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+Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Evolution of Language
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
+
+Author: John Wesley Powell
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2006 [EBook #18818]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+The paragraph beginning "In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_"
+will only display correctly in Latin-1 file encoding. Everything else
+in the article should look exactly the same on all computers or text
+readers.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+            J. W. Powell, Director.
+
+
+         ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE,
+
+                As Exhibited In
+
+ The Specialization of the Grammatic Processes,
+  the Differentiation of the Parts of Speech,
+     and the Integration of the Sentence;
+       From a Study of Indian Languages.
+
+                       By
+
+                 J. W. POWELL.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+          ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Possible ideas and thoughts are vast in number. A distinct word for
+every distinct idea and thought would require a vast vocabulary.
+The problem in language is to express many ideas and thoughts with
+comparatively few words.
+
+Again, in the evolution of any language, progress is from a condition
+where few ideas are expressed by a few words to a higher, where many
+ideas are expressed by the use of many words; but the number of all
+possible ideas or thoughts expressed is increased greatly out of
+proportion with the increase of the number of words.
+
+And still again, in all of those languages which have been most
+thoroughly studied, and by inference in all languages, it appears
+that the few original words used in any language remain as the elements
+for the greater number finally used. In the evolution of a language
+the introduction of absolutely new material is a comparatively rare
+phenomenon. The old material is combined and modified in many ways to
+form the new.
+
+How has the small stock of words found as the basis of a language been
+thus combined and modified?
+
+The way in which the old materials have been used gives rise to what
+will here be denominated THE GRAMMATIC PROCESSES.
+
+
+I.--THE PROCESS BY COMBINATION.
+
+Two or more words may be united to form a new one, or to perform the
+office of a new one, and four methods or stages of combination may be
+noted.
+
+_a._ By _juxtaposition_, where the two words are placed together and yet
+remain as distinct words. This method is illustrated in Chinese, where
+the words in the combination when taken alone seldom give a clew to
+their meaning when placed together.
+
+_b._ By _compounding_, where two words are made into one, in which case
+the original elements of the new word remain in an unmodified condition,
+as in _house-top_, _rain-bow_, _tell-tale_.
+
+_c._ By _agglutination_, in which case one or more of the elements
+entering into combination to form the new word is somewhat changed--the
+elements are fused together. Yet this modification is not so great as
+to essentially obscure the primitive words, as in _truthful_, where we
+easily recognize the original words _truth_ and _full_; and _holiday_,
+in which _holy_ and _day_ are recognized.
+
+_d._ By _inflection_. Here one or more of the elements entering into the
+compound has been so changed that it can scarcely be recognized. There
+is a constant tendency to economy in speech by which words are gradually
+shortened as they are spoken by generation after generation. In those
+words which are combinations of others there are certain elements that
+wear out more rapidly than others. Where some particular word is
+combined with many other different words the tendency to modify by wear
+this oft-used element is great. This is more especially the case where
+the combined word is used in certain categories of combinations, as
+where particular words are used to denote tense in the verb; thus, _did_
+may be used in combination with a verb to denote past time until it is
+worn down to the sound of _d_. The same wear occurs where particular
+words are used to form cases in nouns, and a variety of illustrations
+might be given. These categories constitute conjugations and
+declensions, and for convenience such combinations may be called
+paradigmatic. Then the oft-repeated elements of paradigmatic
+combinations are apt to become excessively worn and modified, so that
+the primitive words or themes to which they are attached seem to be but
+slightly changed by the addition. Under these circumstances combination
+is called inflection.
+
+As a morphologic process, no well-defined plane of demarkation between
+these four methods of combination can be drawn, as one runs into
+another; but, in general, words may be said to be juxtaposed when two
+words being placed together the combination performs the function of a
+new word, while in form the two words remain separate.
+
+Words may be said to be compound when two or more words are combined
+to form one, no change being made in either. Words maybe said to be
+agglutinated when the elementary words are changed but slightly, _i.e._,
+only to the extent that their original forms are not greatly obscured;
+and words may be said to be inflected when in the combination the
+oft-repeated element or formative part has been so changed that
+its origin is obscured. These inflections are used chiefly in the
+paradigmatic combinations.
