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+Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: For Every Music Lover
+       A Series of Practical Essays on Music
+
+Author: Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+Release Date: April 29, 2006 [EBook #18284]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MALIBRAN]
+
+
+
+
+FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER
+
+A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ESSAYS ON MUSIC
+
+BY AUBERTINE WOODWARD MOORE
+
+AUTHOR OF "FOR MY MUSICAL FRIEND" ETC.
+
+
+NEW YORK
+DODGE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+55 FIFTH AVENUE
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1902, by
+DODGE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+1. MALIBRAN         _Frontispiece_
+2. MOZART                      22
+3. BRAHMS                      54
+4. FRANZ LISZT                 86
+5. LILLIAN NORDICA            118
+6. PAGANINI                   150
+7. JENNY LIND                 182
+8. CORELLI                    214
+9. SAINT-SAËNS                246
+
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+Preface                                                                17
+
+    How we can approach knowledge of music. Mistaken isolation of the
+    art. Those who belong to the privileged class. Music, as well as
+    religion, meant for all. Business of its ministers and teachers.
+    Promise of the twentieth century. Fruitage of our own free soil.
+    American world-view. Purpose of volume.
+
+
+The Origin and Function of Music                                       21
+
+    Story of music affording knowledge of man's inner life. Mythology
+    and legendary lore. Emerson's dualism. Music a mirror. Ruskin and
+    art. Beethoven's lofty revelation. The real thing of Schopenhauer.
+    Views of Carlyle, Wagner and Mazzini. Raw materials. Craving for
+    sympathy in artistic type. Evolution of tone-language. French writer
+    of 1835. Prince of Waldthurn, in 1690. Spencer's theory. Controversy
+    and answer. Music of primeval man and early civilizations. The
+    Vedas. Hebrew scriptures. Basis of scientific laws. Church ritual.
+    Folk-music. Influence of crusades. Modern music architect of its own
+    fortunes. Present musical vocabulary and literature. Counsel of
+    Pythagoras. What Plato taught. Euripides on song. Auerbach. Martin
+    Luther. Napoleon Bonaparte. Bain and Dr. Marx. Shakespeare, in
+    Merchant of Venice. Wagner's unspoiled humanity. Tolstoi in art.
+
+
+Blunders in Music Study                                               43
+
+    Voice from the unseen. Perverted soul. Normal instincts. Genius and
+    talent. Æsthetic tastes. Musical sound and rhythmic motion. Average
+    child. Frequent blunders. Appeal to intellect. Teacher with strong
+    personality. Experimenting with beginners. Legal protection. Vienna
+    musician. Class instruction. French solfège. English tonic sol-fa.
+    Mrs. John Spencer Curwen. Rev. John Curwen. Time a mental science.
+    Musical perception of the blind. Music in public schools. Phillips
+    Brooks on school song. Compulsory study. Socrates. Mirabeau.
+    Schumann on brilliancy. Unrighteous mammon of technique. Soul of
+    music. Neglect of ensemble work. As to accompaniments. Underlying
+    principles. Hearing good music. Going abroad. Wagner's hero. A
+    plumed knight wanted.
+
+
+The Musical Education That Educates                                   61
+
+    Symmetrical development. Well-rounded musician. Well-balanced
+    individual. Profits proportionate to investment. Living force. What
+    Goethe said. Rich harvest. Aristotle on command over mind. Music
+    study many-sided. Madox-Brown on art. Mabie on beauty. Practical
+    forces in shaping character, purifying taste and elevating
+    standards. Master-works. Human voice as music teacher. Scientific
+    methods of study. Both art and science. Mental discipline. Stephen
+    A. Emory. Huxley on education.
+
+
+How to Interpret Music                                                73
+
+    College professors on criticism and interpretation. External and
+    technical forms. Distrusting impressions. Trampling on God-given
+    intuitions. Throb and thrill of great art. Insight requisite for
+    interpretation. Living with masterpieces. Three souls of Browning.
+    Dr. Corson. Every faculty alive. Vital knowledge. Musical
+    imagination. Technical proficiency. Head, hand and physical forces.
+    In service of lofty ideal. Musical art work. Theme. Unfolding.
+    Climax. Labor of composition. Mind of genius. Elementary laws. Tonal
+    language. Karl Formes and operatic aspirant. Motto of Leschetitzky.
+    Marks of expression. Adolph Kullak. Hans von Bülow. Pulse of music.
+    Memory. Ruskin's fatal faults.
+
+
+How to Listen to Music                                                89
+
+    Listening an art. Painting completed whole. Music passing panorama.
+    Not translatable into words. To follow, even anticipate composer.
+    Bach's absolute knowledge. Fire of Prometheus. Inner sanctuary of
+    art. Science of acoustics. Prime elements. Dr. Marx and Helmholtz.
+    Motive. Beethoven's fifth symphony. Phrase. Period. Simple melody.
+    "God Save the King." Our "America." Masters of counterpoint. Bach's
+    fugues. Monophony and polyphony. Classical and romantic. Heretic and
+    hero. Hadow on musical laws. Form the manifestation of these. Good
+    music versus ragtime. Dr. Corson on spiritual appeal.
+
+
+The Piano and Piano Players                                          105
+
+    Pythagoras and musical intervals. Pan pipes. Portable organs.
+    Monochords with keys. Guido d'Arezzo. Clavier type. Virginal in
+    Elizabethan age. Early clavier masters. First woman court clavier
+    player. Scarlatti and Bach. True art of clavier-playing. Sonata
+    form. Where Haydn gained much. Mozart and Clementi. Pianoforte and
+    improvements. Viennese school. Clementi school. Giant on lofty
+    heights. Oscar Bie on Beethoven. Golden age of pianoforte. Piano
+    composers and virtuosi, from Weber to the present time. Teachers and
+    performers often corrupters of music.
+
+
+The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin                                  135
+
+    Rubinstein on Polish patriot and tone-poet who explored harmonic
+    vastness of pianoforte. Like exquisitely constructed sounding-board.
+    Enriched and spiritualized the pianoforte for all time. Universal
+    rather than individual experiences. National tonality. Zwyny and
+    Elsner. Intimate acquaintance with Bach. Prince Charming of the
+    piano. Liszt on Chopin. Raphael of music. Playing and teaching.
+    Tempo rubato. Compositions. Schumann's words. Oscar Bie.
+
+
+Violins and Violinists--Fact and Fable                               151
+
+    Volker the fiddler. Nibelungen lay. Videl of days of chivalry. Bow
+    fashioned like sword. Hagen of Tronje. Wilhelm Jordan, in
+    "Sigfridsage." Henrietta Sontag and the coming Paganini. Wagner's
+    Volker-Wilhelmj at Bayreuth. Magic fiddles and wonderworking
+    fiddlers. Grimm's Fairy Tales. Norse folk-lore. English nursery
+    rhymes. Crickets as fiddlers. Progenitors of violin. The violin of
+    Queen Elizabeth and her age. Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. Household
+    of Charles II. Butler, in Hudibras. Viola d'amore in Milwaukee, Wis.
+    Brescian and Cremonese violin-makers. Early violinists. Value and
+    history of some violins. Strings and bow. Violin virtuosi from
+    Corelli to our day. Mad rush for technique.
+
+
+Queens of Song                                                       183
+
+    Florentine lady, Vittoria Archilei. Embryo opera of Cavalieri.
+    Peri's "Eurydice." Euterpe. Marthe le Rochois and Lully's operas.
+    Rival queens in London. Steele, in "Tattler." Second pair of rivals,
+    Cuzzoni and Faustina. Master Handel. Germany's earliest queen of
+    song. Frederick the Great and German singers. Mrs. Billington. Haydn
+    and Sir Joshua Reynold's St. Cecilia. Mozart's operas introduced
+    into England. Catalani. Pasta. Sontag. Schröder-Devrient and
+    Goethe's "Erl King." Malibran a dazzling Meteor. Another daughter of
+    Manuel del Popolo Garcia. Marchesi, Grisi and Mario. Manuel Garcia
+    and the Swedish Nightingale. Other Swedish songstresses. Patti.
+    Queens of song pass in review. Two Wagner interpreters. A Valkyrie's
+    horse. A word for American girls.
+
+
+The Opera and Its Reformers                                          213
+
+    Evolution of drama. At the altar of Dionysus. Greek poetry and
+    music. Aristotle on Greek stage-plays. Æschylus and Sophocles.
+    Euripides. Words, music and scenic effect. Lenæan theatre
+    exhibitions. More costly than Peloponnesian war. Roman dominion.
+    Primitive Christian church. St. Augustine. Mystery, miracle,
+    morality and passion plays. Strolling histriones, etc. Florence
+    "Academy." Vincenzo Galilei. Monody. Polyphonic music. Emilio del
+    Cavalieri. Vittorio Archilei. Music of Greeks recovered. Peri.
+    Monteverde and his work. First opera house. Alessandro Scarlatti.
+    Troubadours. Lully, Rameau and French opera. Purcell, Handel and
+    music in England. Gluck, the regenerator. German opera. Mozart,
+    Beethoven, Weber and Wagner. What came from Bach, Chopin and
+    Berlioz. Rossini's melodies. Wagner's influence. Verdi, the grand
+    old man.
+
+
+Certain Famous Oratorios                                             235
+
+    Neri's oratory. Dramatized versions of biblical stories. Palestrina
+    and harmonies of celestial Jerusalem. Religious dramas of Roswitha.
+    Laura Guidiccioni's first oratorio text. Music by Cavalieri. At
+    Santa Maria della Vallicella. Orchestra behind the scene.
+    Description. Carissimi, "father of oratorio and cantata."
+    Alessandro Scarlatti. Another Alessandro. Dr. Parry's opinion. "San
+    Giovanni Battista" and famous air. Tradition about Stradella. What
+    recent writers say. Handel and the "Messiah." Bach and the "Passion
+    Music." "The Creation" and Haydn. Beethoven's "Mount of Olives."
+    Mendelssohn, in "St. Paul" and "Elijah." Oratorios of Liszt and
+    Gounod. Next step in the evolution.
+
+
+Symphony and Symphonic Poem                                          247
+
+    That adventurous spirit, Monteverde. Charm in exploring resources of
+    instrumentation. Operatic overture. Forge of genius. Dance of
+    obscure origin. Craving for individual expression. Touch of
+    authority by Corelli. Cardinal Ottoboni's palace. Symphony, a sonata
+    for orchestra. Purcell, Scarlatti, Sammartini and the Bachs.
+    Monophonic style. Contrasting movements. German critic on early
+    sonata. Further explanation. Meaning of symphony. Haydn with
+    Esterhazy orchestra. Father of the symphony. Mozart. Beethoven.
+    Schubert. Schumann. Mendelssohn. Berlioz, the musical heretic. His
+    "fixed idea" and programme music. Liszt and symphonic poem.
+    Saint-Saëns. Tschaikowsky and Russian spirit. Sinding. Grieg. Gade.
+    Brahms and absolute music.
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+We cannot gain experience by being brought into contact with the
+experiences of others, nor can we know music by reading about it. Only
+by taking it into our hearts and homes, by admitting it to our intimate
+companionship, can we approach a knowledge of the art that has enriched
+so many lives, even though it has never yet completely fulfilled its
+function. At the same time, every music lover is helped to new ideas,
+inspired to fresh efforts, by suggestions and statements from those who
+have themselves had deep experiences in their search for the inner
+sanctuary of the Temple of Art.
+
+Musicians have been too much inclined to treat their art as something to
+be exclusively appropriated by a favored class of men and women, and are
+themselves greatly to blame for its mistaken isolation. True, music has
+its privileged class. To this belongs the mind of creative genius that
+can formulate in tones the universal passions, the eternal verities of
+the soul. In it may also be numbered those gifted beings whose
+interpretative powers peculiarly adapt them to spread abroad the
+utterances of genius. Precisely in the same way religion has its
+prophets and its ministers. Music, as well as religion, is meant for
+everyone, and the business of its ministers and teachers is to convey to
+all the message of its prophets.
+
+The nineteenth century was the period of achievement. There is every
+reason to believe that the twentieth century will be the period of still
+nobler achievement, beyond all in the realm of the spirit. Then will
+music find its most splendid opportunity, and in our own free soil it
+will yield its richest fruitage. Amid the favorable conditions of
+liberty it will flourish to the utmost, and will come to afford blessed
+relief from the pressure of materialism. During the era we are entering
+no unworthy teacher will be permitted to trifle with the unfolding
+musical instincts of childhood. The study of music will take an honored
+place in the curriculum of every school, academy, college and
+university, as an essential factor in culture. Then music among us will
+come to reflect our deepest, truest consciousness, the American
+world-view.
+
+It is with a desire to stimulate thought and incite to action that the
+present volume has been prepared for every music lover. The essays
+contained in it have not previously appeared in print. They are composed
+to a large extent of materials used by the author in her lectures and
+informal talks on music and its history. That her readers may be led to
+seek further acquaintance with the divine art is her earnest wish.
+
+Many thanks are due L. C. Page & Company, of Boston, for kind permission
+to use the portrait of Corelli, from their "Famous Violinists," by Henry
+C. Lahee.
+
+AUBERTINE WOODWARD MOORE.
+MADISON, WIS.
+
+
+
+
+FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Origin and Function of Music
+
+
+One of the most interesting of the many interesting stories of our
+civilization is the story of Music. It affords an intimate knowledge of
+the inner life of man as manifested in different epochs of the world's
+history. He who has failed to follow it has failed to comprehend the
+noblest phenomena of human progress.
+
+Mythology and legendary lore abound in delightful traditions in regard
+to the birth of music. The untutored philosophers of primitive humanity
+and the learned philosophers of ancient civilizations alike strove to
+solve the sweet, elusive mystery surrounding the art. Through the myths
+and legends based on their speculations runs a suggestion of divine
+origin.
+
+The Egyptians of old saw in their sublime god, Osiris, and his ideal
+spouse, Isis, the authors of music. Among the Hindus it was regarded as
+a priceless gift from the great god Brahma, who was its creator and
+whose peerless consort, Sarasvati, was its guardian. Poetic fancies in
+these lines permeate the early literature of diverse peoples.
+
+This is not surprising. Abundant testimony proves that the existence of
+music is coeval with that of mankind; that it is based on the
+modulations of the human voice and the agitations of the human muscles
+and nerves caused by the infinite variations of the spiritual and
+emotional sensations, needs and aspirations of humanity; that it has
+grown with man's growth, developed with man's development, and that
+its origin is as divine as that of man.
+
+[Illustration: MOZART]
+
+The inevitable dualism which Emerson found bisecting all nature appears
+also in music, which is both spiritual and material. The spiritual part
+of music appeals to the spiritual part of man, addressing each heart
+according to the cravings and capacities of each. The material part of
+music may be compared to the body in which man's spirit is housed. It is
+the vehicle which conveys the message of music from soul to soul through
+the medium of the human ear with its matchless harp of nerve-fibres and
+its splendid sounding-board, the eardrum.
+
+Music is the mirror which most perfectly reflects man's inner being and
+the essence of all things. Ruskin saw clearly that he alone can love art
+well who loves better what art mirrors. This may especially be applied
+to music, which offers, as a Beethoven has said, a more lofty revelation
+than all wisdom and philosophy.
+
+Having no model in nature, being neither an imitation of any actual
+object, nor a repetition of anything experienced, music stands alone
+among the arts. It represents the real thing, as Schopenhauer has it,
+the thing itself, not the mere semblance. Were we able to give a
+thoroughly satisfactory explanation of music, he declares, we should
+have the true philosophy of the universe.
+
+"Music is a kind of inarticulate, unfathomable speech, which leads us to
+the edge of the Infinite, and impels us for a moment to gaze into it,"
+exclaimed Carlyle. Wagner found in music the conscious language of
+feeling, that which ennobles the sensual and realizes the spiritual.
+"Music is the harmonious voice of creation, an echo of the invisible
+world, one note of the divine concord which the entire universe is
+destined one day to sound," wrote Mazzini. Literature is rich in noble
+definitions of the divine art.
+
+From a matter of fact standpoint music consists of a vast concourse of
+tones which are its raw materials and bear within themselves the
+possibility of being moulded into form. Utterances and actions
+illustrating these raw materials are common to all living creatures. A
+dog, reiterating short barks of joy, or giving vent to prolonged howls
+of distress, is actuated by an impulse similar to that of the human
+infant as it uplifts its voice to express its small emotions. The sounds
+uttered by primeval man as the direct expression of his emotions were
+unquestionably of a like nature.
+
+The tendency to manifest feeling by means of sound is universally
+admitted, and sound, freighted with feeling, is peculiarly exciting to
+human beings. The agitations of a mob may be increased by the emotional
+tones of its prime movers, and we all know that the power of an orator
+depends more on his skill in handling his voice than on what he says.
+
+A craving for sympathy exists in all animate beings. It is strong in
+mankind and becomes peculiarly intense in the type known as artistic.
+The fulness of his own emotions compels the musician to utterance. To
+strike a sympathetic chord in other sensitive breasts it becomes
+necessary to devise forms of expression that may be unmistakably
+intelligible.
+
+Out of such elements the tone-language has grown, precisely as the
+word-language grew out of men's early attempts to communicate facts to
+one another. Its story records a slow, painstaking building up of
+principles to control its raw materials; for music, as we understand it,
+cannot exist without some kind of design. Vague sounds produce vague,
+fleeting impressions. Definiteness in tonal relations and rhythmic plan
+is requisite to produce a defined, enduring impression. In primitive
+states of music rhythmic sounds were heard, defined by the pulses but
+with little or no change of pitch, and sounds varying in pitch without
+regularity of impulse. A high degree of intellectuality was reached
+before our modern scales were evolved from long-continued attempts at
+making well-balanced successions of sounds. As musical art advanced
+rhythm and melodic expression became united.
+
+The study of the origin, function and evolution of music, according to
+modern scientific methods, is a matter of comparatively recent date. As
+late as 1835 a French writer of the history of music expressed profound
+regret that he had been unable to determine when music was invented, or
+to discover the inventor's name. It was his opinion that musical man had
+profited largely from the voices of the feathered tribes. He seriously
+asserted that the duck had evidently furnished a model for the clarionet
+and oboe, and Sir Chanticleer for the trumpet. An entire chapter of his
+book he devoted to surmises concerning the "Music before the Flood." The
+poor man felt himself superior to the poetic fancies of the ancients,
+which at least foreshadowed the Truth, but had found no firm ground on
+which to stand.
+
+Much finer were the instincts of Capellmeister Wolfgang Kasper, Prince
+of Waldthurn, whose historical treatise on Music appeared in Dresden in
+1690. He boldly declared the author of music to be the good God himself,
+who fashioned the air to transmit musical sounds, the ear to receive
+them, the soul of man to throb with emotions demanding utterance, and
+all nature to be filled with sources of inspiration. The good
+Capellmeister was in close touch with the Truth.
+
+It was in 1835, the same year that the French writer mentioned offered
+his wild speculations, that Herbert Spencer, from the standpoint of a
+scientist, produced his essay on the "Origin and Function of Music,"
+which has proved invaluable in arousing discriminating thought in these
+lines. Many years elapsed before its worth to musicians was realized.
+To-day it is widely known and far-reaching in its influence.
+
+In those inner agitations which cause muscular expansion and
+contraction, and find expression in the inflections and cadences of the
+voice, Herbert Spencer saw the foundations of music. He unhesitatingly
+defined it as emotional speech, the language of the feelings, whose
+function was to increase the sympathies and broaden the horizon of
+mankind. Besides frankly placing music at the head of the fine arts, he
+declared that those sensations of unexperienced felicity it arouses,
+those impressions of an unknown, ideal existence it calls forth, may be
+regarded as a prophecy to the fulfilment of which music is itself partly
+instrumental. Our strange capacity for being affected by melody and
+harmony cannot but imply that it is possible to realize the delights
+they suggest. On these suppositions might be comprehended the power and
+significance of music which must otherwise remain a mystery. The
+progress of musical culture, he thought, could not be too much applauded
+as a noble means of ministering to human welfare. Mr. Spencer's theory
+has of late led to much controversy. Its author has been censured for
+setting forth no explanation of the place of harmony in modern music,
+and for not realizing what a musical composition is. In his last volume,
+"Facts and Comments," which contains many valuable thoughts not
+previously published, he declares that his critics have obviously
+confounded the origin of a thing and that which originates from it.
+"Here we have a striking example of the way in which an hypothesis is
+made to appear untenable by representing it as being something which it
+does not profess to be," he says. "I gave an account of the origin of
+music, and now I am blamed because my conception of the origin of music
+does not include a conception of music as fully developed. If to some
+one who said that an oak comes from an acorn it were replied that he had
+manifestly never seen an oak, since an acorn contains no trace of all
+its complexities of form and structure, the reply would not be thought a
+rational one;" but he believes it would be quite as rational as to
+suppose he had not realized what a musical composition is because his
+theory of the origin of music says nothing about the characteristics of
+an overture or a quartet.
+
+Of the music of primeval man we can form an estimate from the music of
+still existing uncivilized races. As the vocabulary of their speech is
+limited, so the notes of their music are few, but expressive gestures
+and modulations of the voice supplement both. With advancing
+civilization the emotions of which the human heart are capable become
+more complex and demand larger means of expression. Some belief in the
+healing, helpful, uplifting power of music has always prevailed. It
+remains for independent, practical, modern man to present the art to the
+world as a thing of law and order, whose ineffable beauty and
+beneficence may reach the lives of the average man and woman.
+
+Without the growth of the individual, music cannot grow; without freedom
+of thought, neither the language of tones nor that of words can gain
+full, free utterance. Freedom is essential to the life of the indwelling
+spirit. Wherever the flow of thought and fancy is impeded, or the
+energies of the individual held in check, there music is cramped. In
+China, where conditions have crushed spiritual and intellectual liberty,
+the art remains to this day in a crude rhythmical or percussion state,
+although it was early honored as the gift of superior beings. The
+Chinese philosopher detected a grand world music in the harmonious order
+of the heavens and the earth, and wrote voluminous works on musical
+theory. When it came to putting this into practice tones were combined
+in a pedantic fashion.
+
+In all ages and climes music has ministered to religion and education.
+The sacred Vedas bear testimony to the high place it held in Hindu
+worship and life. Proud records of stone reveal its dignified rôle in
+the civilization of Egypt, where Plato stated there had existed ten
+thousand years before his day music that could only have emanated from
+gods or godlike men. The art was taught by the temple priests, and the
+education of no young person was complete without a knowledge of it.
+
+Egyptian musical culture impressed itself on the Greeks, and also on the
+Israelites, whose tone-language gained warmth and coloring from various
+Oriental sources. Hebrew scriptures abound in tributes to the worth of
+music which was intimately related to the political life, mental
+consciousness and national sentiment of the Children of Israel. Through
+music they approached the unseen King of kings with the plaintive
+outpourings of their grief-laden hearts and with their joyful hymns of
+praise and thanksgiving.
+
+From the polished Greeks we gained a basis for the scientific laws
+governing our musical art. The splendid music of which we read in
+ancient writings has for the most part vanished with the lives it
+enriched. Relegated to the guardianship of exclusive classes its most
+sacred secrets were kept from the people, and it could not possibly have
+attained the expansion we know.
+
+Music has been called the handmaiden of Christianity, but may more
+appropriately be designated its loyal helpmeet. Whatever synagogue or
+other melodies may have first served to voice the sentiments kindled by
+the Gospel of Glad Tidings it was inevitable that the new religious
+thought should seek and find new musical expression.
+
+In shaping a ritual for general use, an accompaniment of suitable music
+had to be considered. The fathers of the church constituted themselves
+also the guides of music. Those forms which give symmetry and
+proportion to the outward structure of the tonal art were pruned and
+polished under ecclesiastical surveillance until spontaneity was
+endangered. Happily in the spirit of Christianity is that which ever
+proves a remedy for the mistakes of law-givers. The religion that
+inculcates respect for the individual has furthered the advance of music
+and of spirituality.
+
+Beyond the confines of the church was another musical growth, springing
+up by the wayside and in remote places. Folk-music it is called, and it
+gives untrammeled utterance to human longings, human grief and despair,
+and human wondering over the mysteries of life, death and the great
+Beyond. Untutored people had always found vent in this kind of music for
+pent-up feelings, and the folk-music of the Christian world, during the
+Crusades, gained a new element in the fragments of Oriental melody
+transplanted into its midst. In time, through the combined wisdom of
+gifted composers and large-minded ecclesiastical rulers, the music of
+the church and the music of the people became united, and modern music
+was born.
+
+Architecture, painting, sculpture and poetry possess practical proofs of
+their past achievements and on these their present endeavors are
+builded. Modern music has been compelled to be the architect of its own
+fortunes. It is the one new art of our era, and, as the youngest in the
+family of arts, it has but recently reached a high state of development.
+
+During those eleven Christian centuries, from the latter part of the
+fourth century, when the corner-stone for our musical system was laid,
+until the wonderful exploration period of the fifteenth was well
+advanced, the masters of music were absorbed in controlling the elements
+of their art. Since then event has crowded upon event with rapidly
+increasing ratio. During the past two centuries the progress of the art
+has been like a tale in fairyland. We now possess a magnificent musical
+vocabulary, a splendid musical literature, yet so accustomed are we to
+grand treasure-troves we perhaps prize them no more than the meagre
+stores of the past were prized.
+
+Music is often mentioned in literature as a means of discipline,
+inspiration and refreshment. We read in Homer that Achilles was
+instructed in the art that he might learn to moderate his passions;
+Pythagoras, father of Musical Science, counseled his disciples to
+refresh themselves at the fount of music before retiring to their
+couches at night in order to restore the inner harmony of their souls,
+and to seek strength in the morning from the same source. Plato taught
+that music is as essential to the mind as air is to the body, and that
+children should be familiarized with harmonies and rhythms that they
+might be more gentle, harmonious and rhythmical, consequently better
+fitted for speech and action.
+
+"Song brings of itself a cheerfulness that wakes the heart to joy,"
+exclaimed Euripides, and certain it is a large measure of joy surrounds
+those who live in an atmosphere of music. It has a magic wand that lifts
+man beyond the petty worries of his existence. "Music is a shower-bath
+of the soul," said Schopenhauer, "washing away all that is impure." Or
+as Auerbach put it: "Music washes from the soul the dust of everyday
+life."
+
+Realizing the influence of music, Martin Luther sang the Reformation
+into the hearts of the people with his noble chorals in which every one
+might join. He called music a mistress of order and good manners, and
+introduced it into the schools as a means of refinement and discipline,
+in whose presence anger and all evil would depart. "A schoolmaster,"
+said he, "ought to have skill in music, otherwise I would not regard
+him; neither should we ordain young men to the office of preaching
+unless they have been well exercised in the art, for it maketh a fine
+people." It were well if teachers and ministers to-day more generally
+appreciated the value of music to them and their work.
+
+Music is an essential factor in great national movements. Every
+commander knows how inspiring and comforting it is to his men. Napoleon
+Bonaparte, who was not readily lifted out of himself and who complained
+that music jarred his nerves, was shrewd enough to observe its effect on
+marching troops, and to order the bands of different regiments to play
+daily in front of hospitals to soothe and cheer the wounded. The one
+tune he prized, Malbrook, he hummed as he started for his last campaign.
+In the solitude of St. Helena he said: "Of all liberal arts music has
+the greatest influence over the passions, and it is that to which the
+legislator ought to give the most encouragement."
+
+An art that in some form is found in the varied activities of all
+people, at all times, must be the common heritage of humanity. "It does
+not speak to one class but to mankind," said Robert Franz, the German
+song writer. Alexander Bain called it the most available, universal and
+influential of the fine arts, and Dr. Marx, the musical theorist,
+thought music beneficial to the moral and spiritual estate of the
+masses.
+
+Truly indeed has it been said that its universality gives music its high
+worth. Mirroring neither your inner life alone nor mine, but the
+world's essence, the transfiguration of what seems real, the divine
+Ideal, some spark of which glows in every bosom, each individual may
+feel in it whatever he is capable of feeling. The soul's language, it
+takes up the thread dropped by words and gives utterance to those
+refined sentiments and holy aspirations words are inadequate to awaken
+or express. Its message is borne from heart to heart, revealing to each
+things unseen, according as it is prepared to receive them.
+
+In the Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare made Lorenzo speak to Jessica of
+the harmony that is in immortal souls and say that "whilst this muddy
+vesture of decay doth grossly close it in we cannot hear it." To refine
+this muddy vesture, to render the spirit attentive, to bring light,
+sweetness, strength, harmony and beauty into daily life is the central
+function of music which, from the cradle to the grave, is man's most
+intimate companion.
+
+Richard Wagner devoutly believed it would prepare the way for an
+unspoiled, unfettered humanity, illumined by a perception of Truth and
+Beauty and united by a bond of sympathy and love. This ideal union is
+the goal at which Tolstoi aims in his "What is Art?" He defines art as a
+human activity to be enjoyed by all, whose purpose is the transmission
+of the most exalted feelings to which men have arisen; but the union he
+proposes would have to be consummated by a leveling process. All art
+that cannot without preparation reach the uncultured classes is
+denounced by him. He is most bitter in his denunciation of Wagner, who
+fought for a democratic art, but who wished to attain it by raising the
+lowliest of his fellow-creatures to an ever loftier plane of high
+thinking and feeling.
+
+According to Tolstoi, art began to degenerate when it separated itself
+from religion. There must have been dense mist before the Russian sage's
+mental vision when he fancied this separation possible. Art, especially
+musical art, is a vital part of religion, and cannot be put asunder from
+it. Like thought, music, since the bonds of church and state have been
+broken, has spread wide its pinions and soared to hitherto unsuspected
+heights. All noble music is sacred.
+
+Amid the marvelous material progress of to-day music is more needed than
+ever. Unburdened by the responsibility of fact, it brings relief to the
+soul from the grinding pressure of constant grappling with knowledge.
+The benefits of knowledge are great, but it is also beneficial to be
+uplifted, as we may be by music, from out the perplexing labyrinth of
+the work-a-day world toward the realm of the Divine Ideal.
+
+As a means of culture music is a potent factor in human civilization. It
+is destined to wield even greater influence than has yet been known. It
+has become the household art of to-day. As it enters more and more fully
+into the heart of the home and social life it will more and more enrich
+human existence and aid in ushering in the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth.
