diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18298.txt | 7132 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18298.zip | bin | 0 -> 142367 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
5 files changed, 7148 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18298.txt b/18298.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64ae653 --- /dev/null +++ b/18298.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7132 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays in Natural History and Agriculture, by +Thomas Garnett + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essays in Natural History and Agriculture + +Author: Thomas Garnett + +Release Date: May 2, 2006 [EBook #18298] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS IN NATURAL HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by R. L. Garnett + + + + +ESSAYS +IN +NATURAL HISTORY +AND +AGRICULTURE. + +BY THE LATE +THOMAS GARNETT, +OF LOW MOOR, CLITHEROE. + +LONDON: +PRINTED AT THE CHISWICK PRESS. +1883. + +CONTENTS. + +FACTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON. +Introductory Observations +The Salmon enters and ascends Rivers for other purposes besides + Propagation +Suggestions for an alteration in the Laws regarding Salmon +Artificial Breeding of Fish +Artificial Propagation of Fish +Remarks on a Proposed Bill for the better Preservation of Salmon + +LETTERS ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS. +On the Cultivation of Wheat on the same Land in Successive Years +The Cultivation of Wheat +On the Gravelling of Clay Soils +Cotton + +PAPERS ON NATURAL HISTORY. +Wrens' Nests +The Long-tailed Titmouse +Identity of the Green with the Wood Sandpiper +The Stoat +The Marsh Titmouse +Creeper +Wrens' Nests +Alarm-note of one Bird understood by other Species of Birds +Dates of the appearance of some Spring Birds in 1832, at Clitheroe +The Rook Serviceable to Man.--Prejudice against it +Sandpipers +On Birds Dressing their Feathers with Oil from a Gland +Mocking powers of the Sedge-warbler +The Water Ouzel +Scolopax, Sabines, Sabine's Snipe +Fish and other River Phenomena +Lampreys +On the Spawning of the Minnow +Eels +On the Possibility of Introducing Salmon into New Zealand and + Australia +On the Formation of Ice at the bottom of Rivers +On the Production of Ice at the bottoms of Rivers +Gossamer + +* * * * * + +FACTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON. + +* * * * * + +FACTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON. + +In the following observations I intend to offer some remarks on +the various migratory fish of the _genus Salmo_; and then some +facts and opinions which tend to show the importance of some +change in the laws which are now in force regarding them. + +We have first the Salmon; which, in the Ribble, varies in weight +from five to thirty pounds. We never see the fish here before May, +and then very rarely; a few come in June, July, and August if +there are high floods in the river, and about the latter end of +September they become tolerably abundant; as the fisheries near +the mouth of the river have then ceased for the season, and the +Salmon run very freely up the river from that time to the middle +or end of December. They begin to spawn at the latter end of +October, but the greater part of those that spawn here do so in +December. I believe nearer the source of the river they are +earlier, but many fish are seen on the spawning beds in January; +and I have even seen a pair so late as March; but this last is of +very rare occurrence. + +Some of the male Kipper (Kelts) come down in December and January, +but the greater part of the females remain in the river until +April, and they are occasionally seen herding with shoals of +Smolts in May. In this state they will take a worm very readily, +and are, many of them, caught with the fly in the deeps; but they +are unfit to eat, the flesh being white, loose, and insipid; +although they have lost the red dingy appearance which they had +when about to spawn, and are almost as bright as the fresh fish, +their large heads and lank bodies render it sufficiently easy to +distinguish them from fish which are only ascending the river, +even if the latter were plentiful at this season; but this is +unfortunately not the case. + +Secondly, we have the Mort. I am not sure whether this fish is +what is called the Grilse in Scotland, or whether it is the Sea +Trout of that country; it is a handsome fish, weighing from one +and a half to three pounds. We first see Morts in June; from that +time to the end of September they are plentiful in favourable +seasons in the Hodder, a tributary stream of the Ribble, although +they are never very numerous in the Ribble above the mouth of that +stream. It is the opinion of the fishermen here that this is a +distinct species; my own opinion is, that it is a young Salmon, +and yet, if I were called upon to give reasons for thinking so, I +could not offer any very conclusive ones: the best I have is, that +there is no perceptible difference in the fry when going down to +sea. It may be said, How do you know that one of the three or four +varieties of Smolts which you describe further on, is not the fry +of the Mort? To this objection, if made, I say that these +varieties exist in the Wharfe, where, owing either to natural or +artificial causes, there is never either a Mort or a Sprod +(Whitling?) seen. + +Thirdly, we have the Sprod, which is, I believe, synonymous with +the Whitling, Whiting, or Birling of Scotland. It is a beautiful +fish of six or eight ounces in weight, and has more the appearance +of the Salmon than the Mort; it seldom ascends the river before +July, and, like the Mort, is far more abundant in the Hodder than +in the Ribble; this fish sometimes rises pretty freely at the fly, +and when it does so, makes a very handsome addition to the +angler's basket, but at other times it is difficult to hook, +because of its shyness. It disappears in a great measure about +September. + +Fourthly, we have the Pink, or Par, which is found of two or three +sizes in the Ribble; the largest are all males, and in October the +milt in them is large; they are small fishes, ranging in weight +from about one to three ounces each, and it is well remarked by +the author of that delightful book "Wild Sports of the West," they +have very much the appearance of Hybrids between the Salmon and +the Trout; they rise very freely at the fly and maggot, from July +to October, and afford good sport to the angler who is satisfied +with catching small fish. I trust I shall be able in the following +pages to give some information respecting this fish which will +assist in dispelling the mystery in which its natural history has +been enveloped. + +I will now mention a few of the opinions respecting the various +species of the Salmon, and also my own, when they are at variance +with the generally received ones, and give the facts and +reasonings which have induced me to form those opinions, and I +shall be very glad, if I am in error on any of these points, if +some one of my readers, better acquainted with the subject than I +am, will take the trouble to set me right. It seems to be the +opinion of many, indeed of most persons, that the Salmon spawns +from November to February, that the young fry, or Smolts, go down +to the sea in the April or May following; my own opinion is that +they stay in the river much longer. The Grilse is by many believed +to be a distinct species, whilst others stoutly maintain that it +is a young Salmon. + +The testimony of the witnesses from the Severn, the Wye, the Lee, +near Cork, and the Ness (see the evidence given before the Select +Committees of the House of Commons in 1824 and 1825), would lead +one to suppose that the fish were in best season from November to +March, whilst the evidence of the witnesses from other parts of +the kingdom goes to prove that this is the very worst period for +catching them. + +One maintains that each river has its own variety of fish, which +can be distinguished from the fish of any other river; another +contends that there is no such difference; a third states that +stake nets are exceedingly injurious to the breed of the fish; and +a fourth attests that stake nets only catch the fish when they are +in the best season, that neither Kelt nor fry are taken in them, +and that if they were prohibited it would only be preserving the +fish for the grampuses and seals;--in short, the evidence +regarding both their habits, and the best mode of catching them, +having in view the preservation and increase of the breed, is so +completely contradictory as to leave a doubt in the mind of every +one who reads it, and has no other means of forming an opinion. I +will endeavour to show in some instances which of the testimonies +is correct, and it will be for my readers to judge how far I +succeed, and I hope they will be so obliging as to correct any +error into which I may fall. + +First.--It is my opinion that the fry of Salmon are much older +when they leave the river than seems to be generally supposed, and +that the growth of this fish is by no means so rapid as it is +considered to be by those who have written upon the subject. For +several years previous to 1816 the Salmon were unable to ascend +into the upper parts of the river Wharfe, being prevented either +by the high weirs in the lower parts, or by some other cause, and +of course there were no Smolts or Par; but in that year either the +incessant rains of that summer or rumours of the formation of an +association for the protection of fish, or some other unknown +cause, enabled some Salmon to ascend the river, thirty or forty +miles, and to spawn there. In the next spring, 1817, there were no +Smolts, but about September they began to rise at the very small +flies which the anglers use in that river--they were then a little +larger than Minnows. In the spring of 1818 there were blue Smolts, +or what are generally known as Salmon fry, which went down to the +sea in the May of that year; but these were only part of the +brood, the females only, the males remaining all that summer, +being at the period when the females went down very much smaller +than they, and what was called at the Wharfe Grey Smolt and Pinks, +or Par elsewhere. + +I have shown that there were two migrations from the spawn of +1816; but this was not all--there still remained a few Smolts +through the summer of 1819, which by that time were from four to +six ounces in weight, and which are known by the anglers there as +Brambling Smolts. The blue marks on their sides are very distinct, +and the fish is a perfect Smolt, except that it is considerably +larger. It is quite different from the Whitling, or Sprod, which +is not known in the Wharfe, at least not in the upper parts of +that river, whilst the Brambling is never seen in the Ribble. [1] + +The Brambling is a beautiful fish, and it rises very freely both +at the May fly and the artificial fly through the summer; it is +occasionally caught by anglers with the worm on the Salmon +spawning beds in the autumn, with the milt perfectly developed, +and in a fluid state. Although this fish is not found in the +Ribble, so far as my observations and inquiries have gone, I +believe that it is found in the Tweed, and perhaps also in other +rivers running into the German Ocean; for a letter addressed to +Mr. Kennedy, who was chairman of the select committee appointed to +investigate this subject, by a Mr. George Houy, states that the +Smolts are sometimes found there ten inches long, which he +attributes to their not being able to get down at the proper +period for want of a flood in the river. But I know that in the +Ribble Smolts will go down to the sea without there being a flood +at all, if that does not come within ten days or a fortnight of +the time at which they usually descend to the sea. I also know +that Brambling are found in the Wharfe, in years where there has +been no deficiency in that respect; yet why they should be common +in that river, when they are never met with in the Ribble, which +has ten times as many Salmon and Smolts in it, I am unable to +comprehend. + +It is my opinion that the ova of the Salmon are not hatched before +March or April. Two anglers, who were in April wading in the river +Wharfe, came upon a spawning bed, which they had the curiosity to +examine; they found a number of ova, in which they could see the +young fry already alive, and one of them took these eggs home with +him. By regularly and frequently supplying them with fresh water, +he succeeded in hatching them, and kept some of the young fishes +alive for some time; but they died in consequence of neglect, and +were even then very diminutive. The opinion generally received in +Scotland seems to be, if I may judge from the evidence given +before the House of Commons, that the Smolts go down to the sea in +the spring after they are spawned, and that they return in the +summer and autumn of the same year as Grilse. When they return, +and what size they are on their first visit, I have hitherto been +unable to ascertain; but I think I have succeeded in proving that +they do not go to the sea so soon as is generally believed, nor do +any of the witnesses give their reasons for thinking that they do. +I should very much like to learn what evidence they have to offer +in behalf of this opinion. + +I remember seeing an article in the "Scotsman," perhaps about +twelve months ago, in which it was stated that Dr. Knox had made +some important discoveries in the natural history of the Salmon +and Herring, both in their food and propagation, and, if I +recollect aright, it stated that he had ascertained that the eggs +remained several months in the gravel, and that then, in a few +days or weeks after, they (_i.e._ the fish hatched from them) were +so much grown as to go down to the sea; but none of the data which +enabled him to arrive at this conclusion were given, and since +then I have heard nothing about the matter. As it is so long since +I read this article, I may have quoted it incorrectly, but I +believe its substance was what I have stated. + +The only conclusive evidence I can find about the hatching of +Salmon fry is that of Mr. George Hogarth (second Parl. Report, p. +92), and his account agrees with my own: he states that he took +Salmon spawn from the spawning beds, and by keeping it freely +supplied with fresh water, he succeeded in hatching some of the +eggs; he gives drawings of the appearance of the fry in three or +four different stages, from the egg to the age of eight days (see +Appendix to second Parl. Report), that the young fry, by keeping +them well supplied with fresh water, were very lively and vigorous +for three weeks, but that they after this time appeared to grow +languid and uneasy, and as they would eat nothing they died when +one inch long. Unfortunately he does not state at what time of the +year they were hatched, but if this were in March or April, which +I see no reason to doubt, it is sufficient to prove that they +would not reach the size that Smolts are when they leave the river +for the sea; for supposing them to be hatched the last week in +March, and that they lived a month, this would bring us to the +time when they are about to migrate, at which time they average +more than six inches long; many of them are eight inches, and at +this period they are fond of feeding upon worms, flies, maggots, +and caddis worms, as is known to every schoolboy living on the +banks of a river frequented by Salmon. It is also my opinion that +neither Salmon nor Trout spawn every year, [2] for Salmon ascend +the river as early as January, in the highest condition, with roe +in them no bigger than mustard seed: these could not have spawned +that season, as the Kelts, particularly the females, do not return +to the sea until March or April, [3] and at that time they are in +very bad condition, and do not appear to have a particle of spawn +in them; and in the evidence of Mr. Mackenzie (see Parl. Rep., p. +21), we have an account of a Grilse Kelt which was caught and +marked in March, 1823, and was again caught as a Salmon on its +return to the river in March, 1824. In this case the fish had +evidently required a residence of twelve months in the sea before +it was in a condition to visit the river a second time, and in the +Wharfe it is the constant practice of the angler to catch Trout +through the winter with very minute roe in them, and in high +condition with the worm and Salmon roe, and also with night lines. +In fact, one of the fishermen has frequently remarked to me that +he occasionally caught dishes of Trout with the fly in January, +and in finer condition, than he has found them in April, which he +accounted for by saying that the spawned fish (Kelts) of that +season had not begun to rise freely at the fly at the former +period, but they had at the latter, so that his pannier contained +as many Kelts as fresh fish. Another reason has just occurred to +me: it is, that in January the spawned fish will still be in the +small brooks in which they are so fond of breeding, and of course +the bulk of the fish remaining in the river at that time would be +fish in good season. + +As it is some years since I acquired this information, or at least +a part of it, I felt afraid of giving it incorrectly; and I +therefore addressed a letter to a friend living on the banks of +the Wharfe, requesting him to send me all the information in his +possession on this subject, that derived from his own observations, +as well as that collected from others. He has since the above was +written sent me the following reply:--"I have seen Robinson (one +of the best anglers and fly makers between Cornwall and Caithness), +and have had some conversation with him on the subject of Salmon, +&c. He is of opinion that the spawn of the Salmon remains five +months in the gravel before hatching; he examined the spawn in +April, and found the young fry alive in the eggs, and Ingham, +another angler, took some home and kept one of the Smolts two or +three months. I have subsequently seen Ingham, and he has given me +the same account. All the fishermen here are of opinion that the +female Smolts remain one year, and the males two years, before they +go down to the sea. The Bramblings are supposed to be Smolts which +remain a year longer than the usual time; they are few in number, +and are generally taken with the May fly. I have no doubt that the +above opinions are correct, for we have now three distinct sizes of +Smolts in the river exclusive of Bramblings, the largest of which +are nearly four ounces in weight, and are all males, as they +contain milt in October and November. The next are the females of +the present year: I have had one since the receipt of your letter, +which weighed half an ounce and measured five inches in length; +this was a real blue Smolt; the third are the males of the same +age, and are much smaller; these are occasionally taken with the +worm, and will rise at the fly all the next summer." + +"We were for several years, but I do not know the dates, entirely +without Salmon, and of course without Smolts; and we invariably +found that the Smolts made their appearance the year after the +Salmon, but were very small till the second year, when we had what +we call blue Smolts, which disappeared in May or June; and what +you called Pinks, which remained till the following year; and +Brambling Smolts, which remained another year. The fishermen here +are also of opinion that neither Salmon nor Trout spawn every +year. Robinson says that one day lately (the letter is dated +December 13th) he caught seven Trouts, six of which were in good +season; and he brought me two the other day, one of which +contained roe, and the other was in excellent condition." My +friend states, in a subsequent communication, that one of the +fishermen had told him that he had caught the male Smolt (Par) +more abundantly on the Salmon spawning beds than elsewhere, and my +friend adds that the opinion there is, that if a female Salmon +gets up to the spawning beds, and if no male accompanies her, yet +her eggs are fecundated by the male Smolts; and they allege, in +support of this opinion, that a female got up one season and +spawned, and though no male was seen near her her eggs were +prolific. I mention this, although I apprehend it is evidence +which the unbeliever will consider inadmissible, for though no +male was seen, still there may have been one, or admitting that +one did spawn, without being accompanied by a male, yet another, +which contrived to bring her mate along with her, may have spawned +in the same place the same season; yet, notwithstanding its +liability to these objections, I have no doubt myself that if a +female were to come alone her eggs would be impregnated by the +Par. It is an excellent maxim, that Nature makes no useless +provisions; yet, if we admit that Par are young Salmon, for what +purpose is the milt if not to impregnate Salmon roe? and if we +deny this to be the fact, we must endeavour to show that there are +female Par, but in all my examinations, I have never been able to +meet with one that contained roe. That the Grilse are Salmon is +proved I think sufficiently by the evidence given before the House +of Commons. Mr. Wm. Stephens states (see Rep., p. 52) that he has +known Grilse kept in a salt-water pond until they became Salmon, +and that fry that had been marked came back that year as Grilse, +and the year after as Salmon; and Mr. George Hogarth states that +he has often seen a Salmon and a Grilse working together on the +spawning beds, as two Salmon, or two Grilse; and Mr. Mackenzie +states (page 21) that he, in March, 1823, marked a Grilse Kelt +with brass wire, and caught it again in March, 1824, a Salmon of +seven pounds weight. The testimony of the witnesses from the Ness, +the Severn, the Lee, and some other rivers, is too positive and +too well supported to admit of any doubt as to the excellent +condition of many of the fish ascending those rivers in November, +December, and January--a period when they are out of season, and +full of spawn generally, and even when many fish are caught in +those rivers in the same unseasonable condition. The fact that +there are many fish in fine season in those months may be, I +think, accounted for, if we admit that Salmon spawn every other +year, which I have I think shown to be very probable; but what it +is that induces those fish to ascend rivers so many months before +the spawning season, I cannot explain. Probably there may be some +quality in the waters of these rivers, all the year, which is +congenial to the habits of the fish, while the same quality may +only be found during part of the year in others; it is certain +that the quality of the waters in rivers generally varies very +much with the season: thus the water of the Ribble, after a flood +in summer, is always of a dark brown colour, being so coloured by +the peat moss over which it passes, while in winter no such tinge +can be observed; and there may be other differences with which we +are unacquainted; however, whether this is the true reason or not, +it certainly cannot be that the fish which spawn in October are +impelled by their desire to propagate their species to ascend the +river the January before; and if this long residence in fresh +water were necessary for the proper development of the ova in one +river, we might suppose it would be necessary in all; yet this is +not the case, as the red fish which ascend the river in November +and December have at that time the spawn in them nearly ready for +exclusion. + +On one point, about which there is great difference of opinion, +viz. whether the fish which are bred in the river generally resort +to it again, and whether each river has its own variety of fish, I +am not a competent judge, as I am acquainted with too few rivers +to pretend to decide. I may, however, just remark that the Hodder, +though it is a much smaller river than the Ribble, is always much +better stocked with Salmon, Morts, Sprods, Smolts, and Par than is +the latter river, which I attribute to the fact that more fish +spawn in the river Hodder, which runs for many miles through the +Forest of Bowland (the property of the Duke of Buccleuch) and +other large estates, and the fish are much better protected there +than in the Ribble, where, with one or two exceptions, the +properties are very much divided, and few people think it worth +their while to trouble themselves on the subject. Dr. Fleming, in +his letter to Mr. Kennedy (Appendix to the first Rep., 1825), +seems to doubt that Salmon enter rivers for any other purpose than +of propagation, but lest I should misrepresent his opinions, I +will quote what he has said on the subject:--"In the evidence +taken before the Select Committee during the last season of +Parliament, and appearing in the report, there are several +statements of a somewhat imposing kind, which, as they appear to +me to be erroneous and apt to mislead, I shall here take the +liberty of opposing." He then enumerates several opinions +expressed before the Select Committee, one of which is, that +Salmon enter and leave rivers for other purposes than those +connected with spawning (see the evidence of Messrs. Little, +Halliday, and Johnstone). + +First, "That they enter rivers to rid themselves of sea lice +(_Monoculus piscinus_);" secondly, "That they forsake rivers to +save themselves from being exhausted by residence in fresh water, +and from having their gills devoured by a maggot (_Lernaea +salmonea_)." The whole history of the Salmon contradicts this +hypothesis. Another of these errors is, that it is asserted (Rep., +1824, p. 145), "That Salmon always return to the same river;" this +is not probable, when we consider the circumstances in which they +are placed during their residence in the sea. On the first of +these opinions, I am not a competent judge; but I think that the +fact that Salmon enter rivers nine or ten months before they are +ready to spawn, is of itself sufficient to show that there are +other reasons for their entering rivers than those connected with +propagation. With respect to the second, I believe that after +Salmon have once entered rivers, at least when they have ascended +into the upper parts of them, they never offer to descend again +until they have spawned. On the third opinion I would remark, that +although I do not think that Salmon always come to the same river +in which they were bred, yet I think they will do so if they can; +and I think that the fact which I have mentioned of the Hodder, a +smaller and a tributary stream to the Ribble, containing many more +Salmon, as well as more Morts and Sprods, countenances this +supposition, for why should the larger number of fish ascend the +smaller river except for such a reason? + +I am of opinion that Salmon do not grow so fast in the sea as is +generally supposed. It is here generally believed that the Smolts, +which go down in the spring, come up again in the August or +September following, five or six pounds in weight; and George +Little, Esq., in his evidence states that as his opinion, but he +does not give any other reason for it than this: "That the Grilse +that ascend the river in June weigh one and a half or two pounds, +and that those which come in September weigh five or six pounds," +--but opposed to this supposition is the evidence of Mr. Mackenzie, +before referred to (second Parl. Report, p. 21), who states that +he caught in March a Grilse Kelt which weighed three and a half +pounds, that he marked it with a brass wire, and let it go, and +that in the March following he caught it again a Salmon of seven +pounds weight. Now a fish which weighed three and a half pounds as +a Kelt, would weigh five pounds or six pounds when in high +condition the summer before, and if this were so, which I believe +all persons who are acquainted with Salmon will admit, the fish +would have gained only one pound or two pounds in fifteen or +eighteen months. Besides, if Salmon grew as fast as is stated and +believed by many persons, the breeds of different years would vary +very much in weight, whereas it is known to everybody that we have +them of all sizes, from five pounds to forty pounds; and it is +contrary to analogy to suppose that a fish which is two or three +years in arriving at the weight of as many ounces, should in two +or three months acquire as many pounds. There are, however, two or +three things about which all persons agree in opinion--one of +these is: that the breed of Salmon is decreasing every year, and +that the great cause of this decrease is the want of protection, +and a consequent destruction in the spawning season. The complaint +on this head is universal from north to south; from the Shannon to +the Tweed, the cry is--"Protect the breeding fish, or we shall +very soon have none to protect." And yet, although the destruction +of the spawning fish, and the destruction of the fry in the +Spring, are the chief reasons for this alarming falling off, no +one seems able to devise a remedy; no one seems inclined to make +the necessary sacrifices for so desirable an object, and without +these sacrifices it would be absurd to expect the fish to become +plentiful; and instead of furnishing an abundant supply of cheap +and wholesome food to all classes, which they certainly would do +if the fisheries were properly regulated, they will either become +wholly extinct, or so rare as to be found only at the tables of +the wealthy. James Gillies, in his evidence, states that his +brother had in one night killed in the Tweed four hundred Salmon +at one landing-place in close time; and all the reports are full +of statements showing how unceasing and universal is the +persecution the Salmon undergo, not only when in season, but at +all times, and most of all when every one should do his utmost to +preserve them--I mean when they are spawning. In this neighbourhood +the properties generally are so much divided, and so few good fish +are allowed to ascend the river, that no one has any interest in +protecting them in close time, and the consequence is, as might be +expected, that all sorts of contrivances for taking them are +resorted to: they are speared and netted in the streams by day and +night; they are caught with the fly, they are taken with switch +hooks (large hooks fixed to the ends of staves), or with a triple +hook fixed to the end of a running line and a salmon rod; if the +river becomes low, parties of idle fellows go up each side of it +in search of them, and by stoning the deeps, or dragging a horse's +skull, or large bone of any kind through them, they compel the +fish to _side_, and there they fall an easy prey, in most cases +where the pool is of small extent. In a river so small as the +Ribble, it will be readily believed that not many fish can deposit +their spawn in safety, when practices of this kind are followed +almost openly, and when no one feels a sufficient interest in the +matter to put a stop to them. A single party of poachers killed +four hundred Salmon in one spawning season near the source of the +river; the roe of which, when potted, they sold for L20. Need we +be surprised, then, if the breed decreases? The only wonder is that +they have not been exterminated long ago. + +I may perhaps be allowed to say what, in my opinion, would remedy +this alarming destruction, particularly as no one hitherto seems +to have devised an efficient preventive. I believe that in 1826 +there was an Act of Parliament passed which either repealed or +modified some of the old laws on the subject, and I have also +understood that the good effects of this new law are already +perceptible in Scotland, to which it is exclusively applied. There +was a bill introduced into Parliament in 1825 which was intended +to apply to the whole kingdom; but some of the clauses were so +very objectionable, that if they had been carried they could not +possibly have been enforced without stopping and ruining the +manufactories which were carried on by water-power, and the bill +was consequently abandoned. The first thing to be done is to give +the proprietors on the upper part of the river such an interest in +the fisheries as will make them anxious about the preservation of +the fish in the spawning season; and to accomplish so desirable an +object no one ought to fish or keep a net stretched across a river +for more than twelve hours each day, or from sunrise to sunset; +and every mill-owner ought to be compelled to facilitate the +passage of the fish over his weir by every means consistent with +the proper supply of water to his wheels. At present the fisheries +at the mouths and lower parts of rivers so completely prevent the +access of the fish to the upper parts, that unless there happen to +be high floods, which prevent the fishermen below from keeping +their nets in, the upper proprietors comparatively seldom see any +until the season is at an end. The evidence before the House of +Commons on this point is exceedingly amusing. One person thinks +the upper proprietors have no right to expect any fish, as they +have never paid any consideration for them when they bought their +estates; another states that he pays L7,000 a year to the Duke of +Gordon, and that if he is compelled to observe a weekly (not a +daily) close time, he will lose that proportion of his rent; +another observes the weekly close time, and opens a passage for +the fish, but places a crocodile, painted in very glaring colours, +in the gap to frighten them back again; another says he observes +the weekly close time in his cruive fishing, but no one is allowed +to inspect the cruives; another sends men to break down the stake +nets in the estuary, which reach from high to low water-mark, and +at the same time stretches a net completely across the river from +March to August, so that a fish cannot pass without his +permission. No wonder that fish are scarce in the upper parts of +the river, when such samples of _disinterestedness_ are manifested +by the proprietors of the fisheries below. No wonder that the +upper proprietors should be careless about the protection of fish +from which they are not allowed to derive any benefit. No wonder +that they should connive at, and even encourage, the shameful +destruction of fish in close time, since that is the only time +they are allowed to have any. Let the fishermen below make it +worth the while of the upper proprietors to protect the fish, and +they will receive that protection; but it is too much to expect +from human nature that these proprietors will take all the odium +and trouble of preserving them when others reap all the benefit. +There ought to be conservators employed, to see that the fisheries +are properly regulated, and these should be paid by an assessment +on all the proprietors in proportion to the value of their +fisheries. + +I should also recommend an extension and uniformity of close time +in all the rivers in the kingdom, for although it is an undoubted +fact that some clean fish are caught in the river early in the +season, yet they are comparatively few in number, and their +capture involves that of a far greater number of spawning and Kelt +fish, which are not only of no value for the table, but the +destruction of which is in effect the destruction of millions of +fish which would proceed from them. In the first Parl. Rep., p. +11, Mr. Walter Jamieson says, that in the river Tweed, from +January 10th to February 1st, he caught one hundred and twenty-one +fish, only one of which had spawned; from February 1st to March +1st he took forty-four fish, twenty-five of which had not spawned +--fifteen were Kelts and four were clean fish; from March 1st to +March 10th he took seventeen fish, seven of which had not spawned +(four of them on the 10th)--six were Kelts and one clean fish. Now +the close time varies in almost every river, and some have no +close time at all; thus in the Ribble the close time begins on +September 15th and ends on December 31st, and in the Hodder there +is no legal close time; but there is no practical difference +between them in this respect, every one thinking himself entitled +to kill all the fish he can, at all times of the year, in both of +them. The observance of the weekly close time, that is, opening a +passage for the fish from sunset on Saturday night to sunrise on +Monday morning, is a mere farce, even if it could not be evaded, +as it almost invariably is, for it is well known to every one +conversant with the habits of Salmon, that they only ascend the +rivers when there are freshes (floods) in them, and in summer the +ground is generally so dry, and vegetation absorbs so much +moisture, and the evaporation is so great, that it not only +requires twice as much rain to produce a flood in the river then +as it does in winter, but when the rain does come its effects are +only visible in the river for a short time. I have known a strong +fresh in the Ribble in the morning, and the river low again in the +afternoon of the same day. A fresh coming at the beginning of a +week, would disappear long before the close of it, unless the +rainy weather continued; and thus the strict observance of the +weekly close time would be of little service to the upper +proprietors unless the fresh came at the right end of the week. + +The Smolts and the Par ought to be protected as strictly as the +Salmon; and there ought to be a penalty attached to the killing of +them, or having them in possession, and conservators of rivers +ought to have the power of inspecting all mills and manufactories +driven by those rivers, to ascertain that they have no contrivances +for taking the fry on their way to the sea, as it appears that in +some rivers they are taken in large quantities. There ought also to +be a penalty attached to the killing of Kelt fish, which in that +state are not only tasteless and insipid, but actually unwholesome; +yet they are pursued and destroyed with as much avidity as the fresh +fish, and a very small number of the few that spawn in safety ever +return to the sea. A penalty ought also to be inflicted for selling, +buying, using, or having in possession Salmon roe, either in a fresh +or salted state, as its excellence as a bait for Trout and Eels, and +the consequent high price at which it sells, are sufficient +temptations to poachers to kill the Salmon in the spawning season +even if they could not sell or use any other part. Yet destructive +as this practice is, there is an extensive trade in this article-- +a fishing-tackle maker in Liverpool having told a friend of mine +that he sold 300 lbs. in a season, which, supposing every egg to +hatch, would produce perhaps five times as many Salmon as are caught +in one year throughout the whole kingdom. [4] + +In concluding this imperfect sketch, I may remark that I have +omitted many things concerning the natural history and habits of +the Salmon, fearing to trespass too much on the patience of my +readers; but I have wished, in addition to communicating some +facts in the natural history of this fish, which I believe are not +generally known, to call the attention of the public to the +present state of the Salmon fisheries in England. Many of the +preceding observations are founded on the evidence of persons +connected with the fisheries in Scotland, and are perhaps no +longer applicable to that part of the kingdom, since there has +been an alteration in the laws; whether this is the case or not, I +have no present means of ascertaining. I shall be glad if any one +having a knowledge of the subject will say what benefit, if any, +has been derived from the alteration; however, it is sufficient +for my present purpose to show what is the state of things when +there are no laws on the subject, or, which is the same thing, +when there is no attention paid to them; a state of things which, +instead of promoting an abundant supply of these excellent fish, +and rendering the Salmon fisheries nationally important, tends by +the habitual disregard of the laws by one party, the selfishness +of another, and the neglect of a third, to render these fisheries +of little and decreasing value; whereas if the lower proprietors +would allow a tolerable supply of Salmon to come up the river when +they were worth taking, and the upper ones would preserve them +during close time, there would be plenty for each and for all. + +I am aware it will be difficult to legislate upon this subject +without injury to what is of infinitely greater importance--I mean +the manufactories of the country. The absurd and impracticable +clauses which were contained in the bill for the protection of the +fisheries, which was introduced into Parliament in 1825, show +this; yet notwithstanding this difficulty, I think it is possible +to protect the fish without interfering with the interest of the +mill-owners, and to make such laws on the subject as will be +effectual, without calling forth a single objection from any +unprejudiced person. I shall be glad if what I have said on this +subject should induce any gentleman to turn his attention to it. +There must be many whose opportunities of observation will enable +them to determine whatever is doubtful in the natural history of +the Salmon tribe; whose experience will teach them the defects and +absurdities of the present laws on the fisheries; and whose +influence will, if they can be induced to exert it, materially +contribute to their amendment. + +CLITHEROE, _January_, 1834. + +* * * * * + +THE SALMON ENTERS AND ASCENDS RIVERS FOR OTHER PURPOSES BESIDES +PROPAGATION. [5] + +In addition to the objections which I have offered to the seeming +doubt of Dr. Fleming, whether Salmon enter rivers for any other +purpose besides propagation, the following have come to mind; and +though they do not apply to the Salmon, they confirm me in the +opinion that there are reasons, of which we know nothing, for fish +ascending rivers, which are not at all connected with propagation. +One is the habit of what is here called streaming. In the winter +the fish not engaged in spawning (I speak of Trout, Grayling, +Chub, Dace, &c.) leave the streams and go into deep water; either +because the water is warmer there, or because they there find more +food; and it is well known to fly-fishers that they do not catch +many fish in the streams if they begin early, say in February. It +is proverbial here that fish begin to stream when the great grey, +or what is called in other districts the devil or dule crook, and +in March brown or brown drake, comes upon the water; and I have +seen Trout by scores leaping at a weir in the beginning of May, +whether in search of food or an instinct implanted in them to keep +all parts equally stocked with them, I do not know; but it has +certainly nothing to do with their spawning. Is it presumptuous to +suppose that God in His providence has implanted this instinct in +Salmon for our good, that we might have a supply of excellent +food, which without this would be in a great measure unattainable? +Whether this is the true cause, and the only one, I am unable to +determine; but this is the effect produced, and in the absence of +other reasons it is, in my opinion, one that ought to be admitted. +Another reason why fish ascend rivers is their impatience of heat. +I speak now more particularly of Grayling; if the weather is very +hot at the end of May or the beginning of June, the Grayling in +the Wharfe (they are almost unknown in this part of the Ribble) +ascend the mill streams by hundreds, and go up the wheel races as +far as they can get, and stay there until the stoppage of the +wheels (many a ducking have I had in pursuit of them), when they +are obliged to beat a retreat, and this often proves a disastrous +one to many of them. The ascent of young Eels by millions, and the +ascent of the Flounder, are neither of them connected with the +propagation of their kind, and though I cannot say for what +purposes they do ascend, I am, I think, justified in doubting +assertions which seem to have nothing to support them but the +positive manner in which they are made. + +The Salmon Par is neither a Hybrid nor a distinct species of the +_genus Salmo_, but a state of the common Salmon. The author of +"Wild Sports of the West" says of the Par, as I have noted +previously, "That it has very much the appearance of a Hybrid +between the Salmon and the Trout, and (in a note) that the natural +history of this fish is doubtful. Some conjecture that it is a +Hybrid between the Salmon and Trout, because it is only found in +rivers which are frequented by Salmon. Others think it a cross +breed between the sea Trout and river Trout," and then he speaks +of this "hybridous diminutive," as if he thought one of these +opinions was correct. That the Par is not the result of a cross +between a sea Trout and a river Trout, is proved by the fact that +there are no sea Trouts in the Wharfe, the Par (admitting it to be +a distinct species, which I do not), the Salmon, and common Trout +being the only kinds of Salmonidae which are found in that river, +at least where I am acquainted with it. If the Par be the result +of a cross between the Salmon and the Trout, what becomes of it in +the spring, and where are all the Par, which were so abundant in +October, gone to in April? Did they migrate to the sea, the shoals +would be met with by somebody; and did they stay in the river they +would be caught at one time or other. However, as it is well known +that neither of these cases is ever realized, we must suppose +another, which I have already done in my former communication. In +fact, in angling in the beginning of March, fish are often caught +which would puzzle the most experienced fisherman to determine +whether they are Par or Smolts, especially after they have been +caught some time; and in a large number caught at that time there +are all the intermediate shades of appearance between the perfect +Par and the real blue Smolt. + +CLITHEROE, _May 29th_, 1834. + +* * * * * + +CLITHEROE, _March 18th_, 1846. + +TO MR. PAKINGTON (LORD HAMPTON). + +SIR,--Through the polite attention of Mr. Cardwell I have been +favoured with a copy of your bill--"For the better preservation of +Salmon." As this is a subject to which I have paid some attention, +I trust it will not be deemed impertinent if I offer some +suggestions for your consideration with regard to the free gap. It +appears to me that it will be desirable to specify the width and +depth of this free gap, or it may on the one hand degenerate into +a mouse-hole, or on the other hand the surveyor, by the provisions +of the 13th section of the Act, may insist on such a gap being +made that the whole of the water may be diverted through it, which +in small rivers, where there are ancient and legal hecks or +cruives for the purpose of taking Salmon, will destroy the value +of the fishery. Then, with regard to fence time:--In the 6th +section of the Act, I presume you do not intend that night fishing +shall be allowed at any season of the year; but it appears to me +that the