+
+In the preceding statement it has been assumed that there can be
+recognized, in these combinations of inflection, a theme or root, as it
+is sometimes called, and a formative element. The formative element is
+used with a great many different words to define or qualify them; that
+is, to indicate mode, tense, number, person, gender, etc., of verbs,
+nouns, and other parts of speech.
+
+When in a language juxtaposition is the chief method of combination,
+there may also be distinguished two kinds of elements, in some sense
+corresponding to themes and formative parts. The theme is a word the
+meaning of which is determined by the formative word placed by it; that
+is, the theme is a word having many radically different meanings; with
+which meaning it is to be understood is determined only by the formative
+word, which thus serves as its label. The ways in which the theme words
+are thus labeled by the formative word are very curious, but the subject
+cannot be entered into here.
+
+When words are combined by compounding, the formative elements cannot
+so readily be distinguished from the theme; nor for the purposes under
+immediate consideration can compounding be well separated from
+agglutination.
+
+When words are combined by agglutination, theme and formative part
+usually appear. The formative parts are affixes; and affixes may be
+divided into three classes, prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. These
+affixes are often called incorporated particles.
+
+In those Indian languages where combination is chiefly by agglutination,
+that is, by the use of affixes, _i.e._, incorporated particles, certain
+parts of the conjugation of the verb, especially those which denote
+gender, number, and person, are effected by the use of article pronouns;
+but in those languages where article pronouns are not found the verbs
+are inflected to accomplish the same part of their conjugation. Perhaps,
+when we come more fully to study the formative elements in these more
+highly inflected languages, we may discover in such elements greatly
+modified, _i.e._, worn out, incorporated pronouns.
+
+
+II.--THE PROCESS BY VOCALIC MUTATION.
+
+Here, in order to form a new word, one or more of the vowels of the old
+word are changed, as in _man--men_, where an _e_ is substituted for _a_;
+_ran--run_, where _u_ is substituted for _a_; _lead--led_, where _e_,
+with its proper sound, is substituted for _ea_ with its proper sound.
+This method is used to a very limited extent in English. When the
+history of the words in which it occurs is studied it is discovered
+to be but an instance of the wearing out of the different elements of
+combined words; but in the Hebrew this method prevails to a very large
+extent, and scholars have not yet been able to discover its origin in
+combination as they have in English. It may or may not have been an
+original grammatic process, but because of its importance in certain
+languages it has been found necessary to deal with it as a distinct and
+original process.
+
+
+III.--THE PROCESS BY INTONATION.
+
+In English, new words are not formed by this method, yet words are
+intoned for certain purposes, chiefly rhetorical. We use the rising
+intonation (or inflection, as it is usually called) to indicate that
+a question is asked, and various effects are given to speech by the
+various intonations of rhetoric. But this process is used in other
+languages to form new words with which to express new ideas. In Chinese
+eight distinct intonations are found, by the use of which one word may
+be made to express eight different ideas, or perhaps it is better to say
+that eight words may be made of one.
+
+
+IV.--THE PROCESS BY PLACEMENT.
+
+The place or position of a word may affect its significant use. Thus in
+English we say _John struck James_. By the position of those words to
+each other we know that John is the actor, and that James receives the
+action.
+
+By the grammatic processes language is organized. Organization
+postulates the differentiation of organs and their combination into
+integers. The integers of language are sentences, and their organs are
+the parts of speech. Linguistic organization, then, consists in the
+differentiation of the parts of speech and the integration of the
+sentence. For example, let us take the words _John_, _father_, and
+_love_. _John_ is the name of an individual; _love_ is the name of a
+mental action, and _father_ the name of a person. We put them together,
+John loves father, and they express a thought; _John_ becomes a noun,
+and is the subject of the sentence; _love_ becomes a verb, and is the
+predicant; _father_ a noun, and is the object; and we now have an
+organized sentence. A sentence requires parts of speech, and parts
+of speech are such because they are used as the organic elements of
+a sentence.