+
+If music can do so much for mankind, why are not all musicians great and
+good? Ah, my friend, that is a hard question to answer, and can only be
+fairly treated by asking another equally difficult question: Why are not
+all people who have enjoyed the advantages of religion wise and noble?
+Consider the gigantic machinery that has been put in motion to
+promulgate Christianity, and note how slow men have been to appropriate
+the teachings of its founder. Slow progress furnishes no argument
+against the mission either of religion or its comrade music.
+
+In common with religion music kindles our finer sensibilities and brings
+us into an atmosphere superior to that which ordinarily surrounds us. It
+requires wisdom to beautify commonplace conditions with what has been
+enjoyed in aërial regions. Rightly applied, music can lend itself to
+this illumination. As it is better known, its advantages will be more
+completely realized.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Blunders in Music Study
+
+
+Like a voice from the Unseen, the Eternal, music speaks to the soul of
+man. Its informing word being delivered in the language of the emotional
+nature finds some response to its appeal in every normal human breast.
+Shakespeare indicated this truth when he had his Lorenzo, in the
+Merchant of Venice, say:
+
+    _"The man that hath no music in himself,
+    Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
+    Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils;
+    The motions of his spirit are dull as night,
+    And his affections dark as Erebus;
+    Let no such man be trusted."_
+
+It is not the normal soul, fresh from its Creator's hands, that is fit
+for such dire evils, but the soul perverted by false conditions and
+surroundings. Where vice has become congenial and the impure reigns
+supreme, that which rouses and expresses noble aspirations and pure
+emotions can find no room. Normal instincts may also be dulled, the
+inner being made, as it were, musically deaf and dumb, by a false
+education which stifles and dwarfs the finer feelings, or by
+circumstances which permit these to remain dormant.
+
+The emotional natures of human beings differ as widely in kind and
+degree as the intellectual and physical natures. In some people
+sensibility predominates, and the irresistible activity of fancy and
+feeling compels the expression in rhythmic tone combinations of ideals
+grasped intuitively. Thus musical genius manifests itself. No amount of
+education can bring it into being, but true culture and wise guidance
+are needed to equip it for its bold flight. "Neither diligence without
+genius, nor genius without education will produce anything thorough,"
+as we read in Horace. Other people with marked aptitude for musical
+expression have reproductive rather than creative endowments. To them
+belongs talent in a greater or less degree, and they are adapted to
+promulgate the message which genius formulated for mankind. Talent may
+be ripened and brightened by suitable environments and fostering care.
+
+There are besides persons led by genius or talent into other avenues
+than those of the tone-world, and the great public with its diverse
+grades of emotional and intellectual gifts. The cultivation of the
+æsthetic tastes is profitable to all, and no agency contributes so
+freely to it as music. Too many people engaged in purely scientific or
+practical pursuits have failed to realize this. In those nations known
+as musical, and that have become so through generations occupied with
+the art, music study is placed on an equal footing with any other worthy
+pursuit and no life interest is permitted to exclude musical enthusiasm.
+
+Unless disabled by physical defects, every one displays some sense of
+musical sound and rhythmic motion. It is a constant occurrence for
+children, without a word of direction, to mark the time of a stirring
+tune with hands, feet and swaying motions of the body. A lullaby will
+almost invariably soothe a restless infant, and most children old enough
+to distinguish and articulate groups of tones will make some attempt at
+singing the melodies they have often heard. The average child begins
+music lessons with evident pleasure.
+
+It should be no more difficult to strengthen the musical instincts than
+any other faculties. On the contrary, it too often chances that a child
+whose early song efforts have been in excellent time and tune, and not
+without expression, who has marched in time and beat time accurately,
+will, after a period of instruction, utterly disregard sense of rhythm,
+sing out of tune, play wrong notes, or fail to notice when the musical
+instrument used is ever so cruelly out of tune. Uneducated people,
+trusting to intuitive perceptions, promptly decide that such or such a
+child, or person, has been spoiled by cultivation. This is merely a
+failure to trace a result to its rightful cause, which lies not in
+cultivation, but in certain blunders in music study.
+
+These blunders begin with the preliminary course on the piano or violin,
+for instance, when a child, having no previous training in the rudiments
+of music, starts with one weekly lesson, and is required to practice a
+prescribed period daily without supervision. To the difficulties of an
+introduction to a musical instrument are added those of learning to read
+notes, to locate them, to appreciate time values and much else. The
+teacher, it may be, knows little of the inner life of music, still less
+of child nature. Manifold perplexities arise, and faltering through
+these the pupil acquires a halting use of the musical vocabulary, with
+other bad habits equally hard to correct. A constant repetition of false
+notes, wrong phrasing, irregular accents, faulty rhythms and a
+meaningless jumble of notes dulls the outer ear and deadens the inner
+tone-sense. Where there is genius, or decided talent, no obstacle can
+wholly bar the way to music. Otherwise, it retreats before the
+blundering approach.
+
+Many a mother when advised to direct her child's practicing, or at least
+to encourage it by her presence, has excused herself on the plea that it
+would bore her to listen. If the work bores the mother it is not
+surprising that the child attacks it with mind fixed on metal more
+attractive and eyes seeking the clock. Occupations which are repellent
+in early life leave behind them a memory calculated to render them
+forever distasteful. It is therefore a grave mistake not to make music
+study from the outset throb with vital interest. An appeal to the
+intellect will quicken the æsthetic instincts, be they never so slender,
+and almost any one will love work that engages all the faculties.
+
+Those pupils are fortunate who come under the influence of a teacher
+with strong, well-balanced personality and ripe knowledge, and are
+treated as rational beings, capable of feeling, thinking and acting. Too
+many music teachers learn their business by experimenting on beginners.
+It has been suggested as a safeguard against their blunders, and all
+ignorance, carelessness and imposture, that music might be placed under
+the same legal protection accorded other important factors in social
+life, and that no one be permitted to teach it without a license granted
+by a competent board of judges after the applicant had passed a
+successful examination, theoretical and practical. This would be well if
+there was any certainty of choosing suitable persons to select the
+judges.
+
+A practical Vienna musician, H. Geisler, has recently created no little
+sensation by asserting that the pianoforte, although indispensable for
+the advanced artist, is worthless, even harmful, in primary training,
+and that the methods used in teaching it are based on a total
+misapprehension of the musical development prescribed by nature. Sensual
+and intellectual perceptions must actively exist, he feels, before they
+can be expressed by means of an instrument. It is a mistake to presume
+that manual practice can call them into being, or to disregard the
+supremacy of the tone-sense. He considers the human voice the primitive
+educational instrument of music and believes the reasonable order of
+musical education to be: hearing, singing, performing.
+
+This order is to be commended, and might readily be followed if primary
+instruction was given in classes, which being less expensive than
+private tuition, would admit of more frequent lessons and the services
+of a competent teacher. Classes afford the best opportunity for training
+the ear to accuracy in pitch, the eye to steadiness in reading notes,
+the mind to comprehension of key relationships, form and rhythmic
+movement, and the heart to a realization of the beauty and purport of
+music. In classes the stimulating effect of healthy competition may be
+felt, an impulse given to writing notes, transposing phrases and
+melodies, strengthening musical sentiment and refining the taste.
+
+Both the French Solfège method and the English Tonic Sol-fa system prove
+the advantage of rudimentary training in classes. Mrs. John Spencer
+Curwen, wife of the president of the London Tonic Sol-fa College, and
+daughter-in-law of the late Rev. John Curwen, founder of the movement it
+represents, has applied to pianoforte teaching the logical principles
+underlying the system, which are those accepted by modern educators as
+the psychological basis of all education. From her point of view the
+music lesson may be made attractive from the moment the pupil is placed
+at the instrument.
+
+Time is taught by her as a mental science, with the pulse as the central
+fact. She proceeds rhythmically rather than arithmetically, making
+constant appeals to that within the child which is associated with
+music. As the ear is expected to verify every fact, whether of time or
+pitch, she deems essential to profitable practicing the daily
+supervision of some person who understands the teacher's requirements.
+
+Many times a child who can readily explain the relative value of every
+note and dot will stumble in the time movement when confronted with a
+mixture of the same notes and dots. This is because no mental
+connection has been established between the mechanical time sign and its
+sound, which is the outgrowth of instinctive impulses. Time confusion
+may also be caused by confiding too implicitly in loud and persistent
+counting, instead of trusting to the intelligently guided rhythmic
+pulse.
+
+The keenness of musical perception in the blind is a subject of frequent
+comment. It is due to the fact that neither outer nor inner ear is
+distracted by the organ of sight, and the mind is compelled to
+concentrate itself with peculiar intensity on the tone-images aroused
+for its contemplation. When one of the senses is weakened or lost, the
+others become strong through the requirements made on them. This shows
+how much may be gained in music study by throwing responsibility on
+those faculties it is desirable to develop.
+
+There are numerous promising schemes for class work in operation in our
+own country, some of them offering excellent advantages to the student.
+From the music study in our public schools valuable results ought to
+come in time. Thus far, unfortunately, it is too often conducted by
+teachers who are themselves without trained musical ability and who
+permit their pupils to shout rather than sing music of an inferior order
+to the accompaniment of a piano wretchedly out of tune.
+
+The much beloved Phillips Brooks once said: "A school song in the heart
+of a child will do as much for his character as a fact in his memory, or
+a principle in his intellect." Unquestionably a love for good music,
+inspired during the formative period, is calculated to open unlimited
+possibilities, and ours could readily be molded into a musical nation if
+a firm foundation for musical knowledge and appreciation were laid in
+our schools. After the rudiments were mastered, it could easily be
+decided which pupils had a natural bent demanding special training.
+
+Where music study becomes compulsory the blunder of permitting the
+compulsion to be felt must be avoided. Socrates of old, in Plato's
+Republic, advised making early education a sort of amusement. Those who
+heed his counsel should not forget that in turning music study
+altogether into play work there is danger of weakening the will. The
+tottering footsteps should be guided wisely, as well as tenderly, in the
+first approach to the Temple of Art, that the pupil may learn to walk,
+as well as to observe and think independently. We most prize beauty that
+we are able to discern for ourselves. We gain strength by intelligently
+conquering our own problems and perplexities. "Nothing is impossible,"
+as Mirabeau has said, "for one who can will."
+
+The aim of music study is to know music, to gain a correct conception of
+how it should sound, and so, as far as possible, to make it sound. This
+aim can never be reached by the mere cultivation of technical
+adroitness. Untold sacrifices are made to-day to what becomes the
+unrighteous mammon of technique when the mechanical side of practice is
+exalted above its interpretative aspects. Schumann deemed brilliancy of
+execution only valuable when it served a higher purpose. That higher
+purpose is to reach and express the soul of music. Unless enriched by
+it, all mechanism is dead. It is not desirable that every one should
+perform acrobatic feats on some musical instrument, or indulge in vocal
+pyrotechnics, but it is desirable to extract music out of whatever
+technique may be attained. Instead of racing onward with feverish haste
+to ever increased technical skill at the expense of other development,
+it were well for the student to pause until each composition attacked,
+be it but an exercise, could be interpreted with accuracy, intelligence,
+and feeling. We should then have more musicianly players and singers. We
+should more often be brought under the magic spell of exquisitely shaded
+tone that may make a simple little melody alive with beauty.
+
+[Illustration: BRAHMS]
+
+A grave blunder of our present music study is the neglect of ensemble
+playing and singing. Some of the noblest music written is for
+part-singing and for two or more instruments. Much profit and delight
+will be the result of making its acquaintance. Four and eight hand piano
+arrangements of the great overtures and symphonies, too, are valuable
+and enjoyable. They prepare the way for an appreciation of an
+orchestral performance of these masterpieces, and broaden the musical
+horizon. Where there are several music students in a family it is a pity
+for them to confine their efforts exclusively to the piano, although
+every musician should have some knowledge of this household instrument.
+That is a happy home whose members are united by the playing or singing
+of noble concerted music.
+
+It is an absurd error to suppose that fine soloists cannot succeed in
+ensemble work, or as accompanists. Those who fail have been poorly
+grounded in their art. They may give dazzling performances of works
+bristling with technical difficulties, yet make a sad failure of some
+slow, tender movement that calls for musicianly understanding and
+delicate treatment. The truth is, the requirements for an artistic
+accompanist, or for artistic concerted work, are the same as for an
+artistic soloist: well directed musical aptitude, love of art, an ear
+attuned to listening and large experience in sight-reading.
+
+The music pupils' public recital contributes no little to the blunders
+of the day in music study. Especially with piano pupils, the work of the
+year is likely to be shaped with reference to the supreme occasion when
+results attained may be exhibited in the presence of assembled parents
+and friends. The popular demand being for the mastery of technique,
+showy pieces are prepared whose mechanism so claims the attention that
+the principles underlying both technics and interpretation are
+neglected. Well-controlled hands, fingers, wrists and arms, with
+excellent manipulation of the keyboard, may be admired at the recital,
+but little of that effective playing is heard which finds its way to the
+hearer's heart. A dead monotony will too often recall the letter that
+killeth because devoid of the spirit that giveth life.
+
+Sounding notes, even sounding them smoothly, clearly, and rapidly, is
+not necessarily making music, and a succession of them without warmth
+and coloring is truly as inartistic as painting without shading. If it
+were more commonly realized that it is an essential part of the music
+teacher's vocation to train the mind and the emotions and through them
+the will and the character, there would be a higher standard for the
+music pupils' recital. No one would be permitted to play, or sing in
+public who could not give an artistic, as well as a technically correct
+performance.
+
+Music students should lose no opportunity to hear the best music, both
+vocal and instrumental. Heard with understanding ears one good concert
+is often worth a dozen lessons, yet many students know nothing in music
+beyond what they have practiced themselves, or heard their
+fellow-students give at rehearsals or recitals. If they attend concerts
+at all, it is rather to observe some schoolmaster method in their own
+particular branch than actually to enjoy music. Trying to gain a musical
+education without a wide acquaintance with the literature of music is
+like attempting to form literary taste without knowing the world's great
+books. To bathe in the glow of the mighty masterpieces of genius
+neutralizes much that is evil. In music they are the only authoritative
+illustrations between notes and the ideals they represent; they form the
+models and maxims by means of which we approach a knowledge of music.
+
+In view of hearing good music, breathing a musical atmosphere and being
+glorified into artists, vast numbers of American girls seek foreign
+musical centres. They are apt to go without suitable equipment, mental
+or musical, and with inadequate pecuniary provisions. They expect to
+attain in a few months what they are doomed to discover would take years
+to accomplish, and cannot fail to suffer for the blunder. Many of them
+return home disappointed in their aims, and ruined in health. Many of
+them are stranded in strange lands. A crusade should be started against
+indiscriminate going abroad for music study, without thorough
+preparation in every respect.
+
+The fact is, a free, true, fearless hero, such as Wagner found in his
+Siegfried, is needed to slay, with his invincible sword, the dragon of
+sordid materialism, and awaken the slumbering bride of genuine art. A
+storm-god is wanted to swing his hammer and finally dissipate the
+clouds that obscure the popular vision. Some one has called for a plumed
+knight at the literary tournament, with visor down, lance in hand,
+booted and spurred for the fight with prevalent errors. One is equally
+needed at the musical tournament.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Musical Education That Educates
+
+
+There is a musical education that educates, a musical education that
+refines, strengthens, broadens the character and the views, that ripens
+every God-given instinct and force. It arouses noble thoughts and lofty
+ideals; it quickens the perceptions, opening up a world of beauty that
+is closed to the unobservant; it bears its fortunate possessor into a
+charmed atmosphere, where inspiring, elevating influences prevail. Its
+aim is nothing short of the absolutely symmetrical development of the
+spiritual, intellectual and physical being, in view of making the
+well-rounded musician, the well-balanced individual.
+
+The profits derived from a musical education are proportionate to the
+investment. Careless work, an utter disregard of principles, in other
+words, a mere dabbling with music, will afford but superficial results.
+It is precisely the same with a haphazard pursuit of any branch of art,
+science, or literature. Through music the soul of mankind may be
+elevated, the secret recesses of thought and feeling stirred, and every
+emotion of which the individual is capable made active. In order to
+attain its full benefits it is imperative to use it as a profound living
+force, not as a mere surface decoration.
+
+"The musician ever shrouded in himself must cultivate his inmost being
+that he may turn it outward," said Goethe. A true musical education
+provides culture for the inmost being. It tends to enlarge the
+sympathies, enrich social relations and invest daily life with gracious
+dignity. Those who gain it beautify their own lives and thus become able
+to make the world seem more beautiful to others. Those who are never
+able to give utterance to the wealth of thought and feeling it has
+aroused in their hearts and imaginations are still happy in possessing
+the store. After all, our main business in art, as in life, is to
+strive. Honest effort meets with its own reward, even where it does not
+lead to what the world calls success.
+
+It has been said that he who sows thoughts will reap deeds, habits,
+character. The force of these words is exemplified in the proper study
+of music, which results in a rich harvest of self-restraint,
+self-reliance, industry, patience, perseverance, powers of observation,
+retentive memory, painstaking effort, strength of mind and character. To
+possess these qualities at their best abundant thought must be sown.
+Merely to ring changes on the emotions will not elevate to the heights.
+The musical education that educates makes of the reasoning powers a
+lever that keeps the emotions in their rightful channel.
+
+Aristotle, who dominated the world's thought for upwards of two thousand
+years, attributed his acquirements to the command he had gained over
+his mind. Fixedness of purpose, steady, undivided attention, mental
+concentration, accuracy, alertness, keen perception and wise
+discrimination are essential to achievement. This is true of giant
+minds; it is equally true of average intellects. The right musical
+education will conduce to these habits. Musical education without them
+must inevitably be a failure.
+
+Music study is many-sided. To make it truly educative it must be pursued
+from both theoretical and practical standpoints. It should include
+technical training which affords facility to express whatever a person
+may have for expression; intellectual training which enables a person to
+grasp the constructive laws of the art, its scope, history and
+æsthetics, with all that calls into play the analytic and imaginative
+faculties; and spiritual development which imparts warmth and glow to
+everything. Even those who do not advance far in music study would do
+well, as they proceed, to touch the art on as many sides as possible, in
+view of enlarging the musical sense, sharpening the musical perception,
+concentrating and multiplying the agencies by virtue of which musical
+knowledge and proficiency are attained.
+
+"Truth," said Madox-Brown, the Pre-Raphaelite, "is the means of art, its
+end the quickening of the soul." Music does more than quicken the soul;
+it reveals the soul, makes it conscious of itself. Springing from the
+deepest and best that is implanted in man, it fertilizes the soil from
+which it uprises. Both beauty and truth are essential to its welfare. As
+Hamilton W. Mabie has said: "We need beauty just as truly as we need
+truth, for it is as much a part of our lives. We have learned in part
+the lesson of morality, but we have yet to learn the lesson of beauty."
+This must be learned through the culture of the æsthetic taste, a matter
+of slow growth, which should begin with the rudiments, and is best
+fostered in an atmosphere saturated with good music.
+
+Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of hearing good music.
+When it falls on listening ears it removes all desire for anything
+coarse or unrefined. Constant companionship with it prepares the ear to
+hear, the inner being to receive, and cannot fail to bring forth fruit.
+The creations of noble minds form practical working-forces in shaping
+character, purifying taste and elevating standards. A literary scholar
+cannot be made of one who has not been brought into close touch with the
+productions of the great masters in literature, nor an artistic painter,
+or sculptor, of one who has never known a great painting or piece of
+statuary. Neither can a thorough musician be made of any one who is
+ignorant of the master-works of music. It is well to realize, with
+Goethe, that the effect of good music is not caused by its novelty, but
+strikes more deeply the more we are familiar with it.
+
+The human voice being practically the foundation of music and the first
+music teacher, every well-educated musician should be able to use it,
+and should have a clear understanding of its possibilities and
+limitations, no matter what his specialty may be. Composers and
+performers alike will derive benefit from some dealing with the vocal
+element. Vocal culture is conducive to health, and aids in gaining
+command of the nerves and muscles. They who profit by it will best
+understand the varied nuances of intonation, expression and coloring of
+which music is capable, and will learn how to make a musical instrument
+sing. Likewise vocalists should familiarize themselves with other
+domains of their art, and should be able to handle some instrument, more
+especially the piano or organ, that they may be brought into intimate
+relations with the harmonic structure of music.
+
+To make music study most effective the scientific methods of other
+departments of learning must be applied to it. For the supreme good of
+both art and science need to be brought into close fellowship. Art is
+the child of feeling and imagination; science the child of reason. Art
+requires the illumination of science; science the insight of art. Music
+combines within itself the qualities of art and science. As a science it
+is a well-ordered system of laws, and cannot be comprehended without
+knowledge of these. As an art, it is its business to awaken a mood, to
+express a sentiment; it is knowledge made efficient by skill--thought,
+effect, taste and feeling brought into active exercise.
+
+No art, no science, affords opportunity for more magnificent mental
+discipline than music. Moreover, a careful, earnest study of the art
+furnishes a stimulus to activity in other fruitful fields. Although
+subordinate to life and character it contributes freely to these, and
+its best results come from life that is exceeding rich, and character
+that is strong, true and enlightened through broad, general culture. The
+musical education that educates develops something more than mere
+players and singers; it develops thinking, feeling musicians, in whom
+large personalities may be recognized.
+
+Stephen A. Emory of Boston, whose studies in harmony are widely used,
+and who left behind him an influence as a teacher that is far-reaching,
+divined the true secret of musical education, from the rudiments upward,
+and expressed his views freely and clearly. He thought it indispensable
+for the musician to make music the central point of his efforts and
+equally indispensable for him to have, as supports to this, knowledge
+and theories from countless sources. "It must be as a noble river," he
+said of the pursuit of music; "though small and unobserved in its
+source, winding at first alone its tortuous way through opposing
+obstacles, yet ever broadening and deepening, fed by countless streams
+on either hand till it rolls onward in a mighty sweep, at once a glory
+and a blessing to the earth."
+
+To conquer music a musician must have conquered self. As music can no
+more be absolutely conquered than self, the effort to gain the mastery
+over both necessitates a continual healthy, earnest striving, which
+makes the individual grow in strength, grace and happiness. That
+musician has been rightly trained whose every thought, mood and feeling,
+every muscle and fibre, have been brought under the subjection of his
+will. Professor Huxley uttered the following words that may well be
+applied to a musical education:
+
+"That man, I think, has had a liberal education, who has been so trained
+in his youth that his body is the ready servant of his will and does
+with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable
+of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts
+of equal strength and in smooth working order; ready, like the steam
+engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well
+as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with knowledge of
+the great and fundamental truths of nature and of the laws of her
+operations, one, who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but
+whose passions are trained to come to feel, by a vigorous will, the
+servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty,
+whether of nature, or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect
+others as himself."
+
+The correctness of applying the last clause to the musician will be
+questioned by those who delight in enlarging on the petty jealousies of
+musicians. It will be learned in time that these foibles belong only to
+petty musicians, and that no one knows better how to respect others as
+himself than one who has enjoyed the privilege of the musical education
+that educates.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+How to Interpret Music
+
+
+Certain learned college professors were once heard discussing methods of
+literary criticism and interpretation. They spoke of external and
+technical forms, and how magnificently these were illustrated in the
+world's acknowledged masterpieces of literature. Every work read or
+studied, they decided, should be carefully weighed, measured and
+analyzed, and should be judged solely by the maxims and laws deduced
+from classical standards. The critical faculty must never be permitted
+to slumber or to sleep. Above all, the literary student should beware of
+trusting to impressions.
+
+Not a word was uttered in regard to the contents of the masterpieces in
+question, the special emotions, the overwhelming passions they revealed,
+the mighty experiences of which they were the result. Nothing was said
+about the source of a great book in the life of its author, or its value
+as a record of what many minds and hearts of an entire epoch have
+thought, felt and desired. The learned professors were so deeply
+concerned with what they considered the demands of strict scholarship
+that they lost sight of the spirit which animates every true work of
+art. To them literature consisted of words, phrases, sentences, figures
+of speech, classical allusions, and well-constructed forms. They
+regarded it apparently as an artificial product, compounded according to
+traditional and cautiously prescribed recipes.
+
+An aged man of letters present, one who was characterized by his ripe
+scholarship, his richly cultured personality, sat listening in silence
+to the conversation. Suddenly he rose up, and, in vibrant tones,
+exclaimed: "Where hath the soul of literature fled, its vital part? If
+we are to trample upon our impressions the best that is within us will
+be chilled. Of what avail is education if it does not lead to the
+unfolding of our God-given intuitions? Friends, if the trend of modern
+criticism be to divorce literature from life, the throb and thrill of
+great art will soon cease to be felt."
+
+The lesson conveyed by these words may with equal propriety be applied
+to the field of music. Viewing certain current tendencies the cultured
+musician is often moved to wonder where the soul of music has fled. The
+critical faculty is keenly alive to-day, but musical criticism, shorn of
+its better part, musical appreciation, can never lead to the insight
+requisite for true musical interpretation. Observation and perception,
+intellectual discernment and spiritual penetration are essential to gain
+insight into a great musical composition until its musical ideas, the
+very grade and texture of its style, are absolutely appropriated.
+
+In his "Death in the Desert," Robert Browning tells of the three souls
+that make up the soul of man: the soul which Does; the soul which Knows,
+feels, thinks and wills, and the soul which Is and which constitutes
+man's real self. Appreciation of music requires the utmost activity of
+all three souls. The more we are, the broader our culture, the more we
+think, feel and know, the more we will find in music. Dr. Hiram Corson,
+commenting on Browning's words, says the rectification, or adjustment of
+what Is, that which constitutes our true being, should transcend all
+other aims of education. If this fact were more generally accepted and
+enforced it could soon no longer be said that few persons reach maturity
+without the petrifaction of some faculty of mind and heart.
+
+Every faculty we possess needs to be keenly alive for the interpretation
+of the best in music. One who is accustomed to earnest thinking, quick
+observation and sympathetic penetration will see, hear and feel much
+that utterly escapes those whose best faculties have been permitted to
+lie dormant, or become petrified. The interpreter of music must have
+vital knowledge of the inner, spiritual element of every work of art he
+attempts to reproduce. His imagination must be kindled by it, and
+musical imagination is infinitely more precious than musical mechanism.
+
+It is by no means intended to underrate technical proficiency. No one
+can be a satisfactory exponent of music whose technique is deficient,
+however profound may be his musicianly understanding and feeling. At the
+same time, with every tone, every measure, mechanically correct, a
+performance may fail to move the listener, because it lacks warmth and
+glow. Only they can make others feel who feel themselves, but sentiment
+is apt to be confounded with sentimentality unless it is guided by a
+scholarly mind. The more feeling is spiritualized with thought the
+nobler it will be. Heart and head need to operate in company with
+well-controlled physical forces, in order that a fine interpretation of
+music may be attained. Faultless technique, in the service of a lofty
+ideal, indeed ceases to be mechanical and becomes artistic.
+
+A musical work of art originates in the deep well of the fertile
+imagination of genius, and can only be drawn forth when the composer is
+in that highly exalted frame of mind we call inspiration. The theme, or
+musical subject, is a vital spark of the divine fire, and has flashed
+unbidden into his consciousness, demanding undivided attention for its
+logical development. With infinite care he molds and groups the musical
+factors which are his working forces, and of which he has both an
+intuitive and a practical knowledge. The manifold forms he fashions all
+combine for one purpose, and lead persistently to one grand climax, from
+which they may return to the repose whence they came. Unity in diversity
+is the goal he sets before himself. All aglow though he is with the joy
+of artistic production, he dare not permit his mind to waver from the
+task in hand.
+
+Music is not to be played with, and the labor of composition is no
+trifling matter. It demands the keenest mental activity, the most
+profound mental concentration. It demands consecration. The composer
+thinks and works in tones, in an ideal realm, far removed from the
+realities of the external world. His business is to bring his theme to
+its most magnificent unfolding, treating it with absolute definiteness,
+that his intention may be perfectly clear.
+
+It is the business of the interpreter of music to be so thoroughly
+acquainted with the elements of which music is composed that he can
+promptly recognize the color, complexion and individual character of
+every interval, chord and chord-combination, every consonance and
+dissonance, every timbre and nuance, and every degree of phrasing and
+rhythm. He must have so complete a mastery of his materials and working
+forces that his imagination may be influenced unimpeded by the
+emanations from the composer's imagination which animate the moving
+forms he commands.
+
+It is his business to respond with his whole being to the appeal of the
+musical masterpiece he attempts to interpret, and so express the
+emotions aroused by it from their slumbers in his own bosom that a
+responsive echo may be found in the bosoms of the listeners. A most
+ingeniously constructed music-box, with the presentation of a
+complicated piece of music, may fail to move a heart that will be
+stirred to its depths by a simple song, into which the singer's whole
+soul has been thrown.
+
+Though the mind of the inventive genius be a mystery that may not fully
+be explained, its product is within the grasp of the intelligent seeker.
+The æsthetic principles of musical construction rest on certain
+elementary laws governing both the human organism and the phenomena of
+sound, and may become familiar to any one who is capable of study. In
+the same way the established canons of musical expression, observed by
+the skilful artist, consciously or unconsciously, are traceable to
+natural causes. Without realizing the inherent properties of music, as
+well as its technical possibilities and limitations, we cannot know the
+art.
+
+The tonal language is one that is not translatable into words. It is
+composed of an infinite variety of tone-forms, now sharply contrasted,
+now gradually blending into one another, all logically connected, all
+tending to form a perfect whole. The profusion of harmonic, melodic,
+dynamic and rhythmic changes it brings forth invests it with a meaning
+far beyond that of words, a musical meaning. Every masterpiece of music
+clothes in tonal form some idea which originated in the composer's mind.
+To the interpreter it is given to invest it with living sound.
+
+Chords and chord combinations all have their individual characteristics.
+Some cause satisfaction, for instance, others unrest. When a chord of
+the dominant seventh is heard, the educated musician knows that a
+solution is demanded. The unspoiled ear and taste instinctively feel
+something unfinished, and are disturbed if it be not followed by a
+return to the key chord. Where the faculties are dormant or petrified,
+its significance will be unobserved.
+
+The story is told of a young lady whose musical education had been
+utterly hollow and false, but who, having been overwhelmed with flattery
+for her voice and her singing, was deluded into a belief that she was
+destined to shine as a star on the operatic stage. She consulted the
+famous basso, Karl Formes, who good-naturedly had her sing for him. He
+perceived at once that she possessed neither striking talent nor
+adequate training.