expressions in the 6th section would scarcely prevent the +owners of cruives from keeping them open, as they need not go near +them between sunset and sunrise, and then they will neither lay, +draw, nor fish with any net, device, or engine. Would it not be +better to expressly insist upon all cruive fisheries being +positively closed from sunset to sunrise? or, what would be still +better, that the cruive or heck should have a free gap in it, of a +specified size, which should be kept constantly open between +sunset and sunrise. As this is one of the most important sections +of the Act, I may be pardoned for calling your particular +attention to it; for unless this section be vigorously enforced, +it will be in vain to legislate on the subject;--for the +proprietors near the sources of rivers (where most of the fish +spawn) will never interest themselves about the preservation of +fish which they are not allowed to see when in season, and which +has hitherto been the case in this neighbourhood at all events; +but if the fish are allowed a free passage everywhere, and at all +times, between sunset and sunrise, the upper proprietors will then +have some inducement to take care of the fish in the spawning +season. Until now, all the good fish have been taken in the +fisheries near the mouth of the river. + +There is at present a great trade carried on in this neighbourhood +in Salmon roe, as a bait for Trout and Eels, and scores of +spawning Salmon are now destroyed for little else than the spawn +they contain. Cannot this be prevented? + +* * * * * + +_May 5th_, 1846. + +H. GEORGE, ESQ. + +SIR,--I enclose a letter I had addressed to Mr. Pakington on the +subject of the preservation of the breed of Salmon. I had written +to him because I perceived that he had introduced the bill into +the House of Commons, but since that letter was written I have +been favoured with your address through the politeness of Sir +Thomas Winnington, to a friend of mine, and as he requests that +any suggestion about weirs may be addressed to you, I make no +apology for enclosing the letter I had addressed to Mr. Pakington +with some further suggestions, which on looking over my letter I +find I have omitted to notice. + +In one of the clauses of the bill (I do not remember which, and I +have not the bill at hand to refer to) you require that a grating, +the bars of which shall not be more than three inches distant from +each other, and which shall be placed at the junction of the tail- +goit with the river, as well as in front of the wheel. This I +presume is to prevent any fish being injured by the wheels, but I +assure you that during the twenty-two years in which I have had +the management of the works here, I never knew an instance of a +Salmon being either killed or hurt by the wheels. Indeed, I do not +know half-a-dozen instances of Salmon ever ascending the tail-goit +to the wheel, and I must have seen many instances if this was a +common occurrence. This may, however, happen, and the fish may be +occasionally injured where there is much fall lost, and a strong +stream running from a wheel constituted in the old way with open +float boards. But the objections to such a plan on the part of the +manufacturers will be insuperable, in fact, the accumulation of +sticks and leaves in the autumn, and ice in the winter, will be so +great at the grating in the tail-goit, that the wheels will be +thrown into back water and the works stopped, and all this loss +and inconvenience will be incurred because of the possibility of a +Salmon being killed or hurt by the wheel. There is not much +probability of this frequently happening, because, as I said in my +other letter, Salmon seldom migrate except where there are freshes +in the rivers, and then there is so much water flowing down the +usual course of the stream, that the fish have no inducement to +leave it to seek for a passage elsewhere. I would, however, +suggest that power be given to conservators to go at all times up +the tail-goits and into the wheelhouses, to see that there are no +illegal contrivances in them for catching the Salmon and Smolts in +their migration, as I have certainly heard of such things +occurring. + +In Sir Thomas Winnington's note to my friend, he says we have +difficulty enough in endeavouring to obtain support for one day's +clear course; two we could not carry, however desirable. Allow me +to suggest, that in endeavouring to carry so little you rouse up +your opponents, while there is not enough to stimulate the zeal of +your friends, for it will be in vain to look for the zealous co- +operation of the proprietors on the upper part of rivers unless +you give them some inducement. This one day in the week will not +effect, and besides this, you make it illegal to catch Smolts, +even with the rod, which is destroying one of the greatest +amusements of the anglers, and depriving them of the most delicate +of fish, and for no object: because, if the provisions of your +bill are carried (without this clause), there will be an abundant +supply of fish for all purposes, even after the anglers have +enjoyed their sport. I do not see the propriety and utility of +prohibiting the killing of Smolts, because if they lived they +would become Salmon, any more than I see the propriety of +prohibiting the eating of eggs, because if they were hatched and +lived long enough they would become barn-door fowls. + +Let the legislature and the estuary fisheries give the upper +proprietors a fair share of Salmon when in season, and they will +be glad to see the angling for Smolts abolished; but it is rather +too bad for the estuary fisheries to catch all the good Salmon, +and then grudge to the upper proprietors the angling for Smolts. + +In conclusion, allow me to urge on you the propriety of +endeavouring to obtain such a bill as will give the proprietors of +land on the upper parts of rivers a strong inducement to support +you, and at the same time that it does this will not injure the +mill-owners; and, with the modifications I have pointed out, I +think this may be accomplished. I speak on this subject as a +practical man, having some knowledge of the habits of Salmon, and +superintending a mill driven by water-power which employs nearly a +thousand people; so that if a bill like yours could be worked in a +satisfactory manner here, on so small a stream as the Ribble, it +may anywhere in the kingdom. But if you make a tinkering job of +it, and ask for too little, you will rouse your opponents and +discourage your friends. By all means go for a free passage for +the fish every night from sunset to sunrise in all cases where +this does not interfere with manufactories, and then there will be +some inducement to support you. + +I refer you to some papers which I wrote on this subject in the +Magazine of Natural History, in the year 1834, and if you think it +worth while to ask for further information on the subject, I shall +be happy to give you any I may possess. + +* * * * * + +LOW MOOR, _July 1st_, 1846. + +To the Editor of "The Times." + +The attempt which is now making to amend the laws relating to the +Salmon fisheries, appears to run such a great risk of failure, +from the opposition of interested persons, that I think a short +sketch of the defects of the present laws and their effects on the +breed of fish, and a comparison of them with the proposed +amendment, may be interesting to some of your readers, and may, +perhaps, induce some influential gentlemen to throw their +influence into the right scale, in the approaching discussion on +this subject. + +The Salmon fisheries in former times appear to have supplied food +for a large portion of the people, as there are still traditions +current on the banks of various rivers in the north, that the +indentures of apprenticeship always stipulated that the apprentice +should not be compelled to eat Salmon more frequently than three +days a week, and however exaggerated this story may appear at the +present day, I hope to succeed in showing that it is neither +improbable that it has been so, nor impossible that it may be so +again,--if good laws are made for their protection, and these laws +are properly enforced. At present there is no doubt the fisheries +are rapidly declining, and in some rivers which used to have a +good many Salmon in them, and which used to swarm with Smolts (or +fry) in the spring within my remembrance, they are now rarely +seen. To show their scarcity I may mention a circumstance which +occurred in the Wharfe, which was formerly one of the finest +rivers in Yorkshire for Salmon. A few years ago a pair of Salmon +were seen on a spawning bed in the Wharfe, about forty miles from +its mouth. This became known at the anglers' club, and it was +deemed so important to preserve them, that the club divided +themselves into three or four watches, and guarded the spawning +bed night and day, whilst the fish were spawning, and this +spawning lasted about a week. + +Here in the Ribble the Salmon fisheries are not quite so near +extinction (though they are rapidly progressing in that +direction), for although we are very seldom allowed to see or +catch fish in seasonable condition, a good many come up the river +to spawn, though very few of them ever do so, and very few of +those that do ever reach the sea again. The reason is obvious, no +one here has any interest in preserving the spawning fish, and +they are openly killed by the poachers, who never dream of being +prosecuted for it. I am credibly informed that in a stream not +five hundred yards from where I write, sixty spawning fish were +killed last winter. Some years ago one gang of poachers killed +three hundred Salmon on the spawning beds in one season, and sold +potted Salmon roe (which is a most destructive bait for Trout) to +the value of L20. + +In the Lune the proprietors of the fisheries near Lancaster sent +men to protect the spawning fish in the streams above; but these +men were warned off by the landed proprietors, who said, If you +catch all the good fish you must at least allow us to catch the +bad ones. In the Tweed and its tributaries it used to be quite as +bad (what the new Scotch law has done I do not know), but a +poacher who gave evidence before the Committee of the House of +Commons in 1825 said that he had assisted to take four hundred +Salmon at one haul in close time in the Tweed. + +Sir Walter Scott's vivid description of burning the water, which +occurs in "Guy Mannering," shows that he knew how to kill Salmon +in close time. In fact, his account, and that of Hogg (the Ettrick +Shepherd), show that both were regular black fishers. + +There are various devices for killing the fish in close time: they +are speared, netted, and hooked on the spawning beds, and when the +rivers get low, gangs of idle fellows range up and down on the +banks, stoning and beating the water by poles, or, what is more +effective still, a large bone, or horse's skull, and by fastening +a cord to it, one end of which is passed to each side of the +river, they draw this skull up and down in the pools where they +know there are Salmon, and the fish are so foolish and timid, that +they thrust their heads under any stone or cover they can find, +and are taken without trouble; it being common enough in such +cases to slip a noose over the tail, then tightening it, and the +fish is hauled out immediately. + +Then again, gentlemen who want to have the reputation of being +skilful anglers, employ their game-keepers to find the Kippers +(Scottice Kelts) or spawned fish in the pools, which is a very +easy matter in low water, and dropping a hook baited with a lob +worm before their noses, it is greedily taken, and the poor fish +(which are unfit for food) are caught. It is then trumpeted forth +to the angling world that Mr. A. B. has had splendid sport--he has +caught a dozen Salmon with the rod in a single day, meaning it to +be understood that these fish have been caught with the fly. I by +no means uphold these practices, neither do I think them very +deserving of censure in the present state of the law, for all the +good fish are taken near the mouths of the rivers. + +This leads me to consider the defects of the present law, which is +by no means adapted to protect and increase the breed of Salmon. + +In the first place, the close time is too short. It commences in +the Ribble nominally (for in reality the fish are openly killed +all the year through) on the 15th September, and ends on the 31st +of December; whereas it ought to extend to the end of April, for +the following reasons. A very large proportion of the fish are +spawning in January and February, and I have even seen a spawning +fish as late as the 3rd of April. In the evidence given before the +House of Commons in 1825, it was proved by a fisherman from the +Tweed, that in March for one clean fish that was caught there were +ten caught that were not so, as they were either fish that had not +spawned, or Kelts, that is, fish which have finished spawning but +have not returned to the sea, and are then flabby, unwholesome, +and unfit for food. A very large proportion of these Kippers or +Kelts do not go to the sea until April, and not then without there +is a fresh in the river, for, like the Smolts, they seem disposed +to remain in the rivers until they can avail themselves of the +assistance of a flood, to enable them more easily to reach the +sea. + +Another defect in the present law is that it fails to secure a +supply of good fish to the upper proprietors. There are no +provisions in it (or they are not enforced) for giving the fish a +free passage, no prohibition of nets, traps, or devices for +stopping them in their progress up the rivers. No daily or weekly +close time, but everywhere there is so short-sighted a selfishness, +that it is completely realizing the fable of the man who killed the +goose which laid the golden egg. The fisheries are declining so +rapidly, that unless something is done, and done quickly, the breed +of Salmon will be extinct in the rivers in this neighbourhood. + +Again, there is no power to appoint or pay conservators, and +without their assistance there is no chance of preserving Salmon +in the spawning beds. Game-keepers are most certainly not to be +depended upon. + +In pointing out the defects of the present laws I have, in fact, +given an opinion how they should be remedied. I would extend the +close time from the end of September to the end of April. I would +establish a daily close time, allowing no net, device, or engine +to be employed in taking Salmon between sunset and sunrise above +tideway in any river; and below, I would only allow nets to be set +for twelve hours per diem. I would appoint conservators, whom I +would pay by a tax on the fisheries on the whole course of the +river, which tax should be determined by a valuation of the +fisheries, and paid accordingly. I would fine every one who sold, +used, or had in his possession any potted or prepared Salmon roe +for the purpose of angling, and I would give conservators the +power of examining all mill goits and races, for the purpose of +seeing that no unfair practices were resorted to for the taking of +Salmon or Salmon fry; and I would give the upper proprietors the +power of making any alterations in mill weirs and dams which did +not impair their stability or the efficiency of the water power. +If some such enactments as these were made and properly enforced, +there is no doubt Salmon would swarm in every river, for their +fecundity is such, that a very few Salmon spawning in a river +under favourable circumstances stock it abundantly with Smolts. A +large Salmon having not less than 25,000 eggs in it, how soon, +with a little forbearance and care, would every river swarm with +this delicious fish, even to such a degree as to be a cheap food +for the poor! But to obtain such results it must be made the +interest of every person to protect them. + +In reading over the evidence on the Salmon fisheries, which was +given before the House of Commons in 1825, I was exceedingly +amused by the reasons given by the tenants of some of the +fisheries in Scotland why there should be no weekly close time, +and the shifts and evasions practiced by others. One said he paid +L7,000 a year rent to the Duke of Gordon for his fishery, and if +one day in the week were allowed for close time he would lose +L1,000 a year. Another said he kept the close time, but he would +allow nobody to go and see whether he kept the free gap open or +not. Another proved that he kept open the free passage, but it was +also proved that he had a crocodile placed in the gap, painted +with very glaring colours, in order to frighten back any fish that +attempted to pass. Another sent his boats to break down the stake +nets which were set in the estuary, but acknowledged that he kept +his own nets set across the river day and night. There would be no +difficulty in stocking every suitable river in the kingdom with +Salmon, either by putting into them a few pairs of breeding fish, +or by artificially fecundating the eggs, and placing them in +artificial spawning beds. It is a plan I have frequently adopted, +and sometimes successfully; but in other experiments I have +failed, from the difficulty of choosing a suitable locality in the +river. If too rapid a stream was chosen, the eggs and gravel were +all washed away; and if too calm and still a place was selected, +the gravel was filled up with sand and mud, and the eggs rotted +instead of hatching. I am even of opinion that where there is +already a breed of Salmon fry in a river, it is not absolutely +necessary that any male Salmon should come up the river in the +spawning season, the male Par, or Penks, as we call them in the +Ribble, being sufficient to fecundate the eggs. If this is +doubted, I would ask how it happens that in the autumn they have +fluid milt in them? for as nature makes no unnecessary provisions, +for what purpose is this, if not to provide for the possibility of +a female Salmon coming alone? These Pars swarm on the Salmon +spawning beds. + +* * * * * + +SUGGESTIONS FOR AN ALTERATION IN THE LAWS REGARDING SALMON. + +CLITHEROE, _October 12th_, 1851. + +To the Editor of the "Gardeners' Chronicle." + +As the amusement of fly-fishing is one which holds a first place +in the opinion of every one who understands it, and as the Trout +and the Salmon are the only fish which afford genuine sport to the +angler, and as I believe that the latter in some of the southern +counties is nearly extinct, whilst the former is far from being +abundant, I wish to call the attention of such of your readers as +are possessed by the true _piscatorial furor_, to the facility +with which these fish can be bred artificially. And as many +experiments have been made under my direction, and having +witnessed the results, I unhesitatingly say that there is little +risk of failure, if due care be taken. + +The experiments of Shaw and Agassiz, my own also included, have +proved that fish can be bred artificially. The experiments of +Boccius I have not yet tried, although he proposes to arrive at +the same result in another manner, and acting in the manner +recommended by them, Trout and Salmon have been bred by thousands +during the last ten years. + +As the season for making the experiment will shortly be here, I +hope that those who intend to try the plan will lose no time in +looking after their supply of breeding fish. + +To begin with Trout:--Catch as many as you can conveniently obtain +upon the spawning beds, [6] and examine them carefully one by one, +to see that the spawn and milt are in a fit state for exclusion; +and also to enable you to separate the males from the females. If +they are in a fit state to be operated upon (which may be known by +the facility with which the milt and the roe run from them on a +slight pressure), squeeze the milt of the males into a little +water, and when you have obtained all the milt you can get, add so +much water that the mixture remains slightly opalescent--say about +equal in colour to a tablespoonful of milk mixed in a quart of +water; pour this into a deep dish or bowl, large enough to hold +the largest of your female Trouts; take one of these and put it +into the water so prepared, and gently squeeze the roe from it +whilst the vent is immersed in the water. [7] Do this as quickly as +possible, and return the fish into fresh water, and then pour off +the water containing the impregnated roe, through a strainer, +carefully preserving it for the remaining fish, and immediately +return the roe into fresh spring or brook water. Repeat the +operation for every female Trout, and you will then have a +quantity of impregnated roe, which if properly managed will hatch +with great certainty. Have ready as many boxes as you are able to +stock with spawn (three feet long, two feet broad, and six inches +deep). Fill them to the depth of two inches of river sand, which +ought to be previously so well washed that there is not a particle +of mud left in it, and upon that put two inches of river gravel, +also exceedingly well washed, the pebbles varying in size from a +hazel nut to a pigeon or pullet's egg. These boxes must be so +placed that the water from a spring will flow into the first, and +from the surface of that into the second, and below the whole nest +of boxes there ought to be a small reservoir made--say three yards +by two and eighteen inches deep, and well gravelled at the bottom. +All these matters having been previously arranged, and the water +flowing nicely over the gravel, sprinkle the impregnated roe +equally over the surface of the gravel, say a quarter of a pint to +each box, and it will roll down into the interstices of the gravel +and find a bed in which it will remain snugly until the spring, +when, about March, if all has been properly managed, you will +find, on a careful examination, that the young Trout are coming to +life by hundreds. I am very particular in recommending spring +rather than brook water, for several reasons. In the first place, +brooks are liable to be flooded, and are sometimes so overcharged +with sand and mud that the gravel in the spawning-boxes is +completely choked with it and the spawn is lost, as I know to my +great and frequent disappointments. At other times all is washed +away together. In the second place, the gravel of brooks swarms +with water-lice (shrimps) and the larvae of aquatic insects, as +well as bull-heads and loaches, all of which prey upon the spawn +of the Trout and Salmon. In the third place, if you put your +spawning-boxes in a brook, you will find it difficult to prevent +the escape of the fry when hatched, and you are left in doubt as +to the success of your experiment. With spring water all these +inconveniences are avoided. But if your watercourse should contain +water-lice or aquatic larvae, it is a very easy matter to destroy +them before putting in your boxes, with a little salt or +quicklime. It is also desirable to cover your spawning-boxes with +a wire grating, to exclude the light, and to protect them in +severe weather from the chance of being frozen. + +When they begin to hatch, open a communication between the boxes +and the little reservoir below, and if this communicates with a +watercourse in which aquatic plants are growing, so much the +better. The fry, as soon as they are strong enough, will make +their way into this ditch, and will find abundance of food among +the water plants; thence they ought to be able to make their way +into the brook, river, or lake which it is intended to store with +them. All ducks, wild and tame, should be driven from this ditch, +or few of the Trout will be allowed to find their way to their +final place of destination. + +These rules, with some modification, are applicable to the +breeding of Salmon as well as Trout; the only difference being in +the mode of placing the female fish, when obtaining the roe, and +the size of the gravel in which the spawn is deposited in the +boxes. The Salmon is too large a fish to put into the vessels in +which the diluted milt is placed, but I think that she should be +held by an assistant, in such a manner that the tail and lower +part of the body up to the vent are immersed in the water +containing the milt. And it is also very necessary to hold her +firmly, otherwise a large fish, in the struggles which it makes to +get free, is apt to upset the vessel containing the milt, and then +the experiment is at an end, at least for the time. Being held +firmly by the assistant, as above stated, the belly of the fish +must be gently pressed by the hands to promote the exclusion of +the spawn, which on exclusion must be gently stirred in the +diluted milt, to bring every grain into contact with it; but the +roe ought not to remain in contact with the milt a minute, if it +can sooner be got out, as I have found that if the diluted milt be +too strong, or if the ova remain too long in contact with it, they +become opaque, and never hatch at all, apparently because they are +over-impregnated. In the ordinary way in which Salmon and Trout +are bred, the milt must be largely diluted with water, and the +contact between the milt and ova can only be momentary, for the +streams in which these fish spawn (particularly the Salmon) are so +rapid, that the milt on exclusion must be carried away immediately. + +There is another method, which is preferred by Ramsbottom, to the +one I have been describing, and it is certainly less troublesome. +This is to take the ova from the female fish in the first place +(taking care to exclude the air from it, by immersing the fish +into water up to the vent), and when all the roe has been +collected into a large bowl or basin, then mix the milt with it, +the same diluted in the proportion which has been before +described, namely, until the water which covers the roe becomes +lightly opalescent. + +I am quite aware that there is another theory which assumes that +impregnation takes place twelve months before the exclusion of the +ova. [8] But a very careful and long continued examination of the +spawning of minnows and lampreys (I have never been able closely +to examine the spawning of Salmon), convinces me that it is not a +correct one. Besides, did any one ever succeed in hatching the ova +of a fish which had not been allowed to come in contact with milt +after exclusion? If they have, when, where, and how has this been +accomplished, and where is it recorded? I know that I could never +succeed, although I have often tried the experiment. On the other +hand, it is the easiest thing imaginable, with due care and a +suitable situation, to hatch those which have been properly +impregnated after exclusion. But if, to avoid argument, I admit +that this theory is correct, it will not at all interfere with +artificial breeding of Trout and Salmon; on the contrary, it will +materially facilitate it. It will only be necessary to catch +female fish with the ova ready for exclusion, and place these ova +in clean gravel in a box, as before described, but there will be +no occasion for males. But supposing Trout and Salmon can be bred +in this manner, which I by no means believe, there would be no +means of breeding hybrids, which I consider a far more important +achievement, and to which I will now refer. + +Ever since my attention was turned to the artificial breeding of +fish, it has always appeared to me exceedingly desirable and +important to breed hybrids between the Trout and the Salmon. The +fry of the Salmon, which, by-the-bye, is perhaps the most +delicately flavoured fish that exists in this country, although it +lives and thrives in fresh water for two or three years, if kept +in a locality where it cannot escape to the sea, yet, if kept +longer than that time, pines away and dies. If, therefore, we +could obtain a hybrid fish, bred between the river Trout and the +Salmon, we should probably produce a fish which, being a mule, +would be always in good condition; being crossed with a river +fish, it would probably never require a visit to salt water to +keep it in good health. Being crossed with a Salmon, it ought to +get to a good size in a comparatively short period; and, if it +would rise at the artificial fly, or the minnow, ought to afford +first-rate sport to the angler. + +There does not appear to be a greater specific difference between +the Trout and the Salmon than there is between the horse and the +ass, between the mallard and the musk duck, or between a cabbage +and a turnip. But hitherto, in all my experiments, I have never +succeeded in producing a hybrid between the Trout and the +Salmon. [9] Yet I do not despair of doing so, for there was always +a something to complain of, and to doubt about, in every one I +tried, and I still think I shall succeed by perseverance. Even if +I shall succeed, the result may not prove quite so favourable as I +anticipate, but may turn out as unfortunately as the marriage of +the gentleman in the story, which relates that, being good- +tempered but ugly himself, he married a handsome ill-tempered +wife, hoping that his children would have his good-temper and +their mother's good looks; but when they came, they were as ugly +as the father and as ill-tempered as the mother. So it may prove +with these hybrids--they may not always thrive in fresh water; +they may not grow to a good size; they may not rise at the +artificial fly; they may be worthless for the table. Nevertheless, +it is desirable if possible that this should be ascertained. The +progeny of a male Salmon and a female Trout may be much better or +much worse fitted for a continual residence in fresh water than +the descendants of a male Trout and a female Salmon; but this can +only be determined by experiment. Dr. Lindley says, in his +introduction to the "Guide to the Orchard," that in the cross +fertilization of fruits, the seedlings always partake more of the +character of the male than of the female parent. But I believe +that in breeding mules it is found more desirable that the father +should be an ass than a horse. In my poultry yard I breed hybrids +between the musk duck and the common duck, and I find that I have +a much better progeny from the musk drake and the common duck than +from the common drake and the musk duck. In the latter cross, +although the males are fine birds, the females are not larger than +a widgeon, and fly about almost like wild ducks. This may not +always be the case, but it has proved so with me. + +But to return to the fish. If any gentleman who is interested in +such matters will do me the honour to read this paper, and wishes +for further information on the subject, I shall be happy to give +it, so far as I am able. Very sure I am that the sportsman who +once fairly starts as a fly-fisher, and is so fortunate as to hook +a Salmon or a large Trout, will thenceforward despise or lightly +esteem corks and floats, ground-bait and trimmers, punts and Perch +fishing, and will fairly wish them all exchanged for a nice stream +well stocked with Trout--as a gentleman lately said to me, fly- +fishing is a perfect infatuation! He was quite right. The extreme +avidity with which it is followed by the thoroughly initiated, can +only be explained on that supposition; to the casual observer, +there does not appear to be any strong excitement in it. But that +is a great mistake. Let me get to the bank of a river well stocked +with Trout in a good humour, early in the morning, and I feel +neither hunger, thirst, nor fatigue if I fish until dark without +tasting of anything. And the excitement of hooking a ten or twelve +pound Salmon is not much inferior to that produced by a long run +after the hounds. + +I cannot conclude without calling the attention of all interested, +and who are able to render assistance in remedying the evil, to +the great falling off in the quantity of fish there is in all the +Salmon rivers in England. With those in Scotland and Ireland I am +not acquainted, but believe that matters are not in a much better +state there. I believe that the unsatisfactory state of the laws +has a great deal to do with this decline in the value of the +fisheries, and I also believe that it is quite possible so to +alter the law as to very greatly improve them, and that without +improperly interfering with what is of far more importance--I mean +the manufactories of the country. As the law stands at present the +proprietors of the upper parts of rivers have not the slightest +interest in the preservation of the fish in the breeding season, +for, as they are seldom allowed to see a fish when it is fit for +the table, why should they look after the poachers in close time? +Why should they be put to much expense and trouble, as well as the +risk of the lives of their game-keepers, merely to breed fish for +the proprietors of stake nets and estuary fisheries, who don't +spend a farthing in the preservation of the fish when breeding, +and yet reap all the benefit? I had occasion, some years ago, to +examine the evidence on this subject given before the House of +Commons in 1825, and was exceedingly amused at the schemes +resorted to to evade the law, moderate and inefficient as was the +law at that time. (Since then the law has been altered both in +Scotland and Ireland, but I do not know what are the provisions, +nor what has been the effect of the new law.) It required that +there should be a free passage for the fish (Salmon) through all +the traps, nets, weirs, and devices that were used to catch or +detain them, from sunset on Saturday night to sunrise on Monday +morning. One man said he paid L7,000 a year for his fishery, and +should lose one-seventh of his catch. Another said he allowed a +free passage on Sundays, but would not permit anybody to go and +examine for themselves. A third proved that he allowed the fish a +free passage on Sundays, but his neighbours proved that he placed +in the gap a crocodile, painted red. And a fourth was convicted of +breaking down the stake nets in the estuary of a river--at the +same time he had a net stretched entirely across the river above, +both day and night. And so with many others, every one striving +with all his might to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs. + +This is not the way to improve the Salmon fisheries. To do this +effectually the upper proprietors must have a strong interest in +the preservation of the breeding of fish, and in order to give +them this interest they ought to have an ample supply of fish when +they are in the best condition; but to give them this supply the +law ought to be altered. At present I believe the law does not +require a free passage for the fish (at least in English rivers) +except from Saturday night to Monday morning; in many of them I +believe this is not insisted upon; whereas the law ought to +prohibit fishing for or obstructing the passage of the fish every +night from sunset to sunrise, and this regulation ought to be +rigorously enforced. This would give the upper proprietors a +chance of having good fish, and a corresponding inducement to take +care of them. Nobody would be so much benefited as the owners of +fisheries at the mouths of rivers; they would be the first takers, +and would still get the lion's share of all the fish that ascended +the river. If this regulation were enforced, the expenses of +conservators might be defrayed by levying a small tax, in the +shape of a licence for angling, which all true sportsmen would be +glad to pay if it gave a reasonable prospect of a well-stocked +river. Now matters are getting worse every day, and notwithstanding +the enormous fecundity of the Salmon (a large one producing 25,000 +ova in a season), they are now extinct in some rivers where they +used to be found in my recollection, and in others where they were +once abundant they are now very scarce. No one need to wonder at +this, when he is told that gangs of poachers are on the look-out +for them all through the spawning season. In one winter, some +years ago, I am credibly informed that two hundred Salmon were +taken in one stream within five hundred yards of the spot where +I am now writing. It is nobody's business and nobody's interest to +prevent this, and therefore it goes on openly night and day. + +Are there no influential gentlemen in the House of Commons who +will take up this matter and endeavour to get an equitable and +comprehensive law passed for the preservation and increase of the +breed of Salmon? It is a matter of even national importance, and +if duly provided for and properly attended to, I see no +improbability in the supposition that Salmon would again be as +abundant as they were when the apprentices on the banks of the +Ribble stipulated that they should not be compelled to eat Salmon +oftener than three days in the week. The apathy of country +gentlemen in this matter is to me unaccountable. I have some +reason to believe, however, that Government have at all times been +so far from lending their influence to the promotion of any +attempts to amend these laws, that they have obstructed rather +than assisted them, most probably from an idea that the +preservation of the fish would interfere with manufactories. If I +thought that this would be the case, I should not say a word on +the subject; but I am very far from holding such an opinion. So +far from this being the case, I assert without hesitation that +weirs need form no obstruction to the free passage of fish, and +that without impairing the efficiency of the water power. With the +poisonous and filthy mixtures sent by some manufactories down the +rivers, the case is far different, and where this is done the case +is hopeless. Salmon and Trout will rapidly disappear from such +rivers, never to be seen there again, so long as these noxious +contaminations are permitted to flow into them. + +* * * * * + +ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF FISH. + +CLITHEROE, _December 26th_, 1853. + +To the Editor of the "Manchester Guardian." + +SIR,--I have read with some interest the letter of your +correspondent, Salmo Salar, on the artificial breeding of fish; +and knowing, as I do, the great interest which the writer feels in +the preservation and increase of his namesakes, I shall be most +happy if my humble efforts in the same cause throw any more light +on the same subject, and in any degree contribute to the same end. + +But Mr. Salmo Salar is quite wrong in saying that, with the +exceptions of the experiments made on the banks of the Hodder, by +Ramsbottom, no efforts have been made to increase the number of +Salmon by providing artificial breeding-places. Passing over my +own numerous experiments here for the last fourteen or fifteen +years (which you, Sir, are aware of, though the fishing world is +not), I may refer to the extensive experiments made by Mr. Fawkes, +of Farnley, in 1841 and 1842, and renewed again in 1848 and 1849; +and the whole of which (with the exception of a portion of these +in 1842) were successful. The experiments of Salmo Salar were not +made until 1851 and 1852, and were intended merely to test the +accuracy of an assumption that the impregnation of the ova takes +place long prior to their exclusion; which experiments terminated +in a complete failure. Salmo Salar says that the quantity of +Salmon fry in the river is enormous; and that he has caught five +pounds of them in a single pool in a single day. I have known +three times that quantity caught in the same way. But still this +proves nothing at all, for it is well known that almost all +migratory animals, however solitary their general habits may be, +are gregarious at the time of migration. Witness swallows, +fieldfares, and even woodcocks. Witness also the clouds of small +Eels ascending the rivers in May and June; and if we are to +believe the accounts of travellers, the enormous flocks of +antelopes in Africa, and of bisons in America, are proofs of the +same general law. No doubt Salmo Salar will find, as he says, that +the Samlets are exceedingly abundant in some of the pools, when +they have flocked together for the purpose of migration; but he +may perhaps travel for miles either up or down the river before he +will find any more. It is notorious that, in the tributaries of +the Hodder, they are walled in, in many places, for the purpose of +detaining them, that unscrupulous anglers may get as many of them +as possible before they go to the sea. Salmo Salar is in error +also when he says that Ramsbottom deposited 40,000 in the ponds of +Galway, of which 20,000 are expected to be fruitful. The fact is, +that he deposited 40,000 in December, 1852, of which above 20,000 +are now alive and in the ponds, varying from four to five inches +long to two or three, notwithstanding that experiment was made +under very unfavourable circumstances; for there was so much mud +in the stream that supplied the spawning-boxes, that when +Ramsbottom left Galway he was afraid all the ova would be choked +by it. + +Salmo Salar seems to think that almost all the ova deposited +naturally come to life, and that very few of those deposited +artificially do so. This, however, is quite contrary to my +experience, and I think that if Salmo Salar will listen to the +evidence he will change his opinion. It is well known that +Salmon are very fond of particular streams, their instinct no +doubt informing them which are suitable to their purpose; and when +one pair of fish have finished spawning, another pair will come +and occupy the same place. Now, what takes place under such +circumstances? The ova which were deposited by the first pair are +rooted up by the second, and their specific gravity is so near +that of the water, that they roll down out of the loose gravel and +are picked up by the Trouts, Par, and other fish that are always +lying in wait just below for that purpose. When Ramsbottom was in +Galway he caught a large Trout, out of whose throat he squeezed a +thousand ova, which were deposited in a spawning-box, many of +which came to life notwithstanding the pit they had escaped from. +The extraordinary avidity with which Trout take Salmon roe as a +bait is also a proof (if that were needed) of their preying upon +it in the spawning beds. Yet, in addition to them, are all the +Par, Bullheads, Eels, Loaches, and aquatic larvae which may be +found swarming in every spawning bed by any one who will look for +them. In addition to these enemies, millions of the ova are +destroyed by being washed away by heavy floods, and as many more +are destroyed by being choked with mud and sand in the spawning +beds as well as by being left dry at low water owing to the Salmon +spawning in places which frequently become quite dry in early +spring. No doubt many of the Salmon fry when they have reached the +sea are destroyed by enemies there, of which we know nothing. But +still, if 500,000 are bred, in addition to all that are reared +naturally, it will represent a larger proportion of the whole than +Salmo Salar seems to suppose; otherwise, how is it that in rivers +where Salmon are protected, or still more in unsettled countries, +the Salmon are so numerous? The Salmon in the Columbia river, on +the north-west coast of America, are cast dead upon the shores by +myriads after the spawning season, and these are merely the fish +dying from exhaustion, as a small portion always do here. How +numerous, then, are those which ascend the river to spawn, and go +down again to the sea afterwards! No doubt the grand object to be +attained is to make Salmon abundant, and the most important step +towards the attainment of this object will be to give an efficient +protection to the spawning fish, and the only way to do this +effectually is to give the upper proprietors of rivers such an +interest in the Salmon fisheries as will make them worth +attention. At present this is far from being the case. Now the +upper proprietors are merely considered as so many clucking hens, +whose business and whose duty it is to hatch Salmon for the +proprietors of fisheries at the mouths of rivers, who do not in +many cases spend a farthing in their protection when spawning, and +who grievously begrudge the upper proprietors every fish that is +able to pass their nets and other engines of destruction. Let the +upper proprietors of Salmon rivers bestir themselves so to amend +the law as to give them a chance of having a supply of Salmon when +they are in season. They cannot and will not have a more efficient +ally than Salmo Salar. Salmo Salar is in my opinion quite right +when he says that the fish kept in ponds will not be quite so well +able to take care of themselves as fish which have been bred and +lived all their lives in the river. Nor do I think that this is +necessary for any longer period than until the young fry get rid +of the umbilical vessel; after which they are quite able to take +care of themselves. Before that time they are scarcely able to +move, and thousands of them fall a prey, not only to the other +fish, but to the larvae of aquatic insects which prey upon them +very greedily. As I happen to know from my own observations, the +larva of the stone fly (May fly of Lancashire) and those of all +the larger ephemera (drakes), to say nothing of the fresh-water +shrimps, swarm in all the spawning beds, and no doubt destroy +myriads of the ova. All these would be saved by proper precautions +and well formed spawning-boxes, with good supplies of spring water +to feed them. + +I think Salmo Salar has very greatly over-estimated the quantity +of Salmon fry that go down to the sea from the rivers. He speaks +of them going down by millions. Now we will take the river Hodder +as a river with which both Salmo Salar and myself are well +acquainted, and I will venture to say that, so far is this an +over-estimate, that if he would take the hundredth part of the +number he would be much nearer the truth. The Samlets when they go +to the sea may be reckoned to weigh eight to the pound, and two +millions would at that rate weigh one hundred and ten tons. Does +Salmo Salar think that one ton and a tenth of Smolts go down the +river Hodder to the sea on an average of years? I have more +favourable means of judging of the quantity that go down the river +Ribble than I have of those of the Hodder, and I believe I should +very greatly exaggerate their numbers if I estimated them at any +such weight as a fourth of that quantity. Again, the Hodder and +the Ribble are, in some respects, far more favourable for spawning +than many other rivers; for partly owing to the country through +which they pass, and partly owing to the rapidity of their +streams, the gravel is large and very suitable for spawning in; +there is also far less mud and sand in them, and the spawning beds +are much less liable to be choked up than they are in many other +rivers. No doubt the Salmon will make the best selection in their +power, but they can only select from such places as there are; and +if those are not suitable the ova must be in a great measure +destroyed. Since Ramsbottom returned from Scotland he has visited +the river Dee, about forty miles from Chester, and there he