+
+The criteria of rank in languages are, first, grade of organization,
+_i.e._, the degree to which the grammatic processes and methods are
+specialized, and the parts of speech differentiated; second, sematologic
+content, that is, the body of thought which the language is competent to
+convey.
+
+The grammatic processes may be used for three purposes:
+
+First, for _derivation_, where a new word to express a new idea is made
+by combining two or more old words, or by changing the vowel of one
+word, or by changing the intonation of one word.
+
+Second, for _modification_, a word may be qualified or defined by the
+processes of combination, vocalic mutation or intonation.
+
+It should here be noted that the plane between derivation and
+qualification is not absolute.
+
+Third, for _relation_. When words as signs of ideas are used together
+to express thought, the relation of the words must be expressed by some
+means. In English the relation of words is expressed both by placement
+and combination, _i.e._, inflection for agreement.
+
+It should here be noted that paradigmatic inflections are used for two
+distinct purposes, qualification and relation. A word is qualified by
+inflection when the idea expressed by the inflection pertains to the
+idea expressed by the word inflected; thus a noun is qualified by
+inflection when its number and gender are expressed. A word is related
+by inflection when the office of the word in the sentence is pointed out
+thereby; thus, nouns are related by case inflections; verbs are related
+by inflections for gender, number, and person. All inflection for
+agreement is inflection for relation.
+
+In English, three of the grammatic processes are highly specialized.
+
+_Combination_ is used chiefly for derivation, but to some slight extent
+for qualification and relation in the paradigmatic categories. But its
+use in this manner as compared with many other languages has almost
+disappeared.
+
+_Vocalic mutation_ is used to a very limited extent and only by
+accident, and can scarcely be said to belong to the English language.
+
+_Intonation_ is used as a grammatic process only to a limited
+extent--simply to assist in forming the interrogative and imperative
+modes. Its use here is almost rhetorical; in all other cases it is
+purely rhetorical.
+
+_Placement_ is largely used in the language, and is highly specialized,
+performing the office of exhibiting the relations of words to each other
+in the sentence; _i.e._, it is used chiefly for syntactic relation.
+
+Thus one of the four processes does not belong to the English language;
+the others are highly specialized.
+
+The purposes for which the processes are used are _derivation_,
+_modification_, and _syntactic relation_.
+
+_Derivation_ is accomplished by combination.
+
+_Modification_ is accomplished by the differentiation of adjectives and
+adverbs, as words, phrases, and clauses.
+
+_Syntactic relation_ is accomplished by placement. Syntactic relation
+must not be confounded with the relation expressed by prepositions.
+Syntactic relation is the relation of the parts of speech to each other
+as integral parts of a sentence. Prepositions express relations of
+thought of another order. They relate words to each other as words.
+
+Placement relates words to each other as parts of speech.
+
+In the Indian tongues combination is used for all three purposes,
+performing the three different functions of derivation, modification,
+and relation. Placement, also, is used for relation, and for both lands
+of relation, syntactic and prepositional.
+
+With regard, then, to the processes and purposes for which they are
+used, we find in the Indian languages a low degree of specialization;
+processes are used for diverse purposes, and purposes are accomplished
+by diverse processes.
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
+
+It is next in order to consider to what degree the parts of speech are
+differentiated in Indian languages, as compared with English.
+
+Indian nouns are extremely connotive, that is, the name does more than
+simply denote the thing to which it belongs; in denoting the object it
+also assigns to it some quality or characteristic. Every object has many
+qualities and characteristics, and by describing but a part of these
+the true office of the noun is but imperfectly performed. A strictly
+denotive name expresses no one quality or character, but embraces all
+qualities and characters.