+
+As a supreme test he struck on the piano a chord of the dominant
+seventh, and asked the young aspirant for dramatic glory what she
+thought it meant. Presuming it to be incumbent upon a prospective prima
+donna to have uppermost in her mind the grand passion, she replied, in a
+sentimental tone, "Love!" Promptly Karl Formes sounded the solution to
+the chord. "There is your answer," quoth he. "I ask a question, and it
+is thought I speak of love. Go home, my good girl, and seek some other
+avocation. You have a fair voice, but you are tone-deaf. You can never
+make a musician."
+
+A favorite motto of the piano teacher Leschetitzky is, "Think ten times
+before you play once." If this rule were more generally observed we
+should have better interpreters of music. A great composition should
+completely occupy mind and heart before it is attacked by fingers or
+voice. In that case it would be analyzed as to its form, its tonal
+structure, its harmonic relations, its phrasing and rhythms, and its
+musical intention would become luminous. The interpreter would
+understand where accents and other indications of expression should
+occur and why they should so occur, and would be able, in however feeble
+a way, to find and reveal the true heart music that lies hidden in the
+notes.
+
+It is never too early in a course of music study to consider the
+requirements of musical expression. Persistent observance of them will
+inevitably quicken the artistic sense. The rules to which they have
+given rise are for the most part simple and easily explained. For
+obvious reasons, all musical interpretation is expected to imitate song
+as closely as possible. The human voice, the primitive musical
+instrument, in moments of excitement, ascends to a higher pitch,
+increasing in intensity of tone as it sweeps upward. Consequently every
+progression from lower to higher tones, whether played or sung, demands
+a crescendo unless some plainly denoted characteristic of the music
+calls for different treatment. A descending passage, as a return to
+tranquillity, requires a decrescendo.
+
+"The outpouring of a feeling toward its object, whether to the endless
+heavens, or forth into the boundless world, or toward a definite,
+limited goal, resembles the surging, the pressing onward of a flood,"
+said the great teacher, Dr. Adolph Kullak. "Reversely, that feeling
+which draws its object into itself has a more tranquillizing movement,
+that especially when the possession of the object is assured, appeases
+itself in equable onward flow toward the goal of a normal state of
+satisfaction. The emotional life is an undulating play of up-surging and
+subsidence, of pressing forward beyond temporal limitations and of
+resigned yielding to temporal necessities. The crescendo and decrescendo
+are the means employed in music for the portrayal of this manifestation
+of emotional life."
+
+Another important matter which may to a great extent be reduced to rule
+is that of accentuation. Through it a tone-picture is invested with
+animation, and a clue is given to the disposition of tonal forms.
+Accents are always required to mark the entrance of a theme, a phrase or
+a melody. Where there are several voices, or parts, as in a fugue, each
+voice denotes its appearance with an accent. Every daring assertion
+hazarded in music, as in speech, demands special emphasis. Dissonances
+need to be brought out in such prominence that they may not appear to be
+accidental misconceptions, and that confident expectation may be aroused
+of their ultimate resolution. Accentuation must be regulated by the
+claims of musical delivery. At all times too gentle an accent is without
+effect, too glaring an accent is to be condemned.
+
+Hans von Bülow strenuously advised young musicians to cultivate their
+ears and strive to attain musical beauty in what is termed phrasing,
+which he regarded as the real beginning of greatness in a performer.
+Phrasing and time keeping are two of the prime essentials in musical
+delivery, and cannot be neglected with impunity.
+
+Time may well be called the pulse of music. Upon some occasions the
+pulse beats more rapidly than others. It is incumbent on the interpreter
+of music to ascertain the harmonic and other causes which determine the
+tempo of a musical composition, as well as those which make slight
+variations from it admissible. Among other points to be noted is the
+fact that sudden transition from repose to restless activity calls for
+an accelerando, while the reverse requires a rallentando.
+
+It is absolutely imperative for one who would interpret music to
+cultivate the memory. The musician who cannot play or sing without notes
+is compelled to expend a large amount of mental activity on reading
+these, and will find it difficult to heed the manifold requirements of
+musical expression and delivery, of which a few hints have here been
+given. A musical composition is never thoroughly understood until it has
+been intelligently memorized. One who can play or sing without notes is
+as free as a bird to soar aloft in the blue ether of musical
+imagination.
+
+[Illustration: FRANZ LISZT]
+
+Every interpreter of music longs for appreciative listeners, and young
+musicians, in especial, often lament the lack of these. It is well to
+remember that the genuine musical artist is able to create an atmosphere
+whose influences may compel an average audience to sympathetic
+listening. A good plan for the artist is to be surrounded in fancy with
+an audience having sensitively attuned ears, intellectual minds, and
+warm, throbbing hearts. Music played in private before such an imaginary
+audience will gain in quality, and when repeated before an actual public
+will hold that public captive.
+
+We have it from Ruskin that all fatal faults in art that might otherwise
+be good arise from one or other of three things: either from the
+pretence to feel what we do not; the indolence in exercise necessary to
+obtain the power of expressing the Truth; or the presumptuous insistence
+upon, or indulgence in, our own powers and delights, with no care or
+wish that they should be useful to other people, so only they should be
+admired by them.
+
+These three fatal faults must be avoided, or conquered, by the person
+who would interpret music.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+How to Listen to Music
+
+
+Listening is an art. It requires close and accurate attention, sympathy,
+imagination and genuine culture. Listening to music is an art of high
+degree. Many derive exquisite enjoyment from it, for music is potent and
+universal in its appeal. To listen intelligently to music is an
+accomplishment few have acquired.
+
+A great painting presents itself as a completed whole before the
+observer's eye. It holds on the canvas the fixed place given it by the
+master from whose genius it proceeded. No intermediary force is needed
+to come between it and the impression it makes on the beholder. Music,
+on the contrary, must be aroused from the written, or printed page to
+living tone by the hand or voice of the interpreter, and but a fragment
+at a time can be made perceptible to the listener's ear. Like a
+panorama, it comes and goes before the imagination, its kaleidoscopic
+tints and forms now sharply contrasted, now almost imperceptibly
+graduated one into the other, but all shaping themselves into a logical
+union, stamped with the design of a creative mind. Properly to inspect
+the successive musical images, and grasp their significance, in parts
+and as a whole, demands keen mental alertness.
+
+Many are content to listen to music for the mere sensuous impression it
+creates as it wraps itself about the inner being, lulling a perturbed
+spirit to rest, or awakening longing and aspiration, joy and sadness,
+according to the nature of the music and the hearer's mood. Some even
+take pleasure in formulating into words the sensations evoked by the ebb
+and flow of the tonal waves, and fancy they are thus deriving
+intellectual profit from music.
+
+From both ways of listening helpful results may accrue, but by no means
+the greatest. Music is far beyond words, and in attempting to translate
+it into these we miss its musical meaning, the best that is in it. As
+listeners we derive our highest æsthetic and intellectual satisfaction
+from the ability to follow, even anticipate, the composer's intention,
+now finding our expectations fulfilled, now being agreeably
+disappointed. Failure to catch the opening phrase and preliminary
+rhythms of the composition makes it impossible to appreciate the tonal
+forms into which they develop. Nor may the mind linger over any one
+part, if we would grasp the work as an unbroken whole. That musical
+creation alone can afford the noblest delights that prompts and rewards
+the act of thus closely following the composer's thought.
+
+An instance of absolute knowledge of music appears in an anecdote told
+of Johann Sebastian Bach. When he was present at the performance of a
+fugue and one of his two most musical sons was with him, he would, as
+soon as the theme was heard, whisper what devices and developments he
+thought should be introduced. If the composer had conformed to his idea
+of construction he would jog his son to call attention to the fact.
+Otherwise, his exceeding modesty and reverent comprehension of the
+difficulties of the art made him the most lenient of critics.
+
+Few have reached the luminous heights this master of masters trod. Even
+a well-cultivated ear and taste may often be baffled by the intricacies
+of a fugue, symphony or other great work of musical art heard for the
+first time. The best listener beyond the pale of genius will at times
+feel as one astray in a labyrinth of beauty to which for the moment no
+clue appears. A single representation will rarely suffice to reveal the
+full worth of a masterpiece of music. By hearing it often, by admitting
+it, or some reproduction of it, to our own fireside, we will become
+familiar with its contents and learn truly to know it.
+
+Those who are fortunate enough to have been surrounded from childhood up
+by the choicest gems of the tonal language, and whose minds are of the
+deceptive order, will insensibly attain a refinement of taste and
+delicacy of perception no learned dissertation on music could afford. At
+the same time, an acquaintance with the materials and elements of which
+the art is composed and with the laws that govern them, is essential to
+enable even one who has heard much to gain the complete enjoyment that
+comes from understanding. Confident as we are that Prometheus captured
+his fire from Heaven, we ought to learn something of its attributes
+before we accept it at his hands, that we may be able to distinguish a
+true spark of the divine flame from a phosphorescent will-o'-the-wisp.
+
+The idea so largely accepted that music is an unfathomable mystery, like
+all half truths has wrought much mischief, and has greatly retarded
+musical progress in social life. Behind the Divine Art, as behind
+Religion, lies the inscrutable mystery of Life, and in both there is a
+Holy of Holies only the consecrated may enter. Before the portals of
+this are reached there is a broad, fertile field for intellectual
+activity that all may work to advantage, preparing the way to the inner
+sanctuary.
+
+The musician is continually confronted with fresh evidence of the
+popular ignorance, even among students of music, in regard to the
+outward form and inner grace of what is conceded to be the most popular
+of all arts. In a roomful of professed music lovers a definition of
+counterpoint was recently called for, and no one present could give an
+intelligent answer. This led to a discussion of musical questions which
+resulted in the disclosure that not one of the company could define
+melody, harmony or rhythm, or had the slightest conception of the
+meaning of the simplest component parts of the art in whose service they
+were making plentiful sacrifices. Some knowledge of these things is
+absolutely imperative, not alone to the student, but to one as well who
+would listen intelligently to music.
+
+Sound and motion constitute the essence of music. Its raw materials are
+an infinitely rich mass of musical sounds that bear within themselves
+the possibility of being molded into form. By the musical builders of
+the past they have been carefully considered, mathematically
+calculated, and have finally resolved themselves into a recognized
+scale, composed of tones and half tones. These are the composer's
+plastic resources. He shapes them precisely as the sculptor fashions the
+pliable clay with which he strives to bring his ideal to realization.
+
+All sounds are the result of atmospheric vibrations affecting the ear.
+Musical sound, or tone, is produced by regular vibrations, and differs
+from mere noise whose vibrations are irregular and confused. The pitch
+of a musical tone rises in proportion with the rapidity of the
+vibrations that produce it. Tones may be perceived by the human ear
+ranging from about sixteen vibrations in a second to nearly forty
+thousand, more than eleven octaves. Only about seven octaves are used in
+music. The science of acoustics is full of interesting facts of this
+kind, and is of profound value to any one who would gain an insight into
+the structure of music. It is unfortunately much neglected.
+
+The prime elements of music are Melody, Harmony and Rhythm. They are
+perhaps as little realized as its raw materials. Melody is a well
+ordered succession of musical sounds, heard one at a time, and selected
+from a defined, accepted series, not taken at random from a
+heterogeneous store. Harmony is a combination of well-ordered sounds
+heard simultaneously, and with suitable concord, or agreement. Rhythm is
+measured movement, or the periodical recurrence of accent; and signifies
+symmetry and proportion.
+
+Melody, unexhausted and inexhaustible, is the initial force, or, as Dr.
+Marx has called it, the life-blood of music. Within itself it bears the
+germ of harmony and rhythm. A succession of tones without harmonious and
+rhythmic regulation would be felt to lack something. Melody has been
+designated the golden thread running through the maze of tone, by which
+the ear is guided and the heart reached. Helmholtz styled it the
+essential basis of music. In a special sense, it is artistically
+constructed song. The creation of an expressive melody is a sure mark of
+genius.
+
+Harmony arranges musical sounds with reference to their union, and is
+regulated by artistic and æsthetic rules and requirements. It has
+endless modes of transforming, inverting and intensifying its materials,
+thus continually affording new means of development. All the intervals
+and chords used in music had to be discovered, one by one. It often took
+more than a century to bring into a general use a chord effect
+introduced by some adventuresome spirit. Our scale intervals are the
+slowly gained triumphs of the human mind. Modern music did not emerge
+from the darkness of the past until harmony, as we know it, came into
+active being.
+
+Both melody and harmony are controlled by rhythm. It is the master force
+of the musical organism. Before man was the ebb and flow of nature had
+its rhythm. On this elementary rhythm, the one model music finds in
+nature, the inventive mind of man has builded the wonderfully impressive
+art rhythms existing in the masterpieces of music.
+
+Melodies are made up of smaller fragments, known as motives, phrases
+and periods, or sentences, all of which are judiciously repeated and
+varied, and derive their individuality from the characteristics of their
+intervals and rhythms.
+
+A motive is the text of a musical composition, the theme of its
+discourse. The most simple motive, with proper handling, may grow into a
+majestic structure. In Beethoven's Fifth Symphony three G flats in
+eighth notes, followed by an E flat in a half note, form a text, as of
+Fate knocking at the door, which, when developed, leads to tremendous
+conflict ending in victory. Those notes that repeat and modify the
+motive and are combined under one slur constitute the phrase, which is
+similar to a clause in a sentence of words. A period, or sentence, in
+music, comprises a musical idea, complete in itself, though of a nature
+to produce, when united with other harmonious ideas, a perfect whole.
+
+A simple melody is usually composed of eight measures, or some number
+divisible by four. There are exceptions, as in "God Save the King," our
+"America," of which the first part contains six measures, the second
+part eight.
+
+Habit and instinct show us that no melody can end satisfactorily without
+some cadence leading to a note belonging to the tonic or key chord. Very
+often the first part of a melody will end on a note of the dominant
+chord, from which a progression will arise in the second part that leads
+satisfactorily to a concluding note in the tonic chord.
+
+Counterpoint, literally point against point, is the art of so composing
+music in parts that several parts move simultaneously, making harmony by
+their combination. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries the masters of counterpoint shaped the musical
+materials in use to-day. So anxious were they to attain perfection of
+form they often lost sight of the spirit which alone can give vitality
+to musical utterances. The great Bach infused this into his fugues, the
+highest manifestation of the contrapuntal, or polyphonic music of old.
+
+Meanwhile the growth of the individual led to the growth of monophony
+in music, in which one voice stands out prominently, with an
+accompaniment of other voices. Its instrumental flower was reached in
+the symphony. Melody reigns supreme in monophonic music. Both the canon
+and the fugue form a commonwealth, in which all voices are rated alike.
+Viewed rightly, this suits the modern democratic instinct, and there is
+to-day a tendency to return to polyphonic writing. It is individuality
+in union. In the hands of genius it affords the most refined kind of
+harmony.
+
+A thorough knowledge of counterpoint shows the mistake of regarding it
+merely as a dull relic of a dead past. It is a living reality that, if
+correctly studied, leads to a solid, dignified, flowing style, rich in
+design, and independent in its individuality. Counterpoint, said a
+critic in the London Musical News, shows the student how to make a
+harmonic phrase like a well-shaped tree, of which every bough, twig and
+leaf secures for itself the greatest independence, the fullest measure
+of light and air. Composer, interpreter and listener may all profit by
+a comprehension of counterpoint.
+
+From its infancy modern music has been affected by two perpetually
+warring factors, the Classical and the Romantic. The first demands
+reverence for established ideals of formal beauty; the second, striking
+a note of revolt, compels recognition of new ideals. As in all other
+departments of art and life, progress in music comes through the
+continual conflict between the conservative and the radical forces. A
+position viewed as hazardous and unsuitable in one age, becomes the
+accepted position of the next, and those who have been denounced as
+musical heretics come to be regarded as musical heroes. Very often the
+untutored public, trusting to natural instincts, will be in advance of
+the learned critic in accepting some startling innovation. Old laws may
+pass away, new laws may come, but the eternal verities on which all
+manifestations of Truth and Beauty are based can never cease to be.
+
+"The scientific laws of music are transitory, because they have been
+tentatively constructed during the gradual development of the musical
+faculty," says W. H. Hadow, in his valuable "Studies in Modern Music."
+"No power in man is born at full growth; it begins in germ, and
+progresses according to the particular laws that condition its nature.
+Hence it requires one kind of treatment at one stage, another at
+another, both being perfectly right and true in relation to their proper
+period. But there are behind these special rules certain psychological
+laws which seem, so far as we can understand them, to be coeval with
+humanity itself; and these form the permanent code by which music is to
+be judged. The reason why, in past ages, the critics have been so often
+and so disastrously at fault is that they have mistaken the transitory
+for the permanent, the rules of musical science for the laws of musical
+philosophy."
+
+An acquaintance with form as the manifestation of law is essential to an
+intelligent hearing of music. The listener should have at least a
+rudimentary knowledge of musical construction from the simplest ballad
+to the most complex symphony. Having this knowledge it will be possible
+to receive undisturbed the impressions music has to give, and to
+distinguish the trivial and commonplace from the noble and beautiful.
+
+The oftener good music is heard the more completely it will be
+appreciated. Therefore, they listen best to music who hear the best
+continually. The assertion is often heard that a person must be educated
+up to an enjoyment of high class music. Certainly, one who has heard
+nothing else must be educated down to an enjoyment of ragtime, with its
+crude rhythms.
+
+"We know a true poem to the extent to which our spirits respond to the
+spiritual appeal it makes," says Dr. Hiram Corson. It is the same with a
+true musical composition. We must take something to it, in order to
+receive something from it. Beyond knowledge comes the intuitive feeling
+which is enriched by knowledge. Through it we may feel the breath of
+life, the spiritual appeal, which belongs to every great work of art and
+which must forever remain inexplicable.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Piano and Piano Players
+
+
+When Pythagoras, Father of Musical Science, some six centuries before
+our era, marked and sounded musical intervals by mathematical division
+on a string stretched across a board, he was unconsciously laying the
+foundation for our modern pianoforte. How soon keys were added to the
+monochord, as this measuring instrument was named, cannot positively be
+ascertained. We may safely assume it was not slow in adopting the rude
+keyboard ascribed by tradition to Pan pipes, and applied to the portable
+organ of early Christian communities.
+
+After the tenth century the development of the monochord seems to have
+begun in earnest. Two or more strings of equal length are now divided
+and set in motion by flat metal wedges, attached to the key levers, and
+called tangents, because they touched the strings. In response to the
+demand for increased range, as many as twenty keys were brought to act
+on a few strings, commanding often three octaves. Guido d'Arezzo, the
+famous sight-reading music teacher of the eleventh century, advised his
+pupils to "exercise the hand in the use of the monochord," showing his
+knowledge of the keyboard. The keyed monochord gained the name
+clavichord. Its box-like case was first placed on a table, later on its
+own stand, and increased in elegance. Not until the eighteenth century
+was each key provided with a separate string.
+
+No unimped triumphal progress can be claimed for the various claviers or
+keyboard instruments that came into use. Dance music found in them a
+congenial field, thus causing many serious-minded people to regard them
+as dangerous tempters to vanity and folly. In the year 1529, Pietro
+Bembo, a grave theoretician, wrote to his daughter Helena, at her
+convent school: "As to your request to be allowed to learn the clavier,
+I answer that you cannot yet, owing to your youth, understand that
+playing is only suited for volatile, frivolous women; whereas I desire
+you to be the most lovable maiden in the world. Also, it would bring you
+but little pleasure or renown if you should play badly; while to play
+well you would be obliged to devote ten or twelve years to practice,
+without being able to think of anything else. Consider a moment whether
+this would become you. If your friends wish you to play in order to give
+them pleasure, tell them you do not desire to make yourself ridiculous
+in their eyes, and be content with your books and your domestic
+occupations."
+
+A different view was entertained in England during Queen Elizabeth's
+reign, where claviers were in vogue styled virginals, because, as an
+ancient chronicle explained, "virgins do most commonly play on them."
+The virginal was usually of oblong shape, often resembling a lady's
+workbox. With the Virgin Queen it was a prime favorite, although not
+named expressly for her as the flattering fashion of the time led many
+to assume. If she actually did justice to some of the airs with
+variations in the "Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book," she must indeed have
+been proficient on the instrument. Quaint Dr. Charles Burney (1726-1814)
+declares, in his "History of Music," that no performer of his day could
+play them without at least a month's practice.
+
+The clavier gave promise of its destined career in the Elizabethan age.
+Shakespeare immortalized it, and William Byrd (1546-1623) became the
+first clavier master. He and Dr. John Bull (1563-1628), says Oscar Bie,
+in his great work on "The Clavier and Its Masters," "represent the two
+types which run through the entire history of the clavier. Byrd was the
+more intimate, delicate, spiritual intellect; Bull the untamed genius,
+the brilliant executant, the less exquisitely refined artist. It is
+significant that these two types stand together on the threshold of
+clavier art." Bull had gained his degree at Oxford, the founding of
+whose chair of music is popularly attributed to Alfred the Great.
+
+As early as the year 1400 claviers had appeared whose strings were
+plucked by quills attached to jacks at the end of the key levers. To
+this group belonged the virginal, or virginals, the clavicembalo, the
+harpsichord, or clavecin, and the spinet. Stops were added, as in the
+organ, that varied effects might be produced, and a second keyboard was
+often placed above the first. The case was either rectangular, or
+followed the outlines of the harp, a progenitor of this clavier type. It
+was often highly ornamented, and handsomely mounted. Each string from
+the first had its due length and was tuned to its proper note.
+
+The secular music principle of the sixteenth century that called into
+active being the orchestra led also to a desire for richer musical
+expression in home and social life than the fashionable lute afforded,
+and the clavier advanced in favor. In France, by 1530, the dance, that
+promoter of pure instrumental music, was freely transcribed for the
+clavier. Little more than a century later, Jean Baptiste Lully
+(1633-1687) extensively employed the instrument in the orchestration of
+his operas, and wrote solo dances for it.
+
+François Couperin (1668-1733), now well-nigh forgotten, although once
+mentioned in the same breath with Molière, wrote the pioneer clavier
+instruction book. In it he directs scholars how to avoid a harsh tone,
+and how to form a legato style. He advises parents to select teachers on
+whom implicit reliance may be placed, and teachers to keep the claviers
+of beginners under lock and key that there may be no practicing without
+supervision. His suggestions deserve consideration to-day.
+
+He was the first to encourage professional clavier-playing among women.
+His daughter Marguerite was the first woman appointed official court
+clavier player. He composed for the clavier little picture tunes,
+designed to depict sentiments, moods, phases of character and scenes
+from life. He fashioned many charming turns of expression, introduced
+an occasional tempo rubato, foreshadowed the intellectual element in
+music and laid the corner-stone of modern piano-playing. Jean Philippe
+Rameau (1683-1764) continued Couperin's work.
+
+What is generally recognized as the first period of clavier-virtuosity
+begins with the Neapolitan Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757), and Johann
+Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), the German of Germans. The style of
+Scarlatti is peculiarly the product of Italian love of beautiful tone,
+and what he wrote, though without depth of motive, kept well in view the
+technical possibilities of the harpsichord. His "Cat's Fugue," and his
+one movement sonatas still appear on concert programmes. In a collection
+of thirty sonatas he explained his purpose in these words: "Amateur, or
+professor, whoever thou art, seek not in these compositions for any
+profound feeling. They are only a frolic of art, meant to increase thy
+confidence in the clavier."
+
+In Germany, with grand old Father Bach, the keyboard instrument was
+found capable of mirroring a mighty soul. The germ of all modern musical
+design lies in his clavier writings. It has been aptly said of this
+master of masters that he constructed a great university of music, from
+which all must graduate who would accomplish anything of value in music.
+Men of genius, from Mozart to the present time, have extolled him for
+the beauty of his melodies and harmonies, the expressiveness of his
+modulations, the wealth, spontaneity and logical clearness of his ideas,
+and the superb architecture of his productions. Students miss the soul
+of Bach because of the soulless, mechanical way in which they deface his
+legacy to them.
+
+His "Twelve Little Preludes" alone contain the materials for an entire
+system of music. The "Inventions," too often treated as dry-as-dust
+studies, are laden with beautiful figures and devices that furnish
+inspiration for all time. As indicated by their title, which signifies a
+compound of appropriate expression and just disposition of the members,
+they were designed to cultivate the elements of musical taste, as well
+as freedom and equality of the fingers. His "Well Tempered Clavichord"
+has been called the pianist's Sacred Book. Its Preludes and Fugues
+illustrate every shade of human feeling, and were especially designed to
+exemplify the mode of tuning known as equal temperament, introduced into
+general use by Bach, and still employed by your piano tuner and mine.
+
+Forkel, his biographer, has finely said that Bach considered the voices
+of his fugues a select company of persons conversing together. Each was
+allowed to speak only when there was something to say bearing on the
+subject in hand. A highly characteristic motive, or theme, as
+significant as the noblest "typical phrase," developing into equally
+characteristic progressions and cadences, is a striking feature of the
+Bach fugue. His "Suites" exalted forever the familiar dance tunes of the
+German people. His wonderful "Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue" ushered the
+recitative into purely instrumental music.
+
+As a teacher he was genial, kind, encouraging and in every respect a
+model. He obliged his pupils to write and understand as well as sound
+the notes. In his noble modesty he never held himself aloof as superior
+to others. When pupils were discouraged he reminded them how hard he had
+always been compelled to work, and assured them that equal industry
+would lead them to success. He gave the thumb its proper place on the
+keyboard, and materially improved fingering. Tranquillity and poetic
+beauty being prime essentials of his playing, he preferred to the more
+brilliant harpsichord, or spinet, the clavichord, whose thrilling,
+tremulous tone, owing to its construction, was exceedingly sensitive to
+the player's touch. The early hammer-clavier, or pianoforte, invented in
+1711, by the Italian Cristofori, who derived the hammer idea from the
+dulcimer, did not attract him because of its extreme crudeness.
+Nevertheless, it was destined to develop into the musical instrument
+essential to the perfect interpretation of his clavier music.
+
+His son and pupil, Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788), proceeding on the
+principles established by his illustrious father, prepared the way for
+the modern pianist. His important theoretical work, "The True Art of
+Clavier Playing," was pronounced by Haydn the school of schools for all
+time. It was highly extolled by Mozart, and to it Clementi ascribed his
+knowledge and skill. In his compositions he was an active agent in the
+crystallization of the sonata form. From him Haydn gained much that he
+later transferred to the orchestra.
+
+Impulse to the second period of clavier virtuosity was given by Wolfgang
+Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832). Mozart, who
+led the Viennese school, developed the singing style of playing and the
+smooth flowing legato. Leaving behind him the triumphs of his
+wonder-boyhood with spinet and harpsichord, he boldly entered the public
+concert-hall with the pianoforte, now greatly advanced by the
+improvements of Silbermann. Mozart brought into use its special
+features, showed its capacity for tone-shading and for the reflection
+of sentiment, and may well be said to have launched it on its career.
+Tradition declares that his hand was fashioned for clavier keys, and
+that its graceful movements afforded the eye no less pleasure than the
+ear. His noble technique, based on his profound study of the Bachs, was
+spiritualized by his own glowing fancy. In his playing, as in his
+compositions, every note was a pearl of great price. With his piano
+concertos he showed how clavier and orchestra may converse earnestly
+together without either having its individuality marred. The same
+equilibrium is maintained in his piano and violin sonatas and his other
+concerted chamber music, amid all their persuasive and eloquent
+discourse. His charming four-hand and double piano pieces, written for
+himself and his gifted sister Marianne, and his solo clavier sonatas
+would prove his wealth of musical invention had he not written another
+note.
+
+Clementi, born in Rome, passed most of his life in London, where he
+attracted many pupils. Without great creative genius, he occupied
+himself chiefly with the technical problems of the pianoforte. He opened
+the way for the sonority of tone and imposing diction of the modern
+style. His music abounded in bold, brilliant passages of single and
+double notes. He is even credited with having trilled in octaves with
+one hand. Taking upon himself the management of an English piano
+factory, he extended the keyboard, in 1793, to five and a half octaves.
+Seven octaves were not reached until 1851. His "Gradus ad Parnassum"
+became the parent of Etude literature. Carl Tausig said: "There is but
+one god in technique, Bach, and Clementi is his prophet."
+
+Losing the spirituality of a Mozart the Viennese school was destined to
+degenerate into empty bravura playing. Before its downfall it produced a
+Hummel, a Moscheles and a Czerny, each of whom left in their piano
+studies a valuable bequest to technique. Karl Czerny (1791-1857), called
+king of piano teachers, numbered among his pupils, Liszt, Doehler,
+Thalberg and Jaell. The Clementi school was continued in that familiar
+writer of Etudes, Johann Baptist Cramer (1771-1858), and began to show
+respect for the damper pedal. Its most eminent virtuoso was John Field
+(1782-1837) of Dublin.
+
+Between these two schools stood Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827), a
+giant on lofty heights. Every accent of his dramatic music was embodied
+in his piano compositions. Tones furnished him unmistakably a language
+that needed no commentary. "In him," says Oscar Bie, "there were no
+tricks of technique to be admired, no mere virtuosity to praise; but he
+stirred his hearers to the depths of their hearts. Amid his storm and
+stress, whispering and listening, his awakening of the soul, an original
+naturalism of piano-playing was recognized, side by side with the
+naturalism of his creative art. Rhythm was the life of his playing." A
+union of conception and technique was a high aim of Beethoven, and he
+prized the latter only as it fulfilled the requirements of his idealism.
+"The high development of the mechanical in pianoforte playing," he wrote
+to a friend, "will end in banishing all genuine emotion from music."
+His prophetic words might serve as a warning to-day.
+
+[Illustration: LILLIAN NORDICA]
+
+The past century has given us the golden age of the pianoforte. Advanced
+knowledge of acoustics and improved methods of construction have made it
+the magnificent instrument we know in concert hall and home, and to
+which we now apply the more intimate name, piano. Oscar Bie calls it the
+music teacher of all mankind that has become great with the growth of
+modern music. As a photograph may convey to the home an excellent
+conception of a master painting in some distant art gallery, so the
+piano, in addition to the musical creations it has inspired, may present
+to the domestic circle intelligent reproductions of mighty choral,
+operatic and instrumental works. Through its medium the broad field of
+musical history and literature may be surveyed in private with profit
+and pleasure.
