,
+     Entombment Man with Glove Louvre, Bacchus Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Charles V. Madrid, Danae Naples, many other works in almost
+     every European gallery; Tintoretto, many works in Venetian
+     churches, Salute SS. Giovanni e Paolo S. Maria dell' Orto
+     Scuola and Church of S. Rocco Ducal Palace Venice Acad.
+     (best work Miracle of Slave); Paolo Veronese, many Pictures
+     in S. Sebastiano Ducal Palace Academy Venice, Pitti, Uffizi,
+     Brera, Capitoline and Borghese Galleries Rome, Turin,
+     Dresden, Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Palma il Vecchio,
+     Jacob and Rachel Three Sisters Dresden, Barbara S. M.
+     Formosa Venice, other altar-pieces Venice Acad., Colonna
+     Palace Rome, Brera, Naples Mus., Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Lotto, Three Ages Pitti, Portraits Brera, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     altar-pieces SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice and churches at
+     Bergamo, Treviso, Recanti, also Uffizi, Vienna, Madrid
+     Gals.; Marconi, Descent Venice Acad., altar-pieces S.
+     Giorgio Maggiore SS. Giovanni e Paolo Venice; Pordenone, S.
+     Lorenzo Madonna Venice Acad., Salome Doria St. George
+     Quirinale Rome, other works Madrid, Dresden, St. Petersburg,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.; Bonifazio, St. John, St. Joseph, etc.
+     Ambrosian Library Milan (attributed to Giorgione), Holy
+     Family Colonna Pal. Rome, Ducal Pal., Pitti, Dresden Gals.;
+     Supper at Emmaus Brera, other works Venice Acad.; Paris
+     Bordone, Fisherman and Doge, Venice Acad., Madonna Casa
+     Tadini Lovere, portraits in Uffizi, Pitti, Louvre, Munich,
+     Vienna, Nat. Gal. Lon., Brignola Pal. Genoa; Jacopo Bassano,
+     altar-pieces in Bassano churches, also Ducal Pal. Venice,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Uffizi, Naples Mus.; Francesco Bassano,
+     large pictures Ducal Pal., St. Catherine Pitti, Sabines
+     Turin, Adoration and Christ in Temple Dresden, Adoration and
+     Last Supper Madrid; Savoldo, altar-pieces Brera, S. Niccolo
+     Treviso, Uffizi, Turin Gal., S. Giobbe Venice, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Romanino, altar-pieces S. Francesco Brescia, Berlin
+     Gal., S. Giovanni Evangelista Brescia, Duomo Cremona, Padua,
+     and Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moretto, altar-pieces Brera, Staedel
+     Mus., S. M. della Pieta Venice, Vienna, Berlin, Louvre,
+     Pitti, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Moroni, portraits Bergamo Gal.,
+     Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Berlin, Dresden, Madrid; Girolamo
+     dai Libri, Madonna Berlin, Conception S. Paolo Verona,
+     Virgin Verona Gal., S. Giorgio Maggiore Verona, Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.; Torbido, frescos Duomo, altar-pieces S. Zeno and S.
+     Eufemia Verona; Cavazzola, altar-pieces, Verona Gal. and
+     Nat. Gal. Lon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ITALIAN PAINTING.
+
+THE DECADENCE AND MODERN WORK. 1600-1894.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, also General Bibliography,
+     (page xv.); Calvi, _Notizie della vita e delle opere di Gio.
+     Francesco Barbiera_; Malvasia, _Felsina Pittrice_; Sir
+     Joshua Reynolds, _Discourses_; Symonds, _Renaissance in
+     Italy--The Catholic Reaction_; Willard, _Modern Italian
+     Art_.
+
+
+THE DECLINE: An art movement in history seems like a wave that rises
+to a height, then breaks, falls, and parts of it are caught up from
+beneath to help form the strength of a new advance. In Italy
+Christianity was the propelling force of the wave. In the Early
+Renaissance, the antique, and the study of nature came in as
+additions. At Venice in the High Renaissance the art-for-art's-sake
+motive made the crest of light and color. The highest point was
+reached then, and there was nothing that could follow but the breaking
+and the scattering of the wave. This took place in Central Italy after
+1540, in Venice after 1590.
+
+Art had typified in form, thought, and expression everything of which
+the Italian race was capable. It had perfected all the graces and
+elegancies of line and color, and adorned them with a superlative
+splendor. There was nothing more to do. The idea was completed, the
+motive power had served its purpose, and that store of race-impulse
+which seems necessary to the making of every great art was exhausted.
+For the men that came after Michael Angelo and Tintoretto there was
+nothing. All that they could do was to repeat what others had said, or
+to recombine the old thoughts and forms. This led inevitably to
+imitation, over-refinement of style, and conscious study of beauty,
+resulting in mannerism and affectation. Such qualities marked the art
+of those painters who came in the latter part of the sixteenth century
+and the first of the seventeenth. They were unfortunate men in the
+time of their birth. No painter could have been great in the
+seventeenth century of Italy. Art lay prone upon its face under Jesuit
+rule, and the late men were left upon the barren sands by the receding
+wave of the Renaissance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--BRONZINO. CHRIST IN LIMBO. UFFIZI.]
+
+ART MOTIVES AND SUBJECTS: As before, the chief subject of the art of
+the Decadence was religion, with many heads and busts of the Madonna,
+though nature and the classic still played their parts. After the
+Reformation at the North the Church in Italy started the
+Counter-Reformation. One of the chief means employed by this Catholic
+reaction was the embellishment of church worship, and painting on a
+large scale, on panel rather than in fresco, was demanded for
+decorative purposes. But the religious motive had passed out, though
+its subject was retained, and the pictorial motive had reached its
+climax at Venice. The faith of the one and the taste and skill of the
+other were not attainable by the late men, and, while consciously
+striving to achieve them, they fell into exaggerated sentiment and
+technical weakness. It seems perfectly apparent in their works that
+they had nothing of their own to say, and that they were trying to say
+over again what Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Titian had said before
+them much better. There were earnest men and good painters among them,
+but they could produce only the empty form of art. The spirit had
+fled.
+
+THE MANNERISTS: Immediately after the High Renaissance leaders of
+Florence and Rome came the imitators and exaggerators of their styles.
+They produced large, crowded compositions, with a hasty facility of
+the brush and striking effects of light. Seeking the grand they
+overshot the temperate. Their elegance was affected, their sentiment
+forced, their brilliancy superficial glitter. When they thought to be
+ideal they lost themselves in incomprehensible allegories; when they
+thought to be real they grew prosaic in detail. These men are known in
+art history as the Mannerists, and the men whose works they imitated
+were chiefly Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Correggio. There were many
+of them, and some of them have already been spoken of as the followers
+of Michael Angelo.
+
+Agnolo Bronzino (1502?-1572) was a pupil of Pontormo, and an imitator
+of Michael Angelo, painting in rather heavy colors with a thin brush.
+His characters were large, but never quite free from weakness, except
+in portraiture, where he appeared at his best. Vasari (1511-1574)--the
+same Vasari who wrote the lives of the painters--had versatility and
+facility, but his superficial imitations of Michael Angelo were too
+grandiose in conception and too palpably false in modelling. Salviati
+(1510-1563) was a friend of Vasari, a painter of about the same cast
+of mind and hand as Vasari, and Federigo Zucchero (1543-1609) belongs
+with him in producing things muscularly big but intellectually small.
+Baroccio (1528-1612), though classed among the Mannerists as an
+imitator of Correggio and Raphael, was really one of the strong men of
+the late times. There was affectation and sentimentality about his
+work, a prettiness of face, rosy flesh tints, and a general lightness
+of color, but he was a superior brushman, a good colorist, and, at
+times, a man of earnestness and power.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--BAROCCIO. ANNUNCIATION.]
+
+THE ECLECTICS: After the Mannerists came the Eclectics of Bologna, led
+by the Caracci, who, about 1585, sought to "revive" art. They started
+out to correct the faults of the Mannerists, and yet their own art was
+based more on the art of their great predecessors than on nature. They
+thought to make a union of Renaissance excellences by combining
+Michael Angelo's line, Titian's color, Correggio's light-and-shade and
+Raphael's symmetry and grace. The attempt was praiseworthy for the
+time, but hardly successful. They caught the lines and lights and
+colors of the great men, but they overlooked the fact that the
+excellence of the imitated lay largely in their inimitable
+individualities, which could not be combined. The Eclectic work was
+done with intelligence, but their system was against them and their
+baroque age was against them. Midway in their career the Caracci
+themselves modified their eclecticism and placed more reliance upon
+nature. But their pupils paid little heed to the modification.
+
+There were five of the Caracci, but three of them--Ludovico
+(1555-1619), Agostino (1557-1602), and Annibale (1560-1609)--led the
+school, and of these Annibale was the most distinguished. They had
+many pupils, and their influence was widely spread over Italy. In Sir
+Joshua Reynolds's day they were ranked with Raphael, but at the
+present time criticism places them where they belong--painters of the
+Decadence with little originality or spontaneity in their art, though
+much technical skill. Domenichino (1581-1641) was the strongest of the
+pupils. His St. Jerome was rated by Poussin as one of the three great
+paintings of the world, but it never deserved such rank. It is
+powerfully composed, but poor in coloring and handling. The painter
+had great repute in his time, and was one of the best of the
+seventeenth century men. Guido Reni (1575-1642) was a painter of many
+gifts and accomplishments, combined with many weaknesses. His works
+are well composed and painted, but excessive in sentiment and overdone
+in pathos. Albani (1578-1660) ran to elegance and a porcelain-like
+prettiness. Guercino (1591-1666) was originally of the Eclectic School
+at Bologna, but later took up with the methods of the Naturalists at
+Naples. He was a painter of far more than the average ability.
+Sassoferrato (1605-1685) and Carlo Dolci (1616-1686) were so
+super-saturated with sentimentality that often their skill as painters
+is overlooked or forgotten. In spirit they were about the weakest of
+the century. There were other eclectic schools started throughout
+Italy--at Milan, Cremona, Ferrara--but they produced little worth
+recording. At Rome certain painters like Cristofano Allori
+(1577-1621), an exceptionally strong man for the time, Berrettini
+(1596-1669), and Maratta (1625-1713), manufactured a facile kind of
+painting from what was attractive in the various schools, but it was
+never other than meretricious work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--ANNIBALE CARACCI. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST.
+LOUVRE.]
+
+THE NATURALISTS: Contemporary with the Eclectics sprang up the
+Neapolitan school of the Naturalists, led by Caravaggio (1569-1609)
+and his pupils. These schools opposed each other, and yet influenced
+each other. Especially was this true with the later men, who took what
+was best in both schools. The Naturalists were, perhaps, more firmly
+based upon nature than the Bolognese Eclectics. Their aim was to take
+nature as they found it, and yet, in conformity with the extravagance
+of the age, they depicted extravagant nature. Caravaggio thought to
+represent sacred scenes more truthfully by taking his models from the
+harsh street life about him and giving types of saints and apostles
+from Neapolitan brawlers and bandits. It was a brutal, coarse
+representation, rather fierce in mood and impetuous in action, yet not
+without a good deal of tragic power. His subjects were rather dismal
+or morose, but there was knowledge in the drawing of them, some good
+color and brush-work and a peculiar darkness of shadow masses
+(originally gained from Giorgione), that stood as an ear-mark of his
+whole school. From the continuous use of black shadows the school got
+the name of the "Darklings," by which they are still known. Giordano
+(1632-1705), a painter of prodigious facility and invention, Salvator
+Rosa (1615-1673), best known as one of the early painters of
+landscape, and Ribera, a Spanish painter, were the principal pupils.
+
+THE LATE VENETIANS: The Decadence at Venice, like the Renaissance,
+came later than at Florence, but after the death of Tintoretto
+mannerisms and the imitation of the great men did away with
+originality. There was still much color left, and fine ceiling
+decorations were done, but the nobility and calm splendor of Titian's
+days had passed. Palma il Giovine (1544-1628) with a hasty brush
+produced imitations of Tintoretto with some grace and force, and in
+remarkable quantity. He and Tintoretto were the most rapid and
+productive painters of the century; but Palma's was not good in
+spirit, though quite dashing in technic. Padovanino (1590-1650) was
+more of a Titian follower, but, like all the other painters of the
+time, he was proficient with the brush and lacking in the stronger
+mental elements. The last great Italian painter was Tiepolo
+(1696-1770), and he was really great beyond his age. With an art
+founded on Paolo Veronese, he produced decorative ceilings and panels
+of high quality, with wonderful invention, a limpid brush, and a light
+flaky color peculiarly appropriate to the walls of churches and
+palaces. He was, especially in easel pictures, a brilliant, vivacious
+brushman, full of dash and spirit, tempered by a large knowledge of
+what was true and pictorial. Some of his best pictures are still in
+Venice, and modern painters are unstinted in their praise of them. He
+left a son, Domenico Tiepolo (1726-1795), who followed his methods. In
+the late days of Venetian painting, Canaletto (1697-1768) and Guardi
+(1712-1793) achieved reputation by painting Venetian canals and
+architecture with much color effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CARAVAGGIO. THE CARD PLAYERS. DRESDEN.]
+
+NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN ITALY: There is little in the art of
+Italy during the present century that shows a positive national
+spirit. It has been leaning on the rest of Europe for many years, and
+the best that the living painters show is largely an echo of
+Dusseldorf, Munich, or Paris. The revived classicism of David in
+France affected nineteenth-century painting in Italy somewhat. Then it
+was swayed by Cornelius and Overbeck from Germany. Morelli (1826-[2])
+shows this latter influence, though one of the most important of the
+living men.[3] In the 1860's Mariano Fortuny, a Spaniard at Rome, led
+the younger element in the glittering and the sparkling, and this
+style mingled with much that is more strikingly Parisian than Italian,
+may be found in the works of painters like Michetti, De Nittis
+(1846-1884), Favretto, Tito, Nono, Simonetti, and others.
+
+[Footnote 2: Died, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See _Scribner's Magazine_, Neapolitan Art, Dec., 1890,
+Feb., 1891.]
+
+Of recent days the impressionistic view of light and color has had its
+influence; but the Italian work at its best is below that of France.
+Segantini[4] was one of the most promising of the younger men in
+subjects that have an archaic air about them. Boldini, though Italian
+born and originally following Fortuny's example, is really more
+Parisian than anything else. He is an artist of much power and
+technical strength in _genre_ subjects and portraits. The newer men
+are Fragiocomo, Fattori, Mancini, Marchetti.
+
+[Footnote 4: Died, 1899.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: MANNERISTS--Agnolo Bronzino, Christ in
+     Limbo and many portraits in Uffizi and Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     Vasari, many pictures in galleries at Arezzo, Bologna,
+     Berlin, Munich, Louvre, Madrid; Salviati, Charity Christ
+     Uffizi, Patience Pitti, St. Thomas Louvre, Love and Psyche
+     Berlin; Federigo Zucchero, Duomo Florence, Ducal Palace
+     Venice, Allegories Uffizi, Calumny Hampton Court; Baroccio,
+     Pardon of St. Francis Urbino, Annunciation Loreto, several
+     pictures in Uffizi, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Dresden Gal.
+
+     ECLECTICS--Ludovico Caracci, Cathedral frescos Bologna,
+     thirteen pictures Bologna Gal.; Agostino Caracci, frescos
+     (with Annibale) Farnese Pal. Rome, altar-pieces Bologna
+     Gal.; Annibale Carracci, frescos (with Agostino) Farnese
+     Pal. Rome, other pictures Bologna Gal., Uffizi, Naples Mus.,
+     Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Domenichino, St.
+     Jerome Vatican, S. Pietro in Vincoli, Diana Borghese,
+     Bologna, Pitti, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Guido Reni, frescos
+     Aurora Rospigliosi Pal. Rome, many pictures Bologna,
+     Borghese Gal., Pitti, Uffizi, Brera, Naples, Louvre, and
+     other galleries of Europe; Albani, Guercino, Sassoferrato,
+     and Carlo Dolci, works in almost every European gallery,
+     especially Bologna; Cristofano Allori, Judith Pitti, also
+     pictures in Uffizi; Berrettini and Maratta, many examples in
+     Italian galleries, also Louvre.
+
+     NATURALISTS--Caravaggio, Entombment Vatican, many other
+     works in Pitti, Uffizi, Naples, Louvre, Dresden, St.
+     Petersburg; Giordano, Judgment of Paris Berlin, many
+     pictures in Dresden and Italian galleries; Salvator Rosa,
+     best marine in Pitti, other works Uffizi, Brera, Naples,
+     Madrid galleries and Colonna, Corsini, Doria, Chigi Palaces
+     Rome.
+
+     LATE VENETIANS--Palma il Giovine, Ducal Palace Venice,
+     Cassel, Dresden, Munich, Madrid, Naples, Vienna galleries;
+     Padovanino, Marriage in Cana Kneeling Angel and other works
+     Venice Acad., Carmina Venice, also galleries of Louvre,
+     Uffizi, Borghese, Dresden, London; Tiepolo, large fresco
+     Villa Pisani Stra, Palazzo Labia Scuola Carmina, Venice,
+     Villa Valmarana, and at Wurtzburg, easel pictures Venice
+     Acad., Louvre, Berlin, Madrid; Canaletto and Guardi, many
+     pictures in European galleries.
+
+     MODERN ITALIANS[5]--Morelli, Madonna Royal chap.
+     Castiglione, Assumption Royal chap. Naples; Michetti, The
+     Vow Nat. Gal. Rome; De Nittis, Place du Carrousel Luxembourg
+     Paris; Boldini, Gossips Met. Mus. New York.
+
+[Footnote 5: Only works in public places are given. Those in private
+hands change too often for record here. For detailed list of works see
+Champlin and Perkins, _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Amorini, _Vita del celebre pittore
+     Francesco Primaticcio_; Berger, _Histoire de l'Ecole
+     Francaise de Peinture au XVII^{me} Siecle_; Bland, _Les
+     Peintres des fetes galantes, Watteau, Boucher, et al._;
+     Curmer, _L'OEuvre de Jean Fouquet_; Delaborde, _Etudes sur
+     les Beaux Arts en France et en Italie_; Didot, _Etudes sur
+     Jean Cousin_; Dimier, _French Painting in XVI Century_;
+     Dumont, _Antoine Watteau_; Dussieux, _Nouvelles Recherches
+     sur la Vie de E. Lesueur_; Genevay, _Le Style Louis XIV.,
+     Charles Le Brun_; Goncourt, _L'Art du XVIII^{me} Siecle_;
+     Guibel, _Eloge de Nicolas Poussin_; Guiffrey, _La Famille de
+     Jean Cousin_; Laborde, _La Renaissance des Arts a la Cour de
+     France_; Lagrange, _J. Vernet et la Peinture au XVIII^{me}
+     Siecle_; Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi Rene_; Mantz, _Francois
+     Boucher_; Michiels, _Etudes sur l'Art Flamand dans l'est et
+     le midi de la France_; Muntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et
+     en France_; Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_; Pattison,
+     _Renaissance of Art in France_; Pattison, _Claude Lorrain_;
+     Poillon, _Nicolas Poussin_; Stranahan, _History of French
+     Painting_.
+
+
+EARLY FRENCH ART: Painting in France did not, as in Italy, spring
+directly from Christianity, though it dealt with the religious
+subject. From the beginning a decorative motive--the strong feature of
+French art--appears as the chief motive of painting. This showed
+itself largely in church ornament, garments, tapestries, miniatures,
+and illuminations. Mural paintings were produced during the fifth
+century, probably in imitation of Italian or Roman example. Under
+Charlemagne, in the eighth century, Byzantine influences were at work.
+In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries much stained-glass
+work appeared, and also many missal paintings and furniture
+decorations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--POUSSIN. ET IN ARCADIA EGO. LOUVRE.]
+
+In the fifteenth century Rene of Anjou (1408-1480), king and painter,
+gave an impetus to art which he perhaps originally received from
+Italy. His work showed some Italian influence mingled with a great
+deal of Flemish precision, and corresponded for France to the early
+Renaissance work of Italy, though by no means so advanced.
+Contemporary with Rene was Jean Fouquet (1415?-1480?) an illuminator
+and portrait-painter, one of the earliest in French history. He was an
+artist of some original characteristics and produced an art detailed
+and exact in its realism. Jean Pereal (?-1528?) and Jean Bourdichon
+(1457?-1521?) with Fouquet's pupils and sons, formed a school at Tours
+which afterward came to show some Italian influence. The native
+workmen at Paris--they sprang up from illuminators to painters in all
+probability--showed more of the Flemish influence. Neither of the
+schools of the fifteenth century reflected much life or thought, but
+what there was of it was native to the soil, though their methods were
+influenced from without.
+
+SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: During this century Francis I., at
+Fontainebleau, seems to have encouraged two schools of painting, one
+the native French and the other an imported Italian, which afterward
+took to itself the name of the "School of Fontainebleau." Of the
+native artists the Clouets were the most conspicuous. They were of
+Flemish origin, and followed Flemish methods both in technic and
+mediums. There were four of them, of whom Jean (1485?-1541?) and
+Francois (1500?-1572?) were the most noteworthy. They painted many
+portraits, and Francois' work, bearing some resemblance to that of
+Holbein, it has been doubtfully said that he was a pupil of that
+painter. All of their work was remarkable for detail and closely
+followed facts.
+
+The Italian importation came about largely through the travels of
+Francis I. in Italy. He invited to Fontainebleau Leonardo da Vinci,
+Andrea del Sarto, Il Rosso, Primaticcio, and Niccolo dell' Abbate.
+These painters rather superseded and greatly influenced the French
+painters. The result was an Italianized school of French art which
+ruled in France for many years. Primaticcio was probably the greatest
+of the influencers, remaining as he did for thirty years in France.
+The native painters, Jean Cousin (1500?-1589) and Toussaint du Breuil
+(1561-1602) followed his style, and in the next century the painters
+were even more servile imitators of Italy--imitating not the best
+models either, but the Mannerists, the Eclectics, and the Roman
+painters of the Decadence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--CLAUDE LORRAIN. FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. DRESDEN.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was a century of great development
+and production in France, the time of the founding of the French
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and the formation of many picture
+collections. In the first part of the century the Flemish and native
+tendencies existed, but they were overawed, outnumbered by the
+Italian. Not even Rubens's painting for Marie de' Medici, in the
+palace of the Luxembourg, could stem the tide of Italy. The French
+painters flocked to Rome to study the art of their great predecessors
+and were led astray by the flashy elegance of the late Italians. Among
+the earliest of this century was Freminet (1567-1619). He was first
+taught by his father and Jean Cousin, but afterward spent fifteen
+years in Italy studying Parmigianino and Michael Angelo. His work had
+something of the Mannerist style about it and was overwrought and
+exaggerated. In shadows he seemed to have borrowed from Caravaggio.
+Vouet (1590-1649) was a student in Italy of Veronese's painting and
+afterward of Guido Reni and Caravaggio. He was a mediocre artist, but
+had a great vogue in France and left many celebrated pupils.
+
+By all odds the best painter of this time was Nicolas Poussin
+(1593-1665). He lived almost all of his life in Italy, and might be
+put down as an Italian of the Decadence. He was well versed in
+classical archaeology, and had much of the classic taste and feeling
+prevalent at that time in the Roman school of Giulio Romano. His work
+showed great intelligence and had an elevated grandiloquent style
+about it that was impressive. It reflected nothing French, and had
+little more root in present human sympathy than any of the other
+painting of the time, but it was better done. The drawing was correct
+if severe, the composition agreeable if formal, the coloring
+variegated if violent. Many of his pictures have now changed for the
+worse in coloring owing to the dissipation of surface pigments. He was
+the founder of the classic and academic in French art, and in
+influence was the most important man of the century. He was especially
+strong in the heroic landscape, and in this branch helped form the
+style of his brother-in-law, Gaspard (Dughet) Poussin (1613-1675).
+
+The landscape painter of the period, however, was Claude Lorrain
+(1600-1682). He differed from Poussin in making his pictures depend
+more strictly upon landscape than upon figures. With both painters,
+the trees, mountains, valleys, buildings, figures, were of the grand
+classic variety. Hills and plains, sylvan groves, flowing streams,
+peopled harbors, Ionic and Corinthian temples, Roman aqueducts,
+mythological groups, were the materials used, and the object of their
+use was to show the ideal dwelling-place of man--the former Garden of
+the Gods. Panoramic and slightly theatrical at times, Claude's work
+was not without its poetic side, shrewd knowledge, and skilful
+execution. He was a leader in landscape, the man who first painted
+real golden sunlight and shed its light upon earth. There is a soft
+summer's-day drowsiness, a golden haze of atmosphere, a feeling of
+composure and restfulness about his pictures that are attractive. Like
+Poussin he depended much upon long sweeping lines in composition, and
+upon effects of linear perspective.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58--WATTEAU. GILLES. LOUVRE.]
+
+COURT PAINTING: When Louis XIV. came to the throne painting took on a
+decided character, but it was hardly national or race character. The
+popular idea, if the people had an idea, did not obtain. There was no
+motive springing from the French except an inclination to follow
+Italy; and in Italy all the great art-motives were dead. In method
+the French painters followed the late Italians, and imitated an
+imitation; in matter they bowed to the dictates of the court and
+reflected the king's mock-heroic spirit. Echoing the fashion of the
+day, painting became pompous, theatrical, grandiloquent--a mass of
+vapid vanity utterly lacking in sincerity and truth. Lebrun
+(1619-1690), painter in ordinary to the king, directed substantially
+all the painting of the reign. He aimed at pleasing royalty with
+flattering allusions to Caesarism and extravagant personifications of
+the king as a classic conqueror. His art had neither truth, nor
+genius, nor great skill, and so sought to startle by subject or size.
+Enormous canvases of Alexander's triumphs, in allusion to those of the
+great Louis, were turned out to order, and Versailles to this day is
+tapestried with battle-pieces in which Louis is always victor.
+Considering the amount of work done, Lebrun showed great fecundity and
+industry, but none of it has much more than a mechanical ingenuity
+about it. It was rather original in composition, but poor in drawing,
+lighting, and coloring; and its example upon the painters of the time
+was pernicious.
+
+His contemporary, Le Sueur (1616-1655), was a more sympathetic and
+sincere painter, if not a much better technician. Both were pupils of
+Vouet, but Le Sueur's art was religious in subject, while Lebrun's was
+military and monarchical. Le Sueur had a feeling for his theme, but
+was a weak painter, inclined to the sentimental, thin in coloring, and
+not at all certain in his drawing. French allusions to him as "the
+French Raphael" show more national complacency than correctness.
+Sebastian Bourdon (1616-1671) was another painter of history, but a
+little out of the Lebrun circle. He was not, however, free from the
+influence of Italy, where he spent three years studying color more
+than drawing. This shows in his works, most of which are lacking in
+form.
+
+Contemporary with these men was a group of portrait-painters who
+gained celebrity perhaps as much by their subjects as by their own
+powers. They were facile flatterers given over to the pomps of the
+reign and mirroring all its absurdities of fashion. Their work has a
+graceful, smooth appearance, and, for its time, it was undoubtedly
+excellent portraiture. Even to this day it has qualities of drawing
+and coloring to commend it, and at times one meets with exceptionally
+good work. The leaders among these portrait-painters were Philip de
+Champaigne (1602-1674), the best of his time; Pierre Mignard
+(1610?-1695), a pupil of Vouet, who studied in Rome and afterward
+returned to France to become the successful rival of Lebrun;
+Largilliere (1656-1746) and Rigaud (1659-1743).
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: The painting of Louis XIV.'s time was
+continued into the eighteenth century for some fifteen years or more
+with little change. With the advent of Louis XV. art took upon itself
+another character, and one that reflected perfectly the moral, social,
+and political France of the eighteenth century. The first Louis
+clamored for glory, the second Louis revelled in gayety, frivolity,
+and sensuality. This was the difference between both monarchs and both
+arts. The gay and the coquettish in painting had already been
+introduced by the Regent, himself a dilettante in art, and when Louis
+XV. came to the throne it passed from the gay to the insipid, the
+flippant, even the erotic. Shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in
+court silks and satins with cottony sheep beside them posed in
+stage-set Arcadias, pretty gods and goddesses reclined indolently upon
+gossamer clouds, and court gallants lounged under artificial trees by
+artificial ponds making love to pretty soubrettes from the theatre.
+
+Yet, in spite of the lack of moral and intellectual elevation, in
+spite of frivolity and make-believe, this art was infinitely better
+than the pompous imitation of foreign example set up by Louis XIV. It
+was more spontaneous, more original, more French. The influence of
+Italy began to fail, and the painters began to mirror French life. It
+was largely court life, lively, vivacious, licentious, but in that
+very respect characteristic of the time. Moreover, there was another
+quality about it that showed French taste at its best--the decorative
+quality. It can hardly be supposed that the fairy creations of the age
+were intended to represent actual nature. They were designed to
+ornament hall and boudoir, and in pure decorative delicacy of design,
+lightness of touch, color charm, they have never been excelled. The
+serious spirit was lacking, but the gayety of line and color was well
+given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--BOUCHER. PASTORAL. LOUVRE.]
+
+Watteau (1684-1721) was the one chiefly responsible for the coquette
+and soubrette of French art, and Watteau was, practically speaking,
+the first French painter. His subjects were trifling bits of
+fashionable love-making, scenes from the opera, fetes, balls, and the
+like. All his characters played at life in parks and groves that never
+grew, and most of his color was beautifully unreal; but for all that
+the work was original, decorative, and charming. Moreover, Watteau was
+a brushman, and introduced not only a new spirit and new subject into
+art, but a new method. The epic treatment of the Italians was laid
+aside in favor of a genre treatment, and instead of line and flat
+surface Watteau introduced color and cleverly laid pigment. He was a
+brilliant painter; not a great man in thought or imagination, but one
+of fancy, delicacy, and skill. Unfortunately he set a bad example by
+his gay subjects, and those who came after him carried his gayety and
+lightness of spirit into exaggeration. Watteau's best pupils were
+Lancret (1690-1743) and Pater (1695-1736), who painted in his style
+with fair results.
+
+After these men came Van Loo (1705-1765) and Boucher (1703-1770), who
+turned Watteau's charming fetes, showing the costumes and manners of
+the Regency, into flippant extravagance. Not only was the moral tone
+and intellectual stamina of their art far below that of Watteau, but
+their workmanship grew defective. Both men possessed a remarkable
+facility of the hand and a keen decorative color-sense; but after a
+time both became stereotyped and mannered. Drawing and modelling were
+neglected, light was wholly conventional, and landscape turned into a
+piece of embroidered background with a Dresden china-tapestry effect
+about it. As decoration the general effect was often excellent, as a
+serious expression of life it was very weak, as an intellectual or
+moral force it was worse than worthless. Fragonard (1732-1806)
+followed in a similar style, but was a more knowing man, clever in
+color, and a much freer and better brushman.
+
+A few painters in the time of Louis XV. remained apparently
+unaffected by the court influence, and stand in conspicuous isolation.
+Claude Joseph Vernet (1712-1789) was a landscape and marine painter of
+some repute in his time. He had a sense of the pictorial, but not a
+remarkable sense of the truthful in nature. Chardin (1699-1779) and
+Greuze (1725-1805), clung to portrayals of humble life and sought to
+popularize the _genre_ subject. Chardin was not appreciated by the
+masses. His frank realism, his absolute sincerity of purpose, his play
+of light and its effect upon color, and his charming handling of
+textures were comparatively unnoticed. Yet as a colorist he may be
+ranked second to none in French art, and in freshness of handling his
+work is a model for present-day painters. Diderot early recognized
+Chardin's excellence, and many artists since his day have admired his
+pictures; but he is not now a well-known or popular painter. The
+populace fancies Greuze and his sentimental heads of young girls. They
+have a prettiness about them that is attractive, but as art they lack
+in force, and in workmanship they are too smooth, finical, and thin in
+handling.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: All of these French painters are best
+     represented in the collections of the Louvre. Some of the
+     other galleries, like the Dresden, Berlin, and National at
+     London, have examples of their work; but the masterpieces
+     are with the French people in the Louvre and in the other
+     municipal galleries of France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Stranahan, _et al._; also
+     Balliere, _Henri Regnault_; Blanc, _Les Artistes de mon
+     Temps_; Blanc, _Histoire des Peintres francais au XIX^{me}
+     Siecle_; Blanc, _Ingres et son OEuvre_; Bigot, _Peintres
+     francais contemporains_; Breton, _La Vie d'un Artiste_
+     (_English Translation_); Brownell, _French Art_; Burty,
+     _Maitres et Petit-Maitres_; Chesneau, _Peinture francaise au
+     XIX^{me} Siecle_; Clement, _Etudes sur les Beaux Arts en
+     France_; Clement, _Prudhon_; Delaborde, _OEuvre de Paul
+     Delaroche_; Delecluze, _Jacques Louis David, son Ecole, et
+     son Temps_; Duret, _Les Peintres francais en 1867_; Gautier,
+     _L'Art Moderne_; Gautier, _Romanticisme_; Gonse, _Eugene
+     Fromentin_; Hamerton, _Contemporary French Painting_;
+     Hamerton, _Painting in France after the Decline of
+     Classicism_; Henley, _Memorial Catalogue of French and Dutch
+     Loan Collection_ (1886); Henriet, _Charles Daubigny et son
+     OEuvre_; Lenormant, _Les Artistes Contemporains_;
+     Lenormant, _Ary Scheffer_; Merson, _Ingres, sa Vie et son
+     OEuvre_; Moreau, _Decamps et son OEuvre_; Planche,
+     _Etudes sur l'Ecole francaise_; Robaut et Chesneau,
+     _L' OEuvre complet d'Eugene Delacroix_; Sensier, _Theodore
+     Rousseau_; Sensier, _Life and Works of J. F. Millet_;
+     Silvestre, _Histoire des Artistes vivants et etrangers_;
+     Strahan, _Modern French Art_; Thore, _L'Art Contemporain_;
+     Theuriet, _Jules Bastien-Lepage_; Van Dyke, _Modern French
+     Masters_.
