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diff --git a/18350.txt b/18350.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..32c5da2 --- /dev/null +++ b/18350.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9990 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Social Life in the Insect World, by J. H. Fabre + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Social Life in the Insect World + +Author: J. H. Fabre + +Translator: Bernard Miall + +Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18350] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL LIFE IN THE INSECT WORLD *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Pryor, Janet Blenkinship and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + SOCIAL LIFE + IN THE INSECT WORLD + + BY + J. H. FABRE + + TRANSLATED BY + BERNARD MIALL + + WITH 14 ILLUSTRATIONS + + + LONDON + T. FISHER UNWIN, LTD. + ADELPHI TERRACE + + + _First Edition_ 1911 + + _Second Impression_ 1912 + + _Third Impression_ 1912 + + _Fourth Impression_ 1913 + + _Fifth Impression_ 1913 + + _Sixth Impression_ 1915 + + _Seventh Impression_ 1916 + + _Eighth Impression_ 1916 + + _Ninth Impression_ 1917 + + _Tenth Impression_ 1918 + + _Eleventh Impression_ 1918 + + _Twelfth Impression_ 1919 + + (_All rights reserved_) + + + [Illustration: 1. THE MANTIS. A DUEL BETWEEN FEMALES. + + 2. THE MANTIS DEVOURING A CRICKET. + + 3. THE MANTIS DEVOURING HER MATE. + + 4. THE MANTIS IN HER ATTITUDE OF PRAYER. + + 5. THE MANTIS IN HER "SPECTRAL" ATTITUDE. + + (See p. 76.)] + + + + CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I PAGE + + THE FABLE OF THE CIGALE AND THE ANT 1 + + CHAPTER II + + THE CIGALE LEAVES ITS BURROW 17 + + CHAPTER III + + THE SONG OF THE CIGALE 31 + + CHAPTER IV + + THE CIGALE. THE EGGS AND THEIR HATCHING 45 + + CHAPTER V + + THE MANTIS. THE CHASE 68 + + CHAPTER VI + + THE MANTIS. COURTSHIP 79 + + CHAPTER VII + + THE MANTIS. THE NEST 86 + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE GOLDEN GARDENER. ITS NUTRIMENT 102 + + CHAPTER IX + + THE GOLDEN GARDENER. COURTSHIP 111 + + CHAPTER X + + THE FIELD CRICKET 120 + + CHAPTER XI + + THE ITALIAN CRICKET 130 + + CHAPTER XII + + THE SISYPHUS BEETLE. THE INSTINCT OF PATERNITY 136 + + CHAPTER XIII + + A BEE-HUNTER: THE _PHILANTHUS AVIPORUS_ 150 + + CHAPTER XIV + + THE GREAT PEACOCK, OR EMPEROR MOTH 179 + + CHAPTER XV + + THE OAK EGGAR, OR BANDED MONK 202 + + CHAPTER XVI + + A TRUFFLE-HUNTER: THE _BOLBOCERAS GALLICUS_ 217 + + CHAPTER XVII + + THE ELEPHANT-BEETLE 238 + + CHAPTER XVIII + + THE PEA-WEEVIL 258 + + CHAPTER XIX + + AN INVADER: THE HARICOT-WEEVIL 282 + + CHAPTER XX + + THE GREY LOCUST 300 + + CHAPTER XXI + + THE PINE-CHAFER 317 + + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + THE MANTIS: A DUEL BETWEEN FEMALES; DEVOURING + A CRICKET; DEVOURING HER MATE; IN HER ATTITUDE + OF PRAYER; IN HER "SPECTRAL" ATTITUDE _Frontispiece_ + + + DURING THE DROUGHTS OF SUMMER THIRSTING INSECTS, + AND NOTABLY THE ANT, FLOCK TO THE DRINKING-PLACES + OF THE CIGALE 8 + + THE CIGALE AND THE EMPTY PUPA-SKIN 28 + + THE ADULT CIGALE, FROM BELOW. THE CIGALE OF + THE FLOWERING ASH, MALE AND FEMALE 36 + + THE CIGALE LAYING HER EGGS. THE GREEN GRASSHOPPER, + THE FALSE CIGALE OF THE NORTH, + DEVOURING THE TRUE CIGALE, A DWELLER IN + THE SOUTH 48 + + THE NEST OF THE PRAYING MANTIS; TRANSVERSE SECTION + OF THE SAME; NEST OF EMPUSA PAUPERATA; + TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE SAME; VERTICAL + SECTION OF THE SAME; NEST OF THE GREY MANTIS; + SCHEFFER'S SISYPHUS (see Chap. XII.); PELLET OF + THE SISYPHUS; PELLET OF THE SISYPHUS, WITH + DEJECTA OF THE LARVA FORCED THROUGH THE + WALLS 88 + + THE MANTIS DEVOURING THE MALE IN THE ACT OF + MATING; THE MANTIS COMPLETING HER NEST; + GOLDEN SCARABAEI CUTTING UP A LOB-WORM 90 + + THE GOLDEN GARDENER: THE MATING SEASON OVER, + THE MALES ARE EVISCERATED BY THE FEMALES 114 + + THE FIELD-CRICKET: A DUEL BETWEEN RIVALS; THE + DEFEATED RIVAL RETIRES, INSULTED BY THE + VICTOR 124 + + THE ITALIAN CRICKET 132 + + THE GREAT PEACOCK OR EMPEROR MOTH 180 + + THE GREAT PEACOCK MOTH. THE PILGRIMS DIVERTED + BY THE LIGHT OF A LAMP 196 + + THE GREY LOCUST; THE NERVATURES OF THE WING; + THE BALANINUS FALLEN A VICTIM TO THE LENGTH + OF HER PROBOSCIS 244 + + THE PINE-CHAFER (_MELOLONTHA FULLO_) 318 + + + + +SOCIAL LIFE IN THE INSECT WORLD + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE FABLE OF THE CIGALE AND THE ANT + + +Fame is the daughter of Legend. In the world of creatures, as in the +world of men, the story precedes and outlives history. There are many +instances of the fact that if an insect attract our attention for this +reason or that, it is given a place in those legends of the people whose +last care is truth. + +For example, who is there that does not, at least by hearsay, know the +Cigale? Where in the entomological world shall we find a more famous +reputation? Her fame as an impassioned singer, careless of the future, +was the subject of our earliest lessons in repetition. In short, easily +remembered lines of verse, we learned how she was destitute when the +winter winds arrived, and how she went begging for food to the Ant, her +neighbour. A poor welcome she received, the would-be borrower!--a +welcome that has become proverbial, and her chief title to celebrity. +The petty malice of the two short lines-- + + Vous chantiez! j'en suis bien aise, + Eh bien, dansez maintenant! + +has done more to immortalise the insect than her skill as a musician. +"You sang! I am very glad to hear it! Now you can dance!" The words +lodge in the childish memory, never to be forgotten. To most +Englishmen--to most Frenchmen even--the song of the Cigale is unknown, +for she dwells in the country of the olive-tree; but we all know of the +treatment she received at the hands of the Ant. On such trifles does +Fame depend! A legend of very dubious value, its moral as bad as its +natural history; a nurse's tale whose only merit is its brevity; such is +the basis of a reputation which will survive the wreck of centuries no +less surely than the tale of Puss-in-Boots and of Little Red +Riding-Hood. + +The child is the best guardian of tradition, the great conservative. +Custom and tradition become indestructible when confided to the archives +of his memory. To the child we owe the celebrity of the Cigale, of whose +misfortunes he has babbled during his first lessons in recitation. It is +he who will preserve for future generations the absurd nonsense of which +the body of the fable is constructed; the Cigale will always be hungry +when the cold comes, although there were never Cigales in winter; she +will always beg alms in the shape of a few grains of wheat, a diet +absolutely incompatible with her delicate capillary "tongue"; and in +desperation she will hunt for flies and grubs, although she never eats. + +Whom shall we hold responsible for these strange mistakes? La Fontaine, +who in most of his fables charms us with his exquisite fineness of +observation, has here been ill-inspired. His earlier subjects he knew +down to the ground: the Fox, the Wolf, the Cat, the Stag, the Crow, the +Rat, the Ferret, and so many others, whose actions and manners he +describes with a delightful precision of detail. These are inhabitants +of his own country; neighbours, fellow-parishioners. Their life, private +and public, is lived under his eyes; but the Cigale is a stranger to the +haunts of Jack Rabbit. La Fontaine had never seen nor heard her. For him +the celebrated songstress was certainly a grasshopper. + +Grandville, whose pencil rivals the author's pen, has fallen into the +same error. In his illustration to the fable we see the Ant dressed like +a busy housewife. On her threshold, beside her full sacks of wheat, she +disdainfully turns her back upon the would-be borrower, who holds out +her claw--pardon, her hand. With a wide coachman's hat, a guitar under +her arm, and a skirt wrapped about her knees by the gale, there stands +the second personage of the fable, the perfect portrait of a +grasshopper. Grandville knew no more than La Fontaine of the true +Cigale; he has beautifully expressed the general confusion. + +But La Fontaine, in this abbreviated history, is only the echo of +another fabulist. The legend of the Cigale and the cold welcome of the +Ant is as old as selfishness: as old as the world. The children of +Athens, going to school with their baskets of rush-work stuffed with +figs and olives, were already repeating the story under their breath, as +a lesson to be repeated to the teacher. "In winter," they used to say, +"the Ants were putting their damp food to dry in the sun. There came a +starving Cigale to beg from them. She begged for a few grains. The +greedy misers replied: 'You sang in the summer, now dance in the +winter.'" This, although somewhat more arid, is precisely La Fontaine's +story, and is contrary to the facts. + +Yet the story comes to us from Greece, which is, like the South of +France, the home of the olive-tree and the Cigale. Was AEsop really its +author, as tradition would have it? It is doubtful, and by no means a +matter of importance; at all events, the author was a Greek, and a +compatriot of the Cigale, which must have been perfectly familiar to +him. There is not a single peasant in my village so blind as to be +unaware of the total absence of Cigales in winter; and every tiller of +the soil, every gardener, is familiar with the first phase of the +insect, the larva, which his spade is perpetually discovering when he +banks up the olives at the approach of the cold weather, and he knows, +having seen it a thousand times by the edge of the country paths, how in +summer this larva issues from the earth from a little round well of its +own making; how it climbs a twig or a stem of grass, turns upon its +back, climbs out of its skin, drier now than parchment, and becomes the +Cigale; a creature of a fresh grass-green colour which is rapidly +replaced by brown. + +We cannot suppose that the Greek peasant was so much less intelligent +than the Provencal that he can have failed to see what the least +observant must have noticed. He knew what my rustic neighbours know so +well. The scribe, whoever he may have been, who was responsible for the +fable was in the best possible circumstances for correct knowledge of +the subject. Whence, then, arose the errors of his tale? + +Less excusably than La Fontaine, the Greek fabulist wrote of the Cigale +of the books, instead of interrogating the living Cigale, whose cymbals +were resounding on every side; careless of the real, he followed +tradition. He himself echoed a more ancient narrative; he repeated some +legend that had reached him from India, the venerable mother of +civilisations. We do not know precisely what story the reed-pen of the +Hindoo may have confided to writing, in order to show the perils of a +life without foresight; but it is probable that the little animal drama +was nearer the truth than the conversation between the Cigale and the +Ant. India, the friend of animals, was incapable of such a mistake. +Everything seems to suggest that the principal personage of the original +fable was not the Cigale of the Midi, but some other creature, an insect +if you will, whose manners corresponded to the adopted text. + +Imported into Greece, after long centuries during which, on the banks of +the Indus, it made the wise reflect and the children laugh, the ancient +anecdote, perhaps as old as the first piece of advice that a father of a +family ever gave in respect of economy, transmitted more or less +faithfully from one memory to another, must have suffered alteration in +its details, as is the fate of all such legends, which the passage of +time adapts to the circumstance of time and place. + +The Greek, not finding in his country the insect of which the Hindoo +spoke, introduced the Cigale, as in Paris, the modern Athens, the Cigale +has been replaced by the Grasshopper. The mistake was made; henceforth +indelible. Entrusted as it is to the memory of childhood, error will +prevail against the truth that lies before our eyes. + +Let us seek to rehabilitate the songstress so calumniated by the fable. +She is, I grant you, an importunate neighbour. Every summer she takes up +her station in hundreds before my door, attracted thither by the verdure +of two great plane-trees; and there, from sunrise to sunset, she hammers +on my brain with her strident symphony. With this deafening concert +thought is impossible; the mind is in a whirl, is seized with vertigo, +unable to concentrate itself. If I have not profited by the early +morning hours the day is lost. + +Ah! Creature possessed, the plague of my dwelling, which I hoped would +be so peaceful!--the Athenians, they say, used to hang you up in a +little cage, the better to enjoy your song. One were well enough, during +the drowsiness of digestion; but hundreds, roaring all at once, +assaulting the hearing until thought recoils--this indeed is torture! +You put forward, as excuse, your rights as the first occupant. Before my +arrival the two plane-trees were yours without reserve; it is I who have +intruded, have thrust myself into their shade. I confess it: yet muffle +your cymbals, moderate your arpeggi, for the sake of your historian! The +truth rejects what the fabulist tells us as an absurd invention. That +there are sometimes dealings between the Cigale and the Ant is perfectly +correct; but these dealings are the reverse of those described in the +fable. They depend not upon the initiative of the former; for the Cigale +never required the help of others in order to make her living: on the +contrary, they are due to the Ant, the greedy exploiter of others, who +fills her granaries with every edible she can find. At no time does the +Cigale plead starvation at the doors of the ant-hills, faithfully +promising a return of principal and interest; the Ant on the contrary, +harassed by drought, begs of the songstress. Begs, do I say! Borrowing +and repayment are no part of the manners of this land-pirate. She +exploits the Cigale; she impudently robs her. Let us consider this +theft; a curious point of history as yet unknown. + +In July, during the stifling hours of the afternoon, when the insect +peoples, frantic with drought, wander hither and thither, vainly seeking +to quench their thirst at the faded, exhausted flowers, the Cigale makes +light of the general aridity. With her rostrum, a delicate augur, she +broaches a cask of her inexhaustible store. Crouching, always singing, +on the twig of a suitable shrub or bush, she perforates the firm, glossy +rind, distended by the sap which the sun has matured. Plunging her +proboscis into the bung-hole, she drinks deliciously, motionless, and +wrapt in meditation, abandoned to the charms of syrup and of song. + +Let us watch her awhile. Perhaps we shall witness unlooked-for +wretchedness and want. For there are many thirsty creatures wandering +hither and thither; and at last they discover the Cigale's private well, +betrayed by the oozing sap upon the brink. They gather round it, at +first with a certain amount of constraint, confining themselves to +lapping the extravasated liquor. I have seen, crowding around the +honeyed perforation, wasps, flies, earwigs, Sphinx-moths, Pompilidae, +rose-chafers, and, above all, ants. + +The smallest, in order to reach the well, slip under the belly of the +Cigale, who kindly raises herself on her claws, leaving room for the +importunate ones to pass. The larger, stamping with impatience, quickly +snatch a mouthful, withdraw, take a turn on the neighbouring twigs, and +then return, this time more enterprising. Envy grows keener; those who +but now were cautious become turbulent and aggressive, and would +willingly drive from the spring the well-sinker who has caused it to +flow. + +In this crowd of brigands the most aggressive are the ants. I have seen +them nibbling the ends of the Cigale's claws; I have caught them tugging +the ends of her wings, climbing on her back, tickling her antennae. One +audacious individual so far forgot himself under my eyes as to seize her +proboscis, endeavouring to extract it from the well! + +Thus hustled by these dwarfs, and at the end of her patience, the +giantess finally abandons the well. She flies away, throwing a jet of +liquid excrement over her tormentors as she goes. But what cares the Ant +for this expression of sovereign contempt? She is left in possession of +the spring--only too soon exhausted when the pump is removed that made +it flow. There is little left, but that little is sweet. So much to the +good; she can wait for another drink, attained in the same manner, as +soon as the occasion presents itself. + +[Illustration: DURING THE DROUGHTS OF SUMMER THIRSTING INSECTS, AND +NOTABLY THE ANT, FLOCK TO THE DRINKING-PLACES OF THE CIGALE.] + +As we see, reality completely reverses the action described by the +fable. The shameless beggar, who does not hesitate at theft, is the Ant; +the industrious worker, willingly sharing her goods with the suffering, +is the Cigale. Yet another detail, and the reversal of the fable is +further emphasised. After five or six weeks of gaiety, the songstress +falls from the tree, exhausted by the fever of life. The sun shrivels +her body; the feet of the passers-by crush it. A bandit always in search +of booty, the Ant discovers the remains. She divides the rich find, +dissects it, and cuts it up into tiny fragments, which go to swell her +stock of provisions. It is not uncommon to see a dying Cigale, whose +wings are still trembling in the dust, drawn and quartered by a gang of +knackers. Her body is black with them. After this instance of +cannibalism the truth of the relations between the two insects is +obvious. + +Antiquity held the Cigale in high esteem. The Greek Beranger, Anacreon, +devoted an ode to her, in which his praise of her is singularly +exaggerated. "Thou art almost like unto the Gods," he says. The reasons +which he has given for this apotheosis are none of the best. They +consist in these three privileges: [Greek: gegenes, apathes, +hanaimosarke]; born of the earth, insensible to pain, bloodless. We will +not reproach the poet for these mistakes; they were then generally +believed, and were perpetuated long afterwards, until the exploring eye +of scientific observation was directed upon them. And in minor poetry, +whose principal merit lies in rhythm and harmony, we must not look at +things too closely. + +Even in our days, the Provencal poets, who know the Cigale as Anacreon +never did, are scarcely more careful of the truth in celebrating the +insect which they have taken for their emblem. A friend of mine, an +eager observer and a scrupulous realist, does not deserve this reproach. +He gives me permission to take from his pigeon-holes the following +Provencal poem, in which the relations between the Cigale and the Ant +are expounded with all the rigour of science. I leave to him the +responsibility for his poetic images and his moral reflections, blossoms +unknown to my naturalist's garden; but I can swear to the truth of all +he says, for it corresponds with what I see each summer on the +lilac-trees of my garden. + + + LA CIGALO E LA FOURNIGO. + + I. + + Jour de Dieu, queto caud! Beu tems per la Cigalo, + Que, trefoulido, se regalo + D'uno raisso de fio; beu tems per la meissoun. + Dins lis erso d'or, lou segaire, + Ren plega, pitre au vent, rustico e canto gaire; + Dins soun gousie, la set estranglo la cansoun. + + Tems benesi per tu. Dounc, ardit! cigaleto, + Fai-lei brusi, ti chimbaleto, + E brandusso lou ventre a creba ti mirau. + L'Ome enterin mando le daio, + Que vai balin-balan de longo e que dardaio + L'ulau de soun acie sus li rous espigau. + + Plen d'aigo per la peiro e tampouna d'erbiho + Lou coufie sus l'anco pendiho. + Si la peiro es au fres dins soun estui de bos, + E se de longo es abeurado, + L'Ome barbelo au fio d'aqueli souleiado + Que fan bouli de fes la mesoulo dis os. + + Tu, Cigalo, as un biais per la set: dins la rusco + Tendro e jutouso d'uno busco, + L'aguio de toun be cabusso e cavo un pous. + Lou siro monto per la draio. + T'amourres a la fon melicouso que raio, + E dou sourgent sucra beves lou teta-dous. + + Mai pas toujour en pas. Oh! que nani; de laire, + Vesin, vesino o barrulaire, + T'an vist cava lou pous. An set; venon, doulent, + Te prene un degout per si tasso. + Mesfiso-te, ma bello: aqueli curo-biasso, + Umble d'abord, soun leu de gusas insoulent. + + Quiston un chicouloun di ren, piei de ti resto + Soun plus countent, ausson la testo + E volon tout: L'auran. Sis arpioun en rasteu + Te gatihoun lou bout de l'alo. + Sus tu larjo esquinasso es un mounto-davalo; + T'aganton per lou be, li bano, lis arteu; + + Tiron d'eici, d'eila. L'impacienci te gagno. + Pst! pst! d'un giscle de pissagno + Asperges l'assemblado e quites lou rameu. + T'en vas ben liuen de la racaio, + Que t'a rauba lou pous, e ris, e se gougaio, + E se lipo li brego enviscado de meu. + + Or d'aqueli boumian abeura sens fatigo, + Lou mai tihous es la fournigo. + Mousco, cabrian, guespo e tavan embana, + Espeloufi de touto meno, + Costo-en-long qu'a toun pous lou soulcias ameno, + N'an pas soun testardige a te faire enana. + + Per l'esquicha l'arteu, te coutiga lou mourre, + Te pessuga lou nas, per courre + A l'oumbro du toun ventre, osco! degun la vau. + Lou marrit-peu prend per escalo + Uno patto e te monto, ardido, sus lis alo, + E s'espasso, insoulento, e vai d'amont, d'avau. + + + II. + + Aro veici qu'es pas de creire. + Ancian tems, nous dison li reire, + Un jour d'iver; la fam te prengue. Lou front bas + E d'escoundoun aneres veire, + Dins si grand magasin, la fournigo, eilabas. + + L'endrudido au souleu secavo, + Avans de lis escoundre en cavo, + Si blad qu'avie mousi l'eigagno de la niue. + Quand eron lest lis ensacavo. + Tu survenes alor, eme de plour is iue. + + Ie dises: "Fai ben fre; l'aurasso + D'un caire a l'autre me tirasso + Avanido de fam. A toun riche mouloun + Leisso-me prene per ma biasso. + Te lou rendrai segur au beu tems di meloun. + + "Presto-me un pan de gran." Mai, bouto, + Se creses que l'autro t'escouto, + T'enganes. Di gros sa, ren de ren sara tieu. + "Vai-t'en plus liuen rascla de bouto; + Crebo de fam l'iver, tu que cantes l'estieu." + + Ansin charro la fablo antico + Per nous counseia la pratico + Di sarro-piastro, urous de nousa li cordoun + De si bourso.--Que la coulico + Rousigue la tripaio en aqueli coudoun! + + Me fai susa, lou fabulisto, + Quand dis que l'iver vas en quisto + De mousco, verme, gran, tu que manges jamai. + De blad! Que n'en faries, ma fisto! + As ta fon melicouso e demandes ren mai. + + Que t'enchau l'iver! Ta famiho + A la sousto en terro soumiho, + Et tu dormes la som que n'a ges de revei; + Toun cadabre toumbo en douliho. + Un jour, en tafurant, la fournigo lou vei, + + De tu magro peu dessecado + La marriasso fai becado; + Te curo lou perus, te chapouto a mouceu, + T'encafourno per car-salado, + Requisto prouvisioun, l'iver, en tems de neu. + + III. + + Vaqui l'istori veritablo + Ben liuen dou conte de la fablo. + Que n'en pensas, caneu de sort! + --O rammaissaire de dardeno + Det croucu, boumbudo bedeno + Que gouvernas lou mounde eme lou coffre-fort, + + Fases courre lou bru, canaio, + Que l'artisto jamai travaio + E deu pati, lou bedigas. + Teisas-vous dounc: quand di lambrusco + La Cigalo a cava la rusco, + Raubas soun beure, e piei, morto, la rousigas. + +So speaks my friend in the expressive Provencal idiom, rehabilitating +the creature so libelled by the fabulist. + +Translated with a little necessary freedom, the English of it is as +follows:-- + + I. + + Fine weather for the Cigale! God, what heat! + Half drunken with her joy, she feasts + In a hail of fire. Pays for the harvest meet; + A golden sea the reaper breasts, + Loins bent, throat bare; silent, he labours long, + For thirst within his throat has stilled the song. + + A blessed time for thee, little Cigale. + Thy little cymbals shake and sound, + Shake, shake thy stomach till thy mirrors fall! + Man meanwhile swings his scythe around; + Continually back and forth it veers, + Flashing its steel amidst the ruddy ears. + + Grass-plugged, with water for the grinder full, + A flask is hung upon his hip; + The stone within its wooden trough is cool, + Free all the day to sip and sip; + But man is gasping in the fiery sun, + That makes his very marrow melt and run. + + Thou, Cigale, hast a cure for thirst: the bark, + Tender and juicy, of the bough. + Thy beak, a very needle, stabs it. Mark + The narrow passage welling now; + The sugared stream is flowing, thee beside, + Who drinkest of the flood, the honeyed tide. + + Not in peace always; nay, for thieves arrive, + Neighbours and wives, or wanderers vile; + They saw thee sink the well, and ill they thrive + Thirsting; they seek to drink awhile; + Beauty, beware! the wallet-snatcher's face, + Humble at first, grows insolent apace. + + They seek the merest drop; thy leavings take; + Soon discontent, their heads they toss; + They crave for all, and all will have. They rake + Their claws thy folded wings across; + Thy back a mountain, up and down each goes; + They seize thee by the beak, the horns, the toes. + + This way and that they pull. Impatient thou: + Pst! Pst! a jet of nauseous taste + O'er the assembly sprinklest. Leave the bough + And fly the rascals thus disgraced, + Who stole thy well, and with malicious pleasure + Now lick their honey'd lips, and feed at leisure. + + See these Bohemians without labour fed! + The ant the worst of all the crew-- + Fly, drone, wasp, beetle too with horned head, + All of them sharpers thro' and thro', + Idlers the sun drew to thy well apace-- + None more than she was eager for thy place, + + More apt thy face to tickle, toe to tread, + Or nose to pinch, and then to run + Under the shade thine ample belly spread; + Or climb thy leg for ladder; sun + Herself audacious on thy wings, and go + Most insolently o'er thee to and fro. + + + II. + + Now comes a tale that no one should believe. + In other times, the ancients say, + The winter came, and hunger made thee grieve. + Thou didst in secret see one day + The ant below the ground her treasure store away. + + The wealthy ant was drying in the sun + Her corn the dew had wet by night, + Ere storing it again; and one by one + She filled her sacks as it dried aright. + Thou camest then, and tears bedimmed thy sight, + + Saying: "'Tis very cold; the bitter bise + Blows me this way and that to-day. + I die of hunger. Of your riches please + Fill me my bag, and I'll repay, + When summer and its melons come this way. + + "Lend me a little corn." Go to, go to! + Think you the ant will lend an ear? + You are deceived. Great sacks, but nought for you! + "Be off, and scrape some barrel clear! + You sing of summer: starve, for winter's here!" + + 'Tis thus the ancient fable sings + To teach us all the prudence ripe + Of farthing-snatchers, glad to knot the string + That tie their purses. May the gripe + Of colic twist the guts of all such tripe! + + He angers me, this fable-teller does, + Saying in winter thou dost seek + Flies, grubs, corn--thou dost never eat like us! + --Corn! Couldst thou eat it, with thy beak? + Thou hast thy fountain with its honey'd reek. + + To thee what matters winter? Underground + Slumber thy children, sheltered; thou + The sleep that knows no waking sleepest sound. + Thy body, fallen from the bough, + Crumbles; the questing ant has found thee now. + + The wicked ant of thy poor withered hide + A banquet makes; in little bits + She cuts thee up, and empties thine inside, + And stores thee where in wealth she sits: + Choice diet when the winter numbs the wits. + + + III. + + Here is the tale related duly, + And little resembling the fable, truly! + Hoarders of farthings, I know, deuce take it. + It isn't the story as you would make it! + Crook-fingers, big-bellies, what do you say, + Who govern the world with the cash-box--hey? + + You have spread the story, with shrug and smirk, + That the artist ne'er does a stroke of work; + And so let him suffer, the imbecile! + Be you silent! 'Tis you, I think, + When the Cigale pierces the vine to drink, + Drive her away, her drink to steal; + And when she is dead--you make your meal! + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE CIGALE LEAVES ITS BURROW + + +The first Cigales appear about the summer solstice. Along the beaten +paths, calcined by the sun, hardened by the passage of frequent feet, we +see little circular orifices almost large enough to admit the thumb. +These are the holes by which the larvae of the Cigale have come up from +the depths to undergo metamorphosis. We see them more or less +everywhere, except in fields where the soil has been disturbed by +ploughing. Their usual position is in the driest and hottest situations, +especially by the sides of roads or the borders of footpaths. Powerfully +equipped for the purpose, able at need to pierce the turf or sun-dried +clay, the larva, upon leaving the earth, seems to prefer the hardest +spots. + +A garden alley, converted into a little Arabia Petraea by reflection from +a wall facing the south, abounds in such holes. During the last days of +June I have made an examination of these recently abandoned pits. The +soil is so compact that I needed a pick to tackle it. + +The orifices are round, and close upon an inch in diameter. There is +absolutely no debris round them; no earth thrown up from within. This is +always the case; the holes of the Cigales are never surrounded by +dumping-heaps, as are the burrows of the Geotrupes, another notable +excavator. The way in which the work is done is responsible for this +difference. The dung-beetle works from without inwards; she begins to +dig at the mouth of the burrow, and afterwards re-ascends and +accumulates the excavated material on the surface. The larva of the +Cigale, on the contrary, works outward from within, upward from below; +it opens the door of exit at the last moment, so that it is not free for +the discharge of excavated material until the work is done. The first +enters and raises a little rubbish-heap at the threshold of her burrow; +the second emerges, and cannot, while working, pile up its rubbish on a +threshold which as yet has no existence. + +The burrow of the Cigale descends about fifteen inches. It is +cylindrical, slightly twisted, according to the exigencies of the soil, +and always approaches the vertical, or the direction of the shortest +passage. It is perfectly free along its entire length. We shall search +in vain for the rubbish which such an excavation must apparently +produce; we shall find nothing of the sort. The burrow terminates in a +cul-de-sac, in a fairly roomy chamber with unbroken walls, which shows +not the least vestige of communication with any other burrow or +prolongation of the shaft. + +Taking its length and diameter into account, we find the excavation has +a total volume of about twelve cubic inches. What becomes of the earth +which is removed? + +Sunk in a very dry, crumbling soil, we should expect the shaft and the +chamber at the bottom to have soft, powdery walls, subject to petty +landslips, if no work were done but that of excavation. On the contrary, +the walls are neatly daubed, plastered with a sort of clay-like mortar. +They are not precisely smooth, indeed they are distinctly rough; but +their irregularities are covered with a layer of plaster, and the +crumbling material, soaked in some glutinous liquid and dried, is held +firmly in place. + +The larva can climb up and down, ascend nearly to the surface, and go +down into its chamber of refuge, without bringing down, with his claws, +the continual falls of material which would block the burrow, make +ascent a matter of difficulty, and retreat impossible. The miner shores +up his galleries with uprights and cross-timbers; the builder of +underground railways supports the sides and roofs of his tunnels with a +lining of brick or masonry or segments of iron tube; the larva of the +Cigale, no less prudent an engineer, plasters the walls of its burrow +with cement, so that the passage is always free and ready for use. + +If I surprise the creature just as it is emerging from the soil in order +to gain a neighbouring bough and there undergo transformation, I see it +immediately make a prudent retreat, descending to the bottom of its +burrow without the slightest difficulty--a proof that even when about to +be abandoned for ever the refuge is not encumbered with rubbish. + +The ascending shaft is not a hurried piece of work, scamped by a +creature impatient to reach the sunlight. It is a true dwelling, in +which the larva may make a long stay. The plastered walls betray as +much. Such precautions would be useless in the case of a simple exit +abandoned as soon as made. We cannot doubt that the burrow is a kind of +meteorological observatory, and that its inhabitant takes note of the +weather without. Buried underground at a depth of twelve or fifteen +inches, the larva, when ripe for escape, could hardly judge whether the +meteorological conditions were favourable. The subterranean climate +varies too little, changes too slowly, and would not afford it the +precise information required for the most important action of its +life--the escape into the sunshine at the time of metamorphosis. + +Patiently, for weeks, perhaps for months, it digs, clears, and +strengthens a vertical shaft, leaving only a layer of earth a finger's +breadth in thickness to isolate it from the outer world. At the bottom +it prepares a carefully built recess. This is its refuge, its place of +waiting, where it reposes in peace if its observations decide it to +postpone its final departure. At the least sign of fine weather it +climbs to the top of its burrow, sounds the outer world through the thin +layer of earth which covers the shaft, and informs itself of the +temperature and humidity of the outer air. + +If things are not going well--if there are threats of a flood or the +dreaded _bise_--events of mortal gravity when the delicate insect issues +from its cerements--the prudent creature re-descends to the bottom of +its burrow for a longer wait. If, on the contrary, the state of the +atmosphere is favourable, the roof is broken through by a few strokes of +its claws, and the larva emerges from its tunnel. + +Everything seems to prove that the burrow of the Cigale is a +waiting-room, a meteorological station, in which the larva makes a +prolonged stay; sometimes hoisting itself to the neighbourhood of the +surface in order to ascertain the external climate; sometimes retiring +to the depths the better to shelter itself. This explains the chamber +at the base of the shaft, and the necessity of a cement to hold the +walls together, for otherwise the creature's continual comings and +goings would result in a landslip. + +A matter less easy of explanation is the complete disappearance of the +material which originally filled the excavated space. Where are the +twelve cubic inches of earth that represent the average volume of the +original contents of the shaft? There is not a trace of this material +outside, nor inside either. And how, in a soil as dry as a cinder, is +the plaster made with which the walls are covered? + +Larvae which burrow in wood, such as those of Capricornis and Buprestes, +will apparently answer our first question. They make their way through +the substance of a tree-trunk, boring their galleries by the simple +method of eating the material in front of them. Detached by their +mandibles, fragment by fragment, the material is digested. It passes +from end to end through the body of the pioneer, yields during its +passage its meagre nutritive principles, and accumulates behind it, +obstructing the passage, by which the larva will never return. The work +of extreme division, effected partly by the mandibles and partly by the +stomach, makes the digested material more compact than the intact wood, +from which it follows that there is always a little free space at the +head of the gallery, in which the caterpillar works and lives; it is not +of any great length, but just suffices for the movements of the +prisoner. + +Must not the larva of the Cigale bore its passage in some such fashion? +I do not mean that the results of excavation pass through its body--for +earth, even the softest mould, could form no possible part of its diet. +But is not the material detached simply thrust back behind the excavator +as the work progresses? + +The Cigale passes four years under ground. This long life is not spent, +of course, at the bottom of the well I have just described; that is +merely a resting-place preparatory to its appearance on the face of the +earth. The larva comes from elsewhere; doubtless from a considerable +distance. It is a vagabond, roaming from one root to another and +implanting its rostrum. When it moves, either to flee from the upper +layers of the soil, which in winter become too cold, or to install +itself upon a more juicy root, it makes a road by rejecting behind it +the material broken up by the teeth of its picks. That this is its +method is incontestable. + +As with the larvae of Capricornis and Buprestes, it is enough for the +traveller to have around it the small amount of free space necessitated +by its movements. Moist, soft, and easily compressible soil is to the +larva of the Cigale what digested wood-pulp is to the others. It is +compressed without difficulty, and so leaves a vacant space. + +The difficulty is that sometimes the burrow of exit from the +waiting-place is driven through a very arid soil, which is extremely +refractory to compression so long as it retains its aridity. That the +larva, when commencing the excavation of its burrow, has already thrust +part of the detached material into a previously made gallery, now filled +up and disappeared, is probable enough, although nothing in the actual +condition of things goes to support the theory; but if we consider the +capacity of the shaft and the extreme difficulty of making room for such +a volume of debris, we feel dubious once more; for to hide such a +quantity of earth a considerable empty space would be necessary, which +could only be obtained by the disposal of more debris. Thus we are +caught in a vicious circle. The mere packing of the powdered earth +rejected behind the excavator would not account for so large a void. The +Cigale must have a special method of disposing of the waste earth. Let +us see if we can discover the secret. + +Let us examine a larva at the moment of emerging from the soil. It is +almost always more or less smeared with mud, sometimes dried, sometimes +moist. The implements of excavation, the claws of the fore-feet, have +their points covered by little globules of mortar; the others bear +leggings of mud; the back is spotted with clay. One is reminded of a +scavenger who has been scooping up mud all day. This condition is the +more striking in that the insect comes from an absolutely dry soil. We +should expect to see it dusty; we find it muddy. + +One more step, and the problem of the well is solved. I exhume a larva +which is working at its gallery of exit. Chance postpones this piece of +luck, which I cannot expect to achieve at once, since nothing on the +surface guides my search. But at last I am rewarded, and the larva is +just beginning its excavation. An inch of tunnel, free of all waste or +rubbish, and at the bottom the chamber, the place of rest; so far has +the work proceeded. And the worker--in what condition is it? Let us see. + +The larva is much paler in colour than those which I have caught as they +emerged. The large eyes in particular are whitish, cloudy, blurred, and +apparently blind. What would be the use of sight underground? The eyes +of the larvae leaving their burrows are black and shining, and evidently +capable of sight. When it issues into the sunlight the future Cigale +must find, often at some distance from its burrow, a suitable twig from +which to hang during its metamorphosis, so that sight is obviously of +the greatest utility. The maturity of the eyes, attained during the time +of preparation before deliverance, proves that the larva, far from +boring its tunnel in haste, has spent a long time labouring at it. + +What else do we notice? The blind, pale larva is far more voluminous +than in the mature state; it is swollen with liquid as though it had +dropsy. Taken in the fingers, a limpid serum oozes from the hinder part +of the body, which moistens the whole surface. Is this fluid, evacuated +by the intestine, a product of urinary secretion--simply the contents of +a stomach nourished entirely upon sap? I will not attempt to decide, but +for convenience will content myself with calling it urine. + +Well, this fountain of urine is the key to the enigma. As it digs and +advances the larva waters the powdery debris and converts it into a +paste, which is immediately applied to the walls by the pressure of the +abdomen. Aridity is followed by plasticity. The mud thus obtained +penetrates the interstices of the rough soil; the more liquid portion +enters the substance of the soil by infiltration; the remainder becomes +tightly packed and fills up the inequalities of the walls. Thus the +insect obtains an empty tunnel, with no loose waste, as all the loosened +soil is utilised on the spot, converted into a mortar which is more +compact and homogeneous than the soil through which the shaft is +driven. + +Thus the larva works in the midst of a coating of mud, which is the +cause of its dirtiness, so astonishing when we see it issue from an +excessively dry soil. The perfect insect, although henceforth liberated +from the work of a sapper and miner, does not entirely abandon the use +of urine as a weapon, employing it as a means of defence. Too closely +observed it throws a jet of liquid upon the importunate enemy and flies +away. In both its forms the Cigale, in spite of its dry temperament, is +a famous irrigator. + +Dropsical as it is, the larva cannot contain sufficient liquid to +moisten and convert into easily compressible mud the long column of +earth which must be removed from the burrow. The reservoir becomes +exhausted, and the provision must be renewed. Where, and how? I think I +can answer the question. + +The few burrows uncovered along their entirety, with the meticulous care +such a task demands, have revealed at the bottom, encrusted in the wall +of the terminal chamber, a living root, sometimes of the thickness of a +pencil, sometimes no bigger than a straw. The visible portion of this +root is only a fraction of an inch in length; the rest is hidden by the +surrounding earth. Is the presence of this source of sap fortuitous? Or +is it the result of deliberate choice on the part of the larva? I +incline towards the second alternative, so repeatedly was the presence +of a root verified, at least when my search was skilfully conducted. + +Yes, the Cigale, digging its chamber, the nucleus of the future shaft, +seeks out the immediate neighbourhood of a small living root; it lays +bare a certain portion, which forms part of the wall, without +projecting. This living spot in the wall is the fountain where the +supply of moisture is renewed. When its reservoir is exhausted by the +conversion of dry dust into mud the miner descends to its chamber, +thrusts its proboscis into the root, and drinks deep from the vat built +into the wall. Its organs well filled, it re-ascends. It resumes work, +damping the hard soil the better to remove it with its talons, reducing +the debris to mud, in order to pack it tightly around it and obtain a +free passage. In this manner the shaft is driven upwards; logic and the +facts of the case, in the absence of direct observation, justify the +assertion. + +If the root were to fail, and the reservoir of the intestine were +exhausted, what would happen? The following experiment will inform us: a +larva is caught as it leaves the earth. I place it at the bottom of a +test-tube, and cover it with a column of dry earth, which is rather +lightly packed. This column is about six inches in height. The larva has +just left an excavation three times as deep, made in soil of the same +kind, but offering a far greater resistance. Buried under this short +column of powdery earth, will it be able to gain the surface? If its +strength hold out the issue should be certain; having but lately made +its way through the hard earth, this obstacle should be easily removed. + +But I am not so sure. In removing the stopper which divided it from the +outside world, the larva has expended its final store of liquid. The +cistern is dry, and in default of a living root there is no means of +replenishing it. My suspicions are well founded. For three days the +prisoner struggles desperately, but cannot ascend by so much as an inch. +It is impossible to fix the material removed in the absence of +moisture; as soon as it is thrust aside it slips back again. The labour +has no visible result; it is a labour of Sisyphus, always to be +commenced anew. On the fourth day the creature succumbs. + +With the intestines full the result is very different. + +I make the same experiment with an insect which is only beginning its +work of liberation. It is swollen with fluid, which oozes from it and +moistens the whole body. Its task is easy; the overlying earth offers +little resistance. A small quantity of liquid from the intestines +converts it into mud; forms a sticky paste which can be thrust aside +with the assurance that it will remain where it is placed. The shaft is +gradually opened; very unevenly, to be sure, and it is almost choked up +behind the insect as it climbs upwards. It seems as though the creature +recognises the impossibility of renewing its store of liquid, and so +economises the little it possesses, using only just so much as is +necessary in order to escape as quickly as possible from surroundings +which are strange to its inherited instincts. This parsimony is so well +judged that the insect gains the surface at the end of twelve days. + +The gate of issue is opened and left gaping, like a hole made with an +augur. For some little time the larva wanders about the neighbourhood of +its burrow, seeking an eyrie on some low-growing bush or tuft of thyme, +on a stem of grass or grain, or the twig of a shrub. Once found, it +climbs and firmly clasps its support, the head upwards, while the talons +of the fore feet close with an unyielding grip. The other claws, if the +direction of the twig is convenient, assist in supporting it; otherwise +the claws of the two fore legs will suffice. There follows a moment of +repose, while the supporting limbs stiffen in an unbreakable hold. Then +the thorax splits along the back, and through the fissure the insect +slowly emerges. The whole process lasts perhaps half an hour. + +There is the adult insect, freed of its mask, and how different from +what it was but how! The wings are heavy, moist, transparent, with +nervures of a tender green. The thorax is barely clouded with brown. All +the rest of the body is a pale green, whitish in places. Heat and a +prolonged air-bath are necessary to harden and colour the fragile +creature. Some two hours pass without any perceptible change. Hanging to +its deserted shell by the two fore limbs, the Cigale sways to the least +breath of air, still feeble and still green. Finally, the brown colour +appears and rapidly covers the whole body; the change of colour is +completed in half an hour. Fastening upon its chosen twig at nine +o'clock in the morning, the Cigale flies away under my eyes at half-past +twelve. + +The empty shell remains, intact except for the fissure in the back; +clasping the twig so firmly that the winds of autumn do not always +succeed in detaching it. For some months yet and even during the winter +you will often find these forsaken skins hanging from the twigs in the +precise attitude assumed by the larva at the moment of metamorphosis. +They are of a horny texture, not unlike dry parchment, and do not +readily decay. + +I could gather some wonderful information regarding the Cigale were I to +listen to all that my neighbours, the peasants, tell me. I will give one +instance of rustic natural history. + +[Illustration: THE CIGALE AND THE EMPTY PUPA-SKIN.] + +Are you afflicted with any kidney trouble, or are you swollen with +dropsy, or have you need of some powerful diuretic? The village +pharmacopoeia is unanimous in recommending the Cigale as a sovereign +remedy. The insects in the adult form are collected in summer. They are +strung into necklaces which are dried in the sun and carefully preserved +in some cupboard or drawer. A good housewife would consider it imprudent +to allow July to pass without threading a few of these insects. + +Do you suffer from any nephritic irritation or from stricture? Drink an +infusion of Cigales. Nothing, they say, is more effectual. I must take +this opportunity of thanking the good soul who once upon a time, so I +was afterwards informed, made me drink such a concoction unawares for +the cure of some such trouble; but I still remain incredulous. I have +been greatly struck by the fact that the ancient physician of Anazarbus +used to recommend the same remedy. Dioscorides tells us: _Cicadae, quae +inassatae manduntur, vesicae doloribus prosunt_. Since the distant days +of this patriarch of _materia medica_ the Provencal peasant has retained +his faith in the remedy revealed to him by the Greeks, who came from +Phocaea with the olive, the fig, and the vine. Only one thing is changed: +Dioscorides advises us to eat the Cigales roasted, but now they are +boiled, and the decoction is administered as medicine. The explanation +which is given of the diuretic properties of the insect is a marvel of +ingenuousness. The Cigale, as every one knows who has tried to catch it, +throws a jet of liquid excrement in one's face as it flies away. It +therefore endows us with its faculties of evacuation. Thus Dioscorides +and his contemporaries must have reasoned; so reasons the peasant of +Provence to-day. + +What would you say, worthy neighbours, if you knew of the virtues of the +larva, which is able to mix sufficient mortar with its urine to build a +meteorological station and a shaft connecting with the outer world? Your +powers should equal those of Rabelais' Gargantua, who, seated upon the +towers of Notre Dame, drowned so many thousands of the inquisitive +Parisians. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SONG OF THE CIGALE + + +Where I live I can capture five species of Cigale, the two principal +species being the common Cigale and the variety which lives on the +flowering ash. Both of these are widely distributed and are the only +species known to the country folk. The larger of the two is the common +Cigale. Let me briefly describe the mechanism with which it produces its +familiar note. + +On the under side of the body of the male, immediately behind the +posterior limbs, are two wide semicircular plates which slightly overlap +one another, the right hand lying over the left hand plate. These are +the shutters, the lids, the dampers of the musical-box. Let us remove +them. To the right and left lie two spacious cavities which are known in +Provencal as the chapels (_li capello_). Together they form the church +(_la gleiso_). Their forward limit is formed by a creamy yellow +membrane, soft and thin; the hinder limit by a dry membrane coloured +like a soap bubble and known in Provencal as the mirror (_mirau_). + +The church, the mirrors, and the dampers are commonly regarded as the +organs which produce the cry of the Cigale. Of a singer out of breath +one says that he has broken his mirrors (_a li mirau creba_). The same +phrase is used of a poet without inspiration. Acoustics give the lie to +the popular belief. You may break the mirrors, remove the covers with a +snip of the scissors, and tear the yellow anterior membrane, but these +mutilations do not silence the song of the Cigale; they merely change +its quality and weaken it. The chapels are resonators; they do not +produce the sound, but merely reinforce it by the vibration of their +anterior and posterior membranes; while the sound is modified by the +dampers as they are opened more or less widely. + +The actual source of the sound is elsewhere, and is somewhat difficult +for a novice to find. On the outer wall of either chapel, at the ridge +formed by the junction of back and belly, is a tiny aperture with a +horny circumference masked by the overlapping damper. We will call this +the window. This opening gives access to a cavity or sound-chamber, +deeper than the "chapels," but of much smaller capacity. Immediately +behind the attachment of the posterior wings is a slight protuberance, +almost egg-shaped, which is distinguishable, on account of its dull +black colour, from the neighbouring integuments, which are covered with +a silvery down. This protuberance is the outer wall of the +sound-chamber. + +Let us cut it boldly away. We shall then lay bare the mechanism which +produces the sound, the _cymbal_. This is a small dry, white membrane, +oval in shape, convex on the outer side, and crossed along its larger +diameter by a bundle of three or four brown nervures, which give it +elasticity. Its entire circumference is rigidly fixed. Let us suppose +that this convex scale is pulled out of shape from the interior, so +that it is slightly flattened and as quickly released; it will +immediately regain its original convexity owing to the elasticity of the +nervures. From this oscillation a ticking sound will result. + +Twenty years ago all Paris was buying a silly toy, called, I think, the +cricket or _cri-cri_. It was a short slip of steel fixed by one end to a +metallic base. Pressed out of shape by the thumb and released, it +yielded a very distressing, tinkling _click_. Nothing else was needed to +take the popular mind by storm. The "cricket" had its day of glory. +Oblivion has executed justice upon it so effectually that I fear I shall +not be understood when I recall this celebrated device. + +The membranous cymbal and the steel cricket are analogous instruments. +Both produce a sound by reason of the rapid deformation and recovery of +an elastic substance--in one case a convex membrane; in the other a slip +of steel. The "cricket" was bent out of shape by the thumb. How is the +convexity of the cymbals altered? Let us return to the "church" and +break down the yellow curtain which closes the front of each chapel. Two +thick muscular pillars are visible, of a pale orange colour; they join +at an angle, forming a ~V~, of which the point lies on the median line +of the insect, against the lower face of the thorax. Each of these +pillars of flesh terminates suddenly at its upper extremity, as though +cut short, and from the truncated portion rises a short, slender tendon, +which is attached laterally to the corresponding cymbal. + +There is the whole mechanism, no less simple than that of the steel +"cricket." The two muscular columns contract and relax, shorten and +lengthen. By means of its terminal thread each sounds its cymbal, by +depressing it and immediately releasing it, when its own elasticity +makes it spring back into shape. These two vibrating scales are the +source of the Cigale's cry. + +Do you wish to convince yourself of the efficiency of this mechanism? +Take a Cigale but newly dead and make it sing. Nothing is simpler. Seize +one of these muscular columns with the forceps and pull it in a series +of careful jerks. The extinct _cri-cri_ comes to life again; at each +jerk there is a clash of the cymbal. The sound is feeble, to be sure, +deprived of the amplitude which the living performer is able to give it +by means of his resonating chambers; none the less, the fundamental +element of the song is produced by this anatomist's trick. + +Would you, on the other hand, silence a living Cigale?--that obstinate +melomaniac, who, seized in the fingers, deplores his misfortune as +loquaciously as ever he sang the joys of freedom in his tree? It is +useless to violate his chapels, to break his mirrors; the atrocious +mutilation would not quiet him. But introduce a needle by the lateral +aperture which we have named the "window" and prick the cymbal at the +bottom of the sound-box. A little touch and the perforated cymbal is +silent. A similar operation on the other side of the insect and the +insect is dumb, though otherwise as vigorous as before and without any +perceptible wound. Any one not in the secret would be amazed at the +result of my pin-prick, when the destruction of the mirrors and the +other dependencies of the "church" do not cause silence. A tiny +perforation of no importance to the insect is more effectual than +evisceration. + +The dampers, which are rigid and solidly built, are motionless. It is +the abdomen itself which, by rising and falling, opens or closes the +doors of the "church." When the abdomen is lowered the dampers exactly +cover the chapels as well as the windows of the sound-boxes. The sound +is then muted, muffled, diminished. When the abdomen rises the chapels +are open, the windows unobstructed, and the sound acquires its full +volume. The rapid oscillations of the abdomen, synchronising with the +contractions of the motor muscles of the cymbals, determine the changing +volume of the sound, which seems to be caused by rapidly repeated +strokes of a fiddlestick. + +If the weather is calm and hot, towards mid-day the song of the Cigale +is divided into strophes of several seconds' duration, which are +separated by brief intervals of silence. The strophe begins suddenly. In +a rapid crescendo, the abdomen oscillating with increasing rapidity, it +acquires its maximum volume; it remains for a few seconds at the same +degree of intensity, then becomes weaker by degrees, and degenerates +into a shake, which decreases as the abdomen returns to rest. With the +last pulsations of the belly comes silence; the length of the silent +interval varies according to the state of the atmosphere. Then, of a +sudden, begins a new strophe, a monotonous repetition of the first; and +so on indefinitely. + +It often happens, especially during the hours of the sultry afternoons, +that the insect, intoxicated with sunlight, shortens and even suppresses +the intervals of silence. The song is then continuous, but always with +an alternation of crescendo and diminuendo. The first notes are heard +about seven or eight o'clock in the morning, and the orchestra ceases +only when the twilight fails, about eight o'clock at night. The concert +lasts a whole round of the clock. But if the sky is grey and the wind +chilly the Cigale is silent. + +The second species, only half the size of the common Cigale, is known in +Provence as the _Cacan_; the name, being a fairly exact imitation of the +sound emitted by the insect. This is the Cigale of the flowering ash, +far more alert and far more suspicious than the common species. Its +harsh, loud song consists of a series of cries--_can! can! can! +can!_--with no intervals of silence subdividing the poem into stanzas. +Thanks to its monotony and its harsh shrillness, it is a most odious +sound, especially when the orchestra consists of hundreds of performers, +as is often the case in my two plane-trees during the dog-days. It is as +though a heap of dry walnuts were being shaken up in a bag until the +shells broke. This painful concert, which is a real torment, offers only +one compensation: the Cigale of the flowering ash does not begin his +song so early as the common Cigale, and does not sing so late in the +evening. + +Although constructed on the same fundamental principles, the vocal +organs exhibit a number of peculiarities which give the song its special +character. The sound-box is lacking, which suppresses the entrance to +it, or the window. The cymbal is uncovered, and is visible just behind +the attachment of the hinder wing. It is, as before, a dry white scale, +convex on the outside, and crossed by a bundle of fine reddish-brown +nervures. + +[Illustration: 1. THE ADULT CIGALE, FROM BELOW. + +2. THE ADULT CIGALE, FROM BELOW. + +3. THE CIGALE OF THE FLOWERING ASH, MALE AND FEMALE.] + +From the forward side of the first segment of the abdomen project two +short, wide, tongue-shaped projections, the free extremities of which +rest on the cymbals. These tongues may be compared to the blade of a +watchman's rattle, only instead of engaging with the teeth of a rotating +wheel they touch the nervures of the vibrating cymbal. From this fact, I +imagine, results the harsh, grating quality of the cry. It is hardly +possible to verify the fact by holding the insect in the fingers; the +terrified _Cacan_ does not go on singing his usual song. + +The dampers do not overlap; on the contrary, they are separated by a +fairly wide interval. With the rigid tongues, appendages of the abdomen, +they half shelter the cymbals, half of which is completely bare. Under +the pressure of the finger the abdomen opens a little at its +articulation with the thorax. But the insect is motionless when it +sings; there is nothing of the rapid vibrations of the belly which +modulate the song of the common Cigale. The chapels are very small; +almost negligible as resonators. There are mirrors, as in the common +Cigale, but they are very small; scarcely a twenty-fifth of an inch in +diameter. In short, the resonating mechanism, so highly developed in the +common Cigale, is here extremely rudimentary. How then is the feeble +vibration of the cymbals re-enforced until it becomes intolerable? + +This species of Cigale is a ventriloquist. If we examine the abdomen by +transmitted light, we shall see that the anterior two-thirds of the +abdomen are translucent. With a snip of the scissors we will cut off the +posterior third, to which are relegated, reduced to the strictly +indispensable, the organs necessary to the propagation of the species +and the preservation of the individual. The rest of the abdomen presents +a spacious cavity, and consists simply of the integuments of the walls, +except on the dorsal side, which is lined with a thin muscular layer, +and supports a fine digestive canal, almost a thread. This large cavity, +equal to nearly half the total volume of the insect, is thus almost +absolutely empty. At the back are seen the two motor muscles of the +cymbals, two muscular columns arranged like the limbs of a ~V~. To right +and left of the point of this ~V~ shine the tiny mirrors; and between +the two branches of muscle the empty cavity is prolonged into the depths +of the thorax. + +This empty abdomen with its thoracic annex forms an enormous resonator, +such as no other performer in our countryside can boast of. If I close +with my finger the orifice of the truncated abdomen the sound becomes +flatter, in conformity with the laws affecting musical resonators; if I +fit into the aperture of the open body a tube or trumpet of paper the +sound grows louder as well as deeper. With a paper cone corresponding +to the pitch of the note, with its large end held in the mouth of a +test-tube acting as a resonator, we have no longer the cry of the +Cigale, but almost the bellowing of a bull. My little children, +coming up to me by chance at the moment of this acoustic experiment, +fled in terror. + +The grating quality of the sound appears to be due to the little tongues +which press on the nervures of the vibrating cymbals; the cause of its +intensity is of course the ample resonator in the abdomen. We must admit +that one must truly have a real passion for song before one would empty +one's chest and stomach in order to make room for a musical-box. The +necessary vital organs are extremely small, confined to a mere corner of +the body, in order to increase the amplitude of the resonating cavity. +Song comes first of all; other matters take the second rank. + +It is lucky that the _Cacan_ does not follow the laws of evolution. If, +more enthusiastic in each generation, it could acquire, in the course of +progress, a ventral resonator comparable to my paper trumpets, the South +of France would sooner or later become uninhabitable, and the _Cacan_ +would have Provence to itself. + +After the details already given concerning the common Cigale it is +hardly needful to tell you how the insupportable _Cacan_ can be reduced +to silence. The cymbals are plainly visible on the exterior. Pierce them +with the point of a needle, and immediately you have perfect silence. If +only there were, in my plane-trees, among the insects which carry +gimlets, some friends of silence like myself, who would devote +themselves to such a task! But no: a note would be lacking in the +majestic symphony of harvest-tide. + +We are now familiar with the structure of the musical organ of the +Cigale. Now the question arises: What is the object of these musical +orgies? The reply seems obvious: they are the call of the males inviting +their mates; they constitute a lovers' cantata. + +I am going to consider this reply, which is certainly a very natural +one. For thirty years the common Cigale and his unmusical friend the +_Cacan_ have thrust their society upon me. For two months every summer I +have them under my eyes, and their voice in my ears. If I do not listen +to them very willingly I observe them with considerable zeal. I see +them ranged in rows on the smooth rind of the plane-trees, all with +their heads uppermost, the two sexes mingled, and only a few inches +apart. + +The proboscis thrust into the bark, they drink, motionless. As the sun +moves, and with it the shadow, they also move round the branch with slow +lateral steps, so as to keep upon that side which is most brilliantly +illuminated, most fiercely heated. Whether the proboscis is at work or +not the song is never interrupted. + +Now are we to take their interminable chant for a passionate love-song? +I hesitate. In this gathering the two sexes are side by side. One does +not spend months in calling a person who is at one's elbow. Moreover, I +have never seen a female rush into the midst of even the most deafening +orchestra. Sight is a sufficient prelude to marriage, for their sight is +excellent. There is no need for the lover to make an everlasting +declaration, for his mistress is his next-door neighbour. + +Is the song a means of charming, of touching the hard of heart? I doubt +it. I observe no sign of satisfaction in the females; I have never seen +them tremble or sway upon their feet, though their lovers have clashed +their cymbals with the most deafening vigour. + +My neighbours the peasants say that at harvest-time the Cigale sings to +them: _Sego, sego, sego!