+
+Piano composers and virtuosos rapidly increase. Carl Maria von Weber
+(1786-1826) stood on the threshold of the fairyland of romance. His
+scheme of a dialogue, in the opening adagio of his "Invitation to the
+Dance," followed by an entrancing waltz and a grave concluding dialogue,
+betokens what he might have accomplished for the piano had he lived
+longer. Franz Schubert (1797-1828) and Robert Schumann (1810-1856) were
+the evangelists par excellence of the new romantic school. Schubert,
+closely allied in spirit to the master-builder, Beethoven, was
+unsurpassed in the refinement of his musical sentiment. The melody
+flooding his soul beautified his piano compositions, to which only a
+delicate touch may do justice. His Impromptus and Moments Musical, small
+impressionist pieces, in which isolated musical ideas are clothed in
+brief artistic forms adapted to the timbre of the instrument, may well
+be thought to have placed piano literature on a new basis.
+
+The romantic temperament of Robert Schumann was nurtured on German
+romantic literature and music. His impressions of nature, life and
+literature he imprisoned in tones. He was a profound student of Bach, to
+whom he traced "the power of combination, poetry and humor in the new
+music." Infusing his own vital emotions into polyphonic forms he gave
+the piano far grander tone-pictures than those of Couperin. The dreamy
+fervor and the glowing fire of an impassioned nature may be felt in his
+works, but also many times the lack of balance that belongs with the
+malady by which he was assailed.
+
+His love of music became early interwoven with love for Clara, the
+gifted daughter and pupil of his teacher, Friedrich Wieck. To her he
+dedicated his creative power. An attempt to gain flexibility by means of
+a mechanical contrivance having lamed his fingers, he turned from a
+pianist's career to composition and musical criticism. In becoming his
+wife Clara gave him both hands in more senses than one, and they shone
+together as a double star in the art firmament. Madame Schumann had
+acquired a splendid foundation for her career through the wise guidance
+of her father, whose pedagogic ideas every piano student might consider
+with profit. Her playing was distinguished by its musicianly
+intelligence and fine artistic feeling. Earnest simplicity surrounded
+her public and her private life, and the element of personal display was
+wholly foreign to her. She was the ideal woman, artist and teacher who
+remained in active service until a short time before her death, in 1896.
+
+Those were charmed days in Leipsic when the Schumanns and Mendelssohn
+formed the centre of an enthusiastic circle of musicians, and created a
+far-reaching musical atmosphere. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), in his
+work for the piano, adapted to drawing-room use technical devices of his
+day, and in his "Songs without Words" gave a decisive short-story form
+to piano literature. His playing is described as possessing an organ
+firmness of touch without organ ponderosity, and having an expression
+that moved deeply without intoxicating. Living in genial surroundings,
+he was never forced to struggle, and although he climbed through flowery
+paths, he never reached the goal he longed for until his heart broke.
+
+Delicate, sensitive, fastidious, Frédéric Chopin (1809-1849) delivered
+his musical message with persuasive eloquence through the medium of the
+piano. It was his chosen comrade. With it he exchanged the most subtle
+confidences. Gaining a profound knowledge of its resources he raised it
+to an independent power. Polish patriotism steeped in Parisian elegance
+shaped his genius, and his compositions portray the emotions of his
+people in exquisitely polished tonal language. Spontaneous as was his
+creative power he was most painstaking in regard to the setting of his
+musical ideas and would often devote weeks to re-writing a single page
+that every detail might be perfect. The best that was in him he gave to
+music and to the piano. He enlarged the musical vocabulary, he
+re-created and enriched technique and diction, and to him the musician
+of to-day owes a debt that should never be forgotten. "He is of the race
+of eagles," said his teacher, Elsner. "Let all who aspire follow him in
+his flights toward regions sublime."
+
+The man who, by his demands on the piano, induced improvements in its
+manufacture that materially increased its sonority and made it
+available for the modern idea, was Franz Liszt (1811-1886). He will
+always be remembered as the creator of orchestral piano-playing and of
+the symphonic poem. The impetuous rhythms and unfathomable mysteries of
+Magyar and gipsy life surrounding him in Hungary, the land of his birth,
+strongly influenced the shaping of his genius. Like the wandering
+children of nature who had filled the dreams of his childhood, he became
+a wanderer and marched a conqueror, radiant with triumphs, through the
+musical world. Chopin, who shrank from concert-playing, once said to
+him: "You are destined for it. You have the force to overwhelm, control,
+compel the public."
+
+The bewitching tones of the gipsy violinist, Bihary, had fallen on his
+boyish ears "like drops of some fiery, volatile essence," stimulating
+him to effort. On the threshold of manhood he was inspired to apply the
+methods of Paganini to the piano. All his early realistic and
+revolutionary ideas found vent in his pianistic achievements. He gained
+marvelous fulness of chord power, great dynamic variety, and numerous
+unexpected solutions of the tone problem. Many technical means of
+expression were invented by him, and a wholly new fingering was required
+for his purposes. He taught the use of a loose wrist, absolute
+independence of the fingers and a new manipulation of the pedals. To
+carry out his designs the third or sustaining pedal became necessary.
+His highest ambition, in his own words, was "to leave to piano players
+the foot-prints of attained advance." In 1839 he ventured on the first
+pure piano recital ever given in the concert hall. His series of
+performances in this line, covering the entire range of piano
+literature, in addition to his own compositions, given entirely without
+notes, led the public to expect playing by heart from all other artists.
+
+As a great pianist, a composer of original conceptions, a magnetic
+conductor, an influential teacher, an intelligent writer on musical
+subjects and a devoted promoter of the interests of art, he stands out
+in bold relief, one of the grand figures in the history of music. His
+piano paraphrases and transcriptions are poetic re-settings of
+tone-creations he had thoroughly assimilated and made his own. In his
+original works, which Saint-Saëns was perhaps the first to appreciate,
+students are now beginning to discover the ripe fruits of his genius.
+Faithful ones among the pupils who flocked about him in classic Weimar
+spread wide his influence, but also much harm was done in his name by
+charlatans who, calling themselves Liszt pupils, cast broadcast the
+fallacy that piano pounding was genuine pianistic power.
+
+Large hearted, liberal minded, whole souled in his devotion to his art
+and its true interests, Franz Liszt seemed wholly without personal
+jealousies, and befriended and brought into public notice a large number
+of artists. Hector Berlioz declared that to him belonged "the sincere
+admiration of earnest minds, as well as the involuntary homage of the
+envious." At the opening of the Baireuth Temple of German Art, in 1876,
+Richard Wagner paid him this tribute in the midst of a joyful company:
+"Here is one who first gave me faith in my work when no one knew
+anything of me. But for him, my dear friend, Franz Liszt, you might not
+have had a note from me to-day."
+
+A rival of Liszt in the concert field, especially before a Parisian
+public, was Sigismund Thalberg (1812-1871), who visited this country in
+1855 and literally popularized the piano in America. Alfred Jaell and
+Henri Herz, who had preceded him, doubtless prepared the way for his
+triumphs. He and the "Creole Chopin," Louis Moreau Gottschalk, attracted
+much attention by several joint appearances in our musical centres of
+the time. Thalberg was a pupil of Hummel, and felt the influence of his
+teacher's cold, severely classic style. He possessed a well-trained,
+fascinating mechanism, with scales, chords, arpeggios and octaves that
+were marvels of neatness and accuracy, and a tone that was mellow and
+liquid, though lacking in warmth. His operatic transcriptions, in which
+a central melody is enfolded in arabesques, chords and running passages,
+have long since become antiquated, but his art of singing on the piano
+and many of his original studies still remain valuable to the pianist.
+
+When Liszt and Thalberg were in possession of the concert platform, they
+occupied the attention of cartoonists as fully as Paderewski at a later
+date. Liszt, his hair floating wildly, was represented as darting
+through the air on wide-stretched pinions with keyboards attached--a
+play on Flügel, the German for grand piano. Thalberg, owing to his
+dignified repose, was caricatured as posing in a stiff, rigid manner
+before a box of keys.
+
+Rubinstein and Von Bülow offer two more contrasting personalities. Anton
+Rubinstein (1830-1894) was the impressionist, the subjective artist, who
+re-created every composition he played. The Russian tone-colorist he has
+been called, and the warmth and glow with which he invested every nuance
+can never be forgotten by those who were privileged to hear his Titanic
+interpretations, over whose very blemishes was cast the glamor of the
+impassioned temperament that caused them. "May Heaven forgive me for
+every wrong note I have struck!" he exclaimed to a youthful admirer
+after one of his concerts in this country during the season of 1872-3.
+Certainly the listener under the spell of his magnetism could forgive,
+almost forget. Hans von Bülow (1830-1894) was the objective artist,
+whose scholarly attainments and musicianly discernment unraveled the
+most tangled web of phrasing and interpretation. His Beethoven recitals,
+when he was in America in 1875-6, were of especial value to piano
+students. As a piano virtuoso, a teacher, a conductor and an editor of
+musical works, he was a marked educational factor in music.
+
+In his youth Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), the great apostle of modern
+intellectual music, made his début before the musical world as a
+brilliant and versatile pianist. Once, when about to play in public
+Beethoven's magnificent Kreutzer Sonata, with Remenyi, who was the first
+to recognize his genius, he discovered that the piano was half a tone
+below concert pitch, and rather than spoil the effect by having the
+violin tuned down, the boy of nineteen unhesitatingly transposed the
+piano part which he was playing from memory into a higher key. The fire,
+energy and breadth of his rendering, together with the splendid
+musicianship displayed by this feat, deeply impressed the great
+violinist Joachim, who was present, and who became enthusiastic in his
+praise. Schumann, on making his acquaintance, proclaimed the advent of a
+genius who wrote music in which the spirit of the age found its
+consummation, and who, at the piano, unveiled wonders. By others he has
+been called the greatest contrapuntist after Bach, the greatest
+architectonist after Beethoven, the man of creative power who
+assimilated the older forms and invested them with a new life entirely
+his own. His piano works are a rich addition to the pianist's store, but
+whoever would unveil their beautiful proportions, all aglow as they are
+with sacred fire, must have taken a master's degree.
+
+Two pupils of Liszt stand out prominently--Carl Tausig (1841-1871) and
+Eugene D'Albert (1864- ----). The first was distinguished by his
+extraordinary sense for style, and was thought to surpass his master in
+absolute flawlessness of technique. To the second Oscar Bie attributes
+the crown of piano playing in our time. Peter Iljitch Tschaikowsky
+(1840-1893), the distinguished representative of the modern Russian
+school, was an original, dramatic and fertile composer and wrote for the
+piano some of his highly colored and very characteristic music. Edward
+Grieg (1843- ----), the national tone-poet of Norway, has given the
+piano some of his most delightful efforts, fresh with the breezes of the
+North.
+
+The veteran French composer, Charles Camille Saint-Saëns (1835- ----),
+has won great renown as a pianist, and was one of the most precocious
+children on record, having begun the study of the piano when under three
+years of age. He was the teacher that knew how to develop the
+individuality of the young Russian, Leopold Godowsky, who has done such
+remarkable work on two continents, as a teacher and piano virtuoso.
+
+Perhaps the most famous piano teacher of recent times is Theodore
+Leschetitzky, of Vienna. His method is that of common sense, based on
+keen analytical faculties, and he never trains the hand apart from the
+musical sense. His most renowned pupil is Ignace Jan Paderewski, the
+magnetic Pole, whose exquisite touch and tone long made him the idol of
+the concert room, and who, with time, has gained in robustness, but also
+in recklessness of style. Another gifted pupil of the Viennese master is
+Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler, of Chicago, an artiste of rare temperament,
+musical feeling and nervous power, of whom Dr. Hanslick said that her
+virtuosity was stupendous, her delicacy in the finest florid work as
+marvelous as her fascinating energy in the forte passages.
+
+The great tidal wave set in motion by the piano has swept over the
+civilized world, carrying with it hosts of accomplished pianists. Of
+some of those who are familiar figures in our musical centres it has
+been said that Teresa Carreño learned from Rubinstein the art of piano
+necromancy; that Rosenthal is an amazing technician whose
+interpretations lack tenderness; that De Pachmann is on terms of
+intimacy with Chopin, and that Rafael Joseffy, the disciple of Tausig,
+combines all that is best in the others with striking methods of his
+own.
+
+Great is the piano, splendid its literature, many its earnest students,
+numerous its worthy exponents. That it is so often made a means of empty
+show is not the fault of the piano, it is due to a tendency of the day
+that calls for superficial glamor. Herbert Spencer was not so wrong as
+some of the critics seem to think when, in his last volume, he said that
+teachers of music and music performers were often corrupters of music.
+Those certainly are corrupters of music who use the piano solely for
+meaningless technical feats.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin
+
+
+"The piano bard, the piano rhapsodist, the piano mind, the piano soul is
+Chopin," said Rubinstein. "Tragic, romantic, lyric, heroic, dramatic,
+fantastic, soulful, sweet, dreamy, brilliant, grand, simple, all
+possible expressions are found in his compositions and all are sung by
+him on his instrument."
+
+In these few, bold strokes one who knew him by virtue of close art and
+race kinship, presents an incomparable outline sketch of the Polish
+tone-poet who explored the harmonic vastness of the pianoforte and made
+his own all its mystic secrets.
+
+Born and bred on Poland's soil, son of a French father and a Polish
+mother, Frédéric Chopin (1809-1849) combined within himself two natures,
+each complementing the other, both uniting to form a personality not
+understood by every casual observer. He is described as kind, courteous,
+possessed of the most captivating grace and ease of manner, now inclined
+to languorous melancholy, now scintillating with a joyous vivacity that
+was contagious. His sensitive nature, like the most exquisitely
+constructed sounding-board, vibrated with the despairing sadness, the
+suppressed wrath, and the sublime fortitude of the brave, haughty,
+unhappy people he loved, and with his own homesickness when afar from
+his cherished native land.
+
+Patriot and tone-poet in every fibre of his being, his genius inevitably
+claimed as its own the soul's divinest language, pure music, unfettered
+by words. The profound reserve of his nature made it peculiarly
+agreeable to him to gratify the haunting demands of his lyric muse
+through the medium of the one musical instrument that lends itself in
+privacy to the exploitation of all the mysteries of harmony. Strong
+conviction in regard to his own calling and clear perception of the
+hidden powers and future mission of the piano early compelled him to
+consecrate to it his unfaltering devotion. He evolved from its more
+intimate domain effects in sympathy with those of the orchestra, yet
+purely individual. He enriched it with new melodic, harmonic and
+rhythmic devices adapted to itself alone, and endowed it with a warmth
+of tone-coloring that spiritualized it for all time.
+
+To the piano he confided all the conflicts that raged within him, all
+the courage and living hope that sustained him. In giving tonal form to
+the deep things of the soul, which are universal in their essence and
+application, he embodied universal rather than merely individual
+emotional experiences, and thus unbared what was most sacred to himself
+without jarring on the innate reticence which made purely personal
+confidences impossible. Although his mode of expression was peculiarly
+his own, he had received a strong impulse from the popular music of
+Poland. As a child he had become familiar with the folk-songs and dances
+heard in the harvest-fields and at market and village festivals. They
+were his earliest models; on them were builded his first themes. As Bach
+glorified the melodies of the German people, so Chopin glorified those
+of the Poles. The national tonality became to him a vehicle to be
+freighted with his own individual conceptions.
+
+"I should like to be to my people what Uhland was to the Germans," he
+once said to a friend. He addressed himself to the heart of this people
+and immortalized its joys, sorrows and caprices by the force of his
+splendid art. Those who have attempted to interpret him as the
+sentimental hero of minor moods, the tone-poet in whom the weakness of
+despair predominates, have missed the leaping flames, the vivid
+intensity and the heroic manliness permeated with genuine love of beauty
+that animated him. True art softens the harshest accents of suffering by
+placing superior to it some elevating idea. So in the most melancholy
+strains of his music one who heeds well may detect the presence of a
+lofty ideal that uplifts and strengthens the travailing soul. It has
+been said of him that he had a sad heart but a joyful mind.
+
+The two teachers of Chopin were Adalbert Zwyny, a Bohemian violinist,
+who taught the piano, and Joseph Elsner, a violinist, organist and
+theorist. "From Zwyny and Elsner even the greatest dunce must learn
+something," he is quoted as saying. Neither of these men attempted to
+hamper his free growth by rigid technical restraints. Their guidance
+left him master of his own genius, at liberty to "soar like the lark
+into the ethereal blue of the skies." He respected them both. A revering
+affection was cherished by him for Elsner, to whom he owed his sense of
+personal responsibility to his art, his habits of serious study and his
+intimate acquaintance with Bach.
+
+There is food for thought in the fact that this Prince Charming of the
+piano, whose magic touch awakened the Sleeping Beauty of the instrument
+of wood and wires, never had a lesson in his life from a mere piano
+specialist. Liszt once said Chopin was the only pianist he ever knew
+that could play the violin on the piano. If he could do so it was
+because he had harkened to the voice of the violin and resolved to show
+that the piano, too, could produce thrilling effects. In the same way he
+had listened to the human voice, and determined that the song of his own
+instrument should be heard. Those who give ear to the piano alone will
+never learn the secret of calling forth its supreme eloquence.
+
+We can see and hear this "Raphael of Music" at the piano, so many and so
+eloquent have been the descriptions given of his playing. It is easy to
+fancy him sweeping the ivory keys with his gossamer touch that enveloped
+with ethereal beauty the most unaccustomed of his complicated chromatic
+modulations. We can feel his individuality pulsating through every tone
+evoked by those individualized fingers of his as they weave measures for
+sylphs of dreamland, or summon to warfare heroes of the ideal world. We
+are entranced by his luxuriant tone-coloring, induced to a large extent
+by his original management of the pedals. We marvel at his softly
+whispered, yet ever clearly distinct pianissimo, at the full, round tone
+of its relative fortissimo, that was never harsh or noisy, and at all
+the exquisitely graded nuances that lay between, with those time
+fluctuations expressive of the ebb and flow of his poetic inner being.
+No wonder Balzac maintained that if Chopin should but drum on the table
+his fingers would evoke subtle-sounding music.
+
+And what an example he has left for teachers. Delicately strung as he
+was, he must often have endured tortures from the best of his pupils,
+but so thoroughly was he consecrated to his art that he never faltered
+in his efforts to lift those who confided in him to the aërial heights
+he had found. A vivid picture of his method of teaching is given in the
+lectures on "Frédéric Chopin's Works and Their Proper Interpretation,"
+by the Pole, Jean Kleczynski.
+
+The basis of this method consisted in refinement of touch, for the
+attainment of which a natural, easy position of the hand was considered
+by Chopin a prime requisite. He prepared each hand with infinite care
+before permitting any attempt at the reproduction of musical ideas. In
+order to place it to advantage he caused it to be thrown lightly on the
+keyboard so that the five fingers rested on the notes E, F sharp, G
+sharp, A sharp and B, and without change of position required the
+practice of exercises calculated to insure independence. The pupil was
+instructed to go through these exercises first staccato, effected by a
+free movement of the wrist, an admirable means of counteracting
+heaviness and clumsiness, then legato-staccato, then accented legato,
+then pure legato, modifying the power from pp to ff, and the movement
+from andante to prestissimo.
+
+He was exceedingly particular about arpeggio work, and insisted upon the
+repetition of every note and passage until all harshness and roughness
+of tone were eliminated. "Is that a dog barking?" he was known to
+exclaim to an unlucky pupil whose attack in the opening arpeggio of a
+Clementi study lacked the desired quality. A very independent use of the
+thumb was prescribed by him. He never hesitated about placing it on a
+black key when convenient, and had it passed by muscle action alone in
+scales and broken chords whose zealous practice in different forms of
+touch, accent, rhythm and tone were demanded by him.
+
+Individualization of the fingers was one of his strong points, and he
+believed in assigning to each of them its appropriate part. "In a good
+mechanism," he said, "the aim is not to play everything with an equal
+sound, but to acquire beautiful quality of touch and perfect shading."
+Of prime importance in his eyes was a clear, elastic, singing tone, one
+whose exquisite delicacy could never be confounded with feebleness.
+Every dynamic nuance he exacted of fingers that fell with freedom and
+elasticity on the keys, and he knew how to augment the warmth and
+richness of tone-coloring by setting in vibration sympathetic harmonics
+of the principal notes through judicious employment of the damper pedal.
+
+By precept and example he advocated frequent playing of the preludes and
+fugues of Bach as a means of cultivating musical intelligence, muscular
+independence and touch and tone discrimination. His musical heroes were
+Bach and Mozart, for they represented to him nature, strong
+individuality and poetry in music. At one time he undertook to write a
+method or school of piano-playing, but never progressed beyond the
+opening sentences. A message directly from him would have been
+invaluable to students, and might have averted many unlucky
+misapprehensions of himself and his works. Those of his contemporaries
+who have harkened with rapture to his playing have declared that he
+alone could adequately interpret his tone-creations, or make perfectly
+intelligible his method. Pupils of his and their pupils have faithfully
+endeavored to transmit to the musical world the tradition of his
+individual style. The elect few have come into touch with his vision of
+beauty, but it has been mercilessly misinterpreted by thousands of
+ruthless aspirants to musical honors, in the schoolroom, the students'
+recital and the concert hall.
+
+Whoever plays Chopin with sledge-hammer fingers will deaden all sense of
+his poetry, charm and grace. Whoever approaches him with weak
+sentimentalism will miss altogether his dignity and strength. It has
+been said of him that he was Woman in his tenderness and realization of
+the beautiful; and Man in his energy and force of mind. The highest type
+of artist and human being is thus represented. To interpret him requires
+simplicity, purity of style, refined technique, poetic imagination and
+genuine sentiment--not fitful, fictitious sentimentality.
+
+In regard to the much discussed tempo rubato of Chopin many and fatal
+blunders have been made. Players without number have gone stumbling over
+the piano keys with a tottering, spasmodic gait, serenely fancying they
+are heeding the master's design. Reckless, out-of-time playing
+disfigures what is meant to express the fluctuation of thought, the
+soul's agitation, the rolling of the waves of time and eternity. The
+rubato, from rubare, to rob, represents a pliable movement that is
+certainly as old as the Greek drama in declamation, and was employed in
+intoning the Gregorian chant. The recitative of the sixteenth century
+gave it prominence, and it passed into instrumental music. Indications
+of it in Bach are too often neglected. Beethoven used it effectively.
+Chopin appropriated it as one of his most potent auxiliaries. In playing
+he emphasized the saying of Mozart: "Let your left hand be the orchestra
+conductor," while his right hand balanced and swayed the melody and its
+arabesques according to the natural pulsation of the emotions. "You see
+that tree," exclaimed Liszt; "its leaves tremble with every breath of
+the wind, but the tree remains unshaken--that is the rubato." There are
+storms to which even the tree yields. To realize them, to divine the
+laws which regulate the undulating, tempest-tossed rubato, requires
+highly matured artistic taste and absolute musical control.
+
+Too sensitive to enjoy playing before miscellaneous audiences whose
+unsympathetic curiosity, he declared, paralyzed him, Chopin was at his
+best when interpreting music in private, for a choice circle of friends
+or pupils, or when absorbed in composition. It is not too much to say
+for him that he ushered in a new era for his chosen instrument,
+spiritualizing its timbre, liberating it from traditional orchestral and
+choral effects, and elevating it to an independent power in the world of
+music. Besides enriching the technique of the piano, he augmented the
+materials of musical expression, contributing fresh charms to those
+prime factors of music melody, harmony and rhythm. New chord extensions,
+passages of double notes, arabesques and harmonic combinations were
+devised by him and he so systematized the use of the pedals that the
+most varied nuances could be produced by them.
+
+In melody and general conception his tone-poems sprang spontaneously
+from his glowing fancy, but they were subjected to the most severe
+tests before they were permitted to go out into the world. Every
+ingenious device that gave character to his exquisite cantilena, and
+softened his most startling chord progressions, was evolved by the vivid
+imagination of this master from hitherto hidden qualities of the
+pianoforte. Without him neither it nor modern music could have been what
+it is. An accentuation like the ringing of distant bells is frequently
+heard in his music. To him bell tones were ever ringing, reminding him
+of home, summoning him to the heights.
+
+James Huneker, the raconteur of the Musical Courier, discussing the
+compositions of Chopin, in his delightful and inspiring book, "Chopin,
+the Man and His Music," calls the studies Titanic experiments; the
+preludes, moods in miniature; the nocturnes, night and its melancholy
+mysteries; the ballades, faery dramas; the polonaises, heroic hymns of
+battle; the valses and mazurkas, dances of the soul; the scherzos, the
+work of Chopin the conqueror. In the sonatas and concertos he sees the
+princely Pole bravely carrying his banner amid classical currents. For
+the impromptus alone he has found no name and says of them: "To write of
+the four impromptus in their own key of unrestrained feeling and
+pondered intention would not be as easy as recapturing the first
+'careless rapture of the lark.'"
+
+Unquestionably the poetry of Chopin is of the most exquisite lyric
+character, his leadership is supreme. So original was his conception, so
+finished his workmanship, so sublime his purpose, that we may well
+exclaim with Schumann, "He is the boldest, proudest poetic spirit of the
+time." "His greatness is his aristocracy," says Oscar Bie. "He stands
+among musicians in his faultless vesture, a noble from head to foot."
+
+[Illustration: PAGANINI]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+Violins and Violinists--Fact and Fable
+
+
+That fine old bard who shaped the character of Volker the Fiddler in the
+Nibelungen Lay, had a glowing vision of the power of music and of the
+violin. Players on the videl, or fiddle, abounded in the days of
+chivalry, but Volker, glorified by genius, rises superior to his fellow
+minstrels. The inspiring force of his martial strains renewed the
+courage of way-worn heroes. His gentle measures, pure and melodious as a
+prayer, lulled them to sorely-needed rest.
+
+And what a wonderful bow he wielded! It was mighty and long, fashioned
+like a sword, with a keen-edged outer blade, and in his good right hand
+could deal a deft blow on either side. Ever ready for action was he, and
+his friendship for Hagen of Tronje furnished the main elements of that
+grim warrior's power. Together they were long invincible, smiting the
+foe with giant strokes, accompanied by music.
+
+The modern German poet, Wilhelm Jordan, in his Sigfridsage, clothes
+Volker with the attributes of a violin king he loved, and represents him
+tenderly handling the violin. His noble portrayal of a violinist
+testifies no more fully to the mission of the musician than the creation
+of the Nibelungen bard. In August Wilhelmj, once hailed by Henrietta
+Sontag as the coming Paganini, Richard Wagner saw "Volker the Fiddler
+living anew, until death a warrior true." So he wrote in a dedicatory
+verse beneath a portrait of himself, presented to "Volker-Wilhelmj as a
+souvenir of the first Baireuth festival."
+
+The idea of a magic fiddle and a wonderworking fiddler was strongly
+rooted in the popular imagination of many peoples, through many ages.
+Typical illustrations are the Wonderful Musician of Grimm's Fairy Tales,
+whose fiddling attracted man and beast, and the lad of Norse folk-lore
+who won a fiddle that could make people dance to any tune he chose. In
+Norway the traditional violin teacher is the cascade-haunting musical
+genius Fossegrim, who, when suitably propitiated, seizes the right hand
+of one that seeks his aid and moves it across the strings until blood
+gushes from the finger-tips. Thenceforth the pupil becomes a master, and
+can make trees leap, rivers stay their course and people bow to his
+will.
+
+Those of us who were brought up on English nursery rhymes early loved
+the fiddle. Old King Cole, that merry old soul, was a prime favorite,
+notwithstanding his fondness for pipe and bowl, because when he called
+for them he called for his fiddlers three and their very fine fiddles.
+According to Robert of Gloucester, the real King Cole, a popular monarch
+of Britain in the third century, was the father of St. Helena, the
+zealous friend of church music. The nursery satire of doubtful
+antiquity is our sole evidence of his devotion to the art.
+
+That John who stoutly refused to sell his fiddle in order to buy his
+wife a gown placed the ideal above the material. It is to be hoped Mrs.
+John enjoyed music more than gay attire. Certainly the dame who was
+forced to dance without her shoe until the master found his
+fiddling-stick knew the worth of the fiddler's art.
+
+It may have been from a play on the word catgut that so many of these
+ditties represent pussy in relation with the fiddle. True fiddler's
+magic belonged to the cat whose fiddling made the cow jump over the
+moon, the little dog laugh and the dish run away with the spoon. Rarely
+accomplished too was the cat that came fiddling out of the barn with a
+pair of bagpipes under her arm, singing "Fiddle cum fee, the mouse has
+married the humble bee."
+
+Scientists tell us that crickets, grasshoppers, locusts and the like are
+fiddlers. Their hind legs are their fiddle-bows, and by drawing these
+briskly up and down the projecting veins of their wing-covers they
+produce the sounds that characterize them. Was it in imitation of these
+small winged creatures that man first experimented with the friction of
+bow and strings as a means of making music? Scarcely. It was the result
+of similar instinct on a larger human scale.
+
+String instruments played with a bow may be traced to a remote period
+among various Oriental peoples. An example of their simplest form exists
+in the ravanastron, or banjo-fiddle, supposed to have been invented by
+King Ravana, who reigned in Ceylon some 5,000 years ago. It is formed of
+a small cylindrical sounding-body, with a stick running through it for a
+neck, a bridge, and a single string of silk, or at most two strings. Its
+primitive bow was a long hairless cane rod which produced sound when
+drawn across the silk. Better tone was derived from strings plucked with
+fingers or plectrum, and so the rude contrivance remained long
+undeveloped.
+
+The European violin is the logical outcome of the appliance of the bow
+to those progenitors of the pianoforte, the Greek monochord and lyre,
+precisely as our music is the outgrowth of the diatonic scale developed
+by the Greeks from those instruments. Numerous obstacles stand in the
+way of defining its story, but it is known that from the ninth century
+to the thirteenth bow instruments gained in importance. They divided
+into two classes--the viol proper, with flat back and breast and
+indented sides, to which belonged the veille, videl, or as it has been
+called, guitar-fiddle, and the pear-shaped type, such as the gigue and
+rebec. The latter is what Chaucer calls the rubible.