found +the spawning beds (ridds as Salmo Salar calls them) silted up with +mud and sand, and the ova buried in them to the depth of eighteen +inches. How or when were the newly hatched fish (supposing, which +is very improbable, that they ever did hatch) to make their escape +from such a heap of filth? It would be quite impossible. + +In conclusion, it seems desirable and quite necessary to say a few +words as to the priority of discovery of this process of fish +propagation. The French claim it; the Irish seem to claim it; the +Messrs. Ashworth take great credit for it; and now Salmo Salar +says he first suggested it. Allow me, as there are so many +claimants in the field, to suggest one or two more. In the year +1832, without knowing that such a thing had ever been done or even +thought of, I made some experiments on the spawning of fish and +the artificial impregnation of their ova, which I communicated to +"Loudon's Magazine of Natural History," in which they appeared. +After that came the Duke of Buccleuch's game-keeper, Shaw, whose +experiments were both satisfactory and conclusive. This was in +1836 or 1838. Then after my experiments at home, I induced Mr. +Fawkes to take up the matter in 1841, and they were resumed in +1842, and again in 1848 and 1849, both with Salmon and Trout. It +was at this period that Ramsbottom came into the field. At Mr. +Fawkes's request I instructed him in the art, and sent him to +Farnley, where he was perfectly successful; and since then, I +believe he has had more experience and been more successful than +any other propagator in the kingdom. + +The principle of this system is very easily comprehended; but +success depends on many niceties of manipulation, and much +experience in judging whether the fish, both male and female, are +in the proper condition for operating upon. + +This experience is not gained without much practice. This practice +Ramsbottom has in great perfection. There is no doubt the +artificial breeding of fish will be found exceedingly beneficial, +if properly carried out; and I hope to see the time when Salmo +Salar may catch half-a-dozen of his namesakes at Whitewell, any +good day in the season. + +I am, Sir, +Yours very truly, +THOMAS GARNETT. + +* * * * * + +ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF FISH--(CONTINUED). + +CLITHEROE, _9th January_, 1854. + +To the Editor of the "Manchester Guardian." + +SIR,--As I believe that Salmo Salar is quite as desirous of +increasing the breed of Salmon as myself, the controversy between +us may be reduced to very narrow limits. He believes that Trout +eat very few of the Salmon ova, and therefore cannot do much harm. +I will just mention a few facts which make me think otherwise. +When Ramsbottom was in Galway he caught in one night twenty-five +Trout on the spawning ground, which had on the average not less +than five hundred ova in each of their stomachs; from one of their +throats he squeezed a thousand. As the net would not take a fish +of less than two pounds, how many had passed through it? When he +was at Knowlmere, in sweeping the river for spawning fish he +caught nine Par, two Trouts, and a Sprod on the spawning bed, all +of which were gorged with Salmon spawn; when he went into the +brooks there he never found a pair of Trout spawning without also +finding a number of smaller fish behind, some of which he caught, +and in all such cases found them gorged with roe up to the throat; +the male Trout would occasionally drive them off, but as soon as +he returned to the female they were again close in the rear. + +In the "Perthshire Courier" of the 22nd December is the following +statement: The men employed in taking the breeding fish secured a +Whitling on Tuesday about three-quarters of a pound, and as they +observed Salmon ova coming out of his mouth he was brought to the +office of Mr. Buist for examination; on being opened, upwards of +three hundred impregnated Salmon ova were taken from his stomach +quite undigested. It may be, therefore, fairly presumed, that this +youngster had taken this quantity for his breakfast; if he dined +and breakfasted in the same style each day during the breeding +season, it is difficult to estimate the expense of his keep. Such +is the amount of loss of impregnated roe in one morning from one +trifling fish; what must it be throughout the season from the +various enemies it has to encounter? + +Salmo Salar is facetious about the destruction of the roe by +insects, and says, "because an aquatic insect will devour a +minnow's egg, which is not as large as a pin's head, we have no +right to infer that it will devour that of a Salmon, which is as +large as a pea; it would be just as reasonable to suppose that +because a wasp feasts upon a cherry, or a strawberry, therefore he +will eat a turnip or a mangold wurtzel." As he seems to have made +a slip of the pen in naming the two last _fruits_, allow me to +supply what I suppose he meant to say, which I presume was that +because a wasp eats a cherry or a strawberry, we must not +therefore infer that he will either eat a pear or a plum; if that +is his meaning, I think I can understand it. If he adheres to his +own version, I would merely observe that there is no analogy in +the two cases. But the inference does not rest upon mere +supposition; the freshwater shrimps at Knowlmere were seen +devouring the ova in the spawning-boxes. We have seen above that +Par eat ova as well as Trout. Let us suppose that the millions of +Smolts (as Par) have only one meal each of Salmon roe, and we will +stint them to twenty ova apiece. I fear that very few of the five +millions which Salmo Salar says are deposited in the Hodder will +be left to grow into Salmon. In addition to these, ducks, both +wild and tame, eat them greedily. When Ramsbottom was in Galway he +saw that the tame ducks frequented the spawning ford, and the +superintendent bought one, and found its crop quite full of Salmon +roe. If this had been buried eighteen inches in the gravel (as +Salmo Salar suggests), the duck would have had some difficulty in +extracting it; but so far as my experience goes, it is not usually +one-half that depth, although this varies in different rivers. +Then, if one Salmon is able to plough up gravel which is cemented +together by sand and long continuance in one place, why should not +another be able to do the same when the gravel is loose and easily +removed? But there is another enemy whom Salmo Salar has not +mentioned, who does more harm than all the rest: that is the +poacher, and I fear that many of the Salmon which Salmo Salar saw +spawning in the Hodder and its tributaries have since then made a +journey overland. At all events, I am credibly informed that in +one season a gang of poachers took seventy Salmon in the Hodder. +Is he sure they have taken none this season? Salmo Salar seems to +think that one pair of Salmon will not spawn on the same ground, +which has been previously occupied by another pair; but he has +only to watch the same ridd for a week or two to be convinced he +is mistaken. As to fish refusing to spawn on new gravel, I may +state that when Mr. Fawkes was making his experiments at Farnley +he put some new gravel into his brook, and there were sixteen +pairs of Trout spawning on it the next morning. Salmo Salar says +that if he can have those simple checks which he enumerates to the +present practices, he will restore abundance of Salmon to the +Ribble; they are all very good in their way, but do not go quite +far enough, and they would do very little good without a fourth, +namely, protection from the poacher for the fish on the spawning +beds. Until this can be given more efficiently than it is at +present, all the rest will be unavailing; and until the upper +proprietors can have a greater interest in the preservation of +Salmon than they now have, they cannot be expected to give +themselves much trouble on the subject. + +My readers would not be much edified by strong assertion and +counter-assertion of what Trout do, and what they cannot do; nor +is it probable that where we differ we should convince each other; +neither do I see any occasion for personality, when both parties +are actuated by the same motives--a desire to see the Salmon +fisheries restored to a state of great prosperity. I therefore +avoid noticing some of Salmo Salar's remarks, which seem to me a +little tinged with this spirit, and hope we shall be able to act +in concert for the attainment of that desirable result. Salmo +Salar will find that the number of Smolts is not always determined +by the quantity of ova deposited: if he will examine the bed of +the Hodder the next low water, he will find many of the ridds +disturbed by the ice floods of yesterday; and if he doubts this, I +shall be happy to examine them along with him, if he will give me +previous notice of his intention. + +Since the above was written I have seen Ramsbottom, who tells me +that the stream in the Tay, where he caught the whole of the fish +from which he obtained 300,000 to 400,000 ova, was on one side of +it one continuous ridd, and that the fish could not avoid +ploughing up the gravel which previous fish had spawned in, and at +Oughterard, where 300 pairs of fish spawned in the same number of +yards, it was the same; and they found thousands of ova buried so +deep that they were rotting in great quantities. + +With regard to what Salmo Salar says about the infrequency of a +veritable spawning bed being washed away by floods, I refer him to +what I have said previously; but Ramsbottom tells me the game- +keeper at Harden (Haworth) will be able to give him sufficient +proof that in the Langden Brook this has occurred, as he found the +ova on the dry land by thousands, which had been left there by the +flood. + +When Ramsbottom was at Perth he found on one of the fords, a space +of twenty yards long and fourteen yards wide, filled with ridds, +which was entirely left dry. What would become of all the spawn +deposited there? + +Salmo Salar seems to think nature is quite sufficient to take care +of her own interests without our interference, and that without +some counter-acting influence to keep the breed of fish in check, +the river would not hold all that would be bred. I quite agree +with him in this, provided nature had fair play; but she has not, +and occasionally needs a little help: else why do we employ game- +keepers to trap cats, foxes, and weasels, to shoot hawks, carrion +crows, and magpies, and to breed pheasants, as well as to prevent +poaching? If these precautions are unnecessary, why go to such +expense? and if they are necessary for hares and birds, may they +not be also for fish? + +I hope Salmo Salar will investigate what I said about walling in +of the Smolts in Langden Brook. I fancy he may have seen these +enclosures himself; at all events, I have, and although I cannot +prove they were erected for that purpose, I do not doubt the +accuracy of my information. + +I am, Sir, +Yours very truly, +THOMAS GARNETT. + +* * * * * + +The following letter was sent to me from Chester:-- + +CHESTER, _3rd February_, 1854. + +SIR,--We are about to make application to Parliament for a +Commission of Inquiry into the state of laws respecting the +fisheries of England and Wales. And Mr. Ashworth, of Poynton, has +been so good as to refer me to you, as able and willing to furnish +us with information on the subject. + +The annual meeting of the river Dee fishery association will be +held on the 20th instant, when I purpose to lay before them the +draft of a petition to Parliament for their approval. + +I am anxious in the meantime to obtain all the information +possible relative to the working of the present laws, their +defects, and the alterations to be proposed in them, in order that +a condensed statement may be embodied in the petition as the +ground of our application. + +I should be exceedingly obliged for any remarks your experience +may suggest, and trust you will accept the cause which dictates my +writing as a sufficient apology for troubling you on the subject. + +I have had great pleasure in reading your able replies to Salmo +Salar's letters. On the appearance of the first, I was strongly +prompted to reply to it myself, but rejoiced to find him in much +better hands. + +I remain, Sir, +Yours very truly, +WILLIAM AYRTON. + +* * * * * + +CLITHEROE, _4th February_, 1854. + +TO WM. AYRTON, ESQ. + +DEAR SIR,--I am favoured with your letter of yesterday, and shall +be glad to give you any information I may possess on the habits of +Salmon, or the requirements of any act of Parliament necessary for +the preservation and increase of this valuable fish. Being a mill- +owner, I have interests which are supposed to clash with those of +fish preservers; but I hope to be able to show that all mill- +owners are able to give a passage over their weirs at all times +when the fish are inclined to run; that is, when there are freshes +in the river. I say this the more confidently, as I believe the +works here are the largest in England for the power of the stream +they stand upon, and I find it necessary to employ 150 horse-power +of steam. Yet I find from a careful register, which has been kept +here since the year 1838, that we are able, without interfering +with the efficiency of the water power, to give the fish a passage +over the weir 181 days, or part of days, annually, and this at +times when alone they are disposed to avail themselves of such a +passage--that is in floods. + +The suggestions that occur to me from time to time I will not fail +to send you. At present the following seem to me to be essential, +to give efficacy to any Act of Parliament framed for the purpose +of preserving and increasing the breed of Salmon, for without some +such provisions the gentlemen on the upper parts of rivers will +have no inducement to exert themselves in the matter. + +First.--No nets or other engines, except rod and line, should be +used for taking fish from six o'clock at night to six o'clock in +the morning, and all fish should be allowed a free passage up the +stream every night when this does not destroy or impair the +efficacy of the water power. + +Second.--No mill-owner nor his servants, nor any other person, +should be allowed to take fish at his weir, or within fifty yards +of it. + +Third.--Conservators should be allowed to go into all wheel-races, +wheel-houses and tail-goits, and also upon all lands on the banks +of Salmon rivers, as well as inspect all cruives, weirs, &c., +without being deemed guilty of trespass. + +Fourth.--All weirs kept solely for fishing purposes, cruives, &c., +should be compelled to give a free passage to the fish every night +from six o'clock to six o'clock in the morning; and any +obstruction placed in the gap calculated to hinder or frighten the +fish back, should be deemed breaches of the Act of Parliament and +liable to a penalty. + +Fifth.--All nets and other devices for catching Eels should be +prohibited in April, May, and June. + +Sixth.--Close time should be altered and extended, as well as made +uniform, in all rivers. + +Seventh.--The sale and use of Salmon roe should be prohibited. + +Eighth.--Justices should be enabled to assist the passage of fish +over weirs by any contrivance which did not impair their stability +nor the efficiency of the water power. + +Ninth.--All cruives should be formed of vertical bars, and should +have the intervening spaces to measure not less than three inches. + +Tenth.--No nets used in a Salmon river should measure in the mesh +less than two inches and a half from knot to knot. + +Eleventh.--Any person having no right of fishing found with a net +in his possession or a Salmon out of season, should be guilty of +misdemeanour. + +Twelfth.--A ten shillings' licence for angling for Salmon. + +The reasons for most of these suggestions will be obvious to you, +but there are some which may not be so; I will therefore give a +short comment on such. + +Third and fourth.--The conservators shall have the right to +inspect all wheel-races, cruives, &c., to see they are properly +regulated, and also to see that no contrivance is used to drive +the fish back. In the evidence given before the House of Commons +in 1825, it was proved that the lessee of a fishery in Scotland +used to place a crocodile painted red in the king's gap, which the +law compelled him to give from Saturday night till Monday morning. + +Fifth.--The prohibition to set Eel nets in April, May, and June is +to prevent the destruction of Smolts when going down to the sea. + +Seventh.--Salmon are destroyed here when spawning chiefly for the +sake of the roe. If a man were fined for selling it or having it +in his possession, this inducement would be weakened. + +Eleventh.--There is the same reason for seizing the net of the +black fisher that there is for seizing the snare of the poacher, +and if the latter can be convicted for having hares or snares in +his possession, I do not see why the former should not for having +nets and Salmon. + +A meeting of the gentlemen interested in the fisheries of the +Ribble and the Hodder will be held on Friday, the 17th instant, +previous to which time I should be glad of your criticism. + +I am, dear Sir, +Yours very truly, +THOMAS GARNETT. + +P.S.--It occurs to me since closing my letter that I have +forgotten one important provision required in any new Act of +Parliament--namely, protection to the Smolts in their downward +migration. Here the pools are swept with small meshed trammel nets +of all the fish that they contain. + +* * * * * + +ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF FISH. + +CLITHEROE, _23rd April_, 1863. + +To the Editors of the "Leeds Mercury." + +GENTLEMEN,--I am somewhat at a loss to understand the object of +Mr. Horsfall's letter on this subject which appears in the +"Mercury" of to-day. If he means that fish hatched by this process +are as much at the mercy of their natural enemies as they are in +their natural spawning beds I differ from him entirely; but if he +means that there is no good in breeding migratory fish like +Salmon, when the obstacles to their return in the shape of stake +nets, impassable weirs, and poisonous waters are so numerous as +they are at present in many rivers (the Wharfe and the Aire are +examples of both), I entirely agree with him. Let us consider both +suppositions, for the more this subject is ventilated the more +likely is good to arise from the discussion. I think Mr. Horsfall +is entirely wrong in the first supposition, for the following +reasons: By artificial propagation the young fish escape all +damage from floods, and particularly ice floods, which scoop out +all the loose gravel from the spawning beds, which are frequently +entirely carried away by these floods. They escape all danger from +drought, which in some rivers is almost as bad, there being now +several mounds of dry gravel in my length of the Ribble which were +spawning grounds last December. They escape being destroyed as ova +by Trout, Eels, Bullheads, Loaches, the larva of aquatic insects, +ducks (wild and tame), water rats, and water shrews. The last are +said to be destructive to the spawn; but this I do not vouch for, +as these two last-mentioned animals have not come under my own +observation as devourers of spawn. + +With regard to the 500 Salmon ova said to have been taken from the +stomach of a Trout, Ramsbottom is the authority for it, only he +says there were nearer 1,000 than 500, and he took them from the +maw of a large lake Trout at Oughterard, when netting the spawning +Salmon for his artificial propagation. When Ramsbottom was fish +breeding for Mr. Peel the year after he first went to Ireland for +that purpose, he went into the brooks at night with a light. He +never found a pair of spawning fish without also finding several +waiters on Providence in the shape of small Trout, which were +picking up the ova that descended the streams towards them. +Several of these he caught, and they were perfectly gorged with +spawn. + +With regard to the ducks, Ramsbottom is again my authority. He +found that a flock of tame ducks frequented the spawning beds at +Oughterard; he bought one for the purpose of ascertaining whether +they eat spawn or not, and he found its crop quite full of spawn. +With regard to the aquatic larvae of insects, Mr. Horsfall may +easily satisfy himself that they destroy spawn if he will turn +some into an artificial spawning bed. One of my friends failed to +hatch his Trout ova because he could not keep out the fresh-water +shrimps. + +Mr. Horsfall seems to think that nature would be sufficient to +take care of her own interests if man did not step in to aid her +endeavours; but if he is a sportsman he no doubt has a game- +keeper, who not only preserves the ground from poachers, but traps +cats and weasels, shoots hawks, magpies and carrion crows, breeds +tame pheasants, and generally looks to the well being of the game +without trusting to the efforts of unassisted nature. + +Let us take the second supposition, that there is no good in +artificial propagation when the fish which are sent to the sea can +never come back again by reason of insurmountable obstacles. If +Mr. Horsfall means this he is quite right; there is no good in the +upper proprietors of Salmon rivers becoming brood hens for the +owners of fisheries at the mouths of rivers or the proprietors of +impassable weirs, who take all the fish which get to the foot of +these weirs. I quite agree with Mr. Horsfall that it is in most +cases easy to build practicable fish passes, and at a slight +expense, if people were willing to do so; but I wish to show that +notwithstanding the boasted effects of the Act of 1861, the upper +riparian proprietors have not a sufficient inducement to build +fish passes, and will not do so unless the expense can be made +very moderate indeed. + +I will take the river Ribble to illustrate my meaning. As a +general rule we have no fresh run Salmon until May, and the upper +proprietors are supposed to have a sufficient share of the fish +that ascend the stream if the owners of the fisheries in the +estuary and the tidal part of the river cease to net from six +o'clock on the Saturday night to six o'clock on the Monday +morning. That is a day and a half per week. The fishing for Salmon +(except angling) ceases on the 31st of August, and from the 1st of +May to the 31st of August there are 123 days. Call the period +eighteen weeks, which gives us twenty-seven days during which time +the Salmon have liberty to pass to the upper parts of the river. +But on the average of seasons, owing to droughts, the rapid +absorption of moisture by vegetation, and the great evaporation, +there is no fresh water to enable the fish to ascend during two- +thirds of that time. Every one who knows anything of the habits of +Salmon is aware that they never ascend the rivers from the estuary +unless there is a fresh in the river; and, as I said before, on +the average of seasons there is no fresh for two-thirds of the +time from May to August. This reduces the twenty-seven days (which +are supposed to feed the upper proprietors with Salmon to +repletion) to nine days, and these nine days are expected to stock +the river and its tributaries for one hundred miles. It is true I +have not taken into consideration the privileges which the upper +proprietors have of angling to the 1st of November; but besides +the fact that the fish are then full of spawn, and ought not to be +killed at all, very few rise at the fly, and when they are taken +they can neither be sold nor used by any one who knows what a +fresh Salmon is. It is a greater crime against public polity to +kill a spawning Salmon than it is to steal a sheep; for, supposing +it produces 10,000 ova, and one in a hundred returns as a Salmon, +it returns from a place (the sea) where it has cost nothing in +rent, taxes, or superintendence, and, in the finest condition +imaginable, it invites us to take it. + +Mr. Horsfall and I both wish for the same results (rivers swarming +with fish), and although we may somewhat differ as to details, I +have no doubt both would be glad to see public attention directed +to these matters rather more than it is at present. + +If Mr. Horsfall will do me the honour to come and see me, I will +show him an efficient fish-pass which has been in operation forty +years. It may suggest some ideas to him, and he may be able to +suggest some improvements in it which I should be glad to receive. + +I am, Gentlemen, +Your obedient Servant, +THOMAS GARNETT. + +* * * * * + +LOW MOOR, _4th January_, 1865. + +DEAR SIR,--As I believe Mr. Eden, the Commissioner of Salmon +fisheries, is visiting various districts connected with Salmon +rivers in England and Wales, with a view of explaining the +proposed alterations and additions to the bill of 1861, and as I +think from what I have learnt that the proposed alterations and +additions will not be satisfactory to the upper proprietors of +Salmon rivers, I wish to call your attention to the matter, that, +if he should come into this district, the gentlemen interested may +be able to point out to him how far these alterations are from +meeting their wishes. Supposing that the new bill (as published in +the "Field" newspaper, and explained and commented on by Mr. Eden) +is to be understood as a government measure and one in which they +will allow of no alterations, I maintain that it is very +objectionable both from what it omits and what it purposes to do. + +To begin with the former, or, in other words, to take the +recommendations of the Worcester meeting as the groundwork of new +legislation, it does not touch on several of them; they were, so +far as I remember (for I have no memoranda to refer to) an +extension of the weekly and annual close time--minimum penalties: +--a close time for Trout, and a right of way on the banks of +Salmon rivers for all water-bailiffs, duly appointed, without +their being deemed guilty of trespass; and a tax on fishery nets +and implements, for the purpose of defraying the expenses of +protection. + +Now, so far as I understand the bill as proposed, the only one of +these recommendations included in it is the tax. I am wrong in +this--the taxation is not included in the bill, but was suggested +by Mr. Eden at the meeting he attended lately at Chester. The bill +proposes that the choice of conservators shall be vested in the +magistrates at quarter sessions, and the conservators shall have +power to expend all the funds raised by voluntary subscriptions +for certain purposes mentioned in the act. But Mr. Eden suggested +at Chester that if these funds were inadequate the conservators +should have the power of supplementing them by a rate on the +owners and lessees of fisheries in proportion to their extent. Now +one man may have an estate on the banks of a river extending for +miles from which he derives little or no revenue; while another +may have a fishery not extending more yards than the other does +miles, but from which he derives a revenue of as many pounds as +the other does pence. If Mr. Eden's meaning is lineal extent, I +feel very sure it will not meet with the approval of the upper +riparian proprietors. Again, why should the magistrates in quarter +sessions (nine-tenths of whom know nothing of Salmon or Salmon +rivers) choose the conservators? What, for instance, would the +magistrates meeting at Wakefield know of the Ribble or the Hodder? +What would they care about the matter? They would choose the men +who had power to tax the riparian proprietors and lessees; but as +they would not be taxed themselves, they would look on with great +composure. No; if we are to be taxed, let us tax ourselves, and +not leave it to those who will have no interest in the matter, and +who may involve us in litigation and expense over which we shall +have no control. + +The recommendations of the Worcester committee deserved more +consideration on the part of Government. They were suggested by +men of great experience, and, moreover, unless they are adopted +and legalized by Parliament there can be no permanent prosperity +for Salmon rivers. Take the extension of close time as an +instance. It cannot be right that the owners or lessees of estuary +fisheries shall be allowed to take ninety per cent. of the fish +which they have neither bred nor fed, and whose well-being and +increase they have done nothing to promote; while the upper +proprietors, on whom devolve all the care, trouble, and expense, +are to rest satisfied with what the thirty-six hours per week can +give them. What did they give the upper proprietors on the Ribble +and the Hodder last season? Little or nothing. When the bill of +1861 was before the House of Commons, I had an opportunity of +suggesting (indirectly) to the late Sir George Cornewall Lewis the +propriety and desirableness of an extension of the weekly close +time for the benefit of the upper proprietors. He replied, "You +might as well propose to restrict the shooting of partridges to +three days a week as to restrict the netting of Salmon." But with +all due deference to so great an authority, there is no analogy +between the two cases. If partridges had all to migrate and return +before they could be legally shot, and had, like the Salmon, all +to return by the same road, ninety per cent. of them before +reaching the district where they were reared would become the prey +of men who had neither bred nor fed them. I fancy sportsmen would +want protection for them; and if they were not able to obtain it, +they would do what is seriously proposed by many people with +regard to the Salmon--they would do all they could to exterminate +them, rather than continue to act as brood hens to hatch chickens +for other men's eating. + +Then take the annual close time and the pretended compensation it +offers in the two months' rod-fishing (September and October). +After the nets have been withdrawn, what is it worth? Or, what is +the value of black fish full of spawn? They cannot be sold; they +are not fit to eat; the spawn has nearly arrived at maturity, and +the only value the fish has is in the spawn, which is potted and +sold in many instances by the poacher who kills the fish. He +deserves no other name, whatever may be his rank or station. + +Again, in the 21st section, regulating the weekly close time, it +is enacted "That any person acting in contravention of this +section shall forfeit all the fish taken by him, and any net or +movable instrument used by him in taking the same, and, in +addition thereto, shall incur a penalty of not exceeding five +pounds, and a further penalty of not exceeding one pound for each +fish." But in the 17th section, which regulates the annual close +time, though there is a penalty for the contravention and +forfeiture of the Salmon so taken, there is no forfeiture of nets +and implements. You will no doubt remember how this worked when +the watchers took a net and boat, near Preston, last season, after +the setting in of the annual close time. How the owner of the net +and boat came to claim them, on the pretence that the net had been +stolen from the bank, where it had been left to dry, although his +own men were the parties who were so illegally using them. + +Minimum penalties.--I see no mention of them in the new bill, +although it is notorious that many magistrates have fined +convicted poachers in the penalty of a farthing or a shilling. +What is this but an encouragement to do so again? + +Close time for Trout.--This is greatly needed in Salmon rivers, as +it is well known that many a poacher pretends to be fishing for +Trout when he is looking after Salmon. This is doubly needed when +the Salmon ascend the small tributaries to spawn. + +The right of way for water bailiffs.--There is no clause or +section in the new bill giving the right of way on the banks of +Salmon rivers to duly authorized persons without their being +deemed guilty of trespass. But there is one by which they are +permitted to examine weirs. There is on my part no objection to +this examination, but why are millowners stigmatized by being +subjected to exceptional legislation? Are not the gamekeepers of +gentlemen who have many miles of river subject to no surveillance +on the part of the water bailiffs as likely to act illegally as +the servants of the millowners? Let both be watched with equal +care, and I do not mind how vigilant the watching may be; but I do +object to being made the object of special and exceptional +legislation. The tax ought to be upon nets and rods and other +implements in proportion to their value. But if a tax is laid on +the extent of the fishery, we may bid adieu to voluntary +subscriptions. + +In conclusion, if Mr. Eden comes into this district, I think it +ought to be distinctly intimated to him that no bill would be +satisfactory to the upper proprietors which did not give them a +greater interest in the increase and improvement of rivers. There +are three ways of doing this. The mesh of the Salmon net might be +enlarged from eight to twelve inches round. This would allow +grilse to pass, and fill the river with breeding fish. Or, +secondly, the weekly close time might be extended so as to include +Friday as well as Saturday afternoon and Sunday. Or, thirdly, the +annual close time for net and rod fishing might commence a month +earlier than at present; say net fishing to close on the 1st of +August, and rod fishing on the 1st of October. Any of these +measures would give the upper proprietors a much better supply of +fish than they now have. They all, I think, deserve consideration. +One thing at least is certain, that unless the upper proprietors +have a better share of the fish than they have at present, they +will soon cease to take an interest in their preservation. + +To Colonel J. Wilson Patten, M.P. + +* * * * * + +LOW MOOR, _10th January_, 1865. + +MY DEAR SIR,--I shall be very glad if I can induce you to read my +opinions on the Salmon question. It is one which I think may +become of even national importance, if properly managed. But the +sad tinkering it has hitherto received in the nine hundred and +ninety-nine Acts of Parliament wholly or partly devoted to the +subject makes me almost hopeless about future legislation. Yet it +seems to me that the only way to greatly increase the breed of +Salmon is so simple and obvious, that its not having been adopted +long since can only be accounted for by supposing that all the +parties interested in the matter are like the man in the fable, +who killed the goose that laid the golden eggs. + +Hitherto the law has never properly recognized the claims of the +upper riparian proprietors. These men have all the trouble and +expense of rearing and protecting the young fish, whilst the +owners of estuary fisheries, men who never lift a hand nor spend a +penny in taking care of the brood, take above ninety per cent. of +the grown Salmon when in season; and even then think they are +hardly used. How can it be expected that the upper proprietors +should be very earnest in their protection of fish from which they +derive little or no benefit, merely acting the part of brood hens +and hatching the chickens for the benefit of other people? + +In June, 1769, 3,384 Salmon and Salmon Trout were taken at a +single haul of the net in the Ribble, near Penwortham. Now the sea +is as wide, and, for anything we know to the contrary, as capable +of feeding them as it was a hundred years ago; and the rivers are +as capable of breeding and rearing them now as they were at that +time; and therefore I do not see why, if proper steps were taken, +they should not be as abundant now as they were then. + +If we take a sheep or a bullock, and to his first cost add the +rent of the land on which he has pastured, and something for +insurance and interest on capital, the transaction is not a very +profitable one in the long run. But in the case of the Salmon, we +send a little fish down to the sea which is not worth a penny, and +he remains there, paying neither rent nor taxes, neither +gamekeepers' nor bailiffs' wages, costing nothing to anyone, until +he returns to the river, worth ten or twenty shillings, as the +case may be. Surely this is a branch of the public wealth that +deserves sedulous cultivation. + +I think with you that the Calder can never become a Salmon river, +so long as manufactories flourish on its banks, and it is not +desirable that it ever should become so at their expense; but even +in the Calder (and its tributaries) a little care would prevent +immense mischief. Some people at Church, a few years ago, very +carelessly pushed a quantity of poisonous matter into the Hyndburn +brook, and the first thunderstorm that followed carried it down +the Calder into the Ribble, and poisoned all the fish between +Calder foot and Ribchester. Take another instance of carelessness +in the Ribble, the emptying of the gas-holder tank at Settle, +which when turned into the river killed nearly all the fish +between that town and Mitton. Several other instances occur to me, +but these two are sufficient to show the great mischief occasioned +by avoidable neglect and carelessness. Such mischief should not be +perpetrated with impunity. + +The act of 1861 was very good as far as it went, notwithstanding +some oversights; but it did not go far enough. It did not give to +the upper riparian proprietors such an interest in the fish as +they are entitled to, nor is the interest they now have sufficient +to induce them to exert themselves in the preservation and +increase of the Salmon as they might and would do if such +additional stimulus were given to them. The law now is, that no +nets shall be used in the taking of Salmon between twelve o'clock +at noon on Saturdays, and six o'clock on Monday mornings. That is, +forty-two hours per week. But in the Ribble, as a rule, we never +see seasonable Salmon until May. Now from that time to the 1st of +September, is, say sixteen weeks, and at forty-two hours per week +(the length of the weekly close time) this gives twenty-eight days +during which time the fish may pass up the river without +interruption; but this is by no means the true state of the case. +Everyone conversant with the habits of Salmon knows that they +never ascend rivers except when they are in a state of flood; and +in average summers, partly owing to droughts, and partly to the +rapid evaporation and absorption of moisture by vegetation, these +twenty-eight days may fairly be reduced by two-thirds, to give the +true time allowed for the ascent of the fish. But say ten days, +which are supposed to give an adequate supply of fish to a hundred +miles of river,--the extent of the Ribble and its Salmon-breeding +tributaries. Is it surprising that the upper proprietors are not +satisfied with this state of things? It would be surprising if +they were content with such a cheeseparing allowance. + +When the bill of 1861 was before the House of Commons, I had an +opportunity (indirectly) of suggesting to the late Sir George +Cornewall Lewis the propriety of a considerable extension of the +weekly close time. He replied, "You might as well propose to shoot +partridges only three days a week, as to restrict the netting of +Salmon to only three days." With all due deference to such an +authority, there is no analogy between the two cases. But if +partridges had all to migrate and return before they could be +legally shot, and had, like Salmon, to come by one road, and if, +like them, ninety per cent. of them became the prey of men who had +neither bred nor fed them, I fancy the sportsman who reared them +would want some restrictions placed on their being shot by men who +had not spent a farthing in breeding and protecting them, but who +took the lion's share in their appropriation. + +I saw Lord Derby on the subject last spring. He had, however, so +little time at his disposal that he could only give me a few +minutes. He said a good deal must be allowed for vested interests. +I said, "My Lord, I am a manufacturer. When the Ten Hours Bill was +passed, manufacturers were deprived of one-sixth of their fixed +capital at a stroke, and had not a farthing allowed for their +vested interests; nay, more, that measure involved the destruction +of machinery which had cost millions. All this was done on grounds +of public policy. And is not the Salmon question one of public +policy? If, as I suppose, the measure I advocate produced a great +increase in the breed of Salmon, the estuary fisheries would be +the first to profit by it. They are the first on the river. +Indeed, the stake nets in the estuaries are taking fish daily in +times of drought, when fish will not ascend the river at all." + +In 1859 we had not a fresh in the river between the 10th of April +and the 1st of August. And last year we had only a few days of +flood between the beginning of May and the 31st August, when close +time (for nets) commences. + +I have said above that only ten days per year are allowed for the +supply of fish to the upper proprietors. I may be told that they +have two months (September and October) in which they are allowed +to angle for them. True, but what are they worth? They are not +allowed to be sold, they are not fit to eat, the fish are black +(or red), the milt and spawn nearly at maturity, and the only +temptation they offer is to the poacher (who often pots the roe as +a bait for Trout); and he is a poacher, whatever his rank or +station, who will kill an October fish when full of spawn. + +Last year, at my suggestion, a meeting of gentlemen interested in +Salmon fisheries was convened at Worcester, during the meeting +there of the Royal Agricultural Society, and a number of +suggestions were made, and resolutions were come to, which were +intended to serve as a basis for the desired alterations in the +Salmon Bill of 1861. I have no memoranda to which I can now refer, +but the most important, according to my recollection, were the +following:--The extension of the weekly close time; the annual +close time to be extended to Trout; a right to be given to all +conservators and water-bailiffs, duly appointed, to pass along the +banks of Salmon rivers without being deemed guilty of trespass; a +tax on fishing-nets, rods, and implements, to defray the expenses +of protecting the rivers from poachers. + +The Commissioner of Salmon Fisheries, Mr. Eden, has been convening +meetings of gentlemen interested in Salmon rivers at Chester, +Conway, York, and various other places, to explain the provisions +of the bill which Government introduced at the end of last session +and intend to bring forward again. I have not attended any of +these meetings, but expect he will be at Whalley or Preston +shortly, when we shall hear what he has got to say. The new bill, +as printed last year, does not embody any of the suggestions of +the Worcester meeting; but as I learn from private sources, Mr. +Eden, at the various meetings he has lately attended, has thrown +out various suggestions, some of which are highly objectionable. + +For instance, he suggests that the magistrates in quarter sessions +assembled shall have the power to appoint conservators, and that +the conservators shall have the power to expend all the money +raised by subscription in having water-bailiffs to put up fish- +ladders, commencing actions at law in certain cases; and if the +subscriptions are not adequate to defray all these expenses, that +they (the conservators) shall have the power to levy a rate in aid +on the riparian proprietors. + +I cannot see how this can be made to work equitably. If the rate +be laid on the extent of frontage to the river, one man may have a +great extent of no value for fishing purposes, another may have +only one pool, so conveniently formed and placed for netting that +he will be able to catch ten times as many fish as the other. Then +how are the fisheries in the estuary and just above tideway to be +valued? They probably take ninety per cent. of all the seasonable +fish. Will they be willing to pay ninety per cent. of the rate? + +Again, the college at Stonyhurst claims a right of _several +fishery_, both in the Ribble and the Hodder. That is, they +exercise a right to fish in both rivers, where they have no land, +and they exercise this right so freely that they take more fish +than all the other upper proprietors added together. If, then, the +tax is laid on the extent of frontage to the rivers, these +reverend gentlemen would escape entirely, so far as the right of +_several fishery_ extends, and would only pay the rate on their +own extent of frontage. + +Again, the new bill does not embody the suggestions of the +Worcester meeting as to the right of way for the water-bailiffs; +but according to Mr. Eden's comment upon it at Chester and +elsewhere, a strict surveillance is to be kept on weirs, to which +the water-bailiffs are to have free access. Personally I have no +objection to this, provided the water-bailiffs are allowed free +access to the banks of the river elsewhere; but I have a strong +objection to be made the subject of offensive exceptional +legislation. Are not gamekeepers as likely to need looking after +as mill-owners? + +Again, the bill does not touch on minimum penalties. This it ought +to do, for in some districts (Wales, for instance) there is a +strong animus against all attempts at preserving the Salmon, and +notorious poachers, duly convicted of offences against the act of +1861, in some instances have been fined a shilling, in others a +farthing. + +To W. H. Hornby, Esq., M.P. + +* * * * * + +REMARKS ON A PROPOSED BILL FOR THE BETTER PRESERVATION OF SALMON. + +CLITHEROE, _August 27th_, 1860. + +HENRY GEORGE, ESQ. + +DEAR SIR,--I am favoured by the receipt of your letter of the 25th +inst., and the accompanying draft of a proposed bill "for the +better Preservation of Salmon," and proceed at once to offer such +remarks and suggestions as occur to me, and shall be glad to learn +that they meet with your approval. + +In the third clause (section) you give an interpretation of the +names under which you wish to include all fish of the Salmon kind. +Does not this include common Trout? You specially include Char by +name. Would it not be better to limit your intentions to all +migratory fish of the Salmon kind, to wit, Salmon, Grilse, &c. +&c.? I think also the meaning of a fixed net wants defining more +rigorously. As it now stands it appears to me that it would +include any net which should be fastened on a root or stone whilst +it was being drawn through a pool, if the men employed in doing +this were to let go the cords whilst they loosed the net from the +obstruction. + +Fourth clause.--I quite agree with you on the period allotted to +annual close time, but think there ought to be a penalty for +buying, selling, or having in possession Salmon roe (save and +except for the purpose of artificial propagation). + +Seventh.