_ (Reap, reap, reap!) to encourage them in their +work. Harvesters of ideas and of ears of grain, we follow the same +calling; the latter produce food for the stomach, the former food for +the mind. Thus I understand their explanation and welcome it as an +example of gracious simplicity. + +Science asks for a better explanation, but finds in the insect a world +which is closed to us. There is no possibility of foreseeing, or even +of suggesting the impression produced by this clashing of cymbals upon +those who inspire it. The most I can say is that their impassive +exterior seems to denote a complete indifference. I do not insist that +this is so; the intimate feelings of the insect are an insoluble +mystery. + +Another reason for doubt is this: all creatures affected by song have +acute hearing, and this sense of hearing, a vigilant sentinel, should +give warning of danger at the slightest sound. The birds have an +exquisite delicacy of hearing. If a leaf stirs among the branches, if +two passers-by exchange a word, they are suddenly silent, anxious, and +on their guard. But the Cigale is far from sharing in such emotions. It +has excellent sight. Its great faceted eyes inform it of all that +happens to right and left; its three stemmata, like little ruby +telescopes, explore the sky above its head. If it sees us coming it is +silent at once, and flies away. But let us get behind the branch on +which it is singing; let us manoeuvre so as to avoid the five centres +of vision, and then let us speak, whistle, clap the hands, beat two +stones together. For far less a bird which could not see you would stop +its song and fly away terrified. The Cigale imperturbably continues to +sing as if nothing had occurred. + +Of my experiences of this kind I will mention only one, the most +remarkable of many. + +I borrowed the municipal artillery; that is, the iron boxes which are +charged with gunpowder on the day of the patron saint. The artilleryman +was delighted to load them for the benefit of the Cigales, and to fire +them off for me before my house. There were two of these boxes stuffed +full of powder as though for the most solemn rejoicing. Never was +politician making his electoral progress favoured with a bigger charge. +To prevent damage to my windows the sashes were all left open. The two +engines of detonation were placed at the foot of the plane-trees before +my door, no precautions being taken to mask them. The Cigales singing in +the branches above could not see what was happening below. + +There were six of us, spectators and auditors. We waited for a moment of +relative quiet. The number of singers was counted by each of us, as well +as the volume and rhythm of the song. We stood ready, our ears attentive +to the aerial orchestra. The box exploded with a clap of thunder. + +No disturbance ensued above. The number of performers was the same, the +rhythm the same, the volume the same. The six witnesses were unanimous: +the loud explosion had not modified the song of the Cigales in the +least. The second box gave an identical result. + +What are we to conclude from this persistence of the orchestra, its lack +of surprise or alarm at the firing of a charge? Shall we conclude that +the Cigale is deaf? I am not going to venture so far as that; but if any +one bolder than myself were to make the assertion I really do not know +what reasons I could invoke to disprove it. I should at least be forced +to admit that it is very hard of hearing, and that we may well apply to +it the homely and familiar phrase: to shout like a deaf man. + +When the blue-winged cricket, basking on the pebbles of some country +footpath, grows deliciously intoxicated with the heat of the sun and +rubs its great posterior thighs against the roughened edge of its +wing-covers; when the green tree-frog swells its throat in the foliage +of the bushes, distending it to form a resonant cavity when the rain is +imminent, is it calling to its absent mate? By no means. The efforts of +the former produce a scarcely perceptible stridulation; the palpitating +throat of the latter is as ineffectual; and the desired one does not +come. + +Does the insect really require to emit these resounding effusions, these +vociferous avowals, in order to declare its passion? Consult the immense +majority whom the conjunction of the sexes leaves silent. In the violin +of the grasshopper, the bagpipe of the tree-frog, and the cymbals of the +_Cacan_ I see only their peculiar means of expressing the joy of living, +the universal joy which every species of animal expresses after its +kind. + +If you were to tell me that the Cigales play on their noisy instruments +careless of the sound produced, and merely for the pleasure of feeling +themselves alive, just as we rub our hands in a moment of satisfaction, +I should not be particularly shocked. That there is a secondary object +in their conceit, in which the silent sex is interested, is very +possible and very natural, but it is not as yet proven.[1] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE CIGALE. THE EGGS AND THEIR HATCHING + + +The Cigale confides its eggs to dry, slender twigs. All the branches +examined by Reaumur which bore such eggs were branches of the mulberry: +a proof that the person entrusted with the search for these eggs in the +neighbourhood of Avignon did not bring much variety to his quest. I find +these eggs not only on the mulberry-tree, but on the peach, the cherry, +the willow, the Japanese privet, and other trees. But these are +exceptions; what the Cigale really prefers is a slender twig of a +thickness varying from that of a straw to that of a pencil. It should +have a thin woody layer and plenty of pith. If these conditions are +fulfilled the species matters little. I should pass in review all the +semi-ligneous plants of the country were I to catalogue the various +supports which are utilised by the gravid female. + +Its chosen twig never lies along the ground; it is always in a more or +less vertical position. It is usually growing in its natural position, +but is sometimes detached; in the latter case it will by chance have +fallen so that it retains its upright position. The insect prefers a +long, smooth, regular twig which can receive the whole of its eggs. The +best batches of eggs which I have found have been laid upon twigs of +the _Spartium junceum_, which are like straws stuffed with pith, and +especially on the upper twigs of the _Asphodelus cerasiferus_, which +rises nearly a yard from the ground before ramifying. + +It is essential that the support, no matter what its nature, should be +dead and perfectly dry. + +The first operation performed by the Cigale consists in making a series +of slight lacerations, such as one might make with the point of a pin, +which, if plunged obliquely downwards into the twig, would tear the +woody fibres and would compress them so as to form a slight +protuberance. + +If the twig is irregular in shape, or if several Cigales have been +working successively at the same point, the distribution of the +punctures is confused; the eye wanders, incapable of recognising the +order of their succession or the work of the individual. One +characteristic is always present, namely, the oblique direction of the +woody fragment which is raised by the perforation, showing that the +Cigale always works in an upright position and plunges its rostrum +downwards in the direction of the twig. + +If the twig is regular, smooth, and conveniently long the perforations +are almost equidistant and lie very nearly in a straight line. Their +number varies; it is small when the mother, disturbed in her operations, +has flown away to continue her work elsewhere; but they number thirty or +forty, more or less, when they contain the whole of her eggs. + +Each one of the perforations is the entrance to an oblique tunnel, which +is bored in the medullary sheath of the twig. The aperture is not +closed, except by the bunch of woody fibres, which, parted at the moment +when the eggs are laid, recover themselves when the double saw of the +oviduct is removed. Sometimes, but by no means always, you may see +between the fibres a tiny glistening patch like a touch of dried white +of egg. This is only an insignificant trace of some albuminous secretion +accompanying the egg or facilitating the work of the double saw of the +oviduct. + +Immediately below the aperture of the perforation is the egg chamber: a +short, tunnel-shaped cavity which occupies almost the whole distance +between one opening and that lying below it. Sometimes the separating +partition is lacking, and the various chambers run into one another, so +that the eggs, although introduced by the various apertures, are +arranged in an uninterrupted row. This arrangement, however, is not the +most usual. + +The contents of the chambers vary greatly. I find in each from six to +fifteen eggs. The average is ten. The total number of chambers varying +from thirty to forty, it follows that the Cigale lays from three to four +hundred eggs. Reaumur arrived at the same figures from an examination of +the ovaries. + +This is truly a fine family, capable by sheer force of numbers of +surviving the most serious dangers. I do not see that the adult Cigale +is exposed to greater dangers than any other insect: its eye is +vigilant, its departure sudden, and its flight rapid; and it inhabits +heights at which the prowling brigands of the turf are not to be feared. +The sparrow, it is true, will greedily devour it. From time to time he +will deliberately and meditatively descend upon the plane-trees from the +neighbouring roof and snatch up the singer, who squeaks despairingly. A +few blows of the beak and the Cigale is cut into quarters, delicious +morsels for the nestlings. But how often does the bird return without +his prey! The Cigale, foreseeing his attack, empties its intestine in +the eyes of its assailant and flies away. + +But the Cigale has a far more terrible enemy than the sparrow. This is +the green grasshopper. It is late, and the Cigales are silent. Drowsy +with light and heat, they have exhausted themselves in producing their +symphonies all day long. Night has come, and with it repose; but a +repose frequently troubled. In the thick foliage of the plane-trees +there is a sudden sound like a cry of anguish, short and strident. It is +the despairing lamentation of the Cigale surprised in the silence by the +grasshopper, that ardent hunter of the night, which leaps upon the +Cigale, seizes it by the flank, tears it open, and devours the contents +of the stomach. After the orgy of music comes night and assassination. + +I obtained an insight into this tragedy in the following manner: I was +walking up and down before my door at daybreak when something fell from +the neighbouring plane-tree uttering shrill squeaks. I ran to see what +it was. I found a green grasshopper eviscerating a struggling Cigale. In +vain did the latter squeak and gesticulate; the other never loosed its +hold, but plunged its head into the entrails of the victim and removed +them by little mouthfuls. + +[Illustration: 1. THE CIGALE LAYING HER EGGS. + +2. THE GREEN GRASSHOPPER, THE FALSE CIGALE OF THE NORTH, DEVOURING THE +TRUE CIGALE, A DWELLER IN THE SOUTH.] + +This was instructive. The attack was delivered high up above my head, in +the early morning, while the Cigale was resting; and the struggles of +the unfortunate creature as it was dissected alive had resulted in the +fall of assailant and assailed together. Since then I have often been +the witness of similar assassinations. + +I have even seen the grasshopper, full of audacity, launch itself in +pursuit of the Cigale, who fled in terror. So the sparrow-hawk pursues +the skylark in the open sky. But the bird of prey is less ferocious than +the insect; it pursues a creature smaller than itself. The locust, on +the contrary, assails a colossus, far larger and far more vigorous than +its enemy; yet the result is a foregone conclusion, in spite of this +disproportion. With its powerful mandibles, like pincers of steel, the +grasshopper rarely fails to eviscerate its captive, which, being +weaponless, can only shriek and struggle. + +The Cigale is an easy prey during its hours of somnolence. Every Cigale +encountered by the ferocious grasshopper on its nocturnal round must +miserably perish. Thus are explained those sudden squeaks of anguish +which are sometimes heard in the boughs during the hours of the night +and early morning, although the cymbals have long been silent. The +sea-green bandit has fallen upon some slumbering Cigale. When I wished +to rear some green grasshoppers I had not far to seek for the diet of my +pensioners; I fed them on Cigales, of which enormous numbers were +consumed in my breeding-cages. It is therefore an established fact that +the green grasshopper, the false Cigale of the North, will eagerly +devour the true Cigale, the inhabitant of the Midi. + +But it is neither the sparrow nor the green grasshopper that has forced +the Cigale to produce such a vast number of offspring. The real danger +is elsewhere, as we shall see. The risk is enormous at the moment of +hatching and also when the egg is laid. + +Two or three weeks after its escape from the earth--that is, about the +middle of July--the Cigale begins to lay. In order to observe the +process without trusting too much to chance, I took certain precautions +which would, I felt sure, prove successful. The dry Asphodelus is the +support preferred by the insect, as previous observations had assured +me. It was also the plant which best lent itself to my experiments, on +account of its long, smooth stems. Now, during the first years of my +residence in the South I replaced the thistles in my paddock by other +native plants of a less stubborn and prickly species. Among the new +occupants was the asphodel. This was precisely what I needed for my +experiments. I left the dry stems of the preceding year in place, and +when the breeding season arrived I inspected them daily. + +I had not long to wait. As early as July 15th I found as many Cigales as +I could wish on the stems of the asphodel, all in process of laying. The +gravid female is always solitary. Each mother has her twig to herself, +and is in no danger of being disturbed during the delicate operation of +laying. When the first occupant has departed another may take her place, +and so on indefinitely. There is abundance of room for all; but each +prefers to be alone as her turn arrives. There is, however, no +unpleasantness of any kind; everything passes most peacefully. If a +female Cigale finds a place which has been already taken she flies away +and seeks another twig directly she discovers her mistake. + +The gravid female always retains an upright position at this time, as +indeed she does at other times. She is so absorbed in her task that she +may readily be watched, even through a magnifying glass. The ovipositor, +which is about four-tenths of an inch in length, is plunged obliquely +and up to the hilt into the twig. So perfect is the tool that the +operation is by no means troublesome. We see the Cigale tremble +slightly, dilating and contracting the extremity of the abdomen in +frequent palpitations. This is all that can be seen. The boring +instrument, consisting of a double saw, alternately rises and sinks in +the rind of the twig with a gentle, almost imperceptible movement. +Nothing in particular occurs during the process of laying the eggs. The +insect is motionless, and hardly ten minutes elapse between the first +cut of the ovipositor and the filling of the egg-chamber with eggs. + +The ovipositor is then withdrawn with methodical deliberation, in order +that it may not be strained or bent. The egg-chamber closes of its own +accord as the woody fibres which have been displaced return to their +position, and the Cigale climbs a little higher, moving upwards in a +straight line, by about the length of its ovipositor. It then makes +another puncture and a fresh chamber for another ten or twelve eggs. In +this way it scales the twig from bottom to top. + +These facts being understood, we are able to explain the remarkable +arrangement of the eggs. The openings in the rind of the twig are +practically equidistant, since each time the Cigale moves upward it is +by a given length, namely, that of the ovipositor. Very rapid in flight, +she is a very idle walker. At the most you may see her, on the living +twig from which she is drinking, moving at a slow, almost solemn pace, +to gain a more sunny point close at hand. On the dry twig in which she +deposits her eggs she observes the same formal habits, and even +exaggerates them, in view of the importance of the operation. She moves +as little as possible, just so far as she must in order to avoid running +two adjacent egg-chambers into one. The extent of each movement upwards +is approximately determined by the depth of the perforation. + +The apertures are arranged in a straight line when their number is not +very large. Why, indeed, should the insect wander to right or to left +upon a twig which presents the same surface all over? A lover of the +sun, she chooses that side of the twig which is most exposed to it. So +long as she feels the heat, her supreme joy, upon her back, she will +take good care not to change the position which she finds so delightful +for another in which the sun would fall upon her less directly. + +The process of depositing the eggs is a lengthy one when it is carried +out entirely on the same twig. Counting ten minutes for each +egg-chamber, the full series of forty would represent a period of six or +seven hours. The sun will of course move through a considerable distance +before the Cigale can finish her work. In such cases the series of +apertures follows a spiral curve. The insect turns round the stalk as +the sun turns. + +Very often as the Cigale is absorbed in her maternal task a diminutive +fly, also full of eggs, busily exterminates the Cigale's eggs as fast as +they are laid. + +This insect was known to Reaumur. In nearly all the twigs examined he +found its grub, the cause of a misunderstanding at the beginning of his +researches. But he did not, could not see the audacious insect at work. +It is one of the Chalcididae, about one-fifth or one-sixth of an inch in +length; entirely black, with knotty antennae, which are slightly thicker +towards their extremities. The unsheathed ovipositor is implanted in the +under portion of the abdomen, about the middle, and at right angles to +the axis of the body, as in the case of the Leucospis, the pest of the +apiary. Not having taken the precaution to capture it, I do not know +what name the entomologists have bestowed upon it, or even if this dwarf +exterminator of the Cigale has as yet been catalogued. What I am +familiar with is its calm temerity, its impudent audacity in the +presence of the colossus who could crush it with a foot. I have seen as +many as three at once exploiting the unfortunate female. They keep close +behind the Cigale, working busily with their probes, or waiting until +their victim deposits her eggs. + +The Cigale fills one of her egg-chambers and climbs a little higher in +order to bore another hole. One of the bandits runs to the abandoned +station, and there, almost under the claws of the giant, and without the +least nervousness, as if it were accomplishing some meritorious action, +it unsheathes its probe and thrusts it into the column of eggs, not by +the open aperture, which is bristling with broken fibres, but by a +lateral fissure. The probes works slowly, as the wood is almost intact. +The Cigale has time to fill the adjacent chamber. + +As soon as she has finished one of these midges, the very same that has +been performing its task below her, replaces her and introduces its +disastrous egg. By the time the Cigale departs, her ovaries empty, the +majority of the egg-chambers have thus received the alien egg which will +work the destruction of their contents. A small, quick-hatching grub, +richly nourished on a dozen eggs, will replace the family of the Cigale. + +The experience of centuries has taught the Cigale nothing. With her +excellent eyesight she must be able to perceive these terrible sappers +as they hover about her, meditating their crime. Too peaceable giantess! +if you see them why do you not seize them in your talons, crush the +pigmies at their work, so that you may proceed with your travail in +security? But no, you will leave them untouched; you cannot modify your +instincts, even to alleviate your maternal misfortunes. + +The eggs of the common Cigale are of a shining ivory white. Conical at +the ends, and elongated in form, they might be compared in shape to the +weaver's shuttle. Their length is about one-tenth of an inch, their +diameter about one-fiftieth. They are packed in a row, slightly +overlapping one another. The eggs of the Cacan are slightly smaller, and +are assembled in regular groups which remind one of microscopical +bundles of cigars. We will consider the eggs of the common Cigale to the +exclusion of the others, as their history is the history of all. + +September is not yet over when the shining white as of ivory gives way +to the yellow hue of cheese. During the first days of October you may +see, at the forward end of the egg, two tiny points of chestnut brown, +which are the eyes of the embryo in formation. These two shining eyes, +which almost seem to gaze at one, and the cone-shaped head of the egg, +give it the look of a tiny fish without fins--a fish for whom half a +nut-shell would make a capacious aquarium. + +About the same time I notice frequently, on the asphodels in the paddock +and on those of the neighbouring hills, certain indications that the +eggs have recently hatched out. There are certain cast-off articles of +clothing, certain rags and tatters, left on the threshold of the +egg-chamber by the new-born grubs as they leave it and hurry in search +of a new lodging. We shall see in a moment what these vestiges mean. + +But in spite of my visits, which were so assiduous as to deserve +success, I had never contrived to see the young Cigales emerge from +their egg-chambers. My domestic researches had been pursued in vain. Two +years running I had collected, in boxes, tubes, and bottles, a hundred +twigs of every kind which were peopled by the eggs of the Cigale; but +not one had shown me what I so desired to witness: the issue of the +new-born Cigales. + +Reaumur experienced the same disappointment. He tells us how all the +eggs supplied by his friends were abortive, even when he placed them in +a glass tube thrust under his armpit, in order to keep them at a high +temperature. No, venerable master! neither the temperate shelter of our +studies and laboratories, nor the incubating warmth of our bodies is +sufficient here; we need the supreme stimulant, the kiss of the sun; +after the cool of the mornings, which are already sharp, the sudden +blaze of the superb autumn weather, the last endearments of summer. + +It was under such circumstances, when a blazing sun followed a cold +night, that I found the signs of completed incubation; but I always came +too late; the young Cigales had departed. At most I sometimes found one +hanging by a thread to its natal stem and struggling in the air. I +supposed it to be caught in a thread of gossamer, or some shred of +cobweb. + +At last, on the 27th of October, despairing of success, I gathered some +asphodels from the orchard, and the armful of dry twigs in which the +Cigales had laid their eggs was taken up to my study. Before giving up +all hope I proposed once more to examine the egg-chambers and their +contents. The morning was cold, and the first fire of the season had +been lit in my room. I placed my little bundle on a chair before the +fire, but without any intention of testing the effect of the heat of the +flames upon the concealed eggs. The twigs, which I was about to cut +open, one by one, were placed there to be within easy reach of my hand, +and for no other reason. + +Then, while I was examining a split twig with my magnifying-glass, the +phenomenon which I had given up all hope of observing took place under +my eyes. My bundle of twigs was suddenly alive; scores and scores of the +young larvae were emerging from their egg-chambers. Their numbers were +such that my ambition as observer was amply satisfied. The eggs were +ripe, on the point of hatching, and the warmth of the fire, bright and +penetrating, had the effect of sunlight in the open. I was quick to +profit by the unexpected piece of good fortune. + +At the orifice of the egg-chamber, among the torn fibres of the bark, a +little cone-shaped body is visible, with two black eye-spots; in +appearance it is precisely like the fore portion of the butter-coloured +egg; or, as I have said, like the fore portion of a tiny fish. You would +think that an egg had been somehow displaced, had been removed from the +bottom of the chamber to its aperture. An egg to move in this narrow +passage! a walking egg! No, that is impossible; eggs "do not do such +things!" This is some mistake. We will break open the twig, and the +mystery is unveiled. The actual eggs are where they always were, though +they are slightly disarranged. They are empty, reduced to the condition +of transparent skins, split wide open at the upper end. From them has +issued the singular organism whose most notable characteristics are as +follows:-- + +In its general form, the configuration of the head and the great black +eyes, the creature, still more than the egg, has the appearance of an +extremely minute fish. A simulacrum of a ventral fin increases the +resemblance. This apparent fin in reality consists of the two +fore-limbs, which, packed in a special sheath, are bent backwards, +stretched out against one another in a straight line. Its small degree +of mobility must enable the grub to escape from the egg-shell and, with +greater difficulty, from the woody tunnel leading to the open air. +Moving outwards a little from the body, and then moving back again, this +lever serves as a means of progression, its terminal hooks being already +fairly strong. The four other feet are still covered by the common +envelope, and are absolutely inert. It is the same with the antennae, +which can scarcely be seen through the magnifying-glass. The organism +which has issued from the egg is a boat-shaped body with a fin-shaped +limb pointing backwards on the ventral face, formed by the junction of +the two fore-limbs. The segmentation of the body is very clear, +especially on the abdomen. The whole body is perfectly smooth, without +the least suspicion of hair. + +What name are we to give to this initial phase of the Cigale--a phase so +strange, so unforeseen, and hitherto unsuspected? Must I amalgamate some +more or less appropriate words of Greek and fabricate a portentous +nomenclature? No, for I feel sure that barbarous alien phrases are only +a hindrance to science. I will call it simply the _primary larva_, as I +have done in the case of the Meloides, the Leucospis, and the Anthrax. + +The form of the primary larva of the Cigale is eminently adapted to its +conditions and facilitates its escape. The tunnel in which the egg is +hatched is very narrow, leaving only just room for passage. Moreover, +the eggs are arranged in a row, not end to end, but partially +overlapping. The larva escaping from the hinder ranks has to squeeze +past the empty shells, still in position, of the eggs which have already +hatched, so that the narrowness of the passage is increased by the empty +egg-shells. Under these conditions the larva as it will be presently, +when it has torn its temporary wrappings, would be unable to effect the +difficult passage. With the encumbrance of antennae, with long limbs +spreading far out from the axis of the body, with curved, pointed talons +which hook themselves into their medium of support, everything would +militate against a prompt liberation. The eggs in one chamber hatch +almost simultaneously. It is therefore essential that the first-born +larvae should hurry out of their shelter as quickly as possible, leaving +the passage free for those behind them. Hence the boat-like shape, the +smooth hairless body without projections, which easily squeezes its way +past obstructions. The primary larva, with its various appendages +closely wrapped against its body by a common sheath, with its fish-like +form and its single and only partially movable limb, is perfectly +adapted to make the difficult passage to the outer air. + +This phase is of short duration. Here, for instance, a migrating larva +shows its head, with its big black eyes, and raises the broken fibres of +the entrance. It gradually works itself forward, but so slowly that the +magnifying-glass scarcely reveals its progress. At the end of half an +hour at the shortest we see the entire body of the creature; but the +orifice by which it is escaping still holds it by the hinder end of the +body. + +Then, without further delay, the coat which it wears for this rough +piece of work begins to split, and the larva skins itself, coming out of +its wrappings head first. It is then the normal larva; the only form +known to Reaumur. The rejected coat forms a suspensory thread, expanding +at its free end to form a little cup. In this cup is inserted the end of +the abdomen of the larva, which, before allowing itself to fall to +earth, takes a sun-bath, grows harder, stretches itself, and tries its +strength, lightly swinging at the end of its life-line. + +This little flea, as Reaumur calls it, first white, then amber-coloured, +is precisely the larva which will delve in the earth. The antennae, of +fair length, are free and waving to and fro; the limbs are bending at +their articulations; the fore-limbs, which are relatively powerful, open +and shut their talons. I can scarcely think of any more curious +spectacle than that of this tiny gymnast hanging by its tail, swinging +to the faintest breath, and preparing in the air for its entry into the +world. It hangs there for a variable period; some larvae let themselves +fall at the end of half an hour; others spend hours in their +long-stemmed cup; some even remain suspended until the following day. + +Whether soon or late, the fall of the larva leaves suspended the thread +by which it hung, the wrappings of the primary larva. When all the brood +have disappeared, the aperture of the nest is thus hung with a branch of +fine, short threads, twisted and knotted together, like dried white of +egg. Each thread is expanded into a tiny cup at its free end. These are +very delicate and ephemeral relics, which perish at a touch. The least +wind quickly blows them away. + +Let us return to the larva. Sooner or later, as we have seen, it falls +to the ground, either by accident or intention. The tiny creature, no +bigger than a flea, has preserved its tender newly-hatched flesh from +contact with the rough earth by hanging in the air until its tissues +have hardened. Now it plunges into the troubles of life. + +I foresee a thousand dangers ahead. A mere breath of wind may carry this +atom away, and cast it on that inaccessible rock in the midst of a rut +in the road which still contains a little water; or on the sand, the +region of famine where nothing grows; or upon a soil of clay, too +tenacious to be tunnelled. These mortal accidents are frequent, for +gusts of wind are frequent in the windy and already severe weather of +the end of October. + +This delicate organism requires a very soft soil, which can easily be +entered, so that it may immediately obtain a suitable shelter. The cold +days are coming; soon the frosts will be here. To wander on the surface +would expose it to grave perils. It must contrive without delay to +descend into the earth, and that to no trivial depth. This is the unique +and imperative condition of safety, and in many cases it is impossible +of realisation. What use are the claws of this tiny flea against rock, +sandstone, or hardened clay? The creature must perish if it cannot find +a subterranean refuge in good time. + +Everything goes to show that the necessity of this first foothold on the +soil, subject as it is to so many accidents, is the cause of the great +mortality in the Cigale family. The little black parasite, the destroyer +of eggs, in itself evokes the necessity of a large batch of eggs; and +the difficulty which the larva experiences in effecting a safe lodgment +in the earth is yet another explanation of the fact that the maintenance +of the race at its proper strength requires a batch of three or four +hundred eggs from each mother. Subject to many accidents, the Cigale is +fertile to excess. By the prodigality of her ovaries she conjures the +host of perils which threaten her offspring. + +During the rest of my experiment I can at least spare the larvae the +worst difficulties of their first establishment underground. I take some +soil from the heath, which is very soft and almost black, and I pass it +through a fine sieve. Its colour will enable me more easily to find the +tiny fair-skinned larvae when I wish to inform myself of passing events; +its lightness makes it a suitable refuge for such weak and fragile +beings. I pack it Pretty firmly in a glass vase; I plant in it a little +tuft of thyme; I sow in it a few grains of wheat. There is no hole at +the bottom of the vase, although there should be one for the benefit of +the thyme and the corn; but the captives would find it and escape by it. +The plantation and the crop will suffer from this lack of drainage, but +at least I am sure of recovering my larvae with the help of patience and +a magnifying-glass. Moreover, I shall go gently in the matter of +irrigation, giving only just enough water to save the plants from +perishing. + +When all is in order, and when the wheat is beginning to shoot, I place +six young larvae of the Cigale on the surface of the soil. The tiny +creatures begin to pace hither and thither; they soon explore the +surface of their world, and some try vainly to climb the sides of the +vase. Not one of them seems inclined to bury itself; so that I ask +myself anxiously what can be the object of their prolonged and active +explorations. Two hours go by, but their wanderings continue. + +What do they want? Food? I offer them some tiny bulbs with bundles of +sprouting roots, a few fragments of leaves and some fresh blades of +grass. Nothing tempts them; nothing brings them to a standstill. +Apparently they are seeking for a favourable point before descending +into the earth. But there is no need for this hesitating exploration on +the soil I have prepared for them; the whole area, or so it seems to me, +lends itself excellently to the operations which I am expecting to see +them commence. Yet apparently it will not answer the purpose. + +Under natural conditions a little wandering might well be indispensable. +Spots as soft as my bed of earth from the roots of the briar-heather, +purged of all hard bodies and finely sifted, are rare in nature. Coarse +soils are more usual, on which the tiny creatures could make no +impression. The larva must wander at hazard, must make a pilgrimage of +indefinite duration before finding a favourable place. Very many, no +doubt, perish, exhausted by their fruitless search. A voyage of +exploration in a country a few inches wide evidently forms part of the +curriculum of young Cigales. In my glass prison, so luxuriously +furnished, this pilgrimage is useless. Never mind: it must be +accomplished according to the consecrated rites. + +At last my wanderers grow less excited. I see them attack the earth with +the curved talons of their fore-limbs, digging their claws into it and +making such an excavation as the point of a thick needle would enter. +With a magnifying-glass I watch their picks at work. I see their talons +raking atom after atom of earth to the surface. In a few minutes there +is a little gaping well. The larva climbs downwards and buries itself, +henceforth invisible. + +On the morrow I turn out the contents of the vase without breaking the +mould, which is held together by the roots of the thyme and the wheat. I +find all my larvae at the bottom, arrested by the glass. In twenty-four +hours they had sunk themselves through the entire thickness of the +earth--a matter of some four inches. But for obstacle at the bottom they +would have sunk even further. + +On the way they have probably encountered the rootlets of my little +plantation. Did they halt in order to take a little nourishment by +implanting their proboscis? This is hardly probable, for a few rootlets +were pressed against the bottom of the glass, but none of my prisoners +were feeding. Perhaps the shock of reversing the pot detached them. + +It is obvious that underground there is no other nourishment for them +than the sap of roots. Adult or larva, the Cigale is a strict +vegetarian. As an adult insect it drinks the sap of twigs and branches; +as a larva it sucks the sap of roots. But at what stage does it take the +first sip? That I do not know as yet, but the foregoing experiment seems +to show that the newly hatched larva is in greater haste to burrow deep +into the soil, so as to obtain shelter from the coming winter, than to +station itself at the roots encountered in its passage downwards. + +I replace the mass of soil in the vase, and the six exhumed larvae are +once more placed on the surface of the soil. This time they commence to +dig at once, and have soon disappeared. Finally the vase is placed in my +study window, where it will be subject to the influences, good and ill, +of the outer air. + +A month later, at the end of November, I pay the young Cigales a second +visit. They are crouching, isolated at the bottom of the mould. They do +not adhere to the roots; they have not grown; their appearance has not +altered. Such as they were at the beginning of the experiment, such they +are now, but rather less active. Does not this lack of growth during +November, the mildest month of winter, prove that no nourishment is +taken until the spring? + +The young Sitares, which are also very minute, directly they issue from +the egg at the entrance of the tubes of the Anthrophorus, remain +motionless, assembled in a heap, and pass the whole of the winter in a +state of complete abstinence. The young Cigales apparently behave in a +very similar fashion. Once they have burrowed to such depths as will +safeguard them from the frosts they sleep in solitude in their winter +quarters, and await the return of spring before piercing some +neighbouring root and taking their first repast. + +I have tried unsuccessfully to confirm these deductions by observation. +In April I unpotted my plant of thyme for the third time. I broke up the +mould and spread it under the magnifying-glass. It was like looking for +needles in a haystack; but at last I recovered my little Cigales. They +were dead, perhaps of cold, in spite of the bell-glass with which I had +covered the pot, or perhaps of starvation, if the thyme was not a +suitable food-plant. I give up the problem as too difficult of solution. + +To rear such larvae successfully one would require a deep, extensive bed +of earth which would shelter them from the winter cold; and, as I do not +know what roots they prefer, a varied vegetation, so that the little +creatures could choose according to their taste. These conditions are by +no means impracticable, but how, in the large earthy mass, containing at +least a cubic yard of soil, should we recover the atoms I had so much +trouble to find in a handful of black soil from the heath? Moreover, +such a laborious search would certainly detach the larva from its root. + +The early subterranean life of the Cigale escapes us. That of the +maturer larva is no better known. Nothing is more common, while digging +in the fields to any depth, to find these impetuous excavators under the +spade; but to surprise them fixed upon the roots which incontestably +nourish them is quite another matter. The disturbance of the soil warns +the larva of danger. It withdraws its proboscis in order to retreat +along its galleries, and when the spade uncovers it has ceased to feed. + +If the hazards of field-work, with its inevitable disturbance of the +larvae, cannot teach us anything of their subterranean habits, we can at +least learn something of the duration of the larval stage. Some obliging +farmers, who were making some deep excavations in March, were good +enough to collect for me all the larvae, large and small, unearthed in +the course of their labour. The total collection amounted to several +hundreds. They were divided, by very clearly marked differences of size, +into three categories: the large larvae, with rudiments of wings, such as +those larvae caught upon leaving the earth possess; the medium-sized, and +the small. Each of these stages must correspond to a different age. To +these we may add the larvae produced by the last hatching of eggs, +creatures too minute to be noticed by my rustic helpers, and we obtain +four years as the probable term of the larvae underground. + +The length of their aerial existence is more easily computed. I hear the +first Cigales about the summer solstice. A month later the orchestra has +attained its full power. A very few late singers execute their feeble +solos until the middle of September. This is the end of the concert. As +all the larvae do not issue from the ground at the same time, it is +evident that the singers of September are not contemporary with those +that began to sing at the solstice. Taking the average between these two +dates, we get five weeks as the probable duration of the Cigales' life +on earth. + +Four years of hard labour underground, and a month of feasting in the +sun; such is the life of the Cigale. Do not let us again reproach the +adult insect with his triumphant delirium. For four years, in the +darkness he has worn a dirty parchment overall; for four years he has +mined the soil with his talons, and now the mud-stained sapper is +suddenly clad in the finest raiment, and provided with wings that rival +the bird's; moreover, he is drunken with heat and flooded with light, +the supreme terrestrial joy. His cymbals will never suffice to celebrate +such felicity, so well earned although so ephemeral. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE MANTIS.--THE CHASE + + +There is another creature of the Midi which is quite as curious and +interesting as the Cigale, but much less famous, as it is voiceless. If +Providence had provided it with cymbals, which are a prime element of +popularity, it would soon have eclipsed the renown of the celebrated +singer, so strange is its shape, and so peculiar its manners. It is +called by the Provencals _lou Prego-Dieu_, the creature which prays to +God. Its official name is the Praying Mantis (_Mantis religiosa_, Lin.). + +For once the language of science and the vocabulary of the peasant +agree. Both represent the Mantis as a priestess delivering oracles, or +an ascetic in a mystic ecstasy. The comparison is a matter of antiquity. +The ancient Greeks called the insect [Greek: Mantis], the divine, the +prophet. The worker in the fields is never slow in perceiving analogies; +he will always generously supplement the vagueness of the facts. He has +seen, on the sun-burned herbage of the meadows, an insect of commanding +appearance, drawn up in majestic attitude. He has noticed its wide, +delicate wings of green, trailing behind it like long linen veils; he +has seen its fore-limbs, its arms, so to speak, raised towards to the +sky in a gesture of invocation. This was enough: popular imagination +has done the rest; so that since the period of classical antiquity the +bushes have been peopled with priestesses emitting oracles and nuns in +prayer. + +Good people, how very far astray your childlike simplicity has led you! +These attitudes of prayer conceal the most atrocious habits; these +supplicating arms are lethal weapons; these fingers tell no rosaries, +but help to exterminate the unfortunate passer-by. It is an exception +that we should never look for in the vegetarian family of the +Orthoptera, but the Mantis lives exclusively upon living prey. It is the +tiger of the peaceful insect peoples; the ogre in ambush which demands a +tribute of living flesh. If it only had sufficient strength its +blood-thirsty appetites, and its horrible perfection of concealment +would make it the terror of the countryside. The _Prego-Dieu_ would +become a Satanic vampire. + +Apart from its lethal weapon the Mantis has nothing about it to inspire +apprehension. It does not lack a certain appearance of graciousness, +with its slender body, its elegant waist-line, its tender green +colouring, and its long gauzy wings. No ferocious jaws, opening like +shears; on the contrary, a fine pointed muzzle which seems to be made +for billing and cooing. Thanks to a flexible neck, set freely upon the +thorax, the head can turn to right or left as on a pivot, bow, or raise +itself high in the air. Alone among insects, the Mantis is able to +direct its gaze; it inspects and examines; it has almost a physiognomy. + +There is a very great contrast between the body as a whole, which has a +perfectly peaceable aspect, and the murderous fore-limbs. The haunch of +the fore-limb is unusually long and powerful. Its object is to throw +forward the living trap which does not wait for the victim, but goes in +search of it. The snare is embellished with a certain amount of +ornamentation. On the inner face the base of the haunch is decorated +with a pretty black spot relieved by smaller spots of white, and a few +rows of fine pearly spots complete the ornamentation. + +The thigh, still longer, like a flattened spindle, carries on the +forward half of the lower face a double row of steely spines. The +innermost row contains a dozen, alternately long and black and short and +green. This alternation of unequal lengths makes the weapon more +effectual for holding. The outer row is simpler, having only four teeth. +Finally, three needle-like spikes, the longest of all, rise behind the +double series of spikes. In short, the thigh is a saw with two parallel +edges, separated by a groove in which the foreleg lies when folded. + +The foreleg, which is attached to the thigh by a very flexible +articulation, is also a double-edged saw, but the teeth are smaller, +more numerous, and closer than those of the thigh. It terminates in a +strong hook, the point of which is as sharp as the finest needle: a hook +which is fluted underneath and has a double blade like a pruning-knife. + +A weapon admirably adapted for piercing and tearing, this hook has +sometimes left me with visible remembrances. Caught in turn by the +creature which I had just captured, and not having both hands free, I +have often been obliged to get a second person to free me from my +tenacious captive! To free oneself by violence without disengaging the +firmly implanted talons would result in lacerations such as the thorns +of a rosebush will produce. None of our insects is so inconvenient to +handle. The Mantis digs its knife-blades into your flesh, pierces you +with its needles, seizes you as in a vice, and renders self-defence +almost impossible if, wishing to take your quarry alive, you refrain +from crushing it out of existence. + +When the Mantis is in repose its weapons are folded and pressed against +the thorax, and are perfectly inoffensive in appearance. The insect is +apparently praying. But let a victim come within reach, and the attitude +of prayer is promptly abandoned. Suddenly unfolded, the three long +joints of the deadly fore-limbs shoot out their terminal talons, which +strike the victim and drag it backwards between the two saw-blades of +the thighs. The vice closes with a movement like that of the forearm +upon the upper arm, and all is over; crickets, grasshoppers, and even +more powerful insects, once seized in this trap with its four rows of +teeth, are lost irreparably. Their frantic struggles will never release +the hold of this terrible engine of destruction. + +The habits of the Mantis cannot be continuously studied in the freedom +of the fields; the insect must be domesticated. There is no difficulty +here; the Mantis is quite indifferent to imprisonment under glass, +provided it is well fed. Offer it a tasty diet, feed it daily, and it +will feel but little regret for its native thickets. + +For cages I use a dozen large covers of wire gauze, such as are used in +the larder to protect meat from the flies. Each rests upon a tray full +of sand. A dry tuft of thyme and a flat stone on which the eggs may be +laid later on complete the furnishing of such a dwelling. These cages +are placed in a row on the large table in my entomological laboratory, +where the sun shines on them during the greater part of the day. There +I install my captives; some singly, some in groups. + +It is in the latter half of August that I begin to meet with the adult +insect on the faded herbage and the brambles at the roadside. The +females, whose bellies are already swollen, are more numerous every day. +Their slender companions, on the other hand, are somewhat rare, and I +often have some trouble in completing my couples; whose relations will +finally be terminated by a tragic consummation. But we will reserve +these amenities for a later time, and will consider the females first. + +They are tremendous eaters, so that their entertainment, when it lasts +for some months is not without difficulties. Their provisions must be +renewed every day, for the greater part are disdainfully tasted and +thrown aside. On its native bushes I trust the Mantis is more +economical. Game is not too abundant, so that she doubtless devours her +prey to the last atom; but in my cages it is always at hand. Often, +after a few mouthfuls, the insect will drop the juicy morsel without +displaying any further interest in it. Such is the ennui of captivity! + +To provide them with a luxurious table I have to call in assistants. Two +or three of the juvenile unemployed of my neighbourhood, bribed by +slices of bread and jam or of melon, search morning and evening on the +neighbouring lawns, where they fill their game-bags, little cases made +from sections of reeds, with living grasshoppers and crickets. On my own +part, I make a daily tour of the paddock, net in hand, with the object +of obtaining some choice dish for my guests. + +These particular captures are destined to show me just how far the +vigour and audacity of the Mantis will lead it. They include the large +grey cricket (_Pachytylus cinerascens_, Fab.), which is larger than the +creature which devours it; the white-faced Decticus, armed with powerful +mandibles from which it is wise to guard one's fingers; the grotesque +Truxalis, wearing a pyramidal mitre on its head; and the Ephippigera of +the vineyards, which clashes its cymbals and carries a sabre at the end +of its barrel-shaped abdomen. To this assortment of disobliging +creatures let us add two horrors: the silky Epeirus, whose disc-shaped +scalloped abdomen is as big as a shilling, and the crowned Epeirus, +which is horribly hairy and corpulent. + +I cannot doubt that the Mantis attacks such adversaries in a state of +nature when I see it, under my wire-gauze covers, boldly give battle to +whatever is placed before it. Lying in wait among the bushes it must +profit by the prizes bestowed upon it by hazard, as in its cage it +profits by the wealth of diet due to my generosity. The hunting of such +big game as I offer, which is full of danger, must form part of the +creature's usual life, though it may be only an occasional pastime, +perhaps to the great regret of the Mantis. + +Crickets of all kinds, butterflies, bees, large flies of many species, +and other insects of moderate size: such is the prey that we habitually +find in the embrace of the murderous arms of the Mantis. But in my cages +I have never known the audacious huntress to recoil before any other +insect. Grey cricket, Decticus, Epeirus or Truxalis, sooner or later all +are harpooned, held motionless between the saw-edges of the arms, and +deliciously crunched at leisure. The process deserves a detailed +description. + +At the sight of a great cricket, which thoughtlessly approaches along +the wire-work of the cover, the Mantis, shaken by a convulsive start, +suddenly assumes a most terrifying posture. An electric shock would not +produce a more immediate result. The transition is so sudden, the +mimicry so threatening, that the unaccustomed observer will draw back +his hand, as though at some unknown danger. Seasoned as I am, I myself +must confess to being startled on occasions when my thoughts have been +elsewhere. The creature spreads out like a fan actuated by a spring, or +a fantastic Jack-in-the-box. + +The wing-covers open, and are thrust obliquely aside; the wings spring +to their full width, standing up like parallel screens of transparent +gauze, forming a pyramidal prominence which dominates the back; the end +of the abdomen curls upwards crosier-wise, then falls and unbends itself +with a sort of swishing noise, a _pouf! pouf!_ like the sound emitted by +the feathers of a strutting turkey-cock. One is reminded of the puffing +of a startled adder. + +Proudly straddling on its four hind-claws, the insect holds its long +body almost vertical. The murderous fore-limbs, at first folded and +pressed against one another on the thorax, open to their full extent, +forming a cross with the body, and exhibiting the axillae ornamented with +rows of pearls, and a black spot with a central point of white. These +two eyes, faintly recalling those of the peacock's tail, and the fine +ebony embossments, are part of the blazonry of conflict, concealed upon +ordinary occasions. Their jewels are only assumed when they make +themselves terrible and superb for battle. + +Motionless in its weird position, the Mantis surveys the acridian, its +gaze fixed upon it, its head turning gently as on a pivot as the other +changes place. The object of this mimicry seems evident; the Mantis +wishes to terrorise its powerful prey, to paralyse it with fright; for +if not demoralised by fear the quarry might prove too dangerous. + +Does it really terrify its prey? Under the shining head of the Decticus, +behind the long face of the cricket, who is to say what is passing? No +sign of emotion can reveal itself upon these immovable masks. Yet it +seems certain that the threatened creature is aware of its danger. It +sees, springing up before it, a terrible spectral form with talons +outstretched, ready to fall upon it; it feels itself face to face with +death, and fails to flee while yet there is time. The creature that +excels in leaping, and might so easily escape from the threatening +claws, the wonderful jumper with the prodigious thighs, remains +crouching stupidly in its place, or even approaches the enemy with +deliberate steps.[2] + +It is said that young birds, paralysed with terror by the gaping mouth +of a serpent, or fascinated by its gaze, will allow themselves to be +snatched from the nest, incapable of movement. The cricket will often +behave in almost the same way. Once within reach of the enchantress, the +grappling-hooks are thrown, the fangs strike, the double saws close +together and hold the victim in a vice. Vainly the captive struggles; +his mandibles chew the air, his desperate kicks meet with no resistance. +He has met with his fate. The Mantis refolds her wings, the standard of +battle; she resumes her normal pose, and the meal commences. + +In attacking the Truxalis and the Ephippigera, less dangerous game than +the grey cricket and the Decticus, the spectral pose is less imposing +and of shorter duration. It is often enough to throw forward the talons; +this is so in the case of the Epeirus, which is seized by the middle of +the body, without a thought of its venomous claws. With the smaller +crickets, which are the customary diet in my cages as at liberty, the +Mantis rarely employs her means of intimidation; she merely seizes the +heedless passer-by as she lies in wait. + +When the insect to be captured may present some serious resistance, the +Mantis is thus equipped with a pose which terrifies or perplexes, +fascinates or absorbs the prey, while it enables her talons to strike +with greater certainty. Her gins close on a demoralised victim, +incapable of or unready for defence. She freezes the quarry with fear or +amazement by suddenly assuming the attitude of a spectre. + +The wings play an important part in this fantastic pose. They are very +wide, green on the outer edge, but colourless and transparent elsewhere. +Numerous nervures, spreading out fan-wise, cross them in the direction +of their length. Others, transversal but finer, cut the first at right +angles, forming with them a multitude of meshes. In the spectral +attitude the wings are outspread and erected in two parallel planes +which are almost in contact, like the wings of butterflies in repose. +Between the two the end of the abdomen rapidly curls and uncurls. From +the rubbing of the belly against the network of nervures proceeds the +species of puffing sound which I have compared to the hissing of an +adder in a posture of defence. To imitate this curious sound it is +enough rapidly to stroke the upper face of an outstretched wing with the +tip of the finger-nail. + +In a moment of hunger, after a fast of some days, the large grey +cricket, which is as large as the Mantis or larger, will be entirely +consumed with the exception of the wings, which are too dry. Two hours +are sufficient for the completion of this enormous meal. Such an orgy is +rare. I have witnessed it two or three times, always asking myself where +the gluttonous creature found room for so much food, and how it +contrived to reverse in its own favour the axiom that the content is +less than that which contains it. I can only admire the privileges of a +stomach in which matter is digested immediately upon entrance, dissolved +and made away with. + +The usual diet of the Mantis under my wire cages consists of crickets of +different species and varying greatly in size. It is interesting to +watch the Mantis nibbling at its cricket, which it holds in the vice +formed by its murderous fore-limbs. In spite of the fine-pointed muzzle, +which hardly seems made for such ferocity, the entire insect disappears +excepting the wings, of which only the base, which is slightly fleshy, +is consumed. Legs, claws, horny integuments, all else is eaten. +Sometimes the great hinder thigh is seized by the knuckle, carried to +the mouth, tasted, and crunched with a little air of satisfaction. The +swollen thigh of the cricket might well be a choice "cut" for the +Mantis, as a leg of lamb is for us! + +The attack on the victim begins at the back of the neck or base of the +head. While one of the murderous talons holds the quarry gripped by the +middle of the body, the other presses the head downwards, so that the +articulation between the back and the neck is stretched and opens +slightly. The snout of the Mantis gnaws and burrows into this undefended +spot with a certain persistence, and a large wound is opened in the +neck. At the lesion of the cephalic ganglions the struggles of the +cricket grow less, and the victim becomes a motionless corpse. Thence, +unrestricted in its movements, this beast of prey chooses its mouthfuls +at leisure. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE MANTIS.--COURTSHIP + + +The little we have seen of the customs of the Mantis does not square +very well with the popular name for the insect. From the term +_Prego-Dieu_ we should expect a peaceful placid creature, devoutly +self-absorbed; and we find a cannibal, a ferocious spectre, biting open +the heads of its captives after demoralising them with terror. But we +have yet to learn the worst. The customs of the Mantis in connection +with its own kin are more atrocious even than those of the spiders, who +bear an ill repute in this respect. + +To reduce the number of cages on my big laboratory table, to give myself +a little more room, while still maintaining a respectable menagerie, I +installed several females under one cover. There was sufficient space in +the common lodging and room for the captives to move about, though for +that matter they are not fond of movement, being heavy in the abdomen. +Crouching motionless against the wire work of the cover, they will +digest their food or await a passing victim. They lived, in short, just +as they lived on their native bushes. + +Communal life has its dangers. When the hay is low in the manger +donkeys grow quarrelsome, although usually so pacific. My guests might +well, in a season of dearth, have lost their tempers and begun to fight +one another; but I was careful to keep the cages well provided with +crickets, which were renewed twice a day. If civil war broke out famine +could not be urged in excuse. + +At the outset matters did not go badly. The company lived in peace, each +Mantis pouncing upon and eating whatever came her way, without +interfering with her neighbours. But this period of concord was of brief +duration. The bellies of the insects grew fuller: the eggs ripened in +their ovaries: the time of courtship and the laying season was +approaching. Then a kind of jealous rage seized the females, although no +male was present to arouse such feminine rivalry. The swelling of the +ovaries perverted my flock, and infected them with an insane desire to +devour one another. There were threats, horrid encounters, and cannibal +feasts. Once more the spectral pose was seen, the hissing of the wings, +and the terrible gesture of the talons outstretched and raised above the +head. The females could not have looked more terrible before a grey +cricket or a Decticus. Without any motives that I could see, two +neighbours suddenly arose in the attitude of conflict. They turned their +heads to the right and the left, provoking one another, insulting one +another. The _pouf! pouf!