+
+
+THE REVOLUTIONARY TIME: In considering this century's art in Europe,
+it must be remembered that a great social and intellectual change has
+taken place since the days of the Medici. The power so long pent up in
+Italy during the Renaissance finally broke and scattered itself upon
+the western nations; societies and states were torn down and
+rebuilded, political, social, and religious ideas shifted into new
+garbs; the old order passed away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--DAVID. THE SABINES. LOUVRE.]
+
+Religion as an art-motive, or even as an art-subject, ceased to obtain
+anywhere. The Church failed as an art-patron, and the walls of
+cloister and cathedral furnished no new Bible readings to the
+unlettered. Painting, from being a necessity of life, passed into a
+luxury, and the king, the state, or the private collector became the
+patron. Nature and actual life were about the only sources left from
+which original art could draw its materials. These have been freely
+used, but not so much in a national as in an individual manner. The
+tendency to-day is not to put forth a universal conception but an
+individual belief. Individualism--the same quality that appeared so
+strongly in Michael Angelo's art--has become a keynote in modern work.
+It is not the only kind of art that has been shown in this century,
+nor is nature the only theme from which art has been derived. We must
+remember and consider the influence of the past upon modern men, and
+the attempts to restore the classic beauty of the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian, which practically ruled French painting in the first part of
+this century.
+
+FRENCH CLASSICISM OF DAVID: This was a revival of Greek form in art,
+founded on the belief expressed by Winckelmann, that beauty lay in
+form, and was best shown by the ancient Greeks. It was the objective
+view of art which saw beauty in the external and tolerated no
+individuality in the artist except that which was shown in technical
+skill. It was little more than an imitation of the Greek and Roman
+marbles as types, with insistence upon perfect form, correct drawing,
+and balanced composition. In theme and spirit it was pseudo-heroic,
+the incidents of Greek and Roman history forming the chief subjects,
+and in method it rather despised color, light-and-shade, and natural
+surroundings. It was elevated, lofty, ideal in aspiration, but coldly
+unsympathetic because lacking in contemporary interest; and, though
+correct enough in classic form, was lacking in the classic spirit.
+Like all reanimated art, it was derivative as regards its forms and
+lacking in spontaneity. The reason for the existence of Greek art died
+with its civilization, and those, like the French classicists, who
+sought to revive it, brought a copy of the past into the present,
+expecting the world to accept it.
+
+There was some social, and perhaps artistic, reason, however, for the
+revival of the classic in the French art of the late eighteenth
+century. It was a revolt, and at that time revolts were popular. The
+art of Boucher and Van Loo had become quite unbearable. It was
+flippant, careless, licentious. It had no seriousness or dignity about
+it. Moreover, it smacked of the Bourbon monarchy, which people had
+come to hate. Classicism was severe, elevated, respectable at least,
+and had the air of the heroic republic about it. It was a return to a
+sterner view of life, with the martial spirit behind it as an impetus,
+and it had a great vogue. For many years during the Revolution, the
+Consulate, and the Empire, classicism was accepted by the sovereigns
+and the Institute of France, and to this day it lives in a modified
+form in that semi-classic work known as academic art.
+
+THE CLASSIC SCHOOL: Vien (1716-1809) was the first painter to protest
+against the art of Boucher and Van Loo by advocating more nobility of
+form and a closer study of nature. He was, however, more devoted to
+the antique forms he had studied in Rome than to nature. In subject
+and line his tendency was classic, with a leaning toward the Italians
+of the Decadence. He lacked the force to carry out a complete reform
+in painting, but his pupil David (1748-1825) accomplished what he had
+begun. It was David who established the reign of classicism, and by
+native power became the leader. The time was appropriate, the
+Revolution called for pictures of Romulus, Brutus and Achilles, and
+Napoleon encouraged the military theme. David had studied the marbles
+at Rome, and he used them largely for models, reproducing scenes from
+Greek and Roman life in an elevated and sculpturesque style, with much
+archaeological knowledge and a great deal of skill. In color, relief,
+sentiment, individuality, his painting was lacking. He despised all
+that. The rhythm of line, the sweep of composed groups, the heroic
+subject and the heroic treatment, made up his art. It was thoroughly
+objective, and what contemporary interest it possessed lay largely in
+the martial spirit then prevalent. Of course it was upheld by the
+Institute, and it really set the pace for French painting for nearly
+half a century. When David was called upon to paint Napoleonic
+pictures he painted them under protest, and yet these, with his
+portraits, constitute his best work. In portraiture he was uncommonly
+strong at times.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--INGRES. OEDIPUS AND SPHINX. LOUVRE.]
+
+After the Restoration David, who had been a revolutionist, and then an
+adherent of Napoleon, was sent into exile; but the influence he had
+left and the school he had established were carried on by his
+contemporaries and pupils. Of the former Regnault (1754-1829), Vincent
+(1746-1816), and Prudhon (1758-1823) were the most conspicuous. The
+last one was considered as out of the classic circle, but so far as
+making his art depend upon drawing and composition, he was a genuine
+classicist. His subjects, instead of being heroic, inclined to the
+mythological and the allegorical. In Italy he had been a student of
+the Renaissance painters, and from them borrowed a method of shadow
+gradation that rendered his figures misty and phantom-like. They
+possessed an ease of movement sometimes called "Prudhonesque grace,"
+and in composition were well placed and effective.
+
+Of David's pupils there were many. Only a few of them, however, had
+pronounced ability, and even these carried David's methods into the
+theatrical. Girodet (1766-1824) was a draughtsman of considerable
+power, but with poor taste in color and little repose in composition.
+Most of his work was exaggeration and strained effect. Lethiere
+(1760-1832) and Guerin (1774-1833), pupils of Regnault, were painters
+akin to Girodet, but inferior to him. Gerard (1770-1837) was a weak
+David follower, who gained some celebrity by painting portraits of
+celebrated men and women. The two pupils of David who brought him the
+most credit were Ingres (1780-1867) and Gros (1771-1835). Ingres was a
+cold, persevering man, whose principles had been well settled by David
+early in life, and were adhered to with conviction by the pupil to the
+last. He modified the classic subject somewhat, studied Raphael and
+the Italians, and reintroduced the single figure into art (the Source,
+and the Odalisque, for example). For color he had no fancy. "In nature
+all is form," he used to say. Painting he thought not an independent
+art, but "a development of sculpture." To consider emotion, color, or
+light as the equal of form was monstrous, and to compare Rembrandt
+with Raphael was blasphemy. To this belief he clung to the end,
+faithfully reproducing the human figure, and it is not to be wondered
+at that eventually he became a learned draughtsman. His single figures
+and his portraits show him to the best advantage. He had a strong
+grasp of modelling and an artistic sense of the beauty and dignity of
+line not excelled by any artist of this century. And to him more than
+any other painter is due the cultured draughtsmanship which is to-day
+the just pride of the French school.
+
+Gros was a more vacillating man, and by reason of forsaking the
+classic subject for Napoleonic battle-pieces, he unconsciously led the
+way toward romanticism. He excelled as a draughtsman, but when he came
+to paint the Field of Eylau and the Pest of Jaffa he mingled color,
+light, air, movement, action, sacrificing classic composition and
+repose to reality. This was heresy from the Davidian point of view,
+and David eventually convinced him of it. Gros returned to the classic
+theme and treatment, but soon after was so reviled by the changing
+criticism of the time that he committed suicide in the Seine. His art,
+however, was the beginning of romanticism.
+
+The landscape painting of this time was rather academic and
+unsympathetic. It was a continuation of the Claude-Poussin tradition,
+and in its insistence upon line, grandeur of space, and imposing trees
+and mountains, was a fit companion to the classic figure-piece. It had
+little basis in nature, and little in color or feeling to commend it.
+Watelet (1780-1866), Bertin (1775-1842), Michallon (1796-1822), and
+Aligny (1798-1871), were its exponents.
+
+A few painters seemed to stand apart from the contemporary influences.
+Madame Vigee-Lebrun (1755-1842), a successful portrait-painter of
+nobility, and Horace Vernet (1789-1863), a popular battle-painter,
+many of whose works are to be seen at Versailles, were of this class.
+
+ROMANTICISM: The movement in French painting which began about 1822 and
+took the name of Romanticism was but a part of the "storm-and-stress"
+feeling that swept Germany, England, and France at the beginning of this
+century, appearing first in literature and afterward in art. It had its
+origin in a discontent with the present, a passionate yearning for the
+unattainable, an intensity of sentiment, gloomy melancholy imaginings,
+and a desire to express the inexpressible. It was emphatically
+subjective, self-conscious, a mood of mind or feeling. In this respect
+it was diametrically opposed to the academic and the classic. In French
+painting it came forward in opposition to the classicism of David.
+People had begun to weary of Greek and Roman heroes and their deeds, of
+impersonal line-bounded statuesque art. There was a demand for something
+more representative, spontaneous, expressive of the intense feeling of
+the time. The very gist of romanticism was passion. Freedom to express
+itself in what form it would was a condition of its existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--DELACROIX. MASSACRE OF SCIO. LOUVRE.]
+
+The classic subject was abandoned by the romanticists for dramatic
+scenes of mediaeval and modern times. The romantic hero and heroine in
+scenes of horror, perils by land and sea, flame and fury, love and
+anguish, came upon the boards. Much of this was illustration of
+history, the novel, and poetry, especially the poetry of Goethe,
+Byron, and Scott. Line was slurred in favor of color, symmetrical
+composition gave way to wild disordered groups in headlong action, and
+atmospheres, skies, and lights were twisted and distorted to convey
+the sentiment of the story. It was thus, more by suggestion than
+realization, that romanticism sought to give the poetic sentiment of
+life. Its position toward classicism was antagonistic, a rebound, a
+flying to the other extreme. One virtually said that beauty was in the
+Greek form, the other that it was in the painter's emotional nature.
+The disagreement was violent, and out of it grew the so-called
+romantic quarrel of the 1820's.
+
+LEADERS OF ROMANTICISM: Symptoms of the coming movement were apparent
+long before any open revolt. Gros had made innovations on the classic
+in his battle-pieces, but the first positive dissent from classic
+teachings was made in the Salon of 1819 by Gericault (1791-1824) with
+his Raft of the Medusa. It represented the starving, the dead, and the
+dying of the Medusa's crew on a raft in mid-ocean. The subject was not
+classic. It was literary, romantic, dramatic, almost theatric in its
+seizing of the critical moment. Its theme was restless, harrowing,
+horrible. It met with instant opposition from the old men and applause
+from the young men. It was the trumpet-note of the revolt, but
+Gericault did not live long enough to become the leader of
+romanticism. That position fell to his contemporary and fellow-pupil,
+Delacroix (1799-1863). It was in 1822 that Delacroix's first Salon
+picture (the Dante and Virgil) appeared. A strange, ghost-like scene
+from Dante's _Inferno_, the black atmosphere of the nether world,
+weird faces, weird colors, weird flames, and a modelling of the
+figures by patches of color almost savage as compared to the tinted
+drawing of classicism. Delacroix's youth saved the picture from
+condemnation, but it was different with his Massacre of Scio two
+years later. This was decried by the classicists, and even Gros called
+it "the massacre of art." The painter was accused of establishing the
+worship of the ugly, he was no draughtsman, had no selection, no
+severity, nothing but brutality. But Delacroix was as obstinate as
+Ingres, and declared that the whole world could not prevent him from
+seeing and painting things in his own way. It was thus the quarrel
+started, the young men siding with Delacroix, the older men following
+David and Ingres.
+
+In himself Delacroix embodied all that was best and strongest in the
+romantic movement. His painting was intended to convey a romantic mood
+of mind by combinations of color, light, air, and the like. In subject
+it was tragic and passionate, like the poetry of Hugo, Byron, and
+Scott. The figures were usually given with anguish-wrung brows, wild
+eyes, dishevelled hair, and impetuous, contorted action. The painter
+never cared for technical details, seeking always to gain the effect
+of the whole rather than the exactness of the part. He purposely
+slurred drawing at times, and was opposed to formal composition. In
+color he was superior, though somewhat violent at times, and in
+brush-work he was often labored and patchy. His strength lay in
+imagination displayed in color and in action.
+
+The quarrel between classicism and romanticism lasted some years, with
+neither side victorious. Delacroix won recognition for his view of
+art, but did not crush the belief in form which was to come to the
+surface again. He fought almost alone. Many painters rallied around
+him, but they added little strength to the new movement. Deveria
+(1805-1865) and Champmartin (1797-1883) were highly thought of at
+first, but they rapidly degenerated. Sigalon (1788-1837), Cogniet
+(1794-1880), Robert-Fleury (1797-), and Boulanger (1806-1867), were
+romanticists, but achieved more as teachers than as painters.
+Delaroche (1797-1856) was an eclectic--in fact, founded a school of
+that name--thinking to take what was best from both parties.
+Inventing nothing, he profited by all invented. He employed the
+romantic subject and color, but adhered to classic drawing. His
+composition was good, his costume careful in detail, his brush-work
+smooth, and his story-telling capacity excellent. All these qualities
+made him a popular painter, but not an original or powerful one. Ary
+Scheffer (1797-1858) was an illustrator of Goethe and Byron, frail in
+both sentiment and color, a painter who started as a romanticist, but
+afterward developed line under Ingres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--GEROME. POLLICE VERSO.]
+
+THE ORIENTALISTS: In both literature and painting one phase of
+romanticism showed itself in a love for the life, the light, the color
+of the Orient. From Paris Decamps (1803-1860) was the first painter to
+visit the East and paint Eastern life. He was a _genre_ painter more
+than a figure painter, giving naturalistic street scenes in Turkey and
+Asia Minor, courts, and interiors, with great feeling for air, warmth
+of color, and light. At about the same time Marilhat (1811-1847) was
+in Egypt picturing the life of that country in a similar manner; and
+later, Fromentin (1820-1876), painter and writer, following Delacroix,
+went to Algiers and portrayed there Arab life with fast-flying horses,
+the desert air, sky, light, and color. Theodore Frere and Ziem belong
+further on in the century, but were no less exponents of romanticism
+in the East.
+
+Fifteen years after the starting of romanticism the movement had
+materially subsided. It had never been a school in the sense of having
+rules and laws of art. Liberty of thought and perfect freedom for
+individual expression were all it advocated. As a result there was no
+unity, for there was nothing to unite upon; and with every painter
+painting as he pleased, regardless of law, extravagance was
+inevitable. This was the case, and when the next generation came in
+romanticism began to be ridiculed for its excesses. A reaction started
+in favor of more line and academic training. This was first shown by
+the students of Delaroche, though there were a number of movements at
+the time, all of them leading away from romanticism. A recoil from too
+much color in favor of more form was inevitable, but romanticism was
+not to perish entirely. Its influence was to go on, and to appear in
+the work of later men.
+
+ECLECTICS AND TRANSITIONAL PAINTERS: After Ingres his follower
+Flandrin (1809-1864) was the most considerable draughtsman of the
+time. He was not classic but religious in subject, and is sometimes
+called "the religious painter of France." He had a delicate beauty of
+line and a fine feeling for form, but never was strong in color,
+brush-work, or sentiment. His best work appears in his very fine
+portraits. Gleyre (1806-1874) was a man of classic methods, but
+romantic tastes, who modified the heroic into the idyllic and
+mythologic. He was a sentimental day-dreamer, with a touch of
+melancholy about the vanished past, appearing in Arcadian fancies,
+pretty nymphs, and idealized memories of youth. In execution he was
+not at all romantic. His color was pale, his drawing delicate, and his
+lighting misty and uncertain. It was the etherealized classic method,
+and this method he transmitted to a little band of painters called the
+
+NEW-GREEKS, who, in point of time, belong much further along in the
+century, but in their art are with Gleyre. Their work never rose above
+the idyllic and the graceful, and calls for no special mention. Hamon
+(1821-1874) and Aubert (1824-) belonged to the band, and Gerome
+(1824-[6]) was at one time its leader, but he afterward emerged from
+it to a higher place in French art, where he will find mention
+hereafter.
+
+[Footnote 6: Died, 1904.]
+
+Couture (1815-1879) stood quite by himself, a mingling of several
+influences. His chief picture, The Romans of the Decadence, is classic
+in subject, romantic in sentiment (and this very largely expressed by
+warmth of color), and rather realistic in natural appearance. He was
+an eclectic in a way, and yet seems to stand as the forerunner of a
+large body of artists who find classification hereafter under the
+title of the Semi-Classicists.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: All the painters mentioned in this chapter
+     are best represented in the Louvre at Paris, at Versailles,
+     and in the museums of the chief French cities. Some works of
+     the late or living men may be found in the Luxembourg, where
+     pictures bought by the state are kept for ten years after
+     the painter's death, and then are either sent to the Louvre
+     or to the other municipal galleries of France. Some pictures
+     by these men are also to be seen in the Metropolitan Museum,
+     New York, the Boston Museum, and the Chicago Art Institute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FRENCH PAINTING.
+
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (_Continued_).
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: The books before mentioned, consult also
+     General Bibliography, (page xv.)
+
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The influence of either the classic or
+romantic example may be traced in almost all of the French painting of
+this century. The opposed teachings find representatives in new men,
+and under different names the modified dispute goes on--the dispute of
+the academic _versus_ the individual, the art of form and line
+_versus_ the art of sentiment and color.
+
+With the classicism of David not only the figure but the landscape
+setting of it, took on an ideal heroic character. Trees and hills and
+rivers became supernaturally grand and impressive. Everything was
+elevated by method to produce an imaginary Arcadia fit for the deities
+of the classic world. The result was that nature and the humanity of
+the painter passed out in favor of school formula and academic
+traditions. When romanticism came in this was changed, but nature
+falsified in another direction. Landscape was given an interest in
+human affairs, and made to look gay or sad, peaceful or turbulent, as
+the day went well or ill with the hero of the story portrayed. It was,
+however, truer to the actual than the classic, more studied in the
+parts, more united in the whole. About the year 1830 the influence of
+romanticism began to show in a new landscape art. That is to say, the
+emotional impulse springing from romanticism combined with the study
+of the old Dutch landscapists, and the English contemporary painters,
+Constable and Bonington, set a large number of painters to the close
+study of nature and ultimately developed what has been vaguely called
+the
+
+FONTAINEBLEAU-BARBIZON SCHOOL: This whole school was primarily devoted
+to showing the sentiment of color and light. It took nature just as it
+found it in the forest of Fontainebleau, on the plain of Barbizon, and
+elsewhere, and treated it with a poetic feeling for light, shadow,
+atmosphere, color, that resulted in the best landscape painting yet
+known to us.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--COROT. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+Corot (1796-1875) though classically trained under Bertin, and though
+somewhat apart from the other men in his life, belongs with this
+group. He was a man whose artistic life was filled with the beauty of
+light and air. These he painted with great singleness of aim and great
+poetic charm. Most of his work is in a light silvery key of color,
+usually slight in composition, simple in masses of light and dark,
+and very broadly but knowingly handled with the brush. He began
+painting by using the minute brush, but changed it later on for a
+freer style which recorded only the great omnipresent truths and
+suppressed the small ones. He has never had a superior in producing
+the permeating light of morning and evening. For this alone, if for no
+other excellence, he deservedly holds high rank.
+
+Rousseau (1812-1867) was one of the foremost of the recognized
+leaders, and probably the most learned landscapist of this century. A
+man of many moods and methods he produced in variety with rare
+versatility. Much of his work was experimental, but at his best he had
+a majestic conception of nature, a sense of its power and permanence,
+its volume and mass, that often resulted in the highest quality of
+pictorial poetry. In color he was rich and usually warm, in technic
+firm and individual, in sentiment at times quite sublime. At first he
+painted broadly and won friends among the artists and sneers from the
+public; then in his middle style he painted in detail, and had a
+period of popular success; in his late style he went back to the broad
+manner, and died amid quarrels and vexations of spirits. His long-time
+friend and companion, Jules Dupre (1812-1889), hardly reached up to
+him, though a strong painter in landscape and marine. He was a good
+but not great colorist, and, technically, his brush was broad enough
+but sometimes heavy. His late work is inferior in sentiment and
+labored in handling. Diaz (1808-1876) was allied to Rousseau in aim
+and method, though not so sure nor so powerful a painter. He had fancy
+and variety in creation that sometimes ran to license, and in color he
+was clear and brilliant. Never very well trained, his drawing is often
+indifferent and his light distorted, but these are more than atoned
+for by delicacy and poetic charm. At times he painted with much power.
+Daubigny (1817-1878) seemed more like Corot in his charm of style and
+love of atmosphere and light than any of the others. He was fond of
+the banks of the Seine and the Marne at twilight, with evening
+atmospheres and dark trees standing in silent ranks against the warm
+sky. He was also fond of the gray day along the coast, and even the
+sea attracted him not a little. He was a painter of high abilities,
+and in treatment strongly individual, even distinguished, by his
+simplicity and directness. Unity of the whole, grasp of the mass
+entire, was his technical aim, and this he sought to get not so much
+by line as by color-tones of varying value. In this respect he seemed
+a connecting link between Corot and the present-day impressionists.
+Michel (1763-1842), Huet (1804-1869), Chintreuil (1814-1873), and
+Francais (1814-) were all allied in point of view with this group of
+landscape painters, and among the late men who have carried out their
+beliefs are Cazin,[7] Yon,[8] Damoye, Pointelin, Harpignies and
+Pelouse[9] seem a little more inclined to the realistic than the
+poetic view, though producing work of much virility and intelligence.
+
+[Footnote 7: Died, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Died, 1897.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Died, 1890.]
+
+Contemporary and associated with the Fontainebleau painters were a
+number of men who won high distinction as
+
+PAINTERS OF ANIMALS: Troyon (1810-1865) was the most prominent among
+them. His work shows the same sentiment of light and color as the
+Fontainebleau landscapists, and with it there is much keen insight
+into animal life. As a technician he was rather hard at first, and he
+never was a correct draughtsman, but he had a way of giving the
+character of the objects he portrayed which is the very essence of
+truth. He did many landscapes with and without cattle. His best pupil
+was Van Marcke (1827-1890), who followed his methods but never
+possessed the feeling of his master. Jacque (1813-[10]) is also of the
+Fontainebleau-Barbizon group, and is justly celebrated for his
+paintings and etchings of sheep. The poetry of the school is his, and
+technically he is fine in color at times, if often rather dark in
+illumination. Like Troyon he knows his subject well, and can show the
+nature of sheep with true feeling. Rosa Bonheur (1822-[11]) and her
+brother, Auguste Bonheur (1824-1884), have both dealt with animal
+life, but never with that fine artistic feeling which would warrant
+their popularity. Their work is correct enough, but prosaic and
+commonplace in spirit. They do not belong in the same group with
+Troyon and Rousseau.
+
+[Footnote 10: Died, 1894.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Died, 1899.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ROUSSEAU, CHARCOAL BURNERS' HUT. FULLER
+COLLECTION.]
+
+THE PEASANT PAINTERS: Allied again in feeling and sentiment with the
+Fontainebleau landscapists were some celebrated painters of peasant
+life, chief among whom stood Millet (1814-1875), of Barbizon. The
+pictorial inclination of Millet was early grounded by a study of
+Delacroix, the master romanticist, and his work is an expression of
+romanticism modified by an individual study of nature and applied to
+peasant life. He was peasant born, living and dying at Barbizon,
+sympathizing with his class, and painting them with great poetic force
+and simplicity. His sentiment sometimes has a literary bias, as in his
+far-famed but indifferent Angelus, but usually it is strictly
+pictorial and has to do with the beauty of light, air, color, motion,
+life, as shown in The Sower or The Gleaners. Technically he was not
+strong as a draughtsman or a brushman, but he had a large feeling for
+form, great simplicity in line, keen perception of the relations of
+light and dark, and at times an excellent color-sense. He was
+virtually the discoverer of the peasant as an art subject, and for
+this, as for his original point of view and artistic feeling, he is
+ranked as one of the foremost artists of the century.
+
+Jules Breton (1827-), though painting little besides the peasantry, is
+no Millet follower, for he started painting peasant scenes at about
+the same time as Millet. His affinities were with the New-Greeks early
+in life, and ever since he has inclined toward the academic in style,
+though handling the rustic subject. He is a good technician, except in
+his late work; but as an original thinker, as a pictorial poet, he
+does not show the intensity or profundity of Millet. The followers of
+the Millet-Breton tradition are many. The blue-frocked and sabot-shod
+peasantry have appeared in salon and gallery for twenty years and
+more, but with not very good results. The imitators, as usual, have
+caught at the subject and missed the spirit. Billet and Legros,
+contemporaries of Millet, still living, and Lerolle, a man of
+present-day note, are perhaps the most considerable of the painters of
+rural subjects to-day.
+
+THE SEMI-CLASSICISTS: It must not be inferred that the classic
+influence of David and Ingres disappeared from view with the coming of
+the romanticists, the Fontainebleau landscapists, and the Barbizon
+painters. On the contrary, side by side with these men, and opposed
+to them, were the believers in line and academic formulas of the
+beautiful. The whole tendency of academic art in France was against
+Delacroix, Rousseau, and Millet. During their lives they were regarded
+as heretics in art and without the pale of the Academy. Their art,
+however, combined with nature study and the realism of Courbet,
+succeeded in modifying the severe classicism of Ingres into what has
+been called semi-classicism. It consists in the elevated, heroic, or
+historical theme, academic form well drawn, some show of bright
+colors, smoothness of brush-work, and precision and nicety of detail.
+In treatment it attempts the realistic, but in spirit it is usually
+stilted, cold, unsympathetic.
+
+Cabanel (1823-1889) and Bouguereau (1825-1905) have both represented
+semi-classic art well. They are justly ranked as famous draughtsmen
+and good portrait-painters, but their work always has about it the
+stamp of the academy machine, a something done to order, knowing and
+exact, but lacking in the personal element. It is a weakness of the
+academic method that it virtually banishes the individuality of eye
+and hand in favor of school formulas. Cabanel and Bouguereau have
+painted many incidents of classic and historic story, but with never a
+dash of enthusiasm or a suggestion of the great qualities of painting.
+Their drawing has been as thorough as could be asked for, but their
+colorings have been harsh and their brushes cold and thin.
+
+Gerome (1824-[12]) is a man of classic training and inclination, but
+his versatility hardly allows him to be classified anywhere. He was
+first a leader of the New-Greeks, painting delicate mythological
+subjects; then a historical painter, showing deaths of Caesar and the
+like; then an Orientalist, giving scenes from Cairo and
+Constantinople; then a _genre_ painter, depicting contemporary
+subjects in the many lands through which he has travelled. Whatever he
+has done shows semi-classic drawing, ethnological and archaeological
+knowledge, Parisian technic, and exact detail. His travels have not
+changed his precise scientific point of view. He is a true academician
+at bottom, but a more versatile and cultured painter than either
+Cabanel or Bouguereau. He draws well, sometimes uses color well, and
+is an excellent painter of textures. A man of great learning in many
+departments he is no painter to be sneered at, and yet not a painter
+to make the pulse beat faster or to arouse the aesthetic emotions. His
+work is impersonal, objective fact, showing a brilliant exterior but
+inwardly devoid of feeling.
+
+[Footnote 12: Died, 1904.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--MILLET. THE GLEANERS. LOUVRE.]
+
+Paul Baudry (1828-1886), though a disciple of line, was not precisely
+a semi-classicist, and perhaps for that reason was superior to any of
+the academic painters of his time. He was a follower of the old
+masters in Rome more than the _Ecole des Beaux Arts_. His subjects,
+aside from many splendid portraits, were almost all classical,
+allegorical, or mythological. He was a fine draughtsman, and, what is
+more remarkable in conjunction therewith, a fine colorist. He was
+hardly a great originator, and had not passion, dramatic force, or
+much sentiment, except such as may be found in his delicate coloring
+and rhythm of line. Nevertheless he was an artist to be admired for
+his purity of purpose and breadth of accomplishment. His chief work is
+to be seen in the Opera at Paris. Puvis de Chavannes (1824-[13]) is
+quite a different style of painter, and is remarkable for fine
+delicate tones of color which hold their place well on wall or
+ceiling, and for a certain grandeur of composition. In his desire to
+revive the monumental painting of the Renaissance he has met with much
+praise and much blame. He is an artist of sincerity and learning, and
+as a wall-painter has no superior in contemporary France.
+
+[Footnote 13: Died, 1898.]
+
+Hebert (1817-1908), an early painter of academic tendencies, and
+Henner (1829-), fond of form and yet a brushman with an idyllic
+feeling for light and color in dark surroundings, are painters who may
+come under the semi-classic grouping. Lefebvre (1834-) is probably the
+most pronounced in academic methods among the present men, a
+draughtsman of ability.
+
+PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: Under this heading may be included those
+painters who stand by themselves, showing no positive preference for
+either the classic or romantic followings. Bonnat (1833-) has painted
+all kinds of subjects--_genre_, figure, and historical pieces--but is
+perhaps best known as a portrait-painter. He has done forcible work.
+Some of it indeed is astonishing in its realistic modelling--the
+accentuation of light and shadow often causing the figures to advance
+unnaturally. From this feature and from his detail he has been known for
+years as a "realist." His anatomical Christ on the Cross and mural
+paintings in the Pantheon are examples. As a portrait-painter he is
+acceptable, if at times a little raw in color. Another portrait-painter
+of celebrity is Carolus-Duran (1837-). He is rather startling at times
+in his portrayal of robes and draperies, has a facility of the brush
+that is frequently deceptive, and in color is sometimes vivid. He has
+had great success as a teacher, and is, all told, a painter of high
+rank. Delaunay (1828-1892) in late years painted little besides
+portraits, and was one of the conservatives of French art. Laurens
+(1838-) has been more of a historical painter than the others, and has
+dealt largely with death scenes. He is often spoken of as "the painter
+of the dead," a man of sound training and excellent technical power.
+Regnault (1843-1871) was a figure and _genre_ painter with much feeling
+for oriental light and color, who unfortunately was killed in battle at
+twenty-seven years of age. He was an artist of promise, and has left
+several notable canvases. Among the younger men who portray the
+historical subject in an elevated style mention should be made of Cormon
+(1845-), Benjamin-Constant (1845-[14]), and Rochegrosse. As painters of
+portraits Aman-Jean and Carriere[15] have long held rank, and each
+succeeding Salon brings new portraitists to the front.
+
+[Footnote 14: Died, 1902.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Died, 1906.]
+
+THE REALISTS: About the time of the appearance of Millet, say 1848,
+there also came to the front a man who scorned both classicism and
+romanticism, and maintained that the only model and subject of art
+should be nature. This man, Courbet (1819-1878), really gave a third
+tendency to the art of this century in France, and his influence
+undoubtedly had much to do with modifying both the classic and
+romantic tendencies. Courbet was a man of arrogant, dogmatic
+disposition, and was quite heartily detested during his life, but that
+he was a painter of great ability few will deny. His theory was the
+abolition of both sentiment and academic law, and the taking of nature
+just as it was, with all its beauties and all its deformities. This,
+too, was his practice to a certain extent. His art is material, and
+yet at times lofty in conception even to the sublime. And while he
+believed in realism he did not believe in petty detail, but rather in
+the great truths of nature. These he saw with a discerning eye and
+portrayed with a masterful brush. He believed in what he saw only, and
+had more the observing than the reflective or emotional disposition.
+As a technician he was coarse but superbly strong, handling sky,
+earth, air, with the ease and power of one well trained in his craft.
+His subjects were many--the peasantry of France, landscape, and the
+sea holding prominent places--and his influence, though not direct
+because he had no pupils of consequence, has been most potent with the
+late men.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--CABANEL. PHAEDRA.]
+
+The young painter of to-day who does things in a "realistic" way is
+frequently met with in French art. L'hermitte (1844-), Julien Dupre
+(1851-), and others have handled the peasant subject with skill, after
+the Millet-Courbet initiative; and Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884) excited
+a good deal of admiration in his lifetime for the truth and evident
+sincerity of his art. Bastien's point of view was realistic enough,
+but somewhat material. He never handled the large composition with
+success, but in small pieces and in portraits he was quite above
+criticism. His following among the young men was considerable, and the
+so-called impressionists have ranked him among their disciples or
+leaders.