--I do not agree with you at all on the subject of the +weekly close time, which in my opinion ought to be for one-half of +every day, except Sunday, and the whole of that day. Why should +the owners of fisheries at the mouths of rivers, who are at +neither trouble nor expense in breeding or preserving the spawning +fish, have all the benefit derivable from their increase? Why +should the upper proprietors act the part of brood hens for these, +hatching and preserving the fish for the benefit of those who take +no trouble about these things themselves? + +Twelfth.--I do not agree with you as to the size of the mesh: I do +not think that a mesh of twelve inches in circumference, or three +inches from knot to knot, at all too large; it would permit fish +below six pounds to escape, and this being done, there would under +any circumstances be a fair supply of breeding fish. + +Fifteenth.--I think your leister requires a more rigorous +definition. A man in this neighbourhood is reputed to have killed +a good many Salmon with a hay or a dung fork. Are either of these +leisters? + +Your sixteenth section is utterly impracticable. How could such +hecks or grates be prevented from choking with leaves in the +autumn and ice in the winter, thus stopping the wheels? You might +as well require a farmer to hedge out the game. Impose a penalty, +if you like, upon any millowner who may kill Salmon in his mill +lead; and as you give your conservators power to inspect +everywhere, you will readily detect such practices. But it will +never do to close the mills by pretexts that the fish may be taken +or killed there. + +Twenty-first.--I do not understand the meaning of this. But taken +in its ordinary sense, it seems to me to be very unjust. Many +persons have traps in their weirs for the purpose of taking Salmon +to which they plead a prescriptive right. Do you mean to do away +with these? You may succeed in this, but why should not a man be +allowed to fish in the river above the weir where there are no +obstructions to the passage of the fish? And why should not a man +be allowed to fish with a rod and line below the weir, and as near +to it as he chooses? I think weirs might be safely divided into +two classes: those used for manufacturing purposes and those for +fishery purposes; that a man should be allowed to say in which +class his weir should be included. If for manufacturing purposes +he should not be allowed to catch Salmon (except with rod and +line) within a certain distance below the weir. If he choose to +class his weir as one for fishery purposes, he should then be +compelled to give a free passage to the fish for twelve hours +every day; but he should be compelled to make his election as to +the class in which he would include his weir. + +Twenty-fifth.--It would never do to allow the commissioners to +make bye-laws. Suppose the case of a millowner who got into a +dispute with them: he might be utterly ruined by their bye-laws; +they might make bye-laws which deprived him of his water-power, +under a pretext that they were taking more efficient care of the +Salmon. + +Thirty-first.--I think the licence to angle should be compulsory, +and not at the discretion of the commissioner. That it should be +in the nature of a game licence, qualifying and enabling the +holder to angle in any river of Great Britain and Ireland, +provided he had the consent of the owner of the fishery where he +was angling. + +(_Additional observations_). Twelfth.--You say that no double net +shall be used. Do you mean to prohibit the trammel, which is +usually a treble and not a double net? You also prohibit one net +behind another, but you do not specify the distance outside of +which a second net would be lawful. If neither a series of Scotch +nets nor a single trammel is to be used, by what sort of net do +you propose to catch the Salmon? + +Nineteenth.--You say the sluices which admit water to wheels or +factories shall be kept closed from six o'clock on Saturday night +to six o'clock on Monday morning. How, then, are the repairs of +shafting and machinery to be made? These are generally done when +the workpeople have gone home on Saturdays. Besides, what is your +object? If the river is low, the Salmon will not be running up the +stream, and if it be in flood there will always be an abundant +supply running over the weir in addition to that which would be +required to turn the wheel. You add that the water may be allowed +to flow freely through the waste-gate, provided the opening of +such a waste-gate shall not deprive the mill of the necessary +supply of water. + +Eighteenth.--In this clause you say that in weirs already +constructed it shall be lawful for the commissioner, on the +application of any two or more persons interested in the fisheries +of such river, and at the proper costs and charges of the persons +making such application--proof having been first given, &c.--to +cause a survey to be made of such dam or weir by a competent +engineer, and to direct such alterations to be made therein as +shall, in the opinion of the commissioner, be necessary and +desirable, &c. + +In this clause, which so far as it goes is very desirable, you +have omitted a proviso without which it could never pass into a +law. You have forgotten to provide for the legal right of the +millowner, which would, or might, be taken away by the alteration +made in the weir unless there were some provision in the act which +prevented this being done. At present there is no such proviso in +your act. Here I have offered for years to allow the upper +proprietors to make any alteration they liked in the weir, +provided such alterations did not affect the milling power, the +stability of the weir, or my legal title to the weir as existing +at present. And my legal adviser tells me that any alteration made +in the weir without a guarantee from the upper proprietors would +very probably deprive me of my present title. + +* * * * * + +LETTERS ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS. + +* * * * * + +ON THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT ON THE SAME LAND IN SUCCESSIVE YEARS. + +_To The Editor of the "Manchester Guardian."_ + +CLITHEROE, October 5th, 1843. + +SIR,--I PROMISED to send you some details of my attempt to grow +wheat on the same soil year after year. These I now forward, and +hope they may prove interesting. I was led into these experiments +by reading Liebig's book on the "Chemistry of Agriculture;" for, +assuming his theory to be true, it appeared to me to be quite +possible to grow wheat on the same land year after year; as, +according to that theory, the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, which +constitute the great bulk of all cereal crops (both grain and +straw), are supplied in abundance from the soil and atmosphere (or +perhaps, to speak more correctly, from the latter), and we have +only to supply those inorganic substances, which, however +numerous, form but a small part of the whole weight of the crop. +With the view of testing this theory, and hoping that I might be +able to find out what were the elements which built up and +cemented the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen together--or, in other +words, which constituted fertility--I begun, in the autumn of +1841, to experiment on a field which had been exhausted by a +succession of crops, and which had just been cleared of one of +oats. I chose an exhausted field in preference to any other, as +the only one in which I could test the truth of the theory. It was +very foul, being full of couch grass and weeds of all kinds. It +was ploughed up and hastily picked over, for the season was so +unfavourable for cleaning the land (from the great quantity of +rain that fell) that I was almost induced to abandon the +experiment. Previously to sowing the seed, one-fourth of the field +was manured with a compost of night-soil and coal-ashes, at the +rate of forty tons to the customary acre (7840 yards); the +remaining three-fourths having the seed put in without any manure +whatever. The winter was very unfavourable for the plants in our +cold wet soil, and in the unmanured part of the field many of them +perished, and those that survived made very little progress, from +having no stimulus at the roots. Thinking it desirable to apply my +experimental manures in moist weather, I waited until the 6th May, +when I treated that part of the field which had _not_ been manured +(three-fourths of the whole) in the following manner. I applied +guano to one-fourth, at the rate of two hundredweight to the +statute acre, and the same weight of nitrate of soda over another +fourth, leaving one-fourth entirely without manure. The wheat +manured with the guano and nitrate of soda grew vigorously, and +the ears, more particularly in the part manured with guano, were +the finest I had ever seen, but when it came to ripen it +shrivelled in the ear, and the sample was very indifferent; the +soil being evidently deficient in some property necessary for +perfecting the grain. The crop also suffered much from the +depredations of the birds. + +The portion manured with night-soil produced + to the statute acre 32 bushels of 60 lbs. each. + +Guano " " 27 " " " +Nitrate of Soda " " 27 " " " +Unmanured part " " 19 2/3 " " " + +I give these details to show that the land was in an exhausted +state previous to the commencement of the experiment I am now +about to detail. After the crop of 1842 was reaped, the land was +immediately ploughed up, and the season being very favourable, it +was tolerably well cleaned, and the seed was sown (without any +manure) about the first week in October. After the wheat came up, +it was manured with a dusting of one hundredweight of guano, over +the entire field (about one acre, three roods), to keep the plants +alive through the winter. In the spring, being divided into three +portions, it was manured with the same number of experimental +manures, which were furnished to me by Mr. Blyth, of Church, near +Accrington, who also analyzed the soil and subsoil for me. These +manures were applied about the 10th of April, and the experiment +was still further varied by covering a portion of each division +with guano a fortnight afterwards, at the rate of two hundredweight +to the acre, but all the manure applied to the crop, including the +hundredweight of guano put on in the autumn, did not exceed 6 1/2 +hundredweight. The crop, which was a very thin one in the spring, +improved so much by the application of these manures, that when it +came into ear, it was allowed by all who saw it to be the best in +the neighbourhood; but the heavy rains of July caused it to lodge +in the best part of the field, and there it was attacked by rust, +and the sample was very indifferent. In addition to this drawback, +there being very little wheat grown in the neighbourhood of the +town, and this being much earlier than any of the other fields, +was attacked by the birds as soon as the grain was formed in the +ear. Notwithstanding all the efforts made to prevent them, they +continued feeding upon it until it was cut; and it is a very +moderate estimate of the damage, to say that they destroyed one- +fourth of the crop throughout the field. That part of the field +covered with manure (No. 1) being the earliest, suffered most. +There were patches of several square yards where there did not +appear to be a single grain left; and wherever the birds took a +grain from the middle of the ear, when in the milky state, the +grains on each side of it appeared to grow no more, but shrivelled +up in the ear. + +I have little doubt that in this portion of the field one-third of +the crop was destroyed. All this seems to reduce the experiment to +little more than guess-work; and it will, probably, be very +difficult to persuade those who did not see the field when it was +cut, to credit this report of the devastation made by the birds; +even when they are told that Clitheroe is a town of 7,000 +inhabitants, and probably as many sparrows, and that apparently +they were all assembled to feed in this field; and they became so +accustomed to the good living they found there, that even when our +neighbours' wheat was fit to eat, they continued to favour this +field with their visits in preference to going elsewhere. I +estimate the damage on No. 1 at one-third, No. 2 at one-fourth, +No. 3 at one-fifth; this was later than the others, and suffered +more from rust than birds. + +The following are the results:--From 3,060 yards manured with No. +1, there were obtained 1,042 lbs. of wheat, or 27 1/2 bushels of +60 lbs. each to the statute acre; if we add one-half to this, as +we assume that one-third was destroyed by the birds, it will give +41 1/4 bushels to the statute acre. The weight of straw from this +portion was 188 stones 5 lbs., 14 lbs. to the stone. From 2,856 +yards manured with No. 2, 962 lbs. of wheat were obtained, and 155 +stones 9 lbs. of straw; this is equal to 27 1/4 bushels per acre, +or with one-third added, for estimated damage, it is equal to 36 +bushels per statute acre. From 2610 yards manured with No. 3, +there were 1,067 lbs. of wheat, and 211 stones 7 lbs. of straw, or +33 bushels to the statute acre, to which if we add one-fourth, +according to the estimate of damage, it will be equal to 41 1/4 +bushels per acre. It will be observed that this portion yielded a +far greater weight of straw per acre than either of the others, +and from the sort of manure applied, it was expected that this +would be the case. + +No. 1 yielded straw at the rate of 297 3/4 stones per acre. + " 2 " " " " 246 3/4 " " + " 3 " " " " 392 1/3 " " + +Many people may feel inclined to say, that all these apparent data +are mere guesses, and that a crop may be made into anything one +likes, if they assume so much for damages; but, fortunately, it is +not all guess-work. I have stated previously that I covered a part +of each division with guano a fortnight after the application of +the manures in April, intending to see what advantage was obtained +by the use of it; but, owing to the depredations of the birds, the +portions of the first and second divisions manured with guano were +not kept separate from those which were left without guano; but +the third being later, and, therefore, not so much injured by +them, gave me an opportunity of ascertaining the effect. I +measured off a land which had been so manured, and reaped and +thrashed it out separately. From this land of 100 yards long and +10 feet wide (3,000 square feet), there was obtained 220 lbs. of +wheat, or 53 bushels of 60 lbs. per statute acre; and this was far +from being the best portion of the field. I don't mean that it was +not the best portion of the crop, but I mean that the soil was not +so good there as it was in other parts of the field; as I have +before stated, in the best part of the field the crop was spoiled +by being lodged by the rain, and subsequently attacked by rust. + +I communicate this to you, in the hope that the publication of it +in your paper maybe the means of stimulating others to try the +same experiments. It is not too late yet to try for the next +year's crop, and I have no doubt that Mr. Blyth will be happy to +supply both material and information to any who may require them +from him. It is the duty of everyone to promote the advancement of +agriculture; and this is my contribution towards it. I have not +yet done, for I have sown the same field with wheat again, and +hope, with a favourable season, to reap a still more abundant crop +next year. + +* * * * * + +_To the same._ + +CLITHEROE, _October 12th_, 1844. + +SIR,--Last October you published an account of an attempt of mine +to grow wheat on the same land year after year; and, as I have +repeated the experiment this year, I shall be obliged if you will +be kind enough to insert the account of it in the "Guardian," as +the subject appears to me to be an important one; and, as many +persons who may read this letter may either not have seen the +former, or may have forgotten it, I trust that a short summary of +the former experiments may not be out of place. + +These experiments took place in the autumn of 1841, after the +field had been cleared of a crop of oats, which was a very bad +one; the land being not only naturally poor, but foul and +exhausted by long cropping. As the season was very wet, it was +indifferently cleaned, and one-fourth of it manured with a compost +of night-soil and ashes, and then the field was sowed with wheat. +Two of the remaining three-fourths were manured on the 6th of May, +1842 (the spring being a very dry one, no rain came until that +day), one with guano, the other with nitrate of soda, each at the +rate of two hundredweight to the statute acre, and the remaining +fourth was left unmanured. + +The following were the results at harvest:--That manured with +night-soil and ashes produced 32 bushels of 60 lbs. per acre; +guano, 27 bushels; nitrate of soda, 27 bushels; unmanured, 19 2/3 +bushels. When the field had been cleared of the crop, it was +immediately ploughed up, and, as the season was favourable, the +land was well cleaned and sowed with wheat in October, 1842, +without any manure except 1 cwt. of guano, which was scattered +over it when the wheat was coming up. The field was divided into +three portions, and in April, 1843, was manured as follows:--No. +1, with 90 lbs. of sulphate of magnesia, and 2 cwt. nitrate of +soda to the statute acre; No. 2, with a compound from a +manufacturer of chemical manures; No. 3, with 60 lbs. of silicate +of soda and 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda to the acre; and, with the +view of still further varying the experiment, a part of each +portion was sowed with guano a fortnight after the application of +the chemical manures. The crop promised to be a very good one, but +it was much plundered by the birds, and as the summer was wet, it +suffered also much from rust. Allowing for the destruction +occasioned by the birds, the crop was estimated at: + +41 1/4 bushels in patch No. 1, +36 " " No. 2, +41 1/4 " " No. 3, + +and in that part of No. 3 which was also covered with guano, it +reached by actual weight (not by estimate), 53 bushels of 60 lbs. +to the acre. Those patches in Nos. 1 and 2 which had guano put on +them, suffered so much from the depredations of the birds, that no +account was taken of them separately. The crop was cleared off the +land, which was cleaned, and again sowed with wheat on 3rd +October, 1843. It was drilled in rows seven inches apart, and at +the rate of 2 1/2 bushels to the acre. It is to the results of +this crop that I now wish to call your attention. Before sowing, +the land was subsoiled to the depth of from 14 to 16 inches; +except a strip of about 10 feet in width, down the middle of the +field, which was left untouched for the purpose of determining +what were the advantages derived from subsoiling. If the advantage +was merely that of thorough draining (for the field had not been +thoroughly drained previous to the subsoiling), it was thought +probable that this strip of 10 feet wide would be drained by the +subsoiling on each side of it; but if, in addition to this, the +wheat plant derived more nourishment by striking its root deeper +into the soil, where that was loosened by the subsoil plough, the +crop ought to be better in the subsoiled than in the unsubsoiled +part. The field runs over the ridge of a hill, and upon that ridge +the soil is so poor and thin, that it was deemed expedient to give +it a slight dressing of coal-ashes and night-soil, from an idea +that the plant would scarcely survive the winter unless some +stimulus were applied there; but the ashes contained little +manure, and were only applied to the worst part of the field, +covering about one-third of its surface. The wheat was Spalding's +Prolific; it came up evenly and well all over the field. It was +hand-sowed with lime early in February to the extent of about 24 +cwt. of dry lime on the acre. In order to ascertain the value of +lime, and the proper quantity, I had the field uniformly covered +with it, except one land, which was left entirely without, and the +headlands, which had one three, the other six times as much lime +put upon them as any other part. The field was also dressed with a +chemical manure of the following ingredients on the 16th March, +costing:-- + + L. s. d. + +1 1/4 cwt. nitrate of soda 0 17 6 +1 " impure sulphate of magnesia 0 5 0 + 3/4 " silicate of soda 0 11 3 + 3/4 " common salt 0 2 0 +1 1/4 " gypsum 0 2 0 +Mixing and applying it, say 0 2 3 + +Total for statute acre L2 0 0 + +Speculating on the probability of a dry summer, I gave it an extra +quantity of manure, and I think where guano is used afterwards, as +it is by me, the nitrate of soda might be dispensed with, which +would bring the cost to L1 2s. 6d. per acre. I should prefer guano +to nitrate of soda, because of the phosphates contained in the +former. At the distance we are from the sea (about thirty miles) +it would seldom be necessary to apply common salt, as the gales of +winter generally bring as much as is needed; but last winter we +had no high winds, and I thought that where salt was applied with +other chemical manures, the wheat was more luxuriant than where +there was none; but owing to a misunderstanding of the instructions +to that effect, the produce was not kept separate. When the chemical +manure was applied, one land was left without, for the purpose of +comparison. Guano was sowed on the land on the 29th March, at the +rate of something less than 2 cwt. to the statute acre, one side of +the field being covered with Peruvian, the other with African, and +the land on which no chemical manure had been sowed was half of it +covered with guano, and the other half left without anything except +lime; but as it was thought desirable to ascertain the value of the +chemical manure without guano, half of this patch was sowed with the +chemical manure in April, after the long drought of the last spring +had set in. A small patch was left without manure, to show the +natural condition of the field, and to serve as a comparison with +the manured part alongside it, and also with the condition of the +field when the experiment commenced, 1841-2, when the unmanured +portion yielded only 19 2/3 bushels to the acre. This part of the +experiment, however, was frustrated by the carelessness of the men +who thrashed out the wheat. The crop was a very good one throughout +the field, but was evidently shorter and thinner where there was +no lime, and also where guano was applied alone. It was best on +the headlands where more lime had been applied. The weather was +extremely favourable until the wheat was going out of bloom, but +it then changed, and the crop was beaten down by the rain, in some +places so thoroughly that it never rose again; and from that time +to the day it was reaped (21st August), there were not more than +six fine warm days. This cold and ungenial weather would, no +doubt, materially affect both the quantity and quality of the +crop,--the sample only being just fair. On thrashing out the crop, +I find the result to be as follows:--Where the guano and chemical +manure were applied, but no lime, the yield was 49 1/5 bushels of +60 lbs. per statute acre; where the land was left unsubsoiled, it +was 52 1/2 bushels; when guano alone was applied, it was 42 1/3 +bushels; where the chemical manure alone was applied, it was 43 +1/2 bushels; where the African guano was applied, it was 45 +bushels; where the Peruvian was applied, it was 52 2/3 bushels; on +the headlands, where three times the quantity of lime (or 3 1/2 +tons per acre) was applied, it was nearly 62 bushels; and where +six times the quantity of lime (or 7 tons to the acre), it was 49 +2/3 bushels. I give this last result as it was ascertained, but do +not consider it conclusive, for the wheat plant on this headland +looked quite as well as the other, until it went out of bloom, +when from some unknown cause it was partially blighted; an +irregular patch from a foot to a yard in width and extending +almost from end to end of the headland becoming brown and parched, +as if affected by lightning or some atmospheric visitation. With +the view of making these results a little clearer to the eye, I +subjoin the following tabular statement of the produce per acre in +the different parts of the field:-- + +Bushels of 60 lbs. per statute acre. + +Guano alone 42 1/3 +Chemical manure alone 43 1/2 +Guano and chemical manure, with 24 cwt. +lime to the acre, but land unsubsoiled 52 2/3 +Guano and chemical manure, but no lime 49 1/5 +African guano and lime 45 +Peruvian " " 52 2/3 +" " and 3 times as much lime 62 +" " and 6 " " 49 2/3 +Average crop throughout the field 50 + +It may be as well to observe, that the total expense of manure, +and of its application to that portion of the field which produced +sixty-two bushels per acre (including the guano and the additional +quantity of lime used), was at the rate of 81s. per statute acre. +Deducting the cost of the nitrate of soda, the utility of which, +under the circumstances, I am inclined to doubt, it would have +been 63s. 6d. I consider these to be very favourable results, and +as offering strong inducements to continue the experiment. I have +accordingly had the land ploughed up and cleaned; and it was again +sowed with wheat on the 9th inst. Having detailed the general +results of the experiment, I beg to offer the following remarks +upon some points in it, which seem to me to require a little +elucidation. I consider the success of this experiment to be in a +great measure owing to the use of soluble silica and magnesia; +because, although there is an abundance of silica in the soil, my +first crop showed very miserable results, the grain being ill-fed +and poor, and the straw soft and discoloured, although the year +1842 was, in this district, very favourable for wheat, the month +of August being singularly fine and warm; but when I combined the +nitrate of soda with sulphate of magnesia, as in experiment No. 1 +in 1843, but still more so when I combined it with the silicate of +soda, as in No. 3 of that year, the straw became as strong, firm, +and bright as need be desired; and this year when both these salts +are combined with nitrate of soda, common salt, and gypsum, I have +not only good and bright straw, but also an abundant crop of wheat. + +With respect to the lime used, it may be as well to state that the +field had not been limed for many years, and although in a +limestone district, showed a deficiency of lime on analysis. The +soil is a strong loam, on a brick clay subsoil, in which there is +little or no lime, although the stony clays, which form the +subsoil in a great part of the district, abound in it, containing +from twenty to thirty per cent. of carbonate of lime. I had always +believed that lime was used in great excess in this neighbourhood, +and had, in fact, an idea that its good qualities were overrated, +inasmuch as it does not enter into the composition of the plant, +except in very minute proportion; but last winter I saw a paper +(by Mr. Briggs of Overton) on the possibility of growing wheat on +the same land year after year, in which the utility of lime in +preventing rust was incidentally touched upon. I also saw Liebig's +letters explaining the action of quicklime in liberating potash +from the clay; and then I considered it very important to +ascertain the proper quantity to be applied. The quantity required +to decompose the phosphate of iron was not great, and assuming +Liebig's theory of its action in liberating the potash to be true, +it seemed to me that an excess of lime would permanently +impoverish the land; for, supposing that the crop required 100 +lbs. of potash, and as much lime was applied as liberated 500 +lbs., what became of the 400 lbs. which did not enter into the +composition of the plant? was not a large portion of this 400 lbs. +washed down the drains by the rain, and so lost for ever? Perhaps +the absence of lime in this field accounts for its beneficial +action in the experiment just detailed; but if my supposition is +correct, that any excess of potash which may be liberated from the +clay by the use of quicklime (that is, any more than may be +required to perfect the crop), is washed down the drains, and thus +the land is permanently impoverished by the excessive use of lime, +it behoves landed proprietors to ascertain what is required, and +they should take care to apply no more than is necessary. This +caution is most particularly needed in this neighbourhood, where +lime is cheap, and where the opinion is prevalent that the more +there is applied the better it is for the land, and where it is +common to apply ten or twelve tons to the acre. I have stated +above that chemical manure was applied to a small portion of the +field after the setting-in of the drought in April. The action of +this manure showed that a good thing may be very injurious if +applied at an improper time; for, although it produced a +stimulating effect on the plant immediately after its application, +there was too little moisture in the land to dissolve it +thoroughly, and thus enable the plants to appropriate it, until +the rain came, about the end of June, when the wheat had been in +flower some time; but the stimulus was then so great that all the +plants threw up fresh stalks (from the roots), which were in +flower when the wheat was cut, and it was then found that they had +not only impoverished the plants, but had prevented the grain from +ripening. This was the case not only in the experimental field, +but in several others also, where the chemical manure was sowed +after the setting-in of the drought. When the field was sowed with +guano, it was thought desirable to cover one part of it with the +African, and the other with Peruvian, for the sake of comparison; +but as the African did not appear to produce the same stimulating +effect as the other, fifty per cent. more was applied, that the +cost might be equal (the Peruvian cost 10s., the African 7s. per +cwt.); but as the latter application of the African was made when +the wheat was just shooting into ear, the same objection applies +to the experiment which does to the chemical manure applied after +the drought had set in--viz., that there was not sufficient +moisture in the soil to dissolve it thoroughly until the plant was +too far advanced to benefit by it; and therefore its failure would +be no proof of the value of the African as compared with the +Peruvian, which was the object of the experiment. It is true, no +bad effects followed the application similar to those produced by +the misapplication of the chemical manure in dry weather, yet if +soluble salts like the latter did not find sufficient moisture in +the ground when applied in April, there is reason to suppose that +the former would not do so when applied in May. I regret the +failure of the experiment without any manure, as I think the +result would have shown satisfactorily that the land is so far +from being impoverished by this system of cropping, that it is +improving every year. I think, however, that this is shown by the +produce of the land manured with guano alone. In the first year's +experiment the produce from guano alone was 27 bushels per acre, +and both straw and wheat were very indifferent in quality. This +year the produce from guano alone is 42 1/3 bushels; and although +neither straw nor wheat are so good as upon the adjoining lands, +they are both very much better than they were in 1842. It will be +observed that the result from the unsubsoiled portion is very +good, and if nothing more were said about it, people would be led +to conclude that there was no advantage in subsoiling. But this, +in my opinion, would be a great mistake; for to say nothing of the +advantage which the unsubsoiled portion would derive from the +drainage which it received from the subsoiling on each side of it, +I found, when the field was ploughed up this autumn, that whilst +the unsubsoiled portion was stiff and heavy, the subsoiled part +was comparatively friable and loose, like a garden, and will, I +expect, show its superiority in the succeeding crops. It must be +borne in mind, in reading these experiments, that we have here one +of the most unfavourable climates in the kingdom for growing +wheat, from the excessive quantity of rain that falls, three times +more rain falling annually in the north of Lancashire than at +York, and this, no doubt, is very prejudicial to the success of +such a series of experiments as I have been detailing. It has been +objected to these experiments, that allowing all to have been done +which is here detailed, it leads to no important conclusion; for +although it may be practicable to grow wheat every year, in a +small field like the one experimented on, it is not so on a large +scale. But the objectors should remember that there is not the +seed of a single weed sowed with the manure; and therefore if the +land is thoroughly cleaned, and kept so, by hoeing the crop in the +spring, it will require very little labour to fit it for another. +But I shall be better able to speak on this head next harvest, +having sowed wheat on an oat stubble with once ploughing. It is +said there are no weeds in Chinese husbandry, and if they can +eradicate them completely, so may we, if we adopt the same methods +and follow them up as perseveringly. Again, admitting that it is +not practicable to grow wheat on the same land year after year on +a large scale, yet if we can double the crop in those years in +which we do grow it, by the application of chemical manures (and +the same manures are applicable to all cereal crops), will not +that be a conclusion worth arriving at? That it is possible to do +so, is, I think, sufficiently shown by the results I have +obtained. What, then, may we expect when these experiments are +infinitely multiplied and varied, under the superintendence of +skilful and experienced men, who will devote their whole time and +attention to the subject? Will raising the average produce from +twenty-five to fifty bushels per acre be the utmost limit to which +improvement can be carried? I believe not. In conclusion, I would +urge on all owners and occupiers of land, the importance of +devoting at least a small field to agricultural experiments, as I +think there can be no doubt that, if these are carefully and +systematically made and followed up by agriculturists generally, +we shall be so far from needing an importation of corn in average +years that we shall have a large surplus to spare for our +neighbours. + +NOTE.--In the use of silicates of soda and potash one precaution +is very necessary--viz., that you really have a soluble silicate, +and not a mere mechanical mixture of ground flint and soda: this +is a very different thing, and one, if it be not carefully guarded +against, which will lead to nothing but disappointment. Again, the +silicate may be properly made in the first place, but in a long +exposure to the atmosphere the soda attracts carbonic acid, and +the soda is liberated, and this has defeated my expectations more +than once. Again, though I consider it desirable to defer the +application of it until vegetation has fairly started in the +spring, yet, in one instance, I delayed the application of it so +long, that there was not moisture to dissolve it until the end of +June, and then the wheat began to shoot afresh from the roots and +the crop was seriously injured by it: but this was in an +exceedingly dry spring, and might not happen again for many years. + +* * * * * + +_To the same._ + +LOW MOOR, _18th December_, 1845. + +SIR,--I promised to communicate to you the results of my attempt +to grow wheat on the same land year after year, this being the +fourth crop of wheat (the fifth white crop) grown in successive +years on the same soil, and though I consider the crop an +indifferent one, I don't think the failure ought in any degree to +be attributed to the over-cropping, but to the wetness and +coldness of the season, as well as other untoward circumstances +hereafter to be mentioned. + +In a former letter of mine of the 12th October, 1844--which was +published in the "Guardian" a few days after--I gave an account of +the crop of 1844, which was a very good one, being fifty bushels +to the acre throughout the field, and as much as fifty-two bushels +in the best part of it. This I considered so satisfactory that I +had the field again ploughed up and sowed with wheat on the 9th +October, 1844, and it is to the results of this crop that I wish +to call your attention. As remarked in my former letter, the field +was subsoil ploughed in the autumn of 1843, and this subsoiling +was carried to such a depth that most of the drains in the field +were more or less injured by it; and although this did no injury +to the crop of 1844, owing to the very dry season, yet when the +rain came in the winter of 1844, the want of drainage was found to +be very prejudicial, and in the wet places large patches of the +young wheat went off altogether, and there was a great deficiency +of roots in many parts of the field; the long continuance of frost +and after that the ungenial weather which continued so long in the +spring (of 1845) were also unfavourable, yet with all these +drawbacks the appearance of the plant after the growing weather +_did_ come, was very promising, and many of my friends predicted +that I should have as good a crop as in 1844. On the 24th March I +applied chemical manure of the same kind as I had done in 1844, at +the rate of about 3 1/4 cwt. to the acre (costing 23s. 6d.), and a +fortnight after I had it sowed with 2 cwt. of guano to the acre. +When the warm weather came, these manurings seemed to help it +wonderfully, and it was, as I have before stated, a very promising +crop; but the cold, ungenial weather we had through a great part +of the summer, and the continued rain we had whilst the wheat was +in flower, destroyed all the former promise: and the manuring with +guano, so far from being beneficial, was very injurious--so much +so, that I believe every shilling's-worth of it applied to my +wheat this year, made the crop a shilling worse than if nothing +had been applied; and all ammoniacal manures had the same effect. +It may be asked how I know it was the guano, and not the chemical +manure. In answer to this inquiry, if made, I may observe, that I +supplied two of my neighbours with the chemical manure, and they +applied it without guano on very poor land, and they both assert +they had never such good crops of wheat before; but everywhere in +this neighbourhood, the only good samples of wheat that I saw or +heard of were grown on exhausted soil. This appears to me to be a +strong proof that chemistry has a great deal to learn before it +can adapt its measures to all varieties of seasons, particularly +as it cannot know beforehand how the season may turn out. If +further proof be required of the injurious effect upon grain crops +of ammoniacal manures in general, and of guano in particular, I +may mention that in another field of wheat, sowed on the 21st +December, and which did not come up until the frost broke, in +March (the previous crop having been Swedes), the blade was so +yellow and the plant altogether so small and sickly in appearance, +that I had it manured with a water-cart from a cesspool in April. +This appeared to produce a wonderful improvement immediately, as +the plant assumed a deep green and grew very fast, but when it +ought to have shot, the heads seemed to stick in the sockets, the +blade and straw became mildewed and made no progress in ripening. +It was not fit to cut for three weeks after the experimental +field, although it was an early white wheat, and the result was a +miserable crop--far worse than the experimental field. The +instance of injury from the use of guano, I had from a neighbour, +who told me he had sowed a patch of oats with it, and that they +never ripened at all, and that he was compelled to cut them green +as fodder for his cattle. I had a striking proof this season of +the much lower temperature required by oats than wheat, when +strongly stimulated by manuring. I had gathered an ear of wheat +and a panicle of oats the previous season, which seemed to me to +be superior varieties; and that they might have every chance, I +dibbled them alongside each other in my garden, and determined to +manure them with every kind of manure I could procure, as I had an +idea that it was not easy to over-manure grain crops, if all the +elements entering into the composition of the plant were applied +in due proportion to each other, and I also wished to ascertain +whether wheat and oats would thrive equally well with the same +sort of manuring. I accordingly limed the land soon after the +wheat came up, and in March I applied silicate of soda, sulphate +of magnesia, gypsum, common salt, and nitrate of soda. A fortnight +after this I applied guano, then bones dissolved in sulphuric +acid, then woollen rags dissolved in potash (the two latter in +weak solution); and the consequence was, that I don't think there +was a single grain in the whole parcel--at least I could not find +one--the straw was no great length, and the blade much discolored +with mildew, whilst the oats were seven feet high, and with straws +through which I could blow a pea, and large panicles, although +the oat was not particularly well-fed. The inference I have drawn +from these experiments is, that as far as is practicable the +manuring should be adapted to the temperature, but as this is +obviously impossible in a climate like ours, the only way is to +rather under than over manure, and to apply no ammoniacal manure +to the wheat crop, or at all events very little; for although +guano was beneficial to wheat when used in conjunction with +silicates, &c. &c. in 1844, yet the injury it did in 1845 may very +fairly be set against that benefit. I should feel obliged if any +of your readers who may have tried the experiment of manuring +grain crops with guano, the last season (1845) would publish the +result as compared with a similar crop without such manuring. I +feel convinced that such result would be against the use of guano +for wheat in 1845. I am the more confirmed in the opinion that +ammoniacal manures are unfavourable for wheat, by a series of +articles in the "Gardener's Chronicle" on the "Geo-Agriculture of +Middlesex," in which the writer states that land in that county +which in Queen Elizabeth's time produced such good wheat that it +was reserved for her especial use, will now scarcely grow wheat at +all, and when that grain is sowed upon it, the straw is always +mildewed, and the sample very poor; and this is attributed--and no +doubt justly so--to the extensive use of London manure. My crop +was only 32 bushels to the acre of 60 lbs. to the bushel; last +year the crop, as I have said before, was 50 bushels of the same +weight. + +* * * * * + +_To the same._ + +CLITHEROE, _7th March_, 1848. + +On continuing my attempts to grow wheat on the same land year +after year, I observed that the crop of 1845 was very seriously +injured by the deficient drainage--the old drains having been +destroyed by the subsoil plough. It was therefore necessary to +replace them: they were accordingly put in four feet deep. This +occupied so much time that the season for sowing wheat had gone +by, and the ground was cropped with potatoes, which were got up in +September, and the wheat might have been got in early in October. +But seeing in your paper that sowing too early was not advisable, +and also being carried away by the arguments of the thin-seeders, +I deferred sowing until the middle of November, and then put in +little seed; and the winter proving very unfavourable, when the +wheat was coming up, there was not half plant enough in the +spring, and I hesitated whether to plough up the ground or drill +in barley. I determined to do the latter, which was done on the +18th April, and wheat and barley grew up together, and when cut +and threshed, proved to be equal to 48 bushels to the acre. + +* * * * * + +LOW MOOR, _31st December_, 1844. + +HENRY BRIGGS, ESQ. + +I duly received your obliging letter in reply to my pamphlet on +the growth of wheat year after year on the same land, and now +offer my rejoinder to your remarks. You seem to consider the +expense is too great under the system pursued by me; and that it +was more than was required by the crop, is proved in my opinion by +the fact that the fertility of the land is very much augmented +since the commencement of the experiment in 1841: as my first crop +with guano alone produced only 27 bushels per acre, whilst this +year from guano alone the produce was 42 bushels. But still I +think that your allowance of manure is far too little, and not +exactly what I should apply, and I shall frankly state my +objections and opinions, in the hope that they may elicit a reply +from you, as it will be from discussion and the experiments +instituted to test the various theories propounded, that +agriculture will be most materially benefited. You state that +Liebig's present theory is, that plants obtain the necessary +oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen from the rain and +atmosphere, and that the plants merely require the supply of +inorganic constituents, and that you are inclined to agree with +him. My copy of his work on the Chemistry of Agriculture is his +first edition; and I don't know how far he has since modified or +altered the opinions therein expressed, which are in some degree +at variance with each other. He states that it may be received as +an axiom in agricultural chemistry that the nitrogen of the +atmosphere is never assimilated by plants, except in the form of +ammonia or nitric acid. He certainly states that plants and +animals derive their nitrogen from the atmosphere; but why, if +this be true, does he attach so much importance to the excrements +(particularly urine), of men and animals being husbanded with so +much care? and he states that for every pound of urine wasted, a +pound of wheat is thrown away. But even if he said it was utterly +worthless, every practical farmer who has tried it knows how +exceedingly valuable it is. It may be said there are other +ingredients in urine besides ammonia, and these are what make it +valuable; and in reply to this I would ask what is it that makes +the ammoniacal liquor from gasworks so valuable? There are no +phosphates or alkalies there, and yet what a powerful stimulant it +is. Again, Liebig states that the carbon is derived from the +atmosphere; but to say nothing of the argument which might be +deduced from the advantage which is derived by plants from having +their soil loosened about their roots, the experiments of Dumas +and Boussingault prove that a tree which was cut off below the +branches expired a large quantity of carbonic acid. It may be +asked how I know this was not precipitated by the rain. I don't +know; but if the plant would assimilate this, why should it not +assimilate that which arises from the decomposition of the +carbonaceous matter in the soil? My idea is that it does both, and +that carbon in the soil does good if it offers an abundant supply +of carbonic acid to the plant when it is in a condition