_ of the wings rubbed by the abdomen sounded +the charge. Although the duel was to terminate at the first scratch, +without any more serious consequence, the murderous talons, at first +folded, open like the leaves of a book, and are extended laterally to +protect the long waist and abdomen. The pose is superb, but less +terrific than that assumed when the fight is to be to the death. + +Then one of the grappling-hooks with a sudden spring flies out and +strikes the rival; with the same suddenness it flies back and assumes a +position of guard. The adversary replies with a riposte. The fencing +reminds one not a little of two cats boxing one another's ears. At the +first sign of blood on the soft abdomen, or even at the slightest wound, +one admits herself to be conquered and retires. The other refurls her +battle standard and goes elsewhere to meditate the capture of a cricket, +apparently calm, but in reality ready to recommence the quarrel. + +Very often the matter turns out more tragically. In duels to the death +the pose of attack is assumed in all its beauty. The murderous talons +unfold and rise in the air. Woe to the vanquished! for the victor seizes +her in her vice-like grip and at once commences to eat her; beginning, +needless to say, at the back of the neck. The odious meal proceeds as +calmly as if it were merely a matter of munching a grasshopper; and the +survivor enjoys her sister quite as much as lawful game. The spectators +do not protest, being only too willing to do the like on the first +occasion. + +Ferocious creatures! It is said that even wolves do not eat one another. +The Mantis is not so scrupulous; she will eat her fellows when her +favourite quarry, the cricket, is attainable and abundant. + +These observations reach a yet more revolting extreme. Let us inquire +into the habits of the insect at breeding time, and to avoid the +confusion of a crowd let us isolate the couples under different covers. +Thus each pair will have their own dwelling, where nothing can trouble +their honeymoon. We will not forget to provide them with abundant food; +there shall not be the excuse of hunger for what is to follow. + +We are near the end of August. The male Mantis, a slender and elegant +lover, judges the time to be propitious. He makes eyes at his powerful +companion; he turns his head towards her; he bows his neck and raises +his thorax. His little pointed face almost seems to wear an expression. +For a long time he stands thus motionless, in contemplation of the +desired one. The latter, as though indifferent, does not stir. Yet the +lover has seized upon a sign of consent: a sign of which I do not know +the secret. He approaches: suddenly he erects his wings, which are +shaken with a convulsive tremor. + +This is his declaration. He throws himself timidly on the back of his +corpulent companion; he clings to her desperately, and steadies himself. +The prelude to the embrace is generally lengthy, and the embrace will +sometimes last for five or six hours. + +Nothing worthy of notice occurs during this time. Finally the two +separate, but they are soon to be made one flesh in a much more intimate +fashion. If the poor lover is loved by his mistress as the giver of +fertility, she also loves him as the choicest of game. During the day, +or at latest on the morrow, he is seized by his companion, who first +gnaws through the back of his neck, according to use and wont, and then +methodically devours him, mouthful by mouthful, leaving only the wings. +Here we have no case of jealousy, but simply a depraved taste. + +I had the curiosity to wonder how a second male would be received by a +newly fecundated female. The result of my inquiry was scandalous. The +Mantis in only too many cases is never sated with embraces and conjugal +feasts. After a rest, of variable duration, whether the eggs have been +laid or not, a second male is welcomed and devoured like the first. A +third succeeds him, does his duty, and affords yet another meal. A +fourth suffers a like fate. In the course of two weeks I have seen the +same Mantis treat seven husbands in this fashion. She admitted all to +her embraces, and all paid for the nuptial ecstasy with their lives. + +There are exceptions, but such orgies are frequent. On very hot days, +when the atmospheric tension is high, they are almost the general rule. +At such times the Mantis is all nerves. Under covers which contain large +households the females devour one another more frequently than ever; +under the covers which contain isolated couples the males are devoured +more eagerly than usual when their office has been fulfilled. + +I might urge, in mitigation of these conjugal atrocities, that the +Mantis does not commit them when at liberty. The male, his function once +fulfilled, surely has time to wander off, to escape far away, to flee +the terrible spouse, for in my cages he is given a respite, often of a +whole day. What really happens by the roadside and in the thickets I do +not know; chance, a poor schoolmistress, has never instructed me +concerning the love-affairs of the Mantis when at liberty. I am obliged +to watch events in my laboratory, where the captives, enjoying plenty of +sunshine, well nourished, and comfortably lodged, do not seem in any way +to suffer from nostalgia. They should behave there as they behave under +normal conditions. + +Alas! the facts force me to reject the statement that the males have +time to escape; for I once surprised a male, apparently in the +performance of his vital functions, holding the female tightly +embraced--but he had no head, no neck, scarcely any thorax! The female, +her head turned over her shoulder, was peacefully browsing on the +remains of her lover! And the masculine remnant, firmly anchored, +continued its duty! + +Love, it is said, is stronger than death! Taken literally, never has an +aphorism received a more striking confirmation. Here was a creature +decapitated, amputated as far as the middle of the thorax; a corpse +which still struggled to give life. It would not relax its hold until +the abdomen itself, the seat of the organs of procreation, was attacked. + +The custom of eating the lover after the consummation of the nuptials, +of making a meal of the exhausted pigmy, who is henceforth good for +nothing, is not so difficult to understand, since insects can hardly be +accused of sentimentality; but to devour him during the act surpasses +anything that the most morbid mind could imagine. I have seen the thing +with my own eyes, and I have not yet recovered from my surprise. + +Could this unfortunate creature have fled and saved himself, being thus +attacked in the performance of his functions? No. We must conclude that +the loves of the Mantis are fully as tragic, perhaps even more so, than +those of the spider. I do not deny that the limited area of the cage may +favour the massacre of the males; but the cause of such butchering must +be sought elsewhere. It is perhaps a reminiscence of the carboniferous +period when the insect world gradually took shape through prodigious +procreation. The Orthoptera, of which the Mantes form a branch, are the +first-born of the insect world. + +Uncouth, incomplete in their transformation, they wandered amidst the +arborescent foliage, already flourishing when none of the insects sprung +of more complex forms of metamorphosis were as yet in existence: neither +butterflies, beetles, flies, nor bees. Manners were not gentle in those +epochs, which were full of the lust to destroy in order to produce; and +the Mantis, a feeble memory of those ancient ghosts, might well preserve +the customs of an earlier age. The utilisation of the males as food is a +custom in the case of other members of the Mantis family. It is, I must +admit, a general habit. The little grey Mantis, so small and looking so +harmless in her cage, which never seeks to harm her neighbours in spite +of her crowded quarters, falls upon her male and devours him as +ferociously as the Praying Mantis. I have worn myself out in trying to +procure the indispensable complements to my female specimens. No sooner +is my capture, strongly winged, vigorous and alert, introduced into the +cage than he is seized, more often than not, by one of the females who +no longer have need of his assistance and devoured. Once the ovaries are +satisfied the two species of Mantis conceive an antipathy for the male; +or rather they regard him merely as a particularly tasty species of +game. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE MANTIS.--THE NEST + + +Let us take a more pleasant aspect of the insect whose loves are so +tragic. Its nest is a marvel. In scientific language it is known as the +_ootek_, or the "egg-box." I shall not make use of this barbarous +expression. As one does not speak of the "egg-box" of the titmouse, +meaning "the nest of the titmouse," why should I invoke the box in +speaking of the Mantis? It may look more scientific; but that does not +interest me. + +The nest of the Praying Mantis may be found almost everywhere in places +exposed to the sun: on stones, wood, vine stocks, the twigs of bushes, +stems of dried grass, and even on products of human industry, such as +fragments of brick, rags of heavy cloth, and pieces of old boots. Any +support will suffice, so long as it offers inequalities to which the +base of the nest may adhere, and so provide a solid foundation. The +usual dimensions of the nest are one and a half inches long by +three-quarters of an inch wide, or a trifle larger. The colour is a pale +tan, like that of a grain of wheat. Brought in contact with a flame the +nest burns readily, and emits an odour like that of burning silk. The +material of the nest is in fact a substance similar to silk, but instead +of being drawn into a thread it is allowed to harden while a mass of +spongy foam. If the nest is fixed on a branch the base creeps round it, +envelops the neighbouring twigs, and assumes a variable shape according +to the accidents of support; if it is fixed on a flat surface the under +side, which is always moulded by the support, is itself flat. The nest +then takes the form of a demi-ellipsoid, or, in other words, half an egg +cut longitudinally; more or less obtuse at one end, but pointed at the +other, and sometimes ending in a short curved tail. + +In all cases the upper face is convex and regular. In it we can +distinguish three well-marked and longitudinal zones. The middle zone, +which is narrower than the others, is composed of thin plates arranged +in couples, and overlapping like the tiles of a roof. The edges of these +plates are free, leaving two parallel series of fissures by which the +young can issue when the eggs are hatched. In a nest recently abandoned +this zone is covered with fine cast-off skins which shiver at the least +breath, and soon disappear when exposed to the open air. I will call +this zone the zone of issue, as it is only along this bell that the +young can escape, being set free by those that have preceded them. + +In all other directions the cradle of this numerous family presents an +unbroken wall. The two lateral zones, which occupy the greater part of +the demi-ellipsoid, have a perfect continuity of surface. The little +Mantes, which are very feeble when first hatched, could not possibly +make their way through the tenacious substance of the walls. On the +interior of these walls are a number of fine transverse furrows, signs +of the various layers in which the mass of eggs is disposed. + +Let us cut the nest in half transversely. We shall then see that the +mass of eggs constitutes an elongated core, of very firm consistency, +surrounded as to the bottom and sides by a thick porous rind, like +solidified foam. Above the eggs are the curved plates, which are set +very closely and have little freedom; their edges constituting the zone +of issue, where they form a double series of small overlapping scales. + +The eggs are set in a yellowish medium of horny appearance. They are +arranged in layers, in lines forming arcs of a circle, with the cephalic +extremities converging towards the zone of issue. This orientation tells +us of the method of delivery. The newly-born larvae will slip into the +interval between two adjacent flaps or leaves, which form a prolongation +of the core; they will then find a narrow passage, none too easy to +effect, but sufficient, having regard to the curious provision which we +shall deal with directly; they will then reach the zone of issue. There, +under the overlapping scales, two passages of exit open for each layer +of eggs. Half the larvae will issue by the right-hand passage, half by +that on the left hand. This process is repeated for each layer, from end +to end of the nest. + +Let us sum up those structural details, which are not easily grasped +unless one has the nest before one. Lying along the axis of the nest, +and in shape like a date-stone, is the mass of eggs, grouped in layers. +A protective rind, a kind of solidified foam, envelops this core, except +at the top, along the central line, where the porous rind is replaced by +thin overlapping leaves. The free edges of these leaves form the +exterior of the zone of issue; they overlap one another, forming two +series of scales, leaving two exits, in the shape of narrow crevices, +for each layer of eggs. + +[Illustration: 1. NEST OF THE PRAYING MANTIS. + +2. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE SAME. + +3, 3a. NEST OF EMPUSA PAUPERATA. + +4. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE SAME. + +5. VERTICAL SELECTION OF THE SAME. + +6. NEST OF THE GREY MANTIS. + +7. SCHEFFER'S SISYPHUS (see Chap. XII.) + +8. PELLET OF THE SISYPHUS. + +9. PELLET OF THE SISYPHUS WITH DEJECTA OF THE LARVA FORCED THROUGH THE +WALLS.] + + +To be present at the construction of the nest--to learn how the Mantis +contrives to build so complex a structure--such was the main point of my +researches. I succeeded, not without difficulty, as the eggs are laid +without warning and nearly always at night. After a great deal of futile +endeavour, chance at last favoured me. On the 5th of September one of my +guests, fecundated on the 29th of August, began to make her preparations +under my eyes, at four o'clock in the afternoon. + +One remark before proceeding: all the nests I have obtained in the +laboratory--and I have obtained a good number--have without exception +been built upon the wire gauze of the covers. I have been careful to +provide the insects with roughened stones and tufts of thyme, both being +very commonly used as foundations in the open fields. The captives have +always preferred the network of wire gauze, which affords a perfectly +firm foundation, as the soft material of the nest becomes incrusted upon +the meshes as it hardens. + +In natural conditions the nests are never in any way sheltered; they +support the inclemencies of winter, resist rain, wind, frost, and snow, +without becoming detached. It is true that the female always selects an +uneven support on which the foundations of the nest can be shaped, thus +obtaining a firm hold. The site chosen is always the best obtainable +within reach, and the wire gauze is constantly adopted as the best +foundation obtainable in the cages. + +The only Mantis that I was able to observe at the moment of laying her +eggs worked upside-down, clinging to the wire near the top of the cover. +My presence, my magnifying-glass, my investigations did not disturb her +in the least, so absorbed was she in her labours. I was able to lift up +the dome of wire gauze, tilt it, reverse it, turn it over and reverse it +again, without causing the insect to delay her task for a moment. I was +able, with my tweezers, to raise the long wings in order to observe +rather more closely what was taking place beneath them; the Mantis took +absolutely no notice of me. So far all was well; the female did not +move, and lent herself impassively to all the indiscretions of the +observer. Nevertheless, matters did not proceed as I had wished, so +rapid was the operation and so difficult observation. + +The end of the abdomen is constantly immersed in a blob of foam, which +does not allow one to grasp the details of the process very clearly. +This foam is of a greyish white, slightly viscous, and almost like +soapsuds. At the moment of its appearance it adheres slightly to the end +of a straw plunged into it. Two minutes later it is solidified and no +longer adheres to the straw. In a short time its consistency is that of +the substance of an old nest. + +[Illustration: 1. THE MANTIS DEVOURING THE MALE IN THE ACT OF MATING. + +2. THE MANTIS COMPLETING HER NEST. + +3. GOLDEN SCARABAEI CUTTING UP A LOB-WORM.] + +The foamy mass consists chiefly of air imprisoned in minute bubbles. +This air, which gives the nest a volume very much greater than that of +the abdomen of the Mantis, evidently does not issue from the insect +although the foam appears at the orifice of the genital organs; it is +borrowed from the atmosphere. The Mantis builds more especially with +air, which is eminently adapted to protect the nest against changes +of temperature. She emits a glutinous substance like the liquid +secretion of silk-worms, and with this composition, mixed +instantaneously with the outer air, she produces the foam of which the +nest is constructed. + +She whips the secretion as we whip white of egg, in order to make it +rise and stiffen. The extremity of the abdomen opens in a long cleft, +forming two lateral ladles which open and shut with a rapid, incessant +movement, beating the viscous liquid and converting it into foam as it +is secreted. Beside the two oscillating ladles we see the internal +organs rising and falling, protruding and retreating like a piston-rod, +but it is impossible to observe the precise nature of their action, +bathed as they are in the opaque blob of foam. + +The end of the abdomen, continually palpitating, rapidly closing and +opening its valves, oscillates right and left like a pendulum. From each +of these oscillations results a layer of eggs in the interior, and a +transversal crevice on the exterior. As it advances in the arc +described, suddenly, and at frequent intervals, it plunges deeper into +the foam, as though burying something at the bottom of the frothy mass. +Each time it does so an egg is doubtless deposited; but the operation is +so rapid, and takes place under conditions so unfavourable for +observation, that I have never once been enabled to see the oviduct at +work. I can only judge of the advent of the eggs by the movements of the +end of the abdomen, which is immersed more deeply with a sudden plunging +movement. + +At the same time the viscous composition is emitted in intermittent +waves, and is beaten into a foam by the terminal valves. The foam thus +obtained spreads itself over the sides and at the base of the layer of +eggs, and projects through the meshes of the wire gauze as a result of +the pressure of the abdomen. Thus the spongy envelope is progressively +created as the ovaries are gradually emptied. + +I imagine, although I cannot speak as the result of direct observation, +that for the central core, where the eggs are surrounded by a material +more homogeneous than that of the outer shell, the Mantis must employ +her secretion as it emerges, without beating it into a foam. The layer +of eggs once deposited, the two valves would produce the foam required +to envelop the eggs. It is extremely difficult, however, to guess what +occurs beneath the veil of foam-like secretion. + +In a recent nest the zone of issue is surrounded by a layer of finely +porous matter, of a pure matt, almost chalky white, which contrasts +distinctly with the remainder of the nest, which is of a dirty white. It +resembles the icing composition made by confectioners with whipped white +of egg, sugar, and starch, for the ornamentation of cakes. + +This snowy border is easily crumbled and easily detached. When it +disappears the zone of issue is clearly defined, with its double series +of leaves with free edges. Exposure to the weather, wind, and rain +result in its disappearance, fragment by fragment, so that old nests +preserve no trace of it. + +At first sight one is tempted to regard this snowy substance as of a +different material to the rest of the nest. But does the Mantis really +employ two secretions? No. Anatomy, in the first place, assures us of +the unity of the materials of the nest. The organ which secretes the +substance of the nest consists of cylindrical tubes, having a curious +tangled appearance, which are arranged in two groups of twenty each. +They are all filled with a colourless, viscous fluid, which is precisely +similar in appearance in all parts of the organ. There is no indication +of any organ or secretion which could produce a chalky coloration. + +Moreover, the method by which the snowy band is formed rejects the idea +of a different material. We see the two caudal appendices of the Mantis +sweeping the surface of the foamy mass, and skimming, so to speak, the +cream of the cream, gathering it together, and retaining it along the +hump of the nest in such a way as to form a band like a ribbon of icing. +What remains after this scouring process, or what oozes from the band +before it has set, spreads over the sides of the nest in a thin layer of +bubbles so fine that they cannot be distinguished without the aid of a +lens. + +We often see a torrent of muddy water, full of clay in suspension, +covered with great streaks and masses of foam. On this fundamental foam, +so to call it, which is soiled with earthy matters, we see here and +there masses of a beautiful white foam, in which the bubbles are much +smaller. A process of selection results from variations in density, and +here and there we see foam white as snow resting on the dirty foam from +which it is produced. Something of the kind occurs when the Mantis +builds her nest. The two appendices whip the viscous secretion of the +glands into foam. The lightest portion, whose bubbles are of the +greatest tenuity, which is white on account of its finer porosity, rises +to the surface, where the caudal filaments sweep it up and gather it +into the snowy ribbon which runs along the summit of the nest. + +So far, with a little patience, observation is possible and yields a +satisfactory result. It becomes impossible in the matter of the complex +central zone, where the exits for the larvae are contrived through the +double series of overlapping leaves. The little I have been able to +learn amounts to this: The end of the abdomen, deeply cleft in a +horizontal direction, forms a kind of fork, of which the upper extremity +remains almost motionless, while the lower continuously oscillates, +producing the foam and depositing the eggs. The creation of the central +zone is certainly the work of the upper extremity. + +It is always to be seen in the continuation of this central zone, in the +midst of the fine white foam gathered up by the caudal filaments. The +latter delimit the zone, one working on either side, feeling the edges +of the belt, and apparently testing it and judging its progress. These +two filaments are like two long fingers of exquisite sensitiveness, +which direct the difficult operation. + +But how are the two series of scales obtained, and the fissures, the +gates of exit which they shelter? I do not know; I cannot even imagine. +I leave the end of the problem to others. + +What a wonderful mechanism is this, that has the power to emit and to +form, so quickly and methodically, the horny medium of the central +kernel, the foam which forms the protective walls, the white creamy foam +of the ribbon which runs along the central zone, the eggs, and the +fecundating liquid, while at the same time it constructs the overlapping +leaves, the imbricated scales, and the alternating series of open +fissures! We are lost in the face of such a wonder. Yet how easily the +work is performed! Clinging to the wire gauze, forming, so to speak, the +axis of her nest, the Mantis barely moves. She bestows not a glance on +the marvel which is growing behind her; her limbs are used only for +support; they take no part in the building of the nest. The nest is +built, if we may say so, automatically. It is not the result of industry +and the cunning of instinct; it is a purely mechanical task, which is +conditioned by the implements, by the organisation of the insect. The +nest, complex though it is in structure, results solely from the +functioning of the organs, as in our human industries a host of objects +are mechanically fashioned whose perfection puts the dexterity of the +fingers to shame. + +From another point of view the nest of the Mantis is even more +remarkable. It forms an excellent application of one of the most +valuable lessons of physical science in the matter of the conservation +of heat. The Mantis has outstripped humanity in her knowledge of thermic +nonconductors or insulators. + +The famous physicist Rumford was responsible for a very pretty +experiment designed to demonstrate the low conductivity of air where +heat other than radiant heat is concerned. The famous scientist +surrounded a frozen cheese by a mass of foam consisting of well-beaten +eggs. The whole was exposed to the heat of an oven. In a few minutes a +light omelette was obtained, piping hot, but the cheese in the centre +was as cold as at the outset. The air imprisoned in the bubbles of the +surrounding froth accounts for the phenomenon. Extremely refractory to +heat, it had absorbed the heat of the oven and had prevented it from +reaching the frozen substance in the centre of the omelette. + +Now, what does the Mantis do? Precisely what Rumford did; she whips her +albumen to obtain a soufflee, a froth composed of myriads of tiny +air-bubbles, which will protect the germs of life contained in the +central core. It is true that her aim is reversed; the coagulated foam +of the nest is a safeguard against cold, not against heat, but what will +afford protection from the one will afford protection from the other; so +that Rumford, had he wished, might equally well have maintained a hot +body at a high temperature in a refrigerator. + +Rumford understood the athermic properties of a blanket of air-cells, +thanks to the accumulated knowledge of his predecessors and his own +studies and experiments. How is it that the Mantis, for who knows how +many ages, has been able to outstrip our physicists in this problem in +calorics? How did she learn to surround her eggs with this mass of +solidifying froth, so that it was able, although fixed to a bough or a +stone without other shelter, to brave with impunity the rigours of +winter? + +The other Mantes found in my neighbourhood, which are the only species +of which I can speak with full knowledge, employ or omit the envelope of +solidifying froth accordingly as the eggs are or are not intended to +survive the winter. The little Grey Mantis (_Ameles decolor_), which +differs so widely from the Praying Mantis in that the wings of the +female are almost completely absent, builds a nest hardly as large as a +cherry-stone, and covers it skilfully with a porous rind. Why this +cellular envelope? Because the nest of the _Ameles_, like that of the +Praying Mantis, has to endure through the winter, fixed to a stone or a +twig, and is thus exposed to the full severity of the dangerous season. + +The _Empusa pauperata_, on the other hand (one of the strangest of +European insects), builds a nest as small as that of the _Ameles_, +although the insect itself is as large as the Praying Mantis. This nest +is quite a small structure, composed of a small number of cells, +arranged side by side in three or four series, sloping together at the +neck. Here there is a complete absence of the porous envelope, although +the nest is exposed to the weather, like the previous examples, affixed +to some twig or fragment of rock. The lack of the insulating rind is a +sign of different climatic conditions. The eggs of the _Empusa_ hatch +shortly after they are laid, in warm and sunny weather. Not being +exposed to the asperities of the winter, they need no protection other +than the thin egg-cases themselves. + +Are these nice and reasonable precautions, which rival the experiment of +Rumford, a fortuitous result?--one of the innumerable combinations which +fall from the urn of chance? If so, let us not recoil before the absurd: +let us allow that the blindness of chance is gifted with marvellous +foresight. + +The Praying Mantis commences her nest at the blunter extremity, and +completes it at the pointed tail. The latter is often prolonged in a +sort of promontory, in which the insect expends the last drop of +glutinous liquid as she stretches herself after her task. A sitting of +two hours, more or less, without interruption, is required for the total +accomplishment of the work. Directly the period of labour is over, the +mother withdraws, indifferent henceforth to her completed task. I have +watched her, half expecting to see her return, to discover some +tenderness for the cradle of her family. But no: not a trace of maternal +pleasure. The work is done, and concerns her no longer. Crickets +approach; one of them even squats upon the nest. The Mantis takes no +notice of them. They are peaceful intruders, to be sure; but even were +they dangerous, did they threaten to rifle the nest, would she attack +them and drive them away? Her impassive demeanour convinces me that she +would not. What is the nest to her? She is no longer conscious of it. + +I have spoken of the many embraces to which the Praying Mantis submits, +and of the tragic end of the male, who is almost invariably devoured as +though a lawful prey. In the space of a fortnight I have known the same +female to adventure upon matrimony no less than seven times. Each time +the readily consoled widow devoured her mate. Such habits point to +frequent laying; and we find the appearance confirmed, though not as a +general rule. Some of my females gave me one nest only; others two, the +second as capacious as the first. The most fruitful of all produced +three; of these the two first were of normal dimensions, while the third +was about half the usual size. + +From this we can reckon the productivity of the insect's ovaries. From +the transverse fissures of the median zone of the nest it is easy to +estimate the layers of eggs; but these layers contain more or fewer eggs +according to their position in the middle of the nest or near the ends. +The numbers contained by the widest and narrowest layers will give us +an approximate average. I find that a nest of fair size contains about +four hundred eggs. Thus the maker of the three nests, of which the last +was half as large as the others, produced no less than a thousand eggs; +eight hundred were deposited in the larger nests and two or three +hundred in the smaller. Truly a fine family, but a thought ungainly, +were it not that only a few of its members can survive. + +Of a fair size, of curious structure, and well in evidence on its twig +or stone, the nest of the Praying Mantis could hardly escape the +attention of the Provencal peasant. It is well known in the country +districts, where it goes by the name of _tigno_; it even enjoys a +certain celebrity. But no one seems to be aware of its origin. It is +always a surprise to my rustic neighbours when they learn that the +well-known _tigno_ is the nest of the common Mantis, the _Prego-Dieu_. +This ignorance may well proceed from the nocturnal habits of the Mantis. +No one has caught the insect at work upon her nest in the silence of the +night. The link between the artificer and the work is missing, although +both are well known to the villager. + +No matter: the singular object exists; it catches the eye, it attracts +attention. It must therefore be good for something; it must possess +virtue of some kind. So in all ages have the simple reasoned, in the +childlike hope of finding in the unfamiliar an alleviation of their +sorrows. + +By general agreement the rural pharmacopoeia of Provence pronounces +the _tigno_ to be the best of remedies against chilblains. The method of +employment is of the simplest. The nest is cut in two, squeezed and the +affected part is rubbed with the cut surface as the juices flow from +it. This specific, I am told, is sovereign. All sufferers from blue and +swollen fingers should without fail, according to traditional usage, +have recourse to the _tigno_. + +Is it really efficacious? Despite the general belief, I venture to doubt +it, after fruitless experiments on my own fingers and those of other +members of my household during the winter of 1895, when the severe and +persistent cold produced an abundant crop of chilblains. None of us, +treated with the celebrated unguent, observed the swelling to diminish; +none of us found that the pain and discomfort was in the least assuaged +by the sticky varnish formed by the juices of the crushed _tigno_. It is +not easy to believe that others are more successful, but the popular +renown of the specific survives in spite of all, probably thanks to a +simple accident of identity between the name of the remedy and that of +the infirmity: the Provencal for "chilblain" is _tigno_. From the moment +when the chilblain and the nest of the Mantis were known by the same +name were not the virtues of the latter obvious? So are reputations +created. + +In my own village, and doubtless to some extent throughout the Midi, the +_tigno_--the nest of the Mantis, not the chilblain--is also reputed as a +marvellous cure for toothache. It is enough to carry it upon the person +to be free of that lamentable affection. Women wise in such matters +gather them beneath a propitious moon, and preserve them piously in some +corner of the clothes-press or wardrobe. They sew them in the lining of +the pocket, lest they should be pulled out with the handkerchief and +lost; they will grant the loan of them to a neighbour tormented by some +refractory molar. "Lend me thy _tigno_: I am suffering martyrdom!" begs +the owner of a swollen face.--"Don't on any account lose it!" says the +lender: "I haven't another, and we aren't at the right time of moon!" + +We will not laugh at the credulous victim; many a remedy triumphantly +puffed on the latter pages of the newspapers and magazines is no more +effectual. Moreover, this rural simplicity is surpassed by certain old +books which form the tomb of the science of a past age. An English +naturalist of the sixteenth century, the well-known physician, Thomas +Moffat, informs us that children lost in the country would inquire their +way of the Mantis. The insect consulted would extend a limb, indicating +the direction to be taken, and, says the author, scarcely ever was the +insect mistaken. This pretty story is told in Latin, with an adorable +simplicity. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE GOLDEN GARDENER.--ITS NUTRIMENT + + +In writing the first lines of this chapter I am reminded of the +slaughter-pens of Chicago; of those horrible meat factories which in the +course of the year cut up one million and eighty thousand bullocks and +seventeen hundred thousand swine, which enter a train of machinery alive +and issue transformed into cans of preserved meat, sausages, lard, and +rolled hams. I am reminded of these establishments because the beetle I +am about to speak of will show us a compatible celerity of butchery. + +In a spacious, glazed insectorium I have twenty-five Carabi aurati. At +present they are motionless, lying beneath a piece of board which I gave +them for shelter. Their bellies cooled by the sand, their backs warmed +by the board, which is visited by the sun, they slumber and digest their +food. By good luck I chance upon a procession of pine-caterpillars, in +process of descending from their tree in search of a spot suitable for +burial, the prelude to the phase of the subterranean chrysalis. Here is +an excellent flock for the slaughter-house of the Carabi. + +I capture them and place them in the insectorium. The procession is +quickly re-formed; the caterpillars, to the number of perhaps a hundred +and fifty, move forward in an undulating line. They pass near the piece +of board, one following the other like the pigs at Chicago. The moment +is propitious. I cry Havoc! and let loose the dogs of war: that is to +say, I remove the plank. + +The sleepers immediately awake, scenting the abundant prey. One of them +runs forward; three, four, follow; the whole assembly is aroused; those +who are buried emerge; the whole band of cut-throats falls upon the +passing flock. It is a sight never to be forgotten. The mandibles of the +beetles are at work in all directions; the procession is attacked in the +van, in the rear, in the centre; the victims are wounded on the back or +the belly at random. The furry skins are gaping with wounds; their +contents escape in knots of entrails, bright green with their aliment, +the needles of the pine-tree; the caterpillars writhe, struggling with +loop-like movements, gripping the sand with their feet, dribbling and +gnashing their mandibles. Those as yet unwounded are digging desperately +in the attempt to take refuge underground. Not one succeeds. They are +scarcely half buried before some beetle runs to them and destroys them +by an eviscerating wound. + +If this massacre did not occur in a dumb world we should hear all the +horrible tumult of the slaughter-houses of Chicago. But only the ear of +the mind can hear the shrieks and lamentations of the eviscerated +victims. For myself, I possess this ear, and am full of remorse for +having provoked such sufferings. + +Now the beetles are rummaging in all directions through the heap of +dead and dying, each tugging and tearing at a morsel which he carries +off to swallow in peace, away from the inquisitive eyes of his fellows. +This mouthful disposed of, another is hastily cut from the body of some +victim, and the process is repeated so long as there are bodies left. In +a few minutes the procession is reduced to a few shreds of still +palpitating flesh. + +There were a hundred and fifty caterpillars; the butchers were +twenty-five. This amounts to six victims dispatched by each beetle. If +the insect had nothing to do but to kill, like the knackers in the meat +factories, and if the staff numbered a hundred--a very modest figure as +compared with the staff of a lard or bacon factory--then the total +number of victims, in a day of ten hours, would be thirty-six thousand. +No Chicago "cannery" ever rivalled such a result. + +The speed of assassination is the more remarkable when we consider the +difficulties of attack. The beetle has no endless chain to seize its +victim by one leg, hoist it up, and swing it along to the butcher's +knife; it has no sliding plank to hold the victim's head beneath the +pole-axe of the knacker; it has to fall upon its prey, overpower it, and +avoid its feet and its mandibles. Moreover, the beetle eats its prey on +the spot as it kills. What slaughter there would be if the insect +confined itself to killing! + +What do we learn from the slaughter-houses of Chicago and the fate of +the beetle's victims? This: That the man of elevated morality is so far +a very rare exception. Under the skin of the civilised being there lurks +almost always the ancestor, the savage contemporary of the cave-bear. +True humanity does not yet exist; it is growing, little by little, +created by the ferment of the centuries and the dictates of conscience; +but it progresses towards the highest with heartbreaking slowness. + +It was only yesterday that slavery finally disappeared: the basis of the +ancient social organism; only yesterday was it realised that man, even +though black, is really man and deserves to be treated accordingly. + +What formerly was woman? She was what she is to-day in the East: a +gentle animal without a soul. The question was long discussed by the +learned. The great divine of the seventeenth century, Bossuet himself, +regarded woman as the diminutive of man. The proof was in the origin of +Eve: she was the superfluous bone, the thirteenth rib which Adam +possessed in the beginning. It has at last been admitted that woman +possesses a soul like our own, but even superior in tenderness and +devotion. She has been allowed to educate herself, which she has done at +least as zealously as her coadjutor. But the law, that gloomy cavern +which is still the lurking-place of so many barbarities, continues to +regard her as an incapable and a minor. The law in turn will finally +surrender to the truth. + +The abolition of slavery and the education of woman: these are two +enormous strides upon the path of moral progress. Our descendants will +go farther. They will see, with a lucidity capable of piercing every +obstacle, that war is the most hopeless of all absurdities. That our +conquerors, victors of battles and destroyers of nations, are detestable +scourges; that a clasp of the hand is preferable to a rifle-shot; that +the happiest people is not that which possesses the largest battalions, +but that which labours in peace and produces abundantly; and that the +amenities of existence do not necessitate the existence of frontiers, +beyond which we meet with all the annoyances of the custom-house, with +its officials who search our pockets and rifle our luggage. + +Our descendants will see this and many other marvels which to-day are +extravagant dreams. To what ideal height will the process of evolution +lead mankind? To no very magnificent height, it is to be feared. We are +afflicted by an indelible taint, a kind of original sin, if we may call +sin a state of things with which our will has nothing to do. We are made +after a certain pattern and we can do nothing to change ourselves. We +are marked with the mark of the beast, the taint of the belly, the +inexhaustible source of bestiality. + +The intestine rules the world. In the midst of our most serious affairs +there intrudes the imperious question of bread and butter. So long as +there are stomachs to digest--and as yet we are unable to dispense with +them--we must find the wherewithal to fill them, and the powerful will +live by the sufferings of the weak. Life is a void that only death can +fill. Hence the endless butchery by which man nourishes himself, no less +than beetles and other creatures; hence the perpetual holocausts which +make of this earth a knacker's yard, beside which the slaughter-houses +of Chicago are as nothing. + +But the feasters are legion, and the feast is not abundant in +proportion. Those that have not are envious of those that have; the +hungry bare their teeth at the satisfied. Then follows the battle for +the right of possession. Man raises armies; to defend his harvests, his +granaries, and his cellars, he resorts to warfare. When shall we see the +end of it? Alas, and many times alas! As long as there are wolves in the +world there must be watch-dogs to defend the flock. + +This train of thought has led us far away from our beetles. Let us +return to them. What was my motive in provoking the massacre of this +peaceful procession of caterpillars who were on the point of self-burial +when I gave them over to the butchers? Was it to enjoy the spectacle of +a frenzied massacre? By no means; I have always pitied the sufferings of +animals, and the smallest life is worthy of respect. To overcome this +pity there needed the exigencies of scientific research--exigencies +which are often cruel. + +In this case the subject of research was the habits of the Carabus +auratus, the little vermin-killer of our gardens, who is therefore +vulgarly known as the Gardener Beetle. How far is this title deserved? +What game does the Gardener Beetle hunt? From what vermin does he free +our beds and borders? His dealings with the procession of +pine-caterpillars promise much. Let us continue our inquiry. + +On various occasions about the end of April the gardens afford me the +sight of such processions, sometimes longer, sometimes shorter. I +capture them and place them in the vivarium. Bloodshed commences the +moment the banquet is served. The caterpillars are eviscerated; each by +a single beetle, or by several simultaneously. In less than fifteen +minutes the flock is completely exterminated. Nothing remains but a few +shapeless fragments, which are carried hither and thither, to be +consumed at leisure under the shelter of the wooden board. One well-fed +beetle decamps, his booty in his jaws, hoping to finish his feast in +peace. He is met by companions who are attracted by the morsel hanging +from the mandibles of the fugitive, and audaciously attempt to rob him. +First two, then three, they all endeavour to deprive the legitimate +owner of his prize. Each seizes the fragment, tugs at it, commences to +swallow it without further ado. There is no actual battle; no violent +assaults, as in the case of dogs disputing a bone. Their efforts are +confined to the attempted theft. If the legitimate owner retains his +hold they consume his booty in common, mandibles to mandibles, until the +fragment is torn or bitten through, and each retires with his mouthful. + +As I found to my cost in bygone experiments, the pine-caterpillar wields +a violently corrosive poison, which produces a painful rash upon the +hands. It must therefore, one would think, form a somewhat highly +seasoned diet. The beetles, however, delight in it. No matter how many +flocks I provide them with, they are all consumed. But no one, that I +know of, has ever found the Golden Gardener and its larva in the silken +cocoons of the Bombyx. I do not expect ever to make such a discovery. +These cocoons are inhabited only in winter, when the Gardener is +indifferent to food, and lies torpid in the earth. In April, however, +when the processions of larvae are seeking a suitable site for burial and +metamorphosis, the Gardener should profit largely by its good fortune +should it by any chance encounter them. + +The furry nature of the victim does not in the least incommode the +beetle; but the hairiest of all our caterpillars, the Hedgehog +Caterpillar, with its undulating mane, partly red and partly black, does +seem to be too much for the beetle. Day after day it wanders about the +vivarium in company with the assassins. The latter apparently ignore its +presence. From time to time one of them will halt, stroll round the +hairy creature, examine it, and try to penetrate the tangled fleece. +Immediately repulsed by the long, dense palisade of hairs, he retires +without inflicting a wound, and the caterpillar proceeds upon its way +with undulating mane, in pride and security. + +But this state of things cannot last. In a hungry moment, emboldened +moreover by the presence of his fellows, the cowardly creature decides +upon a serious attack. There are four of them; they industriously attack +the caterpillar, which finally succumbs, assaulted before and behind. It +is eviscerated and swallowed as greedily as though it were a defenceless +grub. + +According to the hazard of discovery, I provision my menagerie with +various caterpillars, some smooth and others hairy. All are accepted +with the utmost eagerness, so long as they are of average size as +compared with the beetles themselves. If too small they are despised, as +they would not yield a sufficient mouthful. If they are too large the +beetle is unable to handle them. The caterpillars of the Sphinx moth and +the Great Peacock moth, for example, would fall an easy prey to the +beetle were it not that at the first bite of the assailant the intended +victim, by a contortion of its powerful flanks, sends the former +flying. After several attacks, all of which end by the beetle being +flung back to some considerable distance, the insect regretfully +abandons his prey. I have kept two strong and lively caterpillars for a +fortnight in the cage of my golden beetles, and nothing more serious +occurred. The trick of the suddenly extended posterior was too much for +the ferocious mandibles. + +The chief utility of the Golden Gardener lies in its extermination of +all caterpillars that are not too powerful to attack. It has one +limitation, however: it is not a climber. It hunts on the ground; never +in the foliage overhead. I have never seen it exploring the twigs of +even the smallest of bushes. When caged it pays no attention to the most +enticing caterpillars if the latter take refuge in a tuft of thyme, at a +few inches above the ground. This is a great pity. If only the beetle +could climb how rapidly three or four would rid our cabbages of that +grievous pest, the larva of the white cabbage butterfly! Alas! the best +have always some failing, some vice. + +To exterminate caterpillars: that is the true vocation of the Golden +Gardener. It is annoying that it can give us but little or no assistance +in ridding us of another plague of the kitchen-garden: the snail. The +slime of the snail is offensive to the beetle; it is safe from the +latter unless crippled, half crushed, or projecting from the shell. Its +relatives, however, do not share this dislike. The horny Procrustes, the +great Scarabicus, entirely black and larger than the Carabus, attacks +the snail most valiantly, and empties its shell to the bottom, in spite +of the desperate secretion of slime. It is a pity that the Procrustes is +not more frequently found in our gardens; it would be an excellent +gardener's assistant. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE GOLDEN GARDENER--COURTSHIP + + +It is generally recognized that the Carabus auratus is an active +exterminator of caterpillars; on this account in particular it deserves +its title of Gardener Beetle; it is the vigilant policeman of our +kitchen-gardens, our flower-beds and herbaceous borders. If my inquiries +add nothing to its established reputation in this respect, they will +nevertheless, in the following pages, show the insect in a light as yet +unsuspected. The ferocious beast of prey, the ogre who devours all +creatures that are not too strong for him, is himself killed and eaten: +by his fellows, and by many others. + +Standing one day in the shadow of the plane-trees that grow before my +door, I see a Golden Gardener go by as if on pressing business. The +pilgrim is well met; he will go to swell the contents of my vivarium. In +capturing him I notice that the extremities of the wing-covers are +slightly damaged. Is this the result of a struggle between rivals? There +is nothing to tell me. The essential thing is that the insect should not +be handicapped by any serious injury. Inspected, and found to be without +any serious wound and fit for service, it is introduced into the glass +dwelling of its twenty-five future companions. + +Next day I look for the new inmate. It is dead. Its comrades have +attacked it during the night and have cleaned out its abdomen, +insufficiently protected by the damaged wing-covers. The operation has +been performed very cleanly, without any dismemberment. Claws, head, +corselet, all are correctly in place; the abdomen only has a gaping +wound through which its contents have been removed. What remains is a +kind of golden shell, formed of the two conjoined elytra. The shell of +an oyster emptied of its inmate is not more empty. + +This result astonishes me, for I have taken good care that the cage +should never be long without food. The snail, the pine-cockchafer, the +Praying Mantis, the lob-worm, the caterpillar, and other favourite +insects, have all been given in alternation and in sufficient +quantities. In devouring a brother whose damaged armour lent itself to +any easy attack my beetles had not the excuse of hunger. + +Is it their custom to kill the wounded and to eviscerate such of their +fellows as suffer damage? Pity is unknown among insects. At the sight of +the desperate struggles of a crippled fellow-creature none of the same +family will cry a halt, none will attempt to come to its aid. Among the +carnivorous insects the matter may develop to a tragic termination. With +them, the passers-by will often run to the cripple. But do they do so in +order to help it? By no means: merely to taste its flesh, and, if they +find it agreeable, to perform the most radical cure of its ills by +devouring it. + +It is possible, therefore, that the Gardener with the injured +wing-covers had tempted his fellows by the sight of his imperfectly +covered back. They saw in their defenceless comrade a permissible +subject for dissection. But do they respect one another when there is no +previous wound? At first there was every appearance that their relations +were perfectly pacific. During their sanguinary meals there is never a +scuffle between the feasters; nothing but mere mouth-to-mouth thefts. +There are no quarrels during the long siestas in the shelter of the +board. Half buried in the cool earth, my twenty-five subjects slumber +and digest their food in peace; they lie sociably near one another, each +in his little trench. If I raise the plank they awake and are off, +running hither and thither, constantly encountering one another without +hostilities. + +The profoundest peace is reigning, and to all appearances will last for +ever, when in the early days of June I find a dead Gardener. Its limbs +are intact; it is reduced to the condition of a mere golden husk; like +the defenceless beetle I have already spoken of, it is as empty as an +oyster-shell. Let us examine the remains. All is intact, save the huge +breach in the abdomen. So the insect was sound and unhurt when the +others attacked it. + +A few days pass, and another Gardener is killed and dealt with as +before, with no disorder in the component pieces of its armour. Let us +place the dead insect on its belly; it is to all appearances untouched. +Place it on its back; it is hollow, and has no trace of flesh left +beneath its carapace. A little later, and I find another empty relic; +then another, and yet another, until the population of my menagerie is +rapidly shrinking. If this insensate massacre continues I shall soon +find my cage depopulated. + +Are my beetles hoary with age? Do they die a natural death, and do the +survivors then clean out the bodies? Or is the population being reduced +at the expense of sound and healthy insects? It is not easy to elucidate +the matter, since the atrocities are commonly perpetrated in the night. +But, finally, with vigilance, on two occasions, I surprise the beetles +at their work in the light of day. + +Towards the middle of June a female attacks a male before my eyes. The +male is recognisable by his slightly smaller size. The operation +commences. Raising the ends of the wing-covers, the assailant seizes her +victim by the extremity of the abdomen, from the dorsal side. She pulls +at him furiously, eagerly munching with her mandibles. The victim, who +is in the prime of life, does not defend himself, nor turn upon his +assailant. He pulls his hardest in the opposite direction to free +himself from those terrible fangs; he advances and recoils as he is +overpowered by or overpowers the assassin; and there his resistance +ends. The struggle lasts a quarter of an hour. Other beetles, passing +by, call a halt, and seem to say "My turn next!" Finally, redoubling his +efforts, the male frees himself and flies. If he had not succeeded in +escaping the ferocious female would undoubtedly have eviscerated him. + +[Illustration: THE GOLDEN GARDENER: THE MATING SEASON OVER, THE MALES +ARE EVISCERATED BY THE FEMALES.] + +A few days later I witness a similar scene, but this time the tragedy is +played to the end. Once more it is a female who seizes a male from +behind. With no other protest except his futile efforts to escape, the +victim is forced to submit. The skin finally yields; the wound +enlarges, and the viscera are removed and devoured by the matron, who +empties the carapace, her head buried in the body of her late companion. +The legs of the miserable victim tremble, announcing the end. The +murderess takes no notice; she continues to rummage as far as she can +reach for the narrowing of the thorax. Nothing is left but the closed +boat-shaped wing-covers and the fore parts of the body. The empty shell +is left lying on the scene of the tragedy. + +In this way must have perished the beetles--always males--whose remains +I find in the cage from time to time; thus the survivors also will +perish. Between the middle of June and the 1st of August the inhabitants +of the cage, twenty-five in number at the outset, are reduced to five, +all of whom are females. All the males, to the number of twenty, have +disappeared, eviscerated and completely emptied. And by whom? Apparently +by the females. + +That this is the case is attested in the first place by the two assaults +of which I was perchance the witness; on two occasions, in broad +daylight, I saw the female devouring the male, having opened the abdomen +under the wing-covers, or having at least attempted to do so. As for the +rest of the massacres, although direct observation was lacking, I had +one very valuable piece of evidence. As we have seen, the victim does +not retaliate, does not defend himself, but simply tries to escape by +pulling himself away. + +If it were a matter of an ordinary fight, a conflict such as might arise +in the struggle for life, the creature attacked would obviously +retaliate, since he is perfectly well able to do so; in an ordinary +conflict he would meet force by force, and return bite for bite. His +strength would enable him to come well out of a struggle, but the +foolish creature allows himself to be devoured without retaliating. It +seems as though an invincible repugnance prevents him from offering +resistance and in turn devouring the devourer. This tolerance reminds +one of the scorpion of Languedoc, which on the termination of the +hymeneal rites allows the female to devour him without attempting to +employ his weapon, the venomous dagger which would form a formidable +defence; it reminds us also of the male of the Praying Mantis, which +still embraces the female though reduced to a headless trunk, while the +latter devours him by small mouthfuls, with no rebellion or defence on +his part. There are other examples of hymeneal rites to which the male +offers no resistance. + +The males of my menagerie of Gardeners, one and all eviscerated, speak +of similar customs. They are the victims of the females when the latter +have no further use for them. For four months, from April to August, the +insects pair off continually; sometimes tentatively, but usually the +mating is effective. The business of mating is all but endless for these +fiery spirits. + +The Gardener is prompt and businesslike in his affairs of the heart. In +the midst of the crowd, with no preliminary courtship, the male throws +himself upon the female. The female thus embraced raises her head a +trifle as a sign of acquiescence, while the cavalier beats the back of +her neck with his antennae. The embrace is brief, and they abruptly +separate; after a little refreshment the two parties are ready for other +adventures, and yet others, so long as there are males available. After +the feast, a brief and primitive wooing; after the wooing, the feast; in +such delights the life of the Gardener passes. + +The females of my collection were in no proper ratio to the number of +aspiring lovers; there were five females to twenty males. No matter; +there was no rivalry, no hustling; all went peacefully and sooner or +later each was satisfied. + +I should have preferred a better proportioned assembly. Chance, not +choice, had given me that at my disposal. In the early spring I had +collected all the Gardeners I could find under the stones of the +neighbourhood, without distinguishing the sexes, for they are not easy +to recognise merely by external characteristics. Later on I learned by +watching them that a slight excess of size was the distinctive sign of +the female. My menagerie, so ill-proportioned in the matter of sex, was +therefore the result of chance. I do not suppose this preponderance of +males exists in natural conditions. On the other hand, one never sees +such numerous groups at liberty, in the shelter of the same stone. The +Gardener lives an almost solitary life; it is rarely that one finds two +or three beneath the same object of shelter. The gathering in my +menagerie was thus exceptional, although it did not lead to confusion. +There is plenty of room in the glass cage for excursions to a distance +and for all their habitual manoeuvres. Those who wish for solitude can +obtain it; those who wish for company need not seek it. + +For the rest, captivity cannot lie heavily on them; that is proved by +their frequent feasts, their constant mating. They could not thrive +better in the open; perhaps not so well, for food is less abundant under +natural conditions. In the matter of well-being the prisoners are in a +normal condition, favourable to the maintenance of their usual habits. + +It is true that encounters of beetle with beetle are more frequent here +than in the open. Hence, no doubt, arise more opportunities for the +females to persecute the males whom they no longer require; to fall upon +them from the rear and eviscerate them. This pursuit of their onetime +lovers is aggravated by their confined quarters; but it certainly is not +caused thereby, for such customs are not suddenly originated. + +The mating season over, the female encountering a male in the open must +evidently regard him as fair game, and devour him as the termination of +the matrimonial rites. I have turned over many stones, but have never +chanced upon this spectacle, but what has occurred in my menagerie is +sufficient to convince me. What a world these beetles live in, where the +matron devours her mate so soon as her fertility delivers her from the +need of him! And how lightly the males must be regarded by custom, to be +served in this manner! + +Is this practice of post-matrimonial cannibalism a general custom in the +insect world? For the moment, I can recollect only three characteristic +examples: those of the Praying Mantis, the Golden Gardener, and the +scorpion of Languedoc. An analogous yet less brutal practice--for the +victim is defunct before he is eaten--is a characteristic of the Locust +family. The female of the white-faced Decticus will eagerly devour the +body of her dead mate, as will the Green Grasshopper. + +To a certain extent this custom is excused by the nature of the insect's +diet; the Decticus and the Grasshopper are essentially carnivorous. +Encountering a dead body of their own species, a female will devour it, +even if it be the body of her latest mate. + +But what are we to say in palliation of the vegetarians? At the approach +of the breeding season, before the eggs are laid, the Ephippigera turns +upon her still living mate, disembowels him, and eats as much of him as +her appetite will allow. + +The cheerful Cricket shows herself in a new light at this season; she +attacks the mate who lately wooed her with such impassioned serenades; +she tears his wings, breaks his musical thighs, and even swallows a few +mouthfuls of the instrumentalist. It is probable that this deadly +aversion of the female for the male at the end of the mating season is +fairly common, especially among the carnivorous insects. But what is the +object of this atrocious custom? That is a question I shall not fail to +answer when circumstances permit. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE FIELD-CRICKET + + +The breeding of Crickets demands no particular preparations. A little +patience is enough--patience, which according to Buffon is genius; but +which I, more modestly, will call the superlative virtue of the +observer. In April, May, or later we may establish isolated couples in +ordinary flower-pots containing a layer of beaten earth. Their diet will +consist of a leaf of lettuce renewed from time to time. The pot must be +covered with a square of glass to prevent the escape of the inmates. + +I have gathered some very curious data from these makeshift appliances, +which may be used with and as a substitute for the cages of wire gauze, +although the latter are preferable. We shall return to the point +presently. For the moment let us watch the process of breeding, taking +care that the critical hour does not escape us. + +It was during the first week of June that my assiduous visits were at +last repaid. I surprised the female motionless, with the oviduct planted +vertically in the soil. Heedless of the indiscreet visitor, she remained +for a long time stationed at the same point. Finally she withdrew her +oviduct, and effaced, though without particular care, the traces of the +hole in which her eggs were deposited, rested for a moment, walked +away, and repeated the operation; not once, but many times, first here, +then there, all over the area at her disposal. Her behaviour was +precisely the same as that of the Decticus, except that her movements +were more deliberate. At the end of twenty-four hours her eggs were +apparently all laid. For greater certainty I waited a couple of days +longer. + +I then examined the earth in the pot. The eggs, of a straw-yellow, are +cylindrical in form, with rounded ends, and measure about one-tenth of +an inch in length. They are placed singly in the soil, in a +perpendicular position. + +I have found them over the whole area of the pot, at a depth of a +twelfth of an inch. As closely as the difficulties of the operation will +allow, I have estimated the eggs of a single female, upon passing the +earth through a sieve, at five or six hundred. Such a family will +certainly undergo an energetic pruning before very long. + +The egg of the Cricket is a curiosity, a tiny mechanical marvel. After +hatching it appears as a sheath of opaque white, open at the summit, +where there is a round and very regular aperture, to the edge of which +adheres a little valve like a skull-cap which forms the lid. Instead of +breaking at random under the thrusts or the cuts of the new-formed +larva, it opens of itself along a line of least resistance which occurs +expressly for the purpose. The curious process of the actual hatching +should be observed. + +A fortnight after the egg is laid two large eye-marks, round and of a +reddish black, are seen to darken the forward extremity of the egg. +Next, a little above these two points, and right at the end of the +cylinder, a tiny circular capsule or swelling is seen. This marks the +line of rupture, which is now preparing. Presently the translucency of +the egg allows us to observe the fine segmentation of the tiny inmate. +Now is the moment to redouble our vigilance and to multiply our visits, +especially during the earlier part of the day. + +Fortune favours the patient, and rewards my assiduity Round the little +capsule changes of infinite delicacy have prepared the line of least +resistance. The end of the egg, pushed by the head of the inmate, +becomes detached, rises, and falls aside like the top of a tiny phial. +The Cricket issues like a Jack-in-the-box. + +When the Cricket has departed the shell remains distended, smooth, +intact, of the purest white, with the circular lid hanging to the mouth +of the door of exit. The egg of the bird breaks clumsily under the blows +of a wart-like excrescence which is formed expressly upon the beak of +the unborn bird; the egg of the Cricket, of a far superior structure, +opens like an ivory casket. The pressure of the inmate's head is +sufficient to work the hinge. + +The moment he is deprived of his white tunic, the young Cricket, pale +all over, almost white, begins to struggle against the overlying soil. +He strikes it with his mandibles; he sweeps it aside, kicking it +backwards and downwards; and being of a powdery quality, which offers no +particular resistance, he soon arrives at the surface, and henceforth +knows the joys of the sun, and the perils of intercourse with the +living; a tiny, feeble creature, little larger than a flea. His colour +deepens. In twenty-four hours he assumes a splendid ebony black which +rivals that of the adult insect. Of his original pallor he retains only +a white girdle which encircles the thorax and reminds one of the +leading-string of an infant. + +Very much on the alert, he sounds his surroundings with his long +vibrating antennae; he toddles and leaps along with a vigour which his +future obesity will no longer permit. + +This is the age of stomach troubles. What are we to give him to eat? I +do not know. I offer him adult diet--the tender leaves of a lettuce. He +disdains to bite it; or perhaps his bites escape me, so tiny would they +be. + +In a few days, what with my ten households, I see myself loaded with +family cares. What shall I do with my five or six thousand Crickets, an +attractive flock, to be sure, but one I cannot bring up in my ignorance +of the treatment required? I will give you liberty, gentle creatures! I +will confide you to the sovereign nurse and schoolmistress, Nature! + +It is done. Here and there about my orchard, in the most favourable +localities, I loose my legions. What a concert I shall have before my +door next year if all goes well! But no! There will probably be silence, +for the terrible extermination will follow which corresponds with the +fertility of the mother. A few couples only may survive: that is the +most we can hope. + +The first to come to the living feast and the most eager at the +slaughter are the little grey lizard and the ant. I am afraid this +latter, hateful filibuster that it is, will not leave me a single +Cricket in my garden. It falls upon the tiny Crickets, eviscerates them, +and devours them with frantic greed. + +Satanic creature! And to think that we place it in the front rank of +the insect world! The books celebrate its virtues and never tire of its +praises; the naturalists hold it in high esteem and add to its +reputation daily; so true is it of animals, as of man, that of the +various means of living in history the most certain is to do harm to +others. + +Every one knows the _Bousier_ (dung-beetle) and the Necrophorus, those +lively murderers; the gnat, the drinker of blood; the wasp, the +irascible bully with the poisoned dagger; and the ant, the maleficent +creature which in the villages of the South of France saps and imperils +the rafters and ceilings of a dwelling with the same energy it brings to +the eating of a fig. I need say no more; human history is full of +similar examples of the useful misunderstood and undervalued and the +calamitous glorified. + +What with the ants and other exterminating forces, the massacre was so +great that the colonies of Crickets in my orchard, so numerous at the +outset, were so far decimated that I could not continue my observations, +but had to resort to the outside world for further information. + +In August, among the detritus of decaying leaves, in little oases whose +turf is not burned by the sun, I find the young Cricket has already +grown to a considerable size; he is all black, like the adult, without a +vestige of the white cincture of the early days. He has no domicile. The +shelter of a dead leaf, the cover afforded by a flat stone is +sufficient; he is a nomad, and careless where he takes his repose. + +[Illustration: 1. THE FIELD-CRICKET. A DUEL BETWEEN RIVALS. + +2. THE FIELD-CRICKET. THE DEFEATED RIVAL RETIRES, INSULTED BY THE +VICTOR.] + +Not until the end of October, when the first frosts are at hand, does +the work of burrowing commence. The operation is very simple, as far as +I can tell from what I have learned from the insect in captivity. The +burrow is never made at a bare or conspicuous point; it is always +commenced under the shelter of a faded leaf of lettuce, the remains of +the food provided. This takes the place of the curtain of grass so +necessary to preserve the mysterious privacy of the establishment. + +The little miner scratches with his fore-claws, but also makes use of +the pincers of his mandibles in order to remove pieces of grit or gravel +of any size. I see him stamping with his powerful hinder limbs, which +are provided with a double row of spines; I see him raking and sweeping +backwards the excavated material, and spreading it out in an inclined +plane. This is his whole method. + +At first the work goes forward merrily. The excavator disappears under +the easily excavated soil of his prison after two hours' labour. At +intervals he returns to the orifice, always tail first, and always +raking and sweeping. If fatigue overcomes him he rests on the threshold +of his burrow, his head projecting outwards, his antennae gently +vibrating. Presently he re-enters his tunnel and sets to work again with +his pincers and rakes. Presently his periods of repose grow longer and +tire my patience. + +The most important part of the work is now completed. Once the burrow +has attained a depth of a couple of inches, it forms a sufficient +shelter for the needs of the moment. The rest will be the work of time; +a labour resumed at will, for a short time daily. The burrow will be +made deeper and wider as the growth of the inmate and the inclemency of +the season demand. Even in winter, if the weather is mild, and the sun +smiles upon the threshold of his dwelling, one may sometimes surprise +the Cricket thrusting out small quantities of loosened earth, a sign of +enlargement and of further burrowing. In the midst of the joys of spring +the cares of the house still continue; it is constantly restored and +perfected until the death of the occupant. + +April comes to an end, and the song of the Cricket commences. At first +we hear only timid and occasional solos; but very soon there is a +general symphony, when every scrap of turf has its performer. I am +inclined to place the Cricket at the head of the choristers of spring. +In the waste lands of Provence, when the thyme and the lavender are in +flower, the Cricket mingles his note with that of the crested lark, +which ascends like a lyrical firework, its throat swelling with music, +to its invisible station in the clouds, whence it pours its liquid arias +upon the plain below. From the ground the chorus of the Crickets +replies. It is monotonous and artless, yet how well it harmonises, in +its very simplicity, with the rustic gaiety of a world renewed! It is +the hosanna of the awakening, the alleluia of the germinating seed and +the sprouting blade. To which of the two performers should the palm be +given? I should award it to the Cricket; he triumphs by force of numbers +and his never-ceasing note. The lark hushes her song, that the blue-grey +fields of lavender, swinging their aromatic censers before the sun, may +hear the Cricket alone at his humble, solemn celebration. + +But here the anatomist intervenes, roughly demanding of the Cricket: +"Show me your instrument, the source of your music!" Like all things of +real value, it is very simple; it is based on the same principle as that +of the locusts; there is the toothed fiddlestick and the vibrating +tympanum. + +The right wing-cover overlaps the left and almost completely covers it, +except for the sudden fold which encases the insect's flank. This +arrangement is the reverse of that exhibited by the green grasshopper, +the Decticus, the Ephippigera, and their relations. The Cricket is +right-handed, the others left-handed. The two wing-covers have the same +structure. To know one is to know the other. Let us examine that on the +right hand. + +It is almost flat on the back, but suddenly folds over at the side, the +turn being almost at right angles. This lateral fold encloses the flank +of the abdomen and is covered with fine oblique and parallel nervures. +The powerful nervures of the dorsal portion of the wing-cover are of the +deepest black, and their general effect is that of a complicated design, +not unlike a tangle of Arabic caligraphy. + +Seen by transmitted light the wing-cover is of a very pale reddish +colour, excepting two large adjacent spaces, one of which, the larger +and anterior, is triangular in shape, while the other, the smaller and +posterior, is oval. Each space is surrounded by a strong nervure and +goffered by slight wrinkles or depressions. These two spaces represent +the mirror of the locust tribe; they constitute the sonorous area. The +substance of the wing-cover is finer here than elsewhere, and shows +traces of iridescent though somewhat smoky colour. + +These are parts of an admirable instrument, greatly superior to that of +the Decticus. The five hundred prisms of the bow biting upon the ridges +of the wing-cover opposed to it set all four tympanums vibrating at +once; the lower pair by direct friction, the upper pair by the vibration +of the wing-cover itself. What a powerful sound results! The Decticus, +endowed with only one indifferent "mirror," can be heard only at a few +paces; the Cricket, the possessor of four vibratory areas, can be heard +at a hundred yards. + +The Cricket rivals the Cigale in loudness, but his note has not the +displeasing, raucous quality of the latter. Better still: he has the +gift of expression, for he can sing loud or soft. The wing-covers, as we +have seen, are prolonged in a deep fold over each flank. These folds are +the dampers, which, as they are pressed downwards or slightly raised, +modify the intensity of the sound, and according to the extent of their +contact with the soft abdomen now muffle the song to a _mezza voce_ and +now let it sound _fortissimo_. + +Peace reigns in the cage until the warlike instinct of the mating period +breaks out. These duels between rivals are frequent and lively, but not +very serious. The two rivals rise up against one another, biting at one +another's heads--these solid, fang-proof helmets--roll each other over, +pick themselves up, and separate. The vanquished Cricket scuttles off as +fast as he can; the victor insults him by a couple of triumphant and +boastful chirps; then, moderating his tone, he tacks and veers about the +desired one. + +The lover proceeds to make himself smart. Hooking one of his antennae +towards him with one of his free claws, he takes it between his +mandibles in order to curl it and moisten it with saliva. With his long +hind legs, spurred and laced with red, he stamps with impatience and +kicks out at nothing. Emotion renders him silent. His wing-covers are +nevertheless in rapid motion, but are no longer sounding, or at most +emit but an unrhythmical rubbing sound. + +Presumptuous declaration! The female Cricket does not run to hide +herself in the folds of her lettuce leaves; but she lifts the curtain a +little, and looks out, and wishes to be seen:-- + + _Et fugit ad salices, et se cupit ante videri._ + +She flies towards the brake, but hopes first to be perceived, said the +poet of the delightful eclogue, two thousand years ago. Sacred +provocations of lovers, are they not in all ages the same? + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE ITALIAN CRICKET + + +My house shelters no specimens of the domestic Cricket, the guest of +bakeries and rustic hearths. But although in my village the chinks under +the hearthstones are mute, the nights of summer are musical with a +singer little known in the North. The sunny hours of spring have their +singer, the Field-Cricket of which I have written; while in the summer, +during the stillness of the night, we hear the note of the Italian +Cricket, the _OEcanthus pellucens_, Scop. One diurnal and one +nocturnal, between them they share the kindly half of the year. When the +Field-Cricket ceases to sing it is not long before the other begins its +serenade. + +The Italian Cricket has not the black costume and heavy shape +characteristic of the family. It is, on the contrary, a slender, weakly +creature; its colour very pale, indeed almost white, as is natural in +view of its nocturnal habits. In handling it one is afraid of crushing +it between the fingers. It lives an aerial existence; on shrubs and +bushes of all kinds, on tall herbage and grasses, and rarely descends to +the earth. Its song, the pleasant voice of the calm, hot evenings from +July to October, commences at sunset and continues for the greater part +of the night. + +This song is familiar to all Provencals; for the least patch of thicket +or tuft of grasses has its group of instrumentalists. It resounds even +in the granaries, into which the insect strays, attracted thither by the +fodder. But no one, so mysterious are the manners of the pallid Cricket, +knows exactly what is the source of the serenade, which is often, though +quite erroneously, attributed to the common field-cricket, which at this +period is silent and as yet quite young. + +The song consists of a _Gri-i-i, Gri-i-i_, a slow, gentle note, rendered +more expressive by a slight tremor. Hearing it, one divines the extreme +tenuity and the amplitude of the vibrating membranes. If the insect is +not in any way disturbed as it sits in the low foliage, the note does +not vary, but at the least noise the performer becomes a ventriloquist. +First of all you hear it there, close by, in front of you, and the next +moment you hear it over there, twenty yards away; the double note +decreased in volume by the distance. + +You go forward. Nothing is there. The sound proceeds again from its +original point. But no--it is not there; it is to the left now--unless +it is to the right--or behind.... Complete confusion! It is impossible +to detect, by means of the ear, the direction from which the chirp +really comes. Much patience and many precautions will be required before +you can capture the insect by the light of the lantern. A few specimens +caught under these conditions and placed in a cage have taught me the +little I know concerning the musician who so perfectly deceives our +ears. + +The wing-covers are both formed of a dry, broad membrane, diaphanous and +as fine as the white skin on the outside of an onion, which is capable +of vibrating over its whole area. Their shape is that of the segment of +a circle, cut away at the upper end. This segment is bent at a right +angle along a strong longitudinal nervure, and descends on the outer +side in a flap which encloses the insect's flank when in the attitude of +repose. + +The right wing-cover overlaps the left. Its inner edge carries, on the +under side, near the base, a callosity from which five radiating +nervures proceed; two of them upwards and two downwards, while the fifth +runs approximately at right angles to these. This last nervure, which is +of a slightly reddish hue, is the fundamental element of the musical +device; it is, in short, the bow, the fiddlestick, as is proved by the +fine notches which run across it. The rest of the wing-cover shows a few +more nervures of less importance, which hold the membrane stretched +tight, but do not form part of the friction apparatus. + +The left or lower wing-cover is of similar structure, with the +difference that the bow, the callosity, and the nervures occupy the +upper face. It will be found that the two bows--that is, the toothed or +indented nervures--cross one another obliquely. + +When the note has its full volume, the wing-covers are well raised above +the body like a wide gauzy sail, only touching along the internal edges. +The two bows, the toothed nervures, engage obliquely one with the other, +and their mutual friction causes the sonorous vibration of the two +stretched membranes. + +[Illustration: THE ITALIAN CRICKET.] + +The sound can be modified accordingly as the strokes of each bow bear +upon the callosity, which is itself serrated or wrinkled, or on one of +the four smooth radiating nervures. Thus in part are explained the +illusions produced by a sound which seems to come first from one point, +then from another, when the timid insect is alarmed. + +The production of loud or soft resounding or muffled notes, which gives +the illusion of distance, the principal element in the art of the +ventriloquist, has another and easily discovered source. To produce the +loud, open sounds the wing-covers are fully lifted; to produce the +muted, muffled notes they are lowered. When lowered their outer edges +press more or less lightly on the soft flanks of the insect, thus +diminishing the vibratory area and damping the sound. + +The gentle touch of a finger-tip muffles the sharp, loud ringing of a +glass tumbler or "musical-glass" and changes it into a veiled, +indefinite sound which seems to come from a distance. The White Cricket +knows this secret of acoustics. It misleads those that seek it by +pressing the edge of its vibrating membranes to the soft flesh of its +abdomen. Our musical instruments have their dampers; that of the +_OEcanthus pellucens_ rivals and surpasses them in simplicity of means +and perfection of results. + +The Field-Cricket and its relatives also vary the volume of their song +by raising or lowering the elytra so as to enclose the abdomen in a +varying degree, but none of them can obtain by this method results so +deceptive as those produced by the Italian Cricket. + +To this illusion of distance, which is a source of perpetually renewed +surprise, evoked by the slightest sound of our footsteps, we must add +the purity of the sound, and its soft tremolo. I know of no insect voice +more gracious, more limpid, in the profound peace of the nights of +August. How many times, _per amica silentia lunae_, have I lain upon the +ground, in the shelter of a clump of rosemary, to listen to the +delicious concert! + +The nocturnal Cricket sings continually in the gardens. Each tuft of the +red-flowered cistus has its band of musicians, and each bush of fragrant +lavender. The shrubs and the terebinth-trees contain their orchestras. +With its clear, sweet voice, all this tiny world is questioning, +replying, from bush to bush, from tree to tree; or rather, indifferent +to the songs of others, each little being is singing his joys to himself +alone. + +Above my head the constellation of Cygnus stretches its great cross +along the Milky Way; below, all around me, palpitates the insect +symphony. The atom telling of its joys makes me forget the spectacle of +the stars. We know nothing of these celestial eyes which gaze upon us, +cold and calm, with scintillations like the blinking of eyelids. + +Science tells us of their distance, their speeds, their masses, their +volumes; it burdens us with stupendous numbers and stupefies us with +immensities; but it does not succeed in moving us. And why? Because it +lacks the great secret: the secret of life. What is there, up there? +What do these suns warm? Worlds analogous to ours, says reason; planets +on which life is evolving in an endless variety of forms. A superb +conception of the universe, but after all a pure conception, not based +upon patent facts and infallible testimony at the disposal of one and +all. The probable, even the extremely probable, is not the obvious, the +evident, which forces itself irresistibly and leaves no room for doubt. + +But in your company, O my Crickets, I feel the thrill of life, the soul +of our native lump of earth; and for this reason, as I lean against the +hedge of rosemary, I bestow only an absent glance upon the constellation +of Cygnus, but give all my attention to your serenade. A little animated +slime, capable of pleasure and pain, surpasses in interest the universe +of dead matter. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE SISYPHUS BEETLE.--THE INSTINCT OF PATERNITY + + +The duties of paternity are seldom imposed on any but the higher +animals. They are most notable in the bird; and the furry peoples acquit +themselves honourably. Lower in the scale we find in the father a +general indifference as to the fate of the family. Very few insects form +exceptions to this rule. Although all are imbued with a mating instinct +that is almost frenzied, nearly all, when the passion of the moment is +appeased, terminate then and there their domestic relations, and +withdraw, indifferent to the brood, which has to look after itself as +best it may. + +This paternal coldness, which would be odious in the higher walks of +animal life, where the weakness of the young demands prolonged +assistance, has in the insect world the excuse that the new-born young +are comparatively robust, and are able, without help, to fill their +mouths and stomachs, provided they find themselves in propitious +surroundings. All that the prosperity of the race demands of the +Pierides, or Cabbage Butterflies, is that they should deposit their eggs +on the leaves of the cabbage; what purpose would be served by the +instincts of a father? The botanical instinct of the mother needs no +assistance. At the period of laying the father would be in the way. Let +him pursue his flirtations elsewhere; the laying of eggs is a serious +business. + +In the case of the majority of insects the process of education is +unknown, or summary in the extreme. The insect has only to select a +grazing-ground upon which its family will establish itself the moment it +is hatched; or a site which will allow the young to find their proper +sustenance for themselves. There is no need of a father in these various +cases. After mating, the discarded male, who is henceforth useless, +drags out a lingering existence of a few days, and finally perishes +without having given the slightest assistance in the work of installing +his offspring. + +But matters are not everywhere so primitive as this. There are tribes in +which an inheritance is prepared for the family which will assure it +both of food and of shelter in advance. The Hymenoptera in particular +are past-masters in the provision of cellars, jars, and other utensils +in which the honey-paste destined for the young is stored; they are +perfect in the art of excavating storehouses of food for their grubs. + +This stupendous labour of construction and provisioning, this labour +that absorbs the insect's whole life, is the work of the mother only, +who wears herself out at her task. The father, intoxicated with +sunlight, lies idle on the threshold of the workshop, watching the +heroic female at her work, and regards himself as excused from all +labour when he has plagued his neighbours a little. + +Does he never perform useful work? Why does he not follow the example +of the swallows, each of whom brings a fair share of the straw and +mortar for the building of the nest and the midges for the young brood? +No, he does nothing; perhaps alleging the excuse of his relative +weakness. But this is a poor excuse; for to cut out little circles from +a leaf, to rake a little cotton from a downy plant, or to gather a +little mortar from a muddy spot, would hardly be a task beyond his +powers. He might very well collaborate, at least as labourer; he could +at least gather together the materials for the more intelligent mother +to place in position. The true motive of his idleness is ineptitude. + +It is a curious thing that the Hymenoptera, the most skilful of all +industrial insects, know nothing of paternal labour. The male of the +genus, in whom we should expect the requirements of the young to develop +the highest aptitudes, is as useless as a butterfly, whose family costs +so little to establish. The actual distribution of instinct upsets our +most reasonable previsions. + +It upsets our expectations so completely that we are surprised to find +in the dung-beetle the noble prerogative which is lacking in the bee +tribe. The mates of several species of dung-beetle keep house together +and know the worth of mutual labour. Consider the male and female +Geotrupes, which prepare together the patrimony of their larvae; in their +case the father assists his companion with the pressure of his robust +body in the manufacture of their balls of compressed nutriment. These +domestic habits are astonishing amidst the general isolation. + +To this example, hitherto unique, my continual researches in this +direction permit me to-day to add three others which are fully as +interesting. All three are members of the corporation of dung-beetles. I +will relate their habits, but briefly, as in many respects their history +is the same as that of the Sacred Scarabaeus, the Spanish Copris, and +others. + +The first example is the Sisyphus beetle (_Sisyphus Schaefferi_, Lin.), +the smallest and most industrious of our pill-makers. It has no equal in +lively agility, grotesque somersaults, and sudden tumbles down the +impossible paths or over the impracticable obstacles to which its +obstinacy is perpetually leading it. In allusion to these frantic +gymnastics Latreille has given the insect the name of Sisyphus, after +the celebrated inmate of the classic Hades. This unhappy spirit +underwent terrible exertions in his efforts to heave to the top of a +mountain an enormous rock, which always escaped him at the moment of +attaining the summit, and rolled back to the foot of the slope. Begin +again, poor Sisyphus, begin again, begin again always! Your torments +will never cease until the rock is firmly placed upon the summit of the +mountain. + +I like this myth. It is, in a way, the history of many of us; not odious +scoundrels worthy of eternal torments, but worthy and laborious folk, +useful to their neighbours. One crime alone is theirs to expiate: the +crime of poverty. Half a century or more ago, for my own part, I left +many blood-stained tatters on the crags of the inhospitable mountain; I +sweated, strained every nerve, exhausted my veins, spent without +reckoning my reserves of energy, in order to carry upward and lodge in +a place of security that crushing burden, my daily bread; and hardly was +the load balanced but it once more slipped downwards, fell, and was +engulfed. Begin again, poor Sisyphus; begin again, until your burden, +falling for the last time, shall crush your head and set you free at +length. + +The Sisyphus of the naturalists knows nothing of these tribulations. +Agile and lively, careless of slope or precipice, he trundles his load, +which is sometimes food for himself, sometimes for his offspring. He is +very rare hereabouts; I should never have succeeded in obtaining a +sufficient number of specimens for my purpose but for an assistant whom +I may opportunely present to the reader, for he will be mentioned again +in these recitals. + +This is my son, little Paul, aged seven. An assiduous companion of the +chase, he knows better than any one of his age the secrets of the +Cigale, the Cricket, and especially of the dung-beetle, his great +delight. At a distance of twenty yards his clear sight distinguishes the +refuse-tip of a beetle's burrow from a chance lump of earth; his fine +ear will catch the chirping of a grasshopper inaudible to me. He lends +me his sight and hearing, and I in return make him free of my thoughts, +which he welcomes attentively, raising his wide blue eyes questioningly +to mine. + +What an adorable thing is the first blossoming of the intellect! Best of +all ages is that when the candid curiosity awakens and commences to +acquire knowledge of every kind. Little Paul has his own insectorium, in +which the Scarabaeus makes his balls; his garden, the size of a +handkerchief, in which he grows haricot beans, which are often dug up to +see if the little roots are growing longer; his plantation, containing +four oak-trees an inch in height, to which the acorns still adhere. +These serve as diversions after the arid study of grammar, which goes +forward none the worse on that account. + +What beautiful and useful knowledge the teaching of natural history +might put into childish heads, if only science would consider the very +young; if our barracks of universities would only combine the lifeless +study of books with the living study of the fields; if only the red tape +of the curriculum, so dear to bureaucrats, would not strangle all +willing initiative. Little Paul and I will study as much as possible in +the open country, among the rosemary bushes and arbutus. There we shall +gain vigour of body and of mind; we shall find the true and the +beautiful better than in school-books. + +To-day the blackboard has a rest; it is a holiday. We rise early, in +view of the intended expedition; so early that we must set out fasting. +But no matter; when we are hungry we shall rest in the shade, and you +will find in my knapsack the usual viaticum--apples and a crust of +bread. The month of May is near; the Sisyphus should have appeared. Now +we must explore at the foot of the mountain, the scanty pastures through +which the herds have passed; we must break with our fingers, one by one, +the cakes of sheep-dung dried by the sun, but still retaining a spot of +moisture in the centre. There we shall find Sisyphus, cowering and +waiting until the evening for fresher pasturage. + +Possessed of this secret, which I learned from previous fortuitous +discoveries, little Paul immediately becomes a master in the art of +dislodging the beetle. He shows such zeal, has such an instinct for +likely hiding-places, that after a brief search I am rich beyond my +ambitions. Behold me the owner of six couples of Sisyphus beetles: an +unheard-of number, which I had never hoped to obtain. + +For their maintenance a wire-gauze cover suffices, with a bed of sand +and diet to their taste. They are very small, scarcely larger than a +cherry-stone. Their shape is extremely curious. The body is dumpy, +tapering to an acorn-shaped posterior; the legs are very long, +resembling those of the spider when outspread; the hinder legs are +disproportionately long and curved, being thus excellently adapted to +enlace and press the little pilule of dung. + +Mating takes place towards the beginning of May, on the surface of the +soil, among the remains of the sheep-dung on which the beetles have been +feeding. Soon the moment for establishing the family arrives. With equal +zeal the two partners take part in the kneading, transport, and baking +of the food for their offspring. With the file-like forelegs a morsel of +convenient size is shaped from the piece of dung placed in the cage. +Father and mother manipulate the piece together, striking it blows with +their claws, compressing it, and shaping it into a ball about the size +of a big pea. + +As in the case of the _Scarabaeus sacer_, the exact spherical form is +produced without the mechanical device of rolling the ball. Before it is +moved, even before it is cut loose from its point of support, the +fragment is modelled into the shape of a sphere. The beetle as geometer +is aware of the form best adapted to the long preservation of preserved +foods. + +The ball is soon ready. It must now be forced to acquire, by means of a +vigorous rolling, the crust which will protect the interior from a too +rapid evaporation. The mother, recognisable by her slightly robuster +body, takes the place of honour in front. Her long hinder legs on the +soil, her forelegs on the ball, she drags it towards her as she walks +backwards. The father pushes behind, moving tail first, his head held +low. This is exactly the method of the Scarabaeus beetles, which also +work in couples, though for another object. The Sisyphus beetles harness +themselves to provide an inheritance for their larvae; the larger insects +are concerned in obtaining the material for a banquet which the two +chance-met partners will consume underground. + +The couple set off, with no definite goal ahead, across the +irregularities of the soil, which cannot be avoided by a leader who +hauls backwards. But even if the Sisyphus saw the obstacles she would +not try to evade them: witness her obstinate endeavour to drag her load +up the wire gauze of her cage! + +A hopeless undertaking! Fixing her hinder claws in the meshes of the +wire gauze the mother drags her burden towards her; then, enlacing it +with her legs, she holds it suspended. The father, finding no purchase +for his legs, clutches the ball, grows on to it, so to speak, thus +adding his weight to that of the burden, and awaits events. The effort +is too great to last. Ball and beetle fall together. The mother, from +above, gazes a moment in surprise, and suddenly lets herself fall, only +to re-embrace the ball and recommence her impracticable efforts to scale +the wall. After many tumbles the attempt is at last abandoned. + +Even on level ground the task is not without its difficulties. At every +moment the load swerves on the summit of a pebble, a fragment of gravel; +the team are overturned, and lie on their backs, kicking their legs in +the air. This is a mere nothing. They pick themselves up and resume +their positions, always quick and lively. The accidents which so often +throw them on their backs seem to cause them no concern; one would even +think they were invited. The pilule has to be matured, given a proper +consistency. In these conditions falls, shocks, blows, and jolts might +well enter into the programme. This mad trundling lasts for hours and +hours. + +Finally, the mother, considering that the matter has been brought to a +satisfactory conclusion, departs in search of a favourable place for +storage. The father, crouched upon the treasure, waits. If the absence +of his companion is prolonged he amuses himself by rapidly whirling the +pill between his hind legs, which are raised in the air. He juggles with +the precious burden; he tests its perfections between his curved legs, +calliper-wise. Seeing him frisking in this joyful occupation, who can +doubt that he experiences all the satisfactions of a father assured of +the future of his family? It is I, he seems to say, it is I who have +made this loaf, so beautifully round; it is I who have made the hard +crust to preserve the soft dough; it is I who have baked it for my sons! +And he raises on high, in the sight of all, this magnificent testimonial +of his labours. + +But now the mother has chosen the site. A shallow pit is made, the mere +commencement of the projected burrow. The ball is pushed and pulled +until it is close at hand. The father, a vigilant watchman, still +retains his hold, while the mother digs with claws and head. Soon the +pit is deep enough to receive the ball; she cannot dispense with the +close contact of the sacred object; she must feel it bobbing behind her, +against her back, safe from all parasites and robbers, before she can +decide to burrow further. She fears what might happen to the precious +loaf if it were abandoned at the threshold of the burrow until the +completion of the dwelling. There is no lack of midges and tiny +dung-beetles--Aphodiinae--which might take possession of it. It is only +prudent to be distrustful. + +So the ball is introduced into the pit, half in and half out of the +mouth of the burrow. The mother, below, clasps and pulls; the father, +above, moderates the jolts and prevents it from rolling. All goes well. +Digging is resumed, and the descent continues, always with the same +prudence; one beetle dragging the load, the other regulating its descent +and clearing away all rubbish that might hinder the operation. A few +more efforts, and the ball disappears underground with the two miners. +What follows will be, for a time at least, only a repetition of what we +have seen. Let us wait half a day or so. + +If our vigilance is not relaxed we shall see the father regain the +surface alone, and crouch in the sand near the mouth of the burrow. +Retained by duties in the performance of which her companion can be of +no assistance, the mother habitually delays her reappearance until the +following day. When she finally emerges the father wakes up, leaves his +hiding place, and rejoins her. The reunited couple return to their +pasturage, refresh themselves, and then cut out another ball of dung. +As before, both share the work; the hewing and shaping, the transport, +and the burial in ensilage. + +This conjugal fidelity is delightful; but is it really the rule? I +should not dare to affirm that it is. There must be flighty individuals +who, in the confusion under a large cake of droppings, forget the fair +confectioners for whom they have worked as journeymen, and devote +themselves to the services of others, encountered by chance; there must +be temporary unions, and divorces after the burial of a single pellet. +No matter: the little I myself have seen gives me a high opinion of the +domestic morals of the Sisyphus. + +Let us consider these domestic habits a little further before coming to +the contents of the burrow. The father works fully as hard as the mother +at the extraction and modelling of the pellet which is destined to be +the inheritance of a larva; he shares in the work of transport, even if +he plays a secondary part; he watches over the pellet when the mother is +absent, seeking for a suitable site for the excavation of the cellar; he +helps in the work of digging; he carries away the rubbish from the +burrow; finally, to crown all these qualities, he is in a great measure +faithful to his spouse. + +The Scarabaeus exhibits some of these characteristics. He also assists +his spouse in the preparation of pellets of dung; he also assists her to +transport the pellets, the pair facing each other and the female going +backwards. But as I have stated already, the motive of this mutual +service is selfish; the two partners labour only for their own good. The +feast is for themselves alone. In the labours that concern the family +the female Scarabaeus receives no assistance. Alone she moulds her +sphere, extracts it from the lump and rolls it backwards, with her back +to her task, in the position adopted by the male Sisyphus; alone she +excavates her burrow, and alone she buries the fruit of her labour. +Oblivious of the gravid mother and the future brood, the male gives her +no assistance in her exhausting task. How different to the little +pellet-maker, the Sisyphus! + +It is now time to visit the burrow. At no very great depth we find a +narrow chamber, just large enough for the mother to move around at her +work. Its very exiguity proves that the male cannot remain underground; +so soon as the chamber is ready he must retire in order to leave the +female room to move. We have, in fact, seen that he returns to the +surface long before the female. + +The contents of the cellar consist of a single pellet, a masterpiece of +plastic art. It is a miniature reproduction of the pear-shaped ball of +the Scarabaeus, a reproduction whose very smallness gives an added value +to the polish of the surface and the beauty of its curves. Its larger +diameter varies from half to three-quarters of an inch. It is the most +elegant product of the dung-beetle's art. + +But this perfection is of brief duration. Very soon the little "pear" +becomes covered with gnarled excrescences, black and twisted, which +disfigure it like so many warts. Part of the surface, which is otherwise +intact, disappears under a shapeless mass. The origin of these knotted +excrescences completely deceived me at first. I suspected some +cryptogamic vegetation, some _Spheriaecaea_, for example, recognisable by +its black, knotted, incrusted growth. It was the larva that showed me my +mistake. + +The larva is a maggot curved like a hook, carrying on its back an ample +pouch or hunch, forming part of its alimentary canal. The reserve of +excreta in this hunch enables it to seal accidental perforations of the +shell of its lodging with an instantaneous jet of mortar. These sudden +emissions, like little worm-casts, are also practised by the Scarabaeus, +but the latter rarely makes use of them. + +The larvae of the various dung-beetles utilise their alimentary residues +in rough-casting their houses, which by their dimensions lend themselves +to this method of disposal, while evading the necessity of opening +temporary windows by which the ordure can be expelled. Whether for lack +of sufficient room, or for other reasons which escape me, the larva of +the Sisyphus, having employed a certain amount in the smoothing of the +interior, ejects the rest of its digestive products from its dwelling. + +Let us examine one of these "pears" when the inmate is already partly +grown. Sooner or later we shall see a spot of moisture appear at some +point on the surface; the wall softens, becomes thinner, and then, +through the softened shell, a jet of dark green excreta rises and falls +back upon itself in corkscrew convolutions. One excrescence the more has +been formed; as it dries it becomes black. + +What has occurred? The larva has opened a temporary breach in the wall +of its shell; and through this orifice, in which a slight thickness of +the outer glaze still remains, it has expelled the excess of mortar +which it could not employ within. This practice of forming oubliettes in +the shell of its prison does not endanger the grub, as they are +immediately closed, and hermetically sealed by the base of the jet, +which is compressed as by a stroke of a trowel. The stopper is so +quickly put in place that the contents remain moist in spite of the +frequent breaches made in the shell of the "pear." There is no danger of +an influx of the dry outer air. + +The Sisyphus seems to be aware of the peril which later on, in the +dog-days, will threaten its "pear," small as it is, and so near the +surface of the ground. It is extremely precocious. It labours in April +and May when the air is mild. In the first fortnight of July, before the +terrible dog-days have arrived, the members of its family break their +shells and set forth in search of the heap of droppings which will +furnish them with food and lodging during the fierce days of summer. +Then come the short but pleasant days of autumn, the retreat underground +and the winter torpor, the awakening of spring, and finally the cycle is +closed by the festival of pellet-making. + +One word more as to the fertility of the Sisyphus. My six couples under +the wire-gauze cover furnished me with fifty-seven inhabited pellets. +This gives an average of more than nine to each couple; a figure which +the _Scarabaeus sacer_ is far from attaining. To what should we attribute +this superior fertility? I can only see one cause: the fact that the +male works as valiantly as the female. Family cares too great for the +strength of one are not too heavy when there are two to support them. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A BEE-HUNTER: THE _PHILANTHUS AVIPORUS_ + + +To encounter among the Hymenoptera, those ardent lovers of flowers, a +species which goes a-hunting on its own account is, to say the least of +it, astonishing. That the larder of the larvae should be provisioned with +captured prey is natural enough; but that the provider, whose diet is +honey, should itself devour its captives is a fact both unexpected and +difficult to comprehend. We are surprised that a drinker of nectar +should become a drinker of blood. But our surprise abates if we consider +the matter closely. The double diet is more apparent than real; the +stomach which fills itself with the nectar of flowers does not gorge +itself with flesh. When she perforates the rump of her victim the +Odynerus does not touch the flesh, which is a diet absolutely contrary +to her tastes; she confines herself to drinking the defensive liquid +which the grub distils at the end of its intestine. For her this liquid +is doubtless a beverage of delicious flavour, with which she relieves +from time to time her staple diet of the honey distilled by flowers, +some highly spiced condiment, appetiser or aperient, or perhaps--who +knows?--a substitute for honey. Although the qualities of the liquid +escape me, I see at least that Odynerus cares nothing for the rest. +Once the pouch is emptied the larva is abandoned as useless offal, a +certain sign of non-carnivorous appetites. Under these conditions the +persecutor of Chrysomela can no longer be regarded as guilty of an +unnatural double dietary. + +We may even wonder whether other species also are not apt to draw some +direct profit from the hunting imposed upon them by the needs of the +family. The procedure of Odynerus in opening the anal pouch is so far +removed from the usual that we should not anticipate many imitators; it +is a secondary detail, and impracticable with game of a different kind. +But there may well be a certain amount of variety in the means of direct +utilisation. Why, for example, when the victim which has just been +paralysed or rendered insensible by stinging contains in the stomach a +delicious meal, semi-liquid or liquid in consistency, should the hunter +scruple to rob the half-living body and force it to disgorge without +injuring the quality of its flesh? There may well be robbers of the +moribund, attracted not by their flesh but by the appetising contents of +their stomachs. + +As a matter of fact there are such, and they are numerous. In the first +rank we may cite that hunter of the domestic bee, _Philanthus aviporus_ +(Latreille). For a long time I suspected Philanthus of committing such +acts of brigandage for her own benefit, having many times surprised her +gluttonously licking the honey-smeared mouth of the bee; I suspected +that her hunting of the bee was not undertaken entirely for the benefit +of her larvae. The suspicion was worth experimental confirmation. At the +time I was interested in another question also: I wanted to study, +absolutely at leisure, the methods by which the various predatory +species dealt with their victims. In the case of Philanthus I made use +of the improvised cage already described; and Philanthus it was who +furnished me with my first data on the subject. She responded to my +hopes with such energy that I thought myself in possession of an +unequalled method of observation, by means of which I could witness +again and again, to satiety even, incidents of a kind so difficult to +surprise in a state of nature. Alas! the early days of my acquaintance +with Philanthus promised me more than the future had in store for me! +Not to anticipate, however, let us place under the bell-glass the hunter +and the game. I recommend the experiment to whomsoever would witness the +perfection with which the predatory Hymenoptera use their stings. The +result is not in doubt and the waiting is short; the moment the prey is +perceived in an attitude favourable to her designs, the bandit rushes at +it, and all is over. In detail, the tragedy develops as follows: + +I place under a bell-glass a Philanthus and two or three domestic bees. +The prisoners climb the glass walls, on the more strongly lighted side; +they ascend, descend, and seek to escape; the polished, vertical surface +is for them quite easy to walk upon. They presently quiet down, and the +brigand begins to notice her surroundings. The antennae point forward, +seeking information; the hinder legs are drawn up with a slight +trembling, as of greed and rapacity, in the thighs; the head turns to +the right and the left, and follows the evolutions of the bees against +the glass. The posture of the scoundrelly insect is strikingly +expressive; one reads in it the brutal desires of a creature in ambush, +the cunning patience that postpones attack. The choice is made, and +Philanthus throws herself upon her victim. + +Turn by turn tumbled and tumbling, the two insects roll over and over. +But the struggle soon quiets down, and the assassin commences to plunder +her prize. I have seen her adopt two methods. In the first, more usual +than the other, the bee is lying on the ground, upon its back, and +Philanthus, mouth to mouth and abdomen to abdomen, clasps it with her +six legs, while she seizes its neck in her mandibles. The abdomen is +then curved forward and gropes for a moment for the desired spot in the +upper part of the thorax, which it finally reaches. The sting plunges +into the victim, remains in the wound for a moment, and all is over. +Without loosing the victim, which is still tightly clasped, the murderer +restores her abdomen to the normal position and holds it pressed against +that of the bee. + +By the second method Philanthus operates standing upright. Resting on +the hinder feet and the extremity of the folded wings, she rises proudly +to a vertical position, holding the bee facing her by her four anterior +claws. In order to get the bee into the proper position for the final +stroke, she swings the poor creature round and back again with the +careless roughness of a child dandling a doll. Her pose is magnificent, +solidly based upon her sustaining tripod, the two posterior thighs and +the end of the wings, she flexes the abdomen forwards and upwards, and, +as before, stings the bee in the upper part of the thorax. The +originality of her pose at the moment of striking surpasses anything I +have ever witnessed. + +The love of knowledge in matters of natural history is not without its +cruelties. To make absolutely certain of the point attained by the +sting, and to inform myself completely concerning this horrible talent +for murder, I have provoked I dare not confess how many assassinations +in captivity. Without a single exception, the bee has always been stung +in the throat. In the preparations for the final blow the extremity of +the abdomen may of course touch here and there, at different points of +the thorax or abdomen, but it never remains there, nor is the sting +unsheathed, as may easily be seen. Once the struggle has commenced the +Philanthus is so absorbed in her operations that I can remove the glass +cover and follow every detail of the drama with my magnifying-glass. + +The invariable situation of the wound being proved, I bend back the head +of the bee, so as to open the articulation. I see under what we may call +the chin of the bee a white spot, hardly a twenty-fifth of an inch +square, where the horny integuments are lacking, and the fine skin is +exposed uncovered. It is there, always there, in that tiny defect in the +bee's armour, that the sting is inserted. Why is this point attacked +rather than another? Is it the only point that is vulnerable? Stretch +open the articulation of the corselet to the rear of the first pair of +legs. There you will see an area of defenceless skin, fully as delicate +as that of the throat, but much more extensive. The horny armour of the +bee has no larger breach. If the Philanthus were guided solely by +considerations of vulnerability she would certainly strike there, +instead of insistently seeking the narrow breach in the throat. The +sting would not grope or hesitate, it would find its mark at the first +attempt. No; the poisoned thrust is not conditioned by mechanical +considerations; the murderer disdains the wide breach in the corselet +and prefers the lesser one beneath the chin, for purely logical reasons +which we will now attempt to elicit. + +The moment the bee is stung I release it from the aggressor. I am struck +in the first place by the sudden inertia of the antennae and the various +members of the mouth; organs which continue to move for so long a time +in the victims of most predatory creatures. I see none of the +indications with which my previous studies of paralysed victims have +made me familiar: the antennae slowly waving, the mandibles opening and +closing, the palpae trembling for days, for weeks, even for months. The +thighs tremble for a minute or two at most; and the struggle is over. +Henceforth there is complete immobility. The significance of this sudden +inertia is forced upon me: the Philanthus has stabbed the cervical +ganglions. Hence the sudden immobility of all the organs of the head: +hence the real, not the apparent death of the bee. The Philanthus does +not paralyse merely, but kills. + +This is one step gained. The murderer chooses the point below the chin +as the point of attack, in order to reach the principal centres of +innervation, the cephalic ganglions, and thus to abolish life at a +single blow. The vital centres being poisoned, immediate death must +follow. If the object of the Philanthus were merely to cause paralysis +she would plunge her sting into the defective corselet, as does the +Cerceris in attacking the weevil, whose armour is quite unlike the +bee's. Her aim is to kill outright, as we shall presently see; she wants +a corpse, not a paralytic. We must admit that her technique is +admirable; our human murderers could do no better. + +Her posture of attack, which is very different to that of the +paralysers, is infallibly fatal to the victim. Whether she delivers the +attack in the erect position or prone, she holds the bee before her, +head to head and thorax to thorax. In this position it suffices to flex +the abdomen in order to reach the joint of the neck, and to plunge the +sting obliquely upwards into the head of the captive. If the bee were +seized in the inverse position, or if the sting were to go slightly +astray, the results would be totally different; the sting, penetrating +the bee in a downward direction, would poison the first thoracic +ganglion and provoke a partial paralysis only. What art, to destroy a +miserable bee! In what fencing-school did the slayer learn that terrible +upward thrust beneath the chin? And as she has learned it, how is it +that her victim, so learned in matters of architecture, so conversant +with the politics of Socialism, has so far learned nothing in her own +defence? As vigorous as the aggressor, she also carries a rapier, which +is even more formidable and more painful in its results--at all events, +when my finger is the victim! For centuries and centuries Philanthus has +stored her cellars with the corpses of bees, yet the innocent victim +submits, and the annual decimation of her race has not taught her how to +deliver herself from the scourge by a well-directed thrust. I am afraid +I shall never succeed in understanding how it is that the assailant has +acquired her genius for sudden murder while the assailed, better armed +and no less powerful, uses her dagger at random, and so far without +effect. If the one has learned something from the prolonged exercise of +the attack, then the other should also have learned something from the +prolonged exercise of defence, for attack and defence are of equal +significance in the struggle for life. Among the theorists of our day, +is there any so far-sighted as to be able to solve this enigma? + +I will take this opportunity of presenting a second point which +embarrasses me; it is the carelessness--it is worse than that--the +imbecility of the bee in the presence of the Philanthus. One would +naturally suppose that the persecuted insect, gradually instructed by +family misfortune, would exhibit anxiety at the approach of the +ravisher, and would at least try to escape. But in my bell-glasses or +wire-gauze cages I see nothing of the kind. Once the first excitement +due to imprisonment has passed the bee takes next to no notice of its +terrible neighbour. I have seen it side by side with Philanthus on the +same flower; assassin and future victim were drinking from the same +goblet. I have seen it stupidly coming to inquire what the stranger +might be, as the latter crouched watching on the floor. When the +murderer springs it is usually upon some bee which passes before her, +and throws itself, so to speak, into her clutches; either thoughtlessly +or out of curiosity. There is no frantic terror, no sign of anxiety, no +tendency to escape. How is it that the experience of centuries, which is +said to teach so much to the lower creatures, has not taught the bee +even the beginning of apine wisdom: a deep-rooted horror of the +Philanthus? Does the bee count upon its sting? But the unhappy creature +is no fencer; it thrusts without method, at random. Nevertheless, let us +watch it at the final and fatal moment. + +When the ravisher brings her sting into play the bee also uses its +sting, and with fury. I see the point thrusting now in this direction, +now in that; but in empty air, or grazing and slipping over the +convexity of the murderer's back, which is violently flexed. These blows +have no serious results. In the position assumed by the two as they +struggle the abdomen of the Philanthus is inside and that of the bee +outside; thus the sting of the latter has under its point only the +dorsal face of the enemy, which is convex and slippery, and almost +invulnerable, so well is it armoured. There is no breach there by which +the sting might possibly enter; and the operation takes place with the +certainty of a skilful surgeon using the lancet, despite the indignant +protests of the patient. + +The fatal stroke once delivered, the murderer remains for some time on +the body of the victim, clasping it face to face, for reasons that we +must now consider. It may be that the position is perilous for +Philanthus. The posture of attack and self-protection is abandoned, and +the ventral area, more vulnerable than the back, is exposed to the sting +of the bee. Now the dead bee retains for some minutes the reflex use of +the sting, as I know to my cost: for removing the bee too soon from the +aggressor, and handling it carelessly, I have received a most effectual +sting. In her long embrace of the poisoned bee, how does Philanthus +avoid this sting, which does not willingly give up its life without +vengeance? Are there not sometimes unexpected accidents? Perhaps. + +Here is a fact which encourages me in this belief. I had placed under +the bell-glass at the same time four bees and as many Eristales, in +order to judge of the entomological knowledge of Philanthus as +exemplified in the distinction of species. Reciprocal quarrels broke out +among the heterogeneous group. Suddenly, in the midst of the tumult, +the killer is killed. Who has struck the blow? Certainly not the +turbulent but pacific Eristales; it was one of the bees, which by chance +had thrust truly in the mellay. When and how? I do not know. This +accident is unique in my experience; but it throws a light upon the +question. The bee is capable of withstanding its adversary; it can, with +a thrust of its envenomed needle, kill the would-be killer. That it does +not defend itself more skilfully when it falls into the hands of its +enemy is due to ignorance of fencing, not to the weakness of the arm. +And here again arises, more insistently than before, the question I +asked but now: how is it that the Philanthus has learned for purposes of +attack what the bee has not learned for purposes of defence. To this +difficulty I see only one reply: the one knows without having learned +and the other does not know, being incapable of learning. + +Let us now examine the motives which induce the Philanthus to kill its +bee instead of paralysing it. The murder once committed, it does not +release its victim for a moment, but holding it tightly clasped with its +six legs pressed against its body, it commences to ravage the corpse. I +see it with the utmost brutality rooting with its mandibles in the +articulation of the neck, and often also in the more ample articulation +of the corselet, behind the first pair of legs; perfectly aware of the +fine membrane in that part, although it does not take advantage of the +fact when employing its sting, although this vulnerable point is the +more accessible of the two breaches in the bee's armour. I see it +squeezing the bee's stomach, compressing it with its own abdomen, +crushing it as in a vice. The brutality of this manipulation is +striking; it shows that there is no more need of care and skill. The +bee is a corpse, and a little extra pushing and squeezing will not +deteriorate its quality as food, provided there is no effusion of blood; +and however rough the treatment, I have never been able to discover the +slightest wound. + +These various manipulations, above all the compression of the throat, +lead to the desired result: the honey in the stomach of the bee ascends +to the mouth. I see the drops of honey welling out, lapped up by the +glutton as soon as they appear. The bandit greedily takes in its mouth +the extended and sugared tongue of the dead insect; then once more it +presses the neck and the thorax, and once more applies the pressure of +its abdomen to the honey-sac of the bee. The honey oozes forth and is +instantly licked up. This odious meal at the expense of the corpse is +taken in a truly sybaritic attitude: the Philanthus lies upon its side +with the bee between its legs. This atrocious meal lasts often half an +hour and longer. Finally the exhausted corpse is abandoned; regretfully, +it seems, for from time to time I have seen the ogre return to the feast +and repeat its manipulation of the body. After taking a turn round the +top of the bell-glass the robber of the dead returns to the victim, +squeezes it once more, and licks its mouth until the last trace of honey +has disappeared. + +The frantic passion of the Philanthus for the honey of the bee is +betrayed in another fashion. When the first victim has been exhausted I +have introduced a second bee, which has been promptly stabbed under the +chin and squeezed as before in order to extract its honey. A third has +suffered the same fate without appeasing the bandit. I have offered a +fourth, a fifth; all are accepted. My notes record that a Philanthus +sacrificed six bees in succession before my eyes, and emptied them all +of honey in the approved manner. The killing came to an end not because +the glutton was satiated, but because my functions as provider were +becoming troublesome; the dry month of August leaves but few insects in +the flowerless garden. Six bees emptied of their honey--what a +gluttonous meal! Yet the famishing creature would doubtless have +welcomed a copious addition thereto had I had the means of furnishing +it! + +We need not regret the failure of bees upon this occasion; for what I +have already written is sufficient testimony of the singular habits of +this murderer of bees. I am far from denying that the Philanthus has +honest methods of earning its living; I see it among the flowers, no +less assiduous than the rest of the Hymenoptera, peacefully drinking +from their cups of nectar. The male, indeed, being stingless, knows no +other means of supporting himself. The mothers, without neglecting the +flowers as a general thing, live by brigandage as well. It is said of +the Labba, that pirate of the seas, that it pounces upon sea-birds as +they rise from the waves with captured fish in their beaks. With a blow +of the beak delivered in the hollow of the stomach, the aggressor forces +the victim to drop its prey, and promptly catches it as it falls. The +victim at least escapes with nothing worse than a blow at the base of +the neck. The Philanthus, less scrupulous, falls upon the bee, stabs it +to death and makes it disgorge in order to nourish herself upon its +honey. + +Nourish, I say, and I do not withdraw the expression. To support my +statement I have better reasons than those already presented. In the +cages in which various predatory Hymenoptera whose warlike habits I am +studying are confined, waiting until I have procured the desired +prey--not always an easy proceeding--I have planted a few heads of +flowers and a couple of thistle-heads sprinkled with drops of honey, +renewed at need. On these my captives feed. In the case of the +Philanthus the honeyed flowers, although welcomed, are not +indispensable. It is enough if from time to time I place in the cage a +few living bees. Half a dozen a day is about the proper allowance. With +no other diet than the honey extracted from their victims I keep my +specimens of Philanthus for a fortnight and three weeks. + +So much is plain: in a state of freedom, when occasion offers, the +Philanthus must kill on her own account as she does in captivity. The +Odynerus asks nothing of the Chrysomela but a simple condiment, the +aromatic juice of the anal pouch; the Philanthus demands a full diet, or +at least a notable supplement thereto, in the form of the contents of +the stomach. What a hecatomb of bees must not a colony of these pirates +sacrifice for their personal consumption, to say nothing of their stores +of provisions! I recommend the Philanthus to the vengeance of apiarists. + +For the moment we will not look further into the original causes of the +crime. Let us consider matters as we know them, with all their real or +apparent atrocity. In order to nourish herself the Philanthus levies +tribute upon the crop of the bee. This being granted, let us consider +the method of the aggressor more closely. She does not paralyse its +captives according to the customary rites of the predatory insects; she +kills them. Why? To the eyes of understanding the necessity of a sudden +death is as clear as day. Without eviscerating the bee, which would +result in the deterioration of its flesh considered as food for the +larvae; without having recourse to the bloody extirpation of the stomach, +the Philanthus intends to obtain its honey. By skilful manipulation, by +cunning massage, she must somehow make the bee disgorge. Suppose the bee +stung in the rear of the corselet and paralysed. It is deprived of +locomotion, but not of vitality. The digestive apparatus, in particular, +retains in full, or at least in part, its normal energies, as is proved +by the frequent dejections of paralysed victims so long as the intestine +is not emptied; a fact notably exemplified by the victims of the Sphex +family; helpless creatures which I have before now kept alive for forty +days with the aid of a little sugared water. Well! without therapeutic +means, without emetics or stomach-pumps, how is a stomach intact and in +good order to be persuaded to yield up its contents? That of the bee, +jealous of its treasure, will lend itself to such treatment less readily +than another. Paralysed, the creature is inert; but there are always +internal energies and organic resistances which will not yield to the +pressure of the manipulator. In vain would the Philanthus gnaw at the +throat and squeeze the flanks; the honey would not return to the mouth +as long as a trace of life kept the stomach closed. + +Matters are different with a corpse. The springs relax; the muscles +yield; the resistance of the stomach ceases, and the vessels containing +the honey are emptied by the pressure of the thief. We see, therefore, +that the Philanthus is obliged to inflict a sudden death which +instantly destroys the contractile power of the organs. Where shall the +deadly blow be delivered? The slayer knows better than we, when she +pierces the victim beneath the chin. Through the narrow breach in the +throat the cerebral ganglions are reached and immediate death ensues. + +The examination of these acts of brigandage is not sufficient in view of +my incorrigible habit of following every reply by another query, until +the granite wall of the unknowable rises before me. Although the +Philanthus is skilled in forcing the bee to disgorge, in emptying the +crop distended with honey, this diabolical skill cannot be merely an +alimentary resource, above all when in common with other insects she has +access to the refectory of the flowers. I cannot regard her talents as +inspired solely by the desire of a meal obtained by the labour of +emptying the stomach of another insect. Something must surely escape us +here: the real reason for emptying the stomach. Perhaps a respectable +reason is concealed by the horrors I have recorded. What is it? + +Every one will understand the vagueness which fills the observer's mind +in respect of such a question as this. The reader has the right to be +doubtful. I will spare him my suspicions, my gropings for the truth, and +the checks encountered in the search, and give him the results of my +long inquiry. Everything has its appropriate and harmonious reason. I am +too fully persuaded of this to believe that the Philanthus commits her +profanation of corpses merely to satisfy her appetite. What does the +empty stomach mean? May it not--Yes!