+
+PAINTERS OF MILITARY SCENES, GENRE, ETC.: The art of Meissonier
+(1815-1891), while extremely realistic in modern detail, probably
+originated from a study of the seventeenth-century Dutchmen like
+Terburg and Metsu. It does not portray low life, but rather the
+half-aristocratic--the scholar, the cavalier, the gentleman of
+leisure. This is done on a small scale with microscopic nicety, and
+really more in the historical than the _genre_ spirit. Single figures
+and interiors were his preference, but he also painted a cycle of
+Napoleonic battle-pictures with much force. There is little or no
+sentiment about his work--little more than in that of Gerome. His
+success lay in exact technical accomplishment. He drew well, painted
+well, and at times was a superior colorist. His art is more admired by
+the public than by the painters; but even the latter do not fail to
+praise his skill of hand. He was a great craftsman in the infinitely
+little. As a great artist his rank is still open to question.
+
+The _genre_ painting of fashionable life has been carried out by many
+followers of Meissonier, whose names need not be mentioned since they
+have not improved upon their forerunner. Toulmouche (1829-), Leloir
+(1843-1884), Vibert (1840-), Bargue (?-1883), and others, though
+somewhat different from Meissonier, belong among those painters of
+_genre_ who love detail, costumes, stories, and pretty faces. Among
+the painters of military _genre_ mention should be made of De Neuville
+(1836-1885), Berne-Bellecour (1838-), Detaille (1848-), and Aime-Morot
+(1850-), all of them painters of merit.
+
+Quite a different style of painting--half figure-piece half
+_genre_--is to be found in the work of Ribot (1823-), a strong
+painter, remarkable for his apposition of high flesh lights with deep
+shadows, after the manner of Ribera, the Spanish painter. Roybet
+(1840-) is fond of rich stuffs and tapestries with velvet-clad
+characters in interiors, out of which he makes good color effects.
+Bonvin (1817-1887) and Mettling have painted the interior with small
+figures, copper-kettles, and other still-life that have given
+brilliancy to their pictures. As a still-life painter Vollon (1833-)
+has never had a superior. His fruits, flowers, armors, even his small
+marines and harbor pieces, are painted with one of the surest brushes
+of this century. He is called the "painter's painter," and is a man of
+great force in handling color, and in large realistic effect. Dantan
+and Friant have both produced canvases showing figures in interiors.
+
+A number of excellent _genre_ painters have been claimed by the
+impressionists as belonging to their brotherhood. There is little to
+warrant the claim, except the adoption to some extent of the modern
+ideas of illumination and flat painting. Dagnan-Bouveret (1852-) is
+one of these men, a good draughtsman, and a finished clean painter who
+by his recent use of high color finds himself occasionally looked upon
+as an impressionist. As a matter of fact he is one of the most
+conservative of the moderns--a man of feeling and imagination, and a
+fine technician. Fantin-Latour (1836-1904) is half romantic, half
+allegorical in subject, and in treatment oftentimes designedly vague
+and shadowy, more suggestive than realistic. Duez (1843-) and Gervex
+(1848-) are perhaps nearer to impressionism in their works than the
+others, but they are not at all advance advocates of this latest phase
+of art. In addition there are Cottet and Henri Martin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--MEISSONIER. NAPOLEON IN 1814.]
+
+THE IMPRESSIONISTS: The name is a misnomer. Every painter is an
+impressionist in so far as he records his impressions, and all art is
+impressionistic. What Manet (1833-1883), the leader of the original
+movement, meant to say was that nature should not be painted as it
+actually is, but as it "impresses" the painter. He and his few
+followers tried to change the name to Independents, but the original
+name has clung to them and been mistakenly fastened to a present band
+of landscape painters who are seeking effects of light and air and
+should be called luminists if it is necessary for them to be named at
+all. Manet was extravagant in method and disposed toward low life for
+a subject, which has always militated against his popularity; but he
+was a very important man for his technical discoveries regarding the
+relations of light and shadow, the flat appearance of nature, the
+exact value of color tones. Some of his works, like The Boy with a
+Sword and The Toreador Dead, are excellent pieces of painting. The
+higher imaginative qualities of art Manet made no great effort at
+attaining.
+
+Degas stands quite by himself, strong in effects of motion, especially
+with race-horses, fine in color, and a delightful brushman in such
+subjects as ballet-girls and scenes from the theatre. Besnard is one
+of the best of the present men. He deals with the figure, and is
+usually concerned with the problem of harmonizing color under
+conflicting lights, such as twilight and lamplight. Beraud and
+Raffaelli are exceedingly clever in street scenes and character
+pieces; Pissarro[16] handles the peasantry in high color; Brown
+(1829-1890), the race-horse, and Renoir, the middle class of social
+life. Caillebotte, Roll, Forain, and Miss Cassatt, an American, are
+also classed with the impressionists.
+
+[Footnote 16: Died, 1903.]
+
+IMPRESSIONIST LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: Of recent years there has been a
+disposition to change the key of light in landscape painting, to get
+nearer the truth of nature in the height of light and in the height of
+shadows. In doing this Claude Monet, the present leader of the
+movement, has done away with the dark brown or black shadow and
+substituted the light-colored shadow, which is nearer the actual truth
+of nature. In trying to raise the pitch of light he has not been quite
+so successful, though accomplishing something. His method is to use
+pure prismatic colors on the principle that color is light in a
+decomposed form, and that its proper juxtaposition on canvas will
+recompose into pure light again. Hence the use of light shadows and
+bright colors. The aim of these modern men is chiefly to gain the
+effect of light and air. They do not apparently care for subject,
+detail, or composition.
+
+At present their work is in the experimental stage, but from the way
+in which it is being accepted and followed by the painters of to-day
+we may be sure the movement is of considerable importance. There will
+probably be a reaction  in favor of more form and solidity than the
+present men give, but the high key of light will be retained. There
+are so many painters following these modern methods, not only in
+France but all over the world, that a list of their names would be
+impossible. In France Sisley with Monet are the two important
+landscapists. In marines Boudin and Montenard should be mentioned.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: The modern French painters are seen to
+     advantage in the Louvre, Luxembourg, Pantheon, Sorbonne, and
+     the municipal galleries of France. Also Metropolitan Museum
+     New York, Chicago Art Institute, Boston Museum, and many
+     private collections in France and America. Consult for works
+     in public or private hands, Champlin and Perkins,
+     _Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings_, under names of
+     artists.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+SPANISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bermudez, _Diccionario de las Bellas
+     Artes en Espana_; Davillier, _Memoire de Velasquez_;
+     Davillier, _Fortuny_; Eusebi, _Los Differentes Escuelas de
+     Pintura_; Ford, _Handbook of Spain_; Head, _History of
+     Spanish and French Schools of Painting_; Justi, _Velasquez
+     and his Times_; Lefort, _Velasquez_; Lefort, _Francisco
+     Goya_; Lefort, _Murillo et son Ecole_; Lefort, _La Peinture
+     Espagnole_; Palomino de Castro y Velasco, _Vidas de los
+     Pintores y Estatuarios Eminentes Espanoles_; Passavant, _Die
+     Christliche Kunst in Spanien_; Plon, _Les Maitres Italiens
+     au Service de la Maison d'Autriche_; Stevenson, _Velasquez_;
+     Stirling, _Annals of the Artists of Spain_; Stirling,
+     _Velasquez and his Works_; Tubino, _El Arte y los Artistas
+     contemporaneos en la Peninsula_; Tubino, _Murillo_; Viardot,
+     _Notices sur les Principaux Peintres de l'Espagne_; Yriarte,
+     _Goya, sa Biographie_, etc.
+
+
+SPANISH ART MOTIVES: What may have been the early art of Spain we are
+at a loss to conjecture. The reigns of the Moor, the Iconoclast, and,
+finally, the Inquisitor, have left little that dates before the
+fourteenth century. The miniatures and sacred relics treasured in the
+churches and said to be of the apostolic period, show the traces of a
+much later date and a foreign origin. Even when we come down to the
+fifteenth century and meet with art produced in Spain, we have a
+following of Italy or the Netherlands. In methods and technic it was
+derivative more than original, though almost from the beginning
+peculiarly Spanish in spirit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--SANCHEZ COELLO. CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF
+PHILIP II. MADRID.]
+
+That spirit was a dark and savage one, a something that cringed under
+the lash of the Church, bowed before the Inquisition, and played the
+executioner with the paint-brush. The bulk of Spanish art was Church
+art, done under ecclesiastical domination, and done in form without
+question or protest. The religious subject ruled. True enough, there
+was portraiture of nobility, and under Philip and Velasquez a
+half-monarchical art of military scenes and _genre_; but this was not
+the bent of Spanish painting as a whole. Even in late days, when
+Velasquez was reflecting the haughty court, Murillo was more widely
+and nationally reflecting the believing provinces and the Church
+faith of the people. It is safe to say, in a general way, that the
+Church was responsible for Spanish art, and that religion was its
+chief motive.
+
+There was no revived antique, little of the nude or the pagan, little
+of consequence in landscape, little, until Velasquez's time, of the
+real and the actual. An ascetic view of life, faith, and the hereafter
+prevailed. The pietistic, the fervent, and the devout were not so
+conspicuous as the morose, the ghastly, and the horrible. The saints
+and martyrs, the crucifixions and violent deaths, were eloquent of the
+torture-chamber. It was more ecclesiasticism by blood and violence
+than Christianity by peace and love. And Spain welcomed this. For of
+all the children of the Church she was the most faithful to rule,
+crushing out heresy with an iron hand, gaining strength from the
+Catholic reaction, and upholding the Jesuits and the Inquisition.
+
+METHODS OF PAINTING: Spanish art worthy of mention did not appear
+until the fifteenth century. At that time Spain was in close relations
+with the Netherlands, and Flemish painting was somewhat followed. How
+much the methods of the Van Eycks influenced Spain would be hard to
+determine, especially as these Northern methods were mixed with
+influences coming from Italy. Finally, the Italian example prevailed
+by reason of Spanish students in Italy and Italian painters in Spain.
+Florentine line, Venetian color, and Neapolitan light-and-shade ruled
+almost everywhere, and it was not until the time of Velasquez--the
+period just before the eighteenth-century decline--that distinctly
+Spanish methods, founded on nature, really came forcibly to the front.
+
+SPANISH SCHOOLS OF PAINTING: There is difficulty in classifying these
+schools of painting because our present knowledge of them is limited.
+Isolated somewhat from the rest of Europe, the Spanish painters have
+never been critically studied as the Italians have been, and what is
+at present known about the schools must be accepted subject to
+critical revision hereafter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--MURILLO. ST. ANTHONY OF PADUA. BERLIN.]
+
+The earliest school seems to have been made up from a gathering of
+artists at Toledo, who limned, carved, and gilded in the cathedral;
+but this school was not of long duration. It was merged into the
+Castilian school, which, after the building of Madrid, made its home
+in that capital and drew its forces from the towns of Toledo,
+Valladolid, and Badajoz. The Andalusian school, which rose about the
+middle of the sixteenth century, was made up from the local schools of
+Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The Valencian school, to the
+southeast, rose about the same time, and was finally merged into the
+Andalusian. The Aragonese school, to the east, was small and of no
+great consequence, though existing in a feeble way to the end of the
+seventeenth century. The painters of these schools are not very
+strongly marked apart by methods or school traditions, and perhaps the
+divisions would better be looked upon as more geographical than
+otherwise. None of the schools really began before the sixteenth
+century, though there are names of artists and some extant pictures
+before that date, and with the seventeenth century all art in Spain
+seems to have centred about Madrid.
+
+Spanish painting started into life concurrently with the rise to
+prominence of Spain as a political kingdom. What, if any, direct
+effect the maritime discoveries, the conquests of Granada and Naples,
+the growth of literature, and the decline of Italy, may have had upon
+Spanish painting can only be conjectured; but certainly the sudden
+advance of the nation politically and socially was paralleled by the
+advance of its art.
+
+THE CASTILIAN SCHOOL: This school probably had no so-called founder.
+It was a growth from early art traditions at Toledo, and afterward
+became the chief school of the kingdom owing to the patronage of
+Philip II. and Philip IV. at Madrid. The first painter of importance
+in the school seems to have been Antonio Rincon (1446?-1500?). He is
+sometimes spoken of as the father of Spanish painting, and as having
+studied in Italy with Castagno and Ghirlandajo, but there is little
+foundation for either statement. He painted chiefly at Toledo, painted
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and had some skill in hard
+drawing. Berruguete (1480?-1561) studied with Michael Angelo, and is
+supposed to have helped him in the Vatican. He afterward returned to
+Spain, painted many altar-pieces, and was patronized as painter,
+sculptor, and architect by Charles V. and Philip II. He was probably
+the first to introduce pure Italian methods into Spain, with some
+coldness and dryness of coloring and handling. Becerra (1520?-1570)
+was born in Andalusia, but worked in Castile, and was a man of Italian
+training similar to Berruguete. He was an exceptional man, perhaps, in
+his use of mythological themes and nude figures.
+
+There is not a great deal known about Morales (1509?-1586), called
+"the Divine," except that he was allied to the Castilian school, and
+painted devotional heads of Christ with the crown of thorns, and many
+afflicted and weeping madonnas. There was Florentine drawing in his
+work, great regard for finish, and something of Correggio's softness
+in shadows pitched in a browner key. His sentiment was rather
+exaggerated. Sanchez-Coello (1513?-1590) was painter and courtier to
+Philip II., and achieved reputation as a portrait-painter, though also
+doing some altar-pieces. It is doubtful whether he ever studied in
+Italy, but in Spain he was for a time with Antonio Moro, and probably
+learned from him something of rich costumes, ermines, embroideries,
+and jewels, for which his portraits were remarkable. Navarette
+(1526?-1579), called "El Mudo" (the dumb one), certainly was in Italy
+for something like twenty years, and was there a disciple of Titian,
+from whom he doubtless learned much of color and the free flow of
+draperies. He was one of the best of the middle-period painters.
+Theotocopuli (1548?-1625), called "El Greco" (the Greek), was another
+Venetian-influenced painter, with enough Spanish originality about him
+to make most of his pictures striking in color and drawing. Tristan
+(1586-1640) was his best follower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--RIBERA. ST. AGNES. DRESDEN.]
+
+Velasquez (1599-1660) is the greatest name in the history of Spanish
+painting. With him Spanish art took upon itself a decidedly
+naturalistic and national stamp. Before his time Italy had been freely
+imitated; but though Velasquez himself was in Italy for quite a long
+time, and intimately acquainted with great Italian art, he never
+seemed to have been led away from his own individual way of seeing and
+doing. He was a pupil of Herrera, afterward with Pacheco, and learned
+much from Ribera and Tristan, but more from a direct study of nature
+than from all the others. He was in a broad sense a realist--a man who
+recorded the material and the actual without emendation or
+transposition. He has never been surpassed in giving the solidity and
+substance of form and the placing of objects in atmosphere. And this,
+not in a small, finical way, but with a breadth of view and of
+treatment which are to-day the despair of painters. There was nothing
+of the ethereal, the spiritual, the pietistic, or the pathetic about
+him. He never for a moment left the firm basis of reality. Standing
+upon earth he recorded the truths of the earth, but in their largest,
+fullest, most universal forms.
+
+Technically his was a master-hand, doing all things with ease, giving
+exact relations of colors and lights, and placing everything so
+perfectly that no addition or alteration is thought of. With the brush
+he was light, easy, sure. The surface looks as though touched once, no
+more. It is the perfection of handling through its simplicity and
+certainty, and has not the slightest trace of affectation or
+mannerism. He was one of the few Spanish painters who were enabled to
+shake off the yoke of the Church. Few of his canvases are religious in
+subject. Under royal patronage he passed almost all of his life in
+painting portraits of the royal family, ministers of state, and great
+dignitaries. As a portrait-painter he is more widely known than as a
+figure-painter. Nevertheless he did many canvases like The Tapestry
+Weavers and The Surrender at Breda, which attest his remarkable genius
+in that field; and even in landscape, in _genre_, in animal painting,
+he was a very superior man. In fact Velasquez is one of the few great
+painters in European history for whom there is nothing but praise. He
+was the full-rounded complete painter, intensely individual and
+self-assertive, and yet in his art recording in a broad way the
+Spanish type and life. He was the climax of Spanish painting, and
+after him there was a rather swift decline, as had been the case in
+the Italian schools.
+
+Mazo (1610?-1667), pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez, was one of his
+most facile imitators, and Carreno de Miranda (1614-1685) was
+influenced by Velasquez, and for a time his assistant. The Castilian
+school may be said to have closed with these late men and with Claudio
+Coello (1635?-1693), a painter with a style founded on Titian and
+Rubens, whose best work was of extraordinary power. Spanish painting
+went out with Spanish power, and only isolated men of small rank
+remained.
+
+ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL: This school came into existence about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. Its chief centre was at Seville, and its chief
+patron the Church rather than the king. Vargas (1502-1568) was
+probably the real founder of the school, though De Castro (fl. 1454)
+and others preceded him. Vargas was a man of much reputation and
+ability in his time, and introduced Italian methods and elegance into
+the Andalusian school after twenty odd years of residence in Italy. He
+is said to have studied under Perino del Vaga, and there is some
+sweetness of face and grace of form about his work that point that
+way, though his composition suggests Correggio. Most of his frescos
+have perished; some of his canvases are still in existence.
+
+Cespedes (1538?-1608) is little known through extant works, but he
+achieved fame in many departments during his life, and is said to have
+been in Italy under Florentine influence. His coloring was rather
+cold, and his drawing large and flat. The best early painter of the
+school was Roelas (1558?-1625), the inspirer of Murillo and the master
+of Zurbaran. He is supposed to have studied at Venice, because of his
+rich, glowing color. Most of his works are religious and are found
+chiefly at Seville. He was greatly patronized by the Jesuits. Pacheco
+(1571-1654) was more of a pedant than a painter, a man of rule, who
+to-day might be written down an academician. His drawing was hard, and
+perhaps the best reason for his being remembered is that he was one of
+the masters and the father-in-law of Velasquez. His rival, Herrera the
+Elder (1576?-1656) was a stronger man--in fact, the most original
+artist of his school. He struck off by himself and created a bold
+realism with a broad brush that anticipated Velasquez--in fact,
+Velasquez was under him for a time.
+
+The pure Spanish school in Andalusia, as distinct from Italian
+imitation, may be said to have started with Herrera. It was further
+advanced by another independent painter, Zurbaran (1598-1662), a pupil
+of Roelas. He was a painter of the emaciated monk in ecstasy, and many
+other rather dismal religious subjects expressive of tortured rapture.
+From using a rather dark shadow he acquired the name of the Spanish
+Caravaggio. He had a good deal of Caravaggio's strength, together with
+a depth and breadth of color suggestive of the Venetians. Cano
+(1601-1667), though he never was in Italy, had the name of the Spanish
+Michael Angelo, probably because he was sculptor, painter, and
+architect. His painting was rather sharp in line and statuesque in
+pose, with a coloring somewhat like that of Van Dyck. It was eclectic
+rather than original work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FORTUNY. SPANISH MARRIAGE.]
+
+Murillo (1618-1682) is generally placed at the head of the Andalusian
+school, as Velasquez at the head of the Castilian. There is good
+reason for it, for though Murillo was not the great painter he was
+sometime supposed, yet he was not the weak man his modern critics
+would make him out. A religious painter largely, though doing some
+_genre_ subjects like his beggar-boy groups, he sought for religious
+fervor and found, only too often, sentimentality. His madonnas are
+usually after the Carlo Dolci pattern, though never so excessive in
+sentiment. This was not the case with his earlier works, mostly of
+humble life, which were painted in rather a hard, positive manner.
+Later on he became misty, veiled in light and effeminate in outline,
+though still holding grace. His color varied with his early and later
+styles. It was usually gay and a little thin. While basing his work on
+nature like Velasquez, he never had the supreme poise of that master,
+either mentally or technically; howbeit he was an excellent painter,
+who perhaps justly holds second place in Spanish art.
+
+SCHOOL OF VALENCIA: This school rose contemporary with the Andalusian
+school, into which it was finally merged after the importance of
+Madrid had been established. It was largely modelled upon Italian
+painting, as indeed were all the schools of Spain at the start. Juan
+de Joanes (1507?-1579) apparently was its founder, a man who painted a
+good portrait, but in other respects was only a fair imitator of
+Raphael, whom he had studied at Rome. A stronger man was Francisco de
+Ribalta (1550?-1628), who was for a time in Italy under the Caracci,
+and learned from them free draughtsmanship and elaborate composition.
+He was also fond of Sebastiano del Piombo, and in his best works (at
+Valencia) reflected him. Ribalta gave an early training to Ribera
+(1588-1656), who was the most important man of this school. In reality
+Ribera was more Italian than Valencian, for he spent the greater part
+of his life in Italy, where he was called Lo Spagnoletto, and was
+greatly influenced by Caravaggio. He was a Spaniard in the horrible
+subjects that he chose, but in coarse strength of line, heaviness of
+shadows, harsh handling of the brush, he was a true Neapolitan
+Darkling. A pronounced mannerist he was no less a man of strength, and
+even in his shadow-saturated colors a painter with the color instinct.
+In Italy his influence in the time of the Decadence was wide-spread,
+and in Spain his Italian pupil, Giordano, introduced his methods for
+late imitation. There were no other men of much rank in the Valencian
+school, and, as has been said, the school was eventually merged in
+Andalusian painting.
+
+EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN: Almost directly
+after the passing of Velasquez and Murillo Spanish art failed. The
+eighteenth-century, as in Italy, was quite barren of any considerable
+art until near its close. Then Goya (1746-1828) seems to have made a
+partial restoration of painting. He was a man of peculiarly Spanish
+turn of mind, fond of the brutal and the bloody, picturing inquisition
+scenes, bull-fights, battle pieces, and revelling in caricature,
+sarcasm, and ridicule. His imagination was grotesque and horrible, but
+as a painter his art was based on the natural, and was exceedingly
+strong. In brush-work he followed Velasquez; in a peculiar forcing of
+contrasts in light and dark he was apparently quite himself, though
+possibly influenced by Ribera's work. His best work shows in his
+portraits and etchings.
+
+After Goya's death Spanish art, such as it was, rather followed
+France, with the extravagant classicism of David as a model. What was
+produced may be seen to this day in the Madrid Museum. It does not
+call for mention here. About the beginning of the 1860's Spanish
+painting made a new advance with Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874). In his
+early years he worked at historical painting, but later on he went to
+Algiers and Rome, finding his true vent in a bright sparkling painting
+of _genre_ subjects, oriental scenes, streets, interiors, single
+figures, and the like. He excelled in color, sunlight effects, and
+particularly in a vivacious facile handling of the brush. His work is
+brilliant, and in his late productions often spotty from excessive
+use of points of light in high color. He was a technician of much
+brilliancy and originality, his work exciting great admiration in his
+day, and leading the younger painters of Spain into that ornate
+handling visible in their works at the present time. Many of these
+latter, from association with art and artists in Paris, have adopted
+French methods, and hardly show such a thing as Spanish nationality.
+Fortuny's brother-in-law, Madrazo (1841-), is an example of a Spanish
+painter turned French in his methods--a facile and brilliant
+portrait-painter. Zamacois (1842-1871) died early, but with a
+reputation as a successful portrayer of seventeenth-century subjects a
+little after the style of Meissonier and not unlike Gerome. He was a
+good colorist and an excellent painter of textures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--MADRAZO, UNMASKED.]
+
+The historical scene of Mediaeval or Renaissance times, pageants and
+fetes with rich costume, fine architecture and vivid effects of color,
+are characteristic of a number of the modern Spaniards--Villegas,
+Pradilla, Alvarez. As a general thing their canvases are a little
+flashy, likely to please at first sight but grow wearisome after a
+time. Palmaroli has a style that resembles a mixture of Fortuny and
+Meissonier; and some other painters, like Luis Jiminez Aranda,
+Sorolla, Zuloaga, Anglada, Garcia y Remos, Vierge, Roman Ribera, and
+Domingo, have done excellent work. In landscape and Venetian scenes
+Rico leads among the Spaniards with a vivacity and brightness not
+always seen to good advantage in his late canvases.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: Generally speaking, Spanish art cannot be
+     seen to advantage outside of Spain. Both its ancient and
+     modern masterpieces are at Madrid, Seville, Toledo, and
+     elsewhere. The Royal Gallery at Madrid has the most and the
+     best examples.
+
+     CASTILIAN SCHOOL--Rincon, altar-piece church of Robleda de
+     Chavilla; Berruguete, altar-pieces Saragossa, Valladolid,
+     Madrid, Toledo; Morales, Madrid and Louvre; Sanchez-Coello,
+     Madrid and Brussels Mus.; Navarette, Escorial, Madrid, St.
+     Petersburg; Theotocopuli, Cathedral and S. Tome Toledo,
+     Madrid Mus.; Velasquez, best works in Madrid Mus., Escorial,
+     Salamanca, Montpensier Gals., Nat. Gal. Lon., Infanta
+     Marguerita Louvre, Borro portrait (?) Berlin, Innocent X.
+     Doria Rome; Mazo, landscapes Madrid Mus.; Carreno de
+     Miranda, Madrid Mus.; Claudio Coello, Escorial, Madrid,
+     Brussels, Berlin, and Munich Mus.
+
+     ANDALUSIAN SCHOOL--Vargas, Seville Cathedral; Cespedes,
+     Cordova Cathedral; Roelas, S. Isidore Cathedral, Museum
+     Seville; Pacheco, Madrid Mus.; Herrera, Seville Cathedral
+     and Mus. and Archbishop's Palace, Dresden Mus.; Zurbaran,
+     Seville Cathedral and Mus. Madrid, Dresden, Louvre, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon.; Cano, Madrid, Seville Mus. and Cathedral, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Munich; Murillo, best pictures in Madrid Mus. and
+     Acad. of S. Fernando Madrid, Seville Mus. Hospital and
+     Capuchin Church, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Munich,
+     Hermitage.
+
+     VALENCIAN SCHOOL--Juan de Joanes, Madrid Mus., Cathedral
+     Valencia, Hermitage; Ribalta, Madrid and Valencian Mus.,
+     Hermitage; Ribera, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Dresden, Naples,
+     Hermitage, and other European museums, chief works at
+     Madrid.
+
+     MODERN MEN AND THEIR WORKS--Goya, Madrid Mus., Acad. of S.
+     Fernando, Valencian Cathedral and Mus., two portraits in
+     Louvre. The works of the contemporary painters are largely
+     in private hands where reference to them is of little use to
+     the average student. Thirty Fortunys are in the collection
+     of William H. Stewart in Paris. His best work, The Spanish
+     Marriage, belongs to Madame de Cassin, in Paris. Examples of
+     Villegas, Madrazo, Rico, Domingo, and others, in the
+     Vanderbilt Gallery, Metropolitan Mus., New York; Boston,
+     Chicago, and Philadelphia Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FLEMISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Busscher, _Recherches sur les Peintres
+     Gantois_; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, _Early Flemish Painters_;
+     Cust, _Van Dyck_; Dehaisnes, _L'Art dans la Flandre_; Du
+     Jardin, _L'art Flamand_; Eisenmann, _The Brothers Van Eyck_;
+     Fetis, _Les Artistes Belges a l'Etranger_; Fromentin, _Old
+     Masters of Belgium and Holland_; Gerrits, _Rubens zyn Tyd,
+     etc._; Guiffrey, _Van Dyck_; Hasselt, _Histoire de Rubens_;
+     (Waagen's) Kuegler, _Handbook of Painting--German, Flemish,
+     and Dutch Schools_; Lemonnier, _Histoire des Arts en
+     Belgique_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Michel, _Rubens_;
+     Michiels, _Rubens en l'Ecole d'Anvers_; Michiels, _Histoire
+     de la Peinture Flamande_; Stevenson, _Rubens_; Van den
+     Branden, _Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilderschool_; Van
+     Mander, _Le Livre des Peintres_; Waagen, _Uber Hubert und
+     Jan Van Eyck_; Waagen, _Peter Paul Rubens_; Wauters, _Rogier
+     van der Weyden_; Wauters, _La Peinture Flamande_; Weale,
+     _Hans Memling_ (_Arundel Soc._); Weale, _Notes sur Jean Van
+     Eyck_.
+
+
+THE FLEMISH PEOPLE: Individually and nationally the Flemings were
+strugglers against adverse circumstances from the beginning. A
+realistic race with practical ideas, a people rather warm of impulse
+and free in habits, they combined some German sentiment with French
+liveliness and gayety. The solidarity of the nation was not
+accomplished until after 1385, when the Dukes of Burgundy began to
+extend their power over the Low Countries. Then the Flemish people
+became strong enough to defy both Germany and France, and wealthy
+enough, through their commerce with Spain, Italy, and France to
+encourage art not only at the Ducal court but in the churches, and
+among the citizens of the various towns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--VAN EYCKS. ST. BAVON ALTAR-PIECE (WING).
+BERLIN.]
+
+FLEMISH SUBJECTS AND METHODS: As in all the countries of Europe, the
+early Flemish painting pictured Christian subjects primarily. The
+great bulk of it was church altar-pieces, though side by side with
+this was an admirable portraiture, some knowledge of landscape, and
+some exposition of allegorical subjects. In means and methods it was
+quite original. The early history is lost, but if Flemish painting was
+beholden to the painting of any other nation, it was to the miniature
+painting of France. There is, however, no positive record of this. The
+Flemings seem to have begun by themselves, and pictured the life about
+them in their own way. They were apparently not influenced at first by
+Italy. There were no antique influences, no excavated marbles to copy,
+no Byzantine traditions left to follow. At first their art was exact
+and minute in detail, but not well grasped in the mass. The
+compositions were huddled, the landscapes pure but finical, the
+figures inclined to slimness, awkwardness, and angularity in the lines
+of form or drapery, and uncertain in action. To offset this there was
+a positive realism in textures, perspective, color, tone, light, and
+atmosphere. The effect of the whole was odd and strained, but the
+effect of the part was to convince one that the Flemish painters were
+excellent craftsmen in detail, skilled with the brush, and shrewd
+observers of nature in a purely picturesque way.
+
+To the Flemish painters of the fifteenth century belongs, not the
+invention of oil-painting, for it was known before their time, but its
+acceptable application in picture-making. They applied oil with color
+to produce brilliancy and warmth of effect, to insure firmness and
+body in the work, and to carry out textural effects in stuffs,
+marbles, metals, and the like. So far as we know there never was much
+use of distemper, or fresco-work upon the walls of buildings. The oil
+medium came into vogue when the miniatures and illuminations of the
+early days had expanded into panel pictures. The size of the miniature
+was increased, but the minute method of finishing was not laid aside.
+Some time afterward painting with oil upon canvas was adopted.
+
+SCHOOL OF BRUGES: Painting in Flanders starts abruptly with the
+fifteenth century. What there was before that time more than
+miniatures and illuminations is not known. Time and the Iconoclasts
+have left no remains of consequence. Flemish art for us begins with
+Hubert van Eyck (?-1426) and his younger brother Jan van Eyck
+(?-1440). The elder brother is supposed to have been the better
+painter, because the most celebrated work of the brothers--the St.
+Bavon altar-piece, parts of which are in Ghent, Brussels, and
+Berlin--bears the inscription that Hubert began it and Jan finished
+it. Hubert was no doubt an excellent painter, but his pictures are few
+and there is much discussion whether he or Jan painted them. For
+historical purposes Flemish art was begun, and almost completed, by
+Jan van Eyck. He had all the attributes of the early men, and was one
+of the most perfect of Flemish painters. He painted real forms and
+real life, gave them a setting in true perspective and light, and put
+in background landscapes with a truthful if minute regard for the
+facts. His figures in action had some awkwardness, they were small of
+head, slim of body, and sometimes stumbled; but his modelling of
+faces, his rendering of textures in cloth, metal, stone, and the like,
+his delicate yet firm _facture_ were all rather remarkable for his
+time. None of this early Flemish art has the grandeur of Italian
+composition, but in realistic detail, in landscape, architecture,
+figure, and dress, in pathos, sincerity, and sentiment it is
+unsurpassed by any fifteenth-century art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--MEMLING (?). ST. LAWRENCE (DETAIL). NAT.
+GAL., LONDON.]
+
+Little is known of the personal history of either of the Van Eycks.
+They left an influence and had many followers, but whether these were
+direct pupils or not is an open question. Peter Cristus (1400?-1472)
+was perhaps a pupil of Jan, though more likely a follower of his
+methods in color and general technic. Roger van der Weyden
+(1400?-1464), whether a pupil of the Van Eycks or a rival, produced a
+similar style of art. His first master was an obscure Robert Campin.
+He was afterward at Bruges, and from there went to Brussels and
+founded a school of his own called the
+
+SCHOOL OF BRABANT: He was more emotional and dramatic than Jan van
+Eyck, giving much excited action and pathetic expression to his
+figures in scenes from the passion of Christ. He had not Van Eyck's
+skill, nor his detail, nor his color. More of a draughtsman than a
+colorist, he was angular in figure and drapery, but had honesty,
+pathos, and sincerity, and was very charming in bright background
+landscapes. Though spending some time in Italy, he was never
+influenced by Italian art. He was always Flemish in type, subject, and
+method, a trifle repulsive at first through angularity and emotional
+exaggeration, but a man to be studied.
+
+By Van der Goes (1430?-1482) there are but few good examples, the
+chief one being an altar-piece in the Uffizi at Florence. It is
+angular in drawing but full of character, and in beauty of detail and
+ornamentation is a remarkable picture. He probably followed Van der
+Weyden, as did also Justus van Ghent (last half of fifteenth century).