+
+In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_, or _the hugger_. In this
+case the verb is used for the noun, and in so doing the Indian names the
+bear by predicating one of his characteristics. Thus noun and verb are
+undifferentiated. In _Seneca_ the north is _the sun never goes there_,
+and this sentence may be used as adjective or noun; in such cases noun,
+adjective, verb, and adverb are found as one vocable or word, and the
+four parts of speech are undifferentiated. In the _Pavaent_ language a
+school-house is called _po-kunt-in-in-yi-kaen_. The first part of the
+word, _po-kunt_, signifies _sorcery is practiced_, and is the name
+given by the Indians to any writing, from the fact that when they
+first learned of writing they supposed it to be a method of practicing
+sorcery; _in-in-yi_ is the verb signifying _to count_, and the meaning
+of the word has been extended so as to signify _to read_; _kaen_
+signifies wigwam, and is derived from the verb _kueri_, _to stay_. Thus
+the name of the school-house literally signifies _a staying place where
+sorcery is counted_, or where papers are read. The _Pavaent_ in naming a
+school-house describes the purpose for which it is used. These examples
+illustrate the general characteristics of Indian nouns; they are
+excessively connotive; a simply denotive name is rarely found. In
+general their name-words predicate some attribute of the object named,
+and thus noun, adjective, and predicant are undifferentiated.
+
+In many Indian languages there is no separate word for _eye_, _hand_,
+_arm_, or other parts and organs of the body, but the word is found with
+an incorporated or attached pronoun signifying _my_ hand, _my_ eye;
+_your_ hand, _your_ eye; _his_ hand, _his_ eye, etc., as the case
+may be. If the Indian, in naming these parts, refers to his own body,
+he says _my_; if he refers to the body of the person to whom he is
+speaking, he says _your_, &c. If an Indian should find a detached foot
+thrown from the amputating-table of an army field hospital, he would say
+something like this: I have found somebody _his foot_. The linguistic
+characteristic is widely spread, though not universal.
+
+Thus the Indian has no command of a fully differentiated noun expressive
+of _eye_, _hand_, _arm_, or other parts and organs of the body.
+
+In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian
+language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words.
+
+Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish
+between the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns
+are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say _this_
+person or thing, _that_ person or thing, than _he_, _she_, or _it_.
+Among the free personal pronouns the student may find an equivalent
+of the pronoun _I_, another signifying _I and you_; perhaps another
+signifying _I and he_, and one signifying _we, more than two_, including
+the speaker and those present; and another including the speaker and
+persons absent. He will also find personal pronouns in the second and
+third person, perhaps with singular, dual, and plural forms.
+
+To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as
+prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article
+pronouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the
+person, number, and gender, both of subject and object, and sometimes
+of the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal
+pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal
+pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be found.
+In those languages which are characterized by them they are used alike
+when the subject and object nouns are expressed and when they are not.
+The student may at first find some difficulty with these article
+pronouns. Singular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Sometimes
+distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, but
+often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, one
+particle may be used; if the object only is expressed, another particle;
+but if subject and object are expressed an entirely different particle
+may stand for both.
+
+But it is in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest
+difficulty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of
+the idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues,
+genders are usually methods of classification primarily into animate
+and inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female,
+but this is rarely the case. Often by these genders all objects are
+classified by characteristics found in their attitudes or supposed
+constitution. Thus we may have the animate and inanimate, one or both,
+divided into the _standing_, the _sitting_, and the _lying_; or they may
+be divided into the _watery_, the _mushy_, the _earthy_, the _stony_,
+the _woody_, and the _fleshy_. The gender of these article pronouns
+has rarely been worked out in any language. The extent to which these
+classifications enter into the article pronouns is not well known. The
+subject requires more thorough study. These incorporated particles are
+here called _article_ pronouns. In the conjugation of the verb they take
+an important part, and have by some writers been called _transitions_.
+Besides pointing out with particularity the person, number, and gender
+or the subject and object, they perform the same offices that are
+usually performed by those inflections of the verb that occur to make
+them agree in gender, number, and person with the subject. In those
+Indian languages where the article pronouns are not found, and the
+personal pronouns only are used, the verb is usually inflected to agree
+with the subject or object, or both, in the same particulars.