+
+Possibly an impulse was given the fiddle by the Moorish rebab, brought
+into Spain in the eighth century, but ancient Celtic bards had long
+before this used a bow instrument--the chrotta or crwth, derived from
+the lyre, which was introduced by the Romans in their colonizing
+expeditions. As early as 560 A. D., Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of
+Poitiers, wrote to the Duke of Champagne:
+
+    _"Let the barbarians praise thee with the harp,
+    Let the British crwth sing."_
+
+This instrument, whose name signifies bulging box, was common in
+Britain, and was used in Wales until a comparatively recent period. One
+of its distinguishing features was an opening in the lower part for the
+admission of the fingers while playing. A fine specimen is preserved in
+the South Kensington Museum, corresponding well to the following
+description by a Welsh poet of the fifteenth century: "A fair coffer
+with a bow, a girdle, a finger-board and a bridge; its value is a pound;
+it has a frontlet formed like a wheel with the short-nosed bow across.
+In its centre are the circled sounding-holes, and the bulging of its
+back is somewhat like an old man, but on its breast harmony reigns, from
+the sycamore melodious music is obtained. Six pegs, if we screw them,
+will tighten all its chords; six advantageous strings are found, which,
+in a skilful hand, produce a varied sound."
+
+In this same museum is a curious wedge-shaped boxwood fiddle, decorated
+with allegorical scenes, and dated 1578. Dr. Burney states that it has
+no more tone than a violin with a sordine. It is said to have been
+presented by Queen Elizabeth to the Earl of Leicester, and bears both of
+their coats-of-arms in silver on the sounding-board. Besides her other
+accomplishments, the Virgin Queen, we are told, was a violinist. During
+her reign we find the violin mentioned among instruments accompanying
+the drama and various festivities, and viols of diverse kinds were
+freely used. Shakespeare, in Twelfth Night, has Sir Toby enumerate among
+Sir Andrew Aguecheek's attractions skill on the viol-de-gamboys, Sir
+Toby's blunder for the viola da gamba, a fashionable bass viol held
+between the knees. A part was written for this instrument in Bach's St.
+Matthew Passion, and a number of celebrated performers on it are
+recorded in the eighteenth century. Two of these were ladies, Mrs. Sarah
+Ottey and Miss Ford.
+
+Violers and fiddlers formed an essential part of the retinue of many
+monarchs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Charles II., of
+England, had twenty-four at his court, with red bonnets and flaunting
+livery, who played for him while he was dining according to the custom
+he had known at the French court during his exile. Place was grudgingly
+yielded to the violin by friends of the less insistent viol. Butler, in
+Hudibras, styled it "a squeaking engine." Earlier writers mention "the
+scolding violin," and describing the Maypole dance tell of not hearing
+the "minstrelsie for the fiddling." Thus all along its course it has had
+its opponents and deriders as well as its friends.
+
+The soft-toned viol had deeply indented sides to permit a free use of
+the bow, was mostly supplied with frets like a guitar, and had usually
+from five to seven strings. Its different sizes corresponded with the
+soprano, contralto, tenor and bass of the human voice. An extremely
+interesting treble viol much in vogue in the eighteenth century was the
+viola d'amore, with fourteen strings, the seven of gut and silver being
+supplemented by seven sympathetic wire strings running below the
+finger-board and tuned in unison with the bowstrings, vibrating
+harmoniously while these are played. A remarkably well preserved
+specimen of this instrument, made by Eberle of Prague, in 1733, and
+superbly carved on pegbox and scroll, is in the fine private violin
+collection of Mr. D. H. Carr, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is one of the
+few genuine viola d'amores extant. The owner says of it: "The tone is
+simply wonderful, mellow, pure and strong, and of that exquisite harmony
+that comes from the throne of Nature. I know of no other genuine viola
+d'amore, and it compares with the modern copies I have seen as a Raphael
+or a Rubens with some cheap lithograph." These modern copies are the
+result of recent efforts to revive the use of this fascinating
+instrument. A barytone of a kindred nature was the viola di bordone or
+drone viol, so called because there was a suggestion of the buzzing of
+drone-flies, or humble bees, in the tones of its sympathetic strings,
+which often numbered as many as twenty-four. These violas recall the
+Hardanger peasant fiddle of Norway, of unknown origin and antiquity,
+whose delicate metallic under strings quaver tremulously and
+mysteriously when the bow sets in motion the main strings.
+
+At one time every family of distinction in Britain deemed a chest of
+viols, consisting for the most part of two trebles, two altos, a
+barytone and a bass, as indispensable to the household as the piano is
+thought to-day. It was made effective in accompanying the madrigal, that
+delightful flower of the Elizabethan age. Singers not always being
+available for all of the difficult voice parts viols of the same compass
+supplied the lack. It was but a step for masters of music to compose
+pieces marked "to be sung or played," thus contributing to the forces
+that were lifting instrumental music above mere accompaniment for song
+or dance.
+
+When musicians make demands musical instrument makers are ever ready to
+meet them, and the viol steadily improved. One who contributed to its
+progress was Gasper Duiffoprugcar (1514-1572) a luthier and mosaic
+inlayer, known in the Tyrol, in Bologna, Paris and Lyons. The belief
+that he originated the violin rests chiefly on the elaborately
+ornamented forgeries bearing his name, the work of French imitators from
+1800 to 1840. There is an etching, supposed to be a copy of a portrait
+of himself carved on one of his viols with this motto: "I lived in the
+wood until I was slain by the relentless axe. In life I was silent, but
+in death my melody is exquisite."
+
+The words might apply to the perfected violin, whose evolution was going
+on all through that period of literary and artistic activity known as
+the Renaissance. When or at whose hands it gained its present form is
+unknown. The same doubt encircles its first master player. Perhaps the
+earliest worthy of mention is one Baltzarini, a Piedmontese, appointed
+by Catherine de Medici, in 1577, to lead the music at the French court,
+and said to have started the heroic and historical ballet in France.
+
+He is sometimes confounded with Thomas Baltzar, a violinist of Lubec,
+who, in 1656 introduced the practice of shifting in London, where he
+wholly eclipsed David Mell, a much admired clockmaker fiddler, although
+the latter, as a contemporary stoutly averred, "played sweeter, was a
+well-bred gentleman, and was not given to excessive drinking as Baltzar
+was." His marvelous feat of "running his fingers to the end of the
+finger-board and back again with all alacrity" caused a learned Oxford
+connoisseur of music to look if he had hoofs. Notwithstanding the jovial
+tastes of this German, he was appointed leader, by Charles II., of the
+famous violins, and had the final honor of a burial in Westminster
+Abbey.
+
+Here reposed also in due time his successor in the royal band, John
+Banister, who had been sent by the king to France for study, and who was
+the first Englishman, unless the amateur Mell be counted, to distinguish
+himself as a performer on the violin. He wrote music for Shakespeare's
+Tempest, and was the first to attempt, in London, concerts at which the
+audience paid for seats. Announcements of the initial performance,
+September 30, 1672, read: "These are to give notice that at Mr.
+Banister's house (now called the Musick School) over against the George
+Tavern in White Friars, this present Monday will be performed musick by
+excellent masters, beginning precisely at four o'clock in the afternoon
+and every afternoon for the future at precisely the same hour."
+
+Credit for shaping the first violin has been given Gasparo Bertolotti
+(1542-1609), called Gasparo da Salo, from his birthplace, a suburb of
+Brescia, that pearl of Lombardy so long a bone of contention among
+nations. Violins were doubtless made before his time, but none are known
+to-day dated earlier than his. A pretty legend tells how this skilful
+viol-maker imprisoned in his first violin the golden tones of the
+soprano voice of Marietta, the maiden he loved and from whom death
+parted him. Her likeness, so the story runs, is preserved in the angel
+face, by Benevenuto Cellini, adorning the head. The instrument thus
+famed was purchased for 3,000 Neapolitan ducats by Cardinal
+Aldobrandini, who presented it to the treasury at Innsprück. Here it
+remained as a curiosity until the French took the city in 1809, when it
+was carried to Vienna and sold to a wealthy Bohemian collector, after
+whose death it came into the possession of Ole Bull.
+
+Gasparo's pupil, Giovanni Paolo Maggini (1581-1631), improved the
+principles of violin-building, and gave the world the modern viola and
+violoncello. A rich viola-like quality characterizes the Maggini violin.
+De Beriot used one in his concerts, and its plaintive tone was thought
+well suited to his style. He refused to part with it for 20,000 francs
+when Wieniawski, in 1859, wished to buy it. To-day it would command a
+far higher price. It is stated on authority that not more than fifty
+instruments of its make now exist, although a large number of French
+imitations claim recognition.
+
+While Gasparo was founding the so-called Brescian school, Andrea Amati
+(1520-1580), a viol and rebec maker of picturesque Cremona, began to
+make violins, doubtless to fill the orders of his patrons. He must have
+believed the pinnacle of fame reached when King Charles IX. of France,
+in 1566, commissioned him to construct twenty-four violins, twelve large
+and twelve small pattern. They were kept in the Chapel Royal,
+Versailles, until 1790, when they were seized by the mob in the French
+Revolution, and but one of them is known to have escaped destruction.
+Heron-Allen, in his work on violin making, gives a picture of it,
+obtained through the courtesy of its owner, George Somers, an English
+gentleman. Its tone is described as mellow and extremely beautiful, but
+lacking in brilliancy.
+
+As the Amati brothers, Antonio and Geronimo (Hieronymous) Amati
+continued their father's trade, producing instruments similar to his.
+The family reached its flower in Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), son of
+Geronimo. He originated the "Grand Amatis," and attained a purer, more
+resonant tone than his predecessors, although not always adapted to
+modern concert use. One of his violins was the favorite instrument of
+the French virtuoso Delphine Jean Alard (1815-1888), long violin
+professor at the Paris Conservatoire. It has been described as sounding
+like the melodious voice of a child heard beside the rising tide.
+Another fine specimen was exhibited by Mr. J. D. Partello, in 1893, at
+the World's Fair, in Chicago.
+
+Nicolo Amati's influence was felt in his famous pupils. Foremost among
+these was Antonio Stradivarius (1644-1737), whose praises have been sung
+by poets, and whose life was one of unwavering service. His first
+attempts were mere copies, but after he was equipped with his master's
+splendid legacy of tools and wood, his originality asserted itself. His
+"Golden" period was from 1700 to 1725, but he accomplished good work
+until death overtook him. From his bench were sent out some seven
+thousand instruments, including tenors and violoncellos. Of these
+perhaps two thousand were violins.
+
+A romance encircling this master of Cremona tells that in youth he loved
+his master's daughter, but that failing to win her heart and hand, he
+gave himself wholly to his work. He married, finally, a wealthy widow
+whose means enabled him to pursue his avocation undisturbed by monetary
+anxieties. His labors steadily increased the family property until "as
+rich as Stradivarius" became a common saying in Cremona. Because of his
+achievements and his personal worth, he was held in high esteem. Members
+of royal families, prelates of the church, men of wealth and culture
+throughout Europe, were his personal friends as well as his clients. His
+handsome home, with his workshop and the roofshed where he stored his
+wood, was, until recently, exhibited to visitors. To-day not a vestige
+of it remains. Weary of the importunities of relic-seekers, the
+Cremonese have torn it down, and have banished violins and every
+reminder of them from the town.
+
+The tone of a Stradivarius, in good condition, is round, full and
+exceedingly brilliant, and displays remarkable equality as the player
+passes from string to string. Dr. Joseph Joachim, owner of the famous
+Buda-Pesth Strad, writes of the maker that he "seems to have given his
+violins a soul that speaks and a heart that beats." The Tuscan Strad,
+one of a set ordered by Marquis Ariberti for the Prince of Tuscany, in
+1690, was sold two hundred years later to Mr. Brandt by a London firm
+for £2,000. Lady Hallé, court violinist to Queen Alexandra, owns the
+concert Strad of Ernst (1814-1865), composer of the celebrated Elegie,
+and values it at $10,000. A magnificent Stradivarius violin, with an
+exceedingly romantic history, belongs to Carl Gaertner, the veteran
+violinist and musician of Philadelphia, and could not be purchased at
+any price.
+
+Another violin-builder from Nicolo Amati's workshop was Andrea
+Guarnerius (1630-1695), whose sons, Giuseppe and Pietro, followed in his
+footsteps. The family name reached its highest distinction in his
+nephew, Giuseppe (Joseph) Guarnerius (1683-1745), called del Gesu,
+because on his labels the initials I. H. S., surmounted by a Roman
+cross, were placed after his name, indicating that he belonged to a
+Jesuit society.
+
+This Joseph of Cremona figures in story as a man of fascinating,
+restless personality, who for weeks would squander time and talents and
+then set to work with a zeal equalling that of Master Stradivarius.
+Tradition has it that he was once imprisoned for some bit of
+lawlessness, and was saved from despair by the jailor's daughter who
+brought him the tools and materials required for violin-building. What
+he esteemed the masterpiece of his lonely cell he presented as a
+souvenir to his gentle friend.
+
+The violin about which this legend is woven, dated 1742, was bought by
+Ole Bull from the famous Tarisio collection, and is now the property of
+his son, Mr. Alexander Bull. It has an unusually rich, sonorous tone and
+splendid carrying powers. Similar qualities are attributed to the
+Paganini Guarnerius del Gesu, 1743, known as the "Canon" and kept under
+glass at the Genoa Museum. Mr. Hart, a violin authority, places highest
+in this make the "King Joseph," 1737, long in the private collections of
+Mr. Hawley, Hartford, Connecticut, and of Mr. Ralph Granger, Paradise
+Valley, California, and recently put on the market by Lyon & Healy, of
+Chicago.
+
+An interesting Nicolo Amati pupil was Jacob Steiner (1621-1683), a
+Tyrolese, who, although bearing a glittering title, "violin maker to the
+Austrian Emperor," was harassed with financial perplexities and died
+insane. His most noted violins were the sixteen "Elector Steiners," one
+sent to each of the Electors and four to the Emperor. During his life
+the average price of his violins was six florins. A century after his
+death the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe's grandfather, paid 3,500
+florins for one of them. It is also recorded that an American gentleman
+on La Fayette's staff, in the Revolutionary War, exchanged for a Steiner
+1,500 acres of the tract where Pittsburg now stands. Mozart's violin, in
+the Mozarteum at Salzburg, is a Steiner.
+
+Many violin-makers did good work in the past, many are achieving success
+to-day. It has been confidently asserted that the violin reached its
+highest possibilities in the old Brescian and Cremona days. Why should
+this be the case? The same well-defined principles, based on acoustics
+and other modern sciences, that have led to the steady improvement of
+other musical instruments ought surely to be of some advantage to the
+violin. Indeed, who knows but the day may come when the present will be
+considered its golden age.
+
+While the men of Cremona were still fashioning their models the want of
+good strings was felt. This was met by Angelo Angelucci, known as the
+string-maker of Naples, a man who loved music and passed much time with
+violinists. Through his painstaking efforts such perfection was reached
+that Tartini, who was born the same year as he, 1692, could play his
+most difficult compositions two hundred times on the Angelucci strings,
+whereas he was continually interrupted by the snapping of others.
+Improvements in the bow, often called the tongue of the violin, are due
+to the house of Tourte, in Paris, in the eighteenth century, lightness,
+elasticity and spring coming to it from Francis Tourte, Jr.
+
+Three eminent virtuosi, Corelli, Tartini and Viotti, whose united
+careers spanned a period of 150 years, prepared the way for modern
+methods of violin-playing. Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) left his home
+in Fusignano, near Bologna, a young violinist, for an extended concert
+tour. His gentle, sensitive disposition proving unfitted to cope with
+the jealousy of Lully, chief violinist in France, and with sundry
+annoyances in other lands, he returned to Italy and entered the service
+of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome. In the private apartments of the prelate
+there gathered a choice company of music lovers every Monday afternoon
+to hear his latest compositions. Besides his solos these comprised
+groups of idealized dance tunes with harmony of mood for their bond of
+union, and played by two violins, a viola, violoncello and harpsichord.
+They were the parents of modern Chamber Music, the place of assemblage
+furnishing the name.
+
+Refined taste and purity of tone, we are told, distinguished the playing
+of Corelli, and to him are attributed the systematization of bowing and
+the introduction of chord-playing. He heads the list of musicians who
+protest against talking where there is music. On one occasion when his
+patron was addressing some remarks to another person, he laid down his
+violin, and on being asked the reason said "he feared the music was
+disturbing the conversation." This did not prevent him from being held
+in the highest esteem. After his death Cardinal Ottoboni had a costly
+monument erected over his grave in the Pantheon, and for many years a
+solemn service, consisting of selections from his works, was performed
+there on the anniversary of his funeral.
+
+It was during a period of retirement in the monastery of Assisi that
+Giuseppi Tartini (1692-1770) resolved to quit the law course in the
+University of Padua and seek a career with his violin. He became a great
+master of this, a composer of works still regarded as classics, and a
+scientific writer on musical physics. His letter to his pupil, Signora
+Maddelena Lombardini, contains invaluable advice on violin practice and
+study, especially on the use of the bow, and his treatise on the
+acoustic phenomenon known as "the third sound," together with his work
+on musical embellishments, may at any time be read with profit.
+
+It was after hearing the eccentric violinist Veracini that His Satanic
+Majesty appeared to Tartini in a dream and played for him a violin solo
+surpassing in marvelous character anything that he had ever heard or
+imagined. Trying to write it down in the morning he produced his famous
+"Devil's Sonata," with its double shakes and sinister laugh, a favorite
+of the violinist, but to the composer ever inferior to the music of his
+dreams. It is rather curious that anything of a diabolic nature should
+be associated with this man of amiable and gentle disposition, whose
+care of his scholars, according to Dr. Burney, was constantly paternal.
+Nardini, his favorite and most famous pupil, came from Leghorn to Padua
+to attend him, with filial devotion, in his last illness.
+
+The talents of Corelli and Tartini seem to have been combined in the
+Piedmontese, Giovanni Battiste Viotti (1753-1824), a man of poetic,
+philanthropic mind, whose sensitive, retiring disposition unfitted him
+for public life. Wherever he appeared he outshone all other performers,
+yet there was constantly something occurring to wound him. At the Court
+of Versailles he left the platform in disgust because the noisy entrance
+of a distinguished guest interrupted his concerto. In London, after his
+means had been crippled by the French Revolution, he was accused of
+political intrigue.
+
+While living in seclusion near Hamburg he composed some of his finest
+works, among them six violin duets, which he prefaced with the words:
+"This work is the fruit of leisure afforded me by misfortune. Some of
+the pieces were dictated by trouble, others by hope." At one time he
+embarked in a mercantile enterprise, in London, his transactions being
+regulated by the strictest integrity, but, as was inevitable, he soon
+returned to Paris and his art. After he had abandoned the concert room
+one of his greatest pleasures was in improvising violin parts to the
+piano performances of his friend, Madame Montegerault, to the delight
+of all present. He never had more than seven or eight pupils, but his
+influence has been widely felt. Many anecdotes are told of his kindness
+and generosity, and it is an interesting fact that among those who
+sought his advice and patronage was no less a personage than Rossini.
+
+It must be because genius is little understood that its manifestations
+have so often been attributed to evil influences. The popular mind could
+only explain the achievements of the Genoese wizard of the bow, Nicolo
+Paganini (1784-1840) by the belief that he had sold himself body and
+soul to the devil who stood ever at his elbow when he played. When,
+after a taxing concert season, the weary violinist retired to a Swiss
+monastery for rest and practice amid peaceful surroundings, rumor had it
+that he was imprisoned for some dark deed. To crown the delusion, his
+spectre was long supposed to stalk abroad, giving fantastic performances
+on the violin. It is his apparition Gilbert Parker conjures up in "The
+Tall Master."
+
+Paganini is described as a man of tall, gaunt figure, melancholy
+countenance and highly wrought nervous temperament. His successors have
+all profited by his development of the violin's resources, the result of
+combined genius and labor. He was practically a pioneer in the effective
+use of chords, arpeggio passages, octaves and tenths, double and triple
+harmonics and succession of harmonics in thirds and in sixths. His long
+fingers were of invaluable service to him in unusual stretches, and his
+fondness for pizzicato passages may be traced to his familiarity with
+the twang of his father's mandolin. He shone chiefly in his own
+compositions, which were written in keys best suited to the violin.
+Students will find all that he knew of his instrument and everything he
+did in his Le Stregghe (The Witches), the Rondo de la Clochette, and the
+Carnaval de Venise, which have been handed down precisely as he left
+them in manuscript.
+
+Signora Calcagno, who at one time dazzled Italy by the boldness and
+brilliancy of her violin playing, was his pupil when she was seven
+years old. The only other person who could boast having direct
+instructions from him was his young fellow townsman, Camillo Ernesto
+Sivori (1815-1894), who was in his day a great celebrity in European
+musical centres, and who was familiar to concert-goers in this country,
+especially in Boston, during the late forties and early fifties. He was
+thought to produce a small but electric tone, and to play invariably in
+tune. To him his master willed his Stradivarius violin, besides having
+given him in life the famous Vuillaume copy of his Guarnerius, a set of
+manuscript violin studies and a high artistic ideal.
+
+A scholarly teacher and composer for the violin was the German Ludwig
+Spohr (1784-1859), who was born the same year as the wizard Paganini,
+and who, although having less scintillant genius than the weird Italian,
+is believed to have had a more beneficent influence over violin playing
+in his treatment of the instrument. He set an example of purity of style
+and roundness of tone, and raised the violin concerto to its present
+dignity. His violin school is a standard work.
+
+From the beginning of the nineteenth century to the present time the
+lists of excellent violinists have rapidly increased and heights of
+technical skill have been reached by many that would have dazzled early
+violin masters. The special tendencies of gifted leaders have divided
+players into defined schools. Among noted exponents of the French school
+may be mentioned Alard and his pupil Sarasate, Dancla and Sauret.
+Charles August de Beriot (1802-1870) was the actual founder of the
+Belgian school whose famous members include the names of Vieuxtemps,
+Leonard, Wieniawski, Thomson and Ysaye. Ferdinand David (1810-1873),
+first head of the violin department at the Leipsic Conservatory, gave
+impulse to the German school. Among his famous pupils are Dr. Joseph
+Joachim, known as one of the musical giants of the nineteenth century;
+August Wilhelmj, the favorite of Wagner, and Carl Gaertner, who, with
+his violin has done so much to cultivate a taste for classical music in
+Philadelphia. Among the many lady violinists who have attained a high
+degree of excellence are Madame Norman Neruda, now Lady Hallé, Teresina
+Tua, Camilla Urso, Geraldine Morgan, Maud Powell and Leonora Jackson.
+
+The only violinist whose memory was ever honored with public monuments
+was Ole Bull (1810-1880), who has been called the Paganini of the North.
+Two statues of him have been unveiled by his countrymen, one in his
+native city, Bergen, Norway, and one in Minneapolis, Minnesota. These
+tributes have been paid not so much to the violinist who swayed the
+emotions of an audience and who could sing a melody on his instrument
+into the hearts of his hearers, as to the patriot, the man who turned
+the eyes of the world to his sturdy little fatherland, and who gave the
+strongest impulse for everything it has accomplished in the past half
+century in art and in literature. Another patriot violinist was the
+Hungarian Eduard Remenyi (1830-1898), who first introduced Johannes
+Brahms to Liszt, and should always be remembered as the discoverer of
+Brahms.
+
+The great demand of the day in the violin field, as in that of other
+musical instruments, is for dazzling pyrotechnic feats. It has perhaps
+reached its climax in the young Bohemian Jan Kubelik, whose playing has
+been pronounced technically stupendous. In the mad rush for advanced
+technique, the soul of music it is meant to convey is, alas, too often
+forgotten.
+
+[Illustration: JENNY LIND]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+Queens of Song
+
+
+Our first queen of song was Vittoria Archilei, that Florentine lady of
+noble birth who labored faithfully with the famous "Academy" to discover
+the secret of the Greek drama. It was she who furthered the success of
+the embryo operas of Emilio del Cavalieri, late in the sixteenth
+century, and roused enthusiasm by her splendid interpretation for Jacopo
+Peri's "Eurydice," the first opera presented to the public. She was
+called "Euterpe" by her Italian contemporaries because her superb voice,
+artistic skill, musical fire and intelligence fitted her to be the muse
+of music. Her memory has been too little honored.
+
+When Lully was giving opera to France he secured the co-operation of
+Marthe le Rochois, a gifted student of declamation and song at the
+Paris Académie Royale de Musique, for whose establishment he had
+obtained letters patent in 1672. So great was his confidence in her
+judgment that he consulted her in all that pertained to his work. Her
+greatest public triumph was in his "Armide." This earliest French queen
+of song is described as a brunette, with mediocre figure and plain face,
+who had wonderful magnetism and sparkling black eyes that mirrored the
+changeful sentiments of an impassioned soul. Her acting and
+voice-control were pronounced remarkable. Her superior powers, unspoiled
+simplicity, frankness and generosity are extolled by that quaint
+historian of the opera, Dury de Noinville. On her retirement from the
+stage, in 1697, the king awarded her a pension of 1,000 livres in token
+of appreciation, and to this the Duc de Sully added 500 livres. She died
+in Paris in the seventieth year of her age, her home having long been
+the resort of eminent artists and literary people.
+
+Katherine Tofts, who made her début in Clayton's "Arsinoe, Queen of
+Cyprus," about 1702, was the first dramatic songstress of English birth,
+and is described by Colley Cibber as a beautiful woman with a clear,
+silvery-toned, flexible soprano. Her professional career brought her
+fortune as well as fame, but was short-lived. In the height of her bloom
+her reason gave way, and although judicious treatment restored it for a
+time, she did not return to the stage. As the wife of Mr. Joseph Smith,
+art connoisseur and collector of rare books and prints, she went to
+Venice, where her husband was British Consul, and lived in much state
+until, her malady returning, it became necessary to seclude her.
+Wandering through the garden of her home she fancied herself the queen
+of former days. Steele, in the "Tattler," attributes her disorder to her
+stage habit of absorbing herself in imaginary great personages.
+
+While Mrs. Tofts reigned in Clayton's opera, Signora Francesca Margarita
+de l'Epine, a native of Tuscany, sang Italian airs before and after it.
+Tall, swarthy, brusque in manner, she had a voice and a style that made
+her famous. It was she who inaugurated the custom of giving farewell
+concerts. Meeting with brilliant success at a performance announced as
+her last appearance, "she continued," says Dr. Burney, "to sing more
+last and positively last times and never left England at all." There was
+a rivalry between the two queens of song, which being a novelty,
+furnished gossip and laughter for all London. Hughes, that "agreeable
+poet," wrote of it:
+
+    _"Music has learned the discords of the State,
+    And concerts jar with Whig and Tory hate."_
+
+Retiring in 1722 with a fortune of ten thousand pounds, Margarita
+married the learned Dr. Pepusch, who was enabled by her means to pursue
+with ease his scientific studies. In his library she found Queen
+Elizabeth's Virginal Book, and being a skilled harpsichordist, she so
+well mastered its intricacies that people thronged to her home to hear
+her play.
+
+London was divided by another pair of rival queens of song in 1725-6.
+One of these, Francesca Cuzzoni, a native of Parma, had created such a
+furore on her first appearance, three years earlier, that the opera
+directors who had engaged her for the season at two thousand guineas
+were encouraged to charge four guineas for admission, and her costumes
+were adopted by fashionable youth and beauty. Although ugly and
+ill-made, she had a sweet, clear dramatic contralto with unrivalled high
+notes, intonations so fixed it seemed impossible for her to sing out of
+tune, and a native flexibility that left unimpeded her creative fancy.
+Handel, in whose operas she sang, composed airs calculated to display
+her charms, but she, confident of her supremacy, rewarded him with
+conduct so capricious that, finding her at last intolerable, he sent to
+Italy for the noble Venetian lady, Faustina Bordoni. She was elegant in
+figure, handsome of face, had an amiable disposition, a ringing
+mezzo-soprano, with a compass from B-flat to G in altissimo, and was
+renowned for her brilliant execution, distinct enunciation, beautiful
+shake, happy memory for embellishments and fine expression.
+
+However pleased the directors may have been at first to have two popular
+songstresses, they were soon dismayed at the fierce rivalry that sprang
+up between them and was fanned to flames by Master Handel himself, who
+now composed exclusively for Faustina. By increasing the salary of her
+more tractable rival they finally disposed of Cuzzoni, who thenceforth
+through her exaggerated demands, managed to disgust her patrons wherever
+she appeared. Her reckless extravagance left her wholly destitute after
+losing her voice and her husband, Signor Sandoni, a harpsichord-maker.
+She passed her last years in Bologna, subsisting on a miserable pittance
+earned by covering buttons.
+
+Faustina married Adolphe Hasse, the German dramatic composer, and at
+forty-seven sang before Frederick the Great, who was charmed with the
+freshness of her voice. The couple lived until 1783, the one
+eighty-three, the other eighty-four years of age. Dr. Burney visited
+them when they were advanced in the seventies and found Faustina a
+sprightly, sensible old lady, with a delightful store of reminiscences,
+and her husband a communicative, rational old gentleman, quite free from
+"pedantry, pride and prejudice."
+
+Gertrude Elizabeth Mara, Germany's earliest noted queen of song, began
+her public career in 1755 as a child violinist of six, traveling with
+her father, Johann Schmäling, a respectable musician of Hesse-Cassel. In
+London her musical gifts proved to include a phenomenal soprano voice,
+which developed a compass from G to E altissimo, unrivalled portamento
+di voce, pure enunciation and precise intonation. She became skilled in
+harmony, theory, sight-reading and harpsichord playing. When she sang,
+her glowing countenance, her supreme acting and the lights and shades of
+her voice made people forget the plainness of her features and the
+insignificance of her form and stature. Her rendering of Handel's airs,
+especially "I Know that My Redeemer Liveth," was pronounced faultless.
+
+Frederick the Great, who as soon expected pleasure from the neighing of
+a horse as from a German songstress, vanquished on hearing her,
+retained her as court singer. While in his service she became the wife
+of Jean Mara, a handsome, dissipated court violoncellist, whom she loved
+devotedly, but who led her a sorry life. Returning to London later she
+taught singing at two guineas a lesson. Upon fear being expressed that
+her price, double that of other teachers, would limit her class, she
+said her pupils having her voice as a model could learn in half the time
+required for those who had only the tinkling of a piano to imitate.