+Contemporary with these men Dierick Bouts (1410-1475) established a
+school at Haarlem. He was Dutch by birth, but after 1450 settled in
+Louvain, and in his art belongs to the Flemish school. He was
+influenced by Van der Weyden, and shows it in his detail of hands and
+melancholy face, though he differed from him in dramatic action and in
+type. His figure was awkward, his color warm and rich, and in
+landscape backgrounds he greatly advanced the painting of the time.
+
+Memling (1425?-1495?), one of the greatest of the school, is another
+man about whose life little is known. He was probably associated with
+Van der Weyden in some way. His art is founded on the Van Eyck school,
+and is remarkable for sincerity, purity, and frankness of attitude. As
+a religious painter, he was perhaps beyond all his contemporaries in
+tenderness and pathos. In portraiture he was exceedingly strong in
+characterization, and in his figures very graceful. His flesh painting
+was excellent, but in textures or landscape work he was not
+remarkable. His best followers were Van der Meire (1427?-1474?) and
+Gheeraert David (1450?-1523). The latter was famous for the fine,
+broad landscapes in the backgrounds of his pictures, said, however, by
+critics to have been painted by Joachim Patinir. He was realistically
+horrible in many subjects, and though a close recorder of detail he
+was much broader than any of his predecessors.
+
+FLEMISH SCHOOLS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY: In this century Flemish
+painting became rather widely diffused. The schools of Bruges and
+Ghent gave place to the schools in the large commercial cities like
+Antwerp and Brussels, and the commercial relations between the Low
+Countries and Italy finally led to the dissipation of national
+characteristics in art and the imitation of the Italian Renaissance
+painters. There is no sharp line of demarcation between those painters
+who clung to Flemish methods and those who adopted Italian methods.
+The change was gradual.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--MASSYS. HEAD OF VIRGIN. ANTWERP.]
+
+Quentin Massys (1460?-1530) and Mostert (1474-1556?), a Dutchman by
+birth, but, like Bouts, Flemish by influence, were among the last of
+the Gothic painters in Flanders, and yet they began the introduction
+of Italian features in their painting. Massys led in architectural
+backgrounds, and from that the Italian example spread to subjects,
+figures, methods, until the indigenous Flemish art became a thing of
+the past. Massys was, at Antwerp, the most important painter of his
+day, following the old Flemish methods with many improvements. His
+work was detailed, and yet executed with a broader, freer brush than
+formerly, and with more variety in color, modelling, expression of
+character. He increased figures to almost life-size, giving them
+greater importance than landscape or architecture. The type was still
+lean and angular, and often contorted with emotion. His Money-Changers
+and Misers (many of them painted by his son) were a _genre_ of his
+own. With him closed the Gothic school, and with him began the
+
+ANTWERP SCHOOL, the pupils of which went to Italy, and eventually
+became Italianized. Mabuse (1470?-1541) was the first to go. His early
+work shows the influence of Massys and David. He was good in
+composition, color, and brush-work, but lacked in originality, as did
+all the imitators of Italy. Franz Floris (1518?-1570) was a man of
+talent, much admired in his time, because he brought back
+reminiscences of Michael Angelo to Antwerp. His influence was fatal
+upon his followers, of whom there were many, like the Franckens and De
+Vos. Italy and Roman methods, models, architecture, subjects, began to
+rule everywhere.
+
+From Brussels Barent van Orley (1491?-1542) left early for Italy, and
+became essentially Italian, though retaining some Flemish color. He
+painted in oil, tempera, and for glass, and is supposed to have gained
+his brilliant colors by using a gilt ground. His early works remind
+one of David. Cocxie (1499-1592), the Flemish Raphael, was but an
+indifferent imitator of the Italian Raphael. At Liege the Romanists,
+so called, began with Lambert Lombard (1505-1566), of whose work
+nothing authentic remains except drawings. At Bruges Peeter Pourbus
+(1510?-1584) was about the last one of the good portrait-painters of
+the time. Another excellent portrait-painter, a pupil of Scorel, was
+Antonio Moro (1512?-1578?). He had much dignity, force, and
+elaborateness of costume, and stood quite by himself. There were other
+painters of the time who were born or trained in Flanders, and yet
+became so naturalized in other countries that in their work they do
+not belong to Flanders. Neuchatel (1527?-1590?), Geldorp (1553-1616?),
+Calvaert (1540?-1619), Spranger (1546-1627?), and others, were of this
+group.
+
+Among all the strugglers in Italian imitation only a few landscapists
+held out for the Flemish view. Paul Bril (1554-1626) was the first of
+them. He went to Italy, but instead of following the methods taught
+there, he taught Italians his own view of landscape. His work was a
+little dry and formal, but graceful in composition, and good in light
+and color. The Brueghels--there were three of them--also stood out for
+Flemish landscape, introducing it nominally as a background for small
+figures, but in reality for the beauty of the landscape itself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF YOUNG WOMAN. HERMITAGE,
+ST. PETERSBURGH.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING: This was the great century of Flemish
+painting, though the painting was not entirely Flemish in method or
+thought. The influence of Italy had done away with the early simplicity,
+purity, and religious pathos of the Van Eycks. During the sixteenth
+century everything had run to bald imitation of Renaissance methods.
+Then came a new master-genius, Rubens (1577-1640), who formed a new art
+founded in method upon Italy, yet distinctly northern in character.
+Rubens chose all subjects for his brush, but the religious altar-piece
+probably occupied him as much as any. To this he gave little of Gothic
+sentiment, but everything of Renaissance splendor. His art was more
+material than spiritual, more brilliant and startling in sensuous
+qualities, such as line and color, than charming by facial expression or
+tender feeling. Something of the Paolo Veronese cast of mind, he
+conceived things largely, and painted them proportionately--large
+Titanic types, broad schemes and masses of color, great sweeping lines
+of beauty. One value of this largeness was its ability to hold at a
+distance upon wall or altar. Hence, when seen to-day, close at hand, in
+museums, people are apt to think Rubens's art coarse and gross.
+
+There is no prettiness about his type. It is not effeminate or
+sentimental, but rather robust, full of life and animal spirits, full
+of blood, bone, and muscle--of majestic dignity, grace, and power, and
+glowing with splendor of color. In imagination, in conception of art
+purely as art, and not as a mere vehicle to convey religious or
+mythological ideas, in mental grasp of the pictorial world, Rubens
+stands with Titian and Velasquez in the very front rank of painters.
+As a technician, he was unexcelled. A master of composition,
+modelling, and drawing, a master of light, and a color-harmonist of
+the rarest ability, he, in addition, possessed the most certain,
+adroit, and facile hand that ever handled a paint-brush. Nothing could
+be more sure than the touch of Rubens, nothing more easy and
+masterful. He was trained in both mind and eye, a genius by birth and
+by education, a painter who saw keenly, and was able to realize what
+he saw with certainty.
+
+Well-born, ennobled by royalty, successful in both court and studio,
+Rubens lived brilliantly and his life was a series of triumphs. He
+painted enormous canvases, and the number of pictures, altar-pieces,
+mythological decorations, landscapes, portraits scattered throughout
+the galleries of Europe, and attributed to him, is simply amazing. He
+was undoubtedly helped in many of his canvases by his pupils, but the
+works painted by his own hand make a world of art in themselves. He
+was the greatest painter of the North, a full-rounded, complete
+genius, comparable to Titian in his universality. His precursors and
+masters, Van Noort (1562-1641) and Vaenius (1558-1629), gave no strong
+indication of the greatness of Ruben's art, and his many pupils,
+though echoing his methods, never rose to his height in mental or
+artistic grasp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF CORNELIUS VAN DER
+GEEST. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+Van Dyck (1599-1641) was his principal pupil. He followed Rubens
+closely at first, though in a slighter manner technically, and with a
+cooler coloring. After visiting Italy he took up with the warmth of
+Titian. Later, in England, he became careless and less certain. His
+rank is given him not for his figure-pieces. They were not always
+successful, lacking as they did in imagination and originality, though
+done with force. His best work was his portraiture, for which he
+became famous, painting nobility in every country of Europe in which
+he visited. At his best he was a portrait-painter of great power, but
+not to be placed in the same rank with Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt, and
+Velasquez. His characters are gracefully posed, and appear to be
+aristocratic. There is a noble distinction about them, and yet even
+this has the feeling of being somewhat affected. The serene
+complacency of his lords and ladies finally became almost a mannerism
+with him, though never a disagreeable one. He died early, a painter of
+mark, but not the greatest portrait-painter of the world, as is
+sometimes said of him.
+
+There were a number of Rubens's pupils, like Diepenbeeck (1596-1675),
+who learned from their master a certain brush facility, but were not
+sufficiently original to make deep impressions. When Rubens died the
+best painter left in Belgium was Jordaens (1593-1678). He was a pupil
+of Van Noort, but submitted to the Rubens influence and followed in
+Rubens's style, though more florid in coloring and grosser in types.
+He painted all sorts of subjects, but was seen at his best in
+mythological scenes with groups of drunken satyrs and bacchants,
+surrounded by a close-placed landscape. He was the most independent
+and original of the followers, of whom there was a host. Crayer
+(1582-1669), Janssens (1575-1632), Zegers (1591-1651), Rombouts
+(1597-1637), were the prominent ones. They all took an influence more
+or less pronounced from Rubens. Cornelius de Vos (1585-1651) was a
+more independent man--a realistic portrait-painter of much ability.
+Snyders (1579-1657), and Fyt (1609?-1661), devoted their brushes to
+the painting of still-life, game, fruits, flowers, landscape--Snyders
+often in collaboration with Rubens himself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--TENIERS THE YOUNGER. PRODIGAL SON. LOUVRE.]
+
+Living at the same time with these half-Italianized painters, and
+continuing later in the century, there was another group of painters
+in the Low Countries who were emphatically of the soil, believing in
+themselves and their own country and picturing scenes from commonplace
+life in a manner quite their own. These were the "Little Masters," the
+_genre_ painters, of whom there was even a stronger representation
+appearing contemporaneously in Holland. In Belgium there were not so
+many nor such talented men, but some of them were very interesting in
+their work as in their subjects. Teniers the Younger (1610-1690) was
+among the first of them to picture peasant, burgher, alewife, and
+nobleman in all scenes and places. Nothing escaped him as a subject,
+and yet his best work was shown in the handling of low life in
+taverns. There is coarse wit in his work, but it is atoned for by
+good color and easy handling. He was influenced by Rubens, though
+decidedly different from him in many respects. Brouwer (1606?-1638)
+has often been catalogued with the Holland school, but he really
+belongs with Teniers, in Belgium. He died early, but left a number of
+pictures remarkable for their fine "fat" quality and their beautiful
+color. He was not a man of Italian imagination, but a painter of low
+life, with coarse humor and not too much good taste, yet a superb
+technician and vastly beyond many of his little Dutch contemporaries
+at the North. Teniers and Brouwer led a school and had many followers.
+
+In a slightly different vein was Gonzales Coques (1618-1684), who is
+generally seen to advantage in pictures of interiors with family
+groups. In subject he was more refined than the other _genre_
+painters, and was influenced to some extent by Van Dyck. As a colorist
+he held rank, and his portraiture (rarely seen) was excellent. At this
+time there were also many painters of landscape, marine, battles,
+still-life--in fact Belgium was alive with painters--but none of them
+was sufficiently great to call for individual mention. Most of them
+were followers of either Holland or Italy, and the gist of their work
+will be spoken of hereafter under Dutch painting.
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: Decline had set in before the
+seventeenth century ended. Belgium was torn by wars, her commerce
+flagged, her art-spirit seemed burned out. A long line of petty
+painters followed whose works call for silence. One man alone seemed
+to stand out like a star by comparison with his contemporaries,
+Verhagen (1728-1811), a portrait-painter of talent.
+
+NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTING IN BELGIUM: During this century Belgium
+has been so closely related to France that the influence of the larger
+country has been quite apparent upon the art of the smaller. In 1816
+David, the leader of the French classic school, sent into exile by the
+Restoration, settled at Brussels, and immediately drew around him
+many pupils. His influence was felt at once, and Francois Navez
+(1787-1869) was the chief one among his pupils to establish the
+revived classic art in Belgium. In 1830, with Belgian independence and
+almost concurrently with the romantic movement in France, there began
+a romantic movement in Belgium with Wappers (1803-1874). His art was
+founded substantially on Rubens; but, like the Paris romanticists, he
+chose the dramatic subject of the times and treated it more for color
+than for line. He drew a number of followers to himself, but the
+movement was not more lasting than in France.
+
+Wiertz (1806-1865), whose collection of works is to be seen in
+Brussels, was a partial exposition of romanticism mixed with a
+what-not of eccentricity entirely his own. Later on came a
+comparatively new man, Louis Gallait (1810-?), who held in Brussels
+substantially the same position that Delaroche did in Paris. His art
+was eclectic and never strong, though he had many pupils at Brussels,
+and started there a rivalry to Wappers at Antwerp. Leys (1815-1869)
+holds a rather unique position in Belgian art by reason of his
+affectation. He at first followed Pieter de Hooghe and other early
+painters. Then, after a study of the old German painters like Cranach,
+he developed an archaic style, producing a Gothic quaintness of line
+and composition, mingled with old Flemish coloring. The result was
+something popular, but not original or far-reaching, though
+technically well done. His chief pupil was Alma Tadema (1836-), alive
+to-day in London, and belonging to no school in particular. He is a
+technician of ability, mannered in composition and subject, and
+somewhat perfunctory in execution. His work is very popular with those
+who enjoy minute detail and smooth texture-painting.
+
+In 1851 the influence of the French realism of Courbet began to be
+felt at Brussels, and since then Belgian art has followed closely the
+art movements at Paris. Men like Alfred Stevens (1828-), a pupil of
+Navez, are really more French than Belgian. Stevens is one of the best
+of the moderns, a painter of power in fashionable or high-life
+_genre_, and a colorist of the first rank in modern art. Among the
+recent painters but a few can be mentioned. Willems (1823-), a weak
+painter of fashionable _genre_; Verboeckhoven (1799-1881), a vastly
+over-estimated animal painter; Clays (1819-), an excellent marine
+painter; Boulanger, a landscapist; Wauters (1846-), a history, and
+portrait-painter; Jan van Beers and Robie. The new men are Claus,
+Buysse, Frederic, Khnopff, Lempoels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ALFRED STEVENS. ON THE BEACH.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS:--Hubert van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb
+     (with Jan van Eyck) St. Bavon Ghent (wings at Brussels and
+     Berlin supposed to be by Jan, the rest by Hubert); Jan van
+     Eyck, as above, also Arnolfini portraits Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Virgin and Donor Louvre, Madonna Staedel Mus., Man with
+     Pinks Berlin, Triumph of Church Madrid; Van der Weyden, a
+     number of pictures in Brussels and Antwerp Mus., also at
+     Staedel Mus., Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Cristus, Berlin,
+     Staedel Mus., Hermitage, Madrid; Justus van Ghent, Last
+     Supper Urbino Gal.; Bouts, St. Peter Louvain, Munich,
+     Berlin, Brussels, Vienna; Memling, Brussels Mus. and Bruges
+     Acad., and Hospital Antwerp, Turin, Uffizi, Munich, Vienna;
+     Van der Meire, triptych St. Bavon Ghent; Ghaeraert David,
+     Bruges, Berlin, Rouen, Munich.
+
+     Massys, Brussels, Antwerp, Berlin, St. Petersburg; best
+     works Deposition in Antwerp Gal. and Merchant and Wife
+     Louvre; Mostert, altar-piece Notre Dame Bruges; Mabuse,
+     Madonnas Palermo, Milan Cathedral, Prague, other works
+     Vienna, Berlin, Munich, Antwerp; Floris, Antwerp, Amsterdam,
+     Brussels, Berlin, Munich, Vienna; Barent van Orley,
+     altar-pieces Church of the Saviour Antwerp, and Brussels
+     Mus.; Cocxie, Antwerp, Brussels, and Madrid Mus.; Pourbus,
+     Bruges, Brussels, Vienna Mus.; Moro, portraits Madrid,
+     Vienna, Hague, Brussels, Cassel, Louvre, St. Petersburg
+     Mus.; Bril, landscapes Madrid, Louvre, Dresden, Berlin Mus.;
+     the landscapes of the three Breughels are to be seen in most
+     of the museums of Europe, especially at Munich, Dresden, and
+     Madrid.
+
+     Rubens, many works, 93 in Munich, 35 in Dresden, 15 at
+     Cassel, 16 at Berlin, 14 in London, 90 in Vienna, 66 in
+     Madrid, 54 in Paris, 63 at St. Petersburg (as given by
+     Wauters), best works at Antwerp, Vienna, Munich, and Madrid;
+     Van Noort, Antwerp, Brussels Mus., Ghent and Antwerp
+     Cathedrals; Van Dyck, Windsor Castle, Nat. Gal. Lon., 41 in
+     Munich, 19 in Dresden, 15 in Cassel, 13 in Berlin, 67 in
+     Vienna, 21 in Madrid, 24 in Paris, and 38 in St. Petersburg
+     (Wauters), best examples in Vienna, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.;
+     and Madrid, good example in Met. Mus. N. Y.; Diepenbeeck,
+     Antwerp Churches and Mus., Berlin, Vienna, Munich,
+     Frankfort; Jordaens, Brussels, Antwerp, Munich, Vienna,
+     Cassel, Madrid, Paris; Crayer, Brussels, Munich, Vienna;
+     Janssens, Antwerp Mus., St. Bavon Ghent, Brussels and
+     Cologne Mus.; Zegers, Cathedral Ghent, Notre Dame Bruges,
+     Antwerp Mus.; Rombouts, Mus. and Cathedral Ghent, Antwerp
+     Mus., Beguin Convent Mechlin, Hospital of St. John Bruges;
+     De Vos, Cathedral and Mus. Antwerp, Munich, Oldenburg,
+     Berlin Mus.; Snyders, Munich, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid,
+     Paris, St. Petersburg; Fyt, Munich, Dresden, Cassel, Berlin,
+     Vienna, Madrid, Paris; Teniers the Younger, 29 pictures in
+     Munich, 24 in Dresden, 8 in Berlin, 19 in Nat. Gal. Lon., 33
+     in Vienna, 52 in Madrid, 34 in Louvre, 40 in St. Petersburg
+     (Wauters); Brauwer, 19 in Munich, 6 in Dresden, 4 in Berlin,
+     5 in Paris, 5 in St. Petersburgh (Wauters); Coques, Nat.
+     Gal. Lon., Amsterdam, Berlin, Munich Mus.
+
+     Verhagen, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Vienna Mus.; Navez,
+     Ghent, Antwerp, and Amsterdam Mus., Nat. Gal. Berlin;
+     Wappers, Amsterdam, Brussels, Versailles Mus.; Wiertz, in
+     Wiertz Gal. Brussels; Gallait, Liege, Versailles, Tournay,
+     Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Leys, Amsterdam Mus., New
+     Pinacothek, Munich, Brussels, Nat. Gal. Berlin, Antwerp Mus.
+     and City Hall; Alfred Stevens, Marseilles, Brussels, frescos
+     Royal Pal. Brussels; Willems, Brussels Mus. and Foder Mus.
+     Amsterdam, Met. Mus. N. Y.; Verboeckhoven, Amsterdam, Foder,
+     Nat. Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek, Brussels, Ghent, Met. Mus.
+     N. Y.; Clays, Ghent Mus.; Wauters, Brussels, Liege Mus.; Van
+     Beers, Burial of Charles the Good Amsterdam Mus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+DUTCH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before Fromentin, (Waagen's) Kuegler;
+     Amand-Durand, _OEuvre de Rembrandt_; _Archief voor
+     Nederlandsche Kunst-geschiedenis_; Blanc, _OEuvre de
+     Rembrandt_; Bode, _Franz Hals und seine Schule_; Bode,
+     _Studien zur Geschichte der Hollandischen Malerei_; Bode,
+     _Adriaan van Ostade_; Brown, _Rembrandt_; Burger (Th.
+     Thore), _Les Musees de la Hollande_; Havard, _La Peinture
+     Hollandaise_; Michel, _Rembrandt_; Michel, _Gerard Terburg
+     et sa Famille_; Mantz, _Adrien Brouwer_; Rooses, _Dutch
+     Painters of the Nineteenth Century_; Rooses, _Rubens_;
+     Schmidt, _Das Leben des Malers Adriaen Brouwer_; Van der
+     Willigen, _Les Artistes de Harlem_; Van Mander, _Leven der
+     Nederlandsche en Hoogduitsche Schilders_; Vosmaer,
+     _Rembrandt, sa Vie et ses OEuvres_; Westrheene, _Jan
+     Steen, Etude sur l'Art en Hollande_; Van Dyke, _Old Dutch
+     and Flemish Masters_.
+
+
+THE DUTCH PEOPLE AND THEIR ART: Though Holland produced a somewhat
+different quality of art from Flanders and Belgium, yet in many
+respects the people at the north were not very different from those at
+the south of the Netherlands. They were perhaps less versatile, less
+volatile, less like the French and more like the Germans. Fond of
+homely joys and the quiet peace of town and domestic life, the Dutch
+were matter-of-fact in all things, sturdy, honest, coarse at times,
+sufficient unto themselves, and caring little for what other people
+did. Just so with their painters. They were realistic at times to
+grotesqueness. Little troubled with fine poetic frenzies they painted
+their own lives in street, town-hall, tavern, and kitchen, conscious
+that it was good because true to themselves.
+
+At first Dutch art was influenced, even confounded, with that of
+Flanders. The Van Eycks led the way, and painters like Bouts and
+others, though Dutch by birth, became Flemish by adoption in their art
+at least. When the Flemish painters fell to copying Italy some of the
+Dutch followed them, but with no great enthusiasm. Suddenly, at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, when Holland had gained
+political independence, Dutch art struck off by itself, became
+original, became famous. It pictured native life with verve, skill,
+keenness of insight, and fine pictorial view. Limited it was; it never
+soared like Italian art, never became universal or world-embracing. It
+was distinct, individual, national, something that spoke for Holland,
+but little beyond it.
+
+In subject there were few historical canvases such as the Italians and
+French produced. The nearest approach to them were the paintings of
+shooting companies, or groups of burghers and syndics, and these were
+merely elaborations and enlargements of the portrait which the Dutch
+loved best of all. As a whole their subjects were single figures or
+small groups in interiors, quiet scenes, family conferences, smokers,
+card-players, drinkers, landscapes, still-life, architectural pieces.
+When they undertook the large canvas with many figures, they were
+often unsatisfactory. Even Rembrandt was so. The chief medium was oil,
+used upon panel or canvas. Fresco was probably used in the early days,
+but the climate was too damp for it and it was abandoned. It was
+perhaps the dampness of the northern climate that led to the
+adaptation of the oil medium, something the Van Eycks are credited
+with inaugurating.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--HALS. PORTRAIT OF A LADY.]
+
+THE EARLY PAINTING: The early work has, for the great part, perished
+through time and the fierceness with which the Iconoclastic warfare
+was waged. That which remains to-day is closely allied in method and
+style to Flemish painting under the Van Eycks. Ouwater is one of the
+earliest names that appears, and perhaps for that reason he has been
+called the founder of the school. He was remarked in his time for the
+excellent painting of background landscapes; but there is little
+authentic by him left to us from which we may form an opinion.[17]
+Geertjen van St. Jan (about 1475) was evidently a pupil of his, and
+from him there are two wings of an altar in the Vienna Gallery,
+supposed to be genuine. Bouts and Mostert have been spoken of under
+the Flemish school. Bosch (1460?-1516) was a man of some individuality
+who produced fantastic purgatories that were popular in their time and
+are known to-day through engravings. Engelbrechsten (1468-1533) was
+Dutch by birth and in his art, and yet probably got his inspiration
+from the Van Eyck school. The works attributed to him are doubtful,
+though two in the Leyden Gallery seem to be authentic. He was the
+master of Lucas van Leyden (1494-1533), the leading artist of the
+early period. Lucas van Leyden was a personal friend of Albrecht
+Duerer, the German painter, and in his art he was not unlike him. A
+man with a singularly lean type, a little awkward in composition,
+brilliant in color, and warm in tone, he was, despite his
+archaic-looking work, an artist of much ability and originality. At
+first he was inclined toward Flemish methods, with an exaggerated
+realism in facial expression. In his middle period he was distinctly
+Dutch, but in his later days he came under Italian influence, and with
+a weakening effect upon his art. Taking his work as a whole, it was
+the strongest of all the early Dutch painters.
+
+[Footnote 17: A Raising of Lazarus is in the Berlin Gallery.]
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY: This century was a period of Italian imitation,
+probably superinduced by the action of the Flemings at Antwerp. The
+movement was somewhat like the Flemish one, but not so extensive or so
+productive. There was hardly a painter of rank in Holland during the
+whole century. Scorel (1495-1562) was the leader, and he probably got
+his first liking for Italian art through Mabuse at Antwerp. He
+afterward went to Italy, studied Raphael and Michael Angelo, and
+returned to Utrecht to open a school and introduce Italian art into
+Holland. A large number of pupils followed him, but their work was
+lacking in true originality. Heemskerck (1498-1574) and Cornelis van
+Haarlem (1562-1638), with Steenwyck (1550?-1604), were some of the
+more important men of the century, but none of them was above a common
+average.
+
+SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: Beginning with the first quarter of this century
+came the great art of the Dutch people, founded on themselves and
+rooted in their native character. Italian methods were abandoned, and
+the Dutch told the story of their own lives in their own manner, with
+truth, vigor, and skill. There were so many painters in Holland during
+this period that it will be necessary to divide them into groups and
+mention only the prominent names.
+
+PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS: The real inaugurators of Dutch
+portraiture were Mierevelt, Hals, Ravesteyn, and De Keyser. Mierevelt
+(1567-1641) was one of the earliest, a prolific painter, fond of the
+aristocratic sitter, and indulging in a great deal of elegance in his
+accessories of dress and the like. He had a slight, smooth brush, much
+detail, and a profusion of color. Quite the reverse of him was Franz
+Hals (1584?-1666), one of the most remarkable painters of portraits
+with which history acquaints us. In giving the sense of life and
+personal physical presence, he was unexcelled by any one. What he saw
+he could portray with the most telling reality. In drawing and
+modelling he was usually good; in coloring he was excellent, though in
+his late work sombre; in brush-handling he was one of the great
+masters. Strong, virile, yet easy and facile, he seemed to produce
+without effort. His brush was very broad in its sweep, very sure, very
+true. Occasionally in his late painting facility ran to the
+ineffectual, but usually he was certainty itself. His best work was in
+portraiture, and the most important of this is to be seen at Haarlem,
+where he died after a rather careless life. As a painter, pure and
+simple, he is almost to be ranked beside Velasquez; as a poet, a
+thinker, a man of lofty imagination, his work gives us little
+enlightenment except in so far as it shows a fine feeling for masses
+of color and problems of light. Though excellent portrait-painters,
+Ravesteyn (1572?-1657) and De Keyser (1596?-1679) do not provoke
+enthusiasm. They were quiet, conservative, dignified, painting civic
+guards and societies with a knowing brush and lively color, giving the
+truth of physiognomy, but not with that verve of the artist so
+conspicuous in Hals, nor with that unity of the group so essential in
+the making of a picture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--REMBRANDT. HEAD OF WOMAN. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+The next man in chronological order is Rembrandt (1607?-1669), the
+greatest painter in Dutch art. He was a pupil of Swanenburch and
+Lastman, but his great knowledge of nature and his craft came largely
+from the direct study of the model. Settled at Amsterdam, he quickly
+rose to fame, had a large following of pupils, and his influence was
+felt through all Dutch painting. The portrait was emphatically his
+strongest work. The many-figured group he was not always successful in
+composing or lighting. His method of work rather fitted him for the
+portrait and unfitted him for the large historical piece. He built up
+the importance of certain features by dragging down all other
+features. This was largely shown in his handling of illumination.
+Strong in a few high lights on cheek, chin, or white linen, the rest
+of the picture was submerged in shadow, under which color was
+unmercifully sacrificed. This was not the best method for a large,
+many-figured piece, but was singularly well suited to the portrait. It
+produced strength by contrast. "Forced" it was undoubtedly, and not
+always true to nature, yet nevertheless most potent in Rembrandt's
+hands. He was an arbitrary though perfect master of light-and-shade,
+and unusually effective in luminous and transparent shadows. In color
+he was again arbitrary but forcible and harmonious. In brush-work he
+was at times labored, but almost always effective.
+
+Mentally he was a man keen to observe, assimilate, and express his
+impressions in a few simple truths. His conception was localized with
+his own people and time (he never built up the imaginary or followed
+Italy), and yet into types taken from the streets and shops of
+Amsterdam he infused the very largest humanity through his inherent
+sympathy with man. Dramatic, even tragic, he was; yet this was not so
+apparent in vehement action as in passionate expression. He had a
+powerful way of striking universal truths through the human face, the
+turned head, bent body, or outstretched hand. His people have
+character, dignity, and a pervading feeling that they are the great
+types of the Dutch race--people of substantial physique, slow in
+thought and impulse, yet capable of feeling, comprehending, enjoying,
+suffering.
+
+His landscapes, again, were a synthesis of all landscapes, a grouping
+of the great truths of light, air, shadow, space. Whatever he turned
+his hand to was treated with that breadth of view that overlooked the
+little and grasped the great. He painted many subjects. His earliest
+work dates from 1627, and is a little hard and sharp in detail and
+cold in coloring. After 1654 he grew broader in handling and warmer in
+tone, running to golden browns, and, toward the end of his career, to
+rather hot tones. His life was embittered by many misfortunes, but
+these never seem to have affected his art except to deepen it. He
+painted on to the last, convinced that his own view was the true one,
+and producing works that rank second to none in the history of
+painting.
+
+Rembrandt's influence upon Dutch art was far-reaching, and appeared
+immediately in the works of his many pupils. They all followed his
+methods of handling light-and-shade, but no one of them ever equalled
+him, though they produced work of much merit. Bol (1611-1680) was
+chiefly a portrait-painter, with a pervading yellow tone and some
+pallor of flesh-coloring--a man of ability who mistakenly followed
+Rubens in the latter part of his life. Flinck (1615-1660) at one time
+followed Rembrandt so closely that his work has passed for that of the
+master; but latterly he, too, came under Flemish influence. Next to
+Eeckhout he was probably the nearest to Rembrandt in methods of all
+the pupils. Eeckhout (1621-1674) was really a Rembrandt imitator, but
+his hand was weak and his color hot. Maes (1632-1693) was the most
+successful manager of light after the school formula, and succeeded
+very well with warmth and richness of color, especially with his reds.
+The other Rembrandt pupils and followers were Poorter (fl. 1635-1643),
+Victoors (1620?-1672?), Koninck (1619-1688), Fabritius (1624-1654),
+and Backer (1608?-1651).
+
+Van der Helst (1612?-1670) stands apart from this school, and seems to
+have followed more the portrait style of De Keyser. He was a
+realistic, precise painter, with much excellence of modelling in head
+and hands, and with fine carriage and dignity in the figure. In
+composition he hardly held his characters in group owing to a
+sacrifice of values, and in color he was often "spotty," and lacking
+in the unity of mass.
+
+THE GENRE PAINTERS: This heading embraces those who may be called the
+"Little Dutchmen," because of the small scale of their pictures and
+their _genre_ subjects. Gerard Dou (1613-1675) is indicative of the
+class without fully representing it. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, but
+his work gave little report of this. It was smaller, more delicate in
+detail, more petty in conception. He was a man great in little
+things, one who wasted strength on the minutiae of dress, or
+table-cloth, or the texture of furniture without grasping the mass or
+color significance of the whole scene. There was infinite detail about
+his work, and that gave it popularity; but as art it held, and holds
+to-day, little higher place than the work of Metsu (1630-1667), Van
+Mieris (1635-1681), Netscher (1639-1684), or Schalcken (1643-1706),
+all of whom produced the interior piece with figures elaborate in
+accidental effects. Van Ostade (1610-1685), though dealing with the
+small canvas, and portraying peasant life with perhaps unnecessary
+coarseness, was a much stronger painter than the men just mentioned.
+He was the favorite pupil of Hals and the master of Jan Steen. With
+little delicacy in choice of subject he had much delicacy in color,
+taste in arrangement, and skill in handling. His brush was precise but
+not finical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--J. VAN RUISDAEL. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+By far the best painter among all the "Little Dutchmen" was Terburg
+(1617?-1681), a painter of interiors, small portraits, conversation
+pictures, and the like. Though of diminutive scale his work has the
+largeness of view characteristic of genius, and the skilled technic of
+a thorough craftsman. Terburg was a travelled man, visiting Italy,
+where he studied Titian, returning to Holland to study Rembrandt,
+finally at Madrid studying Velasquez. He was a painter of much
+culture, and the keynote of his art is refinement. Quiet and dignified
+he carried taste through all branches of his art. In subject he was
+rather elevated, in color subdued with broken tones, in composition
+simple, in brush-work sure, vivacious, and yet unobtrusive. Selection
+in his characters was followed by reserve in using them. Detail was
+not very apparent. A few people with some accessory objects were all
+that he required to make a picture. Perhaps his best qualities appear
+in a number of small portraits remarkable for their distinction and
+aristocratic grace.