+
+The article pronouns as they point out person, number, gender, and
+case of the subject and object, are not simple particles, but are to
+a greater or lesser extent compound; their component elements may be
+broken apart and placed in different parts of the verb. Again, the
+article pronoun in some languages may have its elements combined into a
+distinct word in such a manner that it will not be incorporated in the
+verb, but will be placed immediately before it. For this reason the term
+_article pronoun_ has been chosen rather than _attached pronoun_. The
+older term, _transition_, was given to them because of their analogy in
+function to verbal inflections.
+
+Thus the verb of an Indian language contains within itself incorporated
+article pronouns which point out with great particularity the gender,
+number, and person of the subject and object. In this manner verb,
+pronoun, and adjective are combined, and to this extent these parts of
+speech are undifferentiated.
+
+In some languages the article pronoun constitutes a distinct word, but
+whether free or incorporated it is a complex tissue of adjectives.
+
+Again, nouns sometimes contain particles within themselves to predicate
+possession, and to this extent nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+The verb is relatively of much greater importance in an Indian tongue
+than in a civilized language. To a large extent the pronoun is
+incorporated in the verb as explained above, and thus constitutes a
+part of its conjugation.
+
+Again, adjectives are used as intransitive verbs, as in most Indian
+languages there is no verb _to be_ used as a predicant or copula.
+Where in English we would say _the man is good_, the Indian would say
+_that man good_, using the adjective as an intransitive verb, _i.e._,
+as a predicant. If he desired to affirm it in the past tense, the
+intransitive verb _good_, would be inflected, or otherwise modified, to
+indicate the tense; and so, in like manner, all adjectives when used to
+predicate can be modified to indicate mode, tense, number, person, &c.,
+as other intransitive verbs.
+
+Adverbs are used as intransitive verbs. In English we may say _he is
+there_; the Indian would say _that person there_ usually preferring
+the demonstrative to the personal pronoun. The adverb _there_ would,
+therefore, be used as a predicant or intransitive verb, and might be
+conjugated to denote different modes, tenses, numbers, persons, etc.
+Verbs will often receive adverbial qualifications by the use of
+incorporated particles, and, still further, verbs may contain within
+themselves adverbial limitations without our being able to trace such
+meanings to any definite particles or parts of the verb.
+
+Prepositions are intransitive verbs. In English we may say _the hat is
+on the table_; the Indian would say _that hat on table_; or he might
+change the order, and say _that hat table on_; but the preposition
+_on_ would be used as an intransitive verb to predicate, and may be
+conjugated. Prepositions may often be found as particles incorporated
+in verbs, and, still further, verbs may contain within themselves
+prepositional meanings without our being able to trace such meanings to
+any definite particles within the verb. But the verb connotes such ideas
+that something is needed to complete its meaning, that something being
+a limiting or qualifying word, phrase, or clause. Prepositions may be
+prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to nouns, _i.e._, they may be particles
+incorporated in nouns.
+
+Nouns may be used as intransitive verbs under the circumstances when in
+English we would use a noun as the complement of a sentence after the
+verb _to be_.
+
+The verb, therefore, often includes within itself subject, direct
+object, indirect object, qualifier, and relation-idea. Thus it is that
+the study of an Indian language is, to a large extent, the study of its
+verbs.
+
+Thus adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and nouns are used as
+intransitive verbs; and, to such extent, adjectives, adverbs,
+prepositions, nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+From the remarks above, it will be seen that Indian verbs often include
+within themselves meanings which in English are expressed by adverbs and
+adverbial phrases and clauses. Thus the verb may express within itself
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose, one or all, as the verb _to
+go_ may be represented by a word signifying _go home_; another, _go away
+from home_; another, _go to a place other than home_; another, _go from
+a place other than home_; one, _go from this place_, with reference to
+home; one, to _go up_; another, to _go down_; one, _go around_; and,
+perhaps, there will be a verb _go up hill_; another, _go up a valley_;
+another, _go up a river_, etc. Then we may have _to go on foot_, _to go
+on horseback_, _to go in a canoe_; still another, _to go for water_;
+another _for wood_, etc. Distinct words may be used for all these, or a
+fewer number used, and these varied by incorporated particles. In like
+manner, the English verb _to break_ may be represented by several words,
+each of which will indicate the manner of performing the act or the
+instrument with which it is done. Distinct words may be used, or a
+common word varied with incorporated particles.