+Though she believed singing should be taught by a singer, a tenderness
+for her own experience made her insist that the best way to begin the
+musical education was by having the pupil learn to play the violin. When
+she heard a songstress extolled for rapid vocalization she would ask:
+"Can she sing six plain notes?" This question might afford young singers
+food for reflection. Madame Mara passed her declining years teaching
+singing near her native place, and died at Reval, in 1833. Two years
+earlier, on her eighty-third birthday, Goethe offered her a poetic
+tribute.
+
+At a London farewell concert given by Madame Mara in 1802, she was
+assisted by Mrs. Elizabeth Billington, who has been ranked first among
+English-born queens of song. Her pure soprano had a range of three
+octaves, from A to A, with flute-like upper tones. She sang with
+neatness, agility and precision, could detect the least false intonation
+of instrument or voice, and was attractive in appearance. Haydn
+eulogized her genius in his diary, and in the studio of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, who was painting her portrait as St. Cecilia, exclaimed: "You
+have represented Mrs. Billington listening to the angels, you should
+have made them listening to her." It was she who introduced Mozart's
+operas into England. She only lived to be forty-eight, breaking down in
+1818, from the effects of brutal treatment of her second husband, a
+Frenchman, named Felissent.
+
+Last of the eighteenth century queens of song was Angelica Catalani,
+born some forty miles from Rome in 1779, destined by her father, a
+local magistrate, for the cloister, and borne beyond its walls by her
+magnificent voice, with its compass of three octaves, from G to G. She
+is described as a tall, fair woman with a splendid presence, large blue
+eyes, features of perfect symmetry and a winning smile. So great was her
+natural facility she could rise with ease from the faintest sound to the
+most superb crescendo, could send her tones sweeping through the air
+with the most delicious undulations, imitating the swell and fall of a
+bell, and could trill like a bird on each note of a chromatic passage.
+She dazzled her listeners, but left the heart untouched.
+
+Her domestic life was a happy one, and her husband, Captain de
+Vallebregue, adored her, although he knew so little about music that
+once when she complained that the piano was too high he had six inches
+cut off its legs. Surrounded by adulation at home and abroad, her
+self-conceit became inordinate, tempting her to the most absurd feats of
+skill. Her excessive love of display and lack of artistic judgment and
+knowledge finally led her so far astray in pitch that she lost all
+prestige. After seventeen years of retirement, she died of cholera in
+1849, in Paris. A few days before she was stricken with the dire
+epidemic Jenny Lind sought and received her blessing.
+
+A queen of song who profoundly impressed her age was Giuditta Pasta,
+born near Milan in 1798, of Hebrew parentage. For her Bellini wrote "La
+Sonnambula" and "Norma," Donizetti his "Anna Bolena," Pacini his
+"Niobe," and she was the star of Rossini's leading operas of the time.
+Her voice, a mezzo-soprano, at first unequal, weak, of slender range and
+lacking flexibility, acquired, through her wonderful genius and industry
+a range of two octaves and a half, reaching D in altissimo, together
+with a sweetness, a fluency, and a chaste, expressive style. Although
+below medium height, in impassioned moments she seemed to rise to
+queenly stature. Both acting and singing were governed by ripe judgment,
+profound sensibility and noble simplicity. She died at Lake Como in
+1865.
+
+So many queens of song have reigned from the beginning of the
+nineteenth century to the present time that only a few brilliant names
+may here be mentioned. Among these Henrietta Sontag was the greatest
+German singer of the first half of the century. A distinguished traveler
+tells of having found her when she was eight years old, in 1812, sitting
+on a table, where her mother had placed her, and singing the grand aria
+of the Queen of the Night from the "Magic Flute," her voice, "pure,
+penetrating and of angelic tone," flowing as "unconsciously as a limpid
+rill from the mountain side." At fifteen she made her regular début, and
+we are told that she sang "with the volubility of a bird." During her
+four years at the Conservatory of Prague she had won the prize in every
+class of vocal music, piano and harmony.
+
+Acquitting herself with ease in both German and Italian, and being
+exceedingly versatile, she won equal renown in the operas of Weber,
+Mozart, Rossini, and Donizetti. Paris, in special, marveled at the
+little German who could give satisfaction in Grand Opera. Her voice, a
+pure soprano, reached to D in alt., with upper notes like silvery
+bell-tones, and its natural pliability was cultivated by taste and
+incessant study. She was of medium stature, elegant form, with light
+hair, fair complexion and soft, expressive blue eyes that lent an
+enchantment to features that were not otherwise striking. In demeanor
+she was artless, unaffected and ladylike. Romantic stories were
+continually in circulation regarding suitors for her hand. As the wife
+of Count Rossi, an attaché of the Sardinian legation, she retired to
+private life in 1830, and passed many happy years with her husband in
+various capitols of Europe. When, in 1848, owing to financial shipwreck,
+she returned to the stage her voice still charmed by its exquisite
+purity, spirituelle quality and supreme finish. In 1852 she came to
+America and created an immense furore in the musical and fashionable
+world. She died of cholera in Mexico in 1854.
+
+Born the same year as Madame Sontag was Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient,
+one of the world's noblest interpreters of German opera and German
+Lieder, although surpassed by others in vocal resources. She grew up on
+the stage, and was trained by her father, Friedrich Schröder, a baritone
+singer, and her mother, Sophie Schröder, known as the "Siddons of
+Germany." Her dramatic soprano was capable of producing the most tender,
+powerful, truthful and intensely thrilling effects, although it was not
+specially tractable and was at times even harsh. It was she who by her
+magnificent interpretation of Leonore, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," first
+revealed the beauty of the part to the public. In Wagner's operas she
+appeared as Senta, in the "Flying Dutchman"; Venus, in "Tannhäuser," and
+actually created the rôle of Adriano Colonna, in "Rienzi." Goethe, who
+had earlier failed to appreciate Schubert's matchless setting to his
+"Erl King," when he heard Madame Schröder-Devrient sing it, exclaimed:
+"Had music instead of words been my vehicle of thought, it is thus I
+should have framed the legend." She died in 1860.
+
+Full of caprice, radiating the fire of genius, wayward and playful as a
+child, Maria Felicità Malibran swept like a dazzling meteor across the
+musical firmament. M. Arthur Pougin thus epitomizes her story:
+
+"Daughter of a Spaniard, born in France, married in America, died in
+England, buried in Belgium. Comedienne at five, married at seventeen,
+dead at twenty-eight--immortal. Beautiful, brilliant, gay as a ray of
+sunlight, with frequent shadings of melancholy; heart full of warmth and
+abandon; devoted to the point of sacrifice; courageous to temerity;
+ardent for pleasure as for work; with a will and energy indomitable. A
+singer without a peer, and a lyric tragedienne capable of exciting the
+instinctive enthusiasm of the masses and the reasonable admiration of
+connoisseurs. Pianist, composer, poet, she drew and painted with taste;
+spoke fluently five languages; was expert in all feminine work, skilled
+in sport and outdoor exercises, and possessed of a striking originality.
+Such was Malibran in part, for the whole could never be expressed."
+
+Her genius developed under the iron control of her father, Manuel del
+Popolo Garcia, who compelled to submission her seemingly intractable
+voice until it became sonorous, superb, a brilliant and fascinating
+contralto, with a range of over three octaves, reaching E in alt. Her
+own indomitable will and exceptional artistic intelligence were prime
+factors in the training. In her heart-searching tones and passionate
+acting her glowing soul was felt. When she was but seventeen, her
+father, seeking an ideal climate, started with his family for Mexico. In
+New York she contracted her unfortunate marriage with the French banker,
+M. Malibran. She soon returned to Paris and the stage, and later having
+obtained a divorce, married the famous violinist De Beriot, with whom
+she had a brief but happy union.
+
+Madame Malibran was said to be equally at home in any known school of
+her time. Mozart and Cimarosa, Boieldieu and Rossini, Cherubini and
+Bellini were all grasped with the same sympathetic comprehension. Sontag
+was her rival, Pasta was yet in the height of her fame, but no contrasts
+whatever dimmed the glory of Malibran. A rare personal charm added to
+her artistic graces. Mr. Chorley describing her, in his recollections,
+said that she was better than beautiful, insomuch as a "speaking Spanish
+human countenance by Murillo is ten times more fascinating than many a
+faultless face such as Guido could paint." When her death was announced,
+in 1836, Ole Bull, who had known her well, exclaimed: "I cannot realize
+it. A woman with a soul of fire, so highly endowed, so intense. How I
+wept on seeing her as Desdemona! It is not possible she is dead."
+
+Pauline Garcia, thirteen years younger than her remarkable sister, and
+with a voice similar in quality, also did justice to her father's
+rigorous discipline and became famous. She married M. Viardot, opera
+director and critic, and after a brilliant career as a singer, gave long
+and valuable service as a vocal teacher in Paris. She remained in the
+full tide of her activity until she was long past the allotted
+threescore years and ten. It is an interesting fact that Madame Mathilde
+Marchesi, author of a noted vocal method, 24 books of Vocalises, a
+volume of reminiscences, and other works, and once famed as a singer,
+is only five years younger than Madame Viardot-Garcia, but at
+seventy-six is still teaching--still shining as an authority on the art
+of song. Singers seem often to have been long-lived. In truth, there is
+that in music which is life-giving.
+
+A songstress whose name will always be mentioned in the same breath with
+that of the tenor Mario, who became her husband, and with whom she
+toured the United States in 1854, was Giulia Grisi. She was born in
+Milan in 1812, made her début at sixteen, and had an undisputed reign of
+over a quarter of a century. Her voice, a pure soprano of finest
+quality, brilliant and vibrating, spanned two octaves, from C to C. She
+possessed the gift of beauty, and was said to unite the tragic
+inspiration of Pasta with the fire and energy of Malibran. A favorite
+rôle with her was that of the Druid priestess in "Norma." Her delivery
+of "Casta Diva" was said to be a transcendant effort of vocalization.
+
+Living to-day in London at the advanced age of ninety-seven is the elder
+brother of Malibran and Viardot-Garcia, Manuel Garcia, the inventor of
+the laryngoscope, author of the renowned "Art of Song," and teacher of
+Jenny Lind. It was in 1841 that the ever-beloved Swedish Nightingale,
+then twenty-one years old, sought him in Paris, with a voice worn from
+over-exertion and lack of proper management. In ten months she had
+gained all that master could teach her in tone production, blending of
+the registers and breath-control. Her own genius, her splendid
+individuality, her indefatigable perseverance, did the rest in investing
+her dramatic soprano with that sympathetic timbre, that power of
+expressing every phase of her artistic conception, that bird-like
+quality of the upper notes, that marvelous beauty and equality of the
+entire range of two octaves and three quarters (from B below the stave
+to G on the fourth line), that exquisite sonority, that penetrating
+pianissimo, that unrivalled messa di voce, that mastery over technique
+of which so much has been written and said.
+
+Jenny Lind was to Sweden what Ole Bull was to Norway, the inspirer of
+noble achievement. The faithful interpreter of the acknowledged
+masterpieces of genius in opera, oratorio and song, she also freely
+poured forth in gracious waves the poetic, the rugged, and the
+exquisitely polished lays of the Northland, making them known for the
+first time to thousands of people. It was through her pure and noble
+womanhood, quite as much as through her artistic excellence that she
+swayed the public and left so deep and enduring an impression. True to
+the backbone in her artistic allegiance, she believed that art, the
+expression and embodiment of the spiritual principle animating it, could
+not fail to elevate to a high spiritual and moral standard the genuine
+artist.
+
+She had lived thirty-five happy years with her husband, Mr. Otto
+Goldschmidt, pianist, conductor and composer, who still survives her,
+when death overtook her at their home on the Malvern Hills, November 2,
+1887. When the end drew near, one of her daughters threw open the window
+shutters to admit the morning sun. As it came streaming into the room,
+Jenny Lind uplifted her voice, and it rang out firm and clear as she
+sang the opening measures of Schumann's glorious "To the Sunshine." The
+notes were her last. A bust of her was unveiled in Westminster Abbey in
+1894.
+
+A Swedish songstress with a powerful, well-trained voice, who before
+Jenny Lind won operatic laurels in foreign lands, was Henrietta
+Nissen-Saloman, also a pupil of Garcia. Later, the brilliant Swedish
+soprano, Christine Nilsson, with a voice of wonderful sweetness and
+beauty, reaching with ease F in alt., with the most thorough skill in
+vocalization, with dramatic intuitions, expressive powers and magnetic
+presence, charmed the public on two continents in such rôles as
+Marguerite, Mignon, Elsa, Ophelia and Lucia. She, too, bore through the
+world with her the northern songs she had learned to cherish in
+childhood.
+
+Still another delightful dramatic soprano from the land of Jenny Lind is
+Sigrid Arnoldson, who has a beautiful voice, winning personality, and
+pronounced musical intelligence. She is still in her prime.
+
+When the name of Adelina Patti is mentioned, we always think of long
+enduring vocal powers, many farewells and high prices. Catalani, in her
+full splendor, earned about $100,000 a season. Malibran's profits for
+eighty-five concerts at La Scala ran to $95,000. Jenny Lind received
+$208,675 for ninety-five concerts under Barnum's management. Patti has
+had as much as $8,395 for one performance, and long received a fee of
+$5,000 a night. In coloratura rôles she has been pronounced the greatest
+singer of her time, both in opera and concert. Her voice, noted for its
+wide compass, exceeding sweetness, marvelous flexibility and perfect
+equality, has been so wonderfully well cared for that even now, in her
+sixtieth year, she enjoys singing, although she rarely appears in
+public. Her sister, Carlotta, was also a coloratura vocalist of
+exquisite technique.
+
+Queens of song now pass in swift review before the mind's eye. We recall
+Marietta Alboni, the greatest contralto of the middle of the last
+century, with a voice rich, mellow, liquid, pure and endowed with
+passionate tenderness, the only pupil of Rossini; Theresa Tietiens, with
+her mighty dramatic soprano, whose tones were softer than velvet, and
+her noble acting; Marie Piccolomini, a winning mezzo-soprano; Parepa
+Rosa, with her sweet, strong voice and imposing stage presence; Pescha
+Leutner, the star of 1856; Louisa Pyne, the English Sontag; Parodi,
+pupil of Pasta; Etelka Gerster, whose beautiful soprano could fascinate
+if it could not awe; Pauline Lucca, whose originality, artistic
+temperament and intelligence placed her in the front rank of dramatic
+sopranos, and many others.
+
+Amalie Materna, dramatic soprano at the Vienna Court Theatre from 1869
+to 1896, with great musical and dramatic intelligence, with a voice of
+remarkable compass, volume, richness and sustaining power, vibrant with
+passionate intensity, and with a noble stage presence, proved to be
+Wagner's ideal Brünnhilde and introduced the rôle at Bayreuth in 1876.
+She was also the creator of Kundry at the same place in 1882. She
+aroused unbounded enthusiasm as Elizabeth in "Tannhäuser," and as Isolde
+in "Tristan and Isolde." She is not forgotten by those who heard her in
+various cities of this country.
+
+The same may be said of Marianne Brandt, who sang the part of Kundry at
+the second "Parsifal" representation at Bayreuth, having been Frau
+Materna's alternate in 1882. With her superbly rich, deep-toned voice
+and her splendid vocal and dramatic control she thrilled her audiences
+in her Wagnerian rôles, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," and in all she
+attempted, whether in opera or concert. She was a magnificent
+horsewoman, and was perhaps the only Brünnhilde who was able to give
+full play on the stage to her Valkyrie charger. It is told by an eye
+witness that before a first appearance in a German city she was borne
+furiously on the stage at rehearsal by her spirited, prancing steed, and
+when she drew him up suddenly, rearing and pawing the air, near the
+footlights, the members of the orchestra dropped their instruments and
+fled affrighted. It was not long, however, before she succeeded in
+winning their confidence, and all went well at the evening performance.
+
+Six more radiant queens of song whose reign belongs to these modern
+times must be mentioned in conclusion: Sembrich, Nordica, Calvé, Melba,
+Sanderson and Eames. These are but a few of the many present day rulers
+in the realms of song.
+
+Marcella Sembrich, a coloratura soprano from Galicia, has a light,
+penetrating, marvelously sweet, and exceedingly flexible voice, with an
+almost perfect vocal mechanism. As one of her admirers has said, her
+tones are as clear as silver bells, and there is something buoyant and
+jubilant in her mode of song. With her genuine art and engaging
+personality she holds her audiences entranced and, being wise enough to
+keep within her special genre, she always succeeds as an actress. She is
+a pupil of the Lampertis, father and son, studied the piano with Liszt,
+becoming an excellent interpreter of Chopin, and is no mean violinist.
+
+An American, born in Farmington, Me., Lillian Nordica pursued her vocal
+and musical studies at the New England Conservatory, in Boston, and
+after much experience in church, concert and oratorio singing, studied
+for the opera in Milan, under Signor Sangiovanni. She made her operatic
+début at Brescia in "Traviata," and in Paris as Marguerite, in "Faust."
+Her superb, liquid soprano is pure, smooth and equal throughout its
+entire large compass. She combines feeling with that artistic
+understanding which regulates it, and has been pronounced one of the
+most conscientious and intelligent singers of the day. An admirable
+actress and extremely versatile, she has been successful in Mozart's
+operas, and has won high renown in her Wagnerian rôles.
+
+Emma Calvé, a Spaniard, possessed of all a Spaniard's fire, thrills,
+bewilders, her hearers, though the more thoughtful among them wonder if
+they were not moved rather by her tremendous passionate force and
+powerful magnetism than by her vocal and histrionic art. Her voice is
+superb, yet she often loses a vocal opportunity for dramatic effect,
+often mars its beauty in the excitement that tears a passion to
+tatters. Withal there is a charm to her singing that can never be
+forgotten by those who have heard it. Her first triumph was won as the
+interpreter of Santuzza, in "Cavalleria Rusticana," Mascagni himself
+preparing her for the rôle. She next created a furore as Carmen, and
+with her fascinating gestures, complete abandon, grace, and dazzling
+beauty made the part one of the most original and bewitching
+impersonations on the stage.
+
+The Australian, Nellie Melba, who takes her stage name from Melbourne,
+her birthplace, has been compared to Patti as a vocal technician. Her
+voice is divine, but she seems powerless to animate her brilliant
+singing with the warmth that glows in her eyes. As an actress she
+completely veils whatever emotions she may feel, and while her marvelous
+vocalization overwhelms her audiences, she meets with her greatest
+triumphs in operas that make the least demands on the dramatic powers.
+
+Massenet wrote the title rôles of his "Esclarmonde" and his "Thais" for
+a California girl, Sybil Sanderson, and himself trained her for their
+stage presentation. Her success was assured when she made her début in
+the first-named opera at the Opera Comique, in Paris, in 1889. She has a
+voice of that light, pure, flexible quality so characteristic of our
+countrywomen, and is an admirable actress. She is a pupil of Madame
+Marchesi.
+
+Another distinguished pupil of the same teacher is Emma Eames, who was
+born in China of New England parents, and was educated in Boston and in
+Paris. Her voice too is exceedingly flexible, is fresh, pure and clear,
+her intonations are correct and her personality most attractive. She has
+been very successful in Wagnerian rôles, makes a superb Elsa, and, in
+the "Meistersinger," an ideal Eva. During her early years on the stage
+her extreme calmness amounted almost to aggravating frigidity, but with
+time she has thawed. She may well be considered a conscientious artist
+endowed with rare musical intuition.
+
+There is no possession more perishable, more delicate, than the human
+voice. When one considers the joy it is capable of shedding about it,
+the blessings that may follow in its train, it seems sad to think of the
+reckless waste caused by its neglect and mismanagement. Its life is
+brief enough at best. Let it be cherished to the utmost.
+
+In America where there are to-day more fine voices among women than in
+any other country and where time and means are so freely expended on the
+musical education of girls, the twentieth century should produce nobler
+queens of song than the world has yet known. First, the American girl
+must learn that the real things of life are more to be prized than false
+semblances, and that genuine musical culture resting on a foundation
+built with painstaking care and consecrated artistic zeal, is of far
+higher and more enduring value than the most dazzling feats of display
+which lack solid, intrinsic support.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+The Opera and Its Reformers
+
+
+The evolution of the drama is intimately associated with that of music
+and both are inseparably entwined with the unfolding of the spiritual
+life of the human race. Man is essentially dramatic by nature, and both
+history and tradition show it to have been among his earliest instincts
+to express his inner emotions by action and song.
+
+From this tendency arose the Greek religious drama. We find it in
+legendary times at the altar of Dionysus, master of the resources of
+vitality, in whose train followed the Muses, actual leaders and
+conductors of human existence. At seed-time and harvest festivals a rude
+chorus, grouped about the altar, told the story of the god's wanderings
+and adventures, in simple words, accompanied by gesture, dance and
+music. This expression of thought and feeling mirrored the emotions of
+the worshipers, kindled the imagination, and strengthened the innate
+instinct for freedom. Gradually the narrative detaching itself from the
+choral parts fell to individual singers, the acting became more and more
+a distinct feature of the occasion, ever increasing dramatic quality
+characterized the song, and the materials were at hand for the Greek
+drama so fruitful to us in its results.
+
+Greek poetry, in its matchless beauty, may still be enjoyed by all who
+have powers of literary appreciation. Of Greek music we know little
+beyond the theories which form the basis for modern musical science and
+the fact that it was highly esteemed. Aristotle tells us that it was an
+essential element in Greek stage plays and their greatest embellishment.
+Both Æschylus and Sophocles were practical musicians and composed music
+for their dramas. Euripides, less musician than poet, was at least
+able to have the music for his works prepared under his direction.
+Indeed, words, music and scenic effect were inseparably connected in the
+Greek dramas.
+
+[Illustration: CORELLI]
+
+The enthusiasm these aroused is indicated by the fact that travelers
+from distant lands undertook perilous journeys to attend the famous
+performances at Athens, often remaining in their seats twenty-four hours
+before the play began in order to secure desirable places. Fully fifty
+thousand spectators could be accommodated in the Lenæan Theatre, whose
+stage machinery would make ours seem like a toy model. Many of its
+theatrical exhibitions cost more than the Peloponnesian War.
+
+In Greek life, at the period of its glory, music and the drama were
+esteemed elevating factors in culture. The supreme things of human
+existence were pictured in them. They expressed the world-view of an
+entire people. Under Roman dominion, with its corrupting slavery, they
+degenerated into mere sources of diversion, and finally became
+associated with evil and degrading practices.
+
+For this reason and because at best they represented pagan ideals,
+theatrical representations were discouraged by the fathers of the
+primitive Christian Church. The dramatic instinct was not condemned, and
+its imperative needs were appealed to in the church service, which early
+set forth in symbols all that was too mysterious and awe-inspiring for
+words. In order further to reach the mind through the senses, scenes
+from the Scriptures were read in the churches, illustrated with living
+pictures and music. Gradually the characters personated began to speak
+and to move. The drama rose anew at the foot of the altar. Christian
+priests were its reformers, its guardians and its actors. Designed for
+the amusement as well as the instruction of the gaping multitudes, it
+was necessarily a pretty crude affair. Satan was introduced as the
+clown, and laughter was provoked at his discomfiture when routed, or at
+the destruction of those who wilfully cast themselves into his clutches.
+It is not strange that the pious and learned St. Augustine, in the
+fourth century, regretted the polished dramatic performances at
+Alexandria that in his youth had afforded him so much genuine enjoyment.
+Among the people the church play became so popular that in the course of
+time it was found necessary to erect more spacious stages in the open
+air.
+
+Thus arose the Mystery, Miracle, Morality and Passion Plays, the direct
+progenitors of the Opera and the Oratorio. The descent of the Opera may
+be traced also to another source, to the secular play which persisted in
+the face of ecclesiastical disfavor and the ban that excluded its
+players from the church sacraments.
+
+Strolling histriones, jongleurs and minstrels passed from court to
+court, appeared in castle yards, market places or village greens,
+recited, acted, sang, danced and played on musical instruments. They
+afforded a welcome means of communication with the outside world; they
+broke up the monotony of life when events were few. As modern music
+rests on the two pillars of the Gregorian chant and the folk-song, so
+the opera rests on the two pillars of the religious drama and the
+people's play.
+
+During the high tide of the revival of Greek learning in Italy, late in
+the sixteenth century, a group of the aspiring young nobility of
+Florence, gentlemen and gentlewomen, adopting the dignified name of the
+"Academy," resolved to recover the much discussed music of the Greek
+drama. The place of rendezvous was the palace of Count Bardi, a member
+of one of the oldest patrician families in Tuscany. Edifying discourse
+and laudable exercises were indulged in by the guests, among whom were
+several persons of genius and learning. The meetings were presided over
+by the host, himself a poet and composer, as well as a patron of the
+fine arts.
+
+The culture of the times demanded a higher gratification for man's
+dramatic cravings than either rude religious or secular plays afforded.
+Other music was required to depict the emotions than that of the
+contrapuntist, with its puzzling intricacies. So thought these ardent
+Hellenists, and a burning zeal possessed them to mate dramatic poetry
+with a music that would heighten and intensify its expression and
+effect. They who seek are sure to find, even if it be not always the
+object of their search. In the earnest quest of these reformers for
+dramatic truth an unexpected treasure was disclosed.
+
+Vincenzo Galilei, father of Galileo Galilei, opened the way. He was the
+active champion of monody, in which a principal melody was intoned or
+sung to the accompaniment of subordinate harmonies, believing that in
+music designed to arouse personal feeling individualism should
+predominate. The art music of the time was polyphonic, that is,
+constructed by so interweaving melodies that harmonies resulted. Of
+solos in our modern sense nothing was known beyond the folk-songs,
+instinctive outpourings of the human heart, and these learned composers
+had merely used as pegs on which to hang their counterpoint. Not content
+with giving his ideas to the world in the form of a dialogue, Galilei
+composed two musical monologues, between 1581 and 1590, one to the scene
+of Count Ugolino, in Dante's "Inferno," and one to a passage in the
+Lamentations of Jeremiah. These the chroniclers tell us he sang very
+sweetly, accompanying himself on the lute. He was also a fine performer
+on the viola.
+
+A dramatic representation at a court marriage, in 1590, in which the
+artificially constructed ecclesiastical music illy fitted the text
+lauding the bride's loveliness, gave a new impulse to the "Academy"
+efforts. Soon there was produced at court, by a company of highborn
+ladies and gentlemen, two pastoral plays: "Il Satiro" and "La
+Disperazione di Fileno," so set to music that they could be sung or
+declaimed throughout. The author of the text was Signora Laura
+Guidiccioni, of the Lucchesini family, renowned in her day for her
+poetic gifts and brilliant attainments. Signor Emilio del Cavalieri was
+the composer, and he triumphantly announced his music as that "of the
+ancients recovered," having power to "excite grief, pity, joy and
+pleasure."
+
+These two "musical dramas," as they were called, contained the germs of
+modern opera, despite their crudities of harmony and monotonous melody.
+That noble songstress, Vittoria Archilei, known as "Euterpe" among her
+Italian contemporaries, greatly enhanced the success of the new venture
+with her superb voice, artistic skill, musical fire and splendid
+intelligence. She "whose excellence in music is generally known," as we
+are told, and who was able to "draw tears from her audience" at the
+right moment, also aroused enthusiasm for a third work of a similar
+nature by the same authors, "Il Giuco della Cieco," that appeared in
+1595.
+
+Besides being the first to tell the entire story of a play musically and
+to utilize the solo, Cavalieri introduced various ornaments into vocal
+music and increased the demands on instrumentation. He did not succeed,
+however, in satisfying the Academicians with his attempt to grasp the
+medium between speech and song, and his choruses were thought tedious
+because of their employment of the intricate polyphonic style. Further
+reform was desired.
+
+This came through Jacopo Peri, maestro at the Medician court, and after
+1601 at the court of Ferrara. In studying Greek dramas, as he states in
+one of his writings, he became convinced that their musical expression
+was that of highly colored emotional speech. Closely observing diverse
+modes of utterance in daily life, he endeavored to reproduce soft,
+gentle words by half-spoken, half-sung tones, sustained by an
+instrumental bass, and to express excitement by extended intervals,
+lively tempo and suitable distribution of dissonances in the
+accompaniment. To him may be attributed the first dramatic recitative.
+It appeared in his "Daphne," a "Dramma per la Musica," written to text
+by the poet Rinuccini and privately performed at the Palazzo Corsi, in
+1597. This was actually the first opera, although the term was not
+applied to such compositions until half a century later. Several solos
+were added by the court singer, Giulio Caccini, who composed a number of
+songs for a single voice, "in imitation of Galilei," as a contemporary
+stated, "but in a more beautiful and pleasing style." Invited three
+years later to produce a similar work for the festivities attending the
+marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di Medici, Peri wrote his
+"Eurydice," and once more Signora Archilei interpreted the leading rôle,
+greatly to the composer's satisfaction. It was the first opera performed
+in public. The singing had a bald accompaniment of an orchestra placed
+behind the scenes and consisting of a clavicembalo, or harpsichord, a
+viola da gamba, a theorbo, or large lute, and a flute, the last being
+used to imitate Pan-pipes in the hands of one of the characters.
+
+Seven years afterward, for another court marriage, a musical drama was
+written by a man of genius who completely broke the fetters of ancient
+polyphony. This was Claudio Monteverde, then in his thirty-ninth year,
+and chapel master to the Duke of Mantua. He was the first composer to
+use unprepared chords of the seventh, dominant and diminished, and to
+emphasize passionate situations with dissonances. He invented the
+tremolo and the pizzicato, and originated the vocal duet. His keen
+dramatic sense enabled him to arouse interest through contrasts,
+conspicuously characteristic passages, and independent orchestral
+preludes, interludes and bits of descriptive tone-painting.
+
+His opera, "Orfeo," 1608, had an orchestra of two harpsichords, two bass
+viols, two violas di gamba, ten tenor viols, two little French violins,
+one harp, two large guitars, three small organs, four trombones, two
+cornets, one piccolo, one clarion and three trumpets. In "Tancredi e
+Clorinda," produced in Venice, in 1624, a string quartet indicated the
+galloping of horses, a prototype of the "Ride of the Valkyries." Like
+Abbé Liszt, he took holy orders late in life, without ceasing to
+compose. At seventy-four years of age, when the fire of his genius
+burned brightly as ever, he wrote his last opera "L'Incoronazione di
+Poppea." It may truly be said that Monteverde was the great operatic
+reformer, the Wagner, of the seventeenth century, as Gluck was of the
+eighteenth.