+
+Steen (1626?-1679) was almost the opposite of Terburg, a man of
+sarcastic flings and coarse humor who satirized his own time with
+little reserve. He developed under Hals and Van Ostade, favoring the
+latter in his interiors, family scenes, and drunken debauches. He was
+a master of physiognomy, and depicted it with rare if rather
+unpleasant truth. If he had little refinement in his themes he
+certainly handled them as a painter with delicacy. At his best his
+many figured groups were exceedingly well composed, his color was of
+good quality (with a fondness for yellows), and his brush was as
+limpid and graceful as though painting angels instead of Dutch boors.
+He was really one of the fine brushmen of Holland, a man greatly
+admired by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many an artist since; but not a
+man of high intellectual pitch as compared with Terburg, for
+instance.
+
+Pieter de Hooghe (1632?-1681) was a painter of purely pictorial
+effects, beginning and ending a picture in a scheme of color,
+atmosphere, clever composition, and above all the play of
+light-and-shade. He was one of the early masters of full sunlight,
+painting it falling across a court-yard or streaming through a window
+with marvellous truth and poetry. His subjects were commonplace
+enough. An interior with a figure or two in the middle distance, and a
+passage-way leading into a lighted background were sufficient for him.
+These formed a skeleton which he clothed in a half-tone shadow,
+pierced with warm yellow light, enriched with rare colors, usually
+garnet reds and deep yellows repeated in the different planes, and
+surrounded with a subtle pervading atmosphere. As a brushman he was
+easy but not distinguished, and often his drawing was not correct; but
+in the placing of color masses and in composing by color and light he
+was a master of the first rank. Little is known about his life. He
+probably formed himself on Fabritius or Rembrandt at second-hand, but
+little trace of the latter is apparent in his work. He seems not to
+have achieved much fame until late years, and then rather in England
+than in his own country.
+
+Jan van der Meer of Delft (1632-1675), one of the most charming of all
+the _genre_ painters, was allied to De Hooghe in his pictorial point
+of view and interior subjects. Unfortunately there is little left to
+us of this master, but the few extant examples serve to show him a
+painter of rare qualities in light, in color, and in atmosphere. He
+was a remarkable man for his handling of blues, reds, and yellows; and
+in the tonic relations of a picture he was a master second to no one.
+Fabritius is supposed to have influenced him.
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: The painters of the Netherlands were probably
+the first, beginning with Bril, to paint landscape for its own sake,
+and as a picture motive in itself. Before them it had been used as a
+background for the figure, and was so used by many of the Dutchmen
+themselves. It has been said that these landscape-painters were also
+the first ones to paint landscape realistically, but that is true only
+in part. They studied natural forms, as did, indeed, Bellini in the
+Venetian school; they learned something of perspective, air, tree
+anatomy, and the appearance of water; but no Dutch painter of
+landscape in the seventeenth century grasped the full color of Holland
+or painted its many varied lights. They indulged in a meagre
+conventional palette of grays, greens, and browns, whereas Holland is
+full of brilliant hues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--HOBBEMA. THE WATER-WHEEL. AMSTERDAM MUS.]
+
+Van Goyen (1596-1656) was one of the earliest of the
+seventeenth-century landscapists. In subject he was fond of the Dutch
+bays, harbors, rivers, and canals with shipping, windmills, and
+houses. His sky line was generally given low, his water silvery, and
+his sky misty and luminous with bursts of white light. In color he
+was subdued, and in perspective quite cunning at times. Salomon van
+Ruisdael (1600?-1670) was his follower, if not his pupil. He had the
+same sobriety of color as his master, and was a mannered and prosaic
+painter in details, such as leaves and tree-branches. In composition
+he was good, but his art had only a slight basis upon reality, though
+it looks to be realistic at first sight. He had a formula for doing
+landscape which he varied only in a slight way, and this
+conventionality ran through all his work. Molyn (1600?-1661) was a
+painter who showed limited truth to nature in flat and hilly
+landscapes, transparent skies, and warm coloring. His extant works are
+few in number. Wynants (1615?-1679?) was more of a realist in natural
+appearance than any of the others, a man who evidently studied
+directly from nature in details of vegetation, plants, trees, roads,
+grasses, and the like. Most of the figures and animals in his
+landscapes were painted by other hands. He himself was a pure
+landscape-painter, excelling in light and aerial perspective, but not
+remarkable in color. Van der Neer (1603-1677) and Everdingen
+(1621?-1675) were two other contemporary painters of merit.
+
+The best landscapist following the first men of the century was Jacob
+van Ruisdael (1625?-1682), the nephew of Salomon van Ruisdael. He is
+put down, with perhaps unnecessary emphasis, as the greatest
+landscape-painter of the Dutch school. He was undoubtedly the equal of
+any of his time, though not so near to nature, perhaps, as Hobbema. He
+was a man of imagination, who at first pictured the Dutch country
+about Haarlem, and afterward took up with the romantic landscape of
+Van Everdingen. This landscape bears a resemblance to the Norwegian
+country, abounding, as it does, in mountains, heavy dark woods, and
+rushing torrents. There is considerable poetry in its composition, its
+gloomy skies, and darkened lights. It is mournful, suggestive, wild,
+usually unpeopled. There was much of the methodical in its putting
+together, and in color it was cold, and limited to a few tones. Many
+of Ruisdael's works have darkened through time. Little is known about
+the painter's life except that he was not appreciated in his own time
+and died in the almshouse.
+
+Hobbema (1638?-1709) was probably the pupil of Jacob van Ruisdael, and
+ranks with him, if not above him, in seventeenth-century landscape
+painting. Ruisdael hardly ever painted sunlight, whereas Hobbema
+rather affected it in quiet wood-scenes or roadways with little pools
+of water and a mill. He was a freer man with the brush than Ruisdael,
+and knew more about the natural appearance of trees, skies, and
+lights; but, like his master, his view of nature found no favor in his
+own land. Most of his work is in England, where it had not a little to
+do with influencing such painters as Constable and others at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--ISRAELS. ALONE IN THE WORLD.]
+
+LANDSCAPE WITH CATTLE: Here we meet with Wouverman (1619-1668), a
+painter of horses, cavalry, battles, and riding parties placed in
+landscape. His landscape is bright and his horses are spirited in
+action. There is some mannerism apparent in his reiterated
+concentration of light on a white horse, and some repetition in his
+canvases, of which there are many; but on the whole he was an
+interesting, if smooth and neat painter. Paul Potter (1625-1654)
+hardly merited his great repute. He was a harsh, exact recorder of
+facts, often tin-like or woodeny in his cattle, and not in any way
+remarkable in his landscapes, least of all in their composition. The
+Young Bull at the Hague is an ambitious piece of drawing, but is not
+successful in color, light, or _ensemble_. It is a brittle work all
+through, and not nearly so good as some smaller things in the National
+Gallery London, and in the Louvre. Adrien van de Velde (1635?-1672)
+was short-lived, like Potter, but managed to do a prodigious amount
+of work, showing cattle and figures in landscape with much technical
+ability and good feeling. He was particularly good in composition and
+the subtle gradation of neutral tints. A little of the Italian
+influence appeared in his work, and with the men who came with him and
+after him the Italian imitation became very pronounced. Aelbert Cuyp
+(1620-1691) was a many-sided painter, adopting at various times
+different styles, but was enough of a genius to be himself always. He
+is best known to us, perhaps, by his yellow sunlight effects along
+rivers, with cattle in the foreground, though he painted still-life,
+and even portraits and marines. In composing a group he was knowing,
+recording natural effects with power; in light and atmosphere he was
+one of the best of his time, and in texture and color refined, and
+frequently brilliant. Both (1610-1650?), Berchem (1620-1683), Du
+Jardin (1622?-1678), followed the Italian tradition of Claude Lorrain,
+producing semi-classic landscapes, never very convincing in their
+originality. Van der Heyden (1637-1712), should be mentioned as an
+excellent, if minute, painter of architecture with remarkable
+atmospheric effects.
+
+MARINE AND STILL-LIFE PAINTERS: There were two pre-eminent marine
+painters in this seventeenth century, Willem van de Velde (1633-1707)
+and Backhuisen (1631-1708). The sea was not an unusual subject with
+the Dutch landscapists. Van Goyen, Simon de Vlieger (1601?-1660?),
+Cuyp, Willem van de Velde the Elder (1611?-1693), all employed it; but
+it was Van de Velde the Younger who really stood at the head of the
+marine painters. He knew his subject thoroughly, having been well
+grounded in it by his father and De Vlieger, so that the painting of
+the Dutch fleets and harbors was a part of his nature. He preferred
+the quiet haven to the open sea. Smooth water, calm skies, silvery
+light, and boats lying listlessly at anchor with drooping sails, made
+up his usual subject. The color was almost always in a key of silver
+and gray, very charming in its harmony and serenity, but a little
+thin. Both he and his father went to England and entered the service
+of the English king, and thereafter did English fleets rather than
+Dutch ones. Backhuisen was quite the reverse of Van de Velde in
+preferring the tempest to the calm of the sea. He also used more
+brilliant and varied colors, but he was not so happy in harmony as Van
+de Velde. There was often dryness in his handling, and something too
+much of the theatrical in his wrecks on rocky shores.
+
+The still-life painters of Holland were all of them rather petty in
+their emphasis of details such as figures on table-covers, water-drops
+on flowers, and fur on rabbits. It was labored work with little of the
+art spirit about it, except as the composition showed good masses. A
+number of these painters gained celebrity in their day by their
+microscopic labor over fruits, flowers, and the like, but they have no
+great rank at the present time. Jan van Heem (1600?1684?) was perhaps
+the best painter of flowers among them. Van Huysum (1682-1749)
+succeeded with the same subject beyond his deserts. Hondecoeter
+(1636-1695) was a unique painter of poultry; Weenix (1640-1719) and
+Van Aelst (1620-1679), of dead game; Kalf (1630?-1693), of pots, pans,
+dishes, and vegetables.
+
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: This was a period of decadence during which there
+was no originality worth speaking about among the Dutch painters.
+Realism in minute features was carried to the extreme, and imitation
+of the early men took the place of invention. Everything was
+prettified and elaborated until there was a porcelain smoothness and a
+photographic exactness inconsistent with true art. Adriaan van der
+Werff (1659-1722), and Philip van Dyck (1683-1753) with their "ideal"
+inanities are typical of the century's art. There was nothing to
+commend it. The lowest point of affectation had been reached.
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Dutch painters, unlike the Belgians, have
+almost always been true to their own traditions and their own country.
+Even in decadence the most of them feebly followed their own painters
+rather than those of Italy and France, and in the early nineteenth
+century they were not affected by the French classicism of David.
+Later on there came into vogue an art that had some affinity with that
+of Millet and Courbet in France. It was the Dutch version of modern
+sentiment about the laboring classes, founded on the modern life of
+Holland, yet in reality a continuation of the style or _genre_
+practised by the early Dutchmen. Israels (1824-) is a revival or a
+survival of Rembrandtesque methods with a sentiment and feeling akin
+to the French Millet. He deals almost exclusively with peasant life,
+showing fisher-folk and the like in their cottage interiors, at the
+table, or before the fire, with good effects of light, atmosphere, and
+much pathos. Technically he is rather labored and heavy in handling,
+but usually effective with sombre color in giving the unity of a
+scene. Artz (1837-1890) considered himself in measure a follower of
+Israels, though he never studied under him. His pictures in subject
+are like those of Israels, but without the depth of the latter.
+Blommers (1845-) is another peasant painter who follows Israels at a
+distance, and Neuhuys (1844-) shows a similar style of work. Bosboom
+(1817-1891) excelled in representing interiors, showing, with much
+pictorial effect, the light, color, shadow, and feeling of space and
+air in large cathedrals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--MAUVE. SHEEP.]
+
+The brothers Maris have made a distinct impression on modern Dutch
+art, and, strange enough, each in a different way from the others.
+James Maris (1837-) studied at Paris, and is remarkable for fine,
+vigorous views of canals, towns, and landscapes. He is broad in
+handling, rather bleak in coloring, and excels in fine luminous skies
+and voyaging clouds. Matthew Maris (1835-), Parisian trained like his
+brother, lives in London, where little is seen of his work. He paints
+for himself and his friends, and is rather melancholy and mystical in
+his art. He is a recorder of visions and dreams rather than the
+substantial things of the earth, but always with richness of color and
+a fine decorative feeling. Willem Maris (1839-), sometimes called the
+"Silvery Maris," is a portrayer of cattle and landscape in warm
+sunlight and haze with a charm of color and tone often suggestive of
+Corot. Jongkind (1819-1891) stands by himself, Mesdag (1831-) is a
+fine painter of marines and sea-shores, and Mauve (1838-1888), a
+cattle and sheep painter, with nice sentiment and tonality, whose
+renown is just now somewhat disproportionate to his artistic ability.
+In addition there are Kever, Poggenbeek, Bastert, Baur, Breitner,
+Witsen, Haverman, Weissenbruch.
+
+     EXTANT WORKS: Generally speaking the best examples of the
+     Dutch schools are still to be seen in the local museums of
+     Holland, especially the Amsterdam and Hague Mus.; Bosch,
+     Madrid, Antwerp, Brussels Mus.; Lucas van Leyden, Antwerp,
+     Leyden, Munich Mus.; Scorel, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Haarlem
+     Mus.; Heemskerck, Haarlem, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden;
+     Steenwyck, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels; Cornelis van Haarlem,
+     Amsterdam, Haarlem, Brunswick.
+
+     PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTERS--Mierevelt, Hague, Amsterdam,
+     Rotterdam, Brunswick, Dresden, Copenhagen; Hals, best works
+     to be seen at Haarlem, others at Amsterdam, Brussels, Hague,
+     Berlin, Cassel, Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon., Met. Mus. New York,
+     Art Institute Chicago; Rembrandt, Amsterdam, Hermitage,
+     Louvre, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Madrid, London; Bol,
+     Amsterdam, Hague, Dresden, Louvre; Flinck, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Berlin; Eeckhout, Amsterdam, Brunswick, Berlin, Munich;
+     Maes, Nat. Gal. Lon., Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hague, Brussels;
+     Poorter, Amsterdam, Brussels, Dresden; Victoors, Amsterdam,
+     Copenhagen, Brunswick, Dresden; Fabritius, Rotterdam,
+     Amsterdam, Berlin; Van der Helst, best works at Amsterdam
+     Mus.
+
+     GENRE PAINTERS--Examples of Dou, Metsu, Van Mieris,
+     Netscher, Schalcken, Van Ostade, are to be seen in almost
+     all the galleries of Europe, especially the Dutch, Belgian,
+     German, and French galleries; Terburg, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+     Dresden, Berlin (fine portraits); Steen, Amsterdam, Louvre,
+     Rotterdam, Hague, Berlin, Cassel, Dresden, Vienna; De
+     Hooghe, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Hermitage; Van
+     der Meer of Delft, Louvre, Hague, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Dresden, Met. Mus. New York.
+
+     LANDSCAPE PAINTERS--Van Goyen, Amsterdam, Fitz-William Mus.
+     Cambridge, Louvre, Brussels, Cassel, Dresden, Berlin;
+     Salomon van Ruisdael, Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Dresden,
+     Munich; Van der Neer, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Brussels,
+     Amsterdam, Berlin, Dresden; Everdingen, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Louvre, Brunswick, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort; Jacob van
+     Ruisdael, Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Amsterdam, Berlin,
+     Dresden; Hobbema, best works in England, Nat. Gal. Lon.,
+     Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dresden; Wouvermans, many works, best
+     at Amsterdam, Cassel, Louvre; Potter, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Louvre, Nat. Gal. Lon.; Van de Velde, Amsterdam, Hague,
+     Cassel, Dresden, Frankfort, Munich, Louvre; Cuyp, Amsterdam,
+     Nat. Gal. Lon., Louvre, Munich, Dresden; examples of Both,
+     Berchem, Du Jardin, and Van der Heyden, in almost all of the
+     Dutch and German galleries, besides the Louvre and Nat. Gal.
+     Lon.
+
+     MARINE PAINTERS--Willem van de Velde Elder and Younger,
+     Backhuisen, Vlieger, together with the flower and fruit
+     painters like Huysum, Hondecoeter, Weenix, have all been
+     prolific workers, and almost every European gallery,
+     especially those at London, Amsterdam, and in Germany, have
+     examples of their works; Van der Werff and Philip van Dyck
+     are seen at their best at Dresden.
+
+     The best works of the modern men are in private collections,
+     many in the United States, some examples of them in the
+     Amsterdam and Hague Museums. Also some examples of the old
+     Dutch masters in New York Hist. Society Library, Yale School
+     of Fine Arts, Met. Mus. New York, Boston Mus., and Chicago
+     Institute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+GERMAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Colvin, _A. Durer, his Teachers, his
+     Rivals, and his Scholars_; Eye, _Leben und Werke Albrecht
+     Durers_; Foerster, _Peter von Cornelius_; Foerster,
+     _Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst_; Keane, _Early Teutonic,
+     Italian, and French Painters_; Kuegler, _Handbook to German
+     and Netherland Schools, trans. by Crowe_; Merlo, _Die
+     Meister der altkolnischer Malerschule_; Moore, _Albert
+     Durer_; Pecht, _Deutsche Kunstler des Neunzehnten
+     Jahrhunderts_; Reber, _Geschichte der neueren Deutschen
+     Kunst_; Riegel, _Deutsche Kunststudien_; Rosenberg, _Die
+     Berliner Malerschule_; Rosenberg, _Sebald und Barthel
+     Beham_; Rumohr, _Hans Holbein der Jungere_; Sandrart,
+     _Teutsche Akademie der Edlen Bau, Bild-und Malerey-Kunste_;
+     Schuchardt, _Lucas Cranach's Leben_; Thausig, _Albert Durer,
+     His Life and Works_; Waagen, _Kunstwerke und Kunstler in
+     Deutschland_; E. aus'm Weerth, _Wandmalereien des
+     Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden_; Wessely, _Adolph Menzel_;
+     Woltmann, _Holbein and his Time_; Woltmann, _Geschichte der
+     Deutschen Kunst im Elsass_; Wurtzbach, _Martin Schongauer_.
+
+
+EARLY GERMAN PAINTING: The Teutonic lands, like almost all of the
+countries of Europe, received their first art impulse from
+Christianity through Italy. The centre of the faith was at Rome, and
+from there the influence in art spread west and north, and in each
+land it was modified by local peculiarities of type and temperament.
+In Germany, even in the early days, though Christianity was the theme
+of early illuminations, miniatures, and the like, and though there was
+a traditional form reaching back to Italy and Byzantium, yet under it
+was the Teutonic type--the material, awkward, rather coarse Germanic
+point of view. The wish to realize native surroundings was apparent
+from the beginning.
+
+It is probable that the earliest painting in Germany took the form of
+illuminations. At what date it first appeared is unknown. In
+wall-painting a poor quality of work was executed in the churches as
+early as the ninth century, and probably earlier. The oldest now
+extant are those at Oberzell, dating back to the last part of the
+tenth century. Better examples are seen in the Lower Church of
+Schwarzrheindorf, of the twelfth century, and still better in the
+choir and transept of the Brunswick cathedral, ascribed to the early
+thirteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--LOCHNER. STS. JOHN, CATHERINE, AND MATTHEW.
+NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+All of these works have an archaic appearance about them, but they
+are better in composition and drawing than the productions of Italy
+and Byzantium at that time. It is likely that all the German churches
+at this time were decorated, but most of the paintings have been
+destroyed. The usual method was to cover the walls and wooden ceilings
+with blue grounds, and upon these to place figures surrounded by
+architectural ornaments. Stained glass was also used extensively.
+Panel painting seems to have come into existence before the thirteenth
+century (whether developed from miniature or wall-painting is
+unknown), and was used for altar decorations. The panels were done in
+tempera with figures in light colors upon gold grounds. The
+spirituality of the age with a mingling of northern sentiment appeared
+in the figure. This figure was at times graceful, and again awkward
+and archaic, according to the place of production and the influence of
+either France or Italy. The oldest panels extant are from the
+Wiesenkirche at Soest, now in the Berlin Museum. They do not date
+before the thirteenth century.
+
+FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: In the fourteenth century the
+influence of France began to show strongly in willowy figures, long
+flowing draperies, and sentimental poses. The artists along the Rhine
+showed this more than those in the provinces to the east, where a
+ruder if freer art appeared. The best panel-painting of the time was
+done at Cologne, where we meet with the name of the first painter,
+Meister Wilhelm, and where a school was established usually known as
+the
+
+SCHOOL OF COLOGNE: This school probably got its sentimental
+inclination, shown in slight forms and tender expression, from France,
+but derived much of its technic from the Netherlands. Stephen Lochner,
+or Meister Stephen, (fl. 1450) leaned toward the Flemish methods, and
+in his celebrated picture, the Madonna of the Rose Garden, in the
+Cologne Museum, there is an indication of this; but there is also an
+individuality showing the growth of German independence in painting.
+The figures of his Dombild have little manliness or power, but
+considerable grace, pathos, and religious feeling. They are not
+abstract types but the spiritualized people of the country in native
+costumes, with much gold, jewelry, and armor. Gold was used instead of
+a landscape background, and the foreground was spattered with flowers
+and leaves. The outlines are rather hard, and none of the aerial
+perspective of the Flemings is given. After a time French sentiment
+was still further encroached upon by Flemish realism, as shown in the
+works of the Master of the Lyversberg Passion (fl. about 1463-1480),
+to be seen in the Cologne Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--WOLGEMUT. CRUCIFIXION. MUNICH.]
+
+BOHEMIAN SCHOOL: It was not on the Lower Rhine alone that German
+painting was practised. The Bohemian school, located near Prague,
+flourished for a short time in the fourteenth century, under Charles
+IV., with Theodorich of Prague (fl. 1348-1378), Wurmser, and Kunz, as
+the chief masters. Their art was quite the reverse of the Cologne
+painters. It was heavy, clumsy, bony, awkward. If more original it was
+less graceful, not so pathetic, not so religious. Sentiment was
+slurred through a harsh attempt at realism, and the religious subject
+met with something of a check in the romantic mediaeval chivalric
+theme, painted quite as often on the castle wall as the scriptural
+theme on the church wall. After the close of the fourteenth century
+wall-painting began to die out in favor of panel pictures.
+
+NUREMBERG SCHOOL: Half-way between the sentiment of Cologne and the
+realism of Prague stood the early school of Nuremberg, with no known
+painter at its head. Its chief work, the Imhof altar-piece, shows,
+however, that the Nuremberg masters of the early and middle fifteenth
+century were between eastern and western influences. They inclined to
+the graceful swaying figure, following more the sculpture of the time
+than the Cologne type.
+
+FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES: German art, if begun in the
+fourteenth century, hardly showed any depth or breadth until the
+fifteenth century, and no real individual strength until the sixteenth
+century. It lagged behind the other countries of Europe and produced
+the cramped archaic altar-piece. Then when printing was invented the
+painter-engraver came into existence. He was a man who painted panels,
+but found his largest audience through the circulation of engravings.
+The two kinds of arts being produced by the one man led to much
+detailed line work with the brush. Engraving is an influence to be
+borne in mind in examining the painting of this period.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--DUeRER. PRAYING VIRGIN. AUGSBURG.]
+
+FRANCONIAN SCHOOL: Nuremberg was the centre of this school, and its
+most famous early master was Wolgemut (1434-1519), though Plydenwurff
+is the first-named painter. After the latter's death Wolgemut married
+his widow and became the head of the school. His paintings were
+chiefly altar-pieces, in which the figures were rather lank and
+narrow-shouldered, with sharp outlines, indicative perhaps of the
+influence of wood-engraving, in which he was much interested. There
+was, however, in his work an advance in characterization, nobility of
+expression, and quiet dignity, and it was his good fortune to be the
+master of one of the most thoroughly original painters of all the
+German schools--Albrecht Duerer (1471-1528).
+
+With Duerer and Holbein German art reached its apogee in the first half
+of the sixteenth century, yet their work was not different in spirit
+from that of their predecessors. Painting simply developed and became
+forceful and expressive technically without abandoning its early
+character. There is in Duerer a naive awkwardness of figure, some
+angularity of line, strain of pose, and in composition oftentimes
+huddling and overloading of the scene with details. There is not that
+largeness which seemed native to his Italian contemporaries. He was
+hampered by that German exactness, which found its best expression in
+engraving, and which, though unsuited to painting, nevertheless crept
+into it. Within these limitations Duerer produced the typical art of
+Germany in the Renaissance time--an art more attractive for the charm
+and beauty of its parts than for its unity, or its general impression.
+Duerer was a travelled man, visited Italy and the Netherlands, and,
+though he always remained a German in art, yet he picked up some
+Italian methods from Bellini and Mantegna that are faintly apparent in
+some of his works. In subject he was almost exclusively religious,
+painting the altar-piece with infinite care upon wooden panel, canvas,
+or parchment. He never worked in fresco, preferring oil and tempera.
+In drawing he was often harsh and faulty, in draperies cramped at
+times, and then, again, as in the Apostle panels at Munich, very
+broad, and effective. Many of his pictures show a hard, dry brush, and
+a few, again, are so free and mellow that they look as though done by
+another hand. He was usually minute in detail, especially in such
+features as hair, cloth, flesh. His portraits were uneven and not his
+best productions. He was too close a scrutinizer of the part and not
+enough of an observer of the whole for good portraiture. Indeed, that
+is the criticism to be made upon all his work. He was an exquisite
+realist of certain features, but not always of the _ensemble_.
+Nevertheless he holds first rank in the German art of the Renaissance,
+not only on account of his technical ability, but also because of his
+imagination, sincerity, and striking originality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. PORTRAIT. HAGUE MUS.]
+
+Duerer's influence was wide-spread throughout Germany, especially in
+engraving, of which he was a master. In painting Schaeufelin
+(1490?-1540?) was probably his apprentice, and in his work followed
+the master so closely that many of his works have been attributed to
+Duerer. This is true in measure of Hans Baldung (1476?-1552?). Hans von
+Kulmbach (?-1522) was a painter of more than ordinary importance,
+brilliant in coloring, a follower of Duerer, who was inclined toward
+Italian methods, an inclination that afterward developed all through
+German art. Following Duerer's formulas came a large number of
+so-called "Little Masters" (from the size of their engraved plates),
+who were more engravers than painters. Among the more important of
+those who were painters as well as engravers were Altdorfer
+(1480?-1538), a rival rather than an imitator of Duerer; Barthel Beham
+(1502-1540), Sebald Beham (1500-1550), Pencz (1500?-1550), Aldegrever
+(1502-1558), and Bink (1490?-1569?).
+
+SWABIAN SCHOOL: This school includes a number of painters who were
+located at different places, like Colmar and Ulm, and later on it
+included the Holbeins at Augsburg, who were really the consummation of
+the school. In the fifteenth century one of the early leaders was
+Martin Schoengauer (1446?-1488), at Colmar. He is supposed to have been
+a pupil of Roger Van der Weyden, of the Flemish school, and is better
+known by his engravings than his paintings, none of the latter being
+positively authenticated. He was thoroughly German in his type and
+treatment, though, perhaps, indebted to the Flemings for his coloring.
+There was some angularity in his figures and draperies, and a tendency
+to get nearer nature and further away from the ecclesiastical and
+ascetic conception in all that he did.
+
+At Ulm a local school came into existence with Zeitblom (fl.
+1484-1517), who was probably a pupil of Schuechlin. He had neither
+Schoengauer's force nor his fancy, but was a simple, straightforward
+painter of one rather strong type. His drawing was not good, except in
+the draperies, but he was quite remarkable for the solidity and
+substance of his painting, considering the age he lived in was given
+to hard, thin brush-work. Schaffner (fl. 1500-1535) was another Ulm
+painter, a junior to Zeitblom, of whom little is known, save from a
+few pictures graceful and free in composition. A recently discovered
+man, Bernard Strigel (1461?-1528?) seems to have been excellent in
+portraiture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--PILOTY. WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS.]
+
+At Augsburg there was still another school, which came into prominence
+in the sixteenth century with Burkmair and the Holbeins. It was only a
+part of the Swabian school, a concentration of artistic force about
+Augsburg, which, toward the close of the fifteenth century, had come
+into competition with Nuremberg, and rather outranked it in splendor.
+It was at Augsburg that the Renaissance art in Germany showed in more
+restful composition, less angularity, better modelling and painting,
+and more sense of the _ensemble_ of a picture. Hans Burkmair
+(1473-1531) was the founder of the school, a pupil of Schoengauer,
+later influenced by Duerer, and finally showing the influence of
+Italian art. He was not, like Duerer, a religious painter, though doing
+religious subjects. He was more concerned with worldly appearance, of
+which he had a large knowledge, as may be seen from his illustrations
+for engraving. As a painter he was a rather fine colorist, indulging
+in the fantastic of architecture but with good taste, crude in
+drawing but forceful, and at times giving excellent effects of motion.
+He was rounder, fuller, calmer in composition than Duerer, but never so
+strong an artist.
+
+Next to Burkmair comes the celebrated Holbein family. There were four
+of them all told, but only two of them, Hans the Elder and Hans the
+Younger, need be mentioned. Holbein the Elder (1460?-1524), after
+Burkmair, was the best painter of his time and school without being in
+himself a great artist. Schoengauer was at first his guide, though he
+soon submitted to some Flemish and Cologne influence, and later on
+followed Italian form and method in composition to some extent. He was
+a good draughtsman, and very clever at catching realistic points of
+physiognomy--a gift he left his son Hans. In addition he had some
+feeling for architecture and ornament, and in handling was a bit hard,
+and oftentimes careless. The best half of his life fell in the latter
+part of the fifteenth century, and he never achieved the free
+painter's quality of his son.
+
+Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) holds, with Duerer, the high place
+in German art. He was a more mature painter than Duerer, coming as he
+did a quarter of a century later. He was the Renaissance artist of
+Germany, whereas Duerer always had a little of the Gothic clinging to
+him. The two men were widely different in their points of view and in
+their work. Duerer was an idealist seeking after a type, a religious
+painter, a painter of panels with the spirit of an engraver. Holbein
+was emphatically a realist finding material in the actual life about
+him, a designer of cartoons and large wall paintings in something of
+the Italian spirit, a man who painted religious themes but with little
+spiritual significance.
+
+It is probable that he got his first instruction from his father and
+from Burkmair. He was an infant prodigy, developed early, saw much
+foreign art, and showed a number of tendencies in his work. In
+composition and drawing he appeared at times to be following Mantegna
+and the northern Italians; in brush-work he resembled the Flemings,
+especially Massys; yet he was never an imitator of either Italian or
+Flemish painting. Decidedly a self-sufficient and an observing man, he
+travelled in Italy and the Netherlands, and spent much of his life in
+England, where he met with great success at court as a portrait-painter.
+From seeing much he assimilated much, yet always remained German,
+changing his style but little as he grew older. His wall paintings have
+perished, but the drawings from them are preserved and show him as an
+artist of much invention. He is now known chiefly by his portraits, of
+which there are many of great excellence. His facility in grasping
+physiognomy and realizing character, the quiet dignity of his
+composition, his firm modelling, clear outline, harmonious coloring,
+excellent detail, and easy solid painting, all place him in the front
+rank of great painters. That he was not always bound down to literal
+facts may be seen in his many designs for wood-engravings. His portrait
+of Hubert Morett, in the Dresden Gallery, shows his art to advantage,
+and there are many portraits by him of great spirit in England, in the
+Louvre, and elsewhere.
+
+SAXON SCHOOL: Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) was a Franconian master, who
+settled in Saxony and was successively court-painter to three Electors
+and the leader of a small local school there. He, perhaps, studied
+under Gruenewald, but was so positive a character that he showed no
+strong school influence. His work was fantastic, odd in conception and
+execution, sometimes ludicrous, and always archaic-looking. His type
+was rather strained in proportions, not always well drawn, but
+graceful even when not truthful. This type was carried into all his
+works, and finally became a mannerism with him. In subject he was
+religious, mythological, romantic, pastoral, with a preference for
+the nude figure. In coloring he was at first golden, then brown, and
+finally cold and sombre. The lack of aerial perspective and shadow
+masses gave his work a queer look, and he was never much of a
+brushman. His pictures were typical of the time and country, and for
+that and for their strong individuality they are ranked among the most
+interesting paintings of the German school. Perhaps his most
+satisfactory works are his portraits. Lucas Cranach the Younger
+(1515-1586) was the best of the elder Cranach's pupils. Many of his
+pictures are attributed to his father. He followed the elder closely,
+but was a weaker man, with a smoother brush and a more rosy color.
+Though there were many pupils the school did not go beyond the Cranach
+family. It began with the father and died with the son.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--LEIBL. IN CHURCH.]
+
+SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES: These were unrelieved centuries
+of decline in German painting. After Duerer, Holbein, and Cranach had
+passed there came about a senseless imitation of Italy, combined with
+an equally senseless imitation of detail in nature that produced
+nothing worthy of the name of original or genuine art. It is not
+probable that the Reformation had any more to do with this than with
+the decline in Italy. It was a period of barrenness in both countries.
+The Italian imitators in Germany were chiefly Rottenhammer
+(1564-1623), and Elzheimer (1574?-1620). After them came the
+representative of the other extreme in Denner (1685-1749), who thought
+to be great in portraiture by the minute imitation of hair, freckles,
+and three-days'-old beard--a petty and unworthy realism which excited
+some curiosity but never held rank as art. Mengs (1728-1779) sought
+for the sublime through eclecticism, but never reached it. His work,
+though academic and correct, is lacking in spirit and originality.
+Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807) succeeded in pleasing her inartistic age
+with the simply pretty, while Carstens (1754-1798) was a conscientious
+if mistaken student of the great Italians--a man of some severity in
+form and of academic inclinations.
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY: In the first part of this century there started in
+Germany a so-called "revival of art" led by Overbeck (1789-1869),
+Cornelius (1783-1867), Veit (1793-1877), and Schadow (1789-1862), but
+like many another revival of art it did not amount to much. The
+attempt to "revive" the past is usually a failure. The forms are
+caught, but the spirit is lost. The nineteenth-century attempt in
+Germany was brought about by the study of monumental painting in
+Italy, and the taking up of the religious spirit in a pre-Raphaelite
+manner. Something also of German romanticism was its inspiration.
+Overbeck remained in Rome, but the others, after some time in Italy,
+returned to Germany, diffused their teaching, and really formed a new
+epoch in German painting. A modern art began with ambitions and
+subjects entirely disproportionate to its skill. The monumental, the
+ideal, the classic, the exalted, were spread over enormous spaces, but
+there was no reason for such work in the contemporary German life, and
+nothing to warrant its appearance save that its better had appeared in
+Italy during the Renaissance. Cornelius after his return became the
+head of the
+
+MUNICH SCHOOL and painted pictures of the heroes of the classic and
+the Christian world upon a large scale. Nothing but their size and
+good intention ever brought them into notice, for their form and
+coloring were both commonplace. Schnorr (1794-1872) followed in the
+same style with the Niebelungen Lied, Charlemagne, and Barbarossa for
+subjects. Kaulbach (1805-1874) was a pupil of Cornelius, and had some
+ability but little taste, and not enough originality to produce great
+art. Piloty (1826-1886) was more realistic, more of a painter and
+ranks as one of the best of the early Munich masters. After him Munich
+art became _genre_-like in subject, with greater attention given to
+truthful representation in light, color, texture. To-day there are a
+large number of painters in the school who are remarkable for
+realistic detail.
+
+DUSSELDORF SCHOOL: After 1826 this school came into prominence under
+the guidance of Schadow. It did not fancy monumental painting so much
+as the common easel picture, with the sentimental, the dramatic, or
+the romantic subject. It was no better in either form or color than
+the Munich school, in fact not so good, though there were painters who
+emanated from it who had ability. At Berlin the inclination was to
+follow the methods and ideas held at Dusseldorf.
+
+The whole academic tendency of modern painting in Germany and Austria
+for the past fifty years has not been favorable to the best kind of
+pictorial art. There is a disposition on the part of artists to tell
+stories, to encroach upon the sentiment of literature, to paint with a
+dry brush in harsh unsympathetic colors, to ignore relations of
+light-and-shade, and to slur beauties of form. The subject seems to
+count for more than the truth of representation, or the individuality
+of view. From time to time artists of much ability have appeared, but
+these form an exception rather than a rule. The men to-day who are the
+great artists of Germany are less followers of the German tradition
+than individuals each working in a style peculiar to himself. A few
+only of them call for mention. Menzel (1815-1905) is easily first, a
+painter of group pictures, a good colorist, and a powerful pen-and-ink
+draughtsman; Lenbach (1836-1904), a forceful portraitist; Uhde
+(1848-), a portrayer of scriptural scenes in modern costumes with much
+sincerity, good color, and light; Leibl (1844-1900), an artist with
+something of the Holbein touch and realism; Thoma, a Frankfort painter
+of decorative friezes and panels; Liebermann, Gotthardt Kuehl, Franz
+Stuck, Max Klinger, Greiner, Truebner, Bartels, Keller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--MENZEL. A READER.]
+
+Aside from these men there are several notable painters with German
+affinities, like Makart (1840-1884), an Austrian, who possessed good
+technical qualities and indulged in a profusion of color; Munkacsy
+(1846-1900), a Hungarian, who is perhaps more Parisian than German in
+technic, and Boecklin (1827-1901), a Swiss, who is quite by himself in
+fantastic and grotesque subjects, a weird and uncanny imagination, and
+a brilliant prismatic coloring.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: BOHEMIAN SCHOOL--Theoderich of Prague,
+     Karlstein chap. and University Library Prague, Vienna Mus.;
+     Wurmser, same places.
+
+     FRANCONIAN SCHOOL--Wolgemut, Aschaffenburg, Munich,
+     Nuremberg, Cassel Mus.; Duerer, Crucifixion Dresden, Trinity
+     Vienna Mus., other works Munich, Nuremberg, Madrid Mus.;
+     Schaeufelin, Basle, Bamberg, Cassel, Munich, Nuremberg,
+     Nordlingen Mus., and Ulm Cathedral; Baldung, Aschaffenburg,
+     Basle, Berlin, Kunsthalle Carlsruhe, Freiburg Cathedral;
+     Kulmbach, Munich, Nuremberg, Oldenburg; Altdorfer and the
+     "Little Masters" are seen in the Augsburg, Nuremberg,
+     Berlin, Munich and Fuerstenberg Mus.
+
+     SWABIAN SCHOOL--Schoengauer, attributed pictures Colmar Mus.;
+     Zeitblom, Augsburg, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich, Nuremberg,
+     Simaringen Mus.; Schaffner, Munich, Schliessheim, Nuremberg,
+     Ulm Cathedral; Strigel, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Munich,
+     Nuremberg; Burkmair, Augsburg, Berlin, Munich, Maurice chap.
+     Nuremberg; Holbein the Elder, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Basle,
+     Staedel Mus., Frankfort; Holbein the Younger, Basle,
+     Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, Dresden, Berlin, Louvre, Windsor
+     Castle, Vienna Mus.
+
+     SAXON SCHOOL--Cranach, Bamberg Cathedral and Gallery,
+     Munich, Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cassel; Cranach
+     the Younger, Stadtkirche Wittenberg, Leipsic, Vienna,
+     Nuremberg Mus.
+
+     SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Rottenhammer,
+     Louvre, Berlin, Munich, Schliessheim, Vienna, Kunsthalle
+     Hamburg; Elzheimer, Stadel, Brunswick, Louvre, Munich,
+     Berlin, Dresden; Denner, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Berlin,
+     Brunswick, Dresden, Vienna, Munich; Mengs, Madrid, Vienna,
+     Dresden, Munich, St. Petersburg; Angelica Kauffman, Vienna,
+     Hermitage, Turin, Dresden, Nat. Gal. Lon., Phila. Acad.
+
+     NINETEENTH-CENTURY PAINTERS: Overbeck, frescos in S. Maria
+     degli Angeli Assisi, Villa Massimo Rome, Carlsruhe, New
+     Pinacothek, Munich, Staedel Mus., Dusseldorf; Cornelius,
+     frescos Glyptothek and Ludwigkirche Munich, Casa Zuccaro
+     Rome, Royal Cemetery Berlin; Veit, frescos Villa Bartholdi
+     Rome, Staedel, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Schadow, Nat. Gal. Berlin,
+     Antwerp, Staedel, Munich Mus., frescos Villa Bartholdi Rome;
+     Schnorr, Dresden, Cologne, Carlsruhe, New Pinacothek Munich,
+     Staedel Mus.; Kaulbach, wall paintings Berlin Mus., Raczynski
+     Gal. Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Stuttgart, Phila. Acad.;
+     Piloty, best pictures in the New Pinacothek and
+     Maximilianeum Munich, Nat. Gal. Berlin; Menzel, Nat. Gal.,
+     Raczynski Mus. Berlin, Breslau Mus.; Lenbach, Nat. Gal.
+     Berlin, New Pinacothek Munich, Kunsthalle Hamburg, Zuerich
+     Gal.; Uhde, Leipsic Mus.; Leibl, Dresden Mus. The
+     contemporary paintings have not as yet found their way, to
+     any extent, into public museums, but may be seen in the
+     expositions at Berlin and Munich from year to year. Makart
+     has one work in the Metropolitan Mus., N. Y., as has also
+     Munkacsy; other works by them and by Boecklin may be seen in
+     the Nat. Gal. Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+BRITISH PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Armstrong, _Sir Henry Raeburn_;
+     Armstrong, _Gainsborough_; Armstrong, _Sir Joshua Reynolds_;
+     Burton, _Catalogue of Pictures in National Gallery_;
+     Chesneau, _La Peinture Anglaise_; Cook, _Art in England_;
+     Cunningham, _Lives of the most Eminent British Artists_;
+     Dobson, _Life of Hogarth_; Gilchrist, _Life of Etty_;
+     Gilchrist, _Life of Blake_; Hamerton, _Life of Turner_;
+     Henderson, _Constable_; Hunt, _The Pre-Raphaelite
+     Brotherhood_ (_Contemporary Review, Vol. 49_); Leslie, _Sir
+     Joshua Reynolds_; Leslie, _Life of Constable_; Martin and
+     Newbery, _Glasgow School of Painting_; McKay, _Scottish
+     School of Painting_; Monkhouse, _British Contemporary
+     Artists_; Redgrave, _Dictionary of Artists of the English
+     School_; Romney, _Life of George Romney_; Rossetti, _Fine
+     Art, chiefly Contemporary_; Ruskin, _Pre-Raphaelitism_;
+     Ruskin, _Art of England_; Sandby, _History of Royal Academy
+     of Arts_; William Bell Scott, _Autobiography_; Scott,
+     _British Landscape Painters_; Stephens, _Catalogue of Prints
+     and Drawings in the British Museum_; Swinburne, _William
+     Blake_; Temple, _Painting in the Queen's Reign_; Van Dyke,
+     _Old English Masters_; Wedmore, _Studies in English Art_;
+     Wilmot-Buxton, _English Painters_; Wright, _Life of Richard
+     Wilson_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--HOGARTH. SHORTLY AFTER MARRIAGE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.]
+
+
+BRITISH PAINTING: It may be premised in a general way, that the
+British painters have never possessed the pictorial cast of mind in
+the sense that the Italians, the French, or the Dutch have possessed
+it. Painting, as a purely pictorial arrangement of line and color, has
+been somewhat foreign to their conception. Whether this failure to
+appreciate painting as painting is the result of geographical
+position, isolation, race temperament, or mental disposition, would be
+hard to determine. It is quite certain that from time immemorable the
+English people have not been lacking in the appreciation of beauty;
+but beauty has appealed to them, not so much through the eye in
+painting and sculpture, as through the ear in poetry and literature.
+They have been thinkers, reasoners, moralists, rather than observers
+and artists in color. Images have been brought to their minds by words
+rather than by forms. English poetry has existed since the days of
+Arthur and the Round Table, but English painting is of comparatively
+modern origin, and it is not wonderful that the original leaning of
+the people toward literature and its sentiment should find its way
+into pictorial representation. As a result one may say in a very
+general way that English painting is more illustrative than creative.
+It endeavors to record things that might be more pertinently and
+completely told in poetry, romance, or history. The conception of
+large art--creative work of the Rubens-Titian type--has not been given
+to the English painters, save in exceptional cases. Their success has
+been in portraiture and landscape, and this largely by reason of
+following the model.
+
+EARLY PAINTING: The earliest decorative art appeared in Ireland. It
+was probably first planted there by missionaries from Italy, and it
+reached its height in the seventh century. In the ninth and tenth
+centuries missal illumination of a Byzantine cast, with local
+modifications, began to show. This lasted, in a feeble way, until the
+fifteenth century, when work of a Flemish and French nature took its
+place. In the Middle Ages there were wall paintings and church
+decorations in England, as elsewhere in Europe, but these have now
+perished, except some fragments in Kempley Church, Gloucestershire,
+and Chaldon Church, Surrey. These are supposed to date back to the
+twelfth century, and there are some remains of painting in Westminster
+Abbey that are said to be of thirteenth and fourteenth-century origin.
+From the fifteenth to the eighteenth century the English people
+depended largely upon foreign painters who came and lived in England.
+Mabuse, Moro, Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Lely, Kneller--all were there
+at different times, in the service of royalty, and influencing such
+local English painters as then lived. The outcome of missal
+illumination and Holbein's example produced in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries a local school of miniature-painters of much
+interest, but painting proper did not begin to rise in England until
+the beginning of the eighteenth century--that century so dead in art
+over all the rest of Europe.
+
+FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Aside from a few inconsequential
+precursors the first English artist of note was Hogarth (1697-1764).
+He was an illustrator, a moralist, and a satirist as well as a
+painter. To point a moral upon canvas by depicting the vices of his
+time was his avowed aim, but in doing so he did not lose sight of
+pictorial beauty. Charm of color, the painter's taste in arrangement,
+light, air, setting, were his in a remarkable degree. He was not
+successful in large compositions, but in small pictures like those of
+the Rake's Progress he was excellent. An early man, a rigid stickler
+for the representation, a keen observer of physiognomy, a satirist
+with a sense of the absurd, he was often warped in his art by the
+necessities of his subject and was sometimes hard and dry in method,
+but in his best work he was quite a perfect painter. He was the first
+of the English school, and perhaps the most original of that school.
+This is quite as true of his technic as of his point of view. Both
+were of his own creation. His subjects have been talked about a great
+deal in the past; but his painting is not to this day valued as it
+should be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--REYNOLDS. COUNTESS SPENCER AND LORD ALTHORP.]
+
+The next man to be mentioned, one of the most considerable of all the
+English school, is Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792). He was a pupil of
+Hudson, but owed his art to many sources. Besides the influence of Van
+Dyck he was for some years in Italy, a diligent student of the great
+Italians, especially the Venetians, Correggio, and the Bolognese
+Eclectics. Sir Joshua was inclined to be eclectic himself, and from
+Italy he brought back a formula of art which, modified by his own
+individuality, answered him for the rest of his life. He was not a man
+of very lofty imagination or great invention. A few figure-pieces,
+after the Titian initiative, came from his studio, but his reputation
+rests upon his many portraits. In portraiture he was often beyond
+criticism, giving the realistic representation with dignity, an
+elevated spirit, and a suave brush. Even here he was more impressive
+by his broad truth of facts than by his artistic feeling. He was not a
+painter who could do things enthusiastically or excite enthusiasm in
+the spectator. There was too much of rule and precedent, too much
+regard for the traditions, for him to do anything strikingly original.
+His brush-work and composition were more learned than individual, and
+his color, though usually good, was oftentimes conventional in
+contrasts. Taking him for all in all he was a very cultivated painter,
+a man to be respected and admired, but he had not quite the original
+spirit that we meet with in Gainsborough.
+
+Reynolds was well-grounded in Venetian color, Bolognese composition,
+Parmese light-and-shade, and paid them the homage of assimilation; but
+if Gainsborough (1727-1788) had such school knowledge he positively
+disregarded it. He disliked all conventionalities and formulas. With a
+natural taste for form and color, and with a large decorative sense,
+he went directly to nature, and took from her the materials which he
+fashioned into art after his own peculiar manner. His celebrated Blue
+Boy was his protest against the conventional rule of Reynolds that a
+composition should be warm in color and light. All through his work we
+meet with departures from academic ways. By dint of native force and
+grace he made rules unto himself. Some of them were not entirely
+successful, and in drawing he might have profited by school training;
+but he was of a peculiar poetic temperament, with a dash of melancholy
+about him, and preferred to work in his own way. In portraiture his
+color was rather cold; in landscape much warmer. His brush-work was as
+odd as himself, but usually effective, and his accessories in
+figure-painting were little more than decorative after-thoughts. Both
+in portraiture and landscape he was one of the most original and most
+English of all the English painters--a man not yet entirely
+appreciated, though from the first ranked among the foremost in
+English art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--GAINSBOROUGH. BLUE BOY.]
+
+Romney (1734-1802), a pupil of Steele, was often quite as masterful a
+portrait-painter as either Reynolds or Gainsborough. He was never an
+artist elaborate in composition, and his best works are bust-portraits
+with a plain background. These he did with much dash and vivacity of
+manner. His women, particularly, are fine in life-like pose and
+winsomeness of mood. He was a very cunning observer, and knew how to
+arrange for grace of line and charm of color.
+
+After Romney came Beechey (1753-1839), Raeburn (1756-1823), Opie
+(1761-1807), and John Hoppner (1759-1810). Then followed Lawrence
+(1769-1830), a mixture of vivacious style and rather meretricious
+method. He was the most celebrated painter of his time, largely
+because he painted nobility to look more noble and grace to look more
+gracious. Fond of fine types, garments, draperies, colors, he was
+always seeking the sparkling rather than the true, and forcing
+artificial effects for the sake of startling one rather than stating
+facts simply and frankly. He was facile with the brush, clever in line
+and color, brilliant to the last degree, but lacking in that
+simplicity of view and method which marks the great mind. His
+composition was rather fine in its decorative effect, and, though his
+lights were often faulty when compared with nature, they were no less
+telling from the stand-point of picture-making. He is much admired by
+artists to-day, and, as a technician, he certainly had more than
+average ability. He was hardly an artist like Reynolds or
+Gainsborough, but among the mediocre painters of his day he shone like
+a star. It is not worth while to say much about his contemporaries.
+Etty (1787-1849) was one of the best of the figure men, but his Greek
+types and classic aspirations grow wearisome on acquaintance; and Sir
+Charles Eastlake (1793-1865), though a learned man in art and doing
+great service to painting as a writer, never was a painter of
+importance.
+
+William Blake (1757-1827) was hardly a painter at all, though he drew
+and colored the strange figures of his fancy and cannot be passed over
+in any history of English art. He was perhaps the most imaginative
+artist of English birth, though that imagination was often disordered
+and almost incoherent. He was not a correct draughtsman, a man with no
+great color-sense, and a workman without technical training; and yet,
+in spite of all this, he drew some figures that are almost sublime in
+their sweep of power. His decorative sense in filling space with lines
+is well shown in his illustrations to the Book of Job. In grace of
+form and feeling of motion he was excellent. Weird and uncanny in
+thought, delving into the unknown, he opened a world of mystery,
+peopled with a strange Apocalyptic race, whose writhing, flowing
+bodies are the epitome of graceful grandeur.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--CONSTABLE. CORN FIELD. NAT. GAL. LONDON.]
+
+GENRE-PAINTERS: From Blake to Morland (1763-1804) is a step across
+space from heaven to earth. Morland was a realist of English country
+life, horses at tavern-doors, cattle, pigs. His life was not the most
+correct, but his art in truthfulness of representation, simplicity of
+painting, richness of color and light, was often of a fine quality. As
+a skilful technician he stood quite alone in his time, and seemed to
+show more affinity with the Dutch _genre_-painters than his own
+countrymen. His works are much prized to-day, and were so during the
+painter's life.
+
+Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841) was also somewhat like the Dutch in
+subject, a _genre_-painter, fond of the village fete and depicting it
+with careful detail, a limpid brush, and good textural effects. In
+1825 he travelled abroad, was gone some years, was impressed by
+Velasquez, Correggio, and Rembrandt, and completely changed his style.
+He then became a portrait and historical painter. He never outlived
+the nervous constraint that shows in all his pictures, and his brush,
+though facile within limits, was never free or bold as compared with a
+Dutchman like Steen. In technical methods Landseer (1802-1873), the
+painter of animals, was somewhat like him. That is to say, they both
+had a method of painting surfaces and rendering textures that was more
+"smart" than powerful. There is little solidity or depth to the
+brush-work of either, though both are impressive to the spectator at
+first sight. Landseer knew the habits and the anatomy of animals very
+well, but he never had an appreciation of the brute in the animal,
+such as we see in the pictures of Velasquez or the bronzes of Barye.
+The Landseer animal has too much sentiment about it. The dogs, for
+instance, are generally given those emotions pertinent to humanity,
+and which are only exceptionally true of the canine race. This very
+feature--the tendency to humanize the brute and make it tell a
+story--accounts in large measure for the popularity of Landseer's art.
+The work is perhaps correct enough, but the aim of it is somewhat
+afield from pure painting. It illustrates the literary rather than the
+pictorial. Following Wilkie the most distinguished painter was
+Mulready (1786-1863), whose pictures of village boys are well known
+through engravings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--TURNER. FIGHTING TEMERAIRE. NAT. GAL.
+LONDON.]
+
+THE LANDSCAPE PAINTERS: In landscape the English have had something to
+say peculiarly their own. It has not always been well said, the
+coloring is often hot, the brush-work brittle, the attention to
+detail inconsistent with the large view of nature, yet such as it is
+it shows the English point of view and is valuable on that account.
+Richard Wilson (1713-1782) was the first landscapist of importance,
+though he was not so English in view as some others to follow. In
+fact, Wilson was nurtured on Claude Lorrain and Joseph Vernet and
+instead of painting the realistic English landscape he painted the
+pseudo-Italian landscape. He began working in portraiture under the
+tutorship of Wright, and achieved some success in this department; but
+in 1749 he went to Italy and devoted himself wholly to landscapes.
+These were of the classic type and somewhat conventional. The
+composition was usually a dark foreground with trees or buildings to
+right and left, an opening in the middle distance leading into the
+background, and a broad expanse of sunset sky. In the foreground he
+usually introduced a few figures for romantic or classic association.
+Considerable elevation of theme and spirit marks most of his pictures.
+There was good workmanship about the skies and the light, and an
+attentive study of nature was shown throughout. His canvases did not
+meet with much success at the time they were painted. In more modern
+days Wilson has been ranked as the true founder of landscape in
+England, and one of the most sincere of English painters.
+
+THE NORWICH SCHOOL: Old Crome (1769-1821), though influenced to some
+extent by Wilson and the Dutch painters, was an original talent,
+painting English scenery with much simplicity and considerable power.
+He was sometimes rasping with his brush, and had a small method of
+recording details combined with mannerisms of drawing and composition,
+and yet gave an out-of-doors feeling in light and air that was
+astonishing. His large trees have truth of mass and accuracy of
+drawing, and his foregrounds are painted with solidity. He was a keen
+student of nature, and drew about him a number of landscape painters
+at Norwich, who formed the Norwich School. Crome was its leader, and
+the school made its influence felt upon English landscape painting.
+Cotman (1782-1842) was the best painter of the group after Crome, a
+man who depicted landscape and harbor scenes in a style that recalls
+Girtin and Turner.
+
+The most complete, full-rounded landscapist in England was John
+Constable (1776-1837). His foreign bias, such as it was, came from a
+study of the Dutch masters. There were two sources from which the
+English landscapists drew. Those who were inclined to the ideal, men
+like Wilson, Calcott (1779-1844), and Turner, drew from the Italian of
+Poussin and Claude; those who were content to do nature in her real
+dress, men like Gainsborough and Constable, drew from the Dutch of
+Hobbema and his contemporaries. A certain sombreness of color and
+manner of composition show in Constable that may be attributed to
+Holland; but these were slight features as compared with the
+originality of the man. He was a close student of nature who painted
+what he saw in English country life, especially about Hampstead, and
+painted it with a knowledge and an artistic sensitiveness never
+surpassed in England. The rural feeling was strong with him, and his
+evident pleasure in simple scenes is readily communicated to the
+spectator. There is no attempt at the grand or the heroic. He never
+cared much for mountains or water, but was fond of cultivated uplands,
+trees, bowling clouds, and torn skies. Bursts of sunlight, storms,
+atmospheres, all pleased him. With detail he was little concerned. He
+saw landscape in large patches of form and color, and so painted it.
+His handling was broad and solid, and at times a little heavy. His
+light was often forced by sharp contrast with shadows, and often his
+pictures appear spotty from isolated glitters of light strewn here and
+there. In color he helped eliminate the brown landscape and
+substituted in its place the green and blue of nature. In atmosphere
+he was excellent. His influence upon English art was impressive, and
+in 1824 the exhibition at Paris of his Hay Wain, together with some
+work by Bonington and Fielding had a decided effect upon the then
+rising landscape school of France. The French realized that nature lay
+at the bottom of Constable's art, and they profited, not by imitating
+Constable, but by studying his nature model.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--BURNE JONES. FLAMMA VESTALIS.]
+
+Bonington (1801-1828) died young, and though of English parents his
+training was essentially French, and he really belonged to the French
+school, an associate of Delacroix. His study of the Venetians turned
+his talent toward warm coloring, in which he excelled. In landscape
+his broad handling was somewhat related to that of Constable, and from
+the fact of their works appearing together in the Salon of 1824 they
+are often spoken of as influencers of the modern French landscape
+painters.
+
+Turner (1775-1851) is the best known name in English art. His
+celebrity is somewhat disproportionate to his real merits, though it
+is impossible to deny his great ability. He was a man learned in all
+the forms of nature and schooled in all the formulas of art; yet he
+was not a profound lover of nature nor a faithful recorder of what
+things he saw in nature, except in his early days. In the bulk of his
+work he shows the traditions of Claude, with additions of his own. His
+taste was classic (he possessed all the knowledge and the belongings
+of the historical landscape), and he delighted in great stretches of
+country broken by sea-shores, rivers, high mountains, fine buildings,
+and illumined by blazing sunlight and gorgeous skies. His composition
+was at times grotesque in imagination; his light was usually
+bewildering in intensity and often unrelieved by shadows of sufficient
+depth; his tone was sometimes faulty; and in color he was not always
+harmonious, but inclined to be capricious, uneven, showing fondness
+for arbitrary schemes of color. The object of his work seems to have
+been to dazzle, to impress with a wilderness of lines and hues, to
+overawe by imposing scale and grandeur. His paintings are impressive,
+decoratively splendid, but they often smack of the stage, and are more
+frequently grandiloquent than grand. His early works, especially in
+water-colors, where he shows himself a follower of Girtin, are much
+better than his later canvases in oil, many of which have changed
+color. The water-colors are carefully done, subdued in color, and true
+in light. From 1802, or thereabouts, to 1830 was his second period,
+in which Italian composition and much color were used. The last twenty
+years of his life he inclined to the _bizarre_, and turned his
+canvases into almost incoherent color masses. He had an artistic
+feeling for composition, linear perspective, and the sweep of horizon
+lines; skies and hills he knew and drew with power; color he
+comprehended only as decoration; and light he distorted for effect.
+Yet with all his shortcomings Turner was an artist to be respected and
+admired. He knew his craft, in fact, knew it so well that he relied
+too much on artificial effects, drew away from the model of nature,
+and finally passed into the extravagant.
+
+THE WATER-COLORISTS: About the beginning of this century a school of
+water-colorists, founded originally by Cozens (1752-1799) and Girtin
+(1775-1802), came into prominence and developed English art in a new
+direction. It began to show with a new force the transparency of
+skies, the luminosity of shadows, the delicacy and grace of clouds,
+the brilliancy of light and color. Cozens and Blake were primitives in
+the use of the medium, but Stothard (1755-1834) employed it with much
+sentiment, charm, and _plein-air_ effect. Turner was quite a master of
+it, and his most permanent work was done with it. Later on, when he
+rather abandoned form to follow color, he also abandoned water-color
+for oils. Fielding (1787-1849) used water-color effectively in giving
+large feeling for space and air, and also for fogs and mists; Prout
+(1783-1852) employed it in architectural drawings of the principal
+cathedrals of Europe; and Cox (1783-1859), Dewint (1784-1849), Hunt
+(1790-1864), Cattermole (1800-1868), Lewis (1805-1876), men whose
+names only can be mentioned, all won recognition with this medium.
+Water-color drawing is to-day said to be a department of art that
+expresses the English pictorial feeling better than any other, though
+this is not an undisputed statement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--LEIGHTON. HELEN OF TROY.]
+
+Perhaps the most important movement in English painting of recent
+times was that which took the name of
+
+PRE-RAPHAELITISM: It was started about 1847, primarily by Rossetti
+(1828-1882), Holman Hunt (1827-), and Sir John Millais (1829-1896),
+associated with several sculptors and poets, seven in all. It was an
+emulation of the sincerity, the loving care, and the scrupulous
+exactness in truth that characterized the Italian painters before
+Raphael. Its advocates, including Mr. Ruskin the critic, maintained
+that after Raphael came that fatal facility in art which seeking grace
+of composition lost truth of fact, and that the proper course for
+modern painters was to return to the sincerity and veracity of the
+early masters. Hence the name pre-Raphaelitism, and the signatures on
+their early pictures, P. R. B., pre-Raphaelite Brother. To this
+attempt to gain the true regardless of the sensuous, was added a
+morbidity of thought mingled with mysticism, a moral and religious
+pose, and a studied simplicity. Some of the painters of the
+Brotherhood went even so far as following the habits of the early
+Italians, seeking retirement from the world and carrying with them a
+Gothic earnestness of air. There is no doubt about the sincerity that
+entered into this movement. It was an honest effort to gain the true,
+the good, and as a result, the beautiful; but it was no less a
+striven-after honesty and an imitated earnestness. The Brotherhood did
+not last for long, the members drifted from each other and began to
+paint each after his own style, and pre-Raphaelitism passed away as it
+had arisen, though not without leaving a powerful stamp on English
+art, especially in decoration.
+
+Rossetti, an Italian by birth though English by adoption, was the type
+of the Brotherhood. He was more of a poet than a painter, took most of
+his subjects from Dante, and painted as he wrote, in a mystical
+romantic spirit. He was always of a retiring disposition and never
+exhibited publicly after he was twenty-eight years of age. As a
+draughtsman he was awkward in line and not always true in modelling.
+In color he was superior to his associates and had considerable
+decorative feeling. The shortcoming of his art, as with that of the
+others of the Brotherhood, was that in seeking truth of detail he lost
+truth of _ensemble_. This is perhaps better exemplified in the works
+of Holman Hunt. He has spent infinite pains in getting the truth of
+detail in his pictures, has travelled in the East and painted types,
+costumes, and scenery in Palestine to gain the historic truths of his
+Scriptural scenes; but all that he has produced has been little more
+than a survey, a report, a record of the facts. He has not made a
+picture. The insistence upon every detail has isolated all the facts
+and left them isolated in the picture. In seeking the minute truths
+he has overlooked the great truths of light, air, and setting. His
+color has always been crude, his values or relations not well
+preserved, and his brush-work hard and tortured.
+
+Millais showed some of this disjointed effect in his early work when
+he was a member of the Brotherhood. He did not hold to his early
+convictions however, and soon abandoned the pre-Raphaelite methods for
+a more conventional style. He has painted some remarkable portraits
+and some excellent figure pieces, and to-day holds high rank in
+English art; but he is an uneven painter, often doing weak,
+harshly-colored work. Moreover, the English tendency to tell stories
+with the paint-brush finds in Millais a faithful upholder. At his best
+he is a strong painter.
+
+Madox Brown (1821-1893) never joined the Brotherhood, though his
+leaning was toward its principles. He had considerable dramatic power,
+with which he illustrated historic scenes, and among contemporary
+artists stood well. The most decided influence of pre-Raphaelitism
+shows in Burne-Jones (1833-), a pupil of Rossetti, and perhaps the
+most original painter now living[18] of the English school. From
+Rossetti he got mysticism, sentiment, poetry, and from association
+with Swinburne and William Morris, the poets, something of the
+literary in art, which he has put forth with artistic effect. He has
+not followed the Brotherhood in its pursuit of absolute truth of fact,
+but has used facts for decorative effect in line and color. His
+ability to fill a given space gracefully, shows with fine results in
+his pictures, as in his stained-glass designs. He is a good
+draughtsman and a rather rich colorist, but in brush-work somewhat
+labored, stippled, and unique in dryness. He is a man of much
+imagination, and his conceptions, though illustrative of literature,
+do not suffer thereby, because his treatment does not sacrifice the
+artistic. He has been the butt of considerable shallow laughter from
+time to time, like many another man of power. Albert Moore
+(1840-1893), a graceful painter of a decorative ideal type, rather
+follows the Rossetti-Burne-Jones example, and is an illustration of
+the influence of pre-Raphaelitism.
+
+[Footnote 18: Died 1898.]
+
+OTHER FIGURE AND PORTRAIT PAINTERS: Among the contemporary painters
+Sir Frederick Leighton (1830-1896), President of the Royal Academy, is
+ranked as a fine academic draughtsman, but not a man with the
+color-sense or the brushman's quality in his work. Watts (1818-1904)
+is perhaps an inferior technician, and in color is often sombre and
+dirty; but he is a man of much imagination, occasionally rises to
+grandeur in conception, and has painted some superb portraits, notably
+the one of Walter Crane. Orchardson (1835-) is more of a painter, pure
+and simple, than any of his contemporaries, and is a knowing if
+somewhat mannered colorist. Erskine Nicol (1825-), Faed[19] (1826-),
+Calderon (1833-), Boughton (1834-1905), Frederick Walker (1840-1875),
+Stanhope Forbes, Stott of Oldham and in portraiture Holl (1845-1890)
+and Herkomer may be mentioned.
+
+[Footnote 19: Died 1900.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--WATTS. LOVE AND DEATH.]
+
+LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS: In the department of landscape there
+are many painters in England of contemporary importance. Vicat Cole
+(1833-1893) had considerable exaggerated reputation as a depicter of
+sunsets and twilights; Cecil Lawson (1851-1882) gave promise of great
+accomplishment, and lived long enough to do some excellent work in the
+style of the French Rousseau, mingled with an influence from
+Gainsborough; Alfred Parsons is a little hard and precise in his work,
+but one of the best of the living men; and W. L. Wyllie is a painter
+of more than average merit. In marines Hook (1819-) belongs to the
+older school, and is not entirely satisfactory. The most modern and
+the best sea-painter in England is Henry Moore (1831-1895), a man who
+paints well and gives the large feeling of the ocean with fine color
+qualities. Some other men of mark are Clausen, Brangwyn, Ouless,
+Steer, Bell, Swan, McTaggart, Sir George Reid.