--But, after all, who knows? Well, +let us follow up the scent. + +The first care of the mothers is the welfare of the family. So far all +we know of the Philanthus concerns her talent for murder. Let us +consider her as a mother. We have seen her hunt on her own account; let +us now watch her hunt for her offspring, for the race. Nothing is +simpler than to distinguish between the two kinds of hunting. When the +insect wants a few good mouthfuls of honey and nothing else, she +abandons the bee contemptuously when she has emptied its stomach. It is +so much valueless waste, which will shrivel where it lies and be +dissected by ants. If, on the other hand, she intends to place it in the +larder as a provision for her larvae, she clasps it with her two +intermediate legs, and, walking on the other four, drags it to and fro +along the edge of the bell-glass in search of an exit so that she may +fly off with her prey. Having recognised the circular wall as +impassable, she climbs its sides, now holding the bee in her mandibles +by the antennae, clinging as she climbs to the vertical polished surface +with all six feet. She gains the summit of the glass, stays for a little +while in the flask-like cavity of the terminal button or handle, returns +to the ground, and resumes her circuit of the glass and her climbing, +relinquishing the bee only after an obstinate attempt to escape with it. +The persistence with which the Philanthus retains her clasp upon the +encumbering burden shows plainly that the game would go straight to the +larder were the insect at liberty. + +Those bees intended for the larvae are stung under the chin like the +others; they are true corpses; they are manipulated, squeezed, exhausted +of their honey, just as the others. There is no difference in the method +of capture nor in their after-treatment. + +As captivity might possibly result in a few anomalies of action, I +decided to inquire how matters went forward in the open. In the +neighbourhood of some colonies of Philanthidae I lay in wait, watching +for perhaps a longer time than the question justified, as it was already +settled by what occurred in captivity. My scrupulous watching at various +times was rewarded. The majority of the hunters immediately entered +their nests, carrying the bees pressed against their bodies; some halted +on the neighbouring undergrowth; and these I saw treating the bee in the +usual manner, and lapping the honey from its mouth. After these +preparations the corpse was placed in the larder. All doubt was thus +destroyed: the bees provided for the larvae are previously carefully +emptied of their honey. + +Since we are dealing with the subject, let us take the opportunity of +inquiring into the customs of the Philanthus in a state of freedom. +Making use of her victims when absolutely lifeless, so that they would +putrefy in the course of a few days, this hunter of bees cannot adopt +the customs of certain insects which paralyse their prey, and fill their +cellars before laying an egg. She must surely be obliged to follow the +method of the Bembex, whose larva receives, at intervals, the necessary +nourishment; the amount increasing as the larva grows. The facts confirm +this deduction. I spoke just now of the tediousness of my watching when +watching the colonies of the Philanthus. It was perhaps even more +tedious than when I was keeping an eye upon the Bembex. Before the +burrows of _Cerceris tuberculus_ and other devourers of the weevil, and +before that of the yellow-winged Sphex, the slayer of crickets, there +is plenty of distraction, owing to the busy movements of the community. +The mothers have scarcely entered the nest before they are off again, +returning quickly with fresh prey, only to set out once more. The going +and coming is almost continuous until the storehouse is full. + +The burrows of the Philanthus know nothing of such animation, even in a +populous colony. In vain my vigils prolonged themselves into whole +mornings or afternoons, and only very rarely does the mother who has +entered with a bee set forth upon a second expedition. Two captures by +the same huntress is the most that I have seen in my long watches. Once +the family is provided with sufficient food for the moment the mother +postpones further hunting trips until hunting becomes necessary, and +busies herself with digging and burrowing in her underground dwelling. +Little cells are excavated, and I see the rubbish from them gradually +pushed up to the surface. With that exception there is no sign of +activity; it is as though the burrow were deserted. + +To lay the nest bare is not easy. The burrow penetrates to a depth of +about three feet in a compact soil; sometimes in a vertical, sometimes +in a horizontal direction. The spade and pick, wielded by hands more +vigorous but less expert than my own, are indispensable; but the conduct +of the excavation is anything but satisfactory. At the extremity of the +long gallery--it seems as though the straw I use for sounding would +never reach the end--we finally discover the cells, egg-shaped cavities +with the longer axis horizontal. Their number and their mutual +disposition escape me. + +Some already contain the cocoon--slender and translucid, like that of +the Cerceris, and, like it, recalling the shape of certain +homoeopathic phials, with oval bodies surmounted by a tapering neck. +By the extremity of the neck, which is blackened and hardened by the +dejecta of the larvae, the cocoon is fixed to the end of the cell without +any other support. It reminds one of a short club, planted by the end of +the handle, in a line with the horizontal axis of the cell. Other cells +contain the larva in a stage more or less advanced. The grub is eating +the last victim proffered; around it lie the remains of food already +consumed. Others, again, show me a bee, a single bee, still intact, and +having an egg deposited on the under-side of the thorax. This bee +represents the first instalment of rations; others will follow as the +grub matures. My expectations are thus confirmed; as with Bembex, slayer +of Diptera, so Philanthus, killer of bees, lays her egg upon the first +body stored, and completes, at intervals, the provisioning of the cells. + +The problem of the dead bee is elucidated; there remains the other +problem, of incomparable interest--Why, before they are given over to +the larvae, are the bees robbed of their honey? I have said, and I +repeat, that the killing and emptying of the bee cannot be explained +solely by the gluttony of the Philanthus. To rob the worker of its booty +is nothing; such things are seen every day; but to slaughter it in order +to empty its stomach--no, gluttony cannot be the only motive. And as the +bees placed in the cells are squeezed dry no less than the others, the +idea occurs to me that as a beefsteak garnished with _confitures_ is not +to every one's taste, so the bee sweetened with honey may well be +distasteful or even harmful to the larvae of the Philanthus. What would +the grub do if, replete with blood and flesh, it were to find under its +mandibles the honey-bag of the bee?--if, gnawing at random, it were to +open the bees stomach and so drench its game with syrup? Would it +approve of the mixture? Would the little ogre pass without repugnance +from the gamey flavour of a corpse to the scent of flowers? To affirm or +deny is useless. We must see. Let us see. + +I take the young larvae of the Philanthus, already well matured, but +instead of serving them with the provisions buried in their cells I +offer them game of my own catching--bees that have filled themselves +with nectar among the rosemary bushes. My bees, killed by crushing the +head, are thankfully accepted, and at first I see nothing to justify my +suspicions. Then my nurslings languish, show themselves disdainful of +their food, give a negligent bite here and there, and finally, one and +all, die beside their uncompleted meal. All my attempts miscarry; not +once do I succeed in rearing my larvae as far as the stage of spinning +the cocoon. Yet I am no novice in my duties as dry-nurse. How many +pupils have passed through my hands and have reached the final stage in +my old sardine-boxes as well as in their native burrows! I shall draw no +conclusions from this check, which my scruples may attribute to some +unknown cause. Perhaps the atmosphere of my cabinet and the dryness of +the sand serving them for a bed have been too much for my nurslings, +whose tender skins are used to the warm moisture of the subsoil. Let us +try another method. + +To decide positively whether honey is or is not repugnant to the grubs +of the Philanthus was hardly practicable by the method just explained. +The first meals consisted of flesh, and after that nothing in +particular occurred. The honey is encountered later, when the bee is +largely consumed. If hesitation and repugnance were manifested at this +point they came too late to be conclusive; the sickness of the larvae +might be due to other causes, known or unknown. We must offer honey at +the very beginning, before artificial rearing has spoilt the grub's +appetite. To offer pure honey would, of course, be useless; no +carnivorous creature would touch it, even were it starving. I must +spread the honey on meat; that is, I must smear the dead bee with honey, +lightly varnishing it with a camel's-hair brush. + +Under these conditions the problem is solved with the first few +mouthfuls. The grub, having bitten on the honeyed bee, draws back as +though disgusted; hesitates for a long time; then, urged by hunger, +begins again; tries first on one side, then on another; in the end it +refuses to touch the bee again. For a few days it pines upon its +rations, which are almost intact, then dies. As many as are subjected to +the same treatment perish in the same way. + +Do they simply die of hunger in the presence of food which their +appetites reject, or are they poisoned by the small amount of honey +absorbed at the first bites? I cannot say; but, whether poisonous or +merely repugnant, the bee smeared with honey is always fatal to them; a +fact which explains more clearly than the unfavourable circumstances of +the former experiment my lack of success with the freshly killed bees. + +This refusal to touch honey, whether poisonous or repugnant, is +connected with principles of alimentation too general to be a +gastronomic peculiarity of the Philanthus grub. Other carnivorous +larvae--at least in the series of the Hymenoptera--must share it. Let us +experiment. The method need not be changed. I exhume the larvae when in a +state of medium growth, to avoid the vicissitudes of extreme youth; I +collect the bodies of the grubs and insects which form their natural +diet and smear each body with honey, in which condition I return them to +the larvae. A distinction is apparent: all the larvae are not equally +suited to my experiment. Those larvae must be rejected which are +nourished upon one single corpulent insect, as is that of the Scolia. +The grub attacks its prey at a determined point, plunges its head and +neck into the body of the insect, skilfully divides the entrails in +order to keep the remains fresh until its meal is ended, and does not +emerge from the opening until all is consumed but the empty skin. + +To interrupt the larva with the object of smearing the interior of its +prey with honey is doubly objectionable; I might extinguish the +lingering vitality which keeps putrefaction at bay in the victim, and I +might confuse the delicate art of the larva, which might not be able to +recover the lode at which it was working or to distinguish between those +parts which are lawfully and properly eaten and those which must not be +consumed until a later period. As I have shown in a previous volume, the +grub of the Scolia has taught me much in this respect. The only larvae +acceptable for this experiment are those which are fed on a number of +small insects, which are attacked without any special art, dismembered +at random, and quickly consumed. Among such larvae I have experimented +with those provided by chance--those of various Bembeces, fed on +Diptera; those of the Palaris, whose diet consists of a large variety of +Hymenoptera; those of the Tachytus, provided with young crickets; those +of the Odynerus, fed upon larvae of the Chrysomela; those of the +sand-dwelling Cerceris, endowed with a hecatomb of weevils. As will be +seen, both consumers and consumed offer plenty of variety. Well, in +every case their proper diet, seasoned with honey, is fatal. Whether +poisoned or disgusted, they all die in a few days. + +A strange result! Honey, the nectar of the flowers, the sole diet of the +apiary under its two forms and the sole nourishment of the predatory +insect in its adult phase, is for the larva of the same insect an object +of insurmountable disgust, and probably a poison. The transfiguration of +the chrysalis surprises me less than this inversion of the appetite. +What change occurs in the stomach of the insect that the adult should +passionately seek that which the larva refuses under peril of death? It +is no question of organic debility unable to support a diet too +substantial, too hard, or too highly spiced. The grubs which consume the +larva of the Cetoniae, for example (the Rose-chafers), those which feed +upon the leathery cricket, and those whose diet is rich in nitrobenzine, +must assuredly have complacent gullets and adaptable stomachs. Yet these +robust eaters die of hunger or poison for no greater cause than a drop +of syrup, the lightest diet imaginable, adapted to the weakness of +extreme youth, and a delicacy to the adult! What a gulf of obscurity in +the stomach of a miserable worm! + +These gastronomic experiments called for a counter-proof. The +carnivorous grub is killed by honey. Is the honey-fed grub, inversely, +killed by carnivorous diet? Here, again, we must make certain +exceptions, observe a certain choice, as in the previous experiments. It +would obviously be courting a flat refusal to offer a heap of young +crickets to the larvae of the Anthophorus and the Osmia, for example; the +honey-fed grub would not bite such food. It would be absolutely useless +to make such an experiment. We must find the equivalent of the bee +smeared with honey; that is, we must offer the larva its ordinary food +with a mixture of animal matter added. I shall experiment with albumen, +as provided by the egg of the hen; albumen being an isomer of fibrine, +which is the principal element of all flesh diet. + +_Osmia tricornis_ will lend itself to my experiment better than any +other insect on account of its dry honey, or bee-bread, which is largely +formed of flowery pollen. I knead it with the albumen, graduating the +dose of the latter so that its weight largely exceeds that of the +bee-bread. Thus I obtain pastes of various degrees of consistency, but +all firm enough to support the larva without danger of immersion. With +too fluid a mixture there would be a danger of death by drowning. +Finally, on each cake of albuminous paste I install a larva of medium +growth. + +This diet is not distasteful; far from it. The grubs attack it without +hesitation and devour it with every appearance of a normal appetite. +Matters could not go better if the food had not been modified according +to my recipes. All is eaten; even the portions which I feared contained +an excessive proportion of albumen. Moreover--a matter of still greater +importance--the larvae of the Osmia fed in this manner attain their +normal growth and spin their cocoons, from which adults issue in the +following year. Despite the albuminous diet the cycle of evolution +completes itself without mishap. + +What are we to conclude from all this? I confess I am embarrassed. _Omne +vivum ex ovo_, says the physiologist. All animals are carnivorous in +their first beginnings; they are formed and nourished at the expense of +the egg, in which albumen predominates. The highest, the mammals, adhere +to this diet for a considerable time; they live by the maternal milk, +rich in casein, another isomer of albumen. The gramnivorous nestling is +fed first upon worms and grubs, which are best adapted to the delicacy +of its stomach; many newly born creatures among the lower orders, being +immediately left to their own devices, live on animal diet. In this way +the original method of alimentation is continued--the method which +builds flesh out of flesh and makes blood out of blood with no chemical +processes but those of simple reconstruction. In maturity, when the +stomach is more robust, a vegetable diet may be adopted, involving a +more complex chemistry, although the food itself is more easily +obtained. To milk succeeds fodder; to the worm, seeds and grain; to the +dead or paralysed insects of the natal burrow, the nectar of flowers. + +Here is a partial explanation of the double system of the Hymenoptera +with their carnivorous larvae--the system of dead or paralysed insects +followed by honey. But here the point of interrogation, already +encountered elsewhere, erects itself once again. Why is the larva of +the Osmia, which thrives upon albumen, actually fed upon honey during +its early life? Why is a vegetable diet the rule in the hives of bees +from the very commencement, when the other members of the same series +live upon animal food? + +If I were a "transformist" how I should delight in this question! Yes, I +should say: yes, by the fact of its germ every animal is originally +carnivorous. The insect in particular makes a beginning with albuminoid +materials. Many larvae adhere to the alimentation present in the egg, as +do many adult insects also. But the struggle to fill the belly, which is +actually the struggle for life, demands something better than the +precarious chances of the chase. Man, at first an eager hunter of game, +collected flocks and became a shepherd in order to profit by his +possessions in time of dearth. Further progress inspired him to till the +earth and sow; a method which assured him of a certain living. Evolution +from the defective to the mediocre, and from the mediocre to the +abundant, has led to the resources of agriculture. + +The lower animals have preceded us on the way of progress. The ancestors +of the Philanthus, in the remote ages of the lacustrian tertiary +formations, lived by capturing prey in both phases--both as larvae and as +adults; they hunted for their own benefit as well as for the family. +They did not confine themselves to emptying the stomach of the bee, as +do their descendants to-day; they devoured the victim entire. From +beginning to end they remained carnivorous. Later there were fortunate +innovators, whose race supplanted the more conservative element, who +discovered an inexhaustible source of nourishment, to be obtained +without painful search or dangerous conflict: the saccharine exudation +of the flowers. The wasteful system of living upon prey, by no means +favourable to large populations, has been preserved for the feeble +larvae; but the vigorous adult has abandoned it for an easier and more +prosperous existence. Thus the Philanthus of our own days was gradually +developed; thus was formed the double system of nourishment practised by +the various predatory insects which we know. + +The bee has done still better; from the moment of leaving the egg it +dispenses completely with chance-won aliments. It has invented honey, +the food of its larvae. Renouncing the chase for ever, and becoming +exclusively agricultural, this insect has acquired a degree of moral and +physical prosperity that the predatory species are far from sharing. +Hence the flourishing colonies of the Anthophorae, the Osmiae, the Eucerae, +the Halicti, and other makers of honey, while the hunters of prey work +in isolation; hence the societies in which the bee displays its +admirable talents, the supreme expression of instinct. + +This is what I should say if I were a "transformist." All this is a +chain of highly logical deductions, and it hangs together with a certain +air of reality, such as we like to look for in a host of "transformist" +arguments which are put forward as irrefutable. Well, I make a present +of my deductive theory to whosoever desires it, and without the least +regret; I do not believe a single word of it, and I confess my profound +ignorance of the origin of the twofold system of diet. + +One thing I do see more clearly after all my experiments and research: +the tactics of the Philanthus. As a witness of its ferocious feasting, +the true motive of which was unknown to me, I treated it to all the +unfavourable epithets I could think of; called it assassin, bandit, +pirate, robber of the dead. Ignorance is always abusive; the man who +does not know is full of violent affirmations and malign +interpretations. Undeceived by the facts, I hasten to apologise and +express my esteem for the Philanthus. In emptying the stomach of the bee +the mother is performing the most praiseworthy of all duties; she is +guarding her family against poison. If she sometimes kills on her own +account and abandons the body after exhausting it of honey, I dare not +call her action a crime. When the habit has once been formed of emptying +the bee's crop for the best of motives, the temptation is great to do so +with no other excuse than hunger. Moreover--who can say?--perhaps there +is always some afterthought that the larvae might profit by the +sacrifice. Although not carried into effect the intention excuses the +act. + +I therefore withdraw my abusive epithets in order to express my +admiration of the creature's maternal logic. Honey would be harmful to +the grubs. How does the mother know that honey, in which she herself +delights, is noxious to her young? To this question our knowledge has no +reply. But honey, as we have seen, would endanger the lives of the +grubs. The bees must therefore be emptied of honey before they are fed +to them. The process must be effected without wounding the victim, for +the larva must receive the latter fresh and moist; and this would be +impracticable if the insect were paralysed on account of the natural +resistance of the organs. The bee must therefore be killed outright +instead of being paralysed, otherwise the honey could not be removed. +Instantaneous death can be assured only by a lesion of the primordial +centre of life. The sting must therefore pierce the cervical ganglions; +the centre of innervation upon which the rest of the organism is +dependent. This can only be reached in one way: through the neck. Here +it is that the sting will be inserted; and here it is inserted in a +breach in the armour no larger than a pin's head. Suppress a single link +of this closely knit chain, and the Philanthus reared upon the flesh of +bees becomes an impossibility. + +That honey is fatal to larvae is a fact pregnant with consequences. +Various predatory insects feed their young with honey-makers. Such, to +my knowledge, are the _Philanthus coronatus_, Fabr., which stores its +burrows with the large Halictus; the _Philanthus raptor_, Lep., which +chases all the smaller Halictus indifferently, being itself a small +insect; the _Cerceris ornata_, Fabr., which also kills Halictus; and the +_Polaris flavipes_, Fabr., which by a strange eclecticism fills its +cells with specimens of most of the Hymenoptera which are not beyond its +powers. What do these four huntresses, and others of similar habits, do +with their victims when the crops of the latter are full of honey? They +must follow the example of the Philanthus or their offspring would +perish; they must squeeze and manipulate the dead bee until it yields up +its honey. Everything goes to prove as much; but for the actual +observation of what would be a notable proof of my theory I must trust +to the future. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE GREAT PEACOCK, OR EMPEROR MOTH + + +It was a memorable night! I will name it the Night of the Great Peacock. +Who does not know this superb moth, the largest of all our European +butterflies[3] with its livery of chestnut velvet and its collar of +white fur? The greys and browns of the wings are crossed by a paler +zig-zag, and bordered with smoky white; and in the centre of each wing +is a round spot, a great eye with a black pupil and variegated iris, +resolving into concentric arcs of black, white, chestnut, and purplish +red. + +Not less remarkable is the caterpillar. Its colour is a vague yellow. On +the summit of thinly sown tubercles crowned with a palisade of black +hairs are set pearls of a turquoise-blue. The burly brown cocoon, which +is notable for its curious tunnel of exit, like an eel-pot, is always +found at the base of an old almond-tree, adhering to the bark. The +foliage of the same tree nourishes the caterpillar. + +On the morning of the 6th of May a female emerged from her cocoon in my +presence on my laboratory table. I cloistered her immediately, all damp +with the moisture of metamorphosis, in a cover of wire gauze. I had no +particular intentions regarding her; I imprisoned her from mere habit; +the habit of an observer always on the alert for what may happen. + +I was richly rewarded. About nine o'clock that evening, when the +household was going to bed, there was a sudden hubbub in the room next +to mine. Little Paul, half undressed, was rushing to and fro, running, +jumping, stamping, and overturning the chairs as if possessed. I heard +him call me. "Come quick!" he shrieked; "come and see these butterflies! +Big as birds! The room's full of them!" + +I ran. There was that which justified the child's enthusiasm and his +hardly hyperbolical exclamation. It was an invasion of giant +butterflies; an invasion hitherto unexampled in our house. Four were +already caught and placed in a bird-cage. Others--numbers of them--were +flying across the ceiling. + +This astonishing sight recalled the prisoner of the morning to my mind. +"Put on your togs, kiddy!" I told my son; "put down your cage, and come +with me. We shall see something worth seeing." + +We had to go downstairs to reach my study, which occupies the right wing +of the house. In the kitchen we met the servant; she too was bewildered +by the state of affairs. She was pursuing the huge butterflies with her +apron, having taken them at first for bats. + +It seemed as though the Great Peacock had taken possession of my whole +house, more or less. What would it be upstairs, where the prisoner was, +the cause of this invasion? Happily one of the two study windows had +been left ajar; the road was open. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT PEACOCK OR EMPEROR MOTH.] + +Candle in hand, we entered the room. What we saw is unforgettable. With +a soft _flic-flac_ the great night-moths were flying round the +wire-gauze cover, alighting, taking flight, returning, mounting to the +ceiling, re-descending. They rushed at the candle and extinguished it +with a flap of the wing; they fluttered on our shoulders, clung to our +clothing, grazed our faces. My study had become a cave of a necromancer, +the darkness alive with creatures of the night! Little Paul, to reassure +himself, held my hand much tighter than usual. + +How many were there? About twenty. To these add those which had strayed +into the kitchen, the nursery, and other rooms in the house, and the +total must have been nearly forty. It was a memorable sight--the Night +of the Great Peacock! Come from all points of the compass, warned I know +not how, here were forty lovers eager to do homage to the maiden +princess that morning born in the sacred precincts of my study. + +For the time being I troubled the swarm of pretenders no further. The +flame of the candle endangered the visitors; they threw themselves into +it stupidly and singed themselves slightly. On the morrow we could +resume our study of them, and make certain carefully devised +experiments. + +To clear the ground a little for what is to follow, let me speak of what +was repeated every night during the eight nights my observations lasted. +Every night, when it was quite dark, between eight and ten o'clock, the +butterflies arrived one by one. The weather was stormy; the sky heavily +clouded; the darkness was so profound that out of doors, in the garden +and away from the trees, one could scarcely see one's hand before one's +face. + +In addition to such darkness as this there were certain difficulties of +access. The house is hidden by great plane-trees; an alley densely +bordered with lilacs and rose-trees make a kind of outer vestibule to +the entrance; it is protected from the _mistral_ by groups of pines and +screens of cypress. A thicket of evergreen shrubs forms a rampart at a +few paces from the door. It was across this maze of leafage, and in +absolute darkness, that the butterflies had to find their way in order +to attain the end of their pilgrimage. + +Under such conditions the screech-owl would not dare to forsake its +hollow in the olive-tree. The butterfly, better endowed with its faceted +eyes than the owl with its single pupils, goes forward without +hesitation, and threads the obstacles without contact. So well it +directs its tortuous flight that, in spite of all the obstacles to be +evaded, it arrives in a state of perfect freshness, its great wings +intact, without the slightest flaw. The darkness is light enough for the +butterfly. + +Even if we suppose it to be sensitive to rays unknown to the ordinary +retina, this extraordinary sight could not be the sense that warns the +butterfly at a distance and brings it hastening to the bride. Distance +and the objects interposed make the suggestion absurd. + +Moreover, apart from illusory refractions, of which there is no question +here, the indications of light are precise; one goes straight to the +object seen. But the butterfly was sometimes mistaken: not in the +general direction, but concerning the precise position of the attractive +object. I have mentioned that the nursery on the other side of the house +to my study, which was the actual goal of the visitors, was full of +butterflies before a light was taken into it. These were certainly +incorrectly informed. In the kitchen there was the same crowd of +seekers gone astray; but there the light of a lamp, an irresistible +attraction to nocturnal insects, might have diverted the pilgrims. + +Let us consider only such areas as were in darkness. There the pilgrims +were numerous. I found them almost everywhere in the neighbourhood of +their goal. When the captive was in my study the butterflies did not all +enter by the open window, the direct and easy way, the captive being +only a few yards from the window. Several penetrated the house +downstairs, wandered through the hall, and reached the staircase, which +was barred at the top by a closed door. + +These data show us that the visitors to the wedding-feast did not go +straight to their goal as they would have done were they attracted by +any kind of luminous radiations, whether known or unknown to our +physical science. Something other than radiant energy warned them at a +distance, led them to the neighbourhood of the precise spot, and left +the final discovery to be made after a vague and hesitating search. The +senses of hearing and smell warn us very much in this way; they are not +precise guides when we try to determine exactly the point of origin of a +sound or smell. + +What sense is it that informs this great butterfly of the whereabouts of +his mate, and leads him wandering through the night? What organ does +this sense affect? One suspects the antennae; in the male butterfly they +actually seem to be sounding, interrogating empty space with their long +feathery plumes. Are these splendid plumes merely items of finery, or do +they really play a part in the perception of the effluvia which guide +the lover? It seemed easy, on the occasion I spoke of, to devise a +conclusive experiment. + +On the morrow of the invasion I found in my study eight of my nocturnal +visitors. They were perched, motionless, upon the cross-mouldings of the +second window, which had remained closed. The others, having concluded +their ballet by about ten o'clock at night, had left as they had +entered, by the other window, which was left open night and day. These +eight persevering lovers were just what I required for my experiment. + +With a sharp pair of scissors, and without otherwise touching the +butterflies, I cut off their antennae near the base. The victims barely +noticed the operation. None moved; there was scarcely a flutter of the +wings. Their condition was excellent; the wound did not seem to be in +the least serious. They were not perturbed by physical suffering, and +would therefore be all the better adapted to my designs. They passed the +rest of the day in placid immobility on the cross-bars of the window. + +A few other arrangements were still to be made. In particular it was +necessary to change the scene; not to leave the female under the eyes of +the mutilated butterflies at the moment of resuming their nocturnal +flight; the difficulty of the search must not be lessened. I therefore +removed the cage and its captive, and placed it under a porch on the +other side of the house, at a distance of some fifty paces from my +study. + +At nightfall I went for a last time to inspect my eight victims. Six had +left by the open window; two still remained, but they had fallen on the +floor, and no longer had the strength to recover themselves if turned +over on their backs. They were exhausted, dying. Do not accuse my +surgery, however. Such early decease was observed repeatedly, with no +intervention on my part. + +Six, in better condition, had departed. Would they return to the call +that attracted them the night before? Deprived of their antennae, would +they be able to find the captive, now placed at a considerable distance +from her original position? + +The cage was in darkness, almost in the open air. From time to time I +visited it with a net and lantern. The visitors were captured, +inspected, and immediately released in a neighbouring room, of which I +closed the door. This gradual elimination allowed me to count the +visitors exactly without danger of counting the same butterfly more than +once. Moreover, the provisional prison, large and bare, in no wise +harmed or endangered the prisoners; they found a quiet retreat there and +ample space. Similar precautions were taken during the rest of my +experiments. + +After half-past ten no more arrived. The reception was over. Total, +twenty-five males captured, of which one only was deprived of its +antennae. So of the six operated on earlier in the day, which were strong +enough to leave my study and fly back to the fields, only one had +returned to the cage. A poor result, in which I could place no +confidence as proving whether the antennae did or did not play a +directing part. It was necessary to begin again upon a larger scale. + +Next morning I visited the prisoners of the day before. What I saw was +not encouraging. A large number were scattered on the ground, almost +inert. Taken between the fingers, several of them gave scarcely a sign +of life. Little was to be hoped from these, it would seem. Still, I +determined to try; perhaps they would regain their vigour at the lover's +hour. + +The twenty-four prisoners were all subjected to the amputation of their +antennae. The one operated on the day before was put aside as dying or +nearly so. Finally the door of the prison was left open for the rest of +the day. Those might leave who could; those could join in the carnival +who were able. In order to put those that might leave the room to the +test of a search, the cage, which they must otherwise have encountered +at the threshold, was again removed, and placed in a room of the +opposite wing, on the ground floor. There was of course free access to +this room. + +Of the twenty-four lacking their antennae sixteen only left the room. +Eight were powerless to do so; they were dying. Of the sixteen, how many +returned to the cage that night? Not one. My captives that night were +only seven, all new-comers, all wearing antennae. This result seemed to +prove that the amputation of the antennae was a matter of serious +significance. But it would not do to conclude as yet: one doubt +remained. + +"A fine state I am in! How shall I dare to appear before the other +dogs?" said Mouflard, the puppy whose ears had been pitilessly docked. +Had my butterflies apprehensions similar to Master Mouflard's? Deprived +of their beautiful plumes, were they ashamed to appear in the midst of +their rivals, and to prefer their suits? Was it confusion on their part, +or want of guidance? Was it not rather exhaustion after an attempt +exceeding the duration of an ephemeral passion? Experience would show +me. + +On the fourth night I took fourteen new-comers and set them apart as +they came in a room in which they spent the night. On the morrow, +profiting by their diurnal immobility, I removed a little of the hair +from the centre of the corselet or neck. This slight tonsure did not +inconvenience the insects, so easily was the silky fur removed, nor did +it deprive them of any organ which might later on be necessary in the +search for the female. To them it was nothing; for me it was the +unmistakable sign of a repeated visit. + +This time there were none incapable of flight. At night the fourteen +shavelings escaped into the open air. The cage, of course, was again in +a new place. In two hours I captured twenty butterflies, of whom two +were tonsured; no more. As for those whose antennae I had amputated the +night before, not one reappeared. Their nuptial period was over. + +Of fourteen marked by the tonsure two only returned. Why did the other +twelve fail to appear, although furnished with their supposed guides, +their antennae? To this I can see only one reply: that the Great Peacock +is promptly exhausted by the ardours of the mating season. + +With a view to mating, the sole end of its life, the great moth is +endowed with a marvellous prerogative. It has the power to discover the +object of its desire in spite of distance, in spite of obstacles. A few +hours, for two or three nights, are given to its search, its nuptial +flights. If it cannot profit by them, all is ended; the compass fails, +the lamp expires. What profit could life hold henceforth? Stoically the +creature withdraws into a corner and sleeps the last sleep, the end of +illusions and the end of suffering. + +The Great Peacock exists as a butterfly only to perpetuate itself. It +knows nothing of food. While so many others, joyful banqueters, fly from +flower to flower, unrolling their spiral trunks to plunge them into +honeyed blossoms, this incomparable ascetic, completely freed from the +servitude of the stomach, has no means of restoring its strength. Its +buccal members are mere vestiges, useless simulacra, not real organs +able to perform their duties. Not a sip of honey can ever enter its +stomach; a magnificent prerogative, if it is not long enjoyed. If the +lamp is to burn it must be filled with oil. The Great Peacock renounces +the joys of the palate; but with them it surrenders long life. Two or +three nights--just long enough to allow the couple to meet and mate--and +all is over; the great butterfly is dead. + +What, then, is meant by the non-appearance of those whose antennae I +removed? Did they prove that the lack of antennae rendered them incapable +of finding the cage in which the prisoner waited? By no means. Like +those marked with the tonsure, which had undergone no damaging +operation, they proved only that their time was finished. Mutilated or +intact, they could do no more on account of age, and their absence meant +nothing. Owing to the delay inseparable from the experiment, the part +played by the antennae escaped me. It was doubtful before; it remained +doubtful. + +My prisoner under the wire-gauze cover lived for eight days. Every night +she attracted a swarm of visitors, now to one part of the house, now to +another. I caught them with the net and released them as soon as +captured in a closed room, where they passed the night. On the next day +they were marked, by means of a slight tonsure on the thorax. + +The total number of butterflies attracted on these eight nights amounted +to a hundred and fifty; a stupendous number when I consider what +searches I had to undertake during the two following years in order to +collect the specimens necessary to the continuation of my investigation. +Without being absolutely undiscoverable, in my immediate neighbourhood +the cocoons of the Great Peacock are at least extremely rare, as the +trees on which they are found are not common. For two winters I visited +all the decrepit almond-trees at hand, inspected them all at the base of +the trunk, under the jungle of stubborn grasses and undergrowth that +surrounded them; and how often I returned with empty hands! Thus my +hundred and fifty butterflies had come from some little distance; +perhaps from a radius of a mile and a quarter or more. How did they +learn of what was happening in my study? + +Three agents of information affect the senses at a distance: sight, +sound, and smell. Can we speak of vision in this connection? Sight could +very well guide the arrivals once they had entered the open window; but +how could it help them out of doors, among unfamiliar surroundings? Even +the fabulous eye of the lynx, which could see through walls, would not +be sufficient; we should have to imagine a keenness of vision capable of +annihilating leagues of space. It is needless to discuss the matter +further; sight cannot be the guiding sense. + +Sound is equally out of the question. The big-bodied creature capable of +calling her mates from such a distance is absolutely mute, even to the +most sensitive ear. Does she perhaps emit vibrations of such delicacy or +rapidity that only the most sensitive microphone could appreciate them? +The idea is barely possible; but let us remember that the visitors must +have been warned at distances of some thousands of yards. Under these +conditions it is useless to think of acoustics. + +Smell remains. Scent, better than any other impression in the domain of +our senses, would explain the invasion of butterflies, and their +difficulty at the very last in immediately finding the object of their +search. Are there effluvia analogous to what we call odour: effluvia of +extreme subtlety, absolutely imperceptible to us, yet capable of +stimulating a sense-organ far more sensitive than our own? A simple +experiment suggested itself. I would mask these effluvia, stifle them +under a powerful, tenacious odour, which would take complete possession +of the sense-organ and neutralise the less powerful impression. + +I began by sprinkling naphthaline in the room intended for the reception +of the males that evening. Beside the female, inside the wire-gauze +cover, I placed a large capsule full of the same substance. When the +hour of the nocturnal visit arrived I had only to stand at the door of +the room to smell a smell as of a gas-works. Well, my artifice failed. +The butterflies arrived as usual, entered the room, traversed its +gas-laden atmosphere, and made for the wire-gauze cover with the same +certainty as in a room full of fresh air. + +My confidence in the olfactory theory was shaken. Moreover, I could not +continue my experiments. On the ninth day, exhausted by her fruitless +period of waiting, the female died, having first deposited her barren +eggs upon the woven wire of her cage. Lacking a female, nothing could be +done until the following year. + +I determined next time to take suitable precautions and to make all +preparations for repeating at will the experiments already made and +others which I had in mind. I set to work at once, without delay. + +In the summer I began to buy caterpillars at a halfpenny apiece. + +The market was in the hands of some neighbouring urchins, my habitual +providers. On Friday, free of the terrors of grammar, they scoured the +fields, finding from time to time the Great Peacock caterpillar, and +bringing it to me clinging to the end of a stick. They did not dare to +touch it, poor little imps! They were thunderstruck at my audacity when +I seized it in my fingers as they would the familiar silkworm. + +Reared upon twigs of the almond-tree, my menagerie soon provided me with +magnificent cocoons. In winter assiduous search at the base of the +native trees completed my collection. Friends interested in my +researches came to my aid. Finally, after some trouble, what with an +open market, commercial negotiations, and searching, at the cost of many +scratches, in the undergrowth, I became the owner of an assortment of +cocoons of which twelve, larger and heavier than the rest, announced +that they were those of females. + +Disappointment awaited me. May arrived; a capricious month which set my +preparations at naught, troublesome as these had been. Winter returned. +The _mistral_ shrieked, tore the budding leaves of the plane-trees, and +scattered them over the ground. It was cold as December. We had to +light fires in the evening, and resume the heavy clothes we had begun to +leave off. + +My butterflies were too sorely tried. They emerged late and were torpid. +Around my cages, in which the females waited--to-day one, to-morrow +another, according to the order of their birth--few males or none came +from without. Yet there were some in the neighbourhood, for those with +large antennae which issued from my collection of cocoons were placed in +the garden directly they had emerged, and were recognised. Whether +neighbours or strangers, very few came, and those without enthusiasm. +For a moment they entered, then disappeared and did not reappear. The +lovers were as cold as the season. + +Perhaps, too, the low temperature was unfavourable to the informing +effluvia, which might well be increased by heat and lessened by cold as +is the case with many odours. My year was lost. Research is +disappointing work when the experimenter is the slave of the return and +the caprices of a brief season of the year. + +For the third time I began again. I reared caterpillars; I scoured the +country in search of cocoons. When May returned I was tolerably +provided. The season was fine, responding to my hopes. I foresaw the +affluence of butterflies which had so impressed me at the outset, when +the famous invasion occurred which was the origin of my experiments. + +Every night, by squadrons of twelve, twenty, or more, the visitors +appeared. The female, a strapping, big-bellied matron, clung to the +woven wire of the cover. There was no movement on her part; not even a +flutter of the wings. One would have thought her indifferent to all +that occurred. No odour was emitted that was perceptible to the most +sensitive nostrils of the household; no sound that the keenest ears of +the household could perceive. Motionless, recollected, she waited. + +The males, by twos, by threes and more, fluttered upon the dome of the +cover, scouring over it quickly in all directions, beating it +continually with the ends of their wings. There were no conflicts +between rivals. Each did his best to penetrate the enclosure, without +betraying any sign of jealousy of the others. Tiring of their fruitless +attempts, they would fly away and join the dance of the gyrating crowd. +Some, in despair, would escape by the open window: new-comers would +replace them: and until ten o'clock or thereabouts the wire dome of the +cover would be the scene of continual attempts at approach, incessantly +commencing, quickly wearying, quickly resumed. + +Every night the position of the cage was changed. I placed it north of +the house and south; on the ground-floor and the first floor; in the +right wing of the house, or fifty yards away in the left wing; in the +open air, or hidden in some distant room. All these sudden removals, +devised to put the seekers off the scent, troubled them not at all. My +time and my pains were wasted, so far as deceiving them was concerned. + +The memory of places has no part in the finding of the female. For +instance, the day before the cage was installed in a certain room. The +males visited the room and fluttered about the cage for a couple of +hours, and some even passed the night there. On the following day, at +sunset, when I moved the cage, all were out of doors. Although their +lives are so ephemeral, the youngest were ready to resume their +nocturnal expeditions a second and even a third time. Where did they +first go, these veterans of a day? + +They knew precisely where the cage had been the night before. One would +have expected them to return to it, guided by memory; and that not +finding it they would go out to continue their search elsewhere. No; +contrary to my expectation, nothing of the kind appeared. None came to +the spot which had been so crowded the night before; none paid even a +passing visit. The room was recognised as an empty room, with no +previous examination, such as would apparently be necessary to +contradict the memory of the place. A more positive guide than memory +called them elsewhere. + +Hitherto the female was always visible, behind the meshes of the +wire-gauze cover. The visitors, seeing plainly in the dark night, must +have been able to see her by the vague luminosity of what for us is the +dark. What would happen if I imprisoned her in an opaque receptacle? +Would not such a receptacle arrest or set free the informing effluvia +according to its nature? + +Practical physics has given us wireless telegraphy by means of the +Hertzian vibrations of the ether. Had the Great Peacock butterfly +outstripped and anticipated mankind in this direction? In order to +disturb the whole surrounding neighbourhood, to warn pretenders at a +distance of a mile or more, does the newly emerged female make use of +electric or magnetic waves, known or unknown, that a screen of one +material would arrest while another would allow them to pass? In a word, +does she, after her fashion, employ a system of wireless telegraphy? I +see nothing impossible in this; insects are responsible for many +inventions equally marvellous. + +Accordingly I lodged the female in boxes of various materials; boxes of +tin-plate, wood, and cardboard. All were hermetically closed, even +sealed with a greasy paste. I also used a glass bell resting upon a +base-plate of glass. + +Under these conditions not a male arrived; not one, though the warmth +and quiet of the evening were propitious. Whatever its nature, whether +of glass, metal, card, or wood, the closed receptacle was evidently an +insuperable obstacle to the warning effluvia. + +A layer of cotton-wool two fingers in thickness had the same result. I +placed the female in a large glass jar, and laced a piece of thin cotton +batting over the mouth for a cover; this again guarded the secret of my +laboratory. Not a male appeared. + +But when I placed the females in boxes which were imperfectly closed, or +which had chinks in their sides, or even hid them in a drawer or a +cupboard, I found the males arrived in numbers as great as when the +object of their search lay in the cage of open wire-work freely exposed +on a table. I have a vivid memory of one evening when the recluse was +hidden in a hat-box at the bottom of a wall-cupboard. The arrivals went +straight to the closed doors, and beat them with their wings, _toc-toc_, +trying to enter. Wandering pilgrims, come from I know not where, across +fields and meadows, they knew perfectly what was behind the doors of the +cupboard. + +So we must abandon the idea that the butterfly has any means of +communication comparable to our wireless telegraphy, as any kind of +screen, whether a good or a bad conductor, completely stops the signals +of the female. To give them free passage and allow them to penetrate to +a distance one condition is indispensable: the enclosure in which the +captive is confined must not be hermetically sealed; there must be a +communication between it and the outer air. This again points to the +probability of an odour, although this is contradicted by my experiment +with the naphthaline. + +My cocoons were all hatched, and the problem was still obscure. Should I +begin all over again in the fourth year? I did not do so, for the reason +that it is difficult to observe a nocturnal butterfly if one wishes to +follow it in all its intimate actions. The lover needs no light to +attain his ends; but my imperfect human vision cannot penetrate the +darkness. I should require a candle at least, and a candle would be +constantly extinguished by the revolving swarm. A lantern would obviate +these eclipses, but its doubtful light, interspersed with heavy shadows, +by no means commends it to the scruples of an observer, who must see, +and see well. + +Moreover, the light of a lamp diverts the butterflies from their object, +distracts them from their affairs, and seriously compromises the success +of the observer. The moment they enter, they rush frantically at the +flame, singe their down, and thereupon, terrified by the heat, are of no +profit to the observer. If, instead of being roasted, they are held at a +distance by an envelope of glass, they press as closely as they can to +the flame, and remain motionless, hypnotised. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT PEACOCK MOTH. THE PILGRIMS DIVERTED BY THE +LIGHT OF A LAMP.] + +One night, the female being in the dining-room, on the table, facing the +open window, a petroleum lamp, furnished with a large reflector in +opaline glass, was hanging from the ceiling. The arrivals alighted on +the dome of the wire-gauze cover, crowding eagerly about the +prisoner; others, saluting her in passing, flew to the lamp, circled +round it a few times, and then, fascinated by the luminous splendour +radiating from the opal cone of light, clung there motionless under the +reflector. Already the children were raising their hands to seize them. +"Leave them," I said, "leave them. Let us be hospitable: do not disturb +the pilgrims who have come to the tabernacle of the light." + +During the whole evening not one of them moved. Next day they were still +there. The intoxication of the light had made them forget the +intoxication of love. + +With creatures so madly in love with the light precise and prolonged +experimentation is impracticable the moment the observer requires +artificial light. I renounced the Great Peacock and its nocturnal +habits. I required a butterfly with different habits; equally notable as +a lover, but seeking out the beloved by day. + +Before going on to speak of my experiments with a subject fulfilling +these conditions, let me break the chronological order of my record in +order to say a few words concerning another insect, which appeared after +I had completed these inquiries. I refer to the Lesser Peacock (_Attacus +pavonia minor_, Lin.). + +Some one brought me, from what locality I do not know, a superb cocoon +enveloped in an ample wrapping of white silk. From this covering, which +lay in large irregular folds, the chrysalis was easily detached; in +shape like that of the Great Peacock, but considerably less in size. The +anterior extremity, which is defended by an arrangement of fine twigs, +converging, and free at the converging ends, forming a device not unlike +an eel-pot, which presents access to the chrysalis while allowing the +butterfly to emerge without breaking the defence, indicated a relative +of the great nocturnal butterfly; the silk-work denoted a spinning +caterpillar. + +Towards the end of March this curious cocoon yielded up a female of the +Lesser Peacock, which was immediately sequestered under a wire-gauze +cover in my study. I opened the window to allow news of the event to +reach the surrounding country, and left it open so that such visitors as +presented themselves should find free access to the cage. The captive +clung to the wire gauze and did not move for a week. + +She was a superb creature, this prisoner of mine, with her suit of brown +velvet, crossed by undulating lines. The neck was surrounded by white +fur; there was a carmine spot at the extremity of the upper wings, and +four great eyes in which were grouped, in concentric crescents, black, +white, red, and yellow ochre: almost the colouring of the Great Peacock, +but more vivid. Three or four times in my life I had encountered this +butterfly, so remarkable for its size and its costume. The cocoon I had +recently seen for the first time; the male I had never seen. I only knew +that, according to the books, it was half the size of the female, and +less vividly coloured, with orange-yellow on the lower wings. + +Would he appear, the elegant unknown, with waving plumes; the butterfly +I had never yet seen, so rare does the Lesser Peacock seem to be in our +country? Would he, in some distant hedge, receive warning of the bride +who waited on my study table? I dared to hope it, and I was right. He +arrived even sooner than I had hoped. + +Noon struck as we were sitting down to table, when little Paul, delayed +by his absorption in the expected event, suddenly ran to rejoin us, his +cheeks glowing. Between his fingers we saw the fluttering wings of a +handsome butterfly, caught but a moment before, while it was hovering in +front of my study. He showed it me, questioning me with his eyes. + +"Aha!" I cried, "this is precisely the pilgrim we are waiting for. Fold +your napkin and come and see what happens. We will dine later." + +Dinner was forgotten before the marvels that came to pass. With +inconceivable punctuality the butterflies hastened to meet the magical +call of the captive. With tortuous flight they arrived one by one. All +came from the north. This detail is significant. A week earlier there +had been a savage return of the winter. The _bise_ blew tempestuously, +killing the early almond blossom. It was one of those ferocious storms +which in the South commonly serve as a prelude to the spring. But the +temperature had now suddenly softened, although the wind still blew from +the north. + +Now on this first occasion all the butterflies hastening to the prisoner +entered the garden from the north. They followed the direction of the +wind; not one flew against it. If their guide was a sense of smell like +ours, if they were guided by fragrant atoms suspended in the air, they +should have arrived in the opposite direction. Coming from the south, we +might believe them to be warned by effluvia carried on the wind; coming +from the north in time of _mistral_, that resistless sweeper of earth +and air, how can we suppose that they had perceived, at a remote +distance, what we will call an odour? The idea of a flow of odoriferous +atoms in a direction contrary to that of the aerial torrent seems to me +inadmissible. + +For two hours, under a radiant sun, the visitors came and went before +the outer wall of the study. Most of them sought for a long time, +exploring the wall, flying on a level with the ground. To see them thus +hesitating you would say that they were puzzled to find the exact +position of the lure which called them. Although they had come from such +a distance without a mistake, they seemed imperfectly informed once they +were on the spot. Nevertheless, sooner or later they entered the room +and saluted the captive, without showing any great ardour. At two +o'clock all was over. Ten butterflies had arrived. + +During the whole week, and always about noon, at the hour of the +brightest sunlight, the butterflies arrived, but in decreasing numbers. +The total approached forty. I thought it useless to repeat experiments +which would add nothing to what I had already learned. I will confine +myself to stating two facts. In the first place, the Lesser Peacock is +diurnal; that is to say, it celebrates its mating under the dazzling +brilliance of noon. It needs the full force of the sunlight. The Great +Peacock, on the contrary, which it so closely resembles both in its +adult form and the work of its caterpillar, requires the darkness of the +first hours of the night. Who can explain this strange contrast in +habits? + +In the second place, a powerful current of air, sweeping away in a +contrary direction all particles that might inform the sense of smell, +does not prevent the butterflies from arriving from a direction opposite +to that taken by the effluvial stream, as we understand such matters. + +To continue: I needed a diurnal moth or butterfly: not the Lesser +Peacock, which came too late, when I had nothing to ask of it, but +another, no matter what, provided it was a prompt guest at the wedding +feast. Was I to find such an insect? + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE OAK EGGAR, OR BANDED MONK + + +Yes: I was to find it. I even had it already in my possession. An urchin +of seven years, with an alert countenance, not washed every day, bare +feet, and dilapidated breeches supported by a piece of string, who +frequented the house as a dealer in turnips and tomatoes, arrived one +day with his basket of vegetables. Having received the few halfpence +expected by his mother as the price of the garden-stuff, and having +counted them one by one into the hollow of his hand, he took from his +pocket an object which he had discovered the day before beneath a hedge +when gathering greenstuff for his rabbits. + +"And this--will you have this?" he said, handing me the object. "Why, +certainly I will have it. Try to find me more, as many as you can, and +on Sunday you shall have lots of rides on the wooden horses. In the +meantime here is a penny for you. Don't forget it when you make up your +accounts; don't mix it with your turnip-money; put it by itself." +Beaming with satisfaction at such wealth, little touzle-head promised to +search industriously, already foreseeing a fortune. + +When he had gone I examined the thing. It was worth examination. It was +a fine cocoon, thick and with blunt ends, very like a silkworm's cocoon, +firm to the touch and of a tawny colour. A brief reference to the +text-books almost convinced me that this was a cocoon of the _Bombyx +quercus_.