+
+The verb _to strike_ may be represented by several words, signifying
+severally _to strike with the fist_, _to strike with a club_, _to strike
+with the open hand_, _to strike with a whip_, _to strike with a switch_,
+to strike with a flat instrument, etc. A common word may be used with
+incorporated particles or entirely different words used.
+
+Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes analogous
+to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and
+qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized
+languages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane
+of separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and
+true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb, which shows that the
+speaker makes a declaration as certain, _i.e._, an _indicative_ mode;
+another which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt,
+_i.e._, a _dubitative_ mode; another that he makes a declaration on
+hearsay, _i.e._, a _quotative_ mode; another form will be used in making
+a command, giving an _imperative_ mode; another in imploration, _i.e._,
+an _implorative_ mode; another form to denote permission, _i.e._,
+a _permissive_ mode; another in negation, _i.e._, a _negative_ mode;
+another form will be used to indicate that the action is simultaneous
+with some other action, _i.e._, a _simulative_ mode; another to denote
+desire or wish that something be done, _i.e._, a _desiderative_ mode;
+another that the action ought to be done, _i.e._, an _obligative_
+mode; another that action is repetitive from time to time, _i.e._,
+a _frequentative_ mode; another that action is caused, _i.e._,
+a _causative_ mode, etc.
+
+These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of
+great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or
+incorporated adverb will be used; but the particular particle which
+gives the qualified meaning may not always be discovered; and in one
+language a different word will be introduced, wherein another the same
+word will be used with an incorporated particle.
+
+It is stated above that incorporated particles may be used to indicate
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose; in fact, any adverbial
+qualification whatever may be made by an incorporated particle instead
+of an adverb as a distinct word.
+
+No line of demarkation can be drawn between these adverbial particles
+and those mentioned above as modal particles. Indeed it seems best to
+treat all these forms of the verb arising from, incorporated particles
+as distinct modes. In this sense, then, an Indian language has a
+multiplicity of modes. It should be further remarked that in many cases
+these modal or adverbial particles are excessively worn, so that they
+may appear as additions or changes of simple vowel or consonant sounds.
+When incorporated particles are thus used, distinct adverbial words,
+phrases, or clauses may also be employed, and the idea expressed twice.
+
+In an Indian language it is usually found difficult to elaborate a
+system of tenses in paradigmatic form. Many tenses or time particles
+are found incorporated in verbs. Some of these time particles are
+excessively worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as
+incorporated particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and
+future tenses are discovered; often a remote or ancient past, and less
+often an immediate future. But great specification of time in relation
+to the present and in relation to other time is usually found.
+
+It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from
+modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from
+adverbial and modal particles.
+
+In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited
+extent. Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there
+are a multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarcation
+can be drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will
+appear that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a
+great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general
+classes, _i.e._, pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional.
+
+The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve
+to point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and
+indirect object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in
+English are subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of
+speech. They might, therefore, with some propriety, have been called
+adjective particles, but these elements perform another function; they
+serve the purpose which is usually called _agreement in language_; that
+is, they make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus
+indicate the syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb.
+In this sense they might with propriety have been called relation
+particles, and doubtless this function was in mind when some of the
+older grammarians called them transitions.
+
+The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and tense,
+together with many other functions that are performed in languages
+spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated adverbs,
+adverbial phrases, and clauses.
+
+The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a great
+variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as distinct
+parts of speech in English.
+
+By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles, they
+are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles are
+closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be sometimes
+difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be pronominal or
+adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it be adverbial or
+prepositional.
+
+Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute planes
+of demarkation.
+
+The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns,
+adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the
+direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study
+of an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs.