+
+An epoch-making event in opera history was the opening, in 1637, of the
+first public opera house in commercial Venice whose wealth afforded her
+citizens leisure to cultivate art. Soon popular demand led to the
+erection of many Italian opera-houses. At the same time growing taste
+for magnificence of stage setting and brilliant, dazzling, even
+extravagant song effects, caused neglect of Academician principles. The
+learned and gifted Neapolitan composer, Alessandro Scarlatti, father of
+the famous harpsichordist, gave an impulse in his operas, during the
+last quarter of the century, to sensuous charm and beauty of melody. He
+invested recitative with classic value, enlarged the aria, and devised
+the da capo which became a menace to dramatic truth.
+
+In France, the troubadours had borne melody into the domain of
+sentiment, and laid a solid foundation for musical growth. Adam de la
+Hallé's pastoral, "Robin et Marion," was an actual prototype of the
+opera. During the seventeenth century Corneille and Molière refined the
+dramatic taste of their compatriots. Attempts to introduce Italian opera
+only resulted in arousing a desire for an opera in accord with French
+ideals.
+
+This was gratified by Jean Battiste Lully, who had come to the French
+court from Italy in boyhood, and had risen, in 1672, from a subordinate
+position to that of chief musician. Undertaking to make reforms, he
+succeeded in giving his adopted country a national opera. He established
+the overture, gave recitative rhetorical force, added coloring to the
+orchestra, and introduced the ballet. New life was infused into the
+traditions he left when Jean Philippe Rameau, in 1733, at fifty years of
+age, wrote his first opera. He was well-known as a theorist and
+composer, and was the author of a harmony treatise in which were set
+forth the laws of chord inversions and derivations, a stroke of genius
+that hopelessly entangled him in perplexities. His instrumentation was
+more highly colored, his rhythms more varied than those of his
+predecessor, and his sincerity of purpose more evident. In common with
+other reformers he was accused of "sacrificing the pleasures of the ear
+to vain harmonic speculations." Some of his many operas were written to
+works of Racine. He died in 1764, in his eighty-first year.
+
+A century earlier the English reached the culmination of their Golden
+Age of musical productiveness in Henry Purcell, known as the most
+original genius England has produced. His dramatic powers were fostered
+by the popular masques with their gorgeous show of color and rhythm, and
+in mere boyhood he wrote music for several of them. In 1677, when only
+nineteen, he produced his first opera. He attempted no reform, but his
+instinct for the true relation between the accents of speech and those
+of melody and recitative seems to have been unerring. Saturated with
+native English melody, tingling with fertile fancy and controlled by
+education, whether he wrote for stage, church, or chamber, he evinced a
+freshness and vigor, a breezy picturesqueness and a wealth of rhythmic
+phrases and patterns, and many new orchestral devices. In 1710, fifteen
+years after his early death, the giant Handel began to dominate musical
+England, flooding the stage with operas of the Italian type and finally
+ushering in the reign of the oratorio. The delicate plant of English
+opera never took root.
+
+Italian influence had almost caused the decline of French opera when
+Christopher Willibald Gluck turned to Paris, in 1774, as its
+regenerator. In Vienna, twelve years earlier, he had already produced
+his "Orfeo," whose calm, classic grandeur seemed the embodiment of the
+Greek art spirit. His choice of subjects indicates the enterprise on
+which he had embarked. He sought simplicity, subjugation of music to
+poetic sentiment, dramatic sincerity and organic unity. His operatic
+version of Racine's "Iphigènie en Aulide" called forth unbounded
+enthusiasm in the French metropolis directly after his arrival, and led
+to the warfare with the brilliant Italian Piccini, which was as hot as
+any Wagner controversy.
+
+The homage of all time is due this man of genius for the splendid
+courage with which he attacked shams. He claimed it to be the divine
+right of the dramatic composer to have his works sung precisely as he
+had written them, and protested against the innovations that had been
+permitted to suit the caprices and gratify the vanity of singers. It was
+his idea that the Sinfonia, in other words the Overture or Prelude,
+should indicate the subject and prepare the spectators for the
+characters of the pieces, and that the instrumental coloring should be
+adapted to the mood of the situation, thus anticipating modern
+procedure. He prepared the way for the work of Cherubini, Auber, Gounod,
+Thomas, Massenet, Saint-Saëns and others.
+
+In Germany, Italian opera, early introduced, long remained fashionable.
+Native dramatic tastes, once fostered by minnesingers and strolling
+players, were kept alive by the "singspiel," or song-play, composed of
+spoken dialogue and popular song, which furnished the actual beginnings
+of German national music drama. The threshold of this was reached, the
+sanctuary of its treasures unlocked, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who,
+without thought of being a reformer, unconsciously infused German spirit
+into Italian forms. It was during the last five years of his brief life,
+from 1786 to 1791, that he produced his operatic masterpieces, "The
+Marriage of Figaro," "Don Giovanni," and "The Magic Flute." His
+marvelous musical and poetic genius, supported by profound scholarship,
+led him into hitherto untried regions of expression, and to him it was
+given to bring humanity on the stage, splendidly depicting the inner
+being of each character in tones. Wagner said of him that he had
+instinctively found dramatic truth and had cast brilliant light on the
+relations of musician and poet.
+
+Ludwig van Beethoven, the great tone-poet, guided by his profound
+comprehension of the deep things of life and his active sympathies to
+absolute truthfulness in delineating human passions, made the next
+advance in his one opera, "Fidelio," written in 1805. Ranked, though it
+is, rather as a symphony for voice and orchestra than as the musical
+complement of a dramatic poem, there is nevertheless infused into some
+of its chief numbers more potent dramatic expression than is found in
+any previous opera. Thoroughly cosmopolitan in subject, it is
+nevertheless German in that its lofty earnestness of tone offers a
+protest against all shallowness and sensationalism. The entire story of
+the opera is told in tones in the overture.
+
+The next German to write overtures with a deliberate purpose to
+foreshadow what followed was Carl Maria von Weber, whose greatest opera,
+"Der Freischütz," appeared in 1821. The initial force of the German
+romantic school, he founded his operas on romantic themes, and depicted
+in tones the things of the weird, fantastic and elfish world that
+kindled his imagination. He has been called the connecting link between
+Mozart and Wagner, and in many of his theories he anticipated the
+latter. National to the core, he embodied in his music the finest
+qualities of the folk-song, and noble tone-painter that he was he
+excelled his predecessors in his employment of the orchestra as a means
+of dramatic characterization.
+
+Richard Wagner was long regarded as the great iconoclast whose business
+it was to destroy all that had gone before him in art, but no one ever
+more profoundly reverenced Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber than he.
+The public was persistently informed that his compositions were beyond
+ordinary comprehension, and yet designed, as they were, to picture man's
+essential life, they have slowly but surely found their way to the
+popular heart. It was the very essence of his musical dramatic creed
+that to have blood in its veins and sincerity in its soul art must come
+from the people and be addressed to the people. He chose the national
+myth and hero tradition as the basis of his music-drama because of the
+universality of their content and application, and because he believed
+they reflected the German world-view. Himself he regarded as the
+Siegfried whose mission it was to slay the dragon of sordid materialism
+and awaken the slumbering bride of German art.
+
+Bach and Chopin had anticipated him in some of his most startling chord
+progressions. The motives of Bach's fugues and Beethoven's sonatas and
+symphonies, and the so-called "leading motives" of the Frenchman, Hector
+Berlioz, had preceded his "typical motives." Moreover, the orchestration
+of Berlioz had been a precursor of his orchestral tone-coloring.
+Nevertheless, everything he touched was so characteristically applied by
+him as to produce new impressions, and to emphasize the idea of music as
+a language. So peculiarly were music and poetry blended in the delicate
+tissue of his genius that one seemed inseparable from the other. United,
+he believed it to be their mission to inculcate high moral lessons of
+patriotism and love.
+
+He gave the death-blow to an opera whose sole aim is to tickle the ear.
+Many an exquisite melody of Rossini and other Italian composers will
+long continue to live, but their productions as wholes have mostly
+ceased to be satisfying to those of us who have Teutonic blood in our
+veins. The Italian opera composer who holds the highest place to-day in
+the heart of the serious musician is that grand old man of music,
+Giuseppe Verdi, whose genius enabled him to yield four times to the
+spirit of the age, during his long career, and who in his ripe old age
+endeavored to give Italy what Wagner had given the German nation.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+Certain Famous Oratorios
+
+
+About the middle of the sixteenth century, San Filippo Neri, a zealous
+Florentine priest, opened the chapel, or oratory, of his church in Rome,
+for popular hours with his congregation. His main object being "to
+allure young people to pious offices and to detain them from worldly
+pleasure," he endeavored to make the occasions attractive as well as
+edifying, and supplemented religious discourse and spiritual songs with
+dramatized versions of Biblical stories provided with suitable music.
+Associated with him in his labors for a good cause, was no less a
+composer than that great reformer of Catholic church music, Giovanni
+Pierluigi Sante da Palestrina, whose harmonies were declared by a
+music-loving Pope to be those of the celestial Jerusalem. The laudable
+enterprise proved successful. People flocked from all quarters to enjoy
+the gratuitous entertainments, and a form of sacred musical art resulted
+that derived from them its name.
+
+Roswitha, a nun of the Gandersheim cloister, in the tenth century, made
+the earliest attempt recorded to invest church plays with artistic
+worth. Her six religious dramas, written in Latin for the use and
+edification of her sister nuns, were published in a French setting, in
+1845. It was a woman, too, Laura Guidiccioni, a brilliant member of the
+Florence group of aristocratic truth-seekers in art, who wrote the text
+of the first religious musical dramatic composition to which the name
+oratorio became attached. It was set to music of a declamatory style by
+Emilio del Cavalieri, the author's collaborator in the pastoral plays
+that were really embryo operas. The title of the piece, "The
+Representation of the Body and the Soul," indicates the allegorical
+nature of the subject.
+
+Its initial performance occurred at Rome, February, 1600, in the oratory
+of San Filippo's church, Santa Maria della Vallicella. The composer had
+died some months earlier, but his minute stage directions were
+accurately observed. Behind the scenes was placed an orchestra
+comprising a double lyre, a harpsichord, a large guitar and two flutes,
+to which was added a violin for the leading part in the ritornels, that
+is, instrumental preludes and interludes. The chorus had seats assigned
+on the stage, but rose to sing, employing suitable movements and
+gestures. Time, Morality, Pleasure, and other solo characters bore in
+their hands musical instruments and seemed to play as they acted and
+declaimed their parts, while the playing actually came from the
+concealed instruments. The World, the Body and Human Life illustrated
+the transitoriness of earthly affairs by flinging away the gorgeous
+decorations they had worn when they appeared on the stage, and
+displaying their utter poverty and wretchedness in the face of death
+and dissolution. The representation ended with a ballet, danced
+"sedately and reverently" to music by the chorus.
+
+Some idea of the oratorio in its infancy may be gained from this
+description. Except that the subject had a religious bearing, it
+differed little from the opera. With Giacomo Carissimi, director of
+music at San Apollinare, Rome, from 1628 until his death, in 1674, the
+paths of the two diverged. He laid down lines that have been followed in
+the oratorio ever since. Dancing and acting were excluded by him, and
+the rôle of narrator introduced. His broad, simple treatment of chords
+enhanced the purity and beauty of everything he wrote, and in his hand
+recitative gained character, grace and musical expressiveness. Only a
+small portion of his epoch-making work has been preserved, but quite
+enough to make clear his title "Father of Oratorio and Cantata."
+
+His pupil, Alessandro Scarlatti, founder of the Neapolitan school and
+practically the musical dictator of Naples, from 1694 to 1725, was an
+incredibly prolific composer in almost every known species of musical
+form. His many improvements in vocal and instrumental music operated
+greatly to the advantage of the oratorio. Possessing feeling for
+orchestration to an unusual degree for his time, he grouped musical
+instruments of different timbres with marked boldness and skill, and was
+the first specially to orchestrate recitative. His genius and knowledge
+enabled him to restore counterpoint to its rightful place, and his
+oratorios show great gain in elasticity and form.
+
+Another Alessandro, he who bore the surname Stradella and was the hero
+of Flotow's opera of that name, has figured so freely in romance that it
+is not easy to separate truth from fiction in accounts of his life. Dr.
+Parry says of him that he had a remarkable instinct for choral effects,
+even piling progressions into a climax, that his solo music aims at
+definiteness of structure, that, in 1676, he used a double orchestra
+whose principal instruments were violins, and that his oratorios were
+specially significant, as he cultivated all the resources of that form
+of art. His most celebrated composition is an oratorio, "San Giovanni
+Battista," and one of the airs attached to it "Pietà Signore," a
+beautiful, symmetrical, heart-searching melody, is sung to-day, although
+it is by no means as well known as it deserves.
+
+According to tradition, its tender, worshipful strains sung in the
+church of the Holy Apostles, at Rome, by the composer himself, once
+stayed the hand of an assassin whom jealousy had prompted to slay the
+"Apollo della Musica." So Alessandro Stradella was called, because of
+his great gifts as singer and composer, and his manly beauty. A jubilant
+multitude surrounded him in life, and loud lamentation arose, when, at
+length, he fell a victim to envy and malice. Thus the graceful legend
+runs. Recent writers are trying to make us believe that the famous
+"Pietà Signore" was a later interpolation in "San Giovanni Battista,"
+and that it may be attributed to this or that composer, a century or
+more after the death of Stradella, in 1681. Unless absolute proof be
+afforded us, let us forbear from plucking this gem from his crown.
+
+Composer of fifty operas and many other works, magnificent organist and
+harpsichordist, with musical genius of a Titanic order, intellect that
+was swift, sure and keen, an indomitable will, a lofty philosophy, and a
+lordly personality, George Friedrich Handel, seemingly defeated by
+outrageous fortune, wheeled about like some invincible general whose
+business it was to win the battle and entering the field of the oratorio
+gained a colossal victory. He had for some time passed the half century
+milestone of his life when he scored his greatest achievements in this
+line, and with magic touch transformed existing materials into the
+art-form we know to-day. His "Messiah," which alone would have sufficed
+to immortalize him, was produced, in one of his herculean bursts of
+power, within twenty-three days, when he was well-advanced in his
+fifty-seventh year. It was first given to the public, in Dublin, April
+13, 1742, seven months after its completion. The enthusiasm it awakened
+was repeated when it was performed later in London. Here, indeed, the
+audience became so transported that at the opening of the Hallelujah
+chorus every one present, led by the king, rose and remained standing, a
+custom we follow to-day.
+
+Herder calls the "Messiah" a Christian epopee, in musical sounds. It is
+certainly written in the large, grand style of a noble epic, for it had
+large matters to express, and its composer regarded music as a means of
+addressing heart and soul. The theme is treated with reverence, delicacy
+and judgment, and the leading tone is that of a mighty hymn of
+rejoicing. Following an overture that is in itself a revelation, the
+opening tenor recitative, "Comfort Ye, My People," has a convincing ring
+that all is and will be well, mingled with infinite tenderness, and the
+succeeding aria, "Every Valley," is pervaded with the freshness of earth
+newly arisen amid great glory. The heart-rending desolation of
+selections like the contralto air, "He was Despised," only serves to
+accentuate the triumph of other portions. Throughout there is a warmth,
+a contrapuntal splendor, a breadth, an elasticity, a richness of
+orchestration, unknown in previous oratorio, unless in parts of some of
+the master's own works. Even in the duet and choruses remodeled from his
+chamber duets, there is that jubilant character that makes them blend
+perfectly with the great whole.
+
+Born and educated on German soil, steeped during his wanderer's years in
+the spirit of the Italian muse, and finally nourished on the cathedral
+music of England, Handel became thoroughly cosmopolitan, appropriating
+what he chose from the influences that surrounded him. The English
+regard him as one of their national glories, call him the "Saxon
+Goliath," the "Michael Angelo of music," a "Bold Briareus with a hundred
+hands," and have carved his form in enduring marble above his tomb in
+Westminster Abbey. Nothing they have said can equal the tribute paid him
+by the dying giant Beethoven, who pointing to Handel's works exclaimed:
+"There is the truth."
+
+Another lofty, yet wholly different personality, born also in 1685, is
+found in Johann Sebastian Bach, whose Passion Oratorios, a direct
+outgrowth of the Passion plays of old, furnish materials and inspiration
+for all time. Handel worked in and for the public and fought his battles
+in the great world. Bach was the lonely scholar who lived apart from
+outside turmoil and unabashed in the presence of earthly monarchs,
+reigned supreme in the tone-world. A typical Teuton, his music,
+intensely earnest, highly intellectual, contains the essence of
+Teutonism, and gives full, rich, copious expression to the inmost being
+of humanity. The spirit of Protestant Germany is embodied in his
+religious tone productions which have proved to Protestantism a tower of
+strength. His service in developing the choral alone is inestimable.
+Nothing that he has written, better represents the majesty and sublimity
+of his style than his "Saint Matthew Passion" with its surpassing
+utterances of human sorrow and infinite tenderness.
+
+In the year 1790, when Joseph Haydn had accepted an invitation to make
+a professional visit to London, his young friend, Mozart, endeavored to
+dissuade him from going on account of his age, but Haydn persisted,
+declaring that he was still active and strong. Eight years later, at
+sixty-six years of age, he wrote his celebrated oratorio "The Creation,"
+with all the vigor and sparkle of youth. The rambles of years in the
+beautiful grounds of Esterhazy had attuned his soul to communion with
+nature, and this work plainly shows his power of putting into tones the
+secrets nature revealed to him. Blissful joyousness and child-like
+naïveté are among its characteristic features.
+
+The style of Beethoven as a composer of sacred music is reflected in his
+single oratorio "Christ on the Mount of Olives," that like his single
+opera stands apart, amply sufficient to prove what he was capable of
+accomplishing. Mendelssohn, in his "St. Paul" and his "Elijah," embodied
+a high ideal, building on his predecessors and attaining, especially in
+the latter, an eclectic spirit that manifests keen discrimination. The
+oratorios of Liszt, the "Christus," "St. Elizabeth" and some lesser
+works, reveal high purpose and original treatment of a revelation in
+tones of sacred events. In the oratorios of the Frenchman Gounod,
+preeminently in his "Redemption," it is interesting to find modern
+chorals based on those of the German Bach, and, in fact, as it has been
+aptly said, a modernized treatment of Bach's passion form.
+
+What may be the next step in the evolution of the oratorio it were
+difficult to estimate. Whether modern efforts can ever surpass, or even
+equal, the sublime productions in this field, or whether creative genius
+will be turned into wholly new channels, the future alone may
+determine.
+
+[Illustration: SAINT-SAËNS]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+Symphony and Symphonic Poem
+
+
+That adventurous spirit, Claudio Monteverde, who nearly three hundred
+years ago made himself responsible for the first feeble utterances of an
+orchestra that tried to say something for itself, divined the
+possibilities of expression in varying combinations of tone-quality and
+gave vigorous impulse to the germ of the symphony already existing in
+the formless instrumental preludes and interludes of his predecessors
+among opera-makers. His revelation of the charm that lies in exploring
+the resources of instrumentation led to ever increasing demands on the
+orchestra. The prelude developed into the operatic overture whose
+business it became to prepare the spectator for what followed. That
+music was capable of conveying an impression in her own tone-language
+was apparent, and in due time the symphony rose majestic from the forge
+of genius.
+
+Prominent among the materials welded into it was the dance of obscure
+origin. As the vocal aria was the result of the simple folk-song
+combined with the intense craving of song's master molders for
+individual expression, so instrumental music striving to walk alone,
+without support from words, gained vital elements through the discovery
+that various phases of mental disposition might be indicated by
+alternating dance tunes differing in rhythm and movement, according to
+Nature's own law of contrasts. That unity of purpose was essential to
+the effectiveness of the diversity was instinctively discerned.
+
+The touch of authority was given to this kind of music, during the last
+two decades of the seventeenth century, by Arcangelo Corelli when he
+presented in the camera, or private apartment, of Cardinal Ottoboni's
+palace, in Rome, his idealized dance groups, thoroughly united by
+harmony of mood, yet affording a wholly new tone-picture of this mood in
+each of several movements. These compositions were usually written for
+the harpsichord and perhaps three instruments of the viol order, the
+master himself playing the leading melody on the violin. He called them
+sonatas from sonare, to sound, a name originally applied to any piece
+that was sounded by instruments, not sung by the human voice. They
+prefigured the solo sonata, the entire class of chamber music named from
+the place where they were performed, and the symphony which is a sonata
+for the orchestra. Absolute music was set once for all on the right path
+by them. They ushered in a new era of Art.
+
+Purcell, in England, Domenico Scarlatti and Sammartini, in Italy, the
+Bachs, in Germany, and others continued to fashion the sonata form. It
+ceased to be a mere grouping of dances, the name suite being applied to
+that, and struck out into independent excursions in the domain of
+fancy. The prevailing melody of its monophonic style proved suitable to
+furnish a subject for the most animated discussion. Three contrasting
+movements were adopted, comprising a summons to attention, an appeal to
+both intellect and emotions, and a lively reaction after excitement.
+
+A German critic has jocosely remarked that the early writers meant the
+sonata to show first what they could do, second what they could feel,
+and third how glad they were to have finished. Time vastly increased its
+importance. Two subjects, a melody in the tonic, another usually in the
+dominant, came to set forth the exposition of the opening movement,
+leading to a free development, with various episodes, and an assured
+return to the original statement. The prevailing character being thus
+defined, the story readily unfolds, aided by related keys, in a slow
+movement and perhaps a minuet or scherzo, and gains its denouement in a
+stirring finale, written in the original key. Each movement has its own
+subjects, its individual development, with harmony of plan and idea for
+a bond of union.
+
+The name symphony, from sinfonia, a consonance of sounds, applied
+originally to any selection played by a full band and later to
+instrumental overtures, was given by Joseph Haydn to the orchestral
+sonata form inaugurated by him. His thirty years of musical service to
+the house of Esterhazy, with an orchestra increasing from 16 to 24
+pieces to experiment on, as the solo virtuoso experiments on piano or
+violin, brought him wholly under the spell of the instruments. Their
+individual characteristics afforded him continually new suggestions in
+regard to tone-coloring, and he rose often to audacity, for his time, in
+his harmonic devices. Grace and spirit, originality of invention, joyous
+abandon, a fancy controlled by a studious mind, a profusion of quaint
+humor and a proper division of light and shade, combine to give the
+dominant note to his music. His symphonies recall the fairy tale, with
+its sparkling "once upon a time," and yet like it are not without their
+mysterious shadows. In everything he has written is felt that faculty
+of smiling amid grief and disappointment and pain that made Haydn, the
+Father of the Symphony, exclaim in his old age, "Life is a charming
+affair."
+
+With Mozart, whose life-work began after, but ended before that of
+Haydn, influencing and being influenced by the latter, the symphony
+broadened in scope and grew richer in warmth of melodious expression,
+definiteness of plan and completeness of form. His profoundly poetic
+musical nature, with its high capacity for joy and sorrow and infinite
+longing, was reflected in all that he wrote. By means of a generous
+employment of free counterpoint, in other words a kind of polyphony in
+which the various voices use different melodies in harmonious
+combination, he gained a potent auxiliary in his cunning workmanship,
+and emphasized the folly of rejecting the contrapuntal experiences, of,
+for instance, a Sebastian Bach. Musical instruments, as well as musical
+materials, were his servants in developing the glowing fancies of his
+marvelously constructive brain. The crowning glory of his graceful
+perfection of outline and detail is the noble spirit of serenity which
+illumines all its beauty.
+
+Beethoven further advanced the technique of the symphony, and proved its
+power to "strike fire from the soul of man." Varying his themes while
+repeating them, adding spice to his episodes and working out his entire
+scheme with consummate skill, he was able to construct from a motive of
+a few notes a mighty epic tone-poem. He translated into superb
+orchestral pages the dreams of the human heart, the soul's longing for
+liberty and all the holiest aspirations of the inner being. He discussed
+in tones problems of man's life and destiny, ever displaying sublime
+faith that Fate, however cruel, is powerless to crush the spiritual
+being, the real individuality. His conflicts never fail to end in
+triumph. Well may it be said that the ultimate purpose of a symphony of
+Beethoven is to tell of those things from the deepest depths of which
+events are mere shadows, and that as high feeling demands lofty
+utterance his tonal forms are inevitably worthy of their contents.
+
+Twenty-six years younger than Beethoven Schubert lived but a year after
+he had passed away and died in 1828, two years later than Weber, and
+felt the glow of the spirit of romanticism. From the perennial fount of
+song within his breast there streamed fresh melodious strains through
+his symphonies, the ninth and last of which, the C major, ranks him with
+the great symphonists. Intense poetic sentiment, dreamy yet strong
+musical individuality, romantic fulness of plan to embody in tones the
+passionate emotions of a storm and stress period, and much originality
+of orchestral treatment characterize the symphonies of Schumann. He
+rises to towering heights in some passages, but in his daring
+explorations through the tone-world he is often betrayed into a
+vagueness of form, largely traceable perhaps to lack of early technical
+discipline, as well as to lack of mental clarity. Ultra romanticism was
+foreign to the nature and repulsive to the tastes of the refined,
+elegant Mendelssohn, yet in spite of himself its influence crept gently
+into his polished works. As a symphonist he displayed fertility in
+picturesque sonorities, facility in tracing the outlines and filling in
+the details of form, keen sense of balance of orchestral tone, thorough
+scientific knowledge of his materials, and, as some one has said, became
+all but a master in the highest sense. His overtures are unquestionably
+romantic, and as their histrionic and scenic titles indicate, partake of
+the nature of programme music.
+
+This brings us to Hector Berlioz, the famous French symphonist, the
+exponent par excellence of programme music, that is, music intended to
+illustrate a special story. He lived from 1803 to 1869, and because of
+his audacity in using new and startling tonal effects was called the
+most flagrant musical heretic of the nineteenth century. He was the
+first to impress on the world the idea of music as a definite language.
+His recurrent themes, called "fixed ideas," prefigured Wagner's "leading
+motives." His skill in combining instruments added new lustre to
+orchestration. The personal style he created for himself was the result
+of his studies of older masterpieces, above all those of Gluck which he
+knew by heart, and of his philosophic researches. His four famous
+symphonic works are: "Fantastic Symphony," "Grand Funeral and Triumphal
+Symphony," "Harold in Italy" and "Romeo and Juliet." In a preface to the
+first he thus explains his ideas: "The plan of a musical drama without
+words, requires to be explained beforehand. The programme (which is
+indispensable to the perfect comprehension of the work) ought therefore
+to be considered in the light of the spoken text of an opera, serving to
+lead up to the piece of music, and indicate the character and
+expression."
+
+From programme music came the symphonic poem of which Franz Liszt was
+the creator. Although he found this culmination of the romantic ideal in
+the field of instrumental music in his maturer years, he displayed in it
+the full power of his genius. His great works in this line are a "Faust
+Symphony," "Les Préludes," "Orpheus," "Prometheus," "Mazeppa" and
+"Hamlet." Symphonic in form, although less restricted than the symphony,
+these works are designed to give tone-pictures of the subjects
+designated, or at least of the moods they awaken. "Mazeppa," for
+instance, is described as depicting in a wild movement, rising to
+frenzy, the death ride of the hero, a brief andante proclaims his
+collapse, the following march, introduced by trumpet fanfares and
+increasing to the noblest triumph, his elevation and coronation.
+
+Camille Saint-Saëns, without doubt the most original and intellectual
+modern French composer, who at sixty-seven years of age is still in the
+midst of his activity, and who has made his own the spirit of the
+classic composers, owes to the symphonic poem a great part of his
+reputation, and has also written symphonies of great value. His
+orchestration is distinguished by its clarity, power and exquisite
+coloring. The orchestral music of Tschaikowsky, who died in 1893,
+symphonies and symphonic poems, are saturated with the glowing Russian
+spirit, are intensely dramatic, sometimes rising to tempestuous bursts
+of passion that are only held in check by the composer's scholarly
+control of his materials. A strong national flavor is also felt in the
+work of Christian Sinding, the Norwegian, whose D minor symphony has
+been styled "a piece born of the gloomy romanticism of the North."
+Edward Grieg, known as the incarnation of the strong, vigorous, breezy
+spirit of the land of the midnight sun, has put some of his most
+characteristic work into symphonic poems and orchestral suites. The
+first composer to convey a message from the North in tones to the
+European world was Gade, the Dane, known as the Symphony Master of the
+North, who was born in 1817 and died in 1890.
+
+It is impossible to mention in a brief essay all the great workers in
+symphonic forms. One Titanic spirit, Johannes Brahms, (1833-1897) who
+succeeded in striking the dominant note of musical sublimity amid modern
+unrest, is reserved for our final consideration. Of him Schumann said,
+"This John is a prophet who will also write revelations," and he has
+revealed to those who can read that high art is the abiding-place of
+reason, that it is moreover compounded of profundity of feeling yoked
+with profundity of intellectual mastery. Dr. Riemann writes of him,
+"From Bach he inherited the depth, from Haydn, the humor, from Mozart,
+the charm, from Beethoven, the strength, from Schubert, the intimateness
+of his art. Truly a wonderfully gifted nature that was able to absorb
+such a fulness of great gifts and still not lose the best of gifts--the
+strong individuality which makes the master."
+
+Wonderful is the power of instrumental music, absolute music without
+words, that may convey impressions, deep and lasting, no words could
+give. All hail to the memory of Johannes Brahms, who has reminded us of
+its true mission and delivered a message that will ring through the
+twentieth century.