[4] If so, what a find! I could continue my inquiry and perhaps +confirm what my study of the Great Peacock had made me suspect. + +The Bombyx of the oak-tree is, in fact, a classic moth; indeed, there is +no entomological text-book but speaks of its exploits at mating-time. It +is said that a female emerged from the pupa in captivity, in the +interior of an apartment, and even in a closed box. It was far from the +country, amidst the tumult of a large city. Nevertheless, the event was +known to those concerned in the woods and meadows. Guided by some +mysterious compass, the males arrived, hastening from the distant +fields; they went to the box, fluttered against it, and flew to and fro +in the room. + +These marvels I had learned by reading; but to see such a thing with +one's own eyes, and at the same time to devise experiments, is quite +another thing. What had my penny bargain in store for me? Would the +famous Bombyx issue from it? + +Let us call it by its other name, the Banded Monk. This original name of +Monk was suggested by the costume of the male; a monk's robe of a modest +rusty red. But in the case of the female the brown fustian gives place +to a beautiful velvet, with a pale transversal band and little white +eyes on the fore pair of wings. + +The Monk is not a common butterfly which can be caught by any one who +takes out a net at the proper season. I have never seen it around our +village or in the solitude of my grounds during a residence of twenty +years. It is true that I am not a fervent butterfly-catcher; the dead +insect of the collector's cabinet has little interest for me; I must +have it living, in the exercise of its functions. But although I have +not the collector's zeal I have an attentive eye to all that flies or +crawls in the fields. A butterfly so remarkable for its size and +colouring would never have escaped my notice had I encountered it. + +The little searcher whom I had enticed by a promise of rides upon wooden +horses never made a second find. For three years I requisitioned friends +and neighbours, and especially their children, sharp-sighted snappers-up +of trifles; I myself hunted often under heaps of withered leaves; I +inspected stone-heaps and visited hollow tree-trunks. Useless pains; the +precious cocoon was not to be found. It is enough to say that the Banded +Monk is extremely rare in my neighbourhood. The importance of this fact +will presently appear. + +As I suspected, my cocoon was truly that of the celebrated Oak Eggar. On +the 20th of August a female emerged from it: corpulent, big-bellied, +coloured like the male, but lighter in hue. I placed her under the usual +wire cover in the centre of my laboratory table, littered as it was with +books, bottles, trays, boxes, test-tubes, and other apparatus. I have +explained the situation in speaking of the Great Peacock. Two windows +light the room, both opening on the garden. One was closed, the other +open day and night. The butterfly was placed in the shade, between the +lines of the two windows, at a distance of 12 or 15 feet. + +The rest of that day and the next went by without any occurrence worthy +of notice. Hanging by the feet to the front of the wire cover, on the +side nearest to the light, the prisoner was motionless, inert. There was +no oscillation of the wings, no tremor of the antennae, the female of the +Great Peacock behaved in a similar fashion. + +The female Bombyx gradually matured, her tender tissues gradually +becoming firmer. By some process of which our scientists have not the +least idea she elaborated a mysterious lure which would bring her lovers +from the four corners of the sky. What was happening in this big-bellied +body; what transmutations were accomplished, thus to affect the whole +countryside? + +On the third day the bride was ready. The festival opened brilliantly. I +was in the garden, already despairing of success, for the days were +passing and nothing had occurred, when towards three in the afternoon, +the weather being very hot and the sun radiant, I perceived a crowd of +butterflies gyrating in the embrasure of the open window. + +The lovers had at last come to visit their lady. Some were emerging from +the room, others were entering it; others, clinging to the wall of the +house, were resting as though exhausted by a long journey. I could see +others approaching in the distance, flying over the walls, over the +screens of cypress. They came from all directions, but at last with +decreasing frequency. I had missed the opening of the convocation, and +now the gathering was almost complete. + +I went indoors and upstairs. This time, in full daylight and without +losing a detail, I witnessed once more the astonishing spectacle to +which the great nocturnal butterfly had first introduced me. The study +contained a cloud of males, which I estimated, at a glance, as being +about sixty in number, so far as the movement and confusion allowed me +to count them at all. After circling a few times over the cage many of +them went to the open window, but returned immediately to recommence +their evolutions. The most eager alighted on the cover, trampling on one +another, jostling one another, trying to get the best places. On the +other side of the barrier the captive, her great body hanging against +the wire, waited immovable. She betrayed not a sign of emotion in the +face of this turbulent swarm. + +Going and entering, perched on the cover or fluttering round the room, +for more than three hours they continued their frenzied saraband. But +the sun was sinking, and the temperature was slowly falling. The ardour +of the butterflies also cooled. Many went out not to return. Others took +up their positions to wait for the gaieties of the following day; they +clung to the cross-bars of the closed window as the males of the Great +Peacock had done. The rejoicings were over for the day. They would +certainly be renewed on the morrow, since the courtship was without +result on account of the barrier of the wire-gauze cover. + +But, alas I to my great disappointment, they were not resumed, and the +fault was mine. Late in the day a Praying Mantis was brought to me, +which merited attention on account of its exceptionally small size. +Preoccupied with the events of the afternoon, and absent-minded, I +hastily placed the predatory insect under the same cover as the moth. +It did not occur to me for a moment that this cohabitation could lead to +any harm. The Mantis was so slender, and the other so corpulent! + +Alas! I little knew the fury of carnage animating the creature that +wielded those tiny grappling-irons! Next morning I met with a +disagreeable surprise: I found the little Mantis devouring the great +moth. The head and the fore part of the thorax had already disappeared. +Horrible creature! at what an evil hour you came to me! Goodbye to my +researches, the plans which I had caressed all night in my imagination! +For three years for lack of a subject, I was unable to resume them. + +Bad luck, however, was not to make me forget the little I had learned. +On one single occasion about sixty males had arrived. Considering the +rarity of the Oak Eggar, and remembering the years of fruitless search +on the part of my helpers and myself, this number was no less than +stupefying. The undiscoverable had suddenly become multitudinous at the +call of the female. + +Whence did they come? From all sides, and undoubtedly from considerable +distances. During my prolonged searches every bush and thicket and heap +of stones in my neighbourhood had become familiar to me, and I can +assert that the Oak Eggar was not to be found there. For such a swarm to +collect as I found in my laboratory the moths must have come from all +directions, from the whole district, and within a radius that I dare not +guess at. + +Three years went by and by chance two more cocoons of the Monk or Oak +Eggar again fell into my hands. Both produced females, at an interval of +a few days towards the middle of August; so that I was able to vary and +repeat my experiments. + +I rapidly repeated the experiments which had given me such positive +results in the instance of the Great Peacock moth. The pilgrims of the +day were no less skilful at finding their mates than the pilgrims of the +night. They laughed at all my tricks. Infallibly they found the +prisoners in their wire-gauze prisons, no matter in what part of the +house they were placed; they discovered them in the depths of a +wall-cupboard; they divined the secret of all manner of boxes, provided +these were not rigorously air-tight. They came no longer when the box +was hermetically sealed. So far this was only a repetition of the feats +of the Great Peacock. + +A box perfectly closed, so that the air contained therein had no +communication with the external atmosphere, left the male in complete +ignorance of the recluse. Not a single one arrived, even when the box +was exposed and plain to see on the window-sill. Thus the idea of +strongly scented effluvia, which are cut off by screens of wood, metal, +card, glass, or what not, returns with double force. + +I have shown that the great nocturnal moth was not thrown off the scent +by the powerful odour of naphthaline, which I thought would mask the +extra-subtle emanations of the female, which were imperceptible to human +olfactory organs. I repeated the experiment with the Oak Eggar. This +time I used all the resources of scent and stench that my knowledge of +drugs would permit. + +A dozen saucers were arranged, some in the interior of the wire-gauze +cover, the prison of the female, and some around it, in an unbroken +circle. Some contained naphthaline; others the essential oil of +spike-lavender; others petroleum, and others a solution of alkaline +sulphur giving off a stench of rotten eggs. Short of asphyxiating the +prisoner I could do no more. These arrangements were made in the +morning, so that the room should be saturated when the congregation of +lovers should arrive. + +In the afternoon the laboratory was filled with the most abominable +stench, in which the penetrating aroma of spike-lavender and the stink +of sulphuretted hydrogen were predominant. I must add that tobacco was +habitually smoked in this room, and in abundance. The concerted odours +of a gas-works, a smoking-room, a perfumery, a petroleum well, and a +chemical factory--would they succeed in confusing the male moths? + +By no means. About three o'clock the moths arrived in as great numbers +as usual. They went straight to the cage, which I had covered with a +thick cloth in order to add to their difficulties. Seeing nothing when +once they had entered, and immersed in an extraordinary atmosphere in +which any subtle fragrance should have been annihilated, they +nevertheless made straight for the prisoner, and attempted to reach her +by burrowing under the linen cloth. My artifice had no result. + +After this set-back, so obvious in its consequences, which only repeated +the lesson of the experiments made with naphthaline when my subject was +the Great Peacock, I ought logically to have abandoned the theory that +the moths are guided to their wedding festivities by means of strongly +scented effluvia. That I did not do so was due to a fortuitous +observation. Chance often has a surprise in store which sets us on the +right road when we have been seeking it in vain. + +One afternoon, while trying to determine whether sight plays any part in +the search for the female once the males had entered the room, I placed +the female in a bell-glass and gave her a slender twig of oak with +withered leaves as a support. The glass was set upon a table facing the +open window. Upon entering the room the moths could not fail to see the +prisoner, as she stood directly in the way. The tray, containing a layer +of sand, on which the female had passed the preceding day and night, +covered with a wire-gauze dish-cover, was in my way. Without +premeditation I placed it at the other end of the room on the floor, in +a corner where there was but little light. It was a dozen yards away +from the window. + +The result of these preparations entirely upset my preconceived ideas. +None of the arrivals stopped at the bell-glass, where the female was +plainly to be seen, the light falling full upon her prison. Not a +glance, not an inquiry. They all flew to the further end of the room, +into the dark corner where I had placed the tray and the empty +dish-cover. + +They alighted on the wire dome, explored it persistently, beating their +wings and jostling one another. All the afternoon, until sunset, the +moths danced about the empty cage the same saraband that the actual +presence of the female had previously evoked. Finally they departed: not +all, for there were some that would not go, held by some magical +attractive force. + +Truly a strange result! The moths collected where there was apparently +nothing to attract them, and remained there, unpersuaded by the sense of +sight; they passed the bell-glass actually containing the female without +halting for a moment, although she must have been seen by many of the +moths both going and coming. Maddened by a lure, they paid no attention +to the reality. + +What was the lure that so deceived them? All the preceding night and all +the morning the female had remained under the wire-gauze cover; +sometimes clinging to the wire-work, sometimes resting on the sand in +the tray. Whatever she touched--above all, apparently, with her +distended abdomen--was impregnated, as a result of long contact, with a +certain emanation. This was her lure, her love-philtre; this it was that +revolutionised the Oak Eggar world. The sand retained it for some time +and diffused the effluvium in turn. + +They passed by the glass prison in which the female was then confined +and hastened to the meshes of wire and the sand on which the magic +philtre had been poured; they crowded round the deserted chamber where +nothing of the magician remained but the odorous testimony of her +sojourn. + +The irresistible philtre requires time for its elaboration. I conceive +of it as an exhalation which is given off during courtship and gradually +saturates whatever is in contact with the motionless body of the female. +If the bell-glass was placed directly on the table, or, still better, on +a square of glass, the communication between the inside and the outside +was insufficient, and the males, perceiving no odour, did not arrive so +long as that condition of things obtained. It was plain that this +failure of transmission was not due to the action of the glass as a +screen simply, for if I established a free communication between the +interior of the bell-glass and the open air by supporting it on three +small blocks, the moths did not collect round it at once, although there +were plenty in the room; but in the course of half an hour or so the +feminine alembic began to operate, and the visitors crowded round the +bell-glass as usual. + +In possession of these data and this unexpected enlightenment I varied +the experiments, but all pointed to the same conclusion. In the morning +I established the female under the usual wire-gauze cover. For support I +gave her a little twig of oak as before. There, motionless as if dead, +she crouched for hours, half buried in the dry leaves, which would thus +become impregnated with her emanations. + +When the hour of the daily visits drew near I removed the twig, which +was by then thoroughly saturated with the emanations, and laid it on a +chair not far from the open window. On the other hand I left the female +under the cover, plainly exposed on the table in the middle of the room. + +The moths arrived as usual: first one, then two, then three, and +presently five and six. They entered, flew out again, re-entered, +mounted, descended, came and went, always in the neighbourhood of the +window, not far from which was the chair on which the twig lay. None +made for the large table, on which, a few steps further from the window, +the female awaited them in the wire-gauze cover. They hesitated, that +was plain; they were still seeking. + +Finally they found. And what did they find? Simply the twig, which that +morning had served the ample matron as bed. Their wings rapidly +fluttering, they alighted on the foliage; they explored it over and +under, probed it, raised it, and displaced it so that the twig finally +fell to the floor. None the less they continued to probe between the +leaves. Under the buffets and the draught of their wings and the +clutches of their eager feet the little bundle of leaves ran along the +floor like a scrap of paper patted by the paws of a cat. + +While the twig was sliding away with its band of investigators two new +arrivals appeared. The chair lay in their path. They stopped at it and +searched eagerly at the very spot on which the twig had been lying. But +with these, as with the others, the real object of their desires was +there, close by, under a wire cover which was not even veiled. None took +any note of it. On the floor, a handful of butterflies were still +hustling the bunch of leaves on which the female had reposed that +morning; others, on the chair, were still examining the spot where the +twig had lain. The sun sank, and the hour of departure struck. Moreover, +the emanations were growing feebler, were evaporating. Without more ado +the visitors left. We bade them goodbye till the morrow. + +The following tests showed me that the leaf-covered twig which +accidentally enlightened me might be replaced by any other substance. +Some time before the visitors were expected I placed the female on a bed +of cloth or flannel, card or paper. I even subjected her to the rigours +of a camp-bed of wood, glass, marble, and metal. All these objects, +after a contact of sufficient duration, had the same attraction for the +males as the female moth herself. They retained this property for a +longer or shorter time, according to their nature. Cardboard, flannel, +dust, sand, and porous objects retained it longest. Metals, marble, and +glass, on the contrary, quickly lost their efficacy. Finally, anything +on which the female had rested communicated its virtues by contact; +witness the butterflies crowding on the straw-bottomed chair after the +twig fell to the ground. + +Using one of the most favourable materials--flannel, for example--I +witnessed a curious sight. I placed a morsel of flannel on which the +mother moth had been lying all the morning at the bottom of a long +test-tube or narrow-necked bottle, just permitting of the passage of a +male moth. The visitors entered the vessels, struggled, and did not know +how to extricate themselves. I had devised a trap by means of which I +could exterminate the tribe. Delivering the prisoners, and removing the +flannel, which I placed in a perfectly closed box, I found that they +re-entered the trap; attracted by the effluvia that the flannel had +communicated to the glass. + +I was now convinced. To call the moths of the countryside to the +wedding-feast, to warn them at a distance and to guide them the nubile +female emits an odour of extreme subtlety, imperceptible to our own +olfactory sense-organs. Even with their noses touching the moth, none of +my household has been able to perceive the faintest odour; not even the +youngest, whose sensibility is as yet unvitiated. + +This scent readily impregnates any object on which the female rests for +any length of time, when this object becomes a centre of attraction as +active as the moth herself until the effluvium is evaporated. + +Nothing visible betrays the lure. On a sheet of paper, a recent +resting-place, around which the visitors had crowded, there was no +visible trace, no moisture; the surface was as clean as before the +impregnation. + +The product is elaborated slowly, and must accumulate a little before it +reveals its full power. Taken from her couch and placed elsewhere the +female loses her attractiveness for the moment and is an object of +indifference; it is to the resting-place, saturated by long contact, +that the arrivals fly. But the female soon regains her power. + +The emission of the warning effluvium is more or less delayed according +to the species. The recently metamorphosed female must mature a little +and her organs must settle to their work. Born in the morning, the +female of the Great Peacock moth sometimes has visitors the night of the +same day; but more often on the second day, after a preparation of forty +hours or so. The Oak Eggar does not publish her banns of marriage before +the third or fourth day. + +Let us return for a moment to the problematical function of the antennae. +The male Oak Eggar has a sumptuous pair, as has the Great Peacock or +Emperor Moth. Are we to regard these silky "feelers" as a kind of +directing compass?--I resumed, but without attaching much importance to +the matter, my previous experiment of amputation. None of those operated +on returned. Do not let us draw conclusions from that fact alone. We saw +in the case of the Great Peacock that more serious reasons than the +truncation of the antennae made return as a rule impossible. + +Moreover, a second Bombyx or Eggar, the Clover Moth, very like the Oak +Eggar, and like it superbly plumed, poses us a very difficult problem. +It is fairly abundant around my home; even in the orchard I find its +cocoon, which is easily confounded with that of the Oak Eggar. I was at +first deceived by the resemblance. From six cocoons, which I expected to +yield Oak Eggars, I obtained, about the end of August, six females of +the other species. Well: about these six females, born in my house, +never a male appeared, although they were undoubtedly present in the +neighbourhood. + +If the ample and feathery antennae are truly sense-organs, which receive +information of distant objects, why were not my richly plumed neighbours +aware of what was passing in my study? Why did their feathery "feelers" +leave them in ignorance of events which would have brought flocks of the +other Eggar? Once more, the organ does not determine the aptitude. One +individual or species is gifted, but another is not, despite an organic +equality. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +A TRUFFLE-HUNTER: THE _BOLBOCERAS GALLICUS_ + + +In the matter of physics we hear of nothing to-day but the Roentgen rays, +which penetrate opaque bodies and photograph the invisible. A splendid +discovery; but nothing very remarkable as compared with the surprises +reserved for us by the future, when, better instructed as to the why and +wherefore of things than now, and supplementing our feeble senses by +means of science, we shall succeed in rivalling, however imperfectly, +the sensorial acuteness of the lower animals. + +How enviable, in how many cases, is the superiority of the beasts! It +makes us realise the insufficiency of our impressions, and the very +indifferent efficacy of our sense-organs; it proclaims realities which +amaze us, so far are they beyond our own attributes. + +A miserable caterpillar, the Processional caterpillar, found on the +pine-tree, has its back covered with meteorological spiracles which +sense the coming weather and foretell the storm; the bird of prey, that +incomparable watchman, sees the fallen mule from the heights of the +clouds; the blind bats guided their flight without collision through the +inextricable labyrinth of threads devised by Spallanzani; the carrier +pigeon, at a hundred leagues from home, infallibly regains its loft +across immensities which it has never known; and within the limits of +its more modest powers a bee, the Chalicodoma, also adventures into the +unknown, accomplishing its long journey and returning to its group of +cells. + +Those who have never seen a dog seeking truffles have missed one of the +finest achievements of the olfactory sense. Absorbed in his duties, the +animal goes forward, scenting the wind, at a moderate pace. He stops, +questions the soil with his nostrils, and, without excitement, scratches +the earth a few times with one paw. "There it is, master!" his eyes seem +to say: "there it is! On the faith of a dog, there are truffles here!" + +He says truly. The master digs at the point indicated. If the spade goes +astray the dog corrects the digger, sniffing at the bottom of the hole. +Have no fear that stones and roots will confuse him; in spite of depth +and obstacles, the truffle will be found. A dog's nose cannot lie. + +I have referred to the dog's speciality as a subtle sense of smell. That +is certainly what I mean, if you will understand by that that the nasal +passages of the animal are the seat of the perceptive organ; but is the +thing perceived always a simple smell in the vulgar acceptation of the +term--an effluvium such as our own senses perceive? I have certain +reasons for doubting this, which I will proceed to relate. + +On various occasions I have had the good fortune to accompany a +truffle-dog of first-class capacities on his rounds. Certainly there was +not much outside show about him, this artist that I so desired to see at +work; a dog of doubtful breed, placid and meditative; uncouth, +ungroomed, and quite inadmissible to the intimacies of the hearthrug. +Talent and poverty are often mated. + +His master, a celebrated _rabassier_[5] of the village, being convinced +that my object was not to steal his professional secrets, and so sooner +or later to set up in business as a competitor, admitted me of his +company, a favour of which he was not prodigal. From the moment of his +regarding me not as an apprentice, but merely as a curious spectator, +who drew and wrote about subterranean vegetable affairs, but had no wish +to carry to market my bagful of these glories of the Christmas goose, +the excellent man lent himself generously to my designs. + +It was agreed between us that the dog should act according to his own +instincts, receiving the customary reward, after each discovery, no +matter what its size, of a crust of bread the size of a finger-nail. +Every spot scratched by his paw should be excavated, and the object +indicated was to be extracted without reference to its marketable value. +In no case was the experience of the master to intervene in order to +divert the dog from a spot where the general aspect of things indicated +that no commercial results need be expected, for I was more concerned +with the miserable specimens unfit for the market than with the choice +specimens, though of course the latter were welcomed. + +Thus conducted, this subterranean botanising was extremely fruitful. +With that perspicacious nose of his the dog obtained for me both large +and small, fresh and putrid, odorous and inodorous, fragrant and +offensive. I was amazed at my collection, which comprised the greater +number of the hypogenous fungi of the neighbourhood. + +What a variety of structure, and above all of odour, the primordial +quality in this question of scent! There were some that had no +appreciable scent beyond a vague fungoid flavour, more or less common to +all. Others smelt of turnips, of sour cabbage; some were fetid, +sufficiently so to make the house of the collector noisome. Only the +true truffle possessed the aroma dear to epicures. If odour, as we +understand it, is the dog's only guide, how does he manage to follow +that guide amidst all these totally different odours? Is he warned of +the contents of the subsoil by a general emanation, by that fungoid +effluvium common to all the species? Thus a somewhat embarrassing +question arises. + +I paid special attention to the ordinary toadstools and mushrooms, which +announced their near advent by cracking the surface of the soil. Now +these points, where my eyes divined the cryptogam pushing back the soil +with its button-like heads, these points, where the ordinary fungoid +odour was certainly very pronounced, were never selected by the dog. He +passed them disdainfully, without a sniff, without a stroke of the paw. +Yet the fungi were underground, and their odour was similar to that I +have already referred to. + +I came back from my outings with the conviction that the truffle-finding +nose has some better guide than odour such as we with our sense-organs +conceive it. It must perceive effluvia of another order as well; +entirely mysterious to us, and therefore not utilised. Light has its +dark rays--rays without effect upon our retinas, but not apparently on +all. Why should not the domain of smell have its secret emanations, +unknown to our senses and perceptible to a different sense-organ? + +If the scent of the dog leaves us perplexed in the sense that we cannot +possibly say precisely, cannot even suspect what it is that the dog +perceives, at least it is clear that it would be erroneous to refer +everything to human standards. The world of sensations is far larger +than the limits of our own sensibility. What numbers of facts relating +to the interplay of natural forces must escape us for want of +sufficiently sensitive organs! + +The unknown--that inexhaustible field in which the men of the future +will try their strength--has harvests in store for us beside which our +present knowledge would show as no more than a wretched gleaning. Under +the sickle of science will one day fall the sheaves whose grain would +appear to-day as senseless paradoxes. Scientific dreams? No, if you +please, but undeniable positive realities, affirmed by the brute +creation, which in certain respects has so great an advantage over us. + +Despite his long practice of his calling, despite the scent of the +object he was seeking, the _rabassier_ could not divine the presence of +the truffle, which ripens in winter under the soil, at a depth of a foot +or two; he must have the help of a dog or a pig, whose scent is able to +discover the secrets of the soil. These secrets are known to various +insects even better than to our two auxiliaries. They have in +exceptional perfection the power of discovering the tubers on which +their larvae are nourished. + +From truffles dug up in a spoiled condition, peopled with vermin, and +placed in that condition, with a bed of fresh sand, in a glass jar, I +have in the past obtained a small red beetle, known as the +truffle-beetle (_Anisotoma cinnamomea_, Panz.), and various Diptera, +among which is a Sapromyzon which, by its sluggish flight and its +fragile form, recalls the _Scatophaga scybalaria_, the yellow velvety +fly which is found in human excrement in the autumn. The latter finds +its refuge on the surface of the soil, at the foot of a wall or hedge or +under a bush; but how does the former know just where the truffle lies +under the soil, or at what depth? To penetrate to that depth, or to seek +in the subsoil, is impossible. Its fragile limbs, barely able to move a +grain of sand, its extended wings, which would bar all progress in a +narrow passage, and its costume of bristling silken pile, which would +prevent it from slipping through crevices, all make such a task +impossible. The Sapromyzon is forced to lay its eggs on the surface of +the soil, but it does so on the precise spot which overlies the truffle, +for the grubs would perish if they had to wander at random in search of +their provender, the truffle being always thinly sown. + +The truffle fly is informed by the sense of smell of the points +favourable to its maternal plans; it has the talents of the truffle-dog, +and doubtless in a higher degree, for it knows naturally, without having +been taught, what its rival only acquires through an artificial +education. + +It would be not uninteresting to follow the Sapromyzon in its search in +the open woods. Such a feat did not strike me as particularly possible; +the insect is rare, flies off quickly when alarmed, and is lost to +view. To observe it closely under such conditions would mean a loss of +time and an assiduity of which I do not feel capable. Another +truffle-hunter will show us what we could hardly learn from the fly. + +This is a pretty little black beetle, with a pale, velvety abdomen; a +spherical insect, as large as a biggish cherry-stone. Its official title +is _Bolboceras gallicus_, Muls. By rubbing the end of the abdomen +against the edge of the wing-cases it produces a gentle chirping sound +like the cheeping of nestlings when the mother-bird returns to the nest +with food. The male wears a graceful horn on his head; a duplicate, in +little, of that of the _Copris hispanus_. + +Deceived by this horn, I at first took the insect for a member of the +corporation of dung-beetles, and as such I reared it in captivity. I +offered it the kind of diet most appreciated by its supposed relatives, +but never, never would it touch such food. For whom did I take it? Fie +upon me! To offer ordure to an epicure! It required, if not precisely +the truffle known to our _chefs_ and _gourmets_, at least its +equivalent. + +This characteristic I grasped only after patient investigation. At the +southern foot of the hills of Serignan, not far from the village, is a +wood of maritime pines alternating with rows of cypress. There, towards +Toussaint, after the autumnal rains, you may find an abundance of the +mushrooms or "toadstools" that affect the conifers; especially the +delicious Lactaris, which turns green if the points are rubbed and drips +blood if broken. In the warm days of autumn this is the favourite +promenade of the members of my household, being distant enough to +exercise their young legs, but near enough not to fatigue them. + +There one finds and sees all manner of things: old magpies' nests, great +bundles of twigs; jays, wrangling after filling their crops with the +acorns of the neighbouring oaks; rabbits, whose little white upturned +scuts go bobbing away through the rosemary bushes; dung-beetles, which +are storing food for the winter and throwing up their rubbish on the +threshold of their burrows. And then the fine sand, soft to the touch, +easily tunnelled, easily excavated or built into tiny huts which we +thatch with moss and surmount with the end of a reed for a chimney; and +the delicious meal of apples, and the sound of the aeolian harps which +softly whisper among the boughs of the pines! + +For the children it is a real paradise, where they can receive the +reward of well-learned lessons. The grown-ups also can share in the +enjoyment. As for myself, for long years I have watched two insects +which are found there without getting to the bottom of their domestic +secrets. One is the _Minotaurus typhaeus_, whose male carries on his +corselet three spines which point forward. The old writers called him +the Phalangist, on account of his armour, which is comparable to the +three ranks of lances of the Macedonian phalanx. + +This is a robust creature, heedless of the winter. All during the cold +season, whenever the weather relents a little, it issues discreetly from +its lodging, at nightfall, and gathers, in the immediate neighbourhood +of its dwelling, a few fragments of sheep-dung and ancient olives which +the summer suns have dried. It stacks them in a row at the end of its +burrow, closes the door, and consumes them. When the food is broken up +and exhausted of its meagre juices it returns to the surface and renews +its store. Thus the winter passes, famine being unknown unless the +weather is exceptionally hard. + +The second insect which I have observed for so long among the pines is +the Bolboceras. Its burrows, scattered here and there, higgledy-piggledy +with those of the Minotaur, are easy to recognise. The burrow of the +Phalangist is surmounted by a voluminous rubbish-dump, the materials of +which are piled in the form of a cylinder as long as the finger. Each of +these dumps is a load of refuse and rubbish pushed outward by the little +sapper, which shoulders it up from below. The orifice is closed whenever +the insect is at home, enlarging its tunnel or peacefully enjoying the +contents of its larder. + +The lodging of the Bolboceras is open and surrounded simply by a mound +of sand. Its depth is not great; a foot or hardly more. It descends +vertically in an easily shifted soil. It is therefore easy to inspect +it, if we take care first of all to dig a trench so that the wall of the +burrow may be afterwards cut away, slice by slice, with the blade of a +knife. The burrow is thus laid bare along its whole extent, from the +surface to the bottom, until nothing remains of it but a +demi-cylindrical groove. + +Often the violated dwelling is empty. The insect has departed in the +night, having finished its business there. It is a nomad, a +night-walker, which leaves its dwelling without regret and easily +acquires another. Often, on the other hand, the insect will be found at +the bottom of the burrow; sometimes a male, sometimes a female, but +always alone. The two sexes, equally zealous in excavating their +burrows, work apart without collaboration. This is no family mansion for +the rearing of offspring; it is a temporary dwelling, made by each +insect for its own benefit. + +Sometimes the burrow contains nothing but the well-sinker surprised at +its work: sometimes--and not rarely--the hermit will be found embracing +a small subterranean fungus, entire or partly consumed. It presses it +convulsively to its bosom and will not be parted from it. This is the +insect's booty: its worldly wealth. Scattered crumbs inform us that we +have surprised the beetle at a feast. + +Let us deprive the insect of its booty. We find a sort of irregular, +rugged, purse-like object, varying in size from the largeness of a pea +to that of a cherry. The exterior is reddish, covered with fine warts, +having an appearance not unlike shagreen; the interior, which has no +communication with the exterior, is smooth and white. The pores, ovoidal +and diaphanous, are contained, in groups of eight, in long capsules. +From these characteristics we recognise an underground cryptogam, known +to the botanists as _Hydnocystis arenaria_, and a relation of the +truffle. + +This discovery begins to throw a light on the habits of the Bolboceras +and the cause of its burrows, so frequently renewed. In the calm of the +twilight the little truffle-hunter goes abroad, chirping softly to +encourage itself. It explores the soil, and interrogates it as to its +contents, exactly as does the truffle-gatherer's dog. The sense of smell +warns it that the desired object is beneath it, covered by a few inches +of sand. Certain of the precise point where the treasure lies, it sinks +a well vertically downwards, and infallibly reaches it. So long as there +is food left it does not again leave the burrow. It feasts happily at +the bottom of its well, heedless of the open or imperfectly closed +burrow. + +When no more food is left it removes in search of further booty, which +becomes the occasion of another burrow, this too in its turn to be +abandoned. So many truffles eaten necessitate so many burrows, which are +mere dining-rooms or pilgrim's larders. Thus pass the autumn and the +spring, the seasons of the _Hydnocystis_, in the pleasures of the table +and removal from one house to another. + +To study the insect _rabassier_ in my own house I had to obtain a small +store of its favourite food. To seek it myself, by digging at random, +would have resulted merely in waste of time; the little cryptogam is not +so common that I could hope to find it without a guide. The +truffle-hunter must have his dog; my guide should be the Bolboceras +itself. Behold me, then, a _rabassier_ of a kind hitherto unknown. I +have told my secret, although I fear my original teacher will laugh at +me if he ever hears of my singular form of competition. + +The subterranean fungi grow only at certain points, but they are often +found in groups. Now, the beetle has passed this way; with its subtle +sense of smell it has recognised the ground as favourable; for its +burrows are numerous. Let us dig, then, in the neighbourhood of these +holes. The sign is reliable; in a few hours, thanks to the signs of the +Bolboceras, I obtain a handful of specimens of the _Hydnocystis_. It is +the first time I have ever found this fungus in the ground. Let us now +capture the insect--an easy matter, for we have only to excavate the +burrows. + +The same evening I begin my experiments. A wide earthen pan is filled +with fresh sand which has been passed through a sieve. With the aid of a +stick the thickness of a finger I make six vertical holes in the sand: +they are conveniently far apart, and are eight inches in depth. A +_Hydnocystis_ is placed at the bottom of each; a fine straw is then +inserted, to show me the precise position later. Finally the six holes +are filled with sand which is beaten down so that all is firm. When the +surface is perfectly level, and everywhere the same, except for the six +straws, which mean nothing to the insect, I release my beetles, covering +them with a wire-gauze cover. They are eight in number. + +At first I see nothing but the inevitable fatigue due to the incidents +of exhumation, transport, and confinement in a strange place. My exiles +try to escape: they climb the wire walls, and finally all take to earth +at the edge of their enclosure. Night comes, and all is quiet. Two hours +later I pay my prisoners a last visit. Three are still buried under a +thin layer of sand. The other five have sunk each a vertical well at the +very foot of the straws which indicate the position of the buried fungi. +Next morning the sixth straw has its burrow like the rest. + +It is time to see what is happening underground. The sand is +methodically removed in vertical slices. At the bottom of each burrow is +a Bolboceras engaged in eating its truffle. + +Let us repeat the experiment with the partly eaten fungi. The result is +the same. In one short night the food is divined under its covering of +sand and attained by means of a burrow which descends as straight as a +plumb-line to the point where the fungus lies. There has been no +hesitation, no trial excavations which have nearly discovered the object +of search. This is proved by the surface of the soil, which is +everywhere just as I left it when smoothing it down. The insect could +not make more directly for the objective if guided by the sense of +sight; it digs always at the foot of the straw, my private sign. The +truffle-dog, sniffing the ground in search of truffles, hardly attains +this degree of precision. + +Does the _Hydnocystis_ possess a very keen odour, such as we should +expect to give an unmistakable warning to the senses of the consumer? By +no means. To our own sense of smell it is a neutral sort of object, with +no appreciable scent whatever. A little pebble taken from the soil would +affect our senses quite as strongly with its vague savour of fresh +earth. As a finder of underground fungi the Bolboceras is the rival of +the dog. It would be the superior of the dog if it could generalise; it +is, however, a rigid specialist, recognising nothing but the +_Hydnocystis_. No other fungus, to my knowledge, either attracts it or +induces it to dig.[6] + +Both dog and beetle are very near the subsoil which they scrutinise; the +object they seek is at no great depth. At a greater depth neither dog +nor insect could perceive such subtle effluvia, nor even the odour of +the truffle. To attract insect or animal at a great distance powerful +odours are necessary, such as our grosser senses can perceive. Then the +exploiters of the odorous substance hasten from afar off and from all +directions. + +If for purposes of study I require specimens of such insects as dissect +dead bodies I expose a dead mole to the sunlight in a distant corner of +my orchard. As soon as the creature is swollen with the gases of +putrefaction, and the fur commences to fall from the greenish skin, a +host of insects arrive--Silphidae, Dermestes, Horn-beetles, and +Necrophori--of which not a single specimen could ever be obtained in my +garden or even in the neighbourhood without the use of such a bait. + +They have been warned by the sense of smell, although far away in all +directions, while I myself can escape from the stench by recoiling a few +paces. In comparison with their sense of smell mine is miserable; but in +this case, both for me and for them, there is really what our language +calls an odour. + +I can do still better with the flower of the Serpent Arum (_Arum +dracunculus_), so noteworthy both for its form and its incomparable +stench. Imagine a wide lanceolated blade of a vinous purple, some twenty +inches in length, which is twisted at the base into an ovoid purse about +the size of a hen's egg. Through the opening of this capsule rises the +central column, a long club of a livid green, surrounded at the base by +two rings, one of ovaries and the other of stamens. Such, briefly, is +the flower or rather the inflorescence of the Serpent Arum. + +For two days it exhales a horrible stench of putrid flesh; a dead dog +could not produce such a terrible odour. Set free by the sun and the +wind, it is odious, intolerable. Let us brave the infected atmosphere +and approach; we shall witness a curious spectacle. + +Warned by the stench, which travels far and wide, a host of insects are +flying hither; such insects as dissect the corpses of frogs, adders, +lizards, hedgehogs, moles and field-mice--creatures that the peasant +finds beneath his spade and throws disembowelled on the path. They fall +upon the great leaf, whose livid purple gives it the appearance of a +strip of putrid flesh; they dance with impatience, intoxicated by the +corpse-like odour which to them is so delicious; they roll down its +steep face and are engulfed in the capsule. After a few hours of hot +sunlight the receptacle is full. + +Let us look into the capsule through the narrow opening. Nowhere else +could you see such a mob of insects. It is a delirious mixture of backs +and bellies, wing-covers and legs, which swarms and rolls upon itself, +rising and falling, seething and boiling, shaken by continual +convulsions, clicking and squeaking with a sound of entangled +articulations. It is a bacchanal, a general access of delirium tremens. + +A few, but only a few, emerge from the mass. By the central mast or the +walls of the purse they climb to the opening. Do they wish to take +flight and escape? By no means. On the threshold of the cavity, while +already almost at liberty, they allow themselves to fall into the +whirlpool, retaken by their madness. The lure is irresistible. None will +break free from the swarm until the evening, or perhaps the next day, +when the heady fumes will have evaporated. Then the units of the swarm +disengage themselves from their mutual embraces, and slowly, as though +regretfully, take flight and depart. At the bottom of this devil's purse +remains a heap of the dead and dying, of severed limbs and wing-covers +torn off; the inevitable sequels of the frantic orgy. Soon the woodlice, +earwigs, and ants will appear to prey upon the injured. + +What are these insects doing? Were they the prisoners of the flower, +converted into a trap which allowed them to enter but prevented their +escape by means of a palisade of converging hairs? No, they were not +prisoners; they had full liberty to escape, as is proved by the final +exodus, which is in no way impeded. Deceived by a fallacious odour, were +they endeavouring to lay and establish their eggs as they would have +done under the shelter of a corpse? No; there is no trace of eggs in the +purse of the Arum. They came convoked by the odour of a decaying body, +their supreme delight; an intoxication seized them, and they rushed into +the eddying swarm to take part in a festival of carrion-eaters. + +I was anxious to count the number of those attracted. At the height of +the bacchanal I emptied the purse into a bottle. Intoxicated as they +were, many would escape my census, and I wished to ensure its accuracy. +A few drops of carbon bisulphide quieted the swarm. The census proved +that there were more than four hundred insects in the purse of the Arum. +The collection consisted entirely of two species--Dermestes and +Saprinidae--both eager prospectors of carrion and animal detritus during +the spring. + +My friend Bull, an honest dog all his lifetime if ever there was one, +amongst other eccentricities had the following: finding in the dust of +the road the shrivelled body of a mole, flattened by the feet of +pedestrians, mummified by the heat of the sun, he would slide himself +over it, from the tip of his nose to the root of his tail, he would rub +himself against it deliciously over and over again, shaken with nervous +spasms, and roll upon it first in one direction, then in the other. + +It was his sachet of musk, his flask of eau-de-Cologne. Perfumed to his +liking, he would rise, shake himself, and proceed on his way, delighted +with his toilet. Do not let us scold him, and above all do not let us +discuss the matter. There are all kinds of tastes in a world. + +Why should there not be insects with similar habits among the amateurs +of corpse-like savours? We see Dermestes and Saprinidae hastening to the +arum-flower. All day long they writhe and wriggle in a swarm, although +perfectly free to escape; numbers perish in the tumultuous orgy. They +are not retained by the desire of food, for the arum provides them with +nothing eatable; they do not come to breed, for they take care not to +establish their grubs in that place of famine. What are these frenzied +creatures doing? Apparently they are intoxicated with fetidity, as was +Bull when he rolled on the putrid body of a mole. + +This intoxication draws them from all parts of the neighbourhood, +perhaps over considerable distances; how far we do not know. The +Necrophori, in quest of a place where to establish their family, travel +great distances to find the corpses of small animals, informed by such +odours as offend our own senses at a considerable distance. + +The _Hydnocystis_, the food of the Bolboceras, emits no such brutal +emanations as these, which readily diffuse themselves through space; it +is inodorous, at least to our senses. The insect which seeks it does not +come from a distance; it inhabits the places wherein the cryptogam is +found. Faint as are the effluvia of this subterranean fungus, the +prospecting epicure, being specially equipped, perceives them with the +greatest ease; but then he operates at close range, from the surface of +the soil. The truffle-dog is in the same case; he searches with his nose +to the ground. The true truffle, however, the essential object of his +search, possesses a fairly vivid odour. + +But what are we to say of the Great Peacock moth and the Oak Eggar, both +of which find their captive female? They come from the confines of the +horizon. What do they perceive at that distance? Is it really an odour +such as we perceive and understand? I cannot bring myself to believe it. + +The dog finds the truffle by smelling the earth quite close to the +tuber; but he finds his master at great distances by following his +footsteps, which he recognises by their scent. Yet can he find the +truffle at a hundred yards? or his master, in the complete absence of a +trail? No. With all his fineness of scent, the dog is incapable of such +feats as are realised by the moth, which is embarrassed neither by +distance nor the absence of a trail. + +It is admitted that odour, such as affects our olfactory sense, consists +of molecules emanating from the body whose odour is perceived. The +odorous material becomes diffused through the air to which it +communicates its agreeable or disagreeable aroma. Odour and taste are to +a certain extent the same; in both there is contact between the material +particles causing the impression and the sensitive papillae affected by +the impression. + +That the Serpent Arum should elaborate a powerful essence which +impregnates the atmosphere and makes it noisome is perfectly simple and +comprehensible. Thus the Dermestes and Saprinidae, those lovers of +corpse-like odours, are warned by molecular diffusion. In the same way +the putrid frog emits and disseminates around it atoms of putrescence +which travel to a considerable distance and so attract and delight the +Necrophorus, the carrion-beetle. + +But in the case of the Great Peacock or the Oak Eggar, what molecules +are actually disengaged? None, according to our sense of smell. And yet +this lure, to which the males hasten so speedily, must saturate with its +molecules an enormous hemisphere of air--a hemisphere some miles in +diameter! What the atrocious fetor of the Arum cannot do the absence of +odour accomplishes! However divisible matter may be, the mind refuses +such conclusions. It would be to redden a lake with a grain of carmine; +to fill space with a mere nothing. + +Moreover, where my laboratory was previously saturated with powerful +odours which should have overcome and annihilated any particularly +delicate effluvium, the male moths arrived without the least indication +of confusion or delay. + +A loud noise stifles a feeble note and prevents it from being heard; a +brilliant light eclipses a feeble glimmer. Heavy waves overcome and +obliterate ripples. In the two cases cited we have waves of the same +nature. But a clap of thunder does not diminish the feeblest jet of +light; the dazzling glory of the sun will not muffle the slightest +sound. Of different natures, light and sound do not mutually interact. + +My experiment with spike-lavender, naphthaline, and other odours seems +to prove that odour proceeds from two sources. For emission substitute +undulation, and the problem of the Great Peacock moth is explained. +Without any material emanation a luminous point shakes the ether with +its vibrations and fills with light a sphere of indefinite magnitude. +So, or in some such manner, must the warning effluvium of the mother Oak +Eggar operate. The moth does not emit molecules; but something about it +vibrates, causing waves capable of propagation to distances incompatible +with an actual diffusion of matter. + +From this point of view, smell would have two domains--that of particles +dissolved in the air and that of etheric waves.[7] The former domain +alone is known to us. It is also known to the insect. It is this that +warns the Saprinidae of the fetid arum, the Silphidae and the Necrophori +of the putrid mole. + +The second category of odour, far superior in its action through space, +escapes us completely, because we lack the essential sensory equipment. +The Great Peacock moth and the Oak Eggar know it at the time of their +nuptial festivities. Many others must share it in differing degrees, +according to the exigencies of their way of life. + +Like light, odour has its X-rays. Let science, instructed by the insect, +one day give us a radiograph sensitive to odours, and this artificial +nose will open a new world of marvels. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE ELEPHANT-BEETLE + + +Some of our machines have extraordinary-looking mechanisms, which remain +inexplicable so long as they are seen in repose. But wait until the +whole is in motion; then the uncouth-looking contrivance, with its +cog-wheels interacting and its connecting-rods oscillating, will reveal +the ingenious combination in which all things are skilfully disposed to +produce the desired effects. It is the same with certain insects; with +certain weevils, for instance, and notably with the Acorn-beetles or +Balanini, which are adapted, as their name denotes, to the exploitation +of acorns, nuts, and other similar fruits. + +The most remarkable, in my part of France, is the Acorn Elephant +(_Balaninus elephas_, Sch.). It is well named; the very name evokes a +mental picture of the insect. It is a living caricature, this beetle +with the prodigious snout. The latter is no thicker than a horsehair, +reddish in colour, almost rectilinear, and of such length that in order +not to stumble the insect is forced to carry it stiffly outstretched +like a lance in rest. What is the use of this embarrassing pike, this +ridiculous snout? + +Here I can see some reader shrug his shoulders. Well, if the only end of +life is to make money by hook or by crook, such questions are certainly +ridiculous. + +Happily there are some to whom nothing in the majestic riddle of the +universe is little. They know of what humble materials the bread of +thought is kneaded; a nutriment no less necessary than the bread made +from wheat; and they know that both labourers and inquirers nourish the +world with an accumulation of crumbs. + +Let us take pity on the question, and proceed. Without seeing it at +work, we already suspect that the fantastic beak of the Balaninus is a +drill analogous to those which we ourselves use in order to perforate +hard materials. Two diamond-points, the mandibles, form the terminal +armature of the drill. Like the Larinidae, but under conditions of +greater difficulty, the Curculionidae must use the implement in order to +prepare the way for the installation of their eggs. + +But however well founded our suspicion may be, it is not a certitude. I +can only discover the secret by watching the insect at work. + +Chance, the servant of those that patiently solicit it, grants me a +sight of the acorn-beetle at work, in the earlier half of October. My +surprise is great, for at this late season all industrial activity is as +a rule at an end. The first touch of cold and the entomological season +is over. + +To-day, moreover, it is wild weather; the _bise_ is moaning, glacial, +cracking one's lips. One needs a robust faith to go out on such a day in +order to inspect the thickets. Yet if the beetle with the long beak +exploits the acorns, as I think it does, the time presses if I am to +catch it at its work. The acorns, still green, have acquired their full +growth. In two or three weeks they will attain the chestnut brown of +perfect maturity, quickly followed by their fall. + +My seemingly futile pilgrimage ends in success. On the evergreen oaks I +surprise a Balaninus with the trunk half sunk in an acorn. Careful +observation is impossible while the branches are shaken by the +_mistral_. I detach the twig and lay it gently upon the ground. The +insect takes no notice of its removal; it continues its work. I crouch +beside it, sheltered from the storm behind a mass of underwood, and +watch operations. + +Shod with adhesive sandals which later on, in my laboratory, will allow +it rapidly to climb a vertical sheet of glass, the elephant-beetle is +solidly established on the smooth, steep curvature of the acorn. It is +working its drill. Slowly and awkwardly it moves around its implanted +weapon, describing a semicircle whose centre is the point of the drill, +and then another semicircle in the reverse direction. This is repeated +over and over again; the movement, in short, is identical with that we +give to a bradawl when boring a hole in a plank. + +Little by little the rostrum sinks into the acorn. At the end of an hour +it has entirely disappeared. A short period of repose follows, and +finally the instrument is withdrawn. What is going to happen next? +Nothing on this occasion. The Balaninus abandons its work and solemnly +retires, disappearing among the withered leaves. For the day there is +nothing more to be learned. + +But my interest is now awakened. On calm days, more favourable to the +entomologist, I return to the woods, and I soon have sufficient insects +to people my laboratory cages. Foreseeing a serious difficulty in the +slowness with which the beetle labours, I prefer to study them indoors, +with the unlimited leisure only to be found in one's own home. + +The precaution is fortunate. If I had tried to continue as I began, and +to observe the Balaninus in the liberty of the woods, I should never, +even with the greatest good fortune, have had the patience to follow to +the end the choice of the acorn, the boring of the hole, and the laying +of the eggs, so meticulously deliberate is the insect in all its +affairs; as the reader will soon be able to judge. + +Three species of oak-tree compose the copse inhabited by the Balaninus: +the evergreen oak and the pubescent oak, which would become fine trees +if the woodman would give them time, and the kermes oak, a mere scrubby +bush. The first species, which is the most abundant of the three, is +that preferred by the Balaninus. The acorn is firm, elongated, and of +moderate size; the cup is covered with little warts. The acorns of the +pubescent oak are usually stunted, short, wrinkled, and fluted, and +subject to premature fall. The aridity of the hills of Serignan is +unfavourable to them. The Acorn-beetles accept them only in default of +something better. + +The kermes, a dwarf oak, a ridiculous tree which a man can jump over, +surprises me by the wealth of its acorns, which are large, ovoidal +growths, the cup being covered with scales. The Balaninus could not make +a better choice; the acorn affords a safe, strong dwelling and a +capacious storehouse of food. + +A few twigs from these three trees, well provided with acorns, are +arranged under the domes of some of my wire-gauze covers, the ends being +plunged into a glass of water which will keep them fresh. A suitable +number of couples are then introduced into the cages; and the latter are +placed at the windows of my study, where they obtain the direct sunlight +for the greater part of the day. Let us now arm ourselves with patience, +and keep a constant watch upon events. We shall be rewarded; the +exploitation of the acorn deserves to be seen. + +Matters do not drag on for very long. Two days after these preparations +I arrive at the precise moment when the task is commenced. The mother, +larger than the male, and equipped with a longer drill, is inspecting +her acorn, doubtless with a view to depositing her eggs. + +She goes over it step by step, from the point to the stem, both above +and below. On the warty cup progression is easy; over the rest of the +surface it would be impossible, were not the soles of her feet shod with +adhesive pads, which enable her to retain her hold in any position. +Without the least uncertainty of footing, the insect walks with equal +facility over the top or bottom or up the sides of the slippery fruit. + +The choice is made; the acorn is recognised as being of good quality. +The time has come to sink the hole. On account of its excessive length +it is not easy to manoeuvre the beak. To obtain the best mechanical +effect the instrument must be applied perpendicularly to the convex +surface of the acorn, and the embarrassing implement which is carried in +front of the insect when the latter is not at work must now be held in +such a position as to be beneath the worker. + +To obtain this result the insect rears herself upon her hind legs, +supporting herself upon the tripod formed by the end of the wing-covers +and the posterior tarsi. It would be hard to imagine anything more +curious than this little carpenter, as she stands upright and brings her +nasal bradawl down towards her body. + +Now the drill is held plumb against the surface, and the boring +commences. The method is that I witnessed in the wood on the day of the +storm. Very slowly the insect veers round from right to left, then from +left to right. Her drill is not a spiral gimlet which will sink itself +by a constant rotary motion; it is a bradawl, or rather a trochar, which +progresses by little bites, by alternative erosion, first in one +direction, then the other. + +Before continuing, let me record an accident which is too striking to be +passed over. On various occasions I have found the insect dead in the +midst of its task. The body is in an extraordinary position, which would +be laughable if death were not always a serious thing, above all when it +comes suddenly, in the midst of labour. + +The drill is implanted in the acorn just a little beyond the tip; the +work was only commenced. At the top of the drill, at right angles to it, +the Balaninus is suspended in the air, far from the supporting surface +of the acorn. It is dried, mummified, dead I know not how long. The legs +are rigid and contracted under the body. Even if they retained the +flexibility and the power of extension that were theirs in life, they +would fall far short of the surface of the acorn. What then has +happened, that this unhappy insect should be impaled like a specimen +beetle with a pin through its head? + +An accident of the workshop is responsible. On account of the length of +its implement the beetle commences her work standing upright, supported +by the two hind-legs. Imagine a slip, a false step on the part of the +two adhesive feet; the unfortunate creature will immediately lose her +footing, dragged by the elasticity of the snout, which she was forced to +bend somewhat at the beginning. Torn away from her foothold, the +suspended insect vainly struggles in air; nowhere can her feet, those +safety anchors, find a hold. She starves at the end of her snout, for +lack of foothold whereby to extricate herself. Like the artisans in our +factories, the elephant-beetle is sometimes the victim of her tools. Let +us wish her good luck, and sure feet, careful not to slip, and proceed. + +On this occasion all goes well, but so slowly that the descent of the +drill, even when amplified by the magnifying-glass, cannot be perceived. +The insect veers round perpetually, rests, and resumes her work. An hour +passes, two hours, wearying the observer by their sustained attention; +for I wish to witness the precise moment when the beetle withdraws her +drill, turns round, and deposits her egg in the mouth of the orifice. +This, at least, is how I foresee the event. + +Two hours go by, exhausting my patience. I call the household to my aid. +Three of us take turns, keeping an uninterrupted watch upon the +persevering creature whose secret I intend at any cost to discover. + +[Illustration: 1. THE GREY LOCUST. + +1'. THE NERVATURES OF THE WING. + +2. THE BALANINUS FALLEN A VICTIM TO THE LENGTH OF HER PROBOSCIS.] + +It was well that I called in helpers to lend me their eyes and their +attention. After eight hours--eight interminable hours, when it was +nearly night, the sentinel on the watch calls me. The insect appears to +have finished. She does, in fact, very cautiously withdraw her beak, as +though fearing to slip. Once the tool is withdrawn she holds it pointing +directly in front of her. + +The moment has come.... Alas, no! Once more I am cheated; my eight hours +of observation have been fruitless. The Balaninus decamps; abandons her +acorn without laying her eggs. I was certainly right to distrust the +result of observation in the open woods. Such concentration among the +oaks, exposed to the sun, wind, and rain would have been an intolerable +task. + +During the whole of October, with the aid of such helpers as are needed, +I remark a number of borings, not followed by the laying of eggs. The +duration of the observer's task varies greatly. It usually amounts to a +couple of hours; sometimes it exceeds half the day. + +With what object are these perforations made, so laborious and yet so +often unused? Let us first of all discover the position of the egg, and +the first mouthfuls taken by the grub, and perhaps the reply will be +found. + +The peopled acorns remain on the oak, held in their cups as though +nothing had occurred to the detriment of the cotyledons. With a little +attention they may be readily recognised. Not far from the cup, on the +smooth, still green envelope of the acorn a little point is visible; a +tiny needle-prick. A narrow brown aureole, the product of mortification, +is not long in appearing. This marks the opening of the hole. Sometimes, +but more rarely, the hole is drilled through the cup itself. + +Let us select those acorns which have been recently perforated: that is +to say, those in which the perforation is not yet surrounded by the +brown ring which appears in course of time. Let us shell them. Many +contain nothing out of the way; the Balaninus has bored them but has not +laid her eggs in them. They resemble the acorns which for hours and +hours were drilled in my laboratory but not utilised. Many, on the +contrary, contain an egg. + +Now however distant the entrance of the bore may be, this egg is always +at the bottom of the acorn, within the cup, at the base of the +cotyledonary matter. The cup furnishes a thin film like swan-skin which +imbibes the sapid exudations from the stem, the source of nourishment. I +have seen a young grub, hatched under my eyes, eat as his first +mouthfuls this tender cottony layer, which is moist and flavoured with +tannin. + +Such nutriment, juicy and easy of digestion, like all nascent organic +matter, is only found in this particular spot; and it is only there, +between the cup and the base of the cotyledons, that the elephant-beetle +establishes her egg. The insect knows to a nicety the position of the +portions best adapted to the feeble stomach of the newly hatched larva. + +Above this is the tougher nutriment of the cotyledons. Refreshed by its +first meal, the grub proceeds to attack this; not directly, but in the +tunnel bored by the mother, which is littered with tiny crumbs and +half-masticated shavings. With this light mealy diet the strength of the +grub increases, and it then plunges directly into the substance of the +acorn. + +These data explain the tactics of the gravid mother. What is her object +when, before proceeding to sink her hole, she inspects her acorn, from +above, below, before and behind, with such meticulous care? She is +making sure that the acorn is not already occupied. The larder is amply +stored, but it does not contain enough for two. Never in fact, have I +found two larvae in the same acorn. One only, always only one, digests +the copious meal and converts it into a