+
+MODERN SCOTCH SCHOOL: There is at the present time a school of art in
+Scotland that seems to have little or no affinity with the
+contemporary school of England. Its painters are more akin to the
+Dutch and the French, and in their coloring resemble, in depth and
+quality, the work of Delacroix. Much of their art is far enough
+removed from the actual appearance of nature, but it is strong in the
+sentiment of color and in decorative effect. The school is represented
+by such men as James Guthrie, E. A. Walton, James Hamilton, George
+Henry, E. A. Hornel, Lavery, Melville, Crawhall, Roche, Lawson,
+McBride, Morton, Reid Murray, Spence, Paterson.
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: English art cannot be seen to advantage,
+     outside of England. In the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., and
+     in private collections like that of Mr. William H. Fuller in
+     New York,[20] there are some good examples of the older
+     men--Reynolds, Constable, Gainsborough, and their
+     contemporaries. In the Louvre there are some indifferent
+     Constables and some good Boningtons. In England the best
+     collection is in the National Gallery. Next to this the
+     South Kensington Museum for Constable sketches. Elsewhere
+     the Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Windsor galleries, and
+     the private collections of the late Sir Richard Wallace, the
+     Duke of Westminster, and others. Turner is well represented
+     in the National Gallery, though his oils have suffered
+     through time and the use of fugitive pigments. For the
+     living men, their work may be seen in the yearly exhibitions
+     at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. There are comparatively
+     few English pictures in America.
+
+[Footnote 20: Dispersed, 1898.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+AMERICAN PAINTING.
+
+     BOOKS RECOMMENDED: _American Art Review_; Amory, _Life of
+     Copley_; _The Art Review_; Benjamin, _Contemporary Art in
+     America_; _Century Magazine_; Caffin, _American Painters_;
+     Clement and Hutton, _Artists of the Nineteenth Century_;
+     Cummings, _Historic Annals of the National Academy of
+     Design_; Downes, _Boston Painters_ (_in Atlantic Monthly
+     Vol. 62_); Dunlap, _Arts of Design in United States_; Flagg,
+     _Life and Letters of Washington Allston_; Galt, _Life of
+     West_; Isham, _History of American Painting_; Knowlton, _W.
+     M. Hunt_; Lester, _The Artists of America_; Mason, _Life and
+     Works of Gilbert Stuart_; Perkins, _Copley_; _Scribner's
+     Magazine_; Sheldon, _American Painters_; Tuckerman, _Book of
+     the Artists_; Van Dyke, _Art for Art's Sake_; Van
+     Rensselaer, _Six Portraits_; Ware, _Lectures on Allston_;
+     White, _A Sketch of Chester A. Harding_.
+
+
+AMERICAN ART: It is hardly possible to predicate much about the
+environment as it affects art in America. The result of the climate,
+the temperament, and the mixture of nations in the production or
+non-production of painting in America cannot be accurately computed at
+this early stage of history. One thing only is certain, and that is,
+that the building of a new commonwealth out of primeval nature does
+not call for the production of art in the early periods of
+development. The first centuries in the history of America were
+devoted to securing the necessities of life, the energies of the time
+were of a practical nature, and art as an indigenous product was
+hardly known.
+
+After the Revolution, and indeed before it, a hybrid portraiture,
+largely borrowed from England, began to appear, and after 1825 there
+was an attempt at landscape painting; but painting as an art worthy
+of very serious consideration, came in only with the sudden growth in
+wealth and taste following the War of the Rebellion and the Centennial
+Exhibition of 1876. The best of American art dates from about 1878,
+though during the earlier years there were painters of note who cannot
+be passed over unmentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--WEST. PETER DENYING CHRIST. HAMPTON CT.]
+
+THE EARLY PAINTERS: The "limner," or the man who could draw and color
+a portrait, seems to have existed very early in American history.
+Smibert (1684-1751), a Scotch painter, who settled in Boston, and
+Watson (1685?-1768), another Scotchman, who settled in New Jersey,
+were of this class--men capable of giving a likeness, but little more.
+They were followed by English painters of even less consequence. Then
+came Copley (1737-1815) and West (1738-1820), with whom painting in
+America really began. They were good men for their time, but it must
+be borne in mind that the times for art were not at all favorable.
+West was a man about whom all the infant prodigy tales have been told,
+but he never grew to be a great artist. He was ambitious beyond his
+power, indulged in theatrical composition, was hot in color, and never
+was at ease in handling the brush. Most of his life was passed in
+England, where he had a vogue, was elected President of the Royal
+Academy, and became practically a British painter. Copley was more of
+an American than West, and more of a painter. Some of his portraits
+are exceptionally fine, and his figure pieces, like Charles I.
+demanding the Five Members of House of Commons are excellent in color
+and composition. C. W. Peale (1741-1827), a pupil of both Copley and
+West, was perhaps more fortunate in having celebrated characters like
+Washington for sitters than in his art. Trumbull (1756-1843) preserved
+on canvas the Revolutionary history of America and, all told, did it
+very well. Some of his compositions, portraits, and miniature heads in
+the Yale Art School at New Haven are drawn and painted in a masterful
+manner and are as valuable for their art as for the incidents which
+they portray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--GILBERT STUART. WASHINGTON (UNFINISHED).
+BOSTON MUS.]
+
+Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) was the best portrait-painter of all the
+early men, and his work holds very high rank even in the schools of
+to-day. He was one of the first in American art-history to show
+skilful accuracy of the brush, a good knowledge of color, and some
+artistic sense of dignity and carriage in the sitter. He was not
+always a good draughtsman, and he had a manner of laying on pure
+colors without blending them that sometimes produced sharpness in
+modelling; but as a general rule he painted a portrait with force and
+with truth. He was a pupil of Alexander, a Scotchman, and afterward an
+assistant to West. He settled in Boston, and during his life painted
+most of the great men of his time, including Washington.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--W. M. HUNT. LUTE PLAYER.]
+
+Vanderlyn (1776-1852) met with adversity all his life long, and
+perhaps never expressed himself fully. He was a pupil of Stuart,
+studied in Paris and Italy, and his associations with Aaron Burr made
+him quite as famous as his pictures. Washington Allston (1779-1843)
+was a painter whom the Bostonians have ranked high in their
+art-history, but he hardly deserved such position. Intellectually he
+was a man of lofty and poetic aspirations, but as an artist he never
+had the painter's sense or the painter's skill. He was an aspiration
+rather than a consummation. He cherished notions about ideals, dealt
+in imaginative allegories, and failed to observe the pictorial
+character of the world about him. As a result of this, and poor
+artistic training, his art had too little basis on nature, though it
+was very often satisfactory as decoration. Rembrandt Peale
+(1787-1860), like his father, was a painter of Washington portraits of
+mediocre quality. Jarvis (1780-1834) and Sully (1783-1872) were both
+British born, but their work belongs here in America, where most of
+their days were spent. Sully could paint a very good portrait
+occasionally, though he always inclined toward the weak and the
+sentimental, especially in his portraits of women. Leslie (1794-1859)
+and Newton (1795-1835) were Americans, but, like West and Copley, they
+belong in their art more to England than to America. In all the early
+American painting the British influence may be traced, with sometimes
+an inclination to follow Italy in large compositions.
+
+THE MIDDLE PERIOD in American art dates from 1825 to about 1878. During
+that time, something distinctly American began to appear in the
+landscape work of Doughty (1793-1856) and Thomas Cole (1801-1848). Both
+men were substantially self-taught, though Cole received some
+instruction from a portrait-painter named Stein. Cole during his life
+was famous for his Hudson River landscapes, and for two series of
+pictures called The Voyage of Life and The Course of Empire. The latter
+were really epic poems upon canvas, done with much blare of color and
+literary explanation in the title. His best work was in pure landscape,
+which he pictured with considerable accuracy in drawing, though it was
+faulty in lighting and gaudy in coloring. Brilliant autumn scenes were
+his favorite subjects. His work had the merit of originality and,
+moreover, it must be remembered that Cole was one of the beginners in
+American landscape art. Durand (1796-1886) was an engraver until 1835,
+when he began painting portraits, and afterward developed landscape with
+considerable power. He was usually simple in subject and realistic in
+treatment, with not so much insistence upon brilliant color as some of
+his contemporaries. Kensett (1818-1872) was a follower in landscape of
+the so-called Hudson River School of Cole and others, though he studied
+seven years in Europe. His color was rather warm, his air hazy, and the
+general effect of his landscape that of a dreamy autumn day with poetic
+suggestions. F. E. Church (1826-[A]) was a pupil of Cole, and has
+followed him in seeking the grand and the startling in mountain scenery.
+With Church should be mentioned a number of artists--Hubbard
+(1817-1888), Hill (1829-,) Bierstadt (1830-),[21] Thomas Moran
+(1837-)--who have achieved reputation by canvases of the Rocky Mountains
+and other expansive scenes. Some other painters of smaller canvases
+belong in point of time, and also in spirit, with the Hudson River
+landscapists--painters, too, of considerable merit, as David Johnson
+(1827-), Bristol (1826-), Sandford Gifford (1823-1880), McEntee
+(1828-1891), and Whittredge (1820-), the last two very good portrayers
+of autumn scenes; A. H. Wyant (1836-1892), one of the best and strongest
+of the American landscapists; Bradford (1830-1892) and W. T. Richards
+(1833-), the marine-painters.
+
+[Footnote 21: Died, 1900.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--EASTMAN JOHNSON. CHURNING.]
+
+PORTRAIT, HISTORY, AND GENRE-PAINTERS: Contemporary with the early
+landscapists were a number of figure-painters, most of them
+self-taught, or taught badly by foreign or native artists, and yet men
+who produced creditable work. Chester Harding (1792-1866) was one of
+the early portrait-painters of this century who achieved enough
+celebrity in Boston to be the subject of what was called "the Harding
+craze." Elliott (1812-1868) was a pupil of Trumbull, and a man of
+considerable reputation, as was also  Inman (1801-1846), a portrait
+and _genre_-painter with a smooth, detailed brush. Page (1811-1885),
+Baker (1821-1880), Huntington (1816-), the third President of the
+Academy of Design; Healy (1808-[22]), a portrait-painter of more than
+average excellence; Mount (1807-1868), one of the earliest of American
+_genre_-painters, were all men of note in this middle period.
+
+[Footnote 22: Died 1894.]
+
+Leutze (1816-1868) was a German by birth but an American by adoption,
+who painted many large historical scenes of the American Revolution,
+such as Washington Crossing the Delaware, besides many scenes taken
+from European history. He was a pupil of Lessing at Dusseldorf, and
+had something to do with introducing Dusseldorf methods into America.
+He was a painter of ability, if at times hot in color and dry in
+handling. Occasionally he did a fine portrait, like the Seward in the
+Union League Club, New York.
+
+During this period, in addition to the influence of Dusseldorf and
+Rome upon American art, there came the influence of French art with
+Hicks (1823-1890) and Hunt (1824-1879), both of them pupils of Couture
+at Paris, and Hunt also of Millet at Barbizon. Hunt was the real
+introducer of Millet and the Barbizon-Fontainebleau artists to the
+American people. In 1855 he established himself at Boston, had a large
+number of pupils, and met with great success as a teacher. He was a
+painter of ability, but perhaps his greatest influence was as a
+teacher and an instructor in what was good art as distinguished from
+what was false and meretricious. He certainly was the first painter in
+America who taught catholicity of taste, truth and sincerity in art,
+and art in the artist rather than in the subject. Contemporary with
+Hunt lived George Fuller (1822-1884), a unique man in American art for
+the sentiment he conveyed in his pictures by means of color and
+atmosphere. Though never proficient in the grammar of art he managed
+by blendings of color to suggest certain sentiments regarding light
+and air that have been rightly esteemed poetic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--INNESS. LANDSCAPE.]
+
+THE THIRD PERIOD in American art began immediately after the
+Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. Undoubtedly the display
+of art, both foreign and domestic, at that time, together with the
+national prosperity and great growth of the United States had much to
+do with stimulating activity in painting. Many young men at the
+beginning of this period went to Europe to study in the studios at
+Munich, and later on at Paris. Before 1880 some of them had returned
+to the United States, bringing with them knowledge of the technical
+side of art, which they immediately began to give out to many pupils.
+Gradually the influence of the young men from Munich and Paris spread.
+The Art Students' League, founded in 1875, was incorporated in 1878,
+and the Society of American Artists was established in the same year.
+Societies and painters began to spring up all over the country, and as
+a result there is in the United States to-day an artist body
+technically as well trained and in spirit as progressive as in almost
+any country of Europe. The late influence shown in painting has been
+largely a French influence, and the American artists have been accused
+from time to time of echoing French methods. The accusation is true in
+part. Paris is the centre of all art-teaching to-day, and the
+Americans, in common with the European nations, accept French methods,
+not because they are French, but because they are the best extant. In
+subjects and motives, however, the American school is as original as
+any school can be in this cosmopolitan age.
+
+PORTRAIT, FIGURE, AND GENRE PAINTERS (1878-1894): It must not be
+inferred that the painters now prominent in American art are all young
+men schooled since 1876. On the contrary, some of the best of them are
+men past middle life who began painting long before 1876, and have by
+dint of observation and prolonged study continued with the modern
+spirit. For example, Winslow Homer (1836-) is one of the strongest and
+most original of all the American artists, a man who never had the
+advantage of the highest technical training, yet possesses a feeling
+for color, a dash and verve in execution, an originality in subject,
+and an individuality of conception that are unsurpassed. Eastman
+Johnson (1824-) is one of the older portrait and figure-painters who
+stands among the younger generations without jostling, because he has
+in measure kept himself informed with modern thought and method. He is
+a good, conservative painter, possessed of taste, judgment, and
+technical ability. Elihu Vedder (1836-) is more of a draughtsman than
+a brushman. His color-sense is not acute nor his handling free, but he
+has an imagination which, if somewhat more literary than pictorial, is
+nevertheless very effective. John La Farge (1835-) and Albert Ryder
+(1847-) are both colorists, and La Farge in artistic feeling is a man
+of much power. Almost all of his pictures have fine decorative quality
+in line and color and are thoroughly pictorial.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--WINSLOW HOMER. UNDERTOW.]
+
+The "young men," so-called, though some of them are now on toward
+middle life, are perhaps more facile in brush-work and better trained
+draughtsmen than those we have just mentioned. They have cultivated
+vivacity of style and cleverness in statement, frequently at the
+expense of the larger qualities of art. Sargent (1856-) is, perhaps,
+the most considerable portrait-painter now living, a man of unbounded
+resources technically and fine natural abilities. He is draughtsman,
+colorist, brushman--in fact, almost everything in art that can be
+cultivated. His taste is not yet mature, and he is just now given to
+dashing effects that are more clever than permanent; but that he is a
+master in portraiture has already been abundantly demonstrated. Chase
+(1849-) is also an exceptionally good portrait painter, and he handles
+the _genre_ subject with brilliant color and a swift, sure brush. In
+brush-work he is exceedingly clever, and is an excellent technician
+in almost every respect. Not always profound in matter he generally
+manages to be entertaining in method. Blum (1857-) is well known to
+magazine readers through many black-and-white illustrations. He is
+also a painter of _genre_ subjects taken from many lands, and handles
+his brush with brilliancy and force. Dewing (1851-) is a painter with
+a refined sense not only in form but in color. His pictures are
+usually small, but exquisite in delicacy and decorative charm. Thayer
+(1849-) is fond of large canvases, a man of earnestness, sincerity,
+and imagination, but not a good draughtsman, not a good colorist, and
+a rather clumsy brushman. He has, however, something to say, and in a
+large sense is an artist of uncommon ability. Kenyon Cox (1856-) is a
+draughtsman, with a strong command of line and taste in its
+arrangement. He is not a strong colorist, though in recent work he has
+shown a new departure in this feature that promises well. He renders
+the nude with power, and is fond of the allegorical subject.
+
+The number of good portrait-painters at present working in America is
+quite large, and mention can be made of but a few in addition to those
+already spoken of--Lockwood, McLure Hamilton, Tarbell, Beckwith,
+Benson, Vinton. In figure and _genre_-painting the list of really good
+painters could be drawn out indefinitely, and again mention must be
+confined to a few only, like Simmons, Shirlaw, Smedley, Brush, Millet,
+Hassam, Reid, Wiles, Mowbray, Reinhart, Blashfield, Metcalf, Low, C.
+Y. Turner, Henri.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--WHISTLER. WHITE GIRL.]
+
+Most of the men whose names are given above are resident in America;
+but, in addition, there is a large contingent of young men, American
+born but resident abroad, who can hardly be claimed by the American
+school, and yet belong to it as much as to any school. They are
+cosmopolitan in their art, and reside in Paris, Munich, London, or
+elsewhere, as the spirit moves them. Sargent, the portrait-painter,
+really belongs to this group, as does also Whistler (1834-[23]), one
+of the most artistic of all the moderns. Whistler was long resident in
+London, but has now removed to Paris. He belongs to no school, and
+such art as he produces is peculiarly his own, save a leaven of
+influences from Velasquez and the Japanese. His art is the perfection
+of delicacy, both in color and in line. Apparently very sketchy, it is
+in reality the maximum of effect with the minimum of display. It has
+the pictorial charm of mystery and suggestiveness, and the technical
+effect of light, air, and space. There is nothing better produced in
+modern painting than his present work, and in earlier years he painted
+portraits like that of his mother, which are justly ranked as great
+art. E. A. Abbey (1852-) is better known by his pen-and-ink work than
+by his paintings, howbeit he has done good work in color. He is
+resident in England.
+
+[Footnote 23: Died, 1903.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--SARGENT. "CARNATION LILY, LILY ROSE."]
+
+In Paris there are many American-born painters, who really belong more
+with the French school than the American. Bridgman is an example, and
+Dannat, Alexander Harrison, Hitchcock, McEwen, Melchers, Pearce,
+Julius Stewart, Weeks (1849-1903), J. W. Alexander, Walter Gay,
+Sergeant Kendall have nothing distinctly American about their art. It
+is semi-cosmopolitan with a leaning toward French methods. There are
+also some American-born painters at Munich, like C. F. Ulrich; Shannon
+is in London and Coleman in Italy.
+
+LANDSCAPE AND MARINE PAINTERS, 1878-1894: In the department of
+landscape America has had since 1825 something distinctly national,
+and has at this day. In recent years the impressionist _plein-air_
+school of France has influenced many painters, and the prismatic
+landscape is quite as frequently seen in American exhibitions as in
+the Paris salons; but American landscape art rather dates ahead of
+French impressionism. The strongest landscapist of our times, George
+Inness (1825-[24]), is not a young man except in his artistic
+aspirations. His style has undergone many changes, yet still remains
+distinctly individual. He has always been an experimenter and an
+uneven painter, at times doing work of wonderful force, and then again
+falling into weakness. The solidity of nature, the mass and bulk of
+landscape, he has shown with a power second to none. He is fond of the
+sentiment of nature's light, air, and color, and has put it forth more
+in his later than in his earlier canvases. At his best, he is one of
+the first of the American landscapists. Among his contemporaries Wyant
+(already mentioned), Swain Gifford,[25] Colman, Gay, Shurtleff, have
+all done excellent work uninfluenced by foreign schools of to-day.
+Homer Martin's[26] landscapes, from their breadth of treatment, are
+popularly considered rather indifferent work, but in reality they are
+excellent in color and poetic feeling.
+
+[Footnote 24: Died 1894.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Died 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Died 1897.]
+
+The "young men" again, in landscape as in the figure, are working in
+the modern spirit, though in substance they are based on the
+traditions of the older American landscape school. There has been much
+achievement, and there is still greater promise in such landscapists
+as Tryon, Platt, Murphy, Dearth, Crane, Dewey, Coffin, Horatio Walker,
+Jonas Lie. Among those who favor the so-called impressionistic view
+are Weir, Twachtman, and Robinson,[27] three landscape-painters of
+undeniable power. In marines Gedney Bunce has portrayed many Venetian
+scenes of charming color-tone, and De Haas[28] has long been known as
+a sea-painter of some power. Quartley, who died young, was brilliant
+in color and broadly realistic. The present marine-painters are
+Maynard, Snell, Rehn, Butler, Chapman.
+
+[Footnote 27: Died 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Died 1895.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--CHASE. ALICE.]
+
+     PRINCIPAL WORKS: The works of the early American painters
+     are to be seen principally in the Boston Museum of Fine
+     Arts, the Athenaeum, Boston Mus., Mass. Hist. Soc., Harvard
+     College, Redwood Library, Newport, Metropolitan Mus., Lenox
+     and Hist. Soc. Libraries, the City Hall, Century Club,
+     Chamber of Commerce, National Acad. of Design, N. Y. In New
+     Haven, at Yale School of Fine Arts, in Philadelphia at
+     Penna. Acad. of Fine Arts, in Rochester Powers's Art Gal.,
+     in Washington Corcoran Gal. and the Capitol.
+
+     The works of the younger men are seen in the exhibitions
+     held from year to year at the Academy of Design, the Society
+     of American Artists, N. Y., in Philadelphia, Chicago,
+     Boston, and elsewhere throughout the country. Some of their
+     works belong to permanent institutions like the Metropolitan
+     Mus., the Pennsylvania Acad., the Art Institute of Chicago,
+     but there is no public collection of pictures that
+     represents American art as a whole. Mr. T. B. Clarke, of New
+     York, had perhaps as complete a collection of paintings by
+     contemporary American artists as anyone.
+
+
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+SCATTERING SCHOOLS AND INFLUENCES IN ART.
+
+
+In this brief history of painting it has been necessary to omit some
+countries and some painters that have not seemed to be directly
+connected with the progress or development of painting in the western
+world. The arts of China and Japan, while well worthy of careful
+chronicling, are somewhat removed from the arts of the other nations
+and from our study. Moreover, they are so positively decorative that
+they should be treated under the head of Decoration, though it is not
+to be denied that they are also realistically expressive. Portugal has
+had some history in the art of painting, but it is slight and so bound
+up with Spanish and Flemish influences that its men do not stand out
+as a distinct school. This is true in measure of Russian painting. The
+early influences with it were Byzantine through the Greek Church. In
+late years what has been produced favors the Parisian or German
+schools.
+
+In Denmark and Scandinavia there has recently come to the front a
+remarkable school of high-light painters, based on Parisian methods,
+that threatens to outrival Paris itself. The work of such men as
+Kroeyer, Zorn, Petersen, Liljefors, Thaulow, Bjoerck, Thegerstroem, is as
+startling in its realism as it is brilliant in its color. The pictures
+in the Scandinavian section of the Paris Exposition of 1889 were a
+revelation of new strength from the North, and this has been somewhat
+increased by the Scandinavian pictures at the World's Fair in 1893. It
+is impossible to predict what will be the outcome of this northern
+art, nor what will be the result of the recent movement here in
+America. All that can be said is that the tide seems to be setting
+westward and northward, though Paris has been the centre of art for
+many years, and will doubtless continue to be the centre for many
+years to come.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+(_For additions to Index see page 289._)
+
+
+Abbate, Niccolo dell', 134.
+
+Abbey, Edwin A., 271.
+
+Aelst, Willem Van, 219.
+
+Aetion, 30.
+
+Agatharchos, 27.
+
+Aime-Morot, Nicolas, 167.
+
+Albani, Francesco, 126, 131.
+
+Albertinelli, Mariotto, 90, 97.
+
+Alemannus, Johannes (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Aldegrever, Heinrich, 231.
+
+Alexander, John, 262.
+
+Alexander, J. W., 272.
+
+Aligny, Claude Francois, 149.
+
+Allegri, Pomponio, 108, 109.
+
+Allori, Cristofano, 127, 131.
+
+Allston, Washington, 263.
+
+Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, 199, 202.
+
+Altdorfer, Albrecht, 231, 239.
+
+Alvarez, Don Luis, 184.
+
+Aman-Jean, E., 165.
+
+Andrea da Firenze, 52, 56.
+
+Angelico, Fra Giovanni, 54, 55, 56, 65, 67.
+
+Anselmi, Michelangelo, 108, 109.
+
+Antiochus Gabinius, 35.
+
+Antonio Veneziano, 52, 56.
+
+Apelles, 30.
+
+Apollodorus, 27, 28.
+
+Aranda, Luis Jiminez, 185.
+
+Aretino, Spinello, 53, 56.
+
+Aristides, 29.
+
+Artz, D. A. C., 220.
+
+Aubert, Ernest Jean, 155.
+
+
+Backer, Jacob, 210.
+
+Backhuisen, Ludolf, 218, 222.
+
+Bagnacavallo, Bartolommeo Ramenghi, 105, 109.
+
+Baker, George A., 266.
+
+Baldovinetti, Alessio, 63, 71.
+
+Baldung, Hans, 230, 239.
+
+Bargue, Charles, 167.
+
+Baroccio, Federigo, 125, 130.
+
+Bartolo, Taddeo di, 54, 56.
+
+Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), 90, 92, 95, 97.
+
+Basaiti, Marco, 83, 85.
+
+Bassano, Francesco, 119-121.
+
+Bassano, Jacopo, 119-121.
+
+Bastert, N., 221.
+
+Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 166.
+
+Baudry, Paul, 163.
+
+Beccafumi, Domenico, 103, 108.
+
+Becerra, Gaspar, 177, 185.
+
+Beckwith, J. Carroll, 270.
+
+Beechey, Sir William, 246.
+
+Beham, Barthel, 231.
+
+Beham, Sebald, 231.
+
+Bellini, Gentile, 81, 85, 94.
+
+Bellini, Giovanni, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 85, 112-115, 214, 229.
+
+Bellini, Jacopo, 79, 81, 85.
+
+Boltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, 102.
+
+Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, 165.
+
+Benson, Frank W., 270.
+
+Beraud, Jean, 170.
+
+Berchem, Claas Pietersz, 217, 222.
+
+Berne-Bellecour, Etienne Prosper, 167.
+
+Berrettini, Pietro (il Cortona), 127, 131.
+
+Berruguete, Alonzo, 176, 185.
+
+Bertin, Jean Victor, 149, 157.
+
+Besnard, Paul Albert, 170.
+
+Bierstadt, Albert, 265.
+
+Billet, Pierre, 161.
+
+Bink, Jakob, 231.
+
+Bissolo, Pier Francesco, 83, 85.
+
+Bjoerck, O., 276.
+
+Blake, William, 247, 254.
+
+Blashfield, Edwin H., 270.
+
+Blommers, B. J., 220.
+
+Blum, Robert, 270.
+
+Boecklin, Arnold, 238, 240.
+
+Bol, Ferdinand, 210, 221.
+
+Boldini, Giuseppe, 130, 131.
+
+Bonfiglio, Benedetto, 66, 67, 72.
+
+Bonheur, Auguste, 160.
+
+Bonheur, Rosa, 160.
+
+Bonifazio Pitati, 119-121.
+
+Bonington, Richard Parkes, 157, 252.
+
+Bonnat, Leon, 164.
+
+Bonsignori, Francesco, 76, 84.
+
+Bonvin, Francois, 168.
+
+Bordone, Paris, 119, 121.
+
+Borgognone, Ambrogio, 71, 72.
+
+Bosboom, J., 220.
+
+Bosch, Hieronymus, 205, 221.
+
+Both, Jan, 217, 222.
+
+Botticelli, Sandro, 61, 63, 71.
+
+Boucher, Francois, 141, 145, 146.
+
+Boudin, Eugene, 171.
+
+Boughton, George H., 258.
+
+Bouguereau, W. Adolphe, 162, 163.
+
+Boulanger, Hippolyte, 200.
+
+Boulanger, Louis, 153.
+
+Bourdichon, Jean, 133.
+
+Bourdon, Sebastien, 138.
+
+Bouts, Dierich, 190, 191, 201, 205.
+
+Bradford, William, 265.
+
+Breton, Jules Adolphe, 161.
+
+Breughel, 193, 201.
+
+Bridgman, Frederick A., 272.
+
+Bril, Paul, 193, 201, 214, 222.
+
+Bristol, John B., 265.
+
+Bronzino (Agnolo di Cosimo), il, 124, 131.
+
+Brouwer, Adriaan, 198, 202.
+
+Brown, Ford Madox, 257.
+
+Brown, John Lewis, 170,
+
+Brush, George D. F., 270.
+
+Bugiardini, Giuliano di Piero, 91, 97.
+
+Bunce, W. Gedney, 273.
+
+Burkmair, Hans, 232, 233, 239.
+
+Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 257.
+
+Butler, Howard Russell, 274.
+
+
+Cabanel, Alexandre, 162, 163.
+
+Caillebotte, 170.
+
+Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, 258.
+
+Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall, 251.
+
+Calvaert, Denis, 192.
+
+Campin, Robert, 189.
+
+Canaletto (Antonio Canale), il, 129, 131.
+
+Cano, Alonzo, 181, 185.
+
+Caracci, Agostino, 125-127, 130.
+
+Caracci, Annibale, 125-127, 130, 182.
+
+Caracci, Ludovico, 125-127, 130.
+
+Caravaggio, Michelangelo Amerighi da, 127, 128, 131, 136, 181, 182.
+
+Carolus-Duran, Charles Auguste Emil, 164.
+
+Caroto, Giovanni Francisco, 76, 84, 120, 121.
+
+Carpaccio, Vittore, 77, 82, 83, 85.
+
+Carriere, E., 165.
+
+Carstens, Asmus Jacob, 236.
+
+Cassatt, Mary, 170.
+
+Castagno, Andrea del, 63, 71, 176.
+
+Castro, Juan Sanchez de, 180, 185.
+
+Catena, Vincenzo di Biagio, 83, 85.
+
+Cattermole, George, 254.
+
+Cavazzola, Paolo (Moranda), 120, 121.
+
+Cazin, Jean Charles, 159.
+
+Cespedes, Pablo de, 180, 185.
+
+Champaigne, Philip de, 139.
+
+Champmartin, Callande de, 153.
+
+Chapman, Carlton T., 274.
+
+Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon, 142.
+
+Chase, William M., 269.
+
+Chintreuil, Antoine, 159.
+
+Church, Frederick E., 264.
+
+Cima da Conegliano, Giov. Battista, 82, 85.
+
+Cimabue, Giovanni, 51, 54, 56.
+
+Clays, Paul Jean, 200, 202.
+
+Clouet, Francois, 134.
+
+Clouet, Jean, 134.
+
+Cocxie, Michiel van, 192, 201.
+
+Coello, Claudio, 179, 185.
+
+Coffin, William A., 273.
+
+Cogniet, Leon, 153.
+
+Cole, Vicat, 258.
+
+Cole, Thomas, 264.
+
+Coleman, C. C., 272.
+
+Colman, Samuel, 273.
+
+Constable, John, 157, 216, 251-253, 259.
+
+Copley, John Singleton, 261, 264.
+
+Coques, Gonzales, 198, 202.
+
+Cormon, Fernand, 165.
+
+Cornelis van Haarlem, 206, 221.
+
+Cornelius, Peter von, 130, 236, 237, 239.
+
+Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, 157, 159, 221.
+
+Correggio (Antonio Allegri), il, 101, 105-109, 110, 124, 125, 177, 180,
+     245, 249.
+
+Cossa, Francesco, 69, 72.
+
+Costa, Lorenzo, 69, 72, 104, 107.
+
+Cotman, John Sell, 251.
+
+Cottet, 168.
+
+Courbet, G., 162, 165, 166, 199, 219.
+
+Cousin, Jean, 134, 135.
+
+Couture, Thomas, 155, 266.
+
+Cozens, John Robert, 254.
+
+Cox, David, 254.
+
+Cox, Kenyon, 270.
+
+Cranach (the Elder), Lucas, 199, 234, 235, 239.
+
+Cranach (the Younger), Lucas, 235, 239.
+
+Crane, R. Bruce, 273.
+
+Crawhall, Joseph, 259.
+
+Crayer, Kasper de, 196, 201.
+
+Credi, Lorenzo di, 64, 65, 71.
+
+Cristus, Peter, 189, 201.
+
+Crivelli, Carlo, 80, 81, 84.
+
+Crome, John (Old Crome), 251.
+
+Cuyp, Aelbert, 217, 218, 222.
+
+
+Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal A. J., 168.
+
+Damoye, Pierre Emmanuel, 159.
+
+Damophilos, 35.
+
+Dannat, William T., 272.
+
+Dantan, Joseph Edouard, 168.
+
+Daubigny, Charles Francois, 158.
+
+David, Gheeraert, 191, 192, 201.
+
+David, Jacques Louis, 130, 147-152, 153, 156, 162, 183, 198, 219.
+
+Dearth, Henry J., 273.
+
+Decamps, A. G., 153.
+
+Degas, 170.
+
+De Haas, M. F. H., 273.
+
+Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor E., 151, 152, 160, 162, 253, 259.
+
+Delaroche, Hippolyte (Paul), 153, 154, 199.
+
+Delaunay, Jules Elie, 165.
+
+De Neuville, Alphonse Maria, 167.
+
+De Nittis. See "Nittis."
+
+Denner, Balthasar, 236, 239.
+
+Detaille, Jean Baptiste Edouard, 167.
+
+Deveria, Eugene, 153.