+
+To the extent that voice, mode, and tense are accomplished by the use of
+agglutinated particles or inflections, to that extent adverbs and verbs
+are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that adverbs are found as incorporated particles in verbs,
+the two parts of speech are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are particles incorporated in the verb,
+prepositions and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are affixed to nouns, prepositions and
+nouns are undifferentiated.
+
+In all these particulars it is seen that the Indian tongues belong to
+a very low type of organization. Various scholars have called attention
+to this feature by describing Indian languages as being holophrastic,
+polysynthetic, or synthetic. The term synthetic is perhaps the best,
+and may be used as synonymous with undifferentiated.
+
+Indian tongues, therefore, may be said to be highly synthetic in that
+their parts of speech are imperfectly differentiated.
+
+In these same particulars the English language is highly organized, as
+the parts of speech are highly differentiated. Yet the difference is one
+of degree, not of kind.
+
+To the extent in the English language that inflection is used for
+qualification, as for person, number, and gender of the noun and
+pronoun, and for mode and tense in the verb, to that extent the parts of
+speech are undifferentiated. But we have seen that inflection is used
+for this purpose to a very slight extent.
+
+There is yet in the English language one important differentiation which
+has been but partially accomplished. Verbs as usually considered are
+undifferentiated parts of speech; they are nouns and adjectives, one or
+both, and predicants. The predicant simple is a distinct part of speech.
+The English language has but one, the verb _to be_, and this is not
+always a pure predicant, for it sometimes contains within itself an
+adverbial element when it is conjugated for mode and tense, and a
+connective element when it is conjugated for agreement. With adjectives
+and nouns this verb is used as a predicant. In the passive voice also it
+is thus used, and the participles are nouns or adjectives. In what is
+sometimes called the progressive form of the active voice nouns and
+adjectives are differentiated in the participles, and the verb "to be"
+is used as a predicant. But in what is usually denominated the active
+voice of the verb, the English language has undifferentiated parts of
+speech. An examination of the history of the verb _to be_ in the English
+language exhibits the fact that it is coming more and more to be used as
+the predicant; and what is usually called the common form of the active
+voice is coming more and more to be limited in its use to special
+significations.
+
+The real active voice, indicative mode, present tense, first person,
+singular number, of the verb to eat, is _am eating_. The expression
+_I eat_, signifies _I am accustomed to eat_. So, if we consider the
+common form of the active voice throughout its entire conjugation,
+we discover that many of its forms are limited to special uses.
+
+Throughout the conjugation of the verb the auxiliaries are predicants,
+but these auxiliaries, to the extent that they are modified for mode,
+tense, number, and person, contain adverbial and connective elements.
+
+In like manner many of the lexical elements of the English language
+contain more than one part of speech: _To ascend_ is _to go up_;
+_to descend_ is _to go down_; and _to depart_ is _to go from_.
+
+Thus it is seen that the English language is also synthetic in that its
+parts of speech are not completely differentiated. The English, then,
+differs in this respect from an Indian language only in degree.
+
+In most Indian tongues no pure predicant has been differentiated, but
+in some the verb _to be_, or predicant, has been slightly developed,
+chiefly to affirm, existence in a place.
+
+It will thus be seen that by the criterion of organization Indian
+tongues are of very low grade.
+
+It need but to be affirmed that by the criterion of sematologic
+content Indian languages are of a very low grade. Therefore the
+frequently-expressed opinion that the languages of barbaric peoples
+have a more highly organized grammatic structure than the languages of
+civilized peoples has its complete refutation.
+
+It is worthy of remark that all paradigmatic inflection in a civilized
+tongue is a relic of its barbaric condition. When the parts of speech
+are fully differentiated and the process of placement fully specialized,
+so that the order of words in sentences has its full significance, no
+useful purpose is subserved by inflection.
+
+Economy in speech is the force by which its development has been
+accomplished, and it divides itself properly into economy of utterance
+and economy of thought. Economy of utterance has had to do with the
+phonic constitution of words; economy of thought has developed the
+sentence.