greenish dust before leaving it +and descending to the ground. Only an insignificant shell remains +uneaten. The rule is, to each grub one acorn. + +Before trusting the egg to the acorn it is therefore essential to +subject it to a thorough examination, to discover whether it already has +an occupant. This possible occupant would be at the base of the acorn, +under the cover of the cup. Nothing could be more secret than this +hiding-place. Not an eye could divine the inhabitant if the surface of +the acorn did not bear the mark of a tiny perforation. + +This mark, just visible, is my guide. Its presence tells me that the +acorn is inhabited, or at least that it has been prepared for the +reception of the egg; its absence tells me that the acorn has not yet +been appropriated. The elephant-beetle undoubtedly draws the same +conclusions. + +I see matters from on high, with a comprehensive glance, assisted at +will by the magnifying-glass. I turn the acorn between my fingers for a +moment, and the inspection is concluded. The beetle, investigating the +acorn at close quarters, is often obliged to scrutinise practically the +entire surface before detecting the tell-tale spot. Moreover, the +welfare of her family demands a far more careful search than does my +curiosity. This is the reason for her prolonged and deliberate +examination. + +The search is concluded; the acorn is recognised as unoccupied. The +drill is applied to the surface and rotated for hours; then, very often, +the insect departs, disdaining the result of her work. Why such +protracted efforts? Was the beetle piercing the fruit merely to obtain +drink and refreshment? Was the beak thrust into the depths of the base +merely to obtain, from the choicer parts, a few sips of nutritious sap? +Was the whole undertaking merely a matter of personal nourishment? + +At first I believed this to be the solution, though surprised at the +display of so much perseverance rewarded by the merest sip. The +behaviour of the males, however, forced me to abandon this idea. They +also possess the long beak, and could readily make such perforations if +they wished; yet I have never seen one take up his stand upon an acorn +and work at it with his augur. Then why this fruitless labour? A mere +nothing suffices these abstemious creatures. A superficial operation +performed upon the surface of a tender leaf yields them sufficient +sustenance. + +If the males, the unoccupied males who have leisure to enjoy the +pleasures of the palate, ask no more than the sap of the leaf, how +should the mothers, busied with the affairs of the breeding-season, find +time to waste upon such dearly bought pleasures as the inner juices of +the acorn? No, the acorn is not perforated for the purpose of drinking +its juices. It is possible that once the beak is deeply sunk, the female +may take a mouthful or two, but it is certain that food and drink are +not the objects in view. + +At last I begin to foresee the solution of the problem. The egg, as I +have said, is always at the base of the acorn, in the midst of a soft +cottony layer which is moistened by the sap which oozes from the stalk. +The grub, upon hatching out, being as yet incapable of attacking the +firm substance of the cotyledons, masticates the delicate felt-like +layer at the base of the cup and is nourished by its juices. + +But as the acorn matures this layer becomes more solid in its +consistency. The soft tissues harden; the moist tissues dry up. There is +a period during which the acorn fulfils to perfection the conditions +most conducive to the welfare of the grub. At an earlier period matters +would not have reached the desired stage; at a later period the acorn +would be too mature. + +The exterior of the acorn gives no indication whatever of the progress +of this internal cookery. In order not to inflict unsuitable food on the +grub, the mother beetle, not sufficiently informed by the look of the +acorn, is thus obliged to taste, at the end of her trunk, the tissues at +the base of the cup. + +The nurse, before giving her charge a spoonful of broth, tests it by +tasting it. In the same way the mother beetle plunges her trunk into the +base of the cup, to test the contents before bestowing them upon her +offspring. If the food is recognised as being satisfactory the egg is +laid; if not, the perforation is abandoned without more ado. This +explains the perforations which serve no purpose, in spite of so much +labour; the tissues at the base of the cup, being carefully tested, are +not found to be in the required condition. The elephant-beetles are +difficult to please and take infinite pains when the first mouthful of +the grub is in question. To place the egg in a position where the +new-born grub will find light and juicy and easily digested nutriment is +not enough for those far-seeing mothers; their cares look beyond this +point. An intermediary period is desirable, which will lead the little +larva from the delicacies of its first hours to the diet of hard acorn. +This intermediary period is passed in the gallery, the work of the +maternal beak. There it finds the crumbs, the shavings bitten off by the +chisels of the rostrum. Moreover, the walls of the tunnel, which are +softened by mortification, are better suited than the rest of the acorn +to the tender mandibles of the larva. + +Before setting to work on the cotyledons the grub does, in fact, +commence upon the contents and walls of this tiny passage. It first +consumes the shavings lying loose in the passage; it devours the brown +fragments adhering to the walls; finally, being now sufficiently +strengthened, it attacks the body of the acorn, plunges into it, and +disappears. The stomach is ready; the rest is a blissful feast. + +This intermediary tunnel must be of a certain length, in order to +satisfy the needs of infancy, so the mother must labour at the work of +drilling. If the perforation were made solely with the purpose of +tasting the material at the base of the acorn and recognising its degree +of maturity, the operation might be very much shorter, since the hole +could be sunk through the cup itself from a point close to the base. +This fact is not unrecognised; I have on occasion found the insect +perforating the scaly cup. + +In such a proceeding I see the attempt of a gravid mother pressed for +time to obtain prompt information. If the acorn is suitable the boring +will be recommenced at a more distant point, through the surface of the +acorn itself. When an egg is to be laid the rule is to bore the hole +from a point as distant as is practicable from the base--as far, in +short, as the length of the rostrum will permit. + +What is the object of this long perforation, which often occupies more +than half the day? Why this tenacious perseverance when, not far from +the stalk, at the cost of much less time and fatigue, the rostrum could +attain the desired point--the living spring from which the new-born grub +is to drink? The mother has her own reasons for toiling in this manner; +in doing thus she still attains the necessary point, the base of the +acorn, and at the same time--a most valuable result--she prepares for +the grub a long tube of fine, easily digested meal. + +But these are trivialities! Not so, if you please, but high and +important matters, speaking to us of the infinite pains which preside +over the preservation of the least of things; witnesses of a superior +logic which regulates the smallest details. + +The Balaninus, so happily inspired as a mother, has her place in the +world and is worthy of notice. So, at least, thinks the blackbird, which +gladly makes a meal of the insect with the long beak when fruits grow +rare at the end of autumn. It makes a small mouthful, but a tasty, and +is a pleasant change after such olives as yet withstand the cold. + +And what without the blackbird and its rivalry of song were the +reawakening of the woods in spring? Were man to disappear, annihilated +by his own foolish errors, the festival of the life-bringing season +would be no less worthily observed, celebrated by the fluting of the +yellow-billed songster. + +To the meritorious role of regaling the blackbird, the minstrel of the +forest, the Balaninus adds another--that of moderating the superfluity +of vegetation. Like all the mighty who are worthy of their strength, the +oak is generous; it produces acorns by the bushel. What could the earth +do with such prodigality? The forest would stifle itself for want of +room; excess would ruin the necessary. + +But no sooner is this abundance of food produced than there is an influx +from every side of consumers only too eager to abate this inordinate +production. The field-mouse, a native of the woods, stores acorns in a +gravel-heap near its hay-lined nest. A stranger, the jay, comes in +flocks from far away, warned I know not how. For some weeks it flies +feasting from oak to oak, giving vent to its joys and its emotions in a +voice like that of a strangling cat; then, its mission accomplished, it +returns to the North whence it came. + +The Balaninus has anticipated them all. The mother confided her eggs to +the acorns while yet they were green. These have now fallen to earth, +brown before their time, and pierced by a round hole through which the +larva has escaped after devouring the contents. Under one single oak a +basket might easily be filled with these ruined shells. More than the +jay, more than the field-mouse, the elephant-beetle has contributed to +reduce the superfluity of acorns. + +Presently man arrives, busied in the interest of his pig. In my village +it is quite an important event when the municipal hoardings announce the +day for opening the municipal woods for the gathering of acorns. The +more zealous visit the woods the day before and select the best places. +Next day, at daybreak, the whole family is there. The father beats the +upper branches with a pole; the mother, wearing a heavy hempen apron +which enables her to force her way through the stubborn undergrowth, +gathers those within reach of the hand, while the children collect those +scattered upon the ground. First the small baskets are filled, then the +big _corbeilles_, and then the sacks. + +After the field-mouse, the jay, the weevil, and so many others have +taken toll comes man, calculating how many pounds of bacon-fat his +harvest will be worth. One regret mingles with the cheer of the +occasion; it is to see so many acorns scattered on the ground which are +pierced, spoiled, good for nothing. And man curses the author of this +destruction; to hear him you would think the forest is meant for him +alone, and that the oaks bear acorns only for the sake of his pig. + +My friend, I would say to him, the forest guard cannot take legal +proceedings against the offender, and it is just as well, for our +egoism, which is inclined to see in the acorn only a garland of +sausages, would have annoying results. The oak calls the whole world to +enjoy its fruits. We take the larger part because we are the stronger. +That is our only right. + +More important than our rights is the equitable division of the fruits +of the earth between the various consumers, great and little, all of +whom play their part in this world. If it is good that the blackbird +should flute and rejoice in the burgeoning of the spring, then it is no +bad thing that acorns should be worm-eaten. In the acorn the dessert of +the blackbird is prepared; the Balaninus, the tasty mouthful that puts +flesh upon his flanks and music into his throat. + +Let the blackbird sing, and let us return to the eggs of the +Curculionidae. We know where the egg is--at the base of the acorn, +because the tenderest and most juicy tissues of the fruit are there. But +how did it get there, so far from the point of entry? A very trifling +question, it is true; puerile even, if you will. Do not let us disdain +to ask it; science is made of these puerilities. + +The first man to rub a piece of amber on his sleeve and to find that it +thereupon attracted fragments of chaff had certainly no vision of the +electric marvels of our days. He was amusing himself in a childlike +manner. Repeated, tested, and probed in every imaginable way, the +child's experiment has become one of the forces of the world. + +The observer must neglect nothing; for he never knows what may develop +out of the humblest fact. So again we will ask: by what process did the +egg of the elephant-beetle reach a point so far from the orifice in the +acorn? + +To one who was not already aware of the position of the egg, but knew +that the grub attacked the base of the acorn first, the solution of that +fact would be as follows: the egg is laid at the entrance of the tunnel, +at the surface, and the grub, crawling down the gallery sunk by the +mother, gains of its own accord this distant point where its infant diet +is to be found. + +Before I had sufficient data this was my own belief; but the mistake was +soon exposed. I plucked an acorn just as the mother withdrew, after +having for a moment applied the tip of the abdomen to the orifice of the +passage just opened by her rostrum. The egg, so it seemed, must be +there, at the entrance of the passage.... But no, it was not! It was at +the other extremity of the passage! If I dared, I would say it had +dropped like a stone into a well. + +That idea we must abandon at once; the passage is extremely narrow and +encumbered with shavings, so that such a thing would be impossible. +Moreover, according to the direction of the stem, accordingly as it +pointed upwards or downwards, the egg would have to fall downwards in +one acorn and upwards in another. + +A second explanation suggests itself, not less perilous. It might be +said: "The cuckoo lays her egg on the grass, no matter where; she lifts +it in her beak and places it in the nearest appropriate nest." Might not +the Balaninus follow an analogous method? Does she employ the rostrum to +place the egg in its position at the base of the acorn? I cannot see +that the insect has any other implement capable of reaching this remote +hiding-place. + +Nevertheless, we must hastily reject such an absurd explanation as a +last, desperate resort. The elephant-beetle certainly does not lay its +egg in the open and seize it in its beak. If it did so the delicate ovum +would certainly be destroyed, crushed in the attempt to thrust it down a +narrow passage half choked with debris. + +This is very perplexing. My embarrassment will be shared by all readers +who are acquainted with the structure of the elephant-beetle. The +grasshopper has a sabre, an oviscapt which plunges into the earth and +sows the eggs at the desired depth; the Leuscopis has a probe which +finds its way through the masonry of the mason-bee and lays the egg in +the cocoon of the great somnolent larva; but the Balaninus has none of +these swords, daggers, or pikes; she has nothing but the tip of her +abdomen. Yet she has only to apply that abdominal extremity to the +opening of the passage, and the egg is immediately lodged at the very +bottom. + +Anatomy will give us the answer to the riddle, which is otherwise +indecipherable. I open the body of a gravid female. There, before my +eyes, is something that takes my breath away. There, occupying the whole +length of the body, is an extraordinary device; a red, horny, rigid rod; +I had almost said a rostrum, so greatly does it resemble the implement +which the insect carries on his head. It is a tube, fine as a horsehair, +slightly enlarged at the free extremity, like an old-fashioned +blunderbuss, and expanding to form an egg-shaped capsule at the point of +origin. + +This is the oviduct, and its dimensions are the same as those of the +rostrum. As far as the perforating beak can plunge, so far the oviscapt, +the interior rostrum, will reach. When working upon her acorn the female +chooses the point of attack so that the two complementary instruments +can each of them reach the desired point at the base of the acorn. + +The matter now explains itself. The work of drilling completed, the +gallery ready, the mother turns and places the tip of the abdomen +against the orifice. She extrudes the internal mechanism, which easily +passes through the loose debris of the boring. No sign of the probe +appears, so quickly and discreetly does it work; nor is any trace of it +to be seen when, the egg having been properly deposited, the implement +ascends and returns to the abdomen. It is over, and the mother departs, +and we have not caught a glimpse of her internal mechanism. + +Was I not right to insist? An apparently insignificant fact has led to +the authentic proof of a fact that the Larinidae had already made me +suspect. The long-beaked weevils have an internal probe, an abdominal +rostrum, which nothing in their external appearance betrays; they +possess, among the hidden organs of the abdomen, the counterpart of the +grasshopper's sabre and the ichneumon's dagger. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE PEA-WEEVIL--_BRUCHUS PISI_ + + +Peas are held in high esteem by mankind. From remote ages man has +endeavoured, by careful culture, to produce larger, tenderer, and +sweeter varieties. Of an adaptable character, under careful treatment +the plant has evolved in a docile fashion, and has ended by giving us +what the ambition of the gardener desired. To-day we have gone far +beyond the yield of the Varrons and Columelles, and further still beyond +the original pea; from the wild seeds confided to the soil by the first +man who thought to scratch up the surface of the earth, perhaps with the +half-jaw of a cave-bear, whose powerful canine tooth would serve him as +a ploughshare! + +Where is it, this original pea, in the world of spontaneous vegetation? +Our own country has nothing resembling it. Is it to be found elsewhere? +On this point botany is silent, or replies only with vague +probabilities. + +We find the same ignorance elsewhere on the subject of the majority of +our alimentary vegetables. Whence comes wheat, the blessed grain which +gives us bread? No one knows. You will not find it here, except in the +care of man; nor will you find it abroad. In the East, the birthplace +of agriculture, no botanist has ever encountered the sacred ear growing +of itself on unbroken soil. + +Barley, oats, and rye, the turnip and the beet, the beetroot, the +carrot, the pumpkin, and so many other vegetable products, leave us in +the same perplexity; their point of departure is unknown to us, or at +most suspected behind the impenetrable cloud of the centuries. Nature +delivered them to us in the full vigour of the thing untamed, when their +value as food was indifferent, as to-day she offers us the sloe, the +bullace, the blackberry, the crab; she gave them to us in the state of +imperfect sketches, for us to fill out and complete; it was for our +skill and our labour patiently to induce the nourishing pulp which was +the earliest form of capital, whose interest is always increasing in the +primordial bank of the tiller of the soil. + +As storehouses of food the cereal and the vegetable are, for the greater +part, the work of man. The fundamental species, a poor resource in their +original state, we borrowed as they were from the natural treasury of +the vegetable world; the perfected race, rich in alimentary materials, +is the result of our art. + +If wheat, peas, and all the rest are indispensable to us, our care, by a +just return, is absolutely necessary to them. Such as our needs have +made them, incapable of resistance in the bitter struggle for survival, +these vegetables, left to themselves without culture, would rapidly +disappear, despite the numerical abundance of their seeds, as the +foolish sheep would disappear were there no more sheep-folds. + +They are our work, but not always our exclusive property. Wherever food +is amassed, the consumers collect from the four corners of the sky; they +invite themselves to the feast of abundance, and the richer the food the +greater their numbers. Man, who alone is capable of inducing agrarian +abundance, is by that very fact the giver of an immense banquet at which +legions of feasters take their place. By creating more juicy and more +generous fruits he calls to his enclosures, despite himself, thousands +and thousands of hungry creatures, against whose appetites his +prohibitions are helpless. The more he produces, the larger is the +tribute demanded of him. Wholesale agriculture and vegetable abundance +favour our rival the insect. + +This is the immanent law. Nature, with an equal zeal, offers her mighty +breast to all her nurslings alike; to those who live by the goods of +others no less than to the producers. For us, who plough, sow, and reap, +and weary ourselves with labour, she ripens the wheat; she ripens it +also for the little Calender-beetle, which, although exempted from the +labour of the fields, enters our granaries none the less, and there, +with its pointed beak, nibbles our wheat, grain by grain, to the husk. + +For us, who dig, weed, and water, bent with fatigue and burned by the +sun, she swells the pods of the pea; she swells them also for the +weevil, which does no gardener's work, yet takes its share of the +harvest at its own hour, when the earth is joyful with the new life of +spring. + +Let us follow the manoeuvres of this insect which takes its tithe of +the green pea. I, a benevolent ratepayer, will allow it to take its +dues; it is precisely to benefit it that I have sown a few rows of the +beloved plant in a corner of my garden. Without other invitation on my +part than this modest expenditure of seed-peas it arrives punctually +during the month of May. It has learned that this stony soil, rebellious +to the culture of the kitchen-gardener, is bearing peas for the first +time. In all haste therefore it has hurried, an agent of the +entomological revenue system, to demand its dues. + +Whence does it come? It is impossible to say precisely. It has come from +some shelter, somewhere, in which it has passed the winter in a state of +torpor. The plane-tree, which sheds its rind during the heats of the +summer, furnishes an excellent refuge for homeless insects under its +partly detached sheets of bark. + +I have often found our weevil in such a winter refuge. Sheltered under +the dead covering of the plane, or otherwise protected while the winter +lasts, it awakens from its torpor at the first touch of a kindly sun. +The almanack of the instincts has aroused it; it knows as well as the +gardener when the pea-vines are in flower, and seeks its favourite +plant, journeying thither from every side, running with quick, short +steps, or nimbly flying. + +A small head, a fine snout, a costume of ashen grey sprinkled with +brown, flattened wing-covers, a dumpy, compact body, with two large +black dots on the rear segment--such is the summary portrait of my +visitor. The middle of May approaches, and with it the van of the +invasion. + +They settle on the flowers, which are not unlike white-winged +butterflies. I see them at the base of the blossom or inside the cavity +of the "keel" of the flower, but the majority explore the petals and +take possession of them. The time for laying the eggs has not yet +arrived. The morning is mild; the sun is warm without being oppressive. +It is the moment of nuptial flights; the time of rejoicing in the +splendour of the sunshine. Everywhere are creatures rejoicing to be +alive. Couples come together, part, and re-form. When towards noon the +heat becomes too great, the weevils retire into the shadow, taking +refuge singly in the folds of the flowers whose secret corners they know +so well. To-morrow will be another day of festival, and the next day +also, until the pods, emerging from the shelter of the "keel" of the +flower, are plainly visible, enlarging from day to day. + +A few gravid females, more pressed for time than the others, confide +their eggs to the growing pod, flat and meagre as it issues from its +floral sheath. These hastily laid batches of eggs, expelled perhaps by +the exigencies of an ovary incapable of further delay, seem to me in +serious danger; for the seed in which the grub must establish itself is +as yet no more than a tender speck of green, without firmness and +without any farinaceous tissue. No larva could possible find sufficient +nourishment there, unless it waited for the pea to mature. + +But is the grub capable of fasting for any length of time when once +hatched? It is doubtful. The little I have seen tells me that the +new-born grub must establish itself in the midst of its food as quickly +as possible, and that it perishes unless it can do so. I am therefore of +opinion that such eggs as are deposited in immature pods are lost. +However, the race will hardly suffer by such a loss, so fertile is the +little beetle. We shall see directly how prodigal the female is of her +eggs, the majority of which are destined to perish. + +The important part of the maternal task is completed by the end of May, +when the shells are swollen by the expanding peas, which have reached +their final growth, or are but little short of it. I was anxious to see +the female Bruchus at work in her quality of Curculionid, as our +classification declares her.[8] The other weevils are Rhyncophora, +beaked insects, armed with a drill with which to prepare the hole in +which the egg is laid. The Bruchus possesses only a short snout or +muzzle, excellently adapted for eating soft tissues, but valueless as a +drill. + +The method of installing the family is consequently absolutely +different. There are no industrious preparations as with the Balinidae, +the Larinidae, and the Rhynchitides. Not being equipped with a long +oviscapt, the mother sows her eggs in the open, with no protection +against the heat of the sun and the variations of temperature. Nothing +could be simpler, and nothing more perilous to the eggs, in the absence +of special characteristics which would enable them to resist the +alternate trials of heat and cold, moisture and drought. + +In the caressing sunlight of ten o'clock in the morning the mother runs +up and down the chosen pod, first on one side, then on the other, with a +jerky, capricious, unmethodical gait. She repeatedly extrudes a short +oviduct, which oscillates right and left as though to graze the skin of +the pod. An egg follows, which is abandoned as soon as laid. + +A hasty touch of the oviduct, first here, then there, on the green skin +of the pea-pod, and that is all. The egg is left there, unprotected, in +the full sunlight. No choice of position is made such as might assist +the grub when it seeks to penetrate its larder. Some eggs are laid on +the swellings created by the peas beneath; others in the barren valleys +which separate them. The first are close to the peas, the second at some +distance from them. In short, the eggs of the Bruchus are laid at +random, as though on the wing. + +We observe a still more serious vice: the number of eggs is out of all +proportion to the number of peas in the pod. Let us note at the outset +that each grub requires one pea; it is the necessary ration, and is +largely sufficient to one larva, but is not enough for several, nor even +for two. One pea to each grub, neither more nor less, is the +unchangeable rule. + +We should expect to find signs of a procreative economy which would +impel the female to take into account the number of peas contained in +the pod which she has just explored; we might expect her to set a +numerical limit on her eggs in conformity with that of the peas +available. But no such limit is observed. The rule of one pea to one +grub is always contradicted by the multiplicity of consumers. + +My observations are unanimous on this point. The number of eggs +deposited on one pod always exceeds the number of peas available, and +often to a scandalous degree. However meagre the contents of the pod +there is a superabundance of consumers. Dividing the sum of the eggs +upon such or such a pod by that of the peas contained therein, I find +there are five to eight claimants for each pea; I have found ten, and +there is no reason why this prodigality should not go still further. +Many are called, but few are chosen! What is to become of all these +supernumeraries, perforce excluded from the banquet for want of space? + +The eggs are of a fairly bright amber yellow, cylindrical in form, +smooth, and rounded at the ends. Their length is at most a twenty-fifth +of an inch. Each is affixed to the pod by means of a slight network of +threads of coagulated albumen. Neither wind nor rain can loosen their +hold. + +The mother not infrequently emits them two at a time, one above the +other; not infrequently, also, the uppermost of the two eggs hatches +before the other, while the latter fades and perishes. What was lacking +to this egg, that it should fail to produce a grub? Perhaps a bath of +sunlight; the incubating heat of which the outer egg has robbed it. +Whether on account of the fact that it is shadowed by the other egg, or +for other reasons, the elder of the eggs in a group of two rarely +follows the normal course, but perishes on the pod, dead without having +lived. + +There are exceptions to this premature end; sometimes the two eggs +develop equally well; but such cases are exceptional, so that the +Bruchid family would be reduced to about half its dimensions if the +binary system were the rule. To the detriment of our peas and to the +advantage of the beetle, the eggs are commonly laid one by one and in +isolation. + +A recent emergence is shown by a little sinuous ribbon-like mark, pale +or whitish, where the skin of the pod is raised and withered, which +starts from the egg and is the work of the new-born larva; a +sub-epidermic tunnel along which the grub works its way, while seeking a +point from which it can escape into a pea. This point once attained, the +larva, which is scarcely a twenty-fifth of an inch in length, and is +white with a black head, perforates the envelope and plunges into the +capacious hollow of the pod. + +It has reached the peas and crawls upon the nearest. I have observed it +with the magnifier. Having explored the green globe, its new world, it +begins to sink a well perpendicularly into the sphere. I have often seen +it half-way in, wriggling its tail in the effort to work the quicker. In +a short time the grub disappears and is at home. The point of entry, +minute, but always easily recognisable by its brown coloration on the +pale green background of the pea, has no fixed location; it may be at +almost any point on the surface of the pea, but an exception is usually +made of the lower half; that is, the hemisphere whose pole is formed by +the supporting stem. + +It is precisely in this portion that the germ is found, which will not +be eaten by the larva, and will remain capable of developing into a +plant, in spite of the large aperture made by the emergence of the adult +insect. Why is this particular portion left untouched? What are the +motives that safeguard the germ? + +It goes without saying that the Bruchus is not considering the gardener. +The pea is meant for it and for no one else. In refusing the few bites +that would lead to the death of the seed, it has no intention of +limiting its destruction. It abstains from other motives. + +Let us remark that the peas touch laterally, and are pressed one +against the other, so that the grub, when searching for a point of +attack, cannot circulate at will. Let us also note that the lower pole +expands into the umbilical excrescence, which is less easy of +perforation than those parts protected by the skin alone. It is even +possible that the umbilicum, whose organisation differs from that of the +rest of the pea, contains a peculiar sap that is distasteful to the +little grub. + +Such, doubtless, is the reason why the peas exploited by the Bruchus are +still able to germinate. They are damaged, but not dead, because the +invasion was conducted from the free hemisphere, a portion less +vulnerable and more easy of access. Moreover, as the pea in its entirety +is too large for a single grub to consume, the consumption is limited to +the portion preferred by the consumer, and this portion is not the +essential portion of the pea. + +With other conditions, with very much smaller or very much larger seeds, +we shall observe very different results. If too small, the germ will +perish, gnawed like the rest by the insufficiently provisioned inmate; +if too large, the abundance of food will permit of several inmates. +Exploited in the absence of the pea, the cultivated vetch and the broad +bean afford us an excellent example; the smaller seed, of which all but +the skin is devoured, is left incapable of germination; but the large +bean, even though it may have held a number of grubs, is still capable +of sprouting. + +Knowing that the pod always exhibits a number of eggs greatly in excess +of the enclosed peas, and that each pea is the exclusive property of one +grub, we naturally ask what becomes of the superfluous grubs. Do they +perish outside when the more precocious have one by one taken their +places in their vegetable larder? or do they succumb to the intolerant +teeth of the first occupants? Neither explanation is correct. Let us +relate the facts. + +On all old peas--they are at this stage dry--from which the adult +Bruchus has emerged, leaving a large round hole of exit, the +magnifying-glass will show a variable number of fine reddish +punctuations, perforated in the centre. What are these spots, of which I +count five, six, and even more on a single pea? It is impossible to be +mistaken: they are the points of entry of as many grubs. Several grubs +have entered the pea, but of the whole group only one has survived, +fattened, and attained the adult age. And the others? We shall see. + +At the end of May, and in June, the period of egg-laying, let us inspect +the still green and tender peas. Nearly all the peas invaded show us the +multiple perforations already observed on the dry peas abandoned by the +weevils. Does this actually mean that there are several grubs in the +pea? Yes. Skin the peas in question, separate the cotyledons, and break +them up as may be necessary. We shall discover several grubs, extremely +youthful, curled up comma-wise, fat and lively, each in a little round +niche in the body of the pea. + +Peace and welfare seem to reign in the little community. There is no +quarrelling, no jealousy between neighbours. The feast has commenced; +food is abundant, and the feasters are separated one from another by the +walls of uneaten substance. With this isolation in separate cells no +conflicts need be feared; no sudden bite of the mandibles, whether +intentional or accidental. All the occupants enjoy the same rights of +property, the same appetite, and the same strength. How does this +communal feast terminate? + +Having first opened them, I place a number of peas which are found to be +well peopled in a glass test-tube. I open others daily. In this way I +keep myself informed as to the progress of the various larvae. At first +nothing noteworthy is to be seen. Isolated in its narrow chamber, each +grub nibbles the substance around it, peacefully and parsimoniously. It +is still very small; a mere speck of food is a feast; but the contents +of one pea will not suffice the whole number to the end. Famine is +ahead, and all but one must perish. + +Soon, indeed, the aspect of things is entirely changed. One of the +grubs--that which occupies the central position in the pea--begins to +grow more quickly than the others. Scarcely has it surpassed the others +in size when the latter cease to eat, and no longer attempt to burrow +forwards. They lie motionless and resigned; they die that gentle death +which comes to unconscious lives. Henceforth the entire pea belongs to +the sole survivor. Now what has happened that these lives around the +privileged one should be thus annihilated? In default of a satisfactory +reply, I will propose a suggestion. + +In the centre of the pea, less ripened than the rest of the seed by the +chemistry of the sun, may there not be a softer pulp, of a quality +better adapted to the infantile digestion of the grub? There, perhaps, +being nourished by tenderer, sweeter, and perhaps more tasty tissues, +the stomach becomes more vigorous, until it is fit to undertake less +easily digested food. A nursling is fed on milk before proceeding to +bread and broth. May not the central portion of the pea be the +feeding-bottle of the Bruchid? + +With equal rights, fired by an equal ambition, all the occupants of the +pea bore their way towards the delicious morsel. The journey is +laborious, and the grubs must rest frequently in their provisional +niches. They rest; while resting they frugally gnaw the riper tissues +surrounding them; they gnaw rather to open a way than to fill their +stomachs. + +Finally one of the excavators, favoured by the direction taken, attains +the central portion. It establishes itself there, and all is over; the +others have only to die. How are they warned that the place is taken? Do +they hear their brother gnawing at the walls of his lodging? can they +feel the vibration set up by his nibbling mandibles? Something of the +kind must happen, for from that moment they make no attempt to burrow +further. Without struggling against the fortunate winner, without +seeking to dislodge him, those which are beaten in the race give +themselves up to death. I admire this candid resignation on the part of +the departed. + +Another condition--that of space--is also present as a factor. The +pea-weevil is the largest of our Bruchidae. When it attains the adult +stage it requires a certain amplitude of lodging, which the other +weevils do not require in the same degree. A pea provides it with a +sufficiently spacious cell; nevertheless, the cohabitation of two in one +pea would be impossible; there would be no room, even were the two to +put up with a certain discomfort. Hence the necessity of an inevitable +decimation, which will suppress all the competitors save one. + +Now the superior volume of the broad bean, which is almost as much +beloved by the weevil as the pea, can lodge a considerable community, +and the solitary can live as a cenobite. Without encroaching on the +domain of their neighbours, five or six or more can find room in the one +bean. + +Moreover, each grub can find its infant diet; that is, that layer which, +remote from the surface, hardens only gradually and remains full of sap +until a comparatively late period. This inner layer represents the crumb +of a loaf, the rest of the bean being the crust. + +In the pea, a sphere of much less capacity, it occupies the central +portion; a limited point at which the grub develops, and lacking which +it perishes; but in the bean it lines the wide adjoining faces of the +two flattened cotyledons. No matter where the point of attack is made, +the grub has only to bore straight down when it quickly reaches the +softer tissues. What is the result? I have counted the eggs adhering to +a bean-pod and the beans included in the pod, and comparing the two +figures I find that there is plenty of room for the whole family at the +rate of five or six dwellers in each bean. No superfluous larvae perish +of hunger when barely issued from the egg; all have their share of the +ample provision; all live and prosper. The abundance of food balances +the prodigal fertility of the mother. + +If the Bruchus were always to adopt the broad bean for the establishment +of her family I could well understand the exuberant allowance of eggs to +one pod; a rich food-stuff easily obtained evokes a large batch of +eggs. But the case of the pea perplexes me. By what aberration does the +mother abandon her children to starvation on this totally insufficient +vegetable? Why so many grubs to each pea when one pea is sufficient only +for one grub? + +Matters are not so arranged in the general balance-sheet of life. A +certain foresight seems to rule over the ovary so that the number of +mouths is in proportion to the abundance or scarcity of the food +consumed. The Scarabaeus, the Sphex, the Necrophorus, and other insects +which prepare and preserve alimentary provision for their families, are +all of a narrowly limited fertility, because the balls of dung, the dead +or paralysed insects, or the buried corpses of animals on which their +offspring are nourished are provided only at the cost of laborious +efforts. + +The ordinary bluebottle, on the contrary, which lays her eggs upon +butcher's meat or carrion, lays them in enormous batches. Trusting in +the inexhaustible riches represented by the corpse, she is prodigal of +offspring, and takes no account of numbers. In other cases the provision +is acquired by audacious brigandage, which exposes the newly born +offspring to a thousand mortal accidents. In such cases the mother +balances the chances of destruction by an exaggerated flux of eggs. Such +is the case with the Meloides, which, stealing the goods of others under +conditions of the greatest peril, are accordingly endowed with a +prodigious fertility. + +The Bruchus knows neither the fatigues of the laborious, obliged to +limit the size of her family, nor the misfortunes of the parasite, +obliged to produce an exaggerated number of offspring. Without painful +search, entirely at her ease, merely moving in the sunshine over her +favourite plant, she can ensure a sufficient provision for each of her +offspring; she can do so, yet is foolish enough to over-populate the pod +of the pea; a nursery insufficiently provided, in which the great +majority will perish of starvation. This ineptitude is a thing I cannot +understand: it clashes too completely with the habitual foresight of the +maternal instinct. + +I am inclined to believe that the pea is not the original food plant of +the Bruchus. The original plant must rather have been the bean, one seed +of which is capable of supporting half a dozen or more larvae. With the +larger cotyledon the crying disproportion between the number of eggs and +the available provision disappears. + +Moreover, it is indubitable that the bean is of earlier date than the +pea. Its exceptional size and its agreeable flavour would certainly have +attracted the attention of man from the remotest periods. The bean is a +ready-made mouthful, and would be of the greatest value to the hungry +tribe. Primitive man would at an early date have sown it beside his +wattled hut. Coming from Central Asia by long stages, their wagons drawn +by shaggy oxen and rolling on the circular discs cut from the trunks of +trees, the early immigrants would have brought to our virgin land, first +the bean, then the pea, and finally the cereal, that best of safeguards +against famine. They taught us the care of herds, and the use of bronze, +the material of the first metal implement. Thus the dawn of civilisation +arose over France. With the bean did those ancient teachers also +involuntarily bring us the insect which to-day disputes it with us? It +is doubtful; the Bruchidae seem to be indigenous. At all events, I find +them levying tribute from various indigenous plants, wild vegetables +which have never tempted the appetite of man. They abound in particular +upon the great forest vetch (_Lathyrus latifolius_), with its +magnificent heads of flowers and long handsome pods. The seeds are not +large, being indeed smaller than the garden pea; but eaten to the very +skin, as they invariably are, each is sufficient to the needs of its +grub. + +We must not fail to note their number. I have counted more than twenty +in a single pod, a number unknown in the case of the pea, even in the +most prolific varieties. Consequently this superb vetch is in general +able to nourish without much loss the family confided to its pod. + +Where the forest vetch is lacking, the Bruchus, none the less, bestows +its habitual prodigality of eggs upon another vegetable of similar +flavour, but incapable of nourishing all the grubs: for the example, the +travelling vetch (_Vicia peregrina_) or the cultivated vetch (_Vicia +sativa_). The number of eggs remains high even upon insufficient pods, +because the original food-plant offered a copious provision, both in the +multiplicity and the size of the seeds. If the Bruchus is really a +stranger, let us regard the bean as the original food-plant; if +indigenous, the large vetch. + +Sometime in the remote past we received the pea, growing it at first in +the prehistoric vegetable garden which already supplied the bean. It was +found a better article of diet than the broad bean, which to-day, after +such good service, is comparatively neglected. The weevil was of the +same opinion as man, and without entirely forgetting the bean and the +vetch it established the greater part of its tribe upon the pea, which +from century to century was more widely cultivated. To-day we have to +share our peas: the Bruchidae take what they need, and bestow their +leavings on us. + +This prosperity of the insect which is the offspring of the abundance +and quality of our garden products is from another point of view +equivalent to decadence. For the weevil, as for ourselves, progress in +matters of food and drink is not always beneficial. The race would +profit better if it remained frugal. On the bean and the vetch the +Bruchus founded colonies in which the infant mortality was low. There +was room for all. On the pea-vine, delicious though its fruits may be, +the greater part of its offspring die of starvation. The rations are +few, and the hungry mouths are multitudinous. + +We will linger over this problem no longer. Let us observe the grub +which has now become the sole tenant of the pea by the death of its +brothers. It has had no part in their death; chance has favoured it, +that is all. In the centre of the pea, a wealthy solitude, it performs +the duty of a grub; the sole duty of eating. It nibbles the walls +enclosing it, enlarging its lodgment, which is always entirely filled by +its corpulent body. It is well shaped, fat, and shining with health. If +I disturb it, it turns gently in its niche and sways its head. This is +its manner of complaining of my importunities. Let us leave it in peace. + +It profits so greatly and so swiftly by its position that by the time +the dog-days have come it is already preparing for its approaching +liberation. The adult is not sufficiently well equipped to open for +itself a way out through the pea, which is now completely hardened. The +larva knows of this future helplessness, and with consummate art +provides for its release. With its powerful mandibles it bores a channel +of exit, exactly round, with extremely clean-cut sides. The most skilful +ivory-carver could do no better. + +To prepare the door of exit in advance is not enough; the grub must also +provide for the tranquillity essential to the delicate processes of +nymphosis. An intruder might enter by the open door and injure the +helpless nymph. This passage must therefore remain closed. But how? + +As the grub bores the passage of exit it consumes the farinaceous matter +without leaving a crumb. Having come to the skin of the pea it stops +short. This membrane, semi-translucid, is the door to the chamber of +metamorphosis, its protection against the evil intentions of external +creatures. + +It is also the only obstacle which the adult will encounter at the +moment of exit. To lessen the difficulty of opening it the grub takes +the precaution of gnawing at the inner side of the skin, all round the +circumference, so as to make a line of least resistance. The perfect +insect will only have to heave with its shoulder and strike a few blows +with its head in order to raise the circular door and knock it off like +the lid of a box. The passage of exit shows through the diaphanous skin +of the pea as a large circular spot, which is darkened by the obscurity +of the interior. What passes behind it is invisible, hidden as it is +behind a sort of ground glass window. + +A pretty invention, this little closed porthole, this barricade against +the invader, this trap-door raised by a push when the time has come for +the hermit to enter the world. Shall we credit it to the Bruchus? Did +the ingenious insect conceive the undertaking? Did it think out a plan +and work out a scheme of its own devising? This would be no small +triumph for the brain of a weevil. Before coming to a conclusion let us +try an experiment. + +I deprive certain occupied peas of their skin, and I dry them with +abnormal rapidity, placing them in glass test-tubes. The grubs prosper +as well as in the intact peas. At the proper time the preparations for +emergence are made. + +If the grub acts on its own inspiration, if it ceases to prolong its +boring directly it recognises that the outer coating, auscultated from +time to time, is sufficiently thin, what will it do under the conditions +of the present test? Feeling itself at the requisite distance from the +surface it will stop boring; it will respect the outer layer of the bare +pea, and will thus obtain the indispensable protecting screen. + +Nothing of the kind occurs. In every case the passage is completely +excavated; the entrance gapes wide open, as large and as carefully +executed as though the skin of the pea were in its place. Reasons of +security have failed to modify the usual method of work. This open +lodging has no defence against the enemy; but the grub exhibits no +anxiety on this score. + +Neither is it thinking of the outer enemy when it bores down to the skin +when the pea is intact, and then stops short. It suddenly stops because +the innutritious skin is not to its taste. We ourselves remove the +parchment-like skins from a mess of pease-pudding, as from a culinary +point of view they are so much waste matter. The larva of the Bruchus, +like ourselves, dislikes the skin of the pea. It stops short at the +horny covering, simply because it is checked by an uneatable substance. +From this aversion a little miracle arises; but the insect has no sense +of logic; it is passively obedient to the superior logic of facts. It +obeys its instinct, as unconscious of its act as is a crystal when it +assembles, in exquisite order, its battalions of atoms. + +Sooner or later during the month of August we see a shadowy circle form +on each inhabited pea; but only one on each seed. These circles of +shadow mark the doors of exit. Most of them open in September. The lid, +as though cut out with a punch, detaches itself cleanly and falls to the +ground, leaving the orifice free. The Bruchus emerges, freshly clad, in +its final form. + +The weather is delightful. Flowers are abundant, awakened by the summer +showers; and the weevils visit them in the lovely autumn weather. Then, +when the cold sets in, they take up their winter quarters in any +suitable retreat. Others, still numerous, are less hasty in quitting the +native seed. They remain within during the whole winter, sheltered +behind the trap-door, which they take care not to touch. The door of the +cell will not open on its hinges, or, to be exact, will not yield along +the line of least resistance, until the warm days return. Then the late +arrivals will leave their shelter and rejoin the more impatient, and +both will be ready for work when the pea-vines are in flower. + +To take a general view of the instincts in their inexhaustible variety +is, for the observer, the great attraction of the entomological world; +for nowhere do we gain a clearer sight of the wonderful way in which the +processes of life are ordered. Thus regarded entomology is not, I know, +to the taste of everybody; the simple creature absorbed in the doings +and habits of insects is held in low esteem. To the terrible +utilitarian, a bushel of peas preserved from the weevil is of more +importance than a volume of observations which bring no immediate +profit. + +Yet who has told you, O man of little faith, that what is useless to-day +will not be useful to-morrow? If we learn the customs of insects or +animals we shall understand better how to protect our goods. Do not +despise disinterested knowledge, or you may rue the day. It is by the +accumulation of ideas, whether immediately applicable or otherwise, that +humanity has done, and will continue to do, better to-day than +yesterday, and better to-morrow than to-day. If we live on peas and +beans, which we dispute with the weevil, we also live by knowledge, that +mighty kneading-trough in which the bread of progress is mixed and +leavened. Knowledge is well worth a few beans. + +Among other things, knowledge tells us: "The seedsman need not go to the +expense of waging war upon the weevil. When the peas arrive in the +granary, the harm is already done; it is irreparable, but not +transmissible. The untouched peas have nothing to fear from the +neighbourhood of those which have been attacked, however long the +mixture is left. From the latter the weevils will issue when their time +has come; they will fly away from the storehouse if escape is possible; +if not, they will perish without in any way attacking the sound peas. No +eggs, no new generation will ever be seen upon or within the dried peas +in the storehouse; there the adult weevil can work no further mischief." + +The Bruchus is not a sedentary inhabitant of granaries: it requires the +open air, the sun, the liberty of the fields. Frugal in everything, it +absolutely disdains the hard tissues of the vegetable; its tiny mouth is +content with a few honeyed mouthfuls, enjoyed upon the flowers. The +larvae, on the other hand, require the tender tissues of the green pea +growing in the pod. For these reasons the granary knows no final +multiplication on the part of the despoiler. + +The origin of the evil is in the kitchen-garden. It is there that we +ought to keep a watch on the misdeeds of the Bruchus, were it not for +the fact that we are nearly always weaponless when it comes to fighting +an insect. Indestructible by reason of its numbers, its small size, and +its cunning, the little creature laughs at the anger of man. The +gardener curses it, but the weevil is not disturbed: it imperturbably +continues its trade of levying tribute. Happily we have assistants more +patient and more clear-sighted than ourselves. + +During the first week of August, when the mature Bruchus begins to +emerge, I notice a little Chalcidian, the protector of our peas. In my +rearing-cages it issues under my eyes in abundance from the peas +infested by the grub of the weevil. The female has a reddish head and +thorax; the abdomen is black, with a long augur-like oviscapt. The male, +a little smaller, is black. Both sexes have reddish claws and +thread-like antennae. + +In order to escape from the pea the slayer of the weevil makes an +opening in the centre of the circular trap-door which the grub of the +weevil prepared in view of its future deliverance. The slain has +prepared the way for the slayer. After this detail the rest may be +divined. + +When the preliminaries to the metamorphosis are completed, when the +passage of escape is bored and furnished with its lid of superficial +membrane, the female Chalcidian arrives in a busy mood. She inspects the +peas, still on the vine, and enclosed in their pods; she auscultates +them with her antennae; she discovers, hidden under the general envelope, +the weak points in the epidermic covering of the peas. Then, applying +her oviscapt, she thrusts it through the side of the pod and perforates +the circular trap-door. However far withdrawn into the centre of the +pea, the Bruchus, whether larvae or nymph, is reached by the long +oviduct. It receives an egg in its tender flesh, and the thing is done. +Without possibility of defence, since it is by now a somnolent grub or a +helpless pupa, the embryo weevil is eaten until nothing but skin +remains. What a pity that we cannot at will assist the multiplication of +this eager exterminator! Alas! our assistants have got us in a vicious +circle, for if we wished to obtain the help of any great number of +Chalcidians we should be obliged in the first place to breed a +multiplicity of Bruchidae. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +AN INVADER.--THE HARICOT-WEEVIL + + +If there is one vegetable on earth that more than any other is a gift of +the gods, it is the haricot bean. It has all the virtues: it forms a +soft paste upon the tongue; it is extremely palatable, abundant, +inexpensive, and highly nutritious. It is a vegetable meat which, +without being bloody and repulsive, is the equivalent of the horrors +outspread upon the butcher's slab. To recall its services the more +emphatically, the Provencal idiom calls it the _gounflo-gus_--the filler +of the poor. + +Blessed Bean, consoler of the wretched, right well indeed do you fill +the labourer, the honest, skilful worker who has drawn a low number in +the crazy lottery of life. Kindly Haricot, with three drops of oil and a +dash of vinegar you were the favourite dish of my young years; and even +now, in the evening of my days, you are welcome to my humble porringer. +We shall be friends to the last. + +To-day it is not my intention to sing your merits; I wish simply to ask +you a question, being curious: What is the country of your origin? Did +you come from Central Asia with the broad bean and the pea? Did you make +part of that collection of seeds which the first pioneers of culture +brought us from their gardens? Were you known to antiquity? + +Here the insect, an impartial and well-informed witness, answers: "No; +in our country antiquity was not acquainted with the haricot. The +precious vegetable came hither by the same road as the broad bean. It is +a foreigner, and of comparatively recent introduction into Europe." + +The reply of the insect merits serious examination, supported as it is +by extremely plausible arguments. Here are the facts. For years +attentive to matters agricultural, I had never seen haricots attacked by +any insect whatever; not even by the Bruchidae, the licensed robbers of +leguminous seeds. + +On this point I have questioned my peasant neighbours. They are men of +the extremest vigilance in all that concerns their crops. To steal their +property is an abominable crime, swiftly discovered. Moreover, the +housewife, who individually examines all beans intended for the +saucepan, would inevitably find the malefactor. + +All those I have spoken to replied to my questions with a smile in which +I read their lack of faith in my knowledge of insects. "Sir," they said, +"you must know that there are never grubs in the haricot bean. It is a +blessed vegetable, respected by the weevil. The pea, the broad bean, the +vetch, and the chick-pea all have their vermin; but the haricot, _lou +gounflo-gus_, never. What should we do, poor folk as we are, if the +_Courcoussoun_ robbed us of it?" + +The fact is that the weevil despises the haricot; a very curious dislike +if we consider how industriously the other vegetables of the same family +are attacked. All, even the beggarly lentil, are eagerly exploited; +whilst the haricot, so tempting both as to size and flavour, remains +untouched. It is incomprehensible. Why should the Bruchus, which without +hesitation passes from the excellent to the indifferent, and from the +indifferent to the excellent, disdain this particularly toothsome seed? +It leaves the forest vetch for the pea, and the pea for the broad bean, +as pleased with the small as with the large, yet the temptations of the +haricot bean leave it indifferent. Why? + +Apparently because the haricot is unknown to it. The other leguminous +plants, whether native or of Oriental origin, have been familiar to it +for centuries; it has tested their virtues year by year, and, confiding +in the lessons of the past, it bases its forethought for the future upon +ancient custom. The haricot is avoided as a newcomer, whose merits it +has not yet learned. + +The insect emphatically informs us that with us the haricot is of recent +date. It has come to us from a distant country: and assuredly from the +New World. Every edible vegetable attracts its consumers. If it had +originated in the Old World the haricot would have had its licensed +consumers, as have the pea, the lentil, and the broad bean. The smallest +leguminous seed, if barely bigger than a pin's head, nourishes its +weevil; a dwarf which patiently nibbles it and excavates a dwelling; but +the plump, delicious haricot is spared. + +This astonishing immunity can have only one explanation: like the potato +and the maize-plant, the haricot is a gift of the New World. It arrived +in Europe without the company of the insect which exploits it in its +native country; it has found in our fields another world of insects, +which have despised it because they did not know it. Similarly the +potato and the ear of maize are untouched in France unless their +American consumers are accidentally imported with them. + +The verdict of the insect is confirmed by the negative testimony of the +ancient classics; the haricot never appears on the table of the Greek or +Roman peasant. In the second Eclogue of Virgil Thestylis prepares the +repast of the harvesters:-- + + Thestylis et rapido fessis messoribus aestu + Allia serpyllumque herbas contundit olentes. + +This mixture is the equivalent of the _aioli_, dear to the Provencal +palate. It sounds very well in verse, but is not very substantial. On +such an occasion men would look for that fundamental dish, the plate of +red haricots, seasoned with chopped onions. All in good time; this at +least would ballast the stomach. Thus refreshed in the open air, +listening to the song of the cigales, the gang of harvesters would take +their mid-day rest and gently digest their meal in the shadows of the +sheaves. Our modern Thestylis, differing little from her classic sister, +would take good care not to forget the _gounflo-gus_, that economical +resource of large appetites. The Thestylis of the past did not think of +providing it because she did not know it. + +The same author shows us Tityrus offering a night's hospitality to his +friend Meliboeus, who has been driven from his property by the +soldiers of Octavius, and goes limping behind his flock of goats. We +shall have, says Tityrus, chestnuts, cheese, and fruits. History does +not say if Meliboeus allowed himself to be tempted. It is a pity; for +during the frugal meal we might have learned in a more explicit fashion +that the shepherds of the ancient world were not acquainted with the +haricot. + +Ovid tells us, in a delightful passage, of the manner in which Philemon +and Baucis received the gods unawares as guests in their humble cottage. +On the three-legged table, which was levelled by means of a potsherd +under one of the legs, they served cabbage soup, rusty bacon, eggs +poached for a minute in the hot cinders, cornel-berries pickled in +brine, honey, and fruits. In this rustic abundance one dish was lacking; +an essential dish, which the Baucis of our countryside would never +forget. After bacon soup would follow the obligatory plate of haricots. +Why did Ovid, so prodigal of detail, neglect to mention a dish so +appropriate to the occasion? The reply is the same as before: because he +did not know of it. + +In vain have I recapitulated all that my reading has taught me +concerning the rustic dietary of ancient times; I can recollect no +mention of the haricot. The worker in the vineyard and the harvester +have their lupins, broad beans, peas, and lentils, but never the bean of +beans, the haricot. + +The haricot has a reputation of another kind. It is a source of +flatulence; you eat it, as the saying is, and then you take a walk. It +lends itself to the gross pleasantries loved of the populace; especially +when they are formulated by the shameless genius of an Aristophanes or a +Plautus. What merriment over a simple allusion to the sonorous bean, +what guffaws from the throats of Athenian sailors or Roman porters! Did +the two masters, in the unfettered gaiety of a language less reserved +than our own, ever mention the virtues of the haricot? No; they are +absolutely silent concerning the trumpet-voiced vegetable. + +The name of the bean is a matter for reflection. It is of an unfamiliar +sound, having no affinity with our language. By its unlikeness to our +native combinations of sounds, it makes one think of the West Indies or +South America, as do _caoutchouc_ and _cacao_. Does the word as a matter +of fact come from the American Indians? Did we receive, together with +the vegetable, the name by which it is known in its native country? +Perhaps; but how are we to know? Haricot, fantastic haricot, you set us +a curious philological problem. + +It is also known in French as _faseole_, or _flageolet_. The Provencal +calls it _faiou_ and _faviou_; the Catalan, _fayol_; the Spaniard, +_faseolo_; the Portuguese, _feyao_; the Italian, _fagiuolo_. Here I am +on familiar ground: the languages of the Latin family have preserved, +with the inevitable modifications, the ancient word _faseolus_. + +Now, if I consult my dictionary I find: _faselus_, _faseolus_, +_phaseolus_, haricot. Learned lexicographer, permit me to remark that +your translation is incorrect: _faselus_, _faseolus_ cannot mean +haricot. The incontestable proof is in the Georgics, where Virgil tells +us at what season we must sow the _faselus_. He says:-- + + Si vero viciamque seres vilemque faselum ... + Haud obscura cadens mittet tibi signa Bootes; + Incipe, et ad medias sementem extende pruinas. + +Nothing is clearer than the precept of the poet who was so admirably +familiar with all matters agricultural; the sowing of the _faselus_ must +be commenced when the constellation of Bootes disappears at the set of +sun, that is, in October; and it is to be continued until the middle of +the winter. + +These conditions put the haricot out of the running: it is a delicate +plant, which would never survive the lightest frost. Winter would be +fatal to it, even under Italian skies. More refractory to cold on +account of the country of their origin, peas, broad beans, and vetches, +and other leguminous plants have nothing to fear from an autumn sowing, +and prosper during the winter provided the climate be fairly mild. + +What then is represented by the _faselus_ of the Georgics, that +problematical vegetable which has transmitted its name to the haricot in +the Latin tongues? Remembering that the contemptuous epithet _vilis_ is +used by the poet in qualification, I am strongly inclined to regard it +as the cultivated vetch, the big square pea, the little-valued _jaisso_ +of the Provencal peasant. + +The problem of the haricot stood thus, almost elucidated by the +testimony of the insect world alone, when an unexpected witness gave me +the last word of the enigma. It was once again a poet, and a famous +poet, M. Jose-Maria de Heredia, who came to the aid of the naturalist. +Without suspecting the service he was rendering, a friend of mine, the +village schoolmaster, lent me a magazine[9] in which I read the +following conversation between the master-sonneteer and a lady +journalist, who was anxious to know which of his own works he preferred. + +"What would you have me say?" said the poet. + +"I do not know what to say, I do not know which sonnet I prefer; I have +taken horrible pains with all of them.... But you, which do you prefer?" + +"My dear master, how can I choose out of so many jewels, when each one +is perfect in its beauty? You flash pearls, emeralds, and rubies before +my astonished eyes: how should I decide to prefer the emerald to the +pearl? I am transported by admiration of the whole necklace." + +"Well, as for me, there is something I am more proud of than of all my +sonnets, and which has done much more for my reputation than my verses." + +I opened my eyes wide, "What is that?" I asked. The master looked at me +mischievously; then, with that beautiful light in his eyes which fires +his youthful countenance, he said triumphantly-- + +"It is my discovery of the etymology of the word haricot!" + +I was so amazed that I forgot to laugh. + +"I am perfectly serious in telling you this." + +"I know, my dear master, of your reputation for profound scholarship: +but to imagine, on that account, that you were famed for your discovery +of the etymology of haricot--I should never have expected it! Will you +tell me how you made the discovery?" + +"Willingly. See now: I found some information respecting the haricot +while studying that fine seventeenth-century work of natural history by +Hernandez: _De Historia plantarum novi orbis_. The word haricot was +unknown in France until the seventeenth century: people used the word +_feve_ or _phaseol_: in Mexican, _ayacot_. Thirty species of haricot +were cultivated in Mexico before the conquest. They are still known as +_ayacot_, especially the red haricot, spotted with black or violet. One +day at the house of Gaston Paris I met a famous scholar. Hearing my +name, he rushed at me and asked if it was I who had discovered the +etymology of the word haricot. He was absolutely ignorant of the fact +that I had written verses and published the _Trophees_."