+
+Dewey, Charles Melville, 273.
+
+Dewing, Thomas W., 270.
+
+Dewint, Peter, 254.
+
+Diana, Benedetto, 84, 85.
+
+Diaz de la Pena, Narciso Virgilio, 158.
+
+Diepenbeeck, Abraham van, 196, 201.
+
+Dionysius, 35.
+
+Dolci, Carlo, 126, 131, 182.
+
+Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), 126, 130.
+
+Domingo, J., 185.
+
+Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni di Lutero), 104, 107, 108.
+
+Dou, Gerard, 210, 221.
+
+Doughty, Thomas, 264.
+
+Du Breuil, Toussaint, 134.
+
+Duccio di Buoninsegna, 53, 56, 65.
+
+Duez, Ernest Ange, 168.
+
+Du Jardin, Karel, 217, 222.
+
+Dupre, Julien, 166.
+
+Dupre, Jules, 158.
+
+Durand, Asher Brown, 264.
+
+Duerer, Albrecht, 205, 229-235, 239.
+
+
+Eastlake, Sir Charles, 247.
+
+Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den, 210, 221.
+
+Elliott, Charles Loring, 265.
+
+Elzheimer, Adam, 235, 239.
+
+Engelbrechsten, Cornelis, 205.
+
+Etty, William, 247.
+
+Euphranor, 29.
+
+Eupompos, 28.
+
+Everdingen, Allart van, 215, 222.
+
+Eyck, Hubert van, 188, 201.
+
+Eyck, Jan van, 84, 174, 188-190, 193, 201, 204, 205.
+
+
+Fabius Pictor, 35.
+
+Fabriano, Gentile da, 54, 55, 56, 66, 74, 75, 79, 81.
+
+Fabritius, Karel, 210, 213, 221.
+
+Faed, Thomas, 258.
+
+Fantin-Latour, Henri, 168.
+
+Favretto, Giacomo, 130, 131.
+
+Ferrara, Gaudenzio, 102, 108.
+
+Fielding, Anthony V. D. Copley, 254.
+
+Filippino. See Lippi.
+
+Fiore, Jacobello del, 79, 84.
+
+Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 66, 72.
+
+Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, 154.
+
+Flinck, Govaert, 210, 221.
+
+Floris, Franz, 192, 201.
+
+Foppa, Vincenzo, 71, 72, 101.
+
+Forain, J. L., 170.
+
+Forbes, Stanhope, 258.
+
+Fortuny, Mariano, 130, 183-185.
+
+Fouquet, Jean, 133.
+
+Fragonard, Jean Honore, 141.
+
+Francais, Francois Louis, 159.
+
+Francesca, Piero della, 66, 72, 75.
+
+Francia, Francesco (Raibolini), 69, 72, 105, 107.
+
+Franciabigio (Francesco di Cristofano Bigi), 92, 97.
+
+Francken, 192.
+
+Fredi, Bartolo di, 54, 56.
+
+Freminet, Martin, 135.
+
+Frere, T., 154.
+
+Friant, Emile, 168.
+
+Fromentin, E., 154.
+
+Fuller, George, 266.
+
+Fyt, Jan, 196, 201.
+
+
+Gaddi, Agnolo, 52, 56.
+
+Gaddi, Taddeo, 52, 56.
+
+Gainsborough, T., 245-247, 259.
+
+Gallait, Louis, 199.
+
+Garofolo (Benvenuto Tisi), il, 104, 107, 109.
+
+Gay, Edward, 273.
+
+Gay, Walter, 272.
+
+Geldorp, Gortzius, 192.
+
+Gerard, Baron Francois Pascal, 148.
+
+Gericault, Jean Louis, A. T., 151.
+
+Gerome, Jean Leon, 155, 162, 163, 167, 184.
+
+Gervex, Henri, 168.
+
+Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 63, 64, 71, 92, 176.
+
+Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo, 91, 97.
+
+Giampietrino (Giovanni Pedrini), 102, 108.
+
+Gifford, Sandford, 265.
+
+Gifford, R. Swain, 273.
+
+Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), il, 83, 94, 112-121, 128.
+
+Giordano, Luca, 128, 131, 183.
+
+Giotto di Bondone, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 73.
+
+Giottino (Tommaso di Stefano), 52, 56.
+
+Giovanni da Milano, 52, 56.
+
+Giovanni da Udine, 97, 98
+
+Girodet de Roussy, Anne Louis, 148.
+
+Girtin, Thomas, 254.
+
+Giulio (Pippi), Romano, 96, 98, 120,  136.
+
+Gleyre, Marc Charles Gabriel, 154.
+
+Goes, Hugo van der, 190, 201.
+
+Gorgasos, 35.
+
+Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 183,  185.
+
+Goyen, Jan van, 214, 218, 222.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 63, 65, 71.
+
+Granacci, Francesco, 91, 97.
+
+Grandi, Ercole di Giulio, 69, 72.
+
+Greuze, Jean Baptiste, 142.
+
+Gros, Baron Antoine Jean, 149, 151, 152.
+
+Gruenewald, Matthias, 234
+
+Guardi, Francesco, 129, 131.
+
+Guercino (Giov. Fran. Barbiera), il, 126, 131.
+
+Guerin, Pierre Narcisse, 148.
+
+Guido Reni, 126, 130, 136.
+
+Guido da Sienna, 53, 56.
+
+Guthrie, James, 259.
+
+
+Hals, Franz (the Younger), 207, 211, 212, 221.
+
+Hamilton, James, 259.
+
+Hamilton, McLure, 270.
+
+Hamon, Jean Louis, 155.
+
+Harding, Chester, 265.
+
+Harpignies, Henri, 159.
+
+Hassam, Childe, 270.
+
+Harrison, T. Alexander, 272.
+
+Healy, George P. A., 266.
+
+Hebert, Antoine Auguste Ernest, 164.
+
+Heem, Jan van, 218.
+
+Heemskerck, Marten van, 206, 221.
+
+Helst, Bartholomeus van der, 210, 221.
+
+Henner, Jean Jacques, 164.
+
+Henry, George, 259.
+
+Herkomer, Hubert, 258.
+
+Herrera, Francisco de, 177, 180, 185.
+
+Heyden, Jan van der, 218, 222.
+
+Hicks, Thomas, 266.
+
+Hill, Thomas, 265.
+
+Hitchcock, George, 272.
+
+Hobbema, Meindert, 215, 216, 222, 251.
+
+Hogarth, William, 243, 244.
+
+Holbein (the Elder), Hans, 233, 239.
+
+Holbein (the Younger), Hans, 134. 229-234, 239, 243.
+
+Holl, Frank, 258.
+
+Homer, Winslow, 268.
+
+Hondecoeter, Melchior d', 219, 222.
+
+Hooghe, Pieter de, 199, 213, 221.
+
+Hook, James Clarke, 259.
+
+Hoppner, John, 246.
+
+Hornell, E. A., 259.
+
+Hubbard, Richard W., 265.
+
+Huet, Paul, 159.
+
+Hunt, Holman, 255, 256.
+
+Hunt, William Henry, 254.
+
+Hunt, William Morris, 266.
+
+Huntington, Daniel, 266.
+
+Huysum, Jan van, 219-222.
+
+
+Imola, Innocenza da (Francucci), 97, 98, 105.
+
+Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, 148, 152-154, 161, 162.
+
+Inman, Henry, 265.
+
+Inness, George, 273.
+
+Israels, Jozef, 219, 220.
+
+
+Jacque, Charles, 159.
+
+Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham, 196, 201.
+
+Jarvis, John Wesley, 263.
+
+Joannes, Juan de, 182, 185.
+
+Johnson, David, 265.
+
+Johnson, Eastman, 268.
+
+Jongkind, 221.
+
+Jordaens, Jacob, 196.
+
+Justus van Ghent, 190, 201.
+
+
+Kalf, Willem, 219.
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 236, 239.
+
+Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 237, 239.
+
+Kendall, Sergeant, 272.
+
+Kensett, John F., 264.
+
+Kever, J. S. H., 221.
+
+Keyser, Thomas de, 207, 221.
+
+Klinger, Max, 238.
+
+Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 243.
+
+Koninck, Philip de, 210, 221.
+
+Kroeyer, Peter S., 276.
+
+Kuehl, G., 238.
+
+Kulmbach, Hans von, 230, 239.
+
+Kunz, 227, 239.
+
+
+La Farge, John, 268.
+
+Lancret, Nicolas, 141.
+
+Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, 249.
+
+Largilliere, Nicolas, 139.
+
+Lastman, Pieter, 207.
+
+Laurens, Jean Paul, 165.
+
+Lavery, John, 259.
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 247.
+
+Lawson, Cecil Gordon, 258.
+
+Lawson, John, 259.
+
+Lebrun, Charles, 138, 139.
+
+Lebrun, Marie Elizabeth Louise Vigee, 149.
+
+Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, 164.
+
+Legros, Alphonse, 161.
+
+Leibl, Wilhelm, 238, 240.
+
+Leighton, Sir Frederick, 258.
+
+Leloir, Alexandre Louis, 167.
+
+Lely, Sir Peter, 243.
+
+Lenbach, Franz, 238, 239.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 64, 66, 71, 90, 92, 95, 99-103, 107, 108, 134.
+
+Lerolle, Henri, 161.
+
+Leslie, Robert Charles, 264.
+
+Lessing, Karl Friedrich, 266.
+
+Le Sueur, Eustache, 138.
+
+Lethiere, Guillaume Guillon, 148.
+
+Leutze, Emanuel, 266.
+
+Lewis, John Frederick, 254.
+
+Leyden, Lucas van, 205, 221.
+
+Leys, Baron Jean Auguste Henri, 199, 202.
+
+L'hermitte, Leon Augustin, 166.
+
+Liberale da Verona, 76, 84, 120.
+
+Libri, Girolamo dai, 120, 121.
+
+Liebermann, Max, 238.
+
+Liljefors, Bruno, 276.
+
+Lippi, Fra Filippo, 63, 71, 74.
+
+Lippi, Filippino, 63, 71.
+
+Lockwood, Wilton, 270.
+
+Lombard, Lambert, 192.
+
+Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56.
+
+Lorenzetti, Pietro, 54, 56, 65.
+
+Lorrain, Claude (Gellee), 136, 150, 217, 250, 251, 253.
+
+Lotto, Lorenzo, 118, 121.
+
+Low, Will H., 270.
+
+Luini, Bernardino, 101, 108.
+
+
+Mabuse, Jan (Gossart) van, 192, 201, 206, 243.
+
+McBride, A., 259.
+
+McEntee, Jervis, 265.
+
+McEwen, Walter, 272.
+
+Madrazo, Raimundo de, 184, 185.
+
+Maes, Nicolaas, 210, 221.
+
+Makart, Hans, 238, 240.
+
+Manet, Edouard, 168, 169, 170.
+
+Mansueti, Giovanni, 84, 85.
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, 61, 74, 76, 77, 81, 84, 107, 229, 234.
+
+Maratta, Carlo, 127, 131.
+
+Marconi, Rocco, 118, 119, 121.
+
+Marilhat, P., 154.
+
+Maris, James, 220.
+
+Maris, Matthew, 220.
+
+Maris, Willem, 221.
+
+Martin, Henri, 168.
+
+Martin, Homer, 273.
+
+Martino, Simone di, 54, 56.
+
+Masaccio, Tommaso, 54, 61, 71, 92, 93, 95.
+
+Masolino, Tommaso Fini, 61, 71.
+
+Massys, Quentin, 191, 192, 201, 234.
+
+Master of the Lyversberg Passion, 227.
+
+Mauve, Anton, 221.
+
+Mazo, Juan Bautista Martinez del, 179, 185.
+
+Mazzolino, Ludovico, 105, 109.
+
+Maynard, George W., 274.
+
+Meer of Delft, Jan van der, 213, 221.
+
+Meire, Gerard van der, 190, 201.
+
+Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, 167, 184.
+
+Meister, Stephen (Lochner), 225.
+
+Meister, Wilhelm, 222.
+
+Melchers, Gari, 272.
+
+Melozzo da Forli, 67, 72.
+
+Melville, Arthur, 259.
+
+Memling, Hans, 190, 201.
+
+Memmi, Lippo, 54, 56.
+
+Mengs, Raphael, 236, 239.
+
+Menzel, Adolf, 238, 239.
+
+Mesdag, Hendrik Willem, 221.
+
+Messina, Antonello da, 83, 84, 85, 102, 113.
+
+Metcalf, Willard L., 270.
+
+Metrodorus, 35.
+
+Metsu, Gabriel, 167, 211, 221.
+
+Mettling, V. Louis, 168.
+
+Michael Angelo (Buonarroti), 62, 90, 92, 97, 99, 112, 116, 122, 123-126,
+     144, 176, 181, 192, 206.
+
+Michallon, Achille Etna, 149.
+
+Michel, Georges, 159.
+
+Michetti, Francesco Paolo, 130, 131.
+
+Mierevelt, Michiel Jansz, 206, 221.
+
+Mieris, Franz van, 211, 221.
+
+Mignard, Pierre, 139.
+
+Millais, Sir John, 255, 256, 257.
+
+Millet, Francis D., 270.
+
+Millet, Jean Francois, 160-162, 165, 166, 219, 266.
+
+Miranda, Juan Carreno de, 179, 185.
+
+Molyn (the Elder), Pieter de, 215, 222.
+
+Monet, Claude, 170, 171.
+
+Montagna, Bartolommeo, 77, 84.
+
+Montenard, Frederic, 171.
+
+Moore, Albert, 258.
+
+Moore, Henry, 259.
+
+Morales, Luis de, 177, 185.
+
+Moran, Thomas, 265.
+
+Morelli, Domenico, 130, 131.
+
+Moretto (Alessandro Buonvicino) il, 120, 121.
+
+Morland, George, 248.
+
+Moro, Antonio, 177, 192, 201, 243.
+
+Moroni, Giovanni Battista, 120, 121.
+
+Morton, Thomas, 259.
+
+Mostert, Jan, 191, 201, 205.
+
+Mount, William S., 266.
+
+Mowbray, H. Siddons, 270.
+
+Mulready, William, 249.
+
+Munkacsy, Mihaly, 238, 240.
+
+Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, 173, 180-182, 185.
+
+Murphy, J. Francis, 273.
+
+
+Navarette, Juan Fernandez, 177, 185.
+
+Navez, Francois, 199, 200, 202.
+
+Neer, Aart van der, 215, 222.
+
+Nelli, Ottaviano, 65, 71.
+
+Netscher, Kasper, 211, 221.
+
+Neuchatel, Nicolaus, 192.
+
+Neuhuys, Albert, 220.
+
+Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 264.
+
+Niccolo (Alunno) da Foligno, 65, 66, 72.
+
+Nicol, Erskine, 258.
+
+Nikias, 29.
+
+Nikomachus, 29.
+
+Nittis, Giuseppe de, 130, 131.
+
+Nono, Luigi, 130.
+
+Noort, Adam van, 195, 196, 201.
+
+
+Oggiono, Marco da, 102, 108.
+
+Opie, John, 246.
+
+Orcagna (Andrea di Cione), 52, 56.
+
+Orchardson, William Quiller, 258.
+
+Orley, Barent van, 192.
+
+Ostade, Adriaan van, 211, 212, 221.
+
+Ouwater, Aalbert van, 204.
+
+Overbeck, Johann Friedrich, 130, 236, 239.
+
+
+Pacchia, Girolamo della, 103, 108.
+
+Pacchiarotta, Giacomo, 103, 108.
+
+Pacheco, Francisco, 178, 180, 185.
+
+Pacuvius, 35.
+
+Padovanino (Ales. Varotari), il, 128, 131.
+
+Page, William, 266.
+
+Palma (il Vecchio), Jacopo, 118, 119, 121.
+
+Palma (il Giovine), Jacopo, 128, 131.
+
+Palmaroli, Vincente, 184.
+
+Parmigianino (Francesco Mazzola), il, 108, 109, 135.
+
+Pamphilos, 28.
+
+Panetti, Domenico, 104.
+
+Paolino (Fra) da Pistoja, 90, 97.
+
+Parrhasios, 28.
+
+Parsons, Alfred, 259.
+
+Pater, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 141.
+
+Paterson, James, 259.
+
+Patinir, Joachim, 191.
+
+Pausias, 28.
+
+Peale, Charles Wilson, 261.
+
+Peale, Rembrandt, 263.
+
+Pearce, Charles Sprague, 272.
+
+Pelouse, Leon Germaine, 159.
+
+Pencz, Georg, 231.
+
+Penni, Giovanni Francesco, 96, 98.
+
+Pereal, Jean, 133.
+
+Perino del Vaga, 94, 97, 98, 180.
+
+Perugino, Pietro (Vanucci), 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 95.
+
+Peruzzi, Baldassare, 103, 108.
+
+Petersen, Eilif, 276.
+
+Piero di Cosimo, 65, 71.
+
+Piloty, Carl Theodor von, 237, 239.
+
+Pinturricchio, Bernardino, 68, 70, 72.
+
+Piombo, Sebastiano del, 94, 98, 182.
+
+Pisano, Vittore (Pisanello), 73, 75, 79, 84.
+
+Pissarro, Camille, 170.
+
+Pizzolo, Niccolo, 75, 84.
+
+Platt, Charles A., 273.
+
+Plydenwurff, Wilhelm, 228.
+
+Poggenbeek, George, 221.
+
+Pointelin, 159.
+
+Pollajuolo, Antonio del, 63, 71.
+
+Polygnotus, 26.
+
+Pontormo, Jacopo (Carrucci), 92, 97, 124.
+
+Poorter, Willem de, 210, 221.
+
+Pordenone, Giovanni Ant., 119, 121.
+
+Potter, Paul, 216, 222.
+
+Pourbus, Peeter, 192, 201.
+
+Poussin, Gaspard (Dughet), 136.
+
+Poussin, Nicolas, 126, 136, 137, 150, 251.
+
+Pradilla, Francisco, 184.
+
+Previtali, Andrea, 83, 85.
+
+Primaticcio, Francesco, 97, 98, 134.
+
+Protogenes, 30.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 254.
+
+Prudhon, Pierre Paul, 147.
+
+Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 164.
+
+
+QUARTLEY, Arthur, 274.
+
+
+RAEBURN, Sir Henry, 246.
+
+Raffaelli, Jean Francois, 170.
+
+Raphael Sanzio, 62, 67, 90, 94, 98, 99, 103, 124, 125, 149, 182, 192,
+     206, 255.
+
+Ravesteyn, Jan van, 207, 221.
+
+Regnault, Henri, 165.
+
+Regnault, Jean Baptiste, 147, 148.
+
+Rehn, F. K. M., 274.
+
+Reid, Robert, 270.
+
+Reid-Murray, J., 259.
+
+Reinhart, Charles S., 270.
+
+Rembrandt van Ryn, 148, 196, 204, 207-213, 221, 249.
+
+Rene of Anjou, 133.
+
+Renoir, 170.
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 212, 244-247.
+
+Ribalta, Francisco de, 182, 185.
+
+Ribera, Roman, 185.
+
+Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), Jose di, 128, 168, 178, 182, 183, 185.
+
+Ribot, Augustin Theodule, 168.
+
+Richards, William T., 265.
+
+Rico, Martin, 185.
+
+Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 139.
+
+Rincon, Antonio, 176, 185.
+
+Robert-Fleury, Joseph Nicolas, 153.
+
+Robie, Jean, 200.
+
+Robinson, Theodore, 273.
+
+Roche, Alex., 259.
+
+Rochegrosse, Georges, 165.
+
+Roelas, Juan de las, 180, 181, 185.
+
+Roll, Alfred Philippe, 170.
+
+Romanino, Girolamo Bresciano, 120, 121.
+
+Rombouts, Theodoor, 196, 201.
+
+Romney, George, 246.
+
+Rondinelli, Niccolo, 84, 85.
+
+Rosa, Salvator, 128, 131.
+
+Rosselli, Cosimo, 63, 71, 90.
+
+Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante, 255, 256, 257.
+
+Rosso, il, 134.
+
+Rottenhammer, Johann, 235, 239.
+
+Rousseau, Theodore, 158, 160, 162.
+
+Roybet, Ferdinand, 168.
+
+Rubens, Peter Paul, 135, 179, 193-201, 210, 243.
+
+Ruisdael, Jacob van, 215, 216, 222.
+
+Ruisdael, Solomon van, 215, 222.
+
+Ryder, Albert, 268.
+
+
+SABBATINI (Andrea da Salerno), 97, 98.
+
+St. Jan, Geertjen van, 205.
+
+Salaino (Andrea Sala), il, 101, 108.
+
+Salviati, Francesco Rossi, 124, 130.
+
+Sanchez-Coello, Alonzo, 177, 185.
+
+Santi, Giovanni, 67, 72.
+
+Sanzio. See "Raphael."
+
+Sargent, John S., 269, 270.
+
+Sarto, Andrea (Angeli) del, 91, 97, 101, 105, 134.
+
+Sassoferrato (Giov. Battista Salvi), il, 126, 131.
+
+Savoldo, Giovanni Girolamo, 120, 121.
+
+Schadow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, 236, 237, 239.
+
+Schaffner, Martin, 231, 239.
+
+Schalcken, Godfried, 211, 221.
+
+Schaeufelin, Hans Leonhardt, 230, 239.
+
+Scheffer, Ary, 153.
+
+Schoengauer, Martin, 231, 232, 233, 239.
+
+Schnorr von Karolsfeld, J., 237, 239.
+
+Schuechlin, Hans, 231.
+
+Scorel, Jan van, 192, 206, 221.
+
+Segantini, Giovanni, 130.
+
+Semitecolo, Niccolo, 79, 84.
+
+Serapion, 35.
+
+Sesto, Cesare da, 102, 108.
+
+Shannon, J. J., 272.
+
+Shirlaw, Walter, 270.
+
+Shurtleff, Roswell M., 273.
+
+Sigalon, Xavier, 153.
+
+Signorelli, Luca, 66, 67, 72, 93.
+
+Simmons, Edward E., 270.
+
+Simonetti, 130.
+
+Sisley, Alfred, 171.
+
+Smedley, William T., 270.
+
+Smibert, John, 261.
+
+Snell, Henry B., 274.
+
+Snyders, Franz, 196, 201.
+
+Sodoma (Giov. Ant. Bazzi), il, 103, 108.
+
+Solario, Andrea (da Milano), 102, 108.
+
+Sopolis, 35.
+
+Sorolla, Joaquin, 185.
+
+Spagna, Lo (Giovanni di Pietro), 69, 72.
+
+Spence, Harry, 259.
+
+Spranger, Bartholomeus, 192.
+
+Squarcione, Francesco, 73, 74, 75, 81.
+
+Starnina, Gherardo, 54, 56.
+
+Steele, Edward, 246.
+
+Steen, Jan, 211, 212, 249.
+
+Steenwyck, Hendrik van, 206, 221.
+
+Stevens, Alfred, 200, 202.
+
+Stewart, Julius L., 272.
+
+Strigel, Bernard, 232, 239.
+
+Stothard, Thomas, 254.
+
+Stott of Oldham, 258.
+
+Stuart, Gilbert, 262, 263.
+
+Stuck, Franz, 238.
+
+Sully, Thomas, 263, 264.
+
+Swanenburch, Jakob Isaaks van, 207.
+
+
+TARBELL, Edmund C., 270.
+
+Teniers (the Younger), David, 197, 202.
+
+Terburg, Gerard, 167, 212, 221.
+
+Thaulow, Fritz, 276.
+
+Thayer, Abbott H., 270.
+
+Thegerstroem, R., 276.
+
+Theodorich of Prague, 227, 239.
+
+Theotocopuli, Domenico, 177, 185.
+
+Thoma, Hans, 238.
+
+Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 128, 131.
+
+Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, 129, 131.
+
+Timanthes, 28.
+
+Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), il, 115-117, 121, 123, 128.
+
+Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), 101, 113-121, 124, 125, 128, 177, 179, 194,
+     196, 212, 245.
+
+Tito, Ettore, 130.
+
+Torbido, Francisco (il Moro), 120, 121.
+
+Toulmouche, Auguste, 167.
+
+Tristan, Luis, 177, 178, 185.
+
+Troyon, Constant, 159, 160.
+
+Trumbull, John, 262, 265.
+
+Tryon, Dwight W., 273.
+
+Tura, Cosimo, 69, 72, 75.
+
+Turner, C. Y., 270.
+
+Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 251, 253, 254.
+
+Twachtman, John H., 273.
+
+
+UCCELLO, Paolo, 63, 71, 74.
+
+Uhde, Fritz von, 238, 240.
+
+Ulrich, Charles F., 272.
+
+
+VAENIUS, Otho, 195, 201.
+
+Van Beers, Jan, 200, 202.
+
+Vanderlyn, John, 263.
+
+Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 181, 195, 198, 201, 243, 244.
+
+Van Dyck, Philip, 219, 222.
+
+Van Loo, Jean Baptiste, 141, 145, 146.
+
+Van Marcke, Emil, 159.
+
+Vargas, Luis de, 180, 185.
+
+Vasari, Giorgio, 124, 130
+
+Vedder, Elihu, 268.
+
+Veit, Philipp, 236, 239.
+
+Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, 173, 174, 177-185, 194, 196, 207,
+     212, 249, 271.
+
+Velde, Adrien van de, 216, 222.
+
+Velde (the Elder), Willem van de, 218, 222.
+
+Velde (the Younger), Willem van de, 218, 222.
+
+Venusti, Marcello, 94, 98.
+
+Verboeckhoven, Eugene Joseph, 200, 202.
+
+Verhagen, Pierre Joseph, 198, 202.
+
+Vernet, Claude Joseph, 142, 250.
+
+Vernet, Emile Jean Horace, 149.
+
+Veronese, Paolo (Caliari), 116-121, 129, 136, 194.
+
+Verrocchio, Andrea del, 64, 71, 99.
+
+Vibert, Jehan Georges, 167.
+
+Victoors, Jan, 210, 221.
+
+Vien, Joseph Marie, 146.
+
+Villegas, Jose, 184, 185.
+
+Vincent, Francois Andre, 147.
+
+Vinci. See "Leonardo."
+
+Vinton, F. P., 270.
+
+Viti, Timoteo di, 97, 98.
+
+Vivarini, Antonio (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Vivarini, Bartolommeo (da Murano), 79, 84.
+
+Vivarini, Luigi or Alvise, 80, 85.
+
+Vlieger, Simon de, 218, 222.
+
+Vollon, Antoine, 168.
+
+Volterra, Daniele (Ricciarelli) da, 94, 97.
+
+Vos, Cornelis de, 196, 201.
+
+Vos, Marten de, 192.
+
+Vouet, Simon, 136, 139.
+
+
+WALKER, Frederick, 258.
+
+Walker, Horatio, 273.
+
+Walton, E. A., 259.
+
+Wappers, Baron Gustavus, 199, 202.
+
+Watelet, Louis Etienne, 149.
+
+Watson, John, 261.
+
+Watteau, Antoine, 140, 141.
+
+Watts, George Frederick, 258.
+
+Wauters, Emile, 200.
+
+Weeks, Edwin L., 272.
+
+Weenix, Jan, 219, 222.
+
+Weir, J. Alden, 270, 273.
+
+Werff, Adriaan van der, 219, 222.
+
+West, Benjamin, 261, 262, 264.
+
+Weyden, Roger van der, 189, 190, 201, 231.
+
+Whistler, James A. McNeill, 271.
+
+Whittredge, Worthington, 265.
+
+Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, 199, 202.
+
+Wiles, Irving R., 270.
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 249.
+
+Willems, Florent, 200, 202.
+
+Wilson, Richard, 250, 251.
+
+Wolgemut, Michael, 228, 239.
+
+Wouverman, Philips, 216, 222.
+
+Wright, Joseph, 250.
+
+Wurmser, Nicolaus, 227, 239.
+
+Wyant, Alexander H., 265, 273.
+
+Wyllie, W. L., 259
+
+Wynants, Jan, 215, 222.
+
+
+Yon, Edmund Charles, 159.
+
+
+Zamacois, Eduardo, 184, 185.
+
+Zegers, Daniel, 196, 201.
+
+Ziem, 154.
+
+Zeitblom, Bartholomaeus, 231, 239.
+
+Zeuxis, 27.
+
+Zoppo, Marco, 75, 84.
+
+Zorn, Anders, 276.
+
+Zucchero, Federigo, 125, 130.
+
+Zuloaga, Ignacio, 185.
+
+Zurbaran, Francisco de, 180, 181, 185.
+
+
+
+
+ADDITIONS TO INDEX.
+
+
+Anglada, 185.
+
+
+Bartels, 238.
+
+Baur, 221.
+
+Bell, 259.
+
+Brangwyn, 259.
+
+Breitner, 221.
+
+Buysse, 200.
+
+
+Cariani, 119.
+
+Claus, 200.
+
+Clausen, 259.
+
+
+Fattori, 130.
+
+Fragiacomo, 130.
+
+Frederic, 200.
+
+
+Garcia y Remos, 185.
+
+Greiner, 238.
+
+
+Haverman, 221.
+
+Henri, Robert, 270.
+
+
+Keller, 238.
+
+Khnopff, 200.
+
+
+Lempoels, 200.
+
+Lie, Jonas, 273.
+
+
+McTaggart, 259.
+
+Mancini, 130.
+
+Marchetti, 130.
+
+
+Ouless, 259.
+
+
+Reid, Sir George, 259.
+
+
+Steer, 259.
+
+Swan, 259.
+
+
+Truebner, 238.
+
+
+Vierge, 185.
+
+
+Weissenbruch, 221.
+
+Witsen, 221.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
+
+PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS COLLEGE
+
+
+HISTORY OF PAINTING
+
+By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and
+110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
+
+By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M., Adjunct Professor of Architecture,
+Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations
+and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a
+General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+
+HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
+
+By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D., and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr.,
+Ph.D., Professors of Archaeology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A History of Architecture.
+
+By
+
+A. D. F. Hamlin, A.M.
+
+Adjunct Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia
+College.
+
+
+With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations and Diagrams, Bibliographies,
+Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, pp.
+xx-453, $2.00.
+
+"The text of this book is very valuable because of the singularly
+intelligent view taken of each separate epoch.... The book is
+extremely well furnished with bibliographies, lists of monuments
+[which] are excellent.... If any reasonable part of the contents of
+this book can be got into the heads of those who study it, they will
+have excellent ideas about architecture and the beginnings of a sound
+knowledge of it."--THE NATION, NEW YORK.
+
+"A manual that will be invaluable to the student, while it will give
+to the general reader a sufficiently full outline for the purposes of
+the development of the various schools of architecture. What makes it
+of special value is the large number of ground plans of typical
+buildings and the sketches of bits of detail of columns, arches,
+windows and doorways. Each chapter is prefaced by a list of books
+recommended, and each ends with a list of monuments. The illustrations
+are numerous and well executed."--SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE.
+
+"Probably presents more comprehensively and at the same time
+concisely, the various periods and styles of architecture, with a
+characterization of the most important works of each period and style,
+than any other published work.... The volume fills a gap in
+architectural literature which has long existed."--ADVERTISER, BOSTON.
+
+"A neatly published work, adapted to the use either of student or
+general reader. As a text-book it is a concise and orderly setting
+forth of the main principles of architecture followed by the different
+schools. The life history of each period is brief yet thorough.... The
+treatment is broad and not over-critical. The chief facts are so
+grouped that the student can easily grasp them. The plan-drawings are
+clear cut and serve their purpose admirably. The half-tone
+illustrations are modern in selection and treatment. The style is
+clear, easy and pleasing. The entire production shows a studious and
+orderly mind. A new and pleasing characteristic is the absence of all
+discussion on disputed points. In its unity, clearness and simplicity
+lie its charm and interest."--NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, NOTRE DAME, IND.
+
+"This is a very thorough and compendious history of the art of
+architecture from the earliest times down to the present.... The work
+is elaborately illustrated with a great host of examples, pictures,
+diagrams, etc. It is intended to be used as a school text-book, and is
+very conveniently arranged for this purpose, with suitable headings in
+bold-faced type, and a copious index. Teachers and students will find
+it a capital thing for the purpose."--PICAYUNE, NEW ORLEANS.
+
+
+
+
+A History of Sculpture,
+
+BY
+
+ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph. D., L. H. D.
+
+AND
+
+ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph. D.
+
+Professors of Archaeology and the History of Art in Princeton
+University.
+
+
+With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text,
+Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo,
+313 pages, $1.50.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N. Y._
+
+"Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply
+invaluable, filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists
+will be keenly appreciated by all who work with a class of students."
+
+CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_.
+
+"The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black
+background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so
+many half-tone prints."
+
+J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_.
+
+"These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book
+and its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially
+interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_."
+
+CRITIC, _New York_.
+
+"This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in
+full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its
+individual developments under various conditions, physical, political,
+religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never
+before been written in English--never in any language in convenient
+text-book form. This publication, then, should meet with an
+enthusiastic reception among students and amateurs of art, not so
+much, however, because it is the only book of its kind, as for its
+intrinsic merit and attractive form."
+
+OUTLOOK, _New York_.
+
+"A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed
+everywhere.... A good feature of this book--and one which should be
+imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best
+be obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed."
+
+NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, _Notre Dame, Ind._
+
+"The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations,
+numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a
+general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of
+style a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to
+pursue more fully any particular school."
+
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