to +appropriate it. Your allowance of lime appears to me to be far +too small, for if any reliance can be placed on my experiments, +lime can be profitably used to far greater extent than you seem +to imagine. And, again, you seem to think that where there is +plenty of silex in the soil, the plant will be able to obtain as +much as it requires. I think that it is quite necessary that the +silex should be in a soluble state, as I think that it is not +only desirable that all the elements necessary to fertility should +be in the soil, but that they should be in such a form that they +can be assimilated by the plant. Some of our compounds for +producing fertility may perhaps be as absurd as it would be to +give muriatic acid to a man troubled with indigestion, because +free muriatic acid is found in the stomach of a healthy person. +Let me recommend you to try both silex and magnesia in a soluble +state, and I think you will be satisfied with the benefit derived +from their use. + +Recurring again to the quantity of manure necessary to grow +thirty-six bushels of wheat, I would ask, why limit yourself to so +small a crop? The difference in the cost of your manuring a field, +and my manuring it, is more than made up by the increase of +fourteen bushels of wheat and the corresponding increase of straw, +even if the land did not improve every year by the application; +and as the seed, rent, labour, and liabilities of the land are the +same whether you grow a small crop or a large one, why not have it +as large as possible? Again, if I applied far more manure than was +necessary, I ought to have had the crop equally good throughout +the field; but on the ridge of the hill, where the soil was thin +and poor, neither straw nor wheat were so good as they were where +it was deeper and richer. My own opinion is, that the plant is +never able to extract from the soil all the manure, and therefore +it ought to be brought up to a good standard before good crops can +be expected. I am not satisfied with any analogy that I can think +of, but the best that occurs to me is that of a cloth in a dye- +copper. You can never get it to absorb either all or half the +colouring matter, and if you don't use far more than is taken up +by the cloth, you will never obtain the desired results. Besides, +in chemical combinations it is desirable to use far more than the +chemical equivalents, or the experiments don't succeed. I perceive +that you intend to use guano next year, and that you intend to use +it along with the seed. I trust it will not be sowed in contact +with either the seed or the quicklime, which you proposed to use +in some of your land. The best time I have found for applying +guano is in wet weather, just when vegetation is making a start in +the spring--say the last week in March, or the first week in +April--as I fear a large part of the soluble portion of it would +be washed away by the rains of winter. It is true we have had none +this winter, but when shall we have such another? Did you ever use +woollen rags as manure? They ought to be excellent, as they are +almost all albumen, and are, I fancy, to be had at a very moderate +price, not far from you. Can you inform me what it is that causes +the land to be clover-sick? If it is the abstraction of something +from the soil, what is that something? Sir Humphrey Davy said that +a dressing of gypsum would prevent it; but clover does not succeed +here (even when dressed with gypsum), if sowed every four years. +One reason why I think so small a quantity of manure will not +succeed, is based on the theory of excrementitious secretion. +Decandolle proved that this secretion took place, but he did not +succeed in proving that it poisoned the land for a similar crop. I +can only reason from analogy, and it does not follow that an +analogy drawn from animal life will hold good when applied to +plants; but if we were to feed an animal with pure gluten and pure +starch, with the proper quantity of phosphates, &c., are we to +suppose it would have no excrements? Let this be applied to +plants: are we to suppose that the plant assimilates all that is +absorbed by its roots and leaves? When that which is absorbed is +what would enter into the composition of the plant, is it not more +rational to suppose that the inorganic and gaseous constituents +only combine in fixed proportions, and that although the plant may +absorb a much larger proportion of one than is required, the +surplus is discharged excrementitiously, and perhaps may be +unfitted for entering into the plant until it has undergone a +decomposition? In conclusion, I trust you will pardon my frankness +in so boldly canvassing your opinions; but it is in this collision +of opinion that the truth will be elicited, and if I judge you +aright, it is that you wish to discover whether it harmonizes with +your preconceived notions or not. + +* * * * * + +LOW MOOR, _1st May_, 1845. + +HENRY BRIGGS, ESQ. + +I duly received your pamphlet on the use of lime, for which I am +much obliged, and am delighted to perceive that you confirm the +idea (expressed in my pamphlet on the growth of wheat every year +on the same land) that the excessive use of lime is ultimately +injurious to the fertility of the soil to which it is applied. +This, coming from a gentleman of your reputation and experience, +will, I hope, induce someone capable of performing the experiment +to endeavour to ascertain with precision how much lime it is +desirable to apply to an acre to give the best results, and with +the least waste, assuming that the land contained little or none +previous to the experiment; and it would also be desirable to +ascertain whether it is better, in an economical point of view, to +apply a small quantity every year, or a larger quantity every +third or fourth. My own opinion is in favour of the former method, +except that it is difficult to get it ploughed in, particularly in +wet weather, immediately after spreading (which is essential where +you grow wheat on the same land every year) without injuring the +feet of the horses. You speak of ten days or a fortnight being +necessary to neutralize caustic lime, but our horses had their +feet injured by it six weeks after it had been spread on the land, +last year, although the weather had been wet almost the whole of +the time, say from the beginning of February to the middle of +March. You appear to think that lime will replace silica in the +wheat plant. Whose authority have you for this? It will be very +important to establish this supposition, but I fear it is too good +news to be true. On referring to your letter, I find you don't say +what I supposed you did, but that the lime liberates the soluble +silicates, potash, &c. This may be, and certainly the beneficial +effects of lime in growing wheat are not to be explained by any +other hypothesis with which I am acquainted. I am this year trying +some experiments to ascertain (if I can) the cause of clover- +sickness, and I hope to be in a position to say whether your +supposition that lime, gypsum, &c. will prevent it, is correct. My +experiments so far are opposed to this theory, but it is not very +safe or philosophical to draw conclusions from one or two +experiments only. I doubt the possibility of making silicate of +soda by merely mixing lime, sand, and salt together, as my +chemical friends tell me this cannot be accomplished unless the +silex and the alkali are fused together. If a soluble silicate of +soda can be made in the way you mention, it will be a great saving +of expense. Has it been tried? You have no doubt seen a report of +the enormous crop of wheat grown in a field in Norfolk last year +(90 bushels to the acre), and that the Royal Agricultural Society +have determined to have the soil analyzed by Dr. Playfair. This is +very desirable, but as Dr. Playfair is more of a lecturing than an +analyzing chemist, I think it is very necessary that his analysis +should be checked by another, made by the most eminent chemist +that Europe can produce, for 90 bushels is so unheard-of a crop, +that no expense should be spared which would enable us to +ascertain what the soil contained to enable it to produce such a +crop, which is the more remarkable as the field seems to have been +a good many years under the plough. As your Wakefield Farmers' +Club has many wealthy members in it, allow me to hint the +desirableness of your undertaking this analysis, which, if +properly performed, will be worth a thousand times more than its +cost. When you are aware that even Davy missed 16 per cent. of +alumina in one of his analyses and that the chemists of the +present day don't seem to have detected the potash which exists so +abundantly in potato-tops, you will, I think, agree how +exceedingly important it is that such analysis should be checked +by others, made without any communication between the parties. You +speak of an original letter of Liebig's appearing in the "Farmer's +Journal." On what subject is it? as I have no means of referring +to the periodical in question. Does it throw any light upon the +new manure for which he is said to be taking out a patent? You +speak of humus and humic acid. What do you understand by humus? +as, according to Liebig, humus sometimes means one thing and +sometimes another, and he appears to treat it very much as modern +chemists treat phlogiston, as something which they don't +comprehend, but which they need to explain the phenomena of +vegetation. If you are a believer in humus, what is it composed +of, and how does it act in forwarding vegetation? I suppose you +will reply, By combining with oxygen and forming humic acid. But +would not the theory of the decomposition of carbon do quite as +well? I don't perceive the injurious effects of quicklime upon +grass land which you anticipate in your paper, but the contrary, +and the more caustic it is the more beneficial is its action, so +far as I can judge from my own experiments; and it is my practice +in liming grass land to spread it as soon as I can get it into the +state of flour. I shall be glad to hear the result of your +electrical experiment--at present I am rather sceptical on the +subject. + +P.S.--Am I to suppose that you have abandoned the idea of manuring +an acre of wheat for thirteen shillings? + +* * * * * + +THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. + +_October 1st_, 1852. + +To the Editor of the "Manchester Guardian." + +The increasing quantity of agricultural produce consumed in this +country makes it desirable that the cultivation of the land should +be carried to the highest point consistent with profit; and the +increasing scarcity of agricultural labourers will shortly render +it difficult for the farmers in some districts to gather in their +crops. It therefore becomes increasingly desirable that every +mechanical contrivance which will facilitate their doing so should +be made as perfect as possible; and also that the crops themselves +should be so cultivated as to make these mechanical aids to work +to the greatest advantage. + +But it has been a difficult matter (at least in the wet climate of +Lancashire) to ascertain how far it is prudent to manure for +wheat, for in unfavourable seasons the plant runs so much to straw +that it is liable to lodge, and become mildewed; in which cases +the manure is not only wasted, but becomes positively injurious, +as appears to be the case in the South of England this year, and +as was also the case in the North in 1845, when every shilling +expended in manuring the wheat crops of that year made the crop at +least a shilling worse than if no manure had been applied. + +But if we could find a wheat so short in the straw that it would +bear heavy manuring without being lodged, wheat-growing would be a +far less hazardous occupation than it is at present, and we might +confidently calculate on a far greater production than we can now. + +The following appear to me to be some of the advantages of growing +a short-strawed wheat:-- + +1st. It will bear highly manuring without lodging, and with much +less liability to mildew, than a long-strawed wheat. + +2nd. The proportion of grain to straw is greater in short than in +long-strawed wheat. + +3rd. As it very rarely lodges, it will be far better suited to the +reaping-machine than a long-strawed wheat; and no doubt other +advantages will occur to the minds of experienced agriculturists. + +When making these assertions I ought to state that my experience +of wheat-growing does not extend beyond the counties of York and +Lancaster, but from what I can learn of the agriculture of more +southerly districts, I fancy these opinions of mine will be found +correct even there. I may be asked to prove my assertion, and I +will endeavour to do so. + +I have been experimenting on the growth of wheat for the last ten +or eleven years--particularly with reference to the practicability +of doing this on the same land year after year; and that I might +do it in the most satisfactory manner, I have varied my seed-wheat +and my manure very frequently: but I very soon discovered that the +advantages of abundance of manure and high cultivation did not +insure good crops of wheat, inasmuch as in our moist climate, we +had not one summer in five that was favourable, and consequently +the crop was generally lodged, and the straw mildewed. I found +that the time of sowing, and also of applying the manure, were +matters of great importance, and it occurred to me that the remedy +would be--a straw so short, that it would not lodge when highly +manured. I consequently addressed a query to the "Gardener's +Chronicle," asking what was the shortest-strawed variety of wheat +known, and was told that Piper's Thickset was so; I therefore got +some of this sort from Mr. Piper, which I have cultivated since +1847. It is a coarse red wheat, but the quality has improved with +me every year, and this season _being the third successive crop on +the same land_, I have nearly eight quarters to the statute acre +from this variety. + +2. The proportion of wheat in Piper's Thickset is 38 per cent. of +the gross weight of the crop; in the Hopetown wheat (I speak of my +own crops only), 34 per cent. + +3. Not having seen a reaping-machine, it may seem absurd in me to +say that short-strawed wheat is better adapted to it than long- +strawed; but every report of the working of these machines goes to +show that, so far, they are not well adapted to the cutting of +laid corn; therefore a variety that always stands upright will be +much better suited to the working of them. + +I have been trying for the last six years to obtain (by cross- +breeding) a wheat of good quality, and with a straw shorter than +Piper's, but hitherto with indifferent success; but, thanks to the +kindness of Messrs. Brownells, of Liverpool, who furnished me with +many samples of Chilian wheat about three years ago, I have now +got varieties much shorter in the straw than Piper's, and some +which appear to be of much better quality, but these will require +to be tested for a year or two before I can speak decisively about +them. The Chilian varieties are very difficult to acclimatize. The +original samples were beautiful white wheats, very much resembling +the Australian, but when grown in Lancashire they resemble rye +more than wheat, and three years' sowing has not much improved +them. It has, however, enabled me to obtain crosses which seem +better adapted to the soil and climate, and so short in the straw +that the highest manuring produces no tendency to lodge. + +If we could obtain a variety of wheat of good quality, which, +instead of two tons of straw and one of wheat to the acre, +produced a ton and a half of each, it might be profitably +cultivated, and the differences in the chemical composition of +grain and straw are not so very great as to make me despair of +this being done some time or other. It may be asked, Where can a +short-strawed wheat of good quality be procured? To this I am +afraid the reply will be, Nowhere at present. But can none of our +expert manipulators, who rejoice exceedingly when they cross-breed +a geranium or a fuchsia, turn their attention to the cross-breeding +of wheat? Cannot the Royal Agricultural Society offer a premium +for a short-strawed wheat of good quality? Do none of the great +agriculturists themselves see how desirable such a wheat would be +for the agriculture of this country? Apparently not; for with the +exception of Mr. Raynbird, of Hampshire, I am not aware of one +scientific operator who is endeavouring to produce such a wheat. +My own attempts at cross-breeding are such as may be tried by +anyone who has sufficient perseverance, and (with one or two +exceptions, of doubtful success) have been confined to sowing the +different varieties I wished to cross in contiguous drills, and +then sowing the produce of these. At the second harvest I +carefully select such ears as differ from both varieties, and at +the same time seem by their quality of grain and the shortness of +their straw to be the best suited to my wishes. It has been, no +doubt, to the accidental contact of distinct varieties that we owe +the numerous kinds now known to agriculturists, and which differ +from each other in colour, quality, yield, and comparative value +in the various districts in which they are grown. + +Fully sensible of my inability to do justice to this important +subject, I yet hope (if you do me the honour to publish my letter) +that my remarks may induce scientific men to consider it; for it +appears unaccountable to me that hitherto they seem to have +thought it unworthy of their attention. + +P.S.--There is still time to try the experiment during the present +season. If any gentleman wishes to try the short-strawed Chilian +wheat, I shall be glad to give him a sample of it for the purpose +of cross-breeding. Samples were sent to Mr. H. Briggs, Mr. +Raynbird, and Mr. Stevenson, Stockport. + +* * * * * + +_January 27th_, 1848. + +To the Editor of the "Agricultural Gazette." + +You invite persons who have grown good crops of grain or turnips +to forward you the particulars. I therefore enclose you an account +of an attempt which I made to grow wheat on the same land year +after year, that account reaching to the fourth white crop in +1844. As I still continue the experiment, I shall be in a position +to continue the account up to the present time (as I am now +threshing out the last year's crop), and will send it to you if +you think it worthy of insertion in the "Agricultural Gazette." + +If the account I now send is not worth inserting, please to send +it to your correspondent A. W., who doubted whether there were +authenticated instances of land producing eighty, seventy, or even +fifty bushels to the acre. + +I attribute my success in growing wheat to the use of silicate of +soda, and yet, singularly enough, until now I have been unable to +induce anyone else to try it. This season, however, several +persons have applied to me to procure it for them. Among them is +the talented editor of the "Liverpool Times," whose farm at Barton +Moss shows what good management will accomplish on very +unpromising soils. If, as I hope will be the case, the silicate of +soda should supply to peat its greatest deficiency, no one will +more readily discover it than Mr. Baines. + +In the use of silicates of soda and potash, one precaution is very +necessary, namely, that you really have a soluble silicate, not a +mere mechanical mixture of ground flint and alkali. This is a very +different thing, and one which, if it be not carefully guarded +against, will lead to nothing but disappointment. + +Again, the silicate of soda may be properly made, in the first +instance, but in a long exposure to the atmosphere, the soda +attracts carbonic acid, and is liberated from the silex, and this +has disappointed my expectation more than once. + +Again, though I consider it desirable to defer the application of +soluble silicates until vegetation has made a fair start in the +spring, yet in one instance I delayed the application of it so +long that there was not moisture to dissolve it until the end of +June, and then the plant began to send up suckers from the roots, +and the crop was seriously injured by it; but this was in an +exceedingly dry spring, and may not happen again for many years. + +* * * * * + +CLITHEROE, _March 7th_, 1848. + +In continuing my attempts to grow wheat on the same land year +after year, I observed that the crop of 1845 was very seriously +injured by the deficient drainage--the old drains having been +destroyed by the subsoil plough. It was therefore necessary to +replace them; they were accordingly put in four feet deep. This +took up so much time, that the season for sowing wheat had gone +by, and the ground was cropped with potatoes, which were dug up in +September, and the wheat might have been got in early in October; +but seeing in your paper that sowing too early was not advisable, +and also being carried away by the arguments of the thin-seeders, +I deferred sowing until the middle of November, and also put in +little seed, and the weather proving very unfavourable when the +wheat was coming up, there was not half plant enough in the +spring, and I hesitated whether to plough up the ground or to +drill in barley. I determined to do the latter. It was put in on +the 18th April, and wheat and barley grew up together, and when +cut and threshed, it yielded 48 bushels to the acre. + +* * * * * + +ON THE GRAVELLING OF CLAY SOILS. + +There is an old story of a man, who, having a very stony field, +determined to experiment on the value of these stones in the +growth of his crops. + +With this view he divided his field into three equal parts. From +No. 1 he gathered all the stones, which he spread upon No. 3, +leaving No. 2 in its original condition. He then sowed barley over +the whole field, and carefully noted the results. The story ends +by saying that No. 1 bore a miserably poor crop, No. 2 a tolerable +one, and No. 3 a splendid one. + +I quote this story as a text on which I wish to speak as to the +advantage of gravelling heavy clay soils. Some weeks since I spent +a few days at the village of Milnthorpe, in Westmoreland, and +during one day with Mr. Hutton, the celebrated bone-setter, I +remarked that the land was very stony, being covered with stones +(not pebbles) having very much the appearance of road metal. He +replied, that these stones were essential to the fertility of the +soil, and said that some years before there was a great demand for +such material in the neighbourhood of Preston, and the high prices +stimulated the farmers to gather these stones from their land, and +send them to Preston; but the consequences were so injurious to +the growth of their crops, that they were compelled--at least +those who had the means of doing so--to lead stones again upon +their land before their crops would grow again with the vigour +which they had before the stones were abstracted. This brought to +mind what had occurred in my own farm practice. A church was built +in the neighbourhood, and the stones for it were hewn on the +corner of a field which was afterwards sown with wheat, and I +remarked that the straw was much brighter, the ripening was +forwarded ten days, and the sample was much better where the +stones had been hewn than elsewhere in the field. (The stones of +which the church was built were of ordinary sandstone, probably +millstone grit.) + +Borrowing from this hint, I had the field covered with about 400 +cartloads of alluvial gravel (from the bed of the river) to the +acre, and the land was then ploughed two furrows deep, one plough +following the other. Previous to this gravelling, the land was a +stiff, obdurate clay nearly to the surface. The subsequent effect +was the doubling, or more probably trebling the value of the land, +which has now become a nice friable soil. + +I was much amused with the criticisms of some of the neighbouring +farmers (men of the old school), one of whom remarked that he had +seen land tilled (manured) in various ways before my time, but +until now he had never seen a field tilled with cobble-stones. I +said, "What is your objection to it, John?" "Why, ye see, it makes +th' land so poor." I replied, "Making anything or anybody poor, +means robbing them of something. If you had twenty shillings in +your pocket, and I filled it up with these cobble-stones, how much +poorer would you be? Of what have I robbed this field by putting +gravel into it?" "Why, of nothing; but it looks so queer." I said, +"John, did you never hear of a man gathering the stones off his +field, and then having to lead them back again?" "Yes, I have; but +then they were _natural_ to the soil." I said, "What does manuring +land mean, but putting something into it of which it is deficient? +You don't till a muck-midden. If in stony land stones are +essential for the vigorous growth of the crop, is it not +exceedingly probable that they will be still more beneficial on +stiff land which has no stones in it?" + +This is a doctrine I tried many years since to inculcate upon our +friend Mechi, and some of his land (I speak of its condition +twenty years since) needed such a gravelling as much as any land I +ever saw. Whether he adopted my suggestion, or his land remains +in the same condition now as then, I don't know; but if it does, I +would just suggest to him and to all landed proprietors who own +stiff clay lands, if they are near to gravel-pits, to try a small +portion by gravelling it freely, and let us hear the results. + +_December 2nd_, 1871. + +* * * * * + +COTTON. + +_June 1st_, 1842. + +J. KINDERMANN, ESQ. + +I have for some time intended to call your attention to the +importance of attempting to grow fine cotton in Peru, but my +inability to do justice to the subject, both from my being +practically unacquainted with any mode of growing cotton and my +general want of information, has hitherto prevented me; but as I +made you a promise to that effect yesterday, I have endeavoured to +put a few suggestions on paper, and hope that if they be carefully +acted upon, some benefit may be derived from the experiments. + +We have been (as you are aware) consumers of Peruvian cotton to +some extent for the last six or eight months, and from the +observations I have made on it during that time, I have no +hesitation in saying that it possesses many excellences: it is +long enough (almost too long), very sound in staple, and where +well managed of a very good colour. Its defects are coarseness and +harshness of staple, and if these could be removed I don't see +what is to prevent its rivalling the Egyptian and Sea Islands +cotton, any considerable approximation to which would very +materially enhance its value, seeing that the highest quotation +for Sea Island, was last week 30d. per lb. (2s. 6d.), whilst the +highest for Peruvian was no more than 6 1/2 d. + +With the view of improving the quality of the cotton in Peru, I +would strongly recommend you to send seeds of various kinds, +packed in air-tight boxes, particularly Sea Island and Egyptian, +which some of the cotton-brokers would easily procure from the +spinners using these descriptions, and, judging from what I hear +of the climate of both countries, I should think the Egyptian +would go to a very similar atmosphere and mode of cultivation to +that of the country where it had been raised, which would probably +render it more easy to acclimatize, and, of course, make it more +likely to succeed than a sort of cotton which had been grown under +dissimilar circumstances of soil, climate, and mode of cultivation. + +These seeds when sown, ought (with the exceptions hereafter to be +mentioned) to be planted at such a distance from all other cottons +as to render it very unlikely for the wind or insects to carry the +pollen from the flowers of one kind to those of another; for +without this precaution, such is the tendency in many genera of +plants to hybridize (and I believe, from what I have heard, there +is this tendency in the different varieties of cotton) or cross- +breed with each other, that, however good the quality in the first +instance, they would all revert to the old variety in a year or +two in consequence of the great preponderance of that variety over +any newly-introduced ones. So much are the growers of turnip-seed +for sale in England aware of the importance of attending to this, +that the greatest precautions are taken to remove all _cruciform +plants_ from the vicinity of the field whilst their turnips are in +flower, as there is such a tendency in them all to hybridize that +the quality of the seed is often injured by the wild mustard +(_Sinapis arvensis_) springing up in the same or the adjoining +fields; whilst, on the other hand, by carefully selecting the best +bulbs for seed, and by judiciously crossing one variety with +another, new sorts are obtained, combining the excellences of +both. This leads me to observe, that probably seed of foreign +varieties of cotton may not thrive well in the first instance, and +I would therefore strongly recommend the gentlemen who may make +the experiment carefully to select seed from the plants on their +estates which they see are growing the best and finest cotton, and +sow them in contact with a few seeds of each of the sorts you may +send out, carefully removing them in every instance as far as may +be practicable from the vicinity of all other cotton; and then +again sowing the seeds which are obtained from the plants thus +raised in contiguity to each other, and carefully examining the +cotton grown upon each of them, it is more than probable they will +find that _some_ of the plants will be varieties partaking of the +character of both the parent kinds, and by selecting the best of +these and sowing them only (still apart from all other cotton), +there is little doubt that much benefit will be derived by the +persevering and skilful cultivator. + +I have heard it stated that the origin of Sea Island cotton is to +be traced to something of this kind. An observing and experimental +planter, by carefully examining his cotton, and by sowing his seed +only from those plants that produced the finest and longest +staple, at last arrived at the excellent quality which is now +known by that name. + +Look, again, at what has been done in Egypt by the introduction of +better varieties of cotton. There these improved varieties have by +no means had a fair chance of showing what they are capable of +becoming, inasmuch as the wretched cultivator has not the +slightest inducement to improve their quality--he gets no more per +pound for the finest and cleanest cotton than he does for the +coarsest and dirtiest, and therefore it is not very likely to +improve under his care. But with all this neglect and want of +management, we can see by what it is, what it would most probably +become in the hands of an enterprising and intelligent man who +knew that every improvement he made in its quality would be to his +own advantage. Assuming that your Peruvian friends could so far +improve the quality of their cotton as to double its value in this +market (and I don't think myself too sanguine in expecting more +than this), with very little extra labour nearly all the +additional price would be profit. + +But supposing even that cross-breeding, or hybridizing, as the +horticulturists call it, does not frequently occur naturally in +cotton, it is well known that it is very easy to effect it +artificially by prematurely unfolding the petals and with fine +scissors cutting away all the stamens before impregnation takes +place. This requires to be carefully done, so as not to injure the +petals, and they will then close again of themselves, and when +they expand naturally, then impregnate the stigma of the flower +with the pollen of the kind you want to cross with. We owe many of +our finest varieties of fruits to this practice. The late Mr. +Payne Knight was very successful in raising new varieties of many +sorts of fruit in this way, and it appears to me from the +experiments I have made that the more frequently this cross- +breeding takes place, the more easy (within certain limits) is it +to extend it until cultivation has so completely changed the +character of the plant that it bears very little resemblance to +its original stock. There is nothing growing wild like our +cabbages, turnips, and cauliflowers; nor even like our carrots, +celery, and asparagus. Where are the originals of our wheat, +barley, rye, beans, and peas? Many of these appear to be so +completely transformed by cultivation that we don't know where to +look for the parent stocks from which they originated. But I am +forgetting cotton altogether, yet beg to refer to the preceding +paragraph to show how much is owing to careful cultivation, and +trust that it may not be without its use if my letter induces your +friends to make the experiments here suggested, even though their +first attempts are unsuccessful. + +This letter was translated into Spanish and circulated in Peru, +but with what success I do not know. It was also published in the +"Gardener's Chronicle," and led to a reply from Dr. Royle, which +occasioned the following letter. + +* * * * * + +_August 14th_, 1845. + +To the Editor of the "Gardener's Chronicle." + +I am very glad that my letter and your remarks on the improvement +of cotton in India have attracted the attention of so able a +correspondent as G. F. R. (Dr. Royle), who appears to be +conversant with a good deal of what has been attempted there. No +doubt there are, as he states, great diversities of soil and +climate in so extensive a country as India; and if so, although +there may be some which are not adapted to the growth of either +the _Gossypium Barbadense_ or the _Gossypium Peruvianum_, there +must be both soil and climate suited to them in various localities +in that country. + +My chief reason for suspecting that the injury arises from the new +kinds hybridizing with the indigenous cotton, is, that very good +cotton has been grown from both varieties in the first generation, +but when the seed from this first crop is sown again, the quality +always deteriorates (at least all the gentlemen say so with whom I +have conversed on this subject). I have a sample of Indian-grown +cotton of excellent quality from Pernambuco seed, worth twice as +much as the best Surat cotton I ever saw; but I cannot learn that +anything deserving the name of aught but a sample was ever +obtained. We hear of no increase in the quantity of this improved +variety; it does not--like cotton in the United States--go on from +ten bags to ten thousand, in eight or ten years; on the contrary, +so far as I can learn, it dwindles away to nothing. The Tinnivelly +cotton brought forward as an example by your correspondent is no +exception to this--it is no more like Bourbon cotton, than Bowed +cotton is like Sea Island--at least none that I ever saw. Bourbon +is a long, silky-stapled cotton, whilst Tinnivelly has the +shortness and inequality of fibre common to most of the cotton of +India. It is generally much cleaner than the cotton grown on the +western side of India, but this arises from the greater care in +picking it. + +An intelligent friend of mine, now in India, says that the pod of +cotton is overhung by a brown leaf (bractea?), and if the cotton +is gathered early in the morning, whilst the dew is on the plant, +this leaf is tough and does not break, and the cotton is gathered +clean; but if it is picked after the dew has evaporated, this leaf +is brittle, and gets mixed with the cotton in the picking. But he +says that no persuasion can induce the ryots to keep that which is +picked in the morning from that which is gathered in the heat of +the day. He also suggests that the cotton should be irrigated +during its growth, and alleges as a motive for doing this, that in +Egypt and Peru no good cotton can be grown without resorting to +it. But the cases are not exactly parallel, inasmuch as no rain +falls in either of these countries, whilst rain is most abundant +in India, eighty or ninety inches of rain sometimes falling at +Bombay in three months during the monsoon. + +Another intelligent gentleman with whom I have conversed on this +subject since my former letter was written, and who has resided at +Bombay many years, where he has paid much attention to this +subject, tells me that the gentleman entrusted by the East India +Company with the management of one of the experimental cotton +estates, assures him he has grown excellent Orleans cotton, and +that the ryots were so satisfied with its superiority over the +indigenous kind that 1,200 begahs (say 300 acres) were planted +with it. But this was two years ago, and as the disturbances took +place in this very neighbourhood, he fears these plantations have +perished, as he heard no more of the matter, and had omitted to +inquire of the gentleman entrusted with the management. + +I reserved this until I saw the second letter from your +correspondent G. F. R., which I have now read, as well as an +article on the same subject in the "Manchester Guardian," in which +it is stated that 20,000 acres are now under cultivation, planted +with this improved cotton. I fear this is too good news to be +true. My informant is a gentleman who was in correspondence with +Mr. Mercer, the superintendent of these cotton estates, or some of +them, and I have again questioned him. He says that the crop which +would be gathered in March last, would amount to what I have +stated (1,200 begahs), according to Mr. Mercer's letter to him, +but he says it is now twelve months since he heard from Mr. +Mercer, as he left Bombay for England shortly after. His fear was +that none of this cotton would be gathered, as the disturbances +which took place in Central India, and which required so long a +time to quell them, were in this very district. If your +correspondent G. F. R. has got samples of this improved cotton, of +the second or third generation, he would confer a great obligation +upon me by sending me a small sample of it by post. But this is +wandering from what I intended to say, which was most heartily to +thank your correspondent for his second communication, which goes +far to prove the truth of what I had previously supposed, that the +cotton of India is capable of great improvement by being +judiciously crossed with suitable foreign varieties. Your +correspondent thinks if the old varieties deteriorate the new when +growing in proximity to each other, the new ought, for the same +reason, to improve the old; and no doubt they will, but to a much +smaller extent. It is said that a man leaping up into the air +attracts the earth (proportionately) as much as the earth attracts +him, and it may be so with the old and new cotton. What I mean to +say is, that although some of the old sort of cotton might be +hybridized by the new, the improved variety would be in so small a +quantity that a thousand to one the cultivator would never observe +it; and such is the aversion or indifference to anything new among +the natives of India, that if an improved plant were observed, it +is again a thousand to one he would take no pains to preserve it; +and if he did, it is again perhaps a thousand to one that it would +be entirely spoilt in the next generation by being planted among +the indigenous sorts. + +I trust your correspondent will continue to favour us with his +communications whenever he has any fresh information on the +subject, which, the more it is considered the more important it +seems to be. + +* * * * * + +PAPERS ON NATURAL HISTORY. + +* * * * * + +WRENS' NESTS. + +THE Editor of Loudon's "Magazine of Natural History," and one of +his contributors, Mr. Jennings, were of opinion that the common +Wren never lined its nest with feathers. The following contribution +was sent to the "Magazine of Natural History" in consequence of +this, and led to some discussion afterwards:-- + +_April 17th_, 1829. + +Mr. Jennings and yourself, in opposition to Montagu, are of +opinion that the Wren never lines its nest with feathers; like the +knights of the gold-and-silver shield, both sides are right. It is +true, many Wrens' nests may be found in which there are no +feathers; but did you ever find either eggs or young ones in them? + +As far as my observations go, the nest in which the Wren lays its +eggs is profusely lined with feathers; but during the period of +incubation, the male--apparently from a desire to be doing +something--constructs several nests in the vicinity of the first, +none of which are lined; and whilst the first nest is so artfully +concealed as to be found with difficulty, the last is very often +seen. The Wren does not appear to be very careful in the selection +of a site for these cock-nests, as they are called in Yorkshire by +the schoolboys. I have frequently seen them in the twigs of a +thick thorn hedge, under banks, in haystacks, in ivy bushes, in +old stumps, in the loopholes of buildings, and in one instance in +an old bonnet, which was placed among some peas to frighten away +the blackcaps. + +* * * * * + +_August 15th_, 1831. + +TO PROFESSOR RENNIE. + +In your edition of Montagu's "Ornithological Dictionary," just +published, you say--speaking of the Wren--"An anonymous +correspondent of Loudon's 'Magazine of Natural History,' &c. &c.;" +and you remark, "There can be no doubt of these supposed 'cock- +nests' being nothing more than unfinished structures of paired +birds; otherwise, the story would require the support of very +strong evidence to render it credible." + +As I am the anonymous correspondent alluded to, I forward you a +few observations of facts tending, as I think, to confirm my view +of the question. + +In the first place, these nests are far too abundant for the +birds, which are not plentiful--at least, in this neighbourhood. +Again, it is at least five to one that any Wren's nest which is +found during the summer without a lining of hair or feathers is +ever completed, or has any eggs in it. This I have verified in a +hundred instances, when, having found Wrens' nests, I have visited +them again at intervals, for the purpose of ascertaining whether +my opinion of cock-nests was correct. + +Farther, in a small wood adjoining my garden, where I was certain +there was only one pair of Wrens, I found at least half-a-dozen +nests, not one of which was either lined with feathers or ever had +eggs in it; although I discovered they were not all deserted, as I +found an old bird roosting in one of them. I was induced to be +more particular in my remarks in consequence of my seeing Mr. +Jennings's remarks in the "Magazine of Natural History;" and I +searched, as I supposed, every bank, bush, and stump in the wood +two or three times before I could find the breeding-nest, which I +at last discovered in the twigs of a willow on the bank of the +river, in the centre of a bunch of tangled grass, cotton waste, +and straws which had been left there by the floods, and which the +bird had apparently excavated and in it formed its nest, which was +profusely lined with rooks' feathers. + +The fear of being thought tedious prevents my giving other facts +which tend, as I think, to prove the correctness of my opinion; +however, I will just add that all the persons with whom I have +conversed who take an interest in such pursuits, agree with me in +opinion in this matter. + +The nest I have just spoken of was also a strong proof that Wrens, +although they may not always adapt their materials to the locality +they have chosen for a nest, frequently do so; and if this is not +with the intention of concealing it, but merely because the +materials are at hand, it serves the purpose of concealment also, +and very effectually. The one I am speaking of was so exactly like +the other lumps of rubbish which had been left by the floods in +the same bush, that I did not discover that it was a Wren's nest +until I had pulled it out of the twigs; and if a Wren builds its +nest in a haystack--which it frequently does--the front of the +nest is almost invariably composed of the hay from the stack, +which prevents its being seen much more effectually than if the +moss of which the body of the nest is composed were visible on the +outside. + +The fact that the long-tailed tits occasionally associate to the +number of six or seven, and have a nest in common, which is +mentioned in the same page of the "Magazine of Natural History" as +the Wrens' nests, I could prove by the testimony of twenty people +who saw the nest and young there spoken of. I should be glad to +learn whether the same thing has been noticed by other people. + +Among the few rare birds which it has been my good fortune to +procure is a Woodpecker, which I killed this summer, and which is +not mentioned in your edition of Montagu, although spoken of by +Bewick as a dubious species, under the name of the Middle Spotted +Woodpecker. + +A pair of these birds had built their nest, or rather hatched +their young (for there was no nest), in a hole in a decayed ash +tree about twenty feet from the ground. There were two young ones, +which I secured, as well as one of the old ones, and they are all +in the possession of a professional friend of mine, who is a +collector of ornithological specimens. + +The old one measures 9 1/2 inches long, and weighed 46 1/2 dwts. +an hour after it was killed. The forehead is a dirty buff, the +whole crown of the head a bright crimson; the irides a dark lead +colour, and it has a white ring round its neck. In other respects +it corresponds with your description of the _Picus major_. The sex +was not ascertained. The young ones have also the bright crimson +head, and differ very materially from the old one. + +The Chevy Linnet, as the lesser Redpole is called, is found here +throughout the year, and is at no time a scarce bird with us. It +frequently builds its nest in the alder and willow bushes, on the +banks of the brooks or rivers. It is a late breeder, the nests +being often met with containing eggs or young in July. In the +winter it feeds upon the seeds of the alder or the cones of the +larch, hanging suspended from the twigs like the titmouse. + +We have also the Gray Wagtail (_Motacilla sulphurea_) with us the +whole year, but it is rather a rare bird at all times and in all +localities with which I am acquainted. (1853:--It is more +plentiful now than it was in 1831.) + +I very strongly suspect Selby is mistaken when he says, "that +previous to its departure in September, it assembles in small +flocks or families, which haunt the meadows or bare pastures." +This does not agree with my observations of this bird, although +quite true when applied to the Spring Wagtail (_Motacilla flava_); +on the contrary, the Grey Wagtail is solitary throughout the year, +except in the breeding season, and never frequents the meadows, +but is found in the beds of the rivers, brooks, or ditches, where +its shrill note often betrays it to eyes which would otherwise +never see it. + +This bird may be easily distinguished from the Spring Wagtail by +its note when flying--yet, notwithstanding