+
+All paradigmatic inflection requires unnecessary thought. In the clause
+_if he was here_, _if_ fully expresses the subjunctive condition, and it
+is quite unnecessary to express it a second time by using another form
+of the verb _to be_. And so the people who are using the English
+language are deciding, for the subjunctive form is rapidly becoming
+obsolete with the long list of paradigmatic forms which have
+disappeared.
+
+Every time the pronoun _he_, _she_, or _it_ is used it is necessary to
+think of the sex of its antecedent, though in its use there is no reason
+why sex should be expressed, say, one time in ten thousand. If one
+pronoun non-expressive of gender were used instead of the three,
+with three gender adjectives, then in nine thousand nine hundred and
+ninety-nine cases the speaker would be relieved of the necessity of
+an unnecessary thought, and in the one case an adjective would fully
+express it. But when these inflections are greatly multiplied, as they
+are in the Indian languages, alike with the Greek and Latin, the speaker
+is compelled in the choice of a word to express his idea to think of a
+multiplicity of things which have no connection with that which he
+wishes to express.
+
+A _Ponka_ Indian, in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have
+to say the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case,
+purposely killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one,
+animate, sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to kill
+would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection
+and incorporated particles to denote person, number, and gender as
+animate or inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or lying, and
+case; and the form of the verb would also express whether the killing
+was done accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by shooting or by
+some other process, and, if by shooting, whether by bow and arrow, or
+with a gun; and the form of the verb would in like manner have to
+express all of these things relating to the object; that is, the person,
+number, gender, and case of the object; and from the multiplicity of
+paradigmatic forms of the verb to kill this particular one would have to
+be selected. Perhaps one time in a million it would be the purpose to
+express all of these particulars, and in that case the Indian would have
+the whole expression in one compact word, but in the nine hundred and
+ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine cases all of these
+particulars would have to be thought of in the selection of the form of
+the verb, when no valuable purpose would be accomplished thereby.
+
+In the development of the English, as well as the French and German,
+linguistic evolution has not been in vain.
+
+Judged by these criteria, the English stands alone in the highest rank;
+but as a written language, in the way in which its alphabet is used, the
+English has but emerged from a barbaric condition.
+
+
+INDEX.
+                                                  Page
+Adjective, The, in Indian tongues                   10
+Adverbial particles                                 13
+Adverbs in Indian tongues                   10, 11, 13
+Agglutination in language                            4
+Article pronouns in Indian languages             9, 10
+
+Combination
+  in Indian tongues                                  7
+  in language, Process of,                        3, 7
+Comparison, of English with Indian                  15
+Compounding in language                              3
+Connotation of Indian nouns                          8
+
+Derivation, how accomplished                         7
+Differentiation of parts of speech                   8
+
+Evolution of language                                3
+
+Gender in Indian languages                           9
+Grammatic processes, agglutination                   4
+  ----, combination                                  3
+  ----, compounding                                  3
+  ----, inflection                                   4
+  ----, intonation                                   6
+  ----, juxtaposition                                3
+  ----, placement                                 7, 8
+  ----, vocalic mutation                             5
+
+Indian tongues, Relative position of                15
+Inflection
+  in English language                               14
+  in language                                        4
+  ----, Paradigmatic                             7, 15
+Juxtaposition in language                            3
+
+Language, Evolution of                            3-16
+  ----, Processes of                               3-8
+
+Modal particles                                     13
+Mode in Indian tongues                              12
+Modification, how accomplished                       7
+Mutation, Vocalic                                    5
+
+Nouns in Indian tongues                             11
+
+Paradigmatic inflection                          7, 15
+Particles, Adverbial                                13
+  ----, Modal                                       13
+  ----, Pronominal                                  13
+  ----, Tense                                       13
+Placement, Process of                              6-8
+Prepositions in Indian tongues                      11
+Processes of language                              3-8
+Pronominal particles                                13
+Pronouns in Indian languages                         9
+
+Speech, Differentiation of parts of                  8
+Syntactic relation, how accomplished                 7
+
+Tense
+  in Indian tongues                                 12
+  particles                                         13
+
+Verbs
+  in English language                               14
+  in Indian tongues                             10, 11
+Vocalic mutation in language, Process of             5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
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