-- + +A very pretty whim, to count the jewellery of his famous sonnets as +second in importance to the nomenclature of a vegetable! I in my turn +was delighted with his _ayacot_. How right I was to suspect the +outlandish word of American Indian origin! How right the insect was, in +testifying, in its own fashion, that the precious bean came to us from +the New World! While still retaining its original name--or something +sufficiently like it--the bean of Montezuma, the Aztec _ayacot_, has +migrated from Mexico to the kitchen-gardens of Europe. + +But it has reached us without the company of its licensed consumer; for +there must assuredly be a weevil in its native country which levies +tribute on its nourishing tissues. Our native bean-eaters have mistaken +the stranger; they have not had time as yet to grow familiar with it, or +to appreciate its merits; they have prudently abstained from touching +the _ayacot_, whose novelty awoke suspicion. Until our own days the +Mexican bean remained untouched: unlike our other leguminous seeds, +which are all eagerly exploited by the weevil. + +This state of affairs could not last. If our own fields do not contain +the insect amateur of the haricot the New World knows it well enough. By +the road of commercial exchange, sooner or later some worm-eaten sack +of haricots must bring it to Europe. The invasion is inevitable. + +According to documents now before me, indeed, it has already taken +place. Three or four years ago I received from Maillane, in the +Bouches-du-Rhone, what I sought in vain in my own neighbourhood, +although I questioned many a farmer and housewife, and astonished them +by my questions. No one had ever seen the pest of the haricot; no one +had ever heard of it. Friends who knew of my inquiries sent me from +Maillane, as I have said, information that gave great satisfaction to my +naturalist's curiosity. It was accompanied by a measure of haricots +which were utterly and outrageously spoiled; every bean was riddled with +holes, changed into a kind of sponge. Within them swarmed innumerable +weevils, which recalled, by their diminutive size, the lentil-weevil, +_Bruchus lenti_. + +The senders told me of the loss experienced at Maillane. The odious +little creature, they said, had destroyed the greater portion of the +harvest. A veritable plague, such as had never before been known, had +fallen upon the haricots, leaving the housewife barely a handful to put +in the saucepan. Of the habits of the creature and its way of going to +work nothing was known. It was for me to discover them by means of +experiment. + +Quick, then, let us experiment! The circumstances favour me. We are in +the middle of June, and in my garden there is a bed of early haricots; +the black Belgian haricots, sown for use in the kitchen. Since I must +sacrifice the toothsome vegetable, let us loose the terrible destroyer +on the mass of verdure. The development of the plant is at the +requisite stage, if I may go by what the _Bruchus pisi_ has already +taught me; the flowers are abundant, and the pods are equally so; still +green, and of all sizes. + +I place on a plate two or three handfuls of the infested haricots, and +set the populous heap in the full sunlight by the edge of my bed of +beans. I can imagine what will happen. Those insects which are already +free, and those which the stimulus of the sunshine will presently +liberate, will emerge and take to their wings. Finding the maternal +haricot close at hand they will take possession of the vines. I shall +see them exploring pods and flowers, and before very long they will lay +their eggs. That is how the pea-weevil would behave under similar +conditions. + +But no: to my surprise and confusion, matters do not fall out as I +foresaw. For a few minutes the insects bustle about in the sunlight, +opening and closing their wing-covers to ease the mechanism of flight; +then one by one they fly away, mounting in the luminous air; they grow +smaller and smaller to the sight, and are quickly lost to view. My +persevering attentions have not met with the slightest success; not one +of the weevils has settled on my haricots. + +When the joys of liberty have been tasted will they return--to-night, +to-morrow, or later? No, they do not return. All that week, at +favourable hours, I inspect the rows of beans pod by pod, flower by +flower; but never a Bruchus do I see, nor even an egg. Yet the season is +propitious, for at this very moment the mothers imprisoned in my jars +lay a profusion of eggs upon the dry haricots. + +Next season I try again. I have at my disposal two other beds, which I +have sown with the late haricot, the red haricot; partly for the use of +the household, but principally for the benefit of the weevil. Arranged +in convenient rows, the two crops will be ready, one in August and one +in September or later. + +With the red haricot I repeat the experiment already essayed with the +black haricot. On several occasions, in suitable weather, I release +large numbers of weevils from my glass jars, the general headquarters of +the tribe. On each occasion the result is plainly negative. All through +the season, until both crops are exhausted, I repeat my search almost +daily; but I can never discover a single pod infested, nor even a single +weevil perching on leaf or flower. + +Certainly the inspection has not been at fault. The household is warned +to respect certain rows of beans which I have reserved for myself. It is +also requested to keep a look-out for eggs on all the pods gathered. I +myself examine with a magnifying-glass all the haricots coming from my +own or from neighbouring gardens before handing them over to the +housewife to be shelled. All my trouble is wasted: there is not an egg +to be seen. + +To these experiments in the open air I add others performed under glass. +I place, in some tall, narrow bottles, fresh haricot pods hanging from +their stems; some green, others mottled with crimson, and containing +seeds not far from mature. Each bottle is finally given a population of +weevils. This time I obtain some eggs, but I am no further advanced; +they are laid on the sides of the bottles, but not on the pods. +Nevertheless, they hatch. For a few days I see the grubs wandering +about, exploring the pods and the glass with equal zeal. Finally one +and all perish without touching the food provided. + +The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is obvious: the young and +tender haricot is not the proper diet. Unlike the _Bruchus pisi_, the +female of the haricot-weevil refuses to trust her family to beans that +are not hardened by age and desiccation; she refused to settle on my +bean-patch because the food she required was not to be found there. What +does she require? Evidently the mature, dry, hard haricot, which falls +to earth with the sound of a small pebble. I hasten to satisfy her. I +place in the bottles some very mature, horny pods, thoroughly desiccated +by exposure to the sun. This time the family prospers, the grubs +perforate the dry shell, reach the beans, penetrate them, and henceforth +all goes well. + +To judge by appearances, then, the weevil invades the granary. The beans +are left standing in the fields until both plants and pods, shrivelled +by the sun, are completely desiccated. The process of beating the pods +to loosen and separate the beans is thus greatly facilitated. It is then +that the weevil, finding matters to suit her, commences to lay her eggs. +By storing his crop a little late the peasant stores the pest as well. + +But the weevil more especially attacks the haricot when warehoused. Like +the Calander-beetle, which nibbles the wheat in our granaries but +despises the cereal while still on the stalk, it abhors the bean while +tender, and prefers to establish itself in the peace and darkness of the +storehouse. It is a formidable enemy to the merchant rather than to the +peasant. + +What a fury of destruction once the ravager is installed in the +vegetable treasure-house! My bottles give abundant evidence of this. One +single haricot bean shelters a numerous family; often as many as twenty +members. And not one generation only exploits the bean, but three or +four in the year. So long as the skin of the bean contains any edible +matter, so long do new consumers establish themselves within it, so that +the haricot finally becomes a mere shell stuffed with excreta. The skin, +despised by the grubs, is a mere sac, pierced with holes as many as the +inhabitants that have deserted it; the ruin is complete. + +The _Bruchus pisi_, a solitary hermit, consumes only so much of the pea +as will leave a cell for the nymph; the rest remains intact, so that the +pea may be sown, or it will even serve as food, if we can overcome our +repugnance. The American insect knows nothing of these limitations; it +empties the haricot completely and leaves a skinful of filth that I have +seen the pigs refuse. America is anything but considerate when she sends +us her entomological pests. We owe the Phylloxera to America; the +Phylloxera, that calamitous insect against which our vine-growers wage +incessant war: and to-day she is sending us the haricot-weevil, which +threatens to be a plague of the future. A few experiments gave me some +idea of the peril of such an invasion. + +For nearly three years there have stood, on my laboratory table, some +dozens of jars and bottles covered with pieces of gauze which prevent +escape while permitting of a constant ventilation. These are the cages +of my menagerie. In them I rear the haricot-weevil, varying the system +of education at will. Amongst other things I have learned that this +insect, far from being exclusive in its choice, will accommodate itself +to most of our leguminous foods. + +All the haricots suit it, black and white, red and variegated, large and +small; those of the latest crop and those which have been many years in +stock and are almost completely refractory to boiling water. The loose +beans are attacked by preference, as being easier to invade, but when +the loose beans are not available those in the natural shelter of their +pods are attacked with equal zest. However dry and parchment-like the +pods, the grubs have no difficulty in attaining the seeds. When attacked +in the field or garden, the bean is attacked in this way through the +pod. The bean known in Provence as the blind haricot--_lou faiou +borgne_--a bean with a long pod, which is marked with a black spot at +the navel, which has the look of a closed and blackened eye, is also +greatly appreciated; indeed, I fancy my little guests show an obvious +preference for this particular bean. + +So far, nothing abnormal; the Bruchus does not wander beyond the limits +of the botanical family _Phaseolus_. But here is a characteristic that +increases the peril, and shows us this lover of beans in an unexpected +light. Without the slightest hesitation it accepts the dry pea, the +bean, the vetch, the tare, and the chick-pea; it goes from one to the +other, always satisfied; its offspring live and prosper in all these +seeds as well as in the haricot. Only the lentil is refused, perhaps on +account of its insufficient volume. The American weevil is a formidable +experimentalist. + +The peril would be much greater did the insect pass from leguminous +seeds to cereals, as at first I feared it might. But it does not do so; +imprisoned in my bottles together with a handful of wheat, barley, rice, +or maize, the Bruchus invariably perished and left no offspring. The +result was the same with oleaginous seeds: such as castor-oil and +sunflower. Nothing outside the bean family is of any use to the Bruchus. +Thus limited, its portion is none the less considerable, and it uses and +abuses it with the utmost energy. The eggs are white, slender, and +cylindrical. There is no method in their distribution, no choice in +their deposition. The mother lays them singly or in little groups, on +the walls of the jar as well as on the haricots. In her negligence she +will even lay them on maize, coffee, castor-oil seeds, and other seeds, +on which the newly born grubs will promptly perish, not finding them to +their taste. What place has maternal foresight here? Abandoned no matter +where in the heap of seeds, the eggs are always in place, as it is left +to the grub to search and to find the points of invasion. + +In five days at most the egg is hatched. A little white creature with a +red-brown head emerges. It is a mere speck of a creature, just visible +to the naked eye. Its body is thickened forward, to give more strength +to its implements--its mandibles--which have to perforate the hard +substance of the dry bean, which is as tough as wood. The larvae of the +Buprestis and the Capricornis, which burrow in the trunks of trees, are +similarly shaped. Directly it issues from the egg the wriggling creature +makes off at random with an activity we should hardly expect in one so +young. It wanders hither and thither, eager to find food and shelter as +soon as possible. + +Within twenty-four hours it has usually attained both. I see the tiny +grub perforate the horny skin that covers the cotyledons; I watch its +efforts; I surprise it sunk half-way in the commencement of a burrow, at +the mouth of which is a white floury powder, the waste from the +mandibles. It works its way inward and buries itself in the heart of the +seed. It will emerge in the adult form in the course of about five +weeks, so rapid is its evolution. + +This hasty development allows of several generations in the year. I have +recorded four. On the other hand, one isolated couple has furnished me +with a family of eighty. Consider only the half of this +number--supposing the sexes to be equal in number--and at the end of a +year the couples issued from this original pair would be represented by +the fortieth power of forty; in larvae they would represent the frightful +total of more than five millions. What a mountain of haricots would be +ravaged by such a legion! + +The industry of the larvae reminds us at every point what we have learned +from the _Bruchus pisi_. Each grub excavates a lodging in the mass of +the bean, respecting the epidermis, and preparing a circular trap-door +which the adult can easily open with a push at the moment of emergence. +At the termination of the larval phase the lodgements are betrayed on +the surface of the bean by so many shadowy circles. Finally the lid +falls, the insect leaves its cell, and the haricot remains pierced by as +many holes as it has nourished grubs. + +Extremely frugal, satisfied with a little farinaceous powder, the adults +seem by no means anxious to abandon the native heap or bin so long as +there are beans untouched. They mate in the interstices of the heap; +the mothers sow their eggs at random; the young larvae establish +themselves some in beans that are so far intact, some in beans which are +perforated but not yet exhausted; and all through the summer the +operations of breeding are repeated once in every five weeks. The last +generation of the year--that of September or October--sleeps in its +cells until the warm weather returns. + +If the haricot pest were ever to threaten us seriously it would not be +very difficult to wage a war of extermination against it. Its habits +teach us what tactics we ought to follow. It exploits the dried and +gathered crop in the granary or the storehouse. If it is difficult to +attack it in the open it would also be useless. The greater part of its +affairs are managed elsewhere, in our storehouses. The enemy establishes +itself under our roof and is ready to our hand. By means of insecticides +defence should be relatively easy. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE GREY LOCUST + + +I have just witnessed a moving spectacle: the last moult of a locust; +the emergence of the adult from its larval envelope. It was magnificent. +I am speaking of the Grey Locust, the colossus among our acridians,[10] +which is often seen among the vines in September when the grapes are +gathered. By its size--and it grows as long as a man's finger--it lends +itself to observation better than any other of its tribe. + +The larva, disgustingly fat, like a rude sketch of the perfect insect, +is commonly of a tender green; but it is sometimes of a bluish green, a +dirty yellow, or a ruddy brown, or even an ashen grey, like the grey of +the adult cricket. The corselet is strongly keeled and indented, and is +sprinkled with fine white spots. As powerful as in the adult insect, the +hind-leg has a corpulent haunch, streaked with red, and a long shin like +a two-edged saw. + +The elytra, which in a few days will extend far beyond the tip of the +abdomen, are at present too small triangular wing-like appendages, +touching along their upper edges, and continuing and emphasising the +keel or ridge of the corselet. Their free ends stick up like the gable +of a house. They remind one of the skirts of a coat, the maker of which +has been ludicrously stingy with the cloth, as they merely cover the +creature's nakedness at the small of the back. Underneath there are two +narrow appendages, the germs of the wings, which are even smaller than +the elytra. The sumptuous, elegant sails of to-morrow are now mere rags, +so miserly in their dimensions as to be absolutely grotesque. What will +emerge from these miserable coverings? A miracle of grace and amplitude. + +Let us observe the whole process in detail. Feeling itself ripe for +transformation, the insect climbs up the wire-gauze cover by means of +its hinder and intermediate limbs. The fore-limbs are folded and crossed +on the breast, and are not employed in supporting the insect, which +hangs in a reversed position, the back downwards. The triangular +winglets, the sheaths of the elytra, open along their line of juncture +and separate laterally; the two narrow blades, which contain the wings, +rise in the centre of the interval and slightly diverge. The proper +position for the process of moulting has now been assumed and the proper +stability assured. + +The first thing to do is to burst the old skin. Behind the corselet, +under the pointed roof of the prothorax, a series of pulsations is +produced by alternate inflation and deflation. A similar state of +affairs is visible in front of the neck, and probably under the entire +surface of the yielding carapace. The fineness of the membrane at the +articulations enables us to perceive it at these unarmoured points, but +the cuirass of the corselet conceals it in the central portion. + +At these points the circulatory reserves of the insect are pulsing in +tidal onsets. Their gradual increase is betrayed by pulsations like +those of a hydraulic ram. Distended by this rush of humours, by this +injection in which the organism concentrates all its forces, the outer +skin finally splits along the line of least resistance which the subtle +previsions of life have prepared. The fissure extends the whole length +of the corselet, opening precisely along the ridge of the keel, as +though the two symmetrical halves had been soldered together. +Unbreakable elsewhere, the envelope has yielded at this median point, +which had remained weaker than the rest of the sheath. The fissure runs +back a little way until it reaches a point between the attachments of +the wings; on the head it runs forward as far as the base of the +antennae, when it sends a short ramification right and left. + +Through this breach the back is seen; quite soft, and very pale, with +scarcely a tinge of grey. Slowly it curves upwards and becomes more and +more strongly hunched; at last it is free. + +The head follows, withdrawing itself from its mask, which remains in +place, intact in the smallest detail, but looking very strange with its +great unseeing glassy eyes. The sheaths of the antennae, without a +wrinkle, without the least derangement, and in their natural place, hang +over this dead, translucid face. + +In emerging from their narrow sheaths, which clasped them so tightly and +precisely, the thread-like antennae have evidently met with no +resistance, or the sheaths would have been turned inside out, or +crumpled out of shape, or wrinkled at least. Without harming the jointed +or knotted covers, the contents, of equal volume and equally knotty, +have slipped out as easily as though they were smooth, slippery objects +sliding out of a loose sheath. The method of extraction is still more +astonishing in the case of the hind-legs. + +It is now, however, the turn of the front and intermediate pairs of +legs. They pull out of their gauntlets and leggings without the least +hitch; nothing is torn, nothing buckled; the outer skin is not even +crumpled, and all the tissues remain in their natural position. The +insect is now hanging from the dome of the cover solely by the claws of +the long hind-legs. It hangs in an almost vertical position, the head +downwards, swinging like a pendulum if I touch the cover. Four tiny, +steely claws are its only support. If they gave or unclasped themselves +the insect would be lost, as it is as yet unable to unfurl its enormous +wings; but even had the wings emerged they could not grip the air in +time to save the creature from the consequences of a fall. But the four +claws hold fast; life, before withdrawing from them, left them rigidly +contracted, so that they should support without yielding the struggles +and withdrawals to follow. + +Now the wing-covers and wings emerge. These are four narrow strips, +vaguely seamed and furrowed, like strings of rolled tissue-paper. They +are barely a quarter of their final length. + +They are so soft that they bend under their own weight, and hang down +the creature's sides in the reverse of their normal position. The free +extremities, which normally point backwards, are now pointing towards +the cricket's head as it hangs reversed. The organs of future flight are +like four leaves of withered foliage shattered by a terrific rainstorm. + +A profound transformation is necessary to bring the wings to their final +perfection. The inner changes are already at work; liquids are +solidifying; albuminous secretions are bringing order out of chaos; but +so far no outward sign betrays what is happening in the mysterious +laboratory of the organism. All seems inert and lifeless. + +In the meantime the posterior limbs disengage themselves. The great +haunches become visible, streaked on the inner faces with a pale rose, +which rapidly turns to a vivid crimson. Emergence is easy, the thick and +muscular upper portion of the haunch preparing the way for the narrower +part of the limb. + +It is otherwise with the shank. This, in the adult insect, is armed +along its whole length by a double series of stiff, steely spines. +Moreover, the lower extremity is terminated by four strong spurs. The +shank forms a veritable saw, but with two parallel sets of teeth; and it +is so strongly made that it may well be compared, the question of size +apart, to the great saw of a quarry-man. + +The shank of the larva has the same structure, so that the object to be +extracted is enclosed in a scabbard as awkwardly shaped as itself. Each +spur is enclosed in a similar spur; each tooth engages in the hollow of +a similar tooth, and the sheath is so closely moulded upon the shank +that a no more intimate contact could be obtained by replacing the +envelope by a layer of varnish applied with a brush. + +Nevertheless the tibia, long and narrow as it is, issues from its sheath +without catching or sticking anywhere. If I had not repeatedly seen the +operation I could not believe it possible; for the discarded sheath is +absolutely intact from end to end. Neither the terminal spurs nor the +double rows of spines do the slightest damage to the delicate mould. The +long-toothed saw leaves the delicate sheath unbroken, although a puff of +the breath is enough to tear it; the ferocious spurs slip out of it +without leaving so much as a scratch. + +I was far from expecting such a result. Having the spiny weapons of the +legs in mind, I imagined that those limbs would moult in scales and +patches, or that the sheathing would rub off like a dead scarf-skin. How +completely the reality surpassed my anticipations! + +From the spurs and spines of the sheath, which is as thin as the finest +gold-beaters' skin, the spurs and spines of the leg, which make it a +most formidable weapon, capable of cutting a piece of soft wood, emerge +without the slightest display of violence, without a hitch of any kind; +and the empty skin remains in place. Still clinging by its claws to the +top of the wire cover, it is untorn, unwrinkled, uncreased. Even the +magnifying-glass fails to show a trace of rough usage. Such as the skin +was before the cricket left it, so it is now. The legging of dead skin +remains in its smallest details the exact replica of the living limb. + +If any one asked you to extract a saw from a scabbard exactly moulded +upon the steel, and to conduct the operation without the slightest +degree of tearing or scratching, you would laugh at the flagrant +impossibility of the task. But life makes light of such absurdities; it +has its methods of performing the impossible when such methods are +required. The leg of the locust affords us such an instance. + +Hard as it is when once free of its sheath, the serrated tibia would +absolutely refuse to leave the latter, so closely does it fit, unless it +were torn to pieces. Yet the difficulty must be evaded, for it is +indispensable that the sheaths of the legs should remain intact, in +order to afford a firm support until the insect is completely +extricated. + +The leg in process of liberation is not the leg with which the locust +makes its leaps; it has not as yet the rigidity which it will soon +acquire. It is soft, and eminently flexible. In those portions which the +progress of the moult exposes to view I see the legs bend under the mere +weight of the suspended insect when I tilt the supporting cover. They +are as flexible as two strips of elastic indiarubber. Yet even now +consolidation is progressing, for in a few minutes the proper rigidity +will be acquired. + +Further along the limbs, in the portions which the sheathing still +conceals, the legs are certainly softer still, and in the state of +exquisite plasticity--I had almost said fluidity--which allows them to +pass through narrow passages almost as a liquid flows. + +The teeth of the saws are already there, but have nothing of their +imminent rigidity. With the point of a pen-knife I can partially uncover +a leg and extract the spines from their serrated mould. They are germs +of spines; flexible buds which bend under the slightest pressure and +resume their position the moment the pressure is removed. + +These needles point backwards as the leg is drawn out of the sheath; but +they re-erect themselves and solidify as they emerge. I am witnessing +not the mere removal of leggings from limbs already clad in finished +armour, but a kind of creation which amazes one by its promptitude. + +Very much in the same way, but with far less delicate precision, the +claws of the crayfish, at the period of the moult, withdraw the soft +flesh of their double fingers from their stony sheath. + +Finally the long stilt-like legs are free. They are folded gently +against the furrowed thighs, thus to mature undisturbed. The abdomen +begins to emerge. Its fine tunic-like covering splits, and wrinkles, but +still encloses the extremity of the abdomen, which adheres to the +moulted skin for some little time longer. With the exception of this one +point the entire insect is now uncovered. + +It hangs head downwards, like a pendulum, supported by the talons of the +now empty leg-cases. During the whole of the lengthy and meticulous +process the four talons have never yielded. The whole operation has been +conducted with the utmost delicacy and prudence. + +The insect hangs motionless, held by the tip of the abdomen. The abdomen +is disproportionately distended; swollen, apparently, by the reserve of +organisable humours which the expansion of the wings and wing-covers +will presently employ. Meanwhile the creature rests and recovers from +its exertions. Twenty minutes of waiting elapse. + +Then, exerting the muscles of the back, the suspended insect raises +itself and fixes the talons of the anterior limbs in the empty skin +above it. Never did acrobat, hanging by the toes to the bar of a +trapeze, raise himself with so stupendous a display of strength in the +loins. This gymnastic feat accomplished, the rest is easy. + +With the purchase thus obtained the insect rises a little and reaches +the wire gauze, the equivalent of the twig which would be chosen for the +site of the transformation in the open fields. It holds to this with the +four anterior limbs. Then the tip of the abdomen is finally liberated, +and suddenly, shaken by the final struggle, the empty skin falls to the +ground. + +This fall is interesting, and reminds me of the persistence with which +the empty husk of the Cigale braves the winds of winter, without falling +from its supporting twig. The transfiguration of the locust takes place +very much as does that of the Cigale. How is it then that the acridian +trusts to a hold so easily broken? + +The talons of the skin hold firmly so long as the labour of escape +continues, although one would expect it to shake the firmest grip; yet +they yield at the slightest shock when the labour is terminated. There +is evidently a condition of highly unstable equilibrium; showing once +more with what delicate precision the insect escapes from its sheath. + +For want of a better term I said "escape." But the word is ill chosen; +for it implies a certain amount of violence, and no violence must be +employed, on account of the instability of equilibrium already +mentioned. If the insect, shaken by a sudden effort, were to lose its +hold, it would be all up with it. It would slowly shrivel on the spot; +or at best its wings, unable to expand, would remain as miserable scraps +of tissue. The locust does not tear itself away from its sheath; it +delicately insinuates itself out of it--I had almost said flows. It is +as though it were expelled by a gentle pressure. + +Let us return to the wings and elytra, which have made no apparent +progress since their emergence from their sheaths. They are still mere +stumps, with fine longitudinal seams; almost like little ropes'-ends. +Their expansion, which will occupy more than three hours, is reserved +for the end, when the insect is completely moulted and in its normal +position. + +We have just seen the insect turn head uppermost. This reversal causes +the wings and elytra to fall into their natural position. Extremely +flexible, and yielding to their own weight, they had previously drooped +backwards with their free extremities pointing towards the head of the +insect as it hung reversed. + +Now, still by reason of their own weight, their position is rectified +and they point in the normal direction. They are no longer curved like +the petals of a flower; they no longer point the wrong way; but they +retain the same miserable aspect. + +In its perfect state the wing is like a fan. A radiating bundle of +strong nervures runs through it in the direction of its length and forms +the framework of the fan, which is readily furled and unfurled. The +intervals are crossed by innumerable cross-nervures of slighter +substance, which make of the whole a network of rectangular meshes. The +elytrum, which is heavier and much less extensive, repeats this +structure. + +At present nothing of this mesh-work is visible. Nothing can be seen but +a few wrinkles, a few flexuous furrows, which announce that the stumps +are bundles of tissue cunningly folded and reduced to the smallest +possible volume. + +The expansion of the wing begins near the shoulder. Where nothing +precise could be distinguished at the outset we soon perceive a +diaphanous surface subdivided into meshes of beautiful precision. + +Little by little, with a deliberation that escapes the magnifier, this +area increases its bounds, at the expense of the shapeless bundle at the +end of the wing. In vain I let my eyes rest on the spot where the +expanding network meets the still shapeless bundle; I can distinguish +nothing. But wait a little, and the fine-meshed tissues will appear with +perfect distinctness. + +To judge from this first examination, one would guess that an +organisable fluid is rapidly congealing into a network of nervures; one +seems to be watching a process of crystallisation comparable, in its +rapidity, to that of a saturated saline solution as seen through a +microscope. But no; this is not what is actually happening. Life does +not do its work so abruptly. + +I detach a half-developed wing and bring it under the powerful eye of +the microscope. This time I am satisfied. On the confines of the +transparent network, where an extension of that network seems to be +gradually weaving itself out of nothing, I can see that the meshes are +really already in existence. I can plainly recognise the longitudinal +nervures, which are already stiff; and I can also see--pale, and without +relief--the transverse nervures. I find them all in the terminal stump, +and am able to spread out a few of its folds under the microscope. + +It is obvious that the wing is not a tissue in the process of making, +through which the procreative energy of the vital juices is shooting its +shuttle; it is a tissue already complete. To be perfect it lacks only +expansion and rigidity, just as a piece of lace or linen needs only to +be ironed. + +In three hours or more the explanation is complete. The wings and elytra +stand erect over the locust's back like an immense set of sails; at +first colourless, then of a tender green, like the freshly expanded +wings of the Cigale. I am amazed at their expanse when I think of the +miserable stumps from which they have expanded. How did so much material +contrive to occupy so little space? + +There is a story of a grain of hemp-seed that contained all the +body-linen of a princess. Here we have something even more astonishing. +The hemp-seed of the story needed long years to germinate, to multiply, +and at last to give the quantity of hemp required for the trousseau of a +princess; but the germ of the locust's wing has expanded to a +magnificent sail in a few short hours. + +Slowly the superb erection composed of the four flat fan-like pinions +assumes rigidity and colour. By to-morrow the colour will have attained +the requisite shade. For the first time the wings close fan-wise and lie +down in their places; the elytra bend over at their outer edges, forming +a flange which lies snugly over the flanks. The transformation is +complete. Now the great locust has only to harden its tissues a little +longer and to tan the grey of its costume in the ecstasy of the +sunshine. Let us leave it to its happiness, and return to an earlier +moment. + +The four stumps which emerge from their coverings shortly after the +rupture of the corselet along its median line contain, as we have seen, +the wings and elytra with their innumerable nervures. If not perfect, +at least the general plan is complete, with all its innumerable details. +To expand these miserable bundles and convert them into an ample set of +sails it is enough that the organism, acting like a force-pump, should +force into the channels already prepared a stream of humours kept in +reserve for this moment and this purpose, the most laborious of the +whole process. As the capillary channels are prepared in advance a +slight injection of fluid is sufficient to cause expansion. + +But what were these four bundles of tissue while still enclosed in their +sheaths? Are the wing-sheaths and the triangular winglets of the larva +the moulds whose folds, wrinkles, and sinuosities form their contents in +their own image, and so weave the network of the future wings and +wing-covers? + +Were they really moulds we might for a moment be satisfied. We might +tell ourselves: It is quite a simple matter that the thing moulded +should conform to the cavity of the mould. But the simplicity is only +apparent, for the mould in its turn must somewhere derive the requisite +and inextricable complexity. We need not go so far back; we should only +be in darkness. Let us keep to the observable facts. + +I examine with a magnifying-glass one of the triangular coat-tails of a +larva on the point of transformation. I see a bundle of moderately +strong nervures radiating fan-wise. I see other nervures in the +intervals, pale and very fine. Finally, still more delicate, and running +transversely, a number of very short nervures complete the pattern. + +Certainly this resembles a rough sketch of the future wing-case; but +how different from the mature structure! The disposition of the +radiating nervures, the skeleton of the structure, is not at all the +same; the network formed by the cross-nervures gives no idea whatever of +the complex final arrangement. The rudimentary is succeeded by the +infinitely complex; the clumsy by the infinitely perfect, and the same +is true of the sheath of the wing and the final condition of its +contents, the perfect wing. + +It is perfectly evident, when we have the preparatory as well as the +final condition of the wing before our eyes, that the wing-sheath of the +larva is not a simple mould which elaborates the tissue enclosed in its +own image and fashions the wing after the complexities of its own +cavity. + +The future wing is not contained in the sheath as a bundle, which will +astonish us, when expanded, by the extent and extreme complication of +its surface. Or, to speak more exactly, it is there, but in a potential +state. Before becoming an actual thing it is a virtual thing which is +not yet, but is capable of becoming. It is there as the oak is inside +the acorn. + +A fine transparent cushion limits the free edge of the embryo wing and +the embryo wing-case. Under a powerful microscope we can perceive +therein a few doubtful lineaments of the future lace-work. This might +well be the factory in which life will shortly set its materials in +movement. Nothing more is visible; nothing that will make us foresee the +prodigious network in which each mesh must have its form and place +predetermined with geometrical exactitude. + +In order that the organisable material can shape itself as a sheet of +gauze and describe the inextricable labyrinth of the nervuration, there +must be something better and more wonderful than a mould. There is a +prototypical plan, an ideal pattern, which imposes a precise position +upon each atom of the tissue. Before the material commences to circulate +the configuration is already virtually traced, the courses of the +plastic currents are already mapped out. The stones of our buildings +co-ordinate according to the considered plan of the architect; they form +an ideal assemblage before they exist as a concrete assemblage. + +Similarly, the wing of a cricket, that wonderful piece of lace-work +emerging from a tiny sheath, speaks to us of another Architect, the +author of the plans according to which life labours. + +The genesis of living creatures offers to our contemplation an infinity +of wonders far greater than this matter of a locust's wing; but in +general they pass unperceived, obscured as they are by the veil of time. + +Time, in the deliberation of mysteries, deprives us of the most +astonishing of spectacles except our spirits be endowed with a tenacious +patience. Here by exception the fact is accomplished with a swiftness +that forces the attention. + +Whosoever would gain, without wearisome delays, a glimpse of the +inconceivable dexterity with which the forces of life can labour, has +only to consider the great locust of the vineyard. The insect will show +him that which is hidden from our curiosity by extreme deliberation in +the germinating seed, the opening leaf, and the budding flower. We +cannot see the grass grow; but we can watch the growth of the locust's +wings. + +Amazement seizes upon us before this sublime phantasmagoria of the grain +of hemp which in a few hours has been transmuted into the finest cloth. +What a mighty artist is Life, shooting her shuttle to weave the wings of +the locust--one of those insignificant insects of whom long ago Pliny +said: _In his tam parcis, fere nullis, quae vis, quae sapientia, quam +inextricabilis perfectio!_ + +How truly was the old naturalist inspired! Let us repeat with him: "What +power, what wisdom, what inconceivable perfection in this least of +secrets that the vineyard locust has shown us!" + +I have heard that a learned inquirer, for whom life is only a conflict +of physical and chemical forces, does not despair of one day obtaining +artificially organisable matter--_protoplasm_, as the official jargon +has it. If it were in my power I should hasten to satisfy this ambitious +gentleman. + +But so be it: you have really prepared protoplasm. By force of +meditation, profound study, minute care, impregnable patience, your +desire is realised: you have extracted from your apparatus an albuminous +slime, easily corruptible and stinking like the devil at the end of a +few days: in short, a nastiness. What are you going to do with it? + +Organise something? Will you give it the structure of a living edifice? +Will you inject it with a hypodermic syringe between two impalpable +plates to obtain were it only the wing of a fly? + +That is very much what the locust does. It injects its protoplasm +between the two surfaces of an embryo organ, and the material forms a +wing-cover, because it finds as guide the ideal archetype of which I +spoke but now. It is controlled in the labyrinth of its course by a +device anterior to the injection: anterior to the material itself. + +This archetype, the co-ordinator of forms; this primordial regulator; +have you got it on the end of your syringe? No! Then throw away your +product. Life will never spring from that chemical filth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE PINE-CHAFER + + +The orthodox denomination of this insect is _Melolontha fullo_, Lin. It +does not answer, I am very well aware, to be difficult in matters of +nomenclature; make a noise of some sort, affix a Latin termination, and +you will have, as far as euphony goes, the equivalent of many of the +tickets pasted in the entomologist's specimen boxes. The cacophony would +be excusable if the barbarous term signified nothing but the creature +signified; but as a rule this name possesses, hidden in its Greek or +other roots, a certain meaning in which the novice hopes to find +instruction. + +The hope is a delusion. The learned term refers to subtleties difficult +to comprehend, and of very indifferent importance. Too often it leads +the student astray, giving him glimpses that have nothing whatever in +common with the truth as we know it from observation. Very often the +errors implied by such names are flagrant; sometimes the allusions are +ridiculous, grotesque, or merely imbecile. So long as they have a decent +sound, how infinitely preferable are locutions in which etymology finds +nothing to dissect! Of such would be the word _fullo_, were it not that +it already has a meaning which immediately occurs to the mind. This +Latin expression means a _fuller_; a person who kneads and presses cloth +under a stream of water, making it flexible and ridding it of the +asperities of weaving. What connection has the subject of this chapter +with the fuller of cloth? I may puzzle my head in vain: no acceptable +reply will occur to me. + +The term _fullo_ as applied to an insect is found in Pliny. In one +chapter the great naturalist treats of remedies against jaundice, +fevers, and dropsy. A little of everything enters into this antique +pharmacy: the longest tooth of a black dog; the nose of a mouse wrapped +in a pink cloth; the right eye of a green lizard torn from the living +animal and placed in a bag of kid-skin; the heart of a serpent, cut out +with the left hand; the four articulations of the tail of a scorpion, +including the dart, wrapped tightly in a black cloth, so that for three +days the sick man can see neither the remedy nor him that applies it; +and a number of other extravagances. We may well close the book, alarmed +at the slough of the imbecility whence the art of healing has come down +to us. + +In the midst of these imbecilities, the preludes of medicine, we find a +mention of the "fuller." _Tertium qui vocatur fullo, albis guttis, +dissectum utrique lacerto adalligant_, says the text. To treat fevers +divide the fuller beetle in two parts and apply half under the right arm +and half under the left. + +[Illustration: THE PINE-CHAFER. + +(_Melolontha fullo._)] + +Now what did the ancient naturalist mean by the term "fuller beetle"? We +do not precisely know. The qualification _albis guttis_, white spots, +would fit the Pine-chafer well enough, but it is not sufficient to +make us certain. Pliny himself does not seem to have been very certain +of the identity of the remedy. In his time men's eyes had not yet +learned to see the insect world. Insects were too small; they were well +enough for amusing children, who would tie them to the end of a long +thread and make them walk in circles, but they were not worthy of +occupying the attention of a self-respecting man. + +Pliny apparently derived the word from the country-folk, always poor +observers and inclined to extravagant denominations. The scholar +accepted the rural locution, the work perhaps of the imagination of +childhood, and applied it at hazard without informing himself more +particularly. The word came down to us embalmed with age; our modern +naturalists have accepted it, and thus one of our handsomest insects has +become the "fuller." The majesty of antiquity has consecrated the +strange appellation. + +In spite of all my respect for the antique, I cannot myself accept the +term "fuller," because under the circumstances it is absurd. Common +sense should be considered before the aberrations of nomenclature. Why +not call our subject the Pine-chafer, in reference to the beloved tree, +the paradise of the insect during the two or three weeks of its aerial +life? Nothing could be simpler, or more appropriate, to give the better +reason last. + +We have to wander for ages in the night of absurdity before we reach the +radiant light of the truth. All our sciences witness to this fact; even +the science of numbers. Try to add a column of Roman figures; you will +abandon the task, stupefied by the confusion of symbols; and will +recognise what a revolution was made in arithmetic by the discovery of +the zero. Like the egg of Columbus, it was a very little thing, but it +had to be thought of. + +While hoping that the future will sink the unfortunate "fuller" in +oblivion, we will use the term "pine chafer" between ourselves. Under +that name no one can possibly mistake the insect in question, which +frequents the pine-tree only. + +It has a handsome and dignified appearance, rivalling that of _Oryctes +nasicornis_. Its costume, if it has not the metallic splendour dear to +the Scarabaei, the Buprestes and the rose-beetles, is at least unusually +elegant. A black or chestnut background is thickly sown with +capriciously shaped spots of white velvet; a fashion both modest and +handsome. + +The male bears at the end of his short antennae a kind of plume +consisting of seven large superimposed plates or leaves, which, opening +and closing like the sticks of a fan, betray the emotions that possess +him. At first sight it seems that this magnificent foliage must form a +sense-organ of great perfection, capable of perceiving subtle odours, or +almost inaudible vibrations of the air, or other phenomena to which our +senses fail to respond; but the female warns us that we must not place +too much reliance on such ideas; for although her maternal duties demand +a degree of impressionability at least as great as that of the male, yet +the plumes of her antennae are extremely meagre, containing only six +narrow leaves. + +What then is the use of the enormous fan-like structure of the male +antennae? The seven-leaved apparatus is for the Pine-chafer what his long +vibrating horns are to the Cerambyx and the panoply of the head to the +Onthophagus and the forked antlers of the mandibles to the Stag-beetle. +Each decks himself after his manner in these nuptial extravagances. + +This handsome chafer appears towards the summer solstice, almost +simultaneously with the first Cigales. The punctuality of its appearance +gives it a place in the entomological calendar, which is no less +punctual than that of the seasons. When the longest days come, those +days which seem endless and gild the harvests, it never fails to hasten +to its tree. The fires of St. John, reminiscences of the festivals of +the Sun, which the children light in the village streets, are not more +punctual in their date. + +At this season, in the hours of twilight, the Pine-chafer comes every +evening if the weather is fine, to visit the pine-trees in the garden. I +follow its evolutions with my eyes. With a silent flight, not without +spirit, the males especially wheel and wheel about, extending their +great antennary plumes; they go to and fro, to and fro, a procession of +flying shadows upon the pale blue of the sky in which the last light of +day is dying. They settle, take flight again, and once more resume their +busy rounds. What are they doing up there during the fortnight of their +festival? + +The answer is evident: they are courting their mates, and they continue +to render their homage until the fall of night. In the morning both +males and females commonly occupy the lower branches. They lie there +isolated, motionless, indifferent to passing events. They do not avoid +the hand about to seize them. Most of them are hanging by their hind +legs and nibbling the pine-needles; they seem to be gently drowsing with +the needles at their mouths. When twilight returns they resume their +frolics. + +To watch these frolics in the tops of the trees is hardly possible; let +us try to observe them in captivity. Four pairs are collected in the +morning and placed, with some twigs off the pine-tree, in a spacious; +cage. The sight is hardly worth my attention; deprived of the +possibility of flight, the insects cannot behave as in the open. At most +I see a male from time to time approaching his beloved; he spreads out +the leaves of his antennae, and agitates them so that they shiver +slightly; he is perhaps informing himself if he is welcome. Thereupon he +puts on his finest airs and exhibits his attainments. It is a useless +display; the female is motionless, as though insensible to these +demonstrations. Captivity has sorrows that are hard to overcome. This +was all that I was able to see. Mating, it appears, must take place +during the later hours of the night, so that I missed the propitious +moment. + +One detail in particular interested me. The Pine-chafer emits a musical +note. The female is as gifted as the male. Does the lover make use of +his faculty as a means of seduction and appeal? Does the female answer +the chirp of her _innamorata_ by a similar chirp? That this may be so +under normal conditions, amidst the foliage of the pines, is extremely +probable; but I can make no assertion, as I have never heard anything of +the kind either among the pines or in my laboratory. + +The sound is produced by the extremity of the abdomen, which gently +rises and falls, rubbing, as it does so, with its last few segments, the +hinder edge of the wing-covers, which are held firm and motionless. +There is no special equipment on the rubbing surface nor on the surface +rubbed. The magnifying-glass looks in vain for the fine striations +usually found in the musical instruments of the insect world. All is +smooth on either hand. How then is the sound engendered? + +Rub the end of the moistened finger on a strip of glass, or a +window-pane, and you will obtain a very audible sound, somewhat +analogous to that emitted by the chafer. Better still, use a scrap of +indiarubber to rub the glass with, and you will reproduce with some +fidelity the sound in question. If the proper rhythm is observed the +imitation is so successful that one might well be deceived by it. + +In the musical apparatus of the Pine-chafer the pad of the finger-tip +and the scrap of indiarubber are represented by the soft abdomen of the +insect, and the glass is represented by the blade of the wing-cover, +which forms a thin, rigid plate, easily set in vibration. The +sound-mechanism of the Pine-chafer is thus of the very simplest +description. + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Acorn-Weevil, _see_ Elephant-Beetle + + Ameles, _see_ Mantis, the Grey + + Anacreon, on the Cigale, 9 + + Ant, fable of the Cigale and the, 1-16 + Devours the Cigale, 9 + Robs the Cigale, 8 + + Arum, Serpent or Putrid, the, attracts and captures insects by means + of its offensive effluvia, 230-2 + + + B + + _Balaninus_, _see_ Elephant-Beetle + + Bean, ancestry of, 258-9 + + Bean, _see_ Haricot + + Bean-Weevil, _see_ Weevil + + Bees, victims of Philanthus, _see_ latter + + Bembex, 168, 172 + + Bolboceras Gallicus, 217-37 + Appearance of, 223 + Habits and diet, 226-30 + Lodging of, 225 + + _Bruchus pisi_, see Pea-Weevil + + _Bruchus lenti_, see Lentil-Weevil + + Buprestes, 21 + + + C + + _Cacan_, the, 36-9 + + Capricornis, 21-2 + + Cerceris, 172, 178 + + Chrysomela, 151, 172 + + Cigale, the, 1-67 + Burrow of the, 17-30 + Deafness of the, 41-3 + Diet, 7 + Eggs of the, 45-67 + Eggs, hatching of, 61-7 + Eggs, method of laying, 50-4 + Enemies of the, 47-50 + Excavation, method of, 23-7 + Fable of Ant and, 1-16 + Larva of the, 17-30 + Larva, habits of, 61-7 + Mechanism of sound, 31-4 + Pupa, emergence from, 28 + Song of the, 2, 6, 31-44 + Species of, 31-6 + + Cigalo e la Fournigo (Provencal poem), 10-16 + + Cricket, Field, the, 120-9 + Eggs of, 120-2 + Excavations of, 124-5 + Fertility of, 123 + Song of, 126-8 + + Cricket, Italian, the, 130-5 + Appearance of, 130 + Song of, 131-4 + + + D + + Dermestes, victims of arum, 232 + + Dioscorides on the Cigale, 29 + + Diptera, 168, 172 + + Dog, its love of stenches, 233 + Scent of the, 220-22 + A truffle-hunter, 218-20 + + + E + + Elephant-Beetle (Balaninus or Acorn-Weevil), 238-57 + Boring acorns, habit of, 240-4 + Eggs, method of laying, 245, 254-7 + Motives in boring, 246-50 + Snout of, 238-9 + + Emperor Moth, _see_ Great Peacock Moth + + _Empusa pauperata_, _see_ Mantis + + Eucores, 176 + + + G + + Golden Gardener, the, 102-19 + Cannibal habits of, 111-19 + Courtship of, 103-10 + Ferocity of, 101-4, 108-10 + Nutriment of, 102-10 + Vermin killer, as a, 107 + + Grandville, illustrates La Fontaine's fables, 2 + + + H + + Halictus, 176, 178 + + Haricot bean, the, 282-9 + + Haricot-Weevil, the, _see_ Weevil + + Heredia, J.-M. de, 287-90 + + Hydnocystus, a fungus, 228 + + Hymenoptera, habits of, 137-8, 150, 162, 171-2, 175-6 + + + L + + La Fontaine, fable of the Cigale and the Ant, 3 + + Locust, Grey, the, 300-16 + Larva of, 300 + Metamorphosis of, 300-9 + Wing, formation of, 309-15 + + + M + + Mantis, the _Empusa pauperata_, 97 + + Mantis, the Grey, 96 + + Mantis, the Praying, 68-101 + Cannibalism of, 82-5 + Courtship, 79-83 + Hunter, as, 68-78 + Nest of, 86-101 + + _Melolontha fullo_, _see_ Pine-chafer + + Minotaur, 225 + + + O + + Oak Eggar, the, 202-16, 234-7 + Experiments as to sense of smell in males, 208-15 + Swarming of males during the mating season, 204-15 + + Odynerus, 150-1, 172 + + Osmia tricornis, 173, 175 + + + P + + Pea, ancestry of the, 258-9 + + Pea-Weevil, _see_ Weevil + + Peacock Moth, the Great, 179-201, 234-7 + Appearance of, 179 + Experiments as to sense of smell in males, 184-97 + Invasion of house by males, 180-1 + Swarming of males, 181-3 + + Peacock Moth, the Lesser, 197-201 + + Phalangist, the, 225 + + _Philanthus aviporus_, 150-178 + Cocoon of, 168 + Diet of, 150-1 + Larvae of, 168 + Methods of killing and robbing bees, 151-160 + Motives of robbery, 163-78 + Nest of, 167 + + _Philanthus coronatus_, 178 + + _Philanthus raptor_, 178 + + Pine-chafer, the, 317-23 + Appearance of, 320 + Cry of, 322-3 + Habits of, 321 + Medical qualities of, supposed, 318-19 + Name, origin of Latin, 317-18 + + Pliny, on the Pine-chafer, 318-19 + + + S + + Saprinidae, victims of arum, 233 + + Sapromyzon, the, 222 + + Scarabaeus, _see_ Golden Scarabaeus + + Scent in Insects, _see_ Peacock Moth, + Oak Eggar, Bolboceras Gallicus, arum, putrid + + Scolia, 171 + + Sisyphus, legend of, 139 + + Sisyphus Beetle, the, 136-49 + Burrow of, 143 + Larva of, 147-9 + Mating of, 142-3 + Paternal instinct of 142-6 + Pellet of, 142-9 + + + T + + Tachytus, 172 + + _Tigno_, nest of Mantis, 99-101 + + Truffle-Beetle, 222 + + Truffle-Dog, 218-20 + + + W + + Weevil, Acorn, _see_ Elephant-Beetle + + Weevil, the Lentil, 291 + + Weevil, the Haricot, 282-94 + Habits of, 291-6 + Invasion of, 284 + Larvae, 297-9 + + Weevil, the Pea, 258-81, 295 + Description of, 261 + Enemy, its chief, 280-1 + Habits, 261-5 + (Deductions to be drawn from), 273-4 + Larvae of, 268-71, 275-6 + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Whether the Cigale is absolutely deaf or not, it is certain +that one Cigale would be able to perceive another's cry. The vibrations +of the male Cigale's cry would cause a resonance, a vibration, in the +body cavities of other male Cigales, and to a lesser extent in the +smaller cavities in the bodies of the females. Other sounds would cause +a slight shock, if loud enough, but not a perceptible vibration May not +this vibration--felt as in a cathedral we feel the vibrations of the +organ-pipes in the bones of the chest and head or on the covers of the +hymn-book in our hands--serve to keep the insects together, and enable +the females to keep within sight of the males? The sight of an insect is +in one sense poor--it consists of a kind of mosaic picture, and for one +insect to distinguish another clearly the distance between them must not +be very great. Certain gregarious birds and fish whose colouring is +protective have a habit of showing their white bellies as they swerve on +changing their direction. These signals help to keep the flock together. +The white scut of the rabbit and of certain deer is a signal for other +deer or rabbits to follow a frightened flock. It is obviously to the +advantage of the Cigale to follow a gregarious habit, if only for +purposes of propagation, for this would be facilitated by the sexes +keeping together, and, deaf or otherwise, the vibrations of its cry +would enable it to do so. It would be easy to show _a priori_ that the +perception of such vibrations must cause the insect pleasure, as they +stimulate a nervous structure attuned to the perception or capable of +the production of certain complex vibrations. The discord of the cry is +caused by the fact that it consists of a number of vibrations of +different pitch. Some would set the contents of the male resonating +cavities in vibration; others would affect the less regular cavities in +the thorax of the female. We might compare the Cigale's cry to a +sheep-bell. That it is felt and not heard explains its loudness and its +grating quality. A Cigale with the resonating cavities destroyed would +possibly be lost. The experiment is worth trying.--[TRANS.]] + +[Footnote 2: It is not easy to understand why the Mantis should paralyse +the cricket with terror while the latter will immediately escape when +threatened by other enemies. As many species of Mantis exactly mimic +sticks and leaves when motionless for purposes of defence, is it not +possible that they mimic their surroundings for purposes of offence as +well? It is easy and natural to say that the Mantis presents a +terrifying aspect. It does to us, by association; but how can we say +that it represents anything of the sort to the probably hypnotic or +automatic consciousness of the cricket? What does it really represent, +as seen from below? A twig, terminating in a bud, with two branching +twigs growing from it, and a harmless nondescript fly or butterfly +perched on the back of it. The combination of a familiar sight and a +threatening sound would very plausibly result in cautious immobility. As +for its instantaneous assumption of the pose, to move instantaneously is +the next best thing to not moving at all. It is less likely to startle +than a slow movement. Twigs which have been bent get suddenly released +in the natural course of events; they do not move slowly. The +instantaneous appearance of a twig where no twig was before may possibly +give the victim pause; it may halt out of caution, not out of +terror.--[TRANS.]] + +[Footnote 3: The word "butterfly" is here used, as is the French +_papillon_, as a general term for all Lepidoptera; the insect in +question is of course a moth.] + +[Footnote 4: Now classified as _Lasiocampa quercus_.--[TRANS.]] + +[Footnote 5: _Rabasso_ is the Provencal name for the truffle; hence a +truffle-hunter is known as a _rabassier_.] + +[Footnote 6: Since these lines were written I have found it consuming +one of the true tuberaceae, the _Tuber Requienii_, Tul., of the size of a +cherry.] + +[Footnote 7: The difficulty in conceiving this theory lies in the fact +that the waves travel in straight lines. On the other hand, matter in a +state of degradation may expel particles highly energised and of +enormous velocity. Most antennae are covered with hairs of inconceivable +fineness; others may contain cavities of almost infinite minuteness. Is +it not thinkable that they are able to detect, in the gaseous +atmosphere, floating particles that are not gaseous? This would not +prevent the specialisation of antennae as mere feelers in some insects +and crustaceans. The difficulty of such a supposition lies in the +fact of discrimination; but if we did not possess a sense of taste or +smell discrimination would seem inconceivable in their case +also.--[TRANS.]] + +[Footnote 8: This classification is now superseded; the Pea and Bean +Weevils--_Bruchus pisi_ and _Bruchus lenti_--are classed as Bruchidae, in +the series of Phytophaga. Most of the other weevils are classed as +Curculionidae, series Rhyncophora.--[TRANS.]] + +[Footnote 9: The Christmas number (_Noel_) of the _Annales politiques +et litteraires: Les Enfants juges par leurs peres_, 1901.] + +[Footnote 10: The American usage is to call acridians grasshoppers and +Locustidae locusts. The English usage is to call Locustidae grasshoppers +and acridians locusts. The Biblical locust is an acridian.] + + + + + Demy 8vo, Cloth, 10/6 net + + FABRE: POET OF SCIENCE + + By G. V. LEGROS + With a Photogravure Frontispiece + + This biography is based upon long acquaintance and access to family + letters, and is a striking record of a wonderful life. + + "Stands out as a really sound, sympathetic, and artistic piece of + work.... 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