the difference is very +apparent to a person who hears them both, it is not so easily +described. In attempting to do so, therefore, I hope I shall be +excused if I don't make the difference so apparent in the +description as it is in reality. The latter part of the note of +the Grey Wagtail when flying is higher in the musical scale than +the former part, and is very staccato, thus: [BAR OF MUSIC] +generally being uttered as the bird makes a spring in the air, [10] +whilst the latter part of the note of the summer-bird is lower in +the scale than the former part, which is more prolonged than in +the note of the Grey Wagtail, and is slurred into the latter part, +something in the following manner: [BAR OF MUSIC] Of course I +don't mean it to be understood that these notes are either of the +same pitch, or that they bear the same relation to each other that +the notes of the bird do, but as a rude attempt at illustrating +what I could not explain in any other way. + +A singular habit which I have noticed in several individuals of +this species (_M. sulphurea_) has amused me exceedingly. They were +in the habit of looking at their own images in the windows and +attacking them, uttering their peculiar cry, and pecking and +fluttering against the glass as earnestly as if the object they +saw was a real rival instead of an imaginary one (a friend who +observed it, insisted that, Narcissus-like, it was in an ecstasy +of self-admiration). What is more remarkable, two of these +instances occurred in the autumn, when one would not suppose the +same motives for animosity to exist that would probably actuate +them in the spring. + +The first of these instances was when I was a boy, and was +repeated daily for several weeks, both against the windows of my +father's house and those of our neighbour, who, being rather +superstitious, was alarmed about it, and came to consult my mother +on the subject. She said there was a bird which her brother told +her was a barley-bird (_Motacilla flava_), which was continually +flying against her windows, and as birds were not in the habit of +doing so generally, she thought something serious was portended by +it. My mother comforted her as well as she could, and I undertook +to rid her of the annoyance, which I did by setting a horsehair- +noose on one of the window-ledges which it frequented. I soon +caught it, and by plucking out the under-tail coverts, with which +I wanted to dress _yellow duns_, I effectually cured it of the +propensity--whether, Narcissus-like, it was in an ecstasy of self- +admiration, or like the cock which attacked its own image in the +boot (which Mr. Robert Warren's poet and painter have immortalized), +it would admit of no rival. + +It has been suggested, and I think with great probability, that +the bird was merely attempting to catch the flies which it saw on +the inside of the panes of glass; but certainly it was not so +silent about it as these birds generally are when they are +feeding. + +* * * * * + +THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. + +To the Editor of "Loudon's Magazine." + +Some years ago, when my brother and myself were seekers of birds' +nests, we found one of the Long-tailed Titmouse (_Parus +caudatus_), about two miles from home, containing young ones half- +fledged. Being anxious to rear them, we hit upon the plan of +catching the old ones, and giving them the trouble instead of +ourselves. We accordingly set lime-twigs near the nest, and caught +six old ones out of the seven of which the colony consisted, and +brought them away in triumph; but the old ones would not eat in +confinement, and all died but one, which we allowed to escape, in +the hope that it would come back and rear the young ones. This it +did, and by the most unwearied exertion reared the whole brood, +sometimes feeding them ten times in a minute. + +Never having seen this social habit stated in any ornithological +work to which I have access, I am not aware that it is generally +known to naturalists; but it is right to state that I have only +found one nest of the species since, and this my avocations would +not permit me to examine. I am therefore not aware whether the +fact I have stated was an exception to the general habit of the +bird, or whether such is invariably the case. Some of your +correspondents will, no doubt, be able to give an answer to this +inquiry. + +* * * * * + +IDENTITY OF THE GREEN WITH THE WOOD-SANDPIPER. + +To the Editor of the "Magazine of Natural History." + +The question whether the Green and the Wood-Sandpiper are the same +species seems from Rennie's edition of Montagu's "Ornithological +Dictionary" to be undecided; but as a specimen has just come under +my notice which appears to me to clear up this difficulty, I shall +offer no apology for sending a description of it. + +The length from the bill to the tail is 10 inches, to the end of +the toes, 11 3/4 inches; breadth, 17 inches; thigh-joint to the +toe, 5 1/2 inches. The bill measures 1 5/8 inches from the corner +of the mouth, and is very slender; the upper mandible, which is +black and slightly curved at the point, is a little longer than +the lower one, which is a dark green at the base and black at the +point; a dark streak extends from the base of the upper mandible +to the corner of the eye, and above it is a patch of dirty white +intermixed with minute dusky spots; a small circle of dirty white +surrounds the eyes; the chin is white; the cheeks, throat, and +forepart of the neck white, spotted with dusky, with which colour +a few laminae of each feather are marked their whole length. The +breast has a dappled stripe of the same colour as the throat +running down the middle of it; with this exception it is white, as +are also the belly, vent, and under tail-coverts. The crown of the +head and hinder part of the neck are a dingy brown, which on the +neck has a shade of ash colour; the bend of the wing and lesser +wing-coverts are a brownish black; the whole upper surface of the +plumage is of a glossy brownish-green, which is spotted on the +middle wing-coverts with minute white spots, that change to a +dingy yellow on the back, scapulars, and tertials, the last of +which have twelve spots on the outer margin of the feathers, and +six on the inner one; the tertials are very long, the longest of +them reaching to within a quarter of an inch of the extreme top of +the wing, which reaches to the end of the tail; the quill feathers +are wholly black, as are also the secondaries; the upper part of +the rump is black, and each feather is slightly tipped with white, +which forms small wavy lines on that part of the plumage; the +lower part of the rump and upper tail-coverts are pure white; the +tail, which is even at the end, consists of twelve feathers, which +are barred with black and white alternately. + +At the end of Bewick's description of the Green Sandpiper there is +a very exact representation of a covert feather of the tail, and +an inner-wing covert, which will give a better idea of their +appearance than a page of letterpress. The legs are dark green, +the outer toe connected with the middle one by a membrane as far +as the first joint; toes very slender, middle one 1 1/4 inch long; +weight, 2 3/4 oz. Killed on the 17th September, 1831, near +Stonyhurst. + +I have been thus minute in my description from a wish to clear up +the doubt that appears to exist as to the identity of these two +birds. The one I have now before me is, undoubtedly, the Green +Sandpiper of Bewick, but it corresponds in so many particulars +with the Wood Sandpiper of Montagu, and appears to combine so many +of the peculiarities of both without exactly agreeing with either, +that I think it proves their identity satisfactorily. The glossy +green of the upper plumage and the barring of the under wing- +coverts and the tail identify this bird with the Green Sandpiper; +whilst on the other side the yellowish spots on the scapulars and +tertials, the black rump, the length of the leg, and the web +between the outer and middle toes are characteristic of the Wood +Sandpiper of Montagu. + +* * * * * + +THE STOAT. + +I. M. (in the "Magazine of Natural History") says that the Stoat +is more timid than the weasel, and that it does not change its +colour as in the more northern parts of the world. I know not why +he calls it timid, even relatively, as I think it is the most +fearless wild animal we have in the kingdom, in proof of which I +will mention an incident I witnessed myself. I one day saw a Stoat +carrying off a large rat it had killed, and I immediately pursued +it, but it stuck so tenaciously to its prey (although it was so +encumbered with its load as to be scarcely able to run at all) +that I was close upon it before it would abandon it; however, it +then took refuge in a wall that happened to be close by. I took up +the rat, and the Stoat put its head out of the wall, spitting and +chattering with every appearance of the most lively indignation +against me for having so unjustly robbed it of a lawful prize. I +amused myself with watching it for some time, and then being +desirous of seeing how far its evident desire to recapture its +booty would overcome its fear of me, I held the rat just before +the hole in which it was, when after several attempts, in which +its discretion got the better of its valour, it at length screwed +up its courage to the sticking-place, came boldly out of the wall, +and dragged it out of my hand into the hole. + +I know not in what county I. M. lives, nor do I know whether he +means to include any part of England in the more northern parts of +the world, but I do know that the Stoat is white in the winter in +Yorkshire, as I have caught and still more frequently seen +specimens of this colour. + +* * * * * + +THE MARSH TITMOUSE. + +I have been much interested this spring at witnessing in two or +three instances the tenacity with which the Marsh Titmouse sits on +its nest. Being in a wood near my own house, I perceived a pair of +these birds in one of the trees, and having seen them in the same +place several times before, and being desirous of finding the +nest, I sat down to watch their motions. After examining me on all +sides with much chattering and many gesticulations, indicative of +dislike and suspicion, the female flew to the root of a tree, +three or four yards off, and disappeared, as she had gone to the +opposite side of the tree to that on which I sat; and as there +were several holes about the root I was at a loss to know in which +the nest was built, and began to strike the root with a stick, +expecting her to fly out, but nothing appeared. I then examined +the holes one by one, and whilst doing so heard her hissing and +puffing from within, in such a way that if I had not known she was +there I should have thought it was a snake rather than a bird. +However, as she would not come out, and the hole was so small that +I could not get my hand in, I was obliged to raise the siege until +next morning, when I returned armed with a hammer and chisel with +which to storm her citadel. As the wood was sound, the hole small, +and the nest six or eight inches within the tree, I was five or +ten minutes before I could get to it, during which I gave her +repeated opportunities of escaping if she chose; but she still sat +on her nest, puffing and pecking at the stick that I thrust in in +order to drive her off. She at last crept to the further edge of +the nest, which I then took out, as I wanted it for one of my +friends who is a collector of eggs, but on attempting to blow one +I found they had been sat upon too long, and I then felt desirous +of seeing whether the old bird would hatch them after having her +nest torn from under her, and I turned back to the tree whence I +had taken them, and found her still sitting in the hole where I +had left her. I regret to add that the humane part of my +experiment did not succeed, for although she remained after I had +returned the nest to its place, she left it immediately after, and +did not return to it again. + +Another instance which I witnessed was in a nest containing young +ones. This was also at the root of a tree, but the situation did +not appear to be so well chosen as is usually the case with the +Titmouse tribe; for in this instance the hole went quite through +the tree, and on one side was large enough to admit the hand. As +the young ones were exposed to the weather, and were also liable +to be seen by anyone going along the adjoining footpath, I +attempted to remedy this defect by covering the larger hole with a +sod, which to a casual observer would appear to have grown there. +On taking the sod off one day, to see how the nestlings were going +on, I perceived that a clod of earth had fallen from the sod upon +them, and I took a stick and hooked it out, lest it should smother +them. Whilst I was doing this I perceived the old one sat on the +further side of the nest, so still and quiet that until I +perceived her eye I fancied she was dead; and she also endured +several pokings with the stick before she would move, although the +hole on the opposite side of the tree enabled her to escape +whenever she thought proper. + +Perhaps Mr. Rennie, in his next edition of Montagu's Dictionary, +will give us a new name for this bird, as the one it has at +present is no more applicable to this species than it is to the +_Parus caeruleus_, or the _Parus major_, and not half so much so +as it would be to the _Parus biarnicus_; and he has changed good +names into bad ones with far less reason, witness _Corvus +frugilegus_ into _Corvus predatorius_. The former name is strictly +applicable to that species, and to that alone; and so useful a +bird does not deserve the name of a thief. The Chaffinch (which +received its name of _Coelebs_ from Linnaeus on account of the +males alone remaining in Sweden in the winter, which fact is +corroborated by White, who found scarcely any but females in +Hampshire during that season) has had its name changed by Mr. +Rennie into _Spiza_. The old name is characteristic of a +remarkable fact in the habits of this bird; why the new one is +more appropriate (neither understanding Greek, nor having read +Aristotle), I cannot say. Will Mr. Rennie condescend to enlighten +me? + +Once for all--if we are to have a new nomenclature, let a +committee of able naturalists decide upon it, or let us submit to +the authority of a master (for instance Linnaeus or Temminck), but +don't let every bookmaker who publishes a work on Natural History, +rejecting names long established and universally received, give +new ones in such a way as serves only to show his own presumption +and to confuse what it ought to be his business to elucidate. + +* * * * * + +CREEPER. + +The Nuthatch does not occur in this, and I doubt if in any part of +Lancashire, but the Creeper is very common, and is a bird with the +habits and peculiar call of which I have been acquainted from my +childhood. Mr. Bree, who combines with accurate and extensive +information, an amiable and pleasant manner of communicating it, +has not, I perceive, witnessed the Creepers associating with the +Titmice in winter, at which I am rather surprised, and think if +they are numerous in his neighbourhood, he will hereafter not fail +to perceive them among the small flocks of Titmice which associate +through the winter. + +* * * * * + +WRENS' NESTS. + +In Mr. Rennie's edition of Montagu's Dictionary, and also in his +"Architecture of Birds," after copying what I have said on the +subject of Wrens' nests being lined with feathers, he says:-- +"There can be no doubt, I apprehend, of these supposed cock-nests +being nothing more than the unfinished structures of paired birds; +otherwise the story would require the support of strong evidence +to render it credible." Mr. Rennie afterwards goes on to say that +in two instances he had seen nests which had about half-a-dozen +feathers interwoven into the linings with hair; and Mr. Jennings, +if I recollect aright, as I have not the work to refer to at +present, says that Wrens don't line their nests with anything but +moss, and he thinks Montagu is in error when he says they are +lined with feathers. Along with this I send you three or four +Wrens' nests, which you will perceive have abundance of feathers +in the inside; and although the Wren will occasionally use cows' +hair along with the feathers, yet I am persuaded from the +localities in which I have met with them, that cows' hair has been +used because feathers were not to be found; but when the nests are +in the vicinity of a rookery, a farm-yard, or any other locality +where feathers are abundant, the Wrens will use them exclusively. +What the "strong evidence" must be which will convince Mr. Rennie +about cock-nests, I don't know; but I know of a dozen of these +nests at the present moment, several of which have remained in the +state in which they were left in the middle of April. Other nests +found about the same time have now young ones in them. I doubt not +these nests are occasionally used for breeding in: for instance, +if the first nest of a Wren be taken, or if it breed a second +time, it will occasionally take possession of a cock-nest; as I +have sometimes found that after remaining in the same unfinished +state for several weeks, they have afterwards been fitted up with +a lining, and bred in. + +Mr. Rennie asserts that Montagu is wrong when he says that the +Wren always adapts its materials to its locality. Although it +certainly is not always the case, yet so very generally is it so, +that I think it is not surprising that Montagu made this +assertion. + +Thus, if a Wren build in a haystack, the front of the nest is +generally composed of the hay from the stack; if it be built in a +bush by the side of a river, and (which is frequently the case) +below flood mark, it is generally covered on the outside with the +rubbish which has been left there by the flood; and if it build in +a mossy stump, the front of the nest is composed of the dark- +coloured moss which grows there. (May 22, 1832.) + +Along with my last letter, I sent some Wrens' nests lined with +feathers, and I could easily have increased them to a dozen of the +same sort, only I did not wish to deprive so many of my little +favourites of their eggs and young. Every day convinces me more +decidedly, that I am right both with regard to the lining of the +Wrens' nests, and as to the cock-nests also. The nests I sent you +will prove the former, and I know of at least twenty instances of +the latter, in nests which I have known of all through the spring, +from April to the present time, which have remained in the same +unfinished state, although they are not forsaken, as I have found +the birds in them, in several instances, when I have examined +them. I found one of these nests on the 10th of April, under a +bank on the side of the river; and I examined it repeatedly +through April and May, and always found it in the same state, +although there was always a pair of Wrens about, and I could find +no other nest; yet I am sure there was another, for in the +beginning of this month (June) there were some young Wrens, which +had evidently only just come out of the nest; and there were only +two or three bushes grew thereabouts, so that it is not probable +they had come from any other quarter, but the bushes were filled +with dead leaves, and other rubbish brought down by the flood. +However, when I heard them, I looked out for another nest, as I +believe (notwithstanding what Montagu says, that there are few +birds, if any, that would produce a second lot of eggs if the +first were unmolested) that most of the small birds which are +early breeders build a second time the same year, even when they +succeed in rearing the first brood. I have had proof of this (if +anything can be considered proof, except marking the birds), in +the Throstle, the Blackbird, the Wren, the Redbreast, and the +Hedge Sparrow, whose second nests may be found contiguous to the +first; and in point of time, this always happens just when the +first brood have left the nest. The cock-bird, too, who had been +silent whilst his young were unfledged, begins to sing again, and +throwing off the anxious and care-beset manners of a parent, again +assumes that of a bridegroom. But to return to Wrens' nests. I +found one within ten yards of the one I had known of since the +10th of April, lined, and ready for an egg. As I was anxious to +prove what I had so long believed, I pulled out this nest, +thinking that the old bird was ready for laying a second lot of +eggs; and that when I had destroyed this, as she had no other nest +ready, she would probably take up with the cock-nest. + +As it was half a mile from my house, I did not visit it again +until the 16th of June, and was then delighted to find the old +bird sitting on six or seven eggs in the cock-nest, which had +remained so long unoccupied. I believe that in this instance there +is very little lining (fur, feathers, &c.) in the nest, although I +should be sorry to examine it minutely until the young have left +it; but I consider it an exception to the general rule, inasmuch +as I believe the bird was ready to lay when I pulled out the other +nest. As she would have to find another with as little delay as +possible, she would not have time to embellish the inside in the +same manner as she probably would have done if she had had more +time. + +On examining another Wrens' nest a few evenings ago, I found the +young ones had flown, and as there was a cock-nest in some wrack +left by the river in a bush a few yards off, I gave it a shake to +see if the old ones had taken possession of it for another brood; +and I was surprised to see one, and then a second young one come +flying out, and a third putting out its head to reconnoitre. +Whether the whole brood was there I don't know, as I did not +disturb them further. As I had examined this nest only ten days +before, when it had not an egg in it, I was at first at a loss to +account for these young ones; but I have now no doubt they were +the young from the adjoining nest, which had taken up their +quarters for the night in the new house. But how had they learnt +the way? Young birds generally roost where night finds them, and +if I had found only one, I should not have been surprised, but to +find at least three, probably six or seven, in a nest where I am +certain they were not bred, was something new to me. I went +several times in the evening after this, but never found them; I +suppose the fright I gave them deterred them from lodging there +again. + +The editor of "Loudon's Magazine," in a paragraph appended to this +article, says: "We have examined the Wrens' nests sent; their +staple materials are moss, feathers, and hair. Into the moss on +the exterior of the nest are woven a more or less perfect but +feeble frond or two, and separate pinnae as well of Aspidium +Filix-Mas, and leaves of apple, elm, and oak trees. Interiorly +cows' hair is not scarce, and is partly inwoven with the moss and +laces it together, and partly mingled with the feathers; a horse- +hair or two are also observable. The feathers in each nest, +apparently those of domestic fowls, are numerous enough to fill +the hollow of the hand when the fingers are so folded over as not +to much compress the feathers." + +* * * * * + +ALARM-NOTE OF ONE BIRD UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER SPECIES OF BIRDS. + +In Montagu's "Ornithological Dictionary," under the article "Song +of Birds," there is the following remark: "Regarding the note of +alarm which birds utter on the approach of their natural enemies, +whether a Hawk, an Owl, or a Cat, we consider it to be a general +language perfectly understood by all small birds, though each +species has a note peculiar to itself." I was last April very much +pleased at witnessing an illustration of the truth of this +opinion. I found a nest of young Throstles at the root of a hazel, +and although they could scarcely fly, yet as they were near a +footpath, and the next day was Sunday, when many idle and +mischievous lads would be rambling about, I thought they would be +safer out of their nest than in it; and as I knew that when so far +fledged, if they were once disturbed they would not continue in +the nest, I took one from the nest and made it cry out, and then +put it back again; but in one minute, not only it but its three +companions had disappeared in the long dry grass which was round +about. On hearing the cry of their young one, the parent bird set +up such shrieks of alarm as brought all the birds in the wood to +see what was the matter. I noticed the Blackbird, the Chaffinch, +the Titlark, the Robin, the Oxeye (greater Titmouse), the Blue and +Marsh Titmouse, and the Wren all uttering their cries of alarm and +apprehension; even the golden-crested Wren, which usually seems to +care for nothing, was as forward and persevering as any of them in +expressing its fears on this occasion; indeed, the only bird which +seemed indifferent to all these manifestations of alarm was the +Creeper, which continued its anxious and incessant search for +food, as it flitted from one tree to another, examining them from +root to branch without ever seeming to understand or to care for +what seemed to have so much frightened the others. (June 30th, +1832.) + +* * * * * + +DATES OF THE APPEARANCE OF SOME SPRING BIRDS IN 1832, AT +CLITHEROE. + +Young Rooks heard, 5th April; House Martin seen, 14th; Sandpiper, +14th; Willow Wren, Spring Wagtail, and Redstart, 17th; Wheatear, +19th (this is generally the first spring bird seen); Sand Martin +and Swallow, 22nd; Cuckoo heard, 26th; Wood Wren, Blackcap, and +Whinchat, 28th; Mocking-bird and Whitethroat, 4th May; Swift, 7th; +Flycatcher, 11th; and Fieldfares were not seen until the 2nd of +May, which is later than I ever observed them before. (In the +parish of Allesby, near Coventry, Fieldfares were observed as late +as the 14th of May.) + +No doubt many of these birds were in the neighbourhood earlier +than the dates I have attached to them, but they are the periods +at which I saw or heard them. + +The study of Natural History is perhaps as little followed in this +neighbourhood as in any part of the kingdom, notwithstanding the +facilities which are offered. Our flora is beautiful, varied, and +possesses many rare plants, yet I only know of two herbaria; the +birds are abundant, yet there is but one collector of them; and as +for insects, although I frequently take what I consider rare +species, yet I cannot find an entomologist in the whole district, +or I would send them to him. + +In conclusion, allow me to say, that the leisure hours a somewhat +busy life has enabled me to spend in these pursuits, have been +some of the happiest of my existence, and have awakened and +cherished such an admiration of nature and such a love for the +country and its scenes, as I think can never be appreciated by the +inhabitants of large towns, and which I cannot describe so well as +in the words of one of my friends in a beautiful apostrophe to +England, when leaving it--never to return: [11]-- + +"To thee Whose fields first fed my childish fantasy, Whose +mountains were my boyhood's wild delight, Whose rocks, and woods, +and torrents were to me The food of my soul's youthful appetite; +Were music to my ear--a blessing to my sight." + +* * * * * + +THE ROOK SERVICEABLE TO MAN.--PREJUDICE AGAINST IT. + +A strong prejudice is felt by many persons against Rooks, on +account of their destroying grain and potatoes, and so far is this +prejudice carried, that I know persons who offer a reward for +every Rook that is killed on their land; yet so mistaken do I deem +them as to consider that no living creature is so serviceable to +the farmer as the Rook, except his own live stock. + +In the neighbourhood of my native place is a rookery belonging to +William Vavasour Esq., of Weston in Wharfdale, in which it is +estimated there are 10,000 Rooks, that 1 lb. of food a week is a +very moderate allowance for each bird, and that nine-tenths of +such food consists of worms, insects, and their larvae: for +although they do considerable damage to the crops for a few weeks +in seed-time and harvest, particularly in backward seasons, yet a +very large proportion of their food, even at these times, consists +of insects and worms, which (if we except a few acorns, walnuts, +and potatoes in autumn) at all other times form the whole of their +subsistence. + +Here, then, if my data be correct, there is the enormous quantity +of 468,000 lbs., or 209 tons of worms, insects, and their larvae +destroyed by the birds of a single rookery, and to everyone who +knows how very destructive to vegetation are the larvae of the +tribes of insects (as well as worms) fed upon by Rooks, some +slight idea may be formed of the devastation which Rooks are the +means of preventing. I have understood that in Suffolk and in some +of the southern counties, the larvae of the cockchafer are so +exceedingly abundant that the crops of corn are almost destroyed +by them, and that their ravages do not cease even when they have +become perfect insects. Various plans have been proposed to put a +stop to their ravages, but I have little doubt that their +abundance is to be attributed to the scarcity of Rooks, as I have +somewhere seen an account that these birds are not numerous in +those counties (I have never been there), either from the trees +being felled in which they nested, or from their having been +destroyed by the prejudiced farmer. I am the more inclined to be +of this opinion, because we have many Rooks in this neighbourhood +where the cockchafer is not known as a destructive insect, and I +know that insects of that class and their larvae are the most +favourite food of the Rook, which may be seen in the twilight +catching both cockchafers and the large blackbeetles which are +flying at that time in the evening. + +I will mention another instance of the utility of the Rook which +occurred in this neighbourhood. Many years ago a flight of locusts +visited Craven, and they were so numerous as to create considerable +alarm among the farmers of the district. They were, however, soon +relieved from their anxiety, for the Rooks flocked in from all +quarters by thousands and tens of thousands, and devoured the +locusts so greedily that they were all destroyed in a short time. +Such, at least, is the account given, and I have heard it repeatedly +mentioned as the reason why the late Lord Ribblesdale was so partial +to Rooks. But I have no means of ascertaining how far this is true. + +It was stated in the newspapers a year or two back that there was +such an enormous quantity of caterpillars upon Skiddaw, that they +devoured all the vegetation on the mountain, and people were +apprehensive they would attack the crops in the enclosed lands; +but the Rooks (which are fond of high ground in the summer) having +discovered them, put a stop to their ravages in a very short time. +(June 30th, 1832.) + +These remarks are confirmed by a writer in the "Essex Herald" and +by Mr. Waterton. The former says:--"An extensive experiment +appears to have been made in some of the agricultural districts on +the Continent, the result of which has been the opinion that +farmers do wrong in destroying Rooks, Jays, Sparrows, and, indeed, +birds in general on their farms, particularly where there are +orchards." + +That birds do mischief occasionally among ripe corn there can be +no doubt; but the harm they do in autumn is amply compensated by +the good they do in spring by the havoc they make among the insect +tribes. The quantity of grubs destroyed by Rooks and of +caterpillars and grubs by the various small birds, must be +annually immense. Other tribes of birds which feed on the wing--as +Swifts, Swallows, and Martins--destroy millions of winged insects +which would otherwise infest the air and become insupportably +troublesome. Even the Titmouse and the Bullfinch, usually supposed +to be so mischievous in gardens, have actually been proved only to +destroy those buds which contain a destructive insect. Ornithologists +have of late determined these facts to be true, and parish officers +would do well to consider them before they waste the public money +in paying rewards to idle boys and girls for the heads of dead birds, +which only encourages children and other idle persons in the +mischievous employment of fowling instead of minding their work or +their schooling. But to return to the experiment alluded to. On some +very large farms in Devonshire the proprietors determined a few +summers ago to try the result of offering a great reward for the +heads of Rooks, but the issue proved destructive to the farms, for +nearly the whole of the crops failed for three succeeding years, and +they have since been forced to import Rooks and other birds wherewith +to re-stock their farms. + +Of late years the extensive destruction of the foliage and young +fruit in orchards by a species of caterpillar has excited the +attention of the naturalist, and it has been found to have arisen +from the habit of destroying those small birds about orchards +which if left unmolested would have destroyed or kept down those +rapacious insects. + +* * * * * + +SANDPIPERS. + +Sandpipers breed about Clitheroe. I this year (1832) started an +old one from her nest at the root of a Weymouth pine. She screamed +out, and rolled about in such a manner, and seemed so completely +disabled, that, although perfectly aware that her intention was to +allure me from her nest, I could not resist my inclination to +pursue her, and in consequence I had great difficulty in finding +the nest again. It was built of a few dried leaves of the Weymouth +pine, and contained three young ones just hatched, and an egg +through which the bill of a young one was making its way. Yet, +young as they were, on my taking out the egg to examine it, the +little things, which could not have been out of the shell more +than an hour or two, set off out of the nest with as much celerity +as if they had been running about a fortnight. As I thought the +old one would abandon the egg if the young ones left the nest, I +caught them again and covering them up with my hand for some time, +they settled down again. Next day all four had disappeared. + +Montagu says: "It is probable many of the Sandpipers are capable +of swimming if by accident they wade out of their depth. Having +shot and winged one of this species as it was flying across a +piece of water, it fell, and floated towards the side, and as we +reached to take it up, the bird instantly dived, and we never saw +it rise again to the surface; possibly it got entangled in the +weeds and was drowned." I quote this remark because the same thing +has happened to myself. I winged a Sandpiper, and on going to take +it up, it fluttered into the water and dived, but never rose again +to the surface that I could perceive, although I watched long and +attentively for it. In this instance the bird could not have been +entangled by the weeds, inasmuch as the bottom of the river was +covered with gravel and not a weed was growing there. Whether the +Sandpiper laid hold of the gravel at the bottom with its feet, or +how it managed, I cannot tell, nor have I ever been able to +account for it. (June 30th, 1832.) + +* * * * * + +ON BIRDS DRESSING THEIR FEATHERS WITH OIL FROM A GLAND. + +Mr. Waterton doubts ("Mag. of Nat. History," vol. v. p. 413) if +the small nipple on the rump of birds is an oil-gland, or that +birds ever oil their feathers with matter obtained from it; and he +asks if any naturalist will say that he has ever witnessed this +process, and if so how it is that the bird contrives to take this +oil in its bill and how it manages to oil its head and neck? I +will therefore state what I think I have witnessed, and trust to +Mr. Waterton's forbearance if I am in error; yet I cannot help +suspecting that Mr. Waterton's queries are (like those of Charles +the Second to the Royal Society) more for the purpose of laughing +at our ignorance than from any wish he has to obtain information, +for I can scarcely suppose that so acute an observer can have +failed to perceive everything perceptible on the point at issue. + +I have just watched a Muscovy Duck go through the operation of +preening and dressing its feathers, and it certainly appears +obvious enough to me that this bird uses the gland on the rump for +the purpose for which birds are generally supposed to use it. The +bird erected the feathers on the rump so as to exhibit the gland +very distinctly, and then, after pressing it with the bill, rubbed +the under mandible and chin down to the throat upon it, and then, +after drawing some of the feathers through the bill, rubbed the +lower mandible and chin upon the back and scapulars, apparently to +apply the oil which adhered to them, and then, turning its head +back, it rubbed the crown and sides of the head and neck upon +those parts which it had previously rubbed with the chin and under +mandible. By this rubbing of the head and neck it is easy to +perceive how birds can oil these parts if it be allowed that birds +oil themselves at all. + +I cannot see how we can explain this action of birds in relation +to any other object. It certainly does not seem calculated to +expel or disturb any vermin lodged there, and I remarked that it +never occurred except when the bird had been applying its bill to +the gland as above mentioned. However, Mr. Waterton, and anyone +who doubts this oiling, may readily judge for themselves. Let them +take a common duck, and shut it up for two or three days, so that +it can have no access to water except for drinking, and at the end +of that time let them turn it out, and allow it to go to a brook +or pond; it will give itself a thorough ablution--ducking, diving, +and splashing with its wings--and on coming out, will begin to +dress and arrange its feathers, very frequently applying its bill +to the gland on its rump. If this application is not for the +purpose of procuring a supply of oil, perhaps Mr. Waterton will +have the goodness to inform us what it is for, and what end this +gland answers in the economy of the feathered tribes if not that +which has hitherto been supposed. (June 30, 1832.) + +* * * * * + +MOCKING POWERS OF THE SEDGE-WARBLER. + +In the article "Sedge Bird," in Montagu's "Dictionary of +Ornithology" (Rennie's edition, p. 455), the writer says: "It has +a variety of notes, which partake of those of the Skylark and the +Swallow, as well as the chatter of the House-Sparrow." According +to my observation, it has a much greater variety than this. I have +heard it imitate in succession (intermixed with its own note, +_chur, chur_), the Swallow, the House-Martin, the Greenfinch, the +Chaffinch, the Lesser-Redpole, the House-Sparrow, the Redstart, +the Willow-Wren, the Whinchat, the Pied-Wagtail, and the Spring- +Wagtail; yet its imitations are chiefly confined to the notes of +alarm (the fretting-notes as they are called here) of those birds, +and so exactly does it imitate them in tone and modulation, that +if it were to confine itself to one (no matter which), and not +interlard the wailings of the little Redpole and the shrieks of +the Martin with the _curses_ of the House-Sparrow, the _twink, +twink_ of the Chaffinch, and its own _care-for-naught_ chatters, +the most practiced ear would not detect the difference. After +being silent for awhile, it often begins with the _chue, chue_ of +the House-Sparrow, so exactly imitated in every respect that were +it not for what follows, no one would suppose it to be any other +bird. It is called a Mocking-Bird here, and it well deserves the +name, for it is a real scoffer at the sorrows of other birds, +which it laughs to scorn and turns into ridicule by parodying them +so exactly. I never heard it attempt to imitate any of the Larks +or Thrushes, although I have listened to it for hours. + +This bird was very plentifully met with in Wharfdale ten years +ago, and is also found in this neighbourhood, but I am not aware +that anybody in either of these districts ever attempted to keep +one in confinement, although from their powers of imitation, I +think the experiment well worth trying; probably the idea that it +would be difficult to supply them with proper food has prevented +the experiment being made. (May 2nd, 1832.) + +I am surprised that no other writer on Natural History has noticed +the wonderful imitative power of this bird. So far is the above +notice from overstating this bird's powers of imitation, that I +have scarcely enumerated half the notes which it hits off with +such wonderful exactness. + +In listening to one the other day for about a quarter of an hour, +I heard it give three notes of the Swallow, two of the Martin, and +two of the Spring-Wagtail; and in addition, notes of the House- +Sparrow, Whinchat, Starling, Chaffinch, Whitethroat, Greenfinch, +Little Redpole, and Whin-Linnet, besides the notes of half-a-dozen +birds which I did not know; at least, a reasoning from analogy +would induce me to think them imitations, and I have no right to +suppose they were not because I did not happen to recognize them. +I am not strictly correct when I say that it only imitates the +alarm-notes (called here fretting-notes) of other birds, for +although this is generally the case, it is not invariably so. For +instance, in addition to the alarm-note of the Swallow, _chizzic, +chizzic_, it also had the _whit, whit_, which the Swallow uses +when flying about, and the chatter of self-satisfaction (not the +song) which one often hears in a barn when two Swallows are +arranging their plan of operations in the spring. Again, in +addition to the shriek of the Martin, there was the note which it +utters when on the wing in pursuit of its food. There was also the +chirrup of the Greenfinch, and the _whee, whee, whee_ which is the +climax of the Linnet's song, by which it is so irresistible as a +call-bird, and which appears to bring down the flock in spite of +themselves. + +Although the Sedge-Bird imitated all I have mentioned, it made +much more frequent use of the notes of some than of others--the +Sparrow, the Whinchat, the Swallow, and the Starling appeared to +be its chief favourites, whilst it only touched once or twice on +the notes of the Greenfinch and the Linnet. It had been very +sparing also in its use of the Chaffinch's note, until one in the +neighbourhood had begun to _twink, twink, twink_; then the +Mocking-Bird took it up, and _twinked_ away for fifty times +together. Next morning the Linnet's note was much more frequent in +request, and it also made more use of notes with which I was not +acquainted. On neither day did it touch upon the notes of the +Redstart, or Pied-Wagtail, both of which I had heard frequently +used by the Mocking-Bird before. On the other hand, I had not +previously observed the notes of the Starling and Whin-Linnet, and +therefore, although I have said that I have never heard it make +use of the notes of any of the Larks or the Thrushes, I would not +be understood to say that this never happens. It is, perhaps, +difficult to say whether it has a note which is not an imitation +of some other bird, but there is one which it always makes use of +when any person approaches its nest (intermixed, however, with the +notes of the Swallow, Whinchat, and Whitethroat). This is +something like _chur-r-r, chur-r-r_, prolonging the sound of the +_r_ very considerably, and in a style which would be quite an +acquisition to the Northumbrians if they could attain it. (May +29th, 1834.) + +* * * * * + +THE WATER OUZEL. + +The Water Ouzel sings very frequently, and as much in winter as at +any time. Perched on a stone or a piece of ice, it chirps away at +a famous rate, but its song consists almost entirely of its note +_zeet, zeet_, which it hashes up in all sorts of ways, lengthening +and shortening--now a crotchet, then a semiquaver, rising an +octave or so, and then descending again. It makes as much of it as +can be made, but with all its efforts its song is a very _so-so_ +affair, all its syllables beginning with _z_, and almost ending +with it too. Yet, although it is not much of a songster, it is +almost a sacred bird with me, in consequence of the associations +connected with it. A pair had built for forty years, according to +tradition, in a wheel-race near to where I was born, and had never +been molested by anybody until a gentleman in the neighbourhood, +who was a great ornithologist, employed his gamekeeper to shoot +this pair. I think the natives of Calcutta were not more indignant +when an unlucky Englishman got one of their sacred bulls into his +compound and baited him, than was our little community at what we +considered so great an outrage. The gamekeeper narrowly escaped +being stoned by myself and some more lads, any one of whom would +have shot fifty Blackbirds or Fieldfares without any misgivings. + +This bird very much resembles the Wren in its habits and motions, +its nods and curtsies, and cocks its tail in exactly the same +manner. Its nest is also similar in form to that of the Wren. + +Some persons seem to think that it is impossible for the Water +Ouzel to walk at the bottom of the water, owing to its body being +of less specific gravity. I will not argue the point with them, +but disbelieving my own eyes, I will endeavour to submit with a +good grace; otherwise I should have said that I have repeatedly +seen it doing so, from a situation where I had an excellent +opportunity of observing it, the window of a building directly +over the place where it was feeding. It walked into the water and +began to turn over the pebbles with its bill, rooting almost like +a pig, and it seemed to have no difficulty whatever in keeping at +the bottom at all depths where I could see it; and I have +frequently observed it when the water just covered it, and its +head appeared above the water every time it lifted it up, which it +did incessantly, turning over a pebble or two, then lifting its +head, and again dipping it below to seize the creepers (_aquatic +larvae_) it had disturbed from their hiding-places. Besides, its +speed was too slow for diving. Every aquatic bird with which I am +acquainted moves much faster when diving than when it is swimming +or walking, and its course is generally in a straight line, or +nearly so; but the Water Ouzel, when feeding, turns to the right +or left, or back again to where it started, stops and goes on +again, just as it does when out of the water. Yet when it wished, +it seemed to have the power of altering its own gravity, as after +wading about two, or perhaps five minutes, where it could just get +its head out, it would suddenly rise to the surface and begin to +swim, which it does quite as well as the Water-hen. The awkward, +tumbling, shuffling wriggle which it appears to have, is +occasioned by the incessant motion of its head as it turns over +the gravel in search of creepers, which appear to me to form the +bulk of its food. + +Sir George Mackenzie seems to think that these birds destroy +salmon spawn, and this opinion is prevalent in Scotland. If it is +correct, it would go far towards putting an end to my partiality +for them; but I rather think that they are unjustly accused, and +believe they are catching creepers when they are supposed to be +eating spawn. If this is the fact (and it is well worth +ascertaining) they are rendering an essential service to the +fisheries instead of injuring them, because these creepers (the +larvae of the stone-fly, bank-fly, and all the drakes) are +exceedingly destructive to spawning-beds, and as the Water Ouzel +feeds on them at all other times, and as they are more abundant in +the winter than at any other season, I think this is the more +probable supposition. Of course, if Sir George Mackenzie has shot +the bird, and speaks from his own knowledge, after dissecting it, +there can be no doubt of the fact that it destroys spawn; but if +he merely supposes so because the Water Ouzel feeds in the same +streams where the salmon are spawning, it is very probable he is +mistaken, for the reasons before mentioned. (May 29th, 1834). + +* * * * * + +SCOLOPAX, SABINES, SABINE'S-SNIPE. + +Some years ago I killed what I am now persuaded was a Sabine's- +Snipe, but unfortunately it was not preserved, for hanging it up +in the larder with the other birds I had killed, I found to my +great mortification that the cook had stripped it of every feather +before I was aware, and before I had noted down the markings of +the plumage. + +The dry weather of August, 1820, had driven a flock of the Golden +Plover from the moors to the banks of the river Wharfe, and on the +14th of that month I had been out with my gun, endeavouring to +shoot some of them. On my return I sprung this Snipe from a pond +near home, and killed it. When I picked it up, I was astonished to +find a Snipe with the plumage of a Woodcock, and showed it to a +friend of mine, who is a good practical ornithologist, but he was +as much puzzled as myself to give it a name; so not being able to +find a description of it in any books to which we had access, we +jumped to the conclusion that it was a hybrid between the Snipe +and the Woodcock, and called it a bastard Woodcock. + +According to the recollection I have of it, it was as large as the +solitary Snipe, and the bill was a little longer; the general +appearance of the plumage on the wings and back resembled a dark- +coloured Woodcock; but under the wings the fine blue inner coverts +exactly resembled those of the Snipe. In those days I had no idea +of the value attached to rare birds, nor did I know anything of +the art of preserving birds, or of bird-preservers, and no doubt +some of these gentlemen will pronounce me a great Goth when I tell +them that what I regretted most, when I found that the bird was +plucked, was the loss of the wings, the feathers of which I wanted +to dress artificial flies with. Three days after I had killed +this, I saw another in a ditch adjoining Sir Henry Ibbetson's +park, at Denton, but being in his preserve I had no opportunity of +procuring it. I had never seen one since, and until I had seen the +sixth edition of Bewick's "Birds," I was unable to make out its +name, about which I may still be mistaken. (May 29th, 1834.) + +* * * * * + +FISH AND OTHER RIVER PHENOMENA. + +A writer in the "British Naturalist" says, that "fish don't feed, +and therefore we may conclude they don't discern in sunny +weather." If the author had ever been a May-fly-fisher he would +have known that bright weather and clear water were essentially +necessary to his success. + +This fly is one of the best baits I know for large Trout, and is +much used by the anglers in some of the rivers in Yorkshire +(perhaps in other counties also), where two methods of fishing it +are practised. The one is bobbing, which with one sort of bait or +another is universal, and therefore needs no description. However, +it is always practised in bright weather. In the other method +(which I believe is peculiar to the North of England) the May-fly +(stone-fly) is fished with a long line in rapid streams, in the +same way as the artificial fly, except that it is fished up the +stream; that is, the angler throws his line into the stream above +where he stands, and allows it to float down opposite to him, when +he makes another throw; by this means he always keeps his line +slack, and the May-fly floats on the surface, which is essential +to his success. I mention these two methods of angling because +both are practised in bright weather, and therefore prove that +fish both discern and feed in such days. I believe the fact is, +that at such times they frequently see too well for the angler, +and are consequently aware that his artificial flies are not what +they seem to be. Fishes, particularly Par and Grayling, may be +seen rising by dozens at the small flies (midges) which abound in +sunny weather, yet the angler is unable to hook a single fish. +First-rate anglers are well aware of this, and abandon their +larger flies as the summer advances, use smaller hooks, dress +their flies much finer, and substitute horsehair for the fishing- +gut, when they can procure it of good quality. + +* * * * * + +LAMPREYS. + +Lampreys abound in the Ribble. Some of them, of the large species +(_Petromyzon marinus_), weigh three and four pounds each, [12] but +owing to a prejudice against them (I suppose on account of their +ugliness) they are seldom eaten. I will illustrate this prejudice +by giving the remark of a keen fisherman to myself, on my saying +that I should eat a large one I had just caught. "Well," said he, +"if you can manage to eat such a thing as that, you would not +stick at devouring a child in the small-pox." This, if not an +elegant, was at least a forcible expression of his opinion on the +subject, and this dislike of them is almost universal in this +neighbourhood. (Jan. 17th 1832.) + +"An Old Angler," in the "Magazine of Natural History," having +questioned the assertion of Sir Everard Home that the Lamprey was +hermaphrodite--in fact, that all were spawners and emitted eggs-- +the following was addressed to the "Magazine of Natural History":-- + +When I had the pleasure of writing to you before, I had either +overlooked or forgotten the queries of "An Old Angler" respecting +the Lamprey. However, your remarks have induced me to pay a little +more attention to the subject. I can now confirm in the strongest +and most conclusive manner the supposition of "An Old Angler" that +the sexes are as distinct in the Lamprey as they are in the Cod or +Herring. How so distinguished an anatomist as Sir Everard Home +fell into such a mistake, it is not for me to say; but I am as +certain that the sexes are distinct in the Lamprey as that they +are so in any other animal, and I will now give my reasons for +making this positive assertion. + +On the 8th of May, chancing to cross a small stream, I saw a +number of Lampreys in the act of spawning, and remembering the +queries of your correspondent, I stood to watch their motions. +After observing them for some time, I observed one twist its tail +round another in such a manner, and they both stirred up the sand +and small gravel from the bottom in such a way, as convinced me it +was a conjunction of the sexes. However, there were so many of +them together, and they kept so continually moving about, that I +could not single out the two individuals, and thus ascertain +whether they were male and female; but I felt so desirous of being +able to set this question at rest, that I went again next morning, +and was fortunate enough to find only two, a male and a female. I +then witnessed several sexual conjunctions, during which the sand +and small gravel was stirred up by them, and each of which was +followed by the ejection of a jet of eggs from the female. I then +caught them both, and dissected them. The sexual organ in the male +was projected above a quarter of an inch, and the body filled with +milt; the female, although she seemed to have shed a considerable +quantity of her spawn, had still a tolerable stock remaining. + +I frequently afterwards witnessed the same thing, and always found +the same difference of sexes; in fact, there was generally no +difficulty in distinguishing the male from the female, without +taking them out of the water: the latter might be readily known by +the enlargement of her body, and the former by a still more +incontestable token. I have been induced to describe this more +minutely than I otherwise should have done, in consequence of the +mystery in which the propagation of fish has been wrapped +hitherto; and I am not aware that what I have described has been +witnessed by anyone before--at least I don't know that it has been +recorded. + +I caught half-a-dozen Lampreys, four males and two females, and +preserved them in spirits, and these I now forward to you. + +I am unable to give the same information concerning the large +Lamprey, having never seen it in the act of spawning; but I have +repeatedly caught both milters and spawners of species with the +milt and roe as distinctly visible in them as it is in the Salmon +or any other fish. + +I am of opinion that the _P. marinus_ and the _P. fluviatilis_ are +distinct species, for the following reasons:--1st. Because the +latter stays with us the whole year, while the former only ascends +the rivers to spawn, and then returns to the sea immediately. 2nd. +Because fish that are in the habit of descending to the sea, never +(unless the small Lamprey be an exception to the general rule) +arrive at maturity [13] until they have visited it; and, 3rdly, +because there are no intermediate sizes (at least in the Ribble) +between the one which, although only six or seven inches long, and +an ounce in weight, is yet capable of propagation, and the one of +a pound. Not having one of the larger kind to refer to, I am +unable to point out any specific difference of form. (May 2nd, +1832.) + +* * * * * + +ON THE SPAWNING OF THE MINNOW. + +As I had been so fortunate in observing the Lampreys, I felt +desirous of ascertaining whether the same thing could be seen in +other fish (as in Natural History it is not always safe to reason +from analogy), and as there was a large shoal of Minnows spawning +near the place where I had seen the Lampreys, I determined to +watch their motions. They happened to have chosen a very +convenient place for being observed, being between two large +stones in the river, which lay about three feet from each other; +so that by cautiously approaching them from behind one of the +stones, I got close to without disturbing them, but after watching +them carefully and repeatedly within the distance of two feet, I +can only speak doubtfully of their operations, for they were so +numerous, and their motions were so incessant; and when a female +was about to shed her spawn, the males (which were ten times more +numerous than the females) crowded round her in such a manner as +to render it very difficult, if not impossible, to speak with +certainty on the subject. I will state what steps I took to +satisfy myself, and perhaps the history of my failure may be of +use to future observers. + +It occurred to me from what I observed, that it was probable the +males had the power of absorbing the eggs after their exclusion by +the female, and impregnating them within their own bodies; and I +caught a dozen males at different times, when they were attending +on females, and opened them, but I could discover nothing like an +egg. I then caught a female, and scattered the spawn (which was +expelled by the slightest pressure) in a place frequented by a +number of males, but they took no notice of it whatever. I after +this caught a female when she was surrounded by a number of males, +and apparently in the act of shedding her spawn, and examined +whether the spawn which I pressed from her body was impregnated; +but it appeared perfectly homogeneous, and so delicate in its +texture that it burst with the slightest touch, whilst in that +which I picked up from among the gravel where it was scattered +abundantly, the impregnation was visible with the assistance of a +microscope, and it was so much tougher in its covering as to bear +rolling about in my hand without injury. I then tried to +impregnate the eggs _mechanically_, and applied a drop of the +spermatic fluid to the egg at the moment of exclusion, and it +certainly seemed, in one instance, both to increase the size and +to alter the colour of the ova it was applied to; but I was not +able to produce the same effect so decidedly in any of my +subsequent attempts. + +My observations, which were often repeated, induce me to believe +that the egg is impregnated at the moment of exclusion, and that +two males have (almost invariably) access to the female at the +same time; for I frequently remarked, that when a female came +among a number of males, they immediately pursued her: if she was +not ready for shedding her spawn, she made a precipitate retreat; +but if she was, she came boldly in among them, and was immediately +pressed closely by a male on each side, who when they had been in +that situation a short time, were superseded by other two, who +wedged themselves in between them and the female, who appeared to +treat all her lovers with the same kindness. + +One difficulty is, that the spermatic fluid mixes very readily +with water; and I cannot imagine how its virtue is preserved, [14] +if (as I suppose must be the case) the egg is impregnated after +exclusion; but I also think it probable that the ventral fins of +the female serve to conduct this fluid to the place where it is +needed, and the chemical affinity between it and the egg may be +sufficient for impregnation. + +P.S. July 27th. I tried to hatch some of the eggs I had +endeavoured to fecundate. The attempt was unsuccessful. I placed +the eggs, which I had put into some clean-washed gravel, in a +shallow vessel (open at the top, and with holes drilled through +the sides) in a small stream of water, but I found to my great +mortification on looking for them a day or two after that there +was not one left, but that in their stead were many aquatic +insects, which had no doubt feasted on them as long as they +lasted, and after this I was not able to meet with another shoal +of Minnows in the act of spawning. + +The head of the Minnow in the spawning season is spotted over with +small white knobs, apparently osseous in their structure, which +make their appearance immediately before the fish begins to spawn, +and which disappear again as shortly after, and I think they are +intended as a protection to the head of the fish during the +spawning; as I remarked that they generally thrust their heads in +between two pebbles, and had their tails sticking up almost +perpendicularly. Yet this was not always the case, as they +sometimes ran nearly out of the water, and it was in this +situation that I observed what I have before mentioned, as I found +it impossible to discover anything that was done by those in +deeper water; for when a female went into such a situation, there +was such a crowd of males rushed to the place that I lost sight of +her in a moment. + +I was astonished to find how quickly the eggs were hatched. I +discovered a large shoal spawning on the 11th of May; on the 12th +they were diminished to one-tenth of the number, and on the 14th +(the 13th being Sunday) there was not one left. As I had by no +means satisfied myself on the subject, I felt disappointed that +they had so soon finished their operations, and I took up a +handful of the gravel where they had been spawning, and examined +it with the microscope, to see whether I could discover any ova, +and how they were going on, when to my great surprise I found them +already hatching and some of them already excluded from the egg. +One of them, which I took on the point of a knife, swam briskly +away, and another was the means of pointing out an enemy to me +which I had not previously suspected, and that I had always +hitherto believed to be the prey of and not the preyer upon fish. +The poor Minnow had somehow got fast to the point of the knife, +and in its struggles to free itself it attracted the attention of +a creeper--the larva of one of the aquatic flies called drakes +(_Ephemerae_)--which pounced upon it as fiercely as the water +staphylinus does on the luckless tadpole, but, fortunately for the +Minnow, either the glittering of the knife-blade or the motion of +my hand, scared it away again without its prey. + +The young Minnows in this state were quite transparent, except the +eyes, which were disproportionately large; and they seemed to be +perfectly aware that they owed their safety to concealment, as +those that I saw immediately buried themselves in the gravel when +they were set at liberty. (July 27th, 1832.) + +* * * * * + +EELS. + +To the Editor of the "Gardener's Chronicle." + +My attention has been called to a paragraph in a Worcester paper +giving an account of a (so-called) discovery by Mr. Boccius, that +Eels are propagated by spawn, like other fish, and that they are +not brought forth alive, as had hitherto been supposed. This may +be true, but before I can give an unqualified belief to the +assertion, I should like to have a few questions answered by Mr. +Boccius. Who saw the fish from which those thousands of eggs were +extracted at the time this dissection was made? Are the parties +who saw these eggs quite certain that the fish was an Eel and not +a Lamprey? Who saw the eggs from which Mr. Boccius produced living +Eels? Who beside Mr. Boccius ever saw Eel-fry in a pond which had +no communication with a river? Will Mr. Allees and Mr. Reed (the +gentlemen to whom the spawn was exhibited) say whether the ovary +which was shown to them was pretty much of the same form as that +of the Lamprey? and if not, in what respect did it differ? + +I am induced to ask these questions, both because by inference +they show my own opinions on the subject, and because I am led on +undoubted authority to believe that Mr. Boccius is inclined to +claim at _least_ all that belongs to him; and also because I have +my doubts about the scientific attainments of Mr. Boccius in the +Natural History of Fishes. + +It is difficult to prove a negative. My never having seen the +strange things above mentioned certainly does not prove that other +people with better eyes and more discrimination have likewise +failed to do so; but I can't help doubting, and I publish my +doubts in the hope that the subject may be further inquired into. +A true naturalist ought only to wish for the truth, without +reference to his own preconceived notions; but so far as my +examinations have gone, I have failed altogether to detect spawn +in the fringes which I have fancied were the ovaria of the fish, +or elsewhere, and I don't believe that Eels are bred in fresh +water at all. I see the fry ascending from the sea in May and June +by thousands and millions, but I never met with one of these in a +pond having no communication with a river. I have little doubt +that I shall be pronounced in error touching this matter, except +perhaps by those who know how perseveringly these little Eels make +their way up every stream, ditch, and driblet of water into which +they can gain access. They penetrate into the water-pipes and +pumps; they climb up the perpendicular faces of the rocks and +weirs which obstruct the course of the rivers, even when they are +only moist--adhering to the moss and stones like snails. + +The downward migration of Eels is observed here from July to the +middle of September, but in the Manchester market I find them up +to this time (the end of November), and am informed that they are +caught at the foot of Windermere in their downward migration. + +Would a dissection of the Conger at various seasons throw any +light on the propagation of Eels? One would think that in such +large fish the ovaria would be much more easily distinguished than +in smaller specimens. (November, 1850.) + +_The above elicited the following reply:_-- + +T. G. denies the possibility of Eels breeding in fresh water. We +have a pond here covering three or four acres which swarms with +Eels of all sizes. I have caught them from the size of my little +finger up to the weight of five pounds. The supply of water is +from nothing else than land springs--there being no communication +between the pond and any river. When much rain occurs I am obliged +to put up a sluice-board, in order to prevent the banks from +overflowing. I have taken from one to two hundredweight at a time +from a box which the water flows through at the bottom of the +sluice-board. The large quantity that has been taken out of this +pond leaves no doubt that they breed there to a great extent, but +whether they are propagated by spawn or brought forth alive I am +unable to say.--G. H., _Finedon Hall_. + +_Reply to the foregoing._ + +Your correspondent G. H. says T. G. denies the possibility of Eels +breeding in fresh water. This is rather too strong. I don't deny +the _possibility_ of Eels being bred in fresh water, I only deny +the _probability_. The expression I used was that I did not +believe they were bred in fresh water at all, and I distinctly +stated that my not having seen these things (Eel spawn, &c.), did +not prove that other people had not done so. But to the question. +G. H. says that he has caught them of all sizes, from the +thickness of his little finger to five pounds weight. No doubt he +may have done so, but did he catch them of the thickness of a +crow's quill, and three inches long? because that is the size at +which they usually ascend rivers. He says his pond does not +communicate with any river. Is there no escape of water from it? I +mean, is the evaporation from its surface equal to the supply of +water? If not, where does the surplus go to? Does it not directly +or indirectly flow into a river or the sea? I am the more inclined +to think that this is the case, because G. H. says he caught a +hundredweight at a time from a box which the water flows through +at the bottom of the sluice-board. This is exceedingly like what +is done here and elsewhere from July to the end of November, when +the Eels are on their downward migration. Will G. H. be kind +enough to say whether he does not catch his about the same time? +will he also say whether the Eels he catches are not Silver Eels? +and will he also state whether he does not catch them principally +after heavy rains have increased the flow of water out of the +pond? If he answers these questions in the affirmative, I shall +still think I am right, and request him to keep a sharp look-out +after rains in May and June, when I think he would probably see +the grigs passing through his box into the pond. If, on the other +hand, there is no escape of water from the pond at any time, I +must admit that I am wrong, but at present I don't know how to +reconcile the impounding the water so completely with what he says +about the flow of the water through the box at the bottom of the +sill. Where does the water flow to, and for what is this sill? + +_G. H. replied as follows._ + +T. G. asks if I have caught Eels of the size of a crow's quill. I +have caught them of the size of a tobacco-pipe, and from three to +four inches in length. + +Our surplus water flows indirectly into the river Nene from our +sluice. It supplies some stews where we have been in the habit of +keeping reserve fish, and passing over several waterfalls, it +enters into a ditch which is about three-quarters of a mile long, +and then reaches the river I have just named. + +The greatest take of Eels I have had was on the 23rd of December, +but the time of the year is of little consequence with us, +provided the water is thick and muddy and the weather rather warm, +which, of course, only occurs during very heavy rains. If I were +to draw all the water out of the pond when in a clear state, I +should not catch a fish. The variety is the Silver Eel. Our pond +is upwards of fifty miles from the sea; therefore how is it that +those little Eels had got no larger during their long journey, +interrupted as it is by numerous and almost insurmountable +obstacles, before they could reach the little ditch, three- +quarters of a mile long, that would conduct them to our pond? And, +last of all, after this long and tedious journey, within a hundred +yards of their destination they would have to climb four +waterfalls and a perpendicular sluice-board. It appears to me they +should have grown much larger than a common tobacco-pipe and +longer than three or four inches in that time, but I will leave +this point for T. G. to explain.--G. H., _Finedon Hall_. + +_Reply to the foregoing._ + +Many thanks to G. H. for his second letter on this subject. It +appears to me that we think very much alike about Eels. + +He says his pond is fifty miles from the sea; "therefore, how is +it that these little Eels get no larger in their long and tedious +journey? interrupted as it is by numerous and almost insurmountable +obstacles, before they could reach the little ditch, three-quarters +of a mile long, which would conduct them to our pond? and last of +all, after this long and tedious journey, within a hundred yards +of their destination, they would have to climb four waterfalls and +a perpendicular sluice-board. It appears to me they should have +grown much larger than a common tobacco-pipe during that time; but +I will leave that point to T. G. to explain." + +This is so fairly put, that I will tell what I have seen, hoping +that this will be a sufficient explanation. + +In June, 1850, I chanced to go down to the bank of the Ribble, and +there I saw a column of small Eels steadily making their way up +the stream. I should suppose there might be fifty in every lineal +yard, for they kept pretty close to the bank, apparently because +they met with less resistance from the stream, and without +pretending to accuracy I supposed they travelled at the rate of a +mile an hour. This was about five o'clock in the afternoon, and I +went to look for them about nine in the evening--they were still +going in one unbroken column. How long they had been going when I +first saw them, and how long they continued to go after my second +visit, I don't know, but many thousands--perhaps millions--must +have passed that day. At this rate (of a mile an hour) they would +have required little more than two days to reach G. H.'s pond, +fifty miles from the sea; but he says they had to pass over three +or four waterfalls and a perpendicular sluice-board. If these +waterfalls and the sluice-board were covered with moss, they would +climb them as readily as a cat does a ladder. I have seen them in +swarms at a perpendicular weir here, winding their way through the +damp moss with which the stones are covered; but this was not all: +where there was no moss, the little things seemed to have the +power of adhering to the perpendicular face of the stones, like so +many snails. I must not omit to remark, that although they seemed +to choose the margin of the stream for the sake of easier +travelling, yet they took care to keep in the stream, as I had a +nice opportunity of observing. + +At the point where I first saw them, the tail goit of a water- +wheel had its junction with the river, but being Sunday there was +no current there--not a single Eel took its course up the goit, +although the water was deeper there than where they went. The +water being low and perfectly clear, I could trace their course +both above and below the place where I stood without any +difficulty. + +If we allowed that they travelled a mile in the hour, and that the +obstructions of the waterfalls and sluice-board took as long to +get over as all the rest of the journey, they would be able to +reach G. H.'s pond in four days from the sea; and from what I have +seen of their ability to surmount such obstructions, I am quite +convinced that they would travel that distance in the time. But +say they were a week--they would not grow much in that time, +particularly if they had been travelling without food the whole of +the distance, and that they must have done so, is proved to my +mind by their keeping in column; for if they had dispersed to seek +for food, by what contrivance were they marshalled into line +again, to enable them to proceed? Now the place I saw them is +forty miles from the sea, although not that distance from salt- +water. T. says it is no proof that Eels are bred in fresh water +because they may be found in ponds having no connection with a +river--the proof required is _ab ovo_. If we wait for this proof I +fear we will have to wait for some time, for I fancy that no one +but Mr. Boccius ever saw the ova of Eels, and he will not +condescend to enlighten us on the subject. At the same time I +admit that finding them there is no proof that they were bred +there, inasmuch as I have myself stocked such ponds for my +friends, and what I have done may be done by others. + +T. says further there is also room for inquiry into another +curious subject--do Eels return to fresh water after having gone +to the sea for spawning? In reply to this, I can only say, that no +trace of such a migration is ever seen here, and I think if it +existed at all, I should have observed it, for the following +reasons. + +The Ribble here supplies a large mill, the water-wheels of which +are 150 horse-power; therefore, when they are at work in the +daytime, the whole force of the river is often passing through the +mill-lead (goit) and the bed of the river between the weir, and +the tail goit in such times is left dry, except in a few pools. If +there was a shoal of Eels between these two points it would have +been seen at one time or another, and this has never happened, so +far as I know. It may be said that they migrate singly, but they +don't do so in their first migration, and, so far as I am aware, +it is not the habit of any animal to do so. Herrings, Pilchards, +Smelts, Flounders, Sturgeon, Bisons, Antelopes, Woodcocks, +Swallows, Fieldfares, Locusts, and even Butterflies congregate +together previous to migration. + +NOTE.--The last paragraph requires some modification, as I have +since proved that Eels migrate singly when going to the sea, as I +have had occasion to know in a hundred cases when watching my Eel- +trap, where every Eel may be seen as it descends into the trap. + +_On the same subject._ + +I [Jeremiah Garnett, brother of the writer, and editor of the +"Manchester Guardian,"] having noticed the communications on this +subject which have recently appeared in your columns, am desirous +of mentioning a fact which appears to me to throw some light upon +the localities in which Eels are bred, though it leaves the +question of the mode of generation precisely where it stood +before. + +Like your correspondent T. G., I have many times seen columns of +small Eels ascending the Ribble and other rivers in the months of +May and June, at considerable distances from the sea, but only on +one occasion have I seen them under circumstances which evidently +brought them near the place of their nativity. + +I happened to be attending the Lancaster Spring Assizes in the +month of March in the year 1826, and learning that there was a +remarkably high tide in the estuary of the Lune, I walked down to +the riverside about the time of high water, and found that the +tide had covered the grass in many places; and as it began to ebb, +I observed something moving in every small hollow which had been +overflowed, and in which a little water had been left behind. On +examination I found that the moving bodies were exceedingly +diminutive Eels, rather less, to the best of my recollection, than +three-quarters of an inch long, and almost transparent, but +exhibiting in every respect the true form of the mature Eel. They +had evidently followed the water to its extreme verge, where it +could not have been more than an inch deep, and that they must +have been very numerous was clear from the large numbers which +were left behind and had perished--for that they did perish I +found on the following day, when they were lying dead on the grass +by hundreds. Some of your correspondents who reside in localities +favourable for making observations on this subject may be induced +to pay attention to it; the exact appearance may be ascertained, +with probably other facts calculated to throw light on the obscure +question of their generation. + +* * * * * + +ON THE POSSIBILITY OF INTRODUCING SALMON INTO NEW ZEALAND AND +AUSTRALIA. + +_October_, 1859. + +The colonists of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand appear to +wish for the introduction of Salmon and Trout into the rivers of +these colonies, and one of them, Tasmania, is said to have offered +the reward of L500 for the first pair of live Salmon which reaches +that colony. If this is true it is a liberal offer, and one that +is likely to induce various persons, both in England and France, +to make the attempt. + +I should be sorry to say anything to check so laudable an +endeavour, but I greatly fear that Van Diemen's Land (to say +nothing of the Australian colonies) is too near the tropics to +offer a reasonable chance of success. I think it is practicable to +take these fish there (or at least fertilized ova), but I don't +think they would live and thrive in the rivers of that colony. +Never having been there, I can, of course, only reason from +European experience, but the best inquiries I can make lead me to +suppose that there are no Salmon in France (south of Brittany), +Spain, or any of the countries washed by the Mediterranean Sea; +and in America (although I confess I am not so well informed on +that country) I have never heard of Salmon being seen to the south +of the tributaries of the St. Lawrence. Supposing this to be so, I +think that we may fairly infer that if Salmon are not found south +of a certain latitude in Europe and America, it must be that the +climate of these southern countries is not congenial to the habits +of this fish. I believe, however, that the Trout lives and thrives +much further south than the Salmon; for instance, it is found in +the Pyrenees and in the lakes of Northern Italy (Lady M. W. +Montagu). It is also found in Northern Turkey, and probably +Albania also (Spencer); and therefore I think it is quite probable +that it might live in Tasmania--that is, if the streams are never +dried up and the rivers reduced to a number of water-holes, which +appears to be the case in Australia. Should this be the case in +Tasmania also, I doubt whether even Trout would thrive, for here +in Lancashire I have known the Trout to die in great numbers from +the heat, when, owing to the water-wheels of the mill diverting +the river from its usual channel, there was no stream, but merely +a series of detached pools or water-holes; and the Grayling seem +to be more incommoded by heat than the Trout, and it was one of +the diversions of my boyhood to wait until the wheels of my +father's mill were stopped in the hot weather, and then go up the +covered wheel-races in search of the Grayling that had gone there +to get out of the sunshine. I used to catch them there in great +numbers. However, this has nothing to do with the matter, except +to suggest that although Grayling are very desirable fish to +introduce into the colonies, I fear they would be too impatient of +heat to thrive there. But my object in addressing you is to ask +whether it is true that the legislature of Tasmania has offered +the prize of L500 for the first pair of live Salmon taken there? + +Secondly, whether they offer a prize for the introduction of +Salmon fry; and if so, what is the amount offered? + +Thirdly, whether they offer a prize for the introduction of +fertilized ova of Salmon or Trout, and what is the amount? + +I ask these questions because I happen to know a good deal on such +matters, and I have been applied to this day by James Birch, the +head water-bailiff of our river (Ribble), to obtain some +information for him on the subject, as he seems seriously bent on +making the experiment, provided the reward be an adequate one; +for, to be successful, it would involve the necessity of his +making the voyage himself, and it would be a cruel thing to induce +him to do so, and in the end to find that he was entitled to no +reward. + +I'll say this for him, that if he tries he will succeed, if +success be possible; but his pecuniary resources are too limited +for him to undertake such a risk. + +I have reason to believe that he has been applied to by Ramsbottom +to go to Tasmania, but this he declines to do under Ramsbottom's +auspices. As he (R.) professes to be in communication with the +authorities of Tasmania (or at all events with influential persons +there) let him make the first attempt, and if he succeed, there +will be no necessity to apply to me on the subject; but if he +should fail--as I think he will--why, then the persons interested +in the matter may, if they wish to try again, let me know their +wishes and the amount of remuneration they mean to give. + +I should certainly suggest that both Salmon and Salmon Trout (as +well as the common Trout) should be included in their list of +desiderata, and although for reasons previously given I have no +great hopes of success with the two former, I think it quite +probable that the common Trout would succeed better. Of course I +know nothing of the fish already in the rivers of Tasmania; for +aught I know there may be fish in all those rivers quite as +voracious and destructive as the Pike are here. If this is the +case, the chances of success would be materially lessened, as +Trout and Salmon fry are rare in all rivers stocked with Pike. +However, those who are making the attempt ought to know what they +are about, and will, no doubt, have considered such obstacles, if +there are any such in the way. Will you, therefore, be kind enough +to answer the questions I have asked above, at your earliest +convenience, and if your replies offer any inducement to Birch to +make the attempt, I have no doubt that he will be quite ready to +do so. + +For various reasons he can only start from here in the autumn or +winter, and he should, if he reaches Tasmania with either live +fish or fertilized ova, have someone to render him prompt and +cordial assistance to enable him to deposit the fish or ova, or +fish and ova, in suitable places for spawning and hatching; and +therefore if this letter be replied to, the answer ought to say to +whom Birch should apply on his arrival in Tasmania. + +It may be asked, who is the man who obtrudes his opinions on the +colony unasked, and what can be his motives? As I am not aware +that I know a single person in Tasmania, I cannot refer to anyone +there; but I happen to know one or two gentlemen in Melbourne, and +if you will take the trouble to refer there to Messrs. W. and B. +Hick, or to W. Bailey, the corn merchant, they will be able to +satisfy all inquiries. + +If it be asked what I know of the habits of fish, and Salmon in +particular, I beg to refer the inquirers to Loudon's "Magazine of +Natural History" for 1834 (if there is a copy of that work in the +colony), and they will there find two papers (signed "T.G.," +Clitheroe) which will show that I then knew all that has since +been proved by the elaborate experiments made at Perth by +Ramsbottom, and moreover I taught Ramsbottom himself the art of +propagating fish artificially. + +I want no compensation: the honour of being the first man who +succeeded in introducing these valuable fish into the colonies +would be a sufficient reward to me. But with Birch the case is +different: he is a working man, and L500 would be a fortune to +him. On the other hand, he could not afford to come to Hobart Town +from England at his own expense, as he has not the means. + +Would the colony, if other attempts failed, be willing to pay +Birch's passage out and home if he failed also, and would he +receive the L500 if he succeeded? + +By success I mean that he would either bring live fish or ova that +would hatch into live fish. Either of these objects being +accomplished, he ought, in my opinion, to receive the reward; for +although he would attempt both, he would probably fail in the +former. + +Should he attempt this under my advice, I should not only send +Salmon and Salmon Trout and their ova, but the common brown Trout +and its ova also, for the reason previously given in this letter; +and although I am by no means sanguine of success, on account of +the temperature, the experiment is too important to be abandoned +for a mere theoretical objection which may be erroneous. + +I think New Zealand offers far greater chances of success. It is +not only further removed from the tropics, but, if I am rightly +informed, the streams are more abundant and constant than those of +Australia and Tasmania--in fact, I believe it is as well watered +as this country; and if the authorities there are as much alive to +the importance of introducing these fish into their rivers, I +would undertake to do this with much greater confidence of +ultimate success than I should have if I undertook to introduce +them into Tasmania or the sister colonies. + +Some time since (it may be eighteen months or two years ago) there +was a very intelligent correspondent of the "Field" newspaper, +whose _nom de plume_ was the Maori one, "Wetariki no te wai +Herekeke," or a similar one; and I having written something in the +"Field" on this subject, the New Zealander asked for my address, +which, for some private reason of his own, the Editor declined to +give until so long a time had elapsed that Wetariki Herekeke had +returned to the colony--this I learnt from an indirect source-- +otherwise I should have tried to induce him to undertake the +experiment of introducing all the various species of the genus +Salmo which are to be found in our rivers. + +If the colonists of New Zealand wish to make the attempt, I shall +be most happy to render them all the assistance in my power, and I +know no one so qualified as Birch to undertake the management of +such an experiment; for he is exceedingly intelligent, has a +perfect knowledge of the habits of both Trout and Salmon, and +thoroughly understands the feeding of fish, both in their natural +haunts and artificially, and would consequently be able to select +suitable localities for conducting such an experiment to a +successful issue. + +NOTE.--No reply was given to this by the authorities of Tasmania, +but a similar communication, addressed to the Governor of New +Zealand, elicited a very polite reply from his secretary, in which +he said that there were no funds available for such a purpose, but +that the subject would be brought before the legislature on their +assembling, and would no doubt meet with their favourable +consideration; but the Maori troubles broke out immediately after, +and I heard no more about it. + +* * * * * + +CLITHEROE, _October 14th_, 1859. + +To the Editor of the "Field." + +In the "Field" of some weeks since, it was stated that the +colonists of Tasmania were offering a large reward for the +introduction of live Salmon, Salmon fry, or the fertilized ova of +Salmon. + +Will you have the kindness to say what was the amount offered? who +were the parties who made themselves responsible for the payment? +and what time did they give within which they would pay for a +successful attempt? + +I am the more anxious to have this information, because I have +been applied to for advice by an exceedingly likely person, as the +reward (L500) which he understood to be offered is to him so +tempting a sum, that he would need very little encouragement to +undertake the management of the experiment; and from what I know +of him I will venture to assert that he will succeed, if success +be practicable. + +But before I speak confidently of success, I would like a little +more information, and will thank any of your readers who are able +to do so, to give me replies to the following questions:-- + +Are there any Salmon in the rivers of Spain, or in France, south +of the Loire, or even in that river? If not, why not? + +Are there any Salmon in North America, in any river (not a +tributary of the St. Lawrence), south of that river? If there are, +what rivers in the States contain Salmon. + +Do any of the rivers on the west coast of America below the +latitude of 40 degrees N. contain Salmon? + +Do any of the rivers of China (not Chinese Tartary) contain +Salmon? + +If I am right in supposing that the rivers I have pointed out have +no Salmon in them, is it not exceedingly probable that the high +temperature of these southern countries is unsuited to the habits +and uncongenial to the health of these fish? Or how is it when +they are on the same seaboard further north, they don't ascend +these rivers, unless there are some such objections to their doing +so? And if these objections really exist, then do they not equally +exist in the rivers of Australia and Tasmania? + +But there may be other objections equally fatal: there may be fish +in their rivers as voracious and destructive as our Pike; there +may be Sharks and other fish in their seas and estuaries, which +would snap up every Salmon that entered them. There may be Seals, +Porpoises, Albatrosses, Man-of-War birds, and Cormorants, as well +as fifty other nameless enemies, all combining their efforts to +defeat so desirable a consummation; and, after all, there may be +no one willing to make himself responsible for a repayment of the +necessary expenses, for corporations and public bodies are +proverbially untrustworthy. + +Yet, notwithstanding all these doubts of success, I think the +experiment ought to be made; for its success would confer so great +a boon on the colony in which it was made, that they (the +colonists) ought to incur considerable risk and outlay for the +chance of success, however small. I don't think there will be much +difficulty in carrying fertilized ova there, but when hatched I +fear they would not thrive. + +I think New Zealand offers far better chances of success: it is +further from the tropics, it abounds in suitable rivers, the +climate and temperature are more like England, and I believe the +rivers never degenerate into mere water-holes, as they seem to do +in Australia; and I think the residents of that colony ought to +make a vigorous attempt to introduce Salmon, Salmon Trout, and the +common brown Trout into their rivers immediately; and I should be +delighted to render all the assistance in my power to accomplish +so desirable an object. + +* * * * * + +ON THE FORMATION OF ICE AT THE BOTTOM OF RIVERS. + +_Anchor Frosts._ + +A correspondent of the "Magazine of Natural History," in +endeavouring to explain the causes why water freezes at the bottom +in rapid streams, says this unusual phenomenon may be rationally +accounted for by anyone who has attended to it; that the streams +in which anchor frosts occur generally are those which contain +water of different temperatures--viz., surface-drainage and land +springs and main springs, the first being always colder than the +latter, in winter these never being less than 40 degrees, even in +severe frosts. + +These colder globules being first frozen, float on the surface of +the water individually, being prevented from coalescing by the +intermediate main-spring-water, and where the water passes in a +shallow stream over the pebbles the crystals are intercepted by +the interstices of the stones, and then become heaped together in +thick beds. + +The fact of the crystals of ice (which are specifically lighter +than the water) sinking below the surface, is a circumstance +requiring explanation. They do not sink from their specific +gravity, but in the commotion of the current they are occasionally +submerged, and while so are stopped by any obstruction, when they +commence and compose the aggregation. + +Thinking this was an erroneous view of the matter, I replied as +follows:-- + +J. M., in his remarks on anchor frosts, appears to me to have +fallen into several errors in endeavouring to account for them +(they are called bottom frosts in Yorkshire); for, admitting that +main springs are of the temperature stated (40 degrees) when they +issue from the earth, I am by no means prepared to believe that +they keep that temperature long, or that the water issuing from +them does not mingle intimately and immediately with the water of +the river into which it flows; especially in the situations where +anchor frosts are most common, which are rough and rapid streams. + +From J. M.'s statement it would appear that globules of water of +different temperatures mix together without the one imparting its +excess of caloric to the other, which is contrary to the +experience of everyone; it is true, that in still places there +will be different temperatures in the same body of water, but it +is not owing to the main springs of which J. M. speaks, but to the +peculiar way in which water is affected by cold. It is well known +that water increases in density down to 40 degrees, below which +temperature it begins to expand, and this expansion continues +until it reaches the freezing-point, so that in severe frosts +there will be strata of different temperatures from 32 degrees to +40 degrees. Again, he says that "the crystals of ice are +intercepted by the interstices of the stones, and then become +heaped together in thick beds;" but if my observations are +correct, these depositions begin first round the large stones, +which are not likely to stop small spiculae any more than are the +water-gates of mills, where, he says, the accumulations also take +place. + +Anchor frosts are most common in the rapid streams occurring below +deeps in rivers, and I have seen a weir on the river Wharfe which +had a wall of ice four feet high formed upon it in a single night +by a sharp north wind. In my opinion a sufficient explanation of +this freezing at the bottom of rivers is to be found in the fact +that water when kept still may be cooled down below the freezing- +point without being congealed; but if the vessel in which it is +kept be shaken, a portion of it will be converted into a porous, +spongy ice, and the temperature immediately rises to 32 degrees. +In the deeps of rivers the same cooling below the freezing-point +takes place without congelation, but as soon as this water reaches +the stream below, the agitation immediately converts a portion of +it into ice, which collects round the large stones at the bottom +in the same way that crystallization commences in a solution of +salt or sugar around a piece of thread or other substance which +may be suspended in it. If a severe frost is followed by a bright +day, thousands of these detached pieces of spongy ice may be seen +rising from the stones which have served as nuclei for them; which +proves that the detention of them is not merely mechanical, but +that precipitation (if I may be allowed to call it so) takes place +in the first instance, the stone serving as a nucleus, and that +this adhesion is destroyed by the action of the sun's rays. + +I have never seen any attempt to explain the phenomenon of bottom- +frosts before this of J. M.'s, and I am not philosopher enough to +speak positively on the subject; but the above is the way in which +I have always endeavoured to account for it. Perhaps some of your +scientific readers may be able to give much better reasons for it +than have been offered either by J. M. or myself. (January 17th, +1832.) + +Another writer (J. Carr, of Alnwick,) says that anchor frosts are +merely long and severe ones where long masses of ice are frozen to +the stones at the bottom of rapid streams, and this is simply +owing to these stones acquiring a degree of cold far below the +freezing-point, and the water in contact with them freezing and +spreading into large sheets of ice, which are sometimes torn up +and carry away the gravel adhering to the under surface. + +Thinking that this was an error, I again wrote to the "Magazine of +Natural History" as below:-- + +I perceive that others beside myself have endeavoured to account +for anchor frosts. Mr. Carr says they never occur except in long +and severe frosts, and that the adhesion of the ice to the stones +at the bottom is owing to their acquiring a degree of cold far +below the freezing-point. He is in error when he says they never +occur except in long-continued frosts, as the walls of ice which +are sometimes raised on the crowns of weirs are invariably (so far +as my observations have extended) deposited there _before_ the +water in the reservoir above is frozen over, which proves that the +frost has not been of long continuance, although it may have been +severe. As to what he says about the stones acquiring a degree of +cold far below the freezing-point, and imparting that coldness to +the water, I would just ask how it is that a stone at the bottom +of a river acquires this excess of cold, and if it is not more +probable that the stones impart warmth to the surrounding water? I +can easily conceive how the stones may, by the action of the sun's +rays upon them, warm the surrounding water; but I do not see how +they can impart cold, or, in other words, how their temperature +can be reduced below that of the water by which they are +surrounded. Stones certainly impart warmth to the water they are +in, in bright weather, as the rays of the sun do not give much +warmth in passing through any transparent medium; but on coming in +contact with any opaque bodies, the heat is absorbed or reflected +as the case may be, and in this way transparent media such as air +and water acquire a warmth by contact which they would not +otherwise possess. Thus, if an anchor frost is followed by a +bright day, the rays of the sun impart so much warmth to the +stones at the bottom of the river as is sufficient to liberate the +ice from them, and on such days thousands of pieces of ice may be +seen rising from the bottom and floating down the streams. + +Since my former observations were written I have had the +satisfaction of finding my views on the subject confirmed by a +very eminent chemist, [15] and if the discussions in your Magazine +were to be settled by authority, and not by argument (which I +trust will never be the case), he is one to whom many would be +inclined to appeal, and to whom few would refuse to submit. (May +2nd, 1832.) + +* * * * * + +To the Editor of the "Agricultural Gazette." + +In a leading article of the 10th of January, 1852, after an +account of the effects produced on water by radiation and the +protection afforded to plants by the ice with which ponds are +covered in winter, you go on to say that there are some +circumstances under which water-plants suffer greatly, and from a +singular cause, but one which when looked into is sufficiently +simple and intelligible. As you do not appear to have hit upon the +true reason, allow me to quote a little further, and then give my +reason for this singular effect. + +You say that on a very fine but still night, water is cooled less +rapidly than the earth: under such circumstances the bottom of the +pond cools more rapidly than the surface, the plants become +colder--in fact, some degrees below the freezing-point, &c. &c. + +I submit that such reasons are inadmissible, for there would be an +immediate upward current, which, as water is such an excellent +conductor of heat, would immediately equalize the temperature of +all the water above 40 degrees Fahrenheit, and stratified (if I +may use the expression) above the water of this temperature there +would be another layer of water of equal but gradually decreasing +temperature until it fell below 32 degrees Fahrenheit. + +The explanation I offer is this. It is well known that if water is +kept perfectly still it may be cooled down considerably, or at +least some degrees below 32 degrees, without freezing; but the +moment it is shaken a portion of it is converted into a spongy, +porous ice, and the temperature rises to 32 degrees. + +What may be the case in the rivers of the South of England I do +not know, but in the rapid streams of the North this process may +be seen on a very extensive scale in severe frosts. The water in +the still pools (before they are frozen over) is cooled down to +below 32 degrees, and so soon as this cooled water reaches the +next stream, precipitation (if I may so call it) takes place, and +the spongy ice lays hold of every projecting pebble, which serves +as a nucleus in the same way as threads and bits of stick serve in +the crystallization of salts. After a severe frost, when followed +by bright sunshine the next morning, I have seen thousands of +these bits of spongy ice rising from the stones to which they had +been attached to the surface of the water. I have seen after long- +continued frost the course of a stream completely altered by this +bottom-ice (as it is called here), and I have also seen a weir +with a wall of ice on it three feet high (raised in a single +night) by the same cause. Now apply this to the bottom-ice in +ponds (which however I must confess I never saw). The night being +calm, the water gets cool below 32 degrees, but then a breeze +springing up the water becomes agitated, precipitation takes +place, and the plants serving as nuclei become immediately clothed +with this spongy ice, and the sun shining next morning imparts so +much warmth to the plants that the ice thaws which is in contact +with them, and rises to the surface. Of course if the sun does not +shine next morning, and the frost continues, the plants may be +clothed with ice for a long time. + +To the foregoing the Editor of the "Agricultural Gazette" replied +as follows:-- + +We cannot admit the soundness of our correspondent's explanation +of the formation of bottom-ice or ground _gore_. We are well +acquainted with the statements of Arago and other writers as to +the cause of this curious phenomenon, and after a careful +consideration of the subject believe that it is due to radiation +and not to any other cause. Bottom-ice has been observed in ponds +on perfectly still nights when there was no breeze to agitate the +surface of the water. + +The waters in the pools between the rapids of rivers can hardly +ever be still enough for the water to fall below the freezing- +point and yet remain fluid; the temperature of water in such +situations is not below 33 degrees. + +The following was my rejoinder:-- + +You say at the end of remarks about bottom-ice that you cannot +admit the soundness of my explanation, and that you are well aware +of what is said by Arago and others on this curious phenomenon, +and that bottom-ice has been observed in ponds when there was no +breeze, and that the water in pools between the rapids of weirs +can hardly ever be still enough to fall below the freezing-point, +and yet remain fluid. + +I was not aware before seeing your remarks that either Arago or +any other philosopher had ever written about bottom-ice, and even +now I do not know what are their opinions on the subject, and if +the discussions in your paper are to be settled by authority and +not by argument, I can only make my bow and withdraw; but if it +meets your views to allow your correspondents to state their +opinions temperately, and support them by such arguments as occur +to them, I do not yet feel inclined to give up my notions about +bottom-ice. Will you allow me to ask whether you ever personally +saw ice at the bottom of a pond when there was none on the +surface? and if so, under what circumstances? I have heard of such +an occurrence, but never witnessed it, and feel inclined to doubt +the fact unless you will vouch for it; for it appears to me that +the moment the water at the bottom falls below 40 degrees it will +begin to rise to the surface, and it is so excellent a conductor +that it will instantly equalize the temperature of the mud at the +bottom with that of its own temperature. + +I am neither chemist nor meteorologist, and therefore I am not +able to say much about radiation; but my idea of it is, that its +effects in water would be much greater in still pools than in +rapid streams, and that, therefore, if radiation was the cause of +bottom-ice, there ought to be more of it in the pools than in the +rapid streams. But the contrary is the fact, for after a severe +night's frost, I can frequently find the streams filled with this +bottom-ice, when none can be observed in the pools. + +Again, can the fact of the weir which had a wall of this bottom- +ice three feet high in a single night, be accounted for by +radiation? It appears to me to be very easily accounted for by +supposing that the water in the deep above was so quietly cooled +down as to retain its fluidity until the shaking it got on flowing +over the weir suddenly produced congelation. I think that +radiation would not go on at the crown of the weir alone. + +Why do you think that the water in pools is never still enough to +allow it to get below 32 degrees without freezing on still clear +nights? In long deep pools, where the body of the water is perhaps +a hundred times as great as the current flowing into it, the +motion is so extremely slow that I cannot for a moment doubt that +it gets below 32 degrees without congelation, but when it arrives +at a rapid, this ice is immediately formed. + +The Editor closed the discussion at this point by saying that the +subject was not of sufficient agricultural importance to be +continued further. + +The following is my brother Richard Garnett's [16] account of his +observations on bottom-frosts. (The paper was written in 1818, and +published in the "Journal of the Royal Institution.") + +* * * * * + +ON THE PRODUCTION OF ICE AT THE BOTTOMS OF RIVERS. + +The phenomenon of the production of ice at the bottoms of rivers +has been repeatedly noticed, but I am not aware that any +satisfactory solution of the cause has hitherto been given. In +Nicholson's "Dictionary of Chemistry," several different +hypotheses are enumerated, which I shall not stop now to examine, +since it may be safely asserted that they neither accord with the +established principles of chemistry, nor with the facts for which +they endeavour to account. The most recent theory with which I am +acquainted is that of Mr. A. Knight, who in a paper lately +published in the "Philosophical Transactions," seems to consider +the particles of ice as originally formed at the surface, and +afterwards absorbed by the eddies of streams to the bottom. He +states, in support of this idea, that he did not observe any +similar phenomenon in still water. I shall advert to this +hypothesis in the sequel, and at present it may suffice to remark +of it and all others which I have hitherto seen, that supposing +any of them to be correct, the same effects ought regularly to be +produced whenever the atmosphere is at a similar temperature, or +in other words, that whenever the frost is so intense as +materially to affect the water of a river, we may then expect to +find ice at the bottom. Now this is certainly not the case, since +the appearance we are treating of never occurs but under peculiar +_atmospherical_ circumstances, and rivers are frequently frozen +over, and remain so for a length of time without a particle of ice +being visible at the bottom of their streams. I do not now profess +to have developed this mystery, but merely intend to state the +circumstances under which the phenomenon takes place, as well as a +few particulars connected with it, which are perhaps not generally +known, and which may hereafter be serviceable as data for +investigating the cause. + +It is well known to meteorologists that a severe frost in winter +does not always commence in a uniform manner. Sometimes it begins +with a gentle wind from the E. or N.E., and is at first +comparatively mild in its operations, but afterwards gradually +increases in intensity. Frosts of this kind are generally more +lasting than others, and during such, I have not observed that any +ice is generated at the bottoms of streams; though the deep and +still parts of rivers are often frozen over to a considerable +extent. At other times, during the continuance of the violent +south-westerly gales which are so prevalent in this country in the +winter months, the wind frequently shifts on a sudden from S.W. to +N.W., commonly about an hour before sunset, and blows with great +impetuosity in the latter direction, attended with a severe frost, +and sometimes with a heavy fall of snow. The effects of this +frost, in places exposed to the wind, are extremely rapid, so as +to render the ground impenetrably hard in about a couple of hours +from its commencement. Situations that are not so much exposed +seem comparatively little affected--at least, I have repeatedly +observed that a small sheltered pond in a field was nearly free +from ice, while the current of a large and rapid river at no great +distance was nearly choked up by it. I believe that the phenomenon +under consideration seldom occurs except during such frosts as +these, and the following are the principal circumstances connected +with it which I am able to state from my own observation. + +It may here be premised that ice of this description is seldom +seen adhering to anything beside rock, stone, or gravel, and that +it is more abundantly produced in proportion to the greater +magnitude and number of the stones composing the bed of the river, +combined (as will be further noticed) with the velocity of the +current. I have been informed by a friend that he has occasionally +seen it attached to solid wooden piles at a considerable depth +below the surface of the water, but I never saw or heard of any on +earth, mud, or clay. It is not easy to ascertain the precise time +at which the process begins to take place. It appears, however, +almost invariably to commence during the first night of the frost, +and probably within a few hours after sunset. On the ensuing +morning the first thing which strikes an observer is an immense +quantity of detached plates of ice floating down the stream. Mr. +Knight naturally enough supposed these to have been formed at the +surface by the influence of the freezing atmosphere, and +afterwards absorbed by the current; but I think that a minute +inspection would have led him to form a different conclusion-- +viz., that they are first formed in the bed of the river, and +afterwards rise to the surface. It is true that none are to be +seen in situations where there is no sensible current, and that +they abound most in rough and rapid places; but on closely +examining any stream of moderate velocity, yet smooth, equable, +and free from all appearance of eddy or rippling, a great number +of these plates of ice will be found adhering to the rock, stone, +or gravel at the bottom. If they are watched with attention, they +will be observed to rapidly increase in bulk, till at last, on +account of their inferior specific gravity, aided, perhaps, by the +action of the current, they detach themselves from the substances +to which they first adhered, and rise to the surface of the water. +The form of these pieces of ice is very irregular, depending in a +great measure on the size and shape of the stones or other +substances to which they were originally attached. Most of them +seem to be of an oblong or circular figure; they are generally +convex on the upper surface, and have a number of laminae and +spiculae shooting from them in various directions, especially from +their circumference. Sometimes when those floating pieces or +plates meet with any obstruction in the channel of the river, they +accumulate in such quantities as to cover the surface of the +water, and become frozen together in one large sheet, but this +kind of ice may be always readily distinguished from that produced +in the usual way by the action of the cold air on the surface, +which is smooth, transparent, and of an uniform texture; on the +contrary, one of these conglomerated fields or sheets is opaque, +uneven, full of asperities, and the form of each separate plate +composing it may be distinctly traced. In this situation, they +generally assume the shape of irregular polygons, with angles +somewhat rounded; a form apparently caused by the lateral pressure +of the contiguous pieces. + +On the river Wharfe, near Otley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, +is a weir or milldam where this phenomenon is sometimes manifested +in a striking manner. This structure is of hewn stone, forming a +plane inclined at an angle of from 35 degrees to 50 degrees, +fronting the north and extending from west to east, to the length +of 250 or 300 yards. When one of the above-mentioned frosts +occurs, the stone which composes the weir soon becomes incrusted +with ice, which increases so rapidly in thickness as in a short +time to impede the course of the stream, which falls over it in a +tolerably uniform sheet, and with considerable velocity; at the +same time, the wind blowing strongly from the north-west, +contributes to repel the water and freeze such as adheres to the +crest of the weir when its surface comes nearly in contact with +the air. The consequence is that in a short time the current is +entirely obstructed, and the superincumbent water forced to a +higher level. But as the above-mentioned causes continue to act, +the ice is also elevated by a perpetual aggregation of particles, +till by a series of similar operations an icy mound or barrier is +formed, so high as to force the water over the opposite bank, and +thus produce an apparent inundation. But in a short time the +accumulated weight of a great many thousand cubic feet of water +presses so strongly against the barrier as to burst a passage +through some weak part, through which the water escapes and +subsides to its former level, leaving the singular appearance of a +wall or rampart of ice three or four feet high, and about two feet +in thickness, along the greatest part of the upper edge of the +weir. The ice composing this barrier where it adheres to the +stone, is of solid consistency, but the upper part consists of a +multitude of thin laminae or layers resting upon each other in a +confused manner, and at different degrees of inclination, their +interstices being occupied by innumerable icy spiculae, diverging +and crossing each other in all directions. The whole mass much +resembles the white and porous ice which may be seen at the edge +of a pond or small rill where the water has subsided during a +frost. + +It may be further observed that a frost of this kind is very +limited in its duration, seldom lasting more than thirty-six or +forty hours. On the morning of the second day after its +commencement, a visible relaxation takes place in the temperature +of the atmosphere. Usually before noon, the wind on a sudden +shifts to the south-west, and a rapid thaw comes on, frequently +attended with rain. What appears somewhat remarkable is, that +during several hours after the commencement of the thaw, the +production of ice at the bottom of rivers seems to go on without +abatement, and upon examining a rapid stream, the stones over +which it flows will be found at this period completely incrusted +with the above description of icy plates. It seems evident from +this that the bed of the river, which has been reduced below the +freezing temperature, is not for some time affected by the change +of the atmosphere. This may be in some measure illustrated by the +well-known fact, that rain which falls upon a rock or stone wall, +is frequently converted into ice, though the air and the ground +are evidently in a state of thaw. Before the following morning, +the ice of which we have been speaking generally disappears, being +carried away by the current or dissolved by the thaw. + +The last time that I remarked this phenomenon, was in a stream of +the river Aire, near Bradford, in Yorkshire, on the 1st of +January, 1814. This instance did not precisely accord with what I +have stated to be the usual circumstances of the case, as the +frost then had existed several days without any previous +appearance of this kind; but there were several indications of +approaching change of temperature, and the day following there was +a partial thaw attended with rain, the wind having veered from +north-west to south-west. This thaw, however, did not continue +long, and was succeeded by a frost which surpassed all within my +recollection in severity and duration. Yet during the whole of the +period, though the thermometer often stood below 18 degrees +Fahrenheit, and the estuary of the Tees several miles below +Stockton, where the spring-tides rise from twelve to eighteen +feet, was for two months frozen over, so as to allow the passage +of a loaded waggon, I could never perceive a particle of ice +adhering to the rock or gravel, in the bed of the small and rapid +river Leven in Cleveland, where I then resided. This circumstance +seems decisively to prove that the phenomenon does not merely +depend on an intensity of cold. + +I confess I am unable to frame any hypotheses respecting the +above-mentioned facts which would not be liable to numerous and +formidable objections. The immediate cause of the formation of the +ice seems to be a rapid diminution of the temperature in the stone +or gravel in the bed of the river, connected with the sudden +changes in the state of the atmosphere, but it does not seem very +easy to explain the precise nature of this connection. + +We may easily conceive that by a sudden change from a state of +thaw to an intense frost attended by a strong wind, the whole body +of water in a river may become quickly cooled, and consequently +diminish the temperature of the stone or gravel over which it +flows; but to suppose that water which is not itself at freezing- +point is capable of reducing the substances in contact with it by +means of a continual application of successive particles so far +_beneath_ that temperature as in process of time to convert the +contiguous water to ice, seems not to accord very well with the +usually received theory of the equilibrium of caloric. However, +the fact that the quantity of ice thus produced is always greater +in proportion to the superior velocity of the stream, little or +none being found where there is no sensible current, seems in some +degree to countenance the above idea. + +I cannot learn that any experiments have ever been instituted on +this subject, though it seems that they might easily be made by a +person conveniently situated and possessed of the necessary +instruments. A careful examination by properly contrived +thermometers of the relative temperatures of the air, the water, +and the bed of the river and of the changes undergone by them +during the above process, would probably go a great way towards +solving the problem. I know no one better qualified for this +undertaking than Mr. Knight, if he should at any future time have +leisure and opportunity to direct towards it the same acuteness of +observation and accuracy of investigation which have enabled him +to make such important discoveries in the economy of the vegetable +kingdom, and if the explanation of this phenomenon should ever +lead to results of any importance to the cause of science, I shall +feel sufficiently satisfied if it be deemed that I have been of +any service in pointing out the way. + +RICHARD GARNETT. + +BLACKBURN, _May 16th_, 1818. + +* * * * * + +GOSSAMER. + +CLITHEROE, _October 20th_, 1859. + +To the Editor of the "Field." + +"A Young Inquirer" asks what is the cause of that appearance so +often met with in the autumn, resembling spider-webs. He says, if +it be the production of that insect, how do you account for their +hanging apparently unsuspended in the air, as it is seen fifty or +sixty feet high, without a tree or any other object near to which +it could be attached? + +I suppose you have not time to give to such questions minutely, as +your reply would lead one to infer that Gossamer proceeded from +spiders in general; and if it be meant that all true spiders spin, +it is no doubt correct; but the Gossamer which "A Young Inquirer" +asks about is the production of a small black spider about the +size of a flea, which was a true aeronaut long before Montgolfier +or Lunardi, and if "A Young Inquirer" has access to either the +"Linnean Transactions" or the first series of Loudon's "Magazine +of Natural History," he will find particulars in the latter, +showing that a violent controversy raged through the three first +volumes between Mr. Blackwall and Dr. Murray on the question +whether the ascent of this spider (_A. AEronautica_) was electric, +or whether it merely travelled in the direction of the wind. But +if "A Young Inquirer" would deserve his name, let him begin with +these spiders and observe for himself; he will find the inquiry +highly interesting. + +He has no doubt frequently seen a small black spider creeping on +his hat or clothes (if he lives in the country this must have +occurred to him many times); this is the aeronautic spider. Let +him take this upon his hand, and if he be in the house let him +carry it to the open door or window, and allow it to creep up to +the tip of his finger, which he must then hold in a horizontal +position. When the spider finds it can proceed no further by +creeping, it generally drops a few inches, where it remains +suspended for a short time, apparently quite still, but if very +closely observed another thread (Gossamer) may be seen proceeding +from its vent, and when this has reached the length which the +spider's instinct tells it is sufficient for the purpose, it cuts +off the connection till then existing between it and the thread by +which it has hitherto been suspended from the finger, and floats +away into space. Very often it rises almost vertically, sometimes +its course is nearly horizontal, and sometimes it is oblique. + +I cannot say, as Mr. Murray does, that I have seen the spider go +_against_ the wind, neither can I confirm Mr. Blackwall's +assertions that he always goes right before the wind, for I have +seen him go apparently across the current, so far as I could judge +of the direction of the wind at the time. + +If "A Young Inquirer" makes the experiment I have suggested, let +him not be discouraged if the first he tries does not go off at +all, as I have sometimes found this to be the case, which I +accounted for by supposing that possibly the supply of materials +might be exhausted at the time. + +I do not remember that I ever saw one of these aeronautic spiders +preying upon any insect, yet it must be for some such purpose that +they ascend to great altitudes, sometimes in countless numbers, +and the way they come down again is quite as curious as the manner +in which they ascend. + +Many years since, as I was walking over the hills in the +neighbourhood of Blackburn, on a bright, still morning in +September, thousands of small locks of what looked like cotton +wool were slowly descending to the ground from various altitudes-- +some as high as I could see--and tens of thousands of similar +locks were lying on the ground on both sides of the path by which +I was travelling; and on examination I found that all these locks +were Gossamer, some with the spider still with them, but generally +deserted. The spiders when they wanted to come down, finding there +was no descending current of air, or perhaps, as Mr. Murray says, +no electricity, determined to descend in _parachutes_; they +therefore had drawn up their cables hand over hand (as they may +often be seen to do when they wish to ascend their own lines) +until they accumulated a mass heavy enough to fall by its own +weight, and carry them along with it. + +I have seen Gossamer in this form at other times before and since, +but in the likeness of a snow-shower I never saw it except on that +occasion, and, if I recollect aright, the same enormous shower of +Gossamer was observed to extend as far as Liverpool. + +What induced these millions of spiders to go up at the same time, +of course I do not know, and can only suppose that they went up to +feed; but, as I have said previously, I never saw one of this +species preying upon anything. The idea that they go aloft to kill +the _Furia Infernalis_ is too fanciful to deserve credit. Who +knows whether the _Furia Infernalis_ is anything else than a +murderous Mrs. Harris--at all events, who has seen one, and what +was it like? + +I suppose they are true sportsmen, and disdaining to take their +fish in nets, they, like thorough brothers of the angle, fish only +_with fine gut_. + +Gilbert White noticed one of these showers of Gossamer, and as his +account is very interesting, I quote it. He says that on the 21st +of September, 1741, intent upon field diversions, he rose before +daybreak, but on going out he found the whole face of the country +covered with a thick coat of cobweb drenched with dew, as if two +or three setting-nets had been drawn one over the other. When his +dogs attempted to hunt, their eyes were blinded and hoodwinked, so +much that they were obliged to lie down and scrape themselves. +This appearance was followed by a most lovely day. About 9 A.M. a +shower of these webs (formed not of single threads, but of perfect +flakes, some near an inch broad and five or six long) was observed +falling from very elevated regions, which continued without +interruption during the whole of the day, and they fell with a +velocity which showed they were considerably heavier than the +atmosphere. When the most elevated station in the country where +this was observed was ascended, the webs were still to be seen +descending from above, and twinkling like stars in the sun, so as +to draw the attention of the most incurious. The flakes of the web +on this occasion hung so thick upon the hedges and trees, that +basketsful might have been collected. No one doubts (he observes) +but that these webs are the production of small spiders. + +These aerial spiders are of two sizes, although of the same colour +and general appearance; they are probably male and female. At all +events they do not vary in size more than other species of spiders +when the sexes differ. + +Has it been observed by naturalists that spiders eat their own +webs? A large one that I used to feed when I was a lad with wasps, +humble bees, and flesh-flies, used to do so occasionally. These +insects were so strong that they often ruined the web in their +efforts to escape, and the spider, quite aware of the rough +customers it had to deal with, would often coil a cable of many +folds round them before venturing to seize them with its +mandibles. It would, if the web was ruined by the struggles of the +insect, deliberately gorge it, which I accounted for by supposing +that unless it did so it would not be able to secrete a sufficient +supply of material to enable it to spin another. + +The leaping spiders are another curious species, which construct +no webs, although they spin threads. This spider may be seen +frequently on the walls of houses, and if carefully watched it +will be seen to range up and down in quest of small gnats and +other insects; when it observes one it creeps to within about two +inches of it, and backing slightly, it appears to hesitate for a +moment, and then springs upon the fly, but always before doing so +it fixes a thread to the spot from whence it springs, so that if +the fly happens to be too strong for it, and is able to detach +itself from the wall, they both remain suspended from the thread +which has been previously fixed by the spider. This I have seen +more than once. + +They sometimes venture on larger game than the small gnats. One I +was watching one day came upon one of the large _Ephemera_ (the +Browndrake), an insect ten times as large as the spider, but after +many points (for the setting of the spider before it springs is +very similar in manner to that of a thoroughbred pointer [17]), in +which it kept varying its position, apparently to gain some +advantage, it gave up the attempt, discretion proving the better +part of valour. + +When botanizing on Erris Begh (in Connemara), this summer, I +passed through many spider-lines so strong as to offer a very +sensible resistance before breaking. I don't remember to have ever +before met with them so strong and tenacious, and the makers of +optical instruments might there have found abundance of threads +which I am told are valuable as _cross-wires_ for transit- +instruments and theodolites. I did not meet with any of the +spiders that had thrown out these lines, but judging of them by +their works I suppose they must have been large ones. + +One of your correspondents was inquiring a few weeks since how it +was that a spider could throw out a long line between two trees or +buildings at a considerable distance from each other. This seems +to me to be very easily explained, if we reason from the analogy +of the flying spider. The spider seems to throw out a line, +trusting it will catch somewhere or other, and it is able to +ascertain it has done so by pulling at it, and when it finds that +it is firmly fixed it starts off to travel upon it, as I have +occasionally noticed. + +Everyone has noticed how carefully the spider carries her cocoon +of eggs attached to the vent, and how disconsolate she appears to +be when deprived of them; but I don't think it is so generally +known that some of the spiders carry their young on their backs +for some time after they are hatched. I remember seeing an +instance of this one day when on the Moors, grouse-shooting. I saw +what seemed to be a very curious insect travelling on the ling +(heather), and on stooping down to examine it I found it was a +large spider, upon the back of which (in fact, all over it) were +clustered some dozens of young ones, about the size of pins' +heads; she also seemed to guard them with great care, and seemed +much afraid of losing them. + +FINIS. + +NOTES. + +[1] There is a fish somewhat resembling the Brambling in the +Dunsop, a tributary of the Hodder, where it is known by the name +of the Bull Penk. + +[2] My opinion that neither Trout nor Salmon spawn every year is I +think strongly corroborated by the fact, that previous to the Act +of 1861 the London fish market was supplied with Salmon of the +largest size, and of the best quality, in October, November, and +December. When these fish were examined, it was found that the +ovaries were but small, and the individual ova were not larger +than mustard seed. These fish could not have spawned that season, +nor would they have done so if left alive, if the growth of the +ova in the ovaries is uniform--I mean if the growth of the ova is +as great in one month as another--because in May and June the ova +in a female Salmon is four times as large as these were in +November. + +Again, when the gas tank at Settle was emptied into the Ribble, in +September, 1861, all the fish so far as was known were killed +between that place and Mitton, Salmon as well as Par and Trout. +Supposing that Salmon spawn every year, and that the Smolts come +up the river, as Grilse in the summer of the same year in which +they have gone to the sea in the spring, there ought to have been +a great scarcity of both Grilse and Salmon in the Ribble in the +year 1862, but so far was this from being the case, that both +Grilse and Salmon were more abundant that season than they had +been for some years previously, but there was a scarcity of both +in 1863. + +Again, when the Smolts were turned out of the breeding ponds at +Dohulla, Galway, the experiment was looked upon as a failure +because no Grilse returned the same season, not one having showed +itself, but many came the summer after, proving pretty conclusively +that in some rivers, at all events, the Smolt requires a year's +residence in the sea before it returns as Grilse. + +[3] In the evidence of Mr. George Hogarth, it is stated that he +saw upwards of ninety Kelt fish in the mill lead at Grandholme, on +the Don, May 6th. + +[4] Salmon are said to produce 18,000 or 20,000 eggs each, and I +have no doubt that a large Salmon will produce more, as one I +examined a year or two ago, of about ten pounds weight, had a roe +which weighed two pounds nine ounces, and the skin in which the +eggs were enveloped (they were not in the loose state in which +they are found just before exclusion) weighed three ounces, after +all the eggs were washed from it; so that there were thirty-eight +ounces of eggs. I weighed fifty of them, and found they weighed +sixty-five grains. At that rate, thirty-eight ounces would give +12,788, and 300 lbs. 1,615,000; but as they would be much lighter +when dried and potted than when taken from the belly of the fish, +we may safely estimate that the 300 lbs. would contain 2,000,000, +a prodigious number to pass through the hands of one tackle maker +in a season. + +[5] From "Loudon's Magazine of Natural History." + +[6] I have frequently found, when catching Trout for this purpose, +that the milt and roe were not ready for exclusion; when this was +the case, I put them into a wire cage, which I sunk in the water, +examining the fish every week, until I found they were in a fit +state for the experiment. + +[7] I fancy that if the ova come in contact with the air on +exclusion, they are not so readily impregnated as if they are +always covered with the water, and therefore I have laid some +stress on the desirableness of keeping the air excluded from the +ova as much as possible. + +[8] There is, however, one fact which must lead a casual observer +to suppose that the ova are impregnated twelve months before +exclusion. It is this: the male Par (Salmon fry) are at this +season, October, full of milt, almost ready for exclusion; whilst, +in the female, the ova are so small that they require a microscope +to see them individually, and the whole ovary is merely like a +thread, leading to the conclusion that either the milt of the male +is not required for the female Par, or the ova are impregnated +twelve months before exclusion. The fact is, that the milt of the +Par is used to impregnate the ova of the Salmon on the spawning +beds. + +[9] When I commenced this paper I had no doubt that hybrids had +been produced between the Sprod (sea Trout) and the common Trout; +since then, having seen the fry said to be so produced, and on +making some further inquiries, I find there is some doubt whether +the female was a _Sprod_, or merely a white Trout, and therefore I +cannot confidently assert (as some time ago I believed I could) +that hybrid fish had already been produced. As some of my readers +may not know what a _Sprod_ is, it may be necessary to explain. In +the Ribble we have a fish ascending from the sea in July and +August, weighing from six to ten ounces, which, in appearance at +least, is a miniature Salmon. I believe the same fish is called a +Whitling in Scotland. Besides this, we have a similar but larger +fish, which begins to come a little earlier, and which weighs from +one to three pounds; this, in the Ribble, is called a Mort (in +Scotland a sea Trout). Both these fish (if they are two species) +afford splendid sport to the angler, who must never consider them +beaten until he has them in the landing-net. They are also +delicate eating. + +_Note on cross-breeding of Fish._ + +Since the above paper was published, the breeding of Hybrids has +been successfully accomplished. I have had fish sent from two +different gentlemen living on the banks of the reservoirs +belonging to the Liverpool Waterworks; these were beautiful fish +(three in number), more like the sea Trout than the Salmon, and +the largest of them weighing two pounds. I had put them into the +brooks running into the reservoirs three years before. + +I also learn from a friend that a beautiful specimen of the _ombre +Chevalier_ (French Char) was taken out of the Rivington reservoir. +About a thousand had been put there by me two years before. + +[10] Persons conversant with the habits of birds will readily +comprehend me; for the sake of those who do not, I will just +observe that the flight of all the Wagtails is very peculiar, +being a succession of great leaps in the air (if I may be allowed +the expression), which form a series of curves, the bird rising +considerably at the commencement of each effort, and sinking again +at the close. + +[11] The intrepid and unfortunate traveller Joseph Ritchie, who +accompanied Captain Lyon's expedition to Fezzan, and died there in +1819. Mr. Ritchie was a native of Otley, and an intimate friend of +Mr. Garnett and his brothers. The beautiful poem from which the +quotation is taken is printed in Alaric Watts's "Poetical Album." + +[12] 1853.--I regret that in 1853, and for some years previous, we +have not seen one. I fear they are extinct. The smaller kind are +still numerous. + +[13] The male Par is an exception to this rule. + +[14] It appears to be a beautiful provision of Nature that mixture +with water should increase the sphere of its action. Spallanzani +found by actual experiment that three grains of the seed of a male +frog might be diluted with a pint of water without destroying its +stimulating power. See "Dissertations," vol. ii. p. 142, chap. 3, +Ed. "Mag. Nat. History." + +[15] Mr. Thomson, of Primrose. + +[16] Assistant Keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. +Author of "Philological Essays," &c. + +[17] The toad, when going to take a bee, points for a second or +two as beautifully as the best-trained pointer before it strikes +with its tongue. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays in Natural History and +Agriculture, by Thomas Garnett + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS IN NATURAL HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 18298.txt or 18298.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/2/9/18298/ + +Produced by R. L. Garnett + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18298.zip b/18298.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5d7543d --- /dev/null +++ b/18298.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11ccbae --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #18298 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18298) |