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:  In the caption for the illustration featuring
+Ms. Nordica, the spelling of her first name was corrected from "Lilian"
+to "Lillian."]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
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+
+Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: For Every Music Lover
+       A Series of Practical Essays on Music
+
+Author: Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+Release Date: April 29, 2006 [EBook #18284]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/cover.jpg"
+alt="For Every Music Lover" title="For Every Music Lover" /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><a name="image001"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image001.jpg"
+alt="MALIBRAN" title="MALIBRAN" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">MALIBRAN</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER</h1>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/decorative1.jpg"
+alt="decorative illustration" title="decorative illustration" /></p>
+
+<h3>A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ESSAYS ON MUSIC</h3>
+
+<h2>BY AUBERTINE WOODWARD MOORE</h2>
+
+<h3>AUTHOR OF "FOR MY MUSICAL FRIEND" ETC.</h3>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/decorative2.jpg"
+alt="decorative illustration" title="decorative illustration" /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h5>
+NEW YORK<br />
+DODGE PUBLISHING COMPANY<br />
+55 FIFTH AVENUE<br />
+</h5>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h5>
+Copyright, 1902, by<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dodge Publishing Company</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Printed in U. S. A.</span><br />
+</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>Illustrations</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image001">Malibran</a></span></td><td align='right'><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image002">Mozart</a></span></td><td align='right'>22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image003">Brahms</a></span></td><td align='right'>54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image004">Franz Liszt</a></span></td><td align='right'>86</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image005">Lillian Nordica</a></span></td><td align='right'>118</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image006">Paganini</a></span></td><td align='right'>150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image007">Jenny Lind</a></span></td><td align='right'>182</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image008">Corelli</a></span></td><td align='right'>214</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. <span class="smcap"><a href="#image009">Saint-Sa&euml;ns</a></span></td><td align='right'>246</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents</h2>
+
+<div class="toc">
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#Preface">Preface</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>How we can approach knowledge of music. Mistaken isolation of the
+    art. Those who belong to the privileged class. Music, as well as
+    religion, meant for all. Business of its ministers and teachers.
+    Promise of the twentieth century. Fruitage of our own free soil.
+    American world-view. Purpose of volume.</p>
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#I">The Origin and Function of Music</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Story of music affording knowledge of man's inner life. Mythology
+    and legendary lore. Emerson's dualism. Music a mirror. Ruskin and
+    art. Beethoven's lofty revelation. The real thing of Schopenhauer.
+    Views of Carlyle, Wagner and Mazzini. Raw materials. Craving for
+    sympathy in artistic type. Evolution of tone-language. French writer
+    of 1835. Prince of Waldthurn, in 1690. Spencer's theory. Controversy
+    and answer. Music of primeval man and early civilizations. The
+    Vedas. Hebrew scriptures. Basis of scientific laws. Church ritual.
+    Folk-music. Influence of crusades. Modern music architect of its own
+    fortunes. Present musical vocabulary and literature. Counsel of
+    Pythagoras. What Plato taught. Euripides on song. Auerbach. Martin
+    Luther. Napoleon Bonaparte. Bain and Dr. Marx. Shakespeare, in
+    Merchant of Venice. Wagner's unspoiled humanity. Tolstoi in art.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#II">Blunders in Music Study</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></span></p>
+
+
+    <p>Voice from the unseen. Perverted soul. Normal instincts. Genius and
+    talent. &AElig;sthetic tastes. Musical sound and rhythmic motion. Average
+    child. Frequent blunders. Appeal to intellect. Teacher with strong
+    personality. Experimenting with beginners. Legal protection. Vienna
+    musician. Class instruction. French solf&egrave;ge. English tonic sol-fa.
+    Mrs. John Spencer Curwen. Rev. John Curwen. Time a mental science.
+    Musical perception of the blind. Music in public schools. Phillips
+    Brooks on school song. Compulsory study. Socrates. Mirabeau.
+    Schumann on brilliancy. Unrighteous mammon of technique. Soul of
+    music. Neglect of ensemble work. As to accompaniments. Underlying
+    principles. Hearing good music. Going abroad. Wagner's hero. A
+    plumed knight wanted.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#III">The Musical Education That Educates</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Symmetrical development. Well-rounded musician. Well-balanced
+    individual. Profits proportionate to investment. Living force. What
+    Goethe said. Rich harvest. Aristotle on command over mind. Music
+    study many-sided. Madox-Brown on art. Mabie on beauty. Practical
+    forces in shaping character, purifying taste and elevating
+    standards. Master-works. Human voice as music teacher. Scientific
+    methods of study. Both art and science. Mental discipline. Stephen
+    A. Emory. Huxley on education.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#IV">How to Interpret Music</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>College professors on criticism and interpretation. External and
+    technical forms. Distrusting impressions. Trampling on God-given
+    intuitions. Throb and thrill of great art. Insight requisite for
+    interpretation. Living with masterpieces. Three souls of Browning.
+    Dr. Corson. Every faculty alive. Vital knowledge. Musical
+    imagination. Technical proficiency. Head, hand and physical forces.
+    In service of lofty ideal. Musical art work. Theme. Unfolding.
+    Climax. Labor of composition. Mind of genius. Elementary laws. Tonal
+    language. Karl Formes and operatic aspirant. Motto of Leschetitzky.
+    Marks of expression. Adolph Kullak. Hans von B&uuml;low. Pulse of music.
+    Memory. Ruskin's fatal faults.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#V">How to Listen to Music</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Listening an art. Painting completed whole. Music passing panorama.
+    Not translatable into words. To follow, even anticipate composer.
+    Bach's absolute knowledge. Fire of Prometheus. Inner sanctuary of
+    art. Science of acoustics. Prime elements. Dr. Marx and Helmholtz.
+    Motive. Beethoven's fifth symphony. Phrase. Period. Simple melody.
+    "God Save the King." Our "America." Masters of counterpoint. Bach's
+    fugues. Monophony and polyphony. Classical and romantic. Heretic and
+    hero. Hadow on musical laws. Form the manifestation of these. Good
+    music versus ragtime. Dr. Corson on spiritual appeal.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#VI">The Piano and Piano Players</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Pythagoras and musical intervals. Pan pipes. Portable organs.
+    Monochords with keys. Guido d'Arezzo. Clavier type. Virginal in
+    Elizabethan age. Early clavier masters. First woman court clavier
+    player. Scarlatti and Bach. True art of clavier-playing. Sonata
+    form. Where Haydn gained much. Mozart and Clementi. Pianoforte and
+    improvements. Viennese school. Clementi school. Giant on lofty
+    heights. Oscar Bie on Beethoven. Golden age of pianoforte. Piano
+    composers and virtuosi, from Weber to the present time. Teachers and
+    performers often corrupters of music.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#VII">The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Rubinstein on Polish patriot and tone-poet who explored harmonic
+    vastness of pianoforte. Like exquisitely constructed sounding-board.
+    Enriched and spiritualized the pianoforte for all time. Universal
+    rather than individual experiences. National tonality. Zwyny and
+    Elsner. Intimate acquaintance with Bach. Prince Charming of the
+    piano. Liszt on Chopin. Raphael of music. Playing and teaching.
+    Tempo rubato. Compositions. Schumann's words. Oscar Bie.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#VIII">Violins and Violinists&mdash;Fact and Fable</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></span></p>
+
+
+    <p>Volker the fiddler. Nibelungen lay. Videl of days of chivalry. Bow
+    fashioned like sword. Hagen of Tronje. Wilhelm Jordan, in
+    "Sigfridsage." Henrietta Sontag and the coming Paganini. Wagner's
+    Volker-Wilhelmj at Bayreuth. Magic fiddles and wonderworking
+    fiddlers. Grimm's Fairy Tales. Norse folk-lore. English nursery
+    rhymes. Crickets as fiddlers. Progenitors of violin. The violin of
+    Queen Elizabeth and her age. Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. Household
+    of Charles II. Butler, in Hudibras. Viola d'amore in Milwaukee, Wis.
+    Brescian and Cremonese violin-makers. Early violinists. Value and
+    history of some violins. Strings and bow. Violin virtuosi from
+    Corelli to our day. Mad rush for technique.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#IX">Queens of Song</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Florentine lady, Vittoria Archilei. Embryo opera of Cavalieri.
+    Peri's "Eurydice." Euterpe. Marthe le Rochois and Lully's operas.
+    Rival queens in London. Steele, in "Tattler." Second pair of rivals,
+    Cuzzoni and Faustina. Master Handel. Germany's earliest queen of
+    song. Frederick the Great and German singers. Mrs. Billington. Haydn
+    and Sir Joshua Reynold's St. Cecilia. Mozart's operas introduced
+    into England. Catalani. Pasta. Sontag. Schr&ouml;der-Devrient and
+    Goethe's "Erl King." Malibran a dazzling Meteor. Another daughter of
+    Manuel del Popolo Garcia. Marchesi, Grisi and Mario. Manuel Garcia
+    and the Swedish Nightingale. Other Swedish songstresses. Patti.
+    Queens of song pass in review. Two Wagner interpreters. A Valkyrie's
+    horse. A word for American girls.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#X">The Opera and Its Reformers</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Evolution of drama. At the altar of Dionysus. Greek poetry and
+    music. Aristotle on Greek stage-plays. &AElig;schylus and Sophocles.
+    Euripides. Words, music and scenic effect. Len&aelig;an theatre
+    exhibitions. More costly than Peloponnesian war. Roman dominion.
+    Primitive Christian church. St. Augustine. Mystery, miracle,
+    morality and passion plays. Strolling histriones, etc. Florence
+    "Academy." Vincenzo Galilei. Monody. Polyphonic music. Emilio del
+    Cavalieri. Vittorio Archilei. Music of Greeks recovered. Peri.
+    Monteverde and his work. First opera house. Alessandro Scarlatti.
+    Troubadours. Lully, Rameau and French opera. Purcell, Handel and
+    music in England. Gluck, the regenerator. German opera. Mozart,
+    Beethoven, Weber and Wagner. What came from Bach, Chopin and
+    Berlioz. Rossini's melodies. Wagner's influence. Verdi, the grand
+    old man.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#XI">Certain Famous Oratorios</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>Neri's oratory. Dramatized versions of biblical stories. Palestrina
+    and harmonies of celestial Jerusalem. Religious dramas of Roswitha.
+    Laura Guidiccioni's first oratorio text. Music by Cavalieri. At
+    Santa Maria della Vallicella. Orchestra behind the scene.
+    Description. Carissimi, "father of oratorio and cantata."
+    Alessandro Scarlatti. Another Alessandro. Dr. Parry's opinion. "San
+    Giovanni Battista" and famous air. Tradition about Stradella. What
+    recent writers say. Handel and the "Messiah." Bach and the "Passion
+    Music." "The Creation" and Haydn. Beethoven's "Mount of Olives."
+    Mendelssohn, in "St. Paul" and "Elijah." Oratorios of Liszt and
+    Gounod. Next step in the evolution.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="toctitle"><a href="#XII">Symphony and Symphonic Poem</a></span>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></span></p>
+
+    <p>That adventurous spirit, Monteverde. Charm in exploring resources of
+    instrumentation. Operatic overture. Forge of genius. Dance of
+    obscure origin. Craving for individual expression. Touch of
+    authority by Corelli. Cardinal Ottoboni's palace. Symphony, a sonata
+    for orchestra. Purcell, Scarlatti, Sammartini and the Bachs.
+    Monophonic style. Contrasting movements. German critic on early
+    sonata. Further explanation. Meaning of symphony. Haydn with
+    Esterhazy orchestra. Father of the symphony. Mozart. Beethoven.
+    Schubert. Schumann. Mendelssohn. Berlioz, the musical heretic. His
+    "fixed idea" and programme music. Liszt and symphonic poem.
+    Saint-Sa&euml;ns. Tschaikowsky and Russian spirit. Sinding. Grieg. Gade.
+    Brahms and absolute music.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Preface" id="Preface"></a>Preface</h2>
+
+
+<p>We cannot gain experience by being brought into contact with the
+experiences of others, nor can we know music by reading about it. Only
+by taking it into our hearts and homes, by admitting it to our intimate
+companionship, can we approach a knowledge of the art that has enriched
+so many lives, even though it has never yet completely fulfilled its
+function. At the same time, every music lover is helped to new ideas,
+inspired to fresh efforts, by suggestions and statements from those who
+have themselves had deep experiences in their search for the inner
+sanctuary of the Temple of Art.</p>
+
+<p>Musicians have been too much inclined to treat their art as something to
+be exclusively appropriated by a favored class of men and women, and are
+themselves greatly to blame for its mistaken isolation. True, music has
+its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> privileged class. To this belongs the mind of creative genius that
+can formulate in tones the universal passions, the eternal verities of
+the soul. In it may also be numbered those gifted beings whose
+interpretative powers peculiarly adapt them to spread abroad the
+utterances of genius. Precisely in the same way religion has its
+prophets and its ministers. Music, as well as religion, is meant for
+everyone, and the business of its ministers and teachers is to convey to
+all the message of its prophets.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century was the period of achievement. There is every
+reason to believe that the twentieth century will be the period of still
+nobler achievement, beyond all in the realm of the spirit. Then will
+music find its most splendid opportunity, and in our own free soil it
+will yield its richest fruitage. Amid the favorable conditions of
+liberty it will flourish to the utmost, and will come to afford blessed
+relief from the pressure of materialism. During the era we are entering
+no unworthy teacher will be permitted to trifle with the unfolding
+musical instincts of childhood. The study of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> music will take an honored
+place in the curriculum of every school, academy, college and
+university, as an essential factor in culture. Then music among us will
+come to reflect our deepest, truest consciousness, the American
+world-view.</p>
+
+<p>It is with a desire to stimulate thought and incite to action that the
+present volume has been prepared for every music lover. The essays
+contained in it have not previously appeared in print. They are composed
+to a large extent of materials used by the author in her lectures and
+informal talks on music and its history. That her readers may be led to
+seek further acquaintance with the divine art is her earnest wish.</p>
+
+<p>Many thanks are due L. C. Page &amp; Company, of Boston, for kind permission
+to use the portrait of Corelli, from their "Famous Violinists," by Henry
+C. Lahee.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right">
+<span class="smcap">Aubertine Woodward Moore.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Madison, Wis.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<h1>FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER</h1>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h2>The Origin and Function of Music</h2>
+
+
+<p>One of the most interesting of the many interesting stories of our
+civilization is the story of Music. It affords an intimate knowledge of
+the inner life of man as manifested in different epochs of the world's
+history. He who has failed to follow it has failed to comprehend the
+noblest phenomena of human progress.</p>
+
+<p>Mythology and legendary lore abound in delightful traditions in regard
+to the birth of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> music. The untutored philosophers of primitive humanity
+and the learned philosophers of ancient civilizations alike strove to
+solve the sweet, elusive mystery surrounding the art. Through the myths
+and legends based on their speculations runs a suggestion of divine
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians of old saw in their sublime god, Osiris, and his ideal
+spouse, Isis, the authors of music. Among the Hindus it was regarded as
+a priceless gift from the great god Brahma, who was its creator and
+whose peerless consort, Sarasvati, was its guardian. Poetic fancies in
+these lines permeate the early literature of diverse peoples.</p>
+
+<p>This is not surprising. Abundant testimony proves that the existence of
+music is coeval with that of mankind; that it is based on the
+modulations of the human voice and the agitations of the human muscles
+and nerves caused by the infinite variations of the spiritual and
+emotional sensations, needs and aspirations of humanity; that it has
+grown with man's growth, developed with man's development,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and that
+its origin is as divine as that of man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image002"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image002.jpg"
+alt="MOZART" title="MOZART" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">MOZART</p>
+
+<p>The inevitable dualism which Emerson found bisecting all nature appears
+also in music, which is both spiritual and material. The spiritual part
+of music appeals to the spiritual part of man, addressing each heart
+according to the cravings and capacities of each. The material part of
+music may be compared to the body in which man's spirit is housed. It is
+the vehicle which conveys the message of music from soul to soul through
+the medium of the human ear with its matchless harp of nerve-fibres and
+its splendid sounding-board, the eardrum.</p>
+
+<p>Music is the mirror which most perfectly reflects man's inner being and
+the essence of all things. Ruskin saw clearly that he alone can love art
+well who loves better what art mirrors. This may especially be applied
+to music, which offers, as a Beethoven has said, a more lofty revelation
+than all wisdom and philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Having no model in nature, being neither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> an imitation of any actual
+object, nor a repetition of anything experienced, music stands alone
+among the arts. It represents the real thing, as Schopenhauer has it,
+the thing itself, not the mere semblance. Were we able to give a
+thoroughly satisfactory explanation of music, he declares, we should
+have the true philosophy of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>"Music is a kind of inarticulate, unfathomable speech, which leads us to
+the edge of the Infinite, and impels us for a moment to gaze into it,"
+exclaimed Carlyle. Wagner found in music the conscious language of
+feeling, that which ennobles the sensual and realizes the spiritual.
+"Music is the harmonious voice of creation, an echo of the invisible
+world, one note of the divine concord which the entire universe is
+destined one day to sound," wrote Mazzini. Literature is rich in noble
+definitions of the divine art.</p>
+
+<p>From a matter of fact standpoint music consists of a vast concourse of
+tones which are its raw materials and bear within themselves the
+possibility of being moulded into form. Ut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>terances and actions
+illustrating these raw materials are common to all living creatures. A
+dog, reiterating short barks of joy, or giving vent to prolonged howls
+of distress, is actuated by an impulse similar to that of the human
+infant as it uplifts its voice to express its small emotions. The sounds
+uttered by primeval man as the direct expression of his emotions were
+unquestionably of a like nature.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency to manifest feeling by means of sound is universally
+admitted, and sound, freighted with feeling, is peculiarly exciting to
+human beings. The agitations of a mob may be increased by the emotional
+tones of its prime movers, and we all know that the power of an orator
+depends more on his skill in handling his voice than on what he says.</p>
+
+<p>A craving for sympathy exists in all animate beings. It is strong in
+mankind and becomes peculiarly intense in the type known as artistic.
+The fulness of his own emotions compels the musician to utterance. To
+strike a sympathetic chord in other sensitive breasts it be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>comes
+necessary to devise forms of expression that may be unmistakably
+intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>Out of such elements the tone-language has grown, precisely as the
+word-language grew out of men's early attempts to communicate facts to
+one another. Its story records a slow, painstaking building up of
+principles to control its raw materials; for music, as we understand it,
+cannot exist without some kind of design. Vague sounds produce vague,
+fleeting impressions. Definiteness in tonal relations and rhythmic plan
+is requisite to produce a defined, enduring impression. In primitive
+states of music rhythmic sounds were heard, defined by the pulses but
+with little or no change of pitch, and sounds varying in pitch without
+regularity of impulse. A high degree of intellectuality was reached
+before our modern scales were evolved from long-continued attempts at
+making well-balanced successions of sounds. As musical art advanced
+rhythm and melodic expression became united.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the origin, function and evolution of music, according to
+modern scientific<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> methods, is a matter of comparatively recent date. As
+late as 1835 a French writer of the history of music expressed profound
+regret that he had been unable to determine when music was invented, or
+to discover the inventor's name. It was his opinion that musical man had
+profited largely from the voices of the feathered tribes. He seriously
+asserted that the duck had evidently furnished a model for the clarionet
+and oboe, and Sir Chanticleer for the trumpet. An entire chapter of his
+book he devoted to surmises concerning the "Music before the Flood." The
+poor man felt himself superior to the poetic fancies of the ancients,
+which at least foreshadowed the Truth, but had found no firm ground on
+which to stand.</p>
+
+<p>Much finer were the instincts of Capellmeister Wolfgang Kasper, Prince
+of Waldthurn, whose historical treatise on Music appeared in Dresden in
+1690. He boldly declared the author of music to be the good God himself,
+who fashioned the air to transmit musical sounds, the ear to receive
+them, the soul of man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> to throb with emotions demanding utterance, and
+all nature to be filled with sources of inspiration. The good
+Capellmeister was in close touch with the Truth.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1835, the same year that the French writer mentioned offered
+his wild speculations, that Herbert Spencer, from the standpoint of a
+scientist, produced his essay on the "Origin and Function of Music,"
+which has proved invaluable in arousing discriminating thought in these
+lines. Many years elapsed before its worth to musicians was realized.
+To-day it is widely known and far-reaching in its influence.</p>
+
+<p>In those inner agitations which cause muscular expansion and
+contraction, and find expression in the inflections and cadences of the
+voice, Herbert Spencer saw the foundations of music. He unhesitatingly
+defined it as emotional speech, the language of the feelings, whose
+function was to increase the sympathies and broaden the horizon of
+mankind. Besides frankly placing music at the head of the fine arts, he
+declared that those sensations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> of unexperienced felicity it arouses,
+those impressions of an unknown, ideal existence it calls forth, may be
+regarded as a prophecy to the fulfilment of which music is itself partly
+instrumental. Our strange capacity for being affected by melody and
+harmony cannot but imply that it is possible to realize the delights
+they suggest. On these suppositions might be comprehended the power and
+significance of music which must otherwise remain a mystery. The
+progress of musical culture, he thought, could not be too much applauded
+as a noble means of ministering to human welfare. Mr. Spencer's theory
+has of late led to much controversy. Its author has been censured for
+setting forth no explanation of the place of harmony in modern music,
+and for not realizing what a musical composition is. In his last volume,
+"Facts and Comments," which contains many valuable thoughts not
+previously published, he declares that his critics have obviously
+confounded the origin of a thing and that which originates from it.
+"Here we have a striking example of the way in which an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> hypothesis is
+made to appear untenable by representing it as being something which it
+does not profess to be," he says. "I gave an account of the origin of
+music, and now I am blamed because my conception of the origin of music
+does not include a conception of music as fully developed. If to some
+one who said that an oak comes from an acorn it were replied that he had
+manifestly never seen an oak, since an acorn contains no trace of all
+its complexities of form and structure, the reply would not be thought a
+rational one;" but he believes it would be quite as rational as to
+suppose he had not realized what a musical composition is because his
+theory of the origin of music says nothing about the characteristics of
+an overture or a quartet.</p>
+
+<p>Of the music of primeval man we can form an estimate from the music of
+still existing uncivilized races. As the vocabulary of their speech is
+limited, so the notes of their music are few, but expressive gestures
+and modulations of the voice supplement both. With advancing
+civilization the emotions of which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> human heart are capable become
+more complex and demand larger means of expression. Some belief in the
+healing, helpful, uplifting power of music has always prevailed. It
+remains for independent, practical, modern man to present the art to the
+world as a thing of law and order, whose ineffable beauty and
+beneficence may reach the lives of the average man and woman.</p>
+
+<p>Without the growth of the individual, music cannot grow; without freedom
+of thought, neither the language of tones nor that of words can gain
+full, free utterance. Freedom is essential to the life of the indwelling
+spirit. Wherever the flow of thought and fancy is impeded, or the
+energies of the individual held in check, there music is cramped. In
+China, where conditions have crushed spiritual and intellectual liberty,
+the art remains to this day in a crude rhythmical or percussion state,
+although it was early honored as the gift of superior beings. The
+Chinese philosopher detected a grand world music in the harmonious order
+of the heavens and the earth, and wrote<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> voluminous works on musical
+theory. When it came to putting this into practice tones were combined
+in a pedantic fashion.</p>
+
+<p>In all ages and climes music has ministered to religion and education.
+The sacred Vedas bear testimony to the high place it held in Hindu
+worship and life. Proud records of stone reveal its dignified r&ocirc;le in
+the civilization of Egypt, where Plato stated there had existed ten
+thousand years before his day music that could only have emanated from
+gods or godlike men. The art was taught by the temple priests, and the
+education of no young person was complete without a knowledge of it.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian musical culture impressed itself on the Greeks, and also on the
+Israelites, whose tone-language gained warmth and coloring from various
+Oriental sources. Hebrew scriptures abound in tributes to the worth of
+music which was intimately related to the political life, mental
+consciousness and national sentiment of the Children of Israel. Through
+music they approached the unseen King of kings with the plaintive
+outpourings of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> grief-laden hearts and with their joyful hymns of
+praise and thanksgiving.</p>
+
+<p>From the polished Greeks we gained a basis for the scientific laws
+governing our musical art. The splendid music of which we read in
+ancient writings has for the most part vanished with the lives it
+enriched. Relegated to the guardianship of exclusive classes its most
+sacred secrets were kept from the people, and it could not possibly have
+attained the expansion we know.</p>
+
+<p>Music has been called the handmaiden of Christianity, but may more
+appropriately be designated its loyal helpmeet. Whatever synagogue or
+other melodies may have first served to voice the sentiments kindled by
+the Gospel of Glad Tidings it was inevitable that the new religious
+thought should seek and find new musical expression.</p>
+
+<p>In shaping a ritual for general use, an accompaniment of suitable music
+had to be considered. The fathers of the church constituted themselves
+also the guides of music. Those forms which give symmetry and
+propor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>tion to the outward structure of the tonal art were pruned and
+polished under ecclesiastical surveillance until spontaneity was
+endangered. Happily in the spirit of Christianity is that which ever
+proves a remedy for the mistakes of law-givers. The religion that
+inculcates respect for the individual has furthered the advance of music
+and of spirituality.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the confines of the church was another musical growth, springing
+up by the wayside and in remote places. Folk-music it is called, and it
+gives untrammeled utterance to human longings, human grief and despair,
+and human wondering over the mysteries of life, death and the great
+Beyond. Untutored people had always found vent in this kind of music for
+pent-up feelings, and the folk-music of the Christian world, during the
+Crusades, gained a new element in the fragments of Oriental melody
+transplanted into its midst. In time, through the combined wisdom of
+gifted composers and large-minded ecclesiastical rulers, the music of
+the church and the music of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> people became united, and modern music
+was born.</p>
+
+<p>Architecture, painting, sculpture and poetry possess practical proofs of
+their past achievements and on these their present endeavors are
+builded. Modern music has been compelled to be the architect of its own
+fortunes. It is the one new art of our era, and, as the youngest in the
+family of arts, it has but recently reached a high state of development.</p>
+
+<p>During those eleven Christian centuries, from the latter part of the
+fourth century, when the corner-stone for our musical system was laid,
+until the wonderful exploration period of the fifteenth was well
+advanced, the masters of music were absorbed in controlling the elements
+of their art. Since then event has crowded upon event with rapidly
+increasing ratio. During the past two centuries the progress of the art
+has been like a tale in fairyland. We now possess a magnificent musical
+vocabulary, a splendid musical literature, yet so accustomed are we to
+grand treasure-troves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> we perhaps prize them no more than the meagre
+stores of the past were prized.</p>
+
+<p>Music is often mentioned in literature as a means of discipline,
+inspiration and refreshment. We read in Homer that Achilles was
+instructed in the art that he might learn to moderate his passions;
+Pythagoras, father of Musical Science, counseled his disciples to
+refresh themselves at the fount of music before retiring to their
+couches at night in order to restore the inner harmony of their souls,
+and to seek strength in the morning from the same source. Plato taught
+that music is as essential to the mind as air is to the body, and that
+children should be familiarized with harmonies and rhythms that they
+might be more gentle, harmonious and rhythmical, consequently better
+fitted for speech and action.</p>
+
+<p>"Song brings of itself a cheerfulness that wakes the heart to joy,"
+exclaimed Euripides, and certain it is a large measure of joy surrounds
+those who live in an atmosphere of music. It has a magic wand that lifts
+man beyond the petty worries of his existence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> "Music is a shower-bath
+of the soul," said Schopenhauer, "washing away all that is impure." Or
+as Auerbach put it: "Music washes from the soul the dust of everyday
+life."</p>
+
+<p>Realizing the influence of music, Martin Luther sang the Reformation
+into the hearts of the people with his noble chorals in which every one
+might join. He called music a mistress of order and good manners, and
+introduced it into the schools as a means of refinement and discipline,
+in whose presence anger and all evil would depart. "A schoolmaster,"
+said he, "ought to have skill in music, otherwise I would not regard
+him; neither should we ordain young men to the office of preaching
+unless they have been well exercised in the art, for it maketh a fine
+people." It were well if teachers and ministers to-day more generally
+appreciated the value of music to them and their work.</p>
+
+<p>Music is an essential factor in great national movements. Every
+commander knows how inspiring and comforting it is to his men. Napoleon
+Bonaparte, who was not readily lifted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> out of himself and who complained
+that music jarred his nerves, was shrewd enough to observe its effect on
+marching troops, and to order the bands of different regiments to play
+daily in front of hospitals to soothe and cheer the wounded. The one
+tune he prized, Malbrook, he hummed as he started for his last campaign.
+In the solitude of St. Helena he said: "Of all liberal arts music has
+the greatest influence over the passions, and it is that to which the
+legislator ought to give the most encouragement."</p>
+
+<p>An art that in some form is found in the varied activities of all
+people, at all times, must be the common heritage of humanity. "It does
+not speak to one class but to mankind," said Robert Franz, the German
+song writer. Alexander Bain called it the most available, universal and
+influential of the fine arts, and Dr. Marx, the musical theorist,
+thought music beneficial to the moral and spiritual estate of the
+masses.</p>
+
+<p>Truly indeed has it been said that its universality gives music its high
+worth. Mirroring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> neither your inner life alone nor mine, but the
+world's essence, the transfiguration of what seems real, the divine
+Ideal, some spark of which glows in every bosom, each individual may
+feel in it whatever he is capable of feeling. The soul's language, it
+takes up the thread dropped by words and gives utterance to those
+refined sentiments and holy aspirations words are inadequate to awaken
+or express. Its message is borne from heart to heart, revealing to each
+things unseen, according as it is prepared to receive them.</p>
+
+<p>In the Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare made Lorenzo speak to Jessica of
+the harmony that is in immortal souls and say that "whilst this muddy
+vesture of decay doth grossly close it in we cannot hear it." To refine
+this muddy vesture, to render the spirit attentive, to bring light,
+sweetness, strength, harmony and beauty into daily life is the central
+function of music which, from the cradle to the grave, is man's most
+intimate companion.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Wagner devoutly believed it would prepare the way for an
+unspoiled, unfettered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> humanity, illumined by a perception of Truth and
+Beauty and united by a bond of sympathy and love. This ideal union is
+the goal at which Tolstoi aims in his "What is Art?" He defines art as a
+human activity to be enjoyed by all, whose purpose is the transmission
+of the most exalted feelings to which men have arisen; but the union he
+proposes would have to be consummated by a leveling process. All art
+that cannot without preparation reach the uncultured classes is
+denounced by him. He is most bitter in his denunciation of Wagner, who
+fought for a democratic art, but who wished to attain it by raising the
+lowliest of his fellow-creatures to an ever loftier plane of high
+thinking and feeling.</p>
+
+<p>According to Tolstoi, art began to degenerate when it separated itself
+from religion. There must have been dense mist before the Russian sage's
+mental vision when he fancied this separation possible. Art, especially
+musical art, is a vital part of religion, and cannot be put asunder from
+it. Like thought, music, since the bonds of church and state have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+broken, has spread wide its pinions and soared to hitherto unsuspected
+heights. All noble music is sacred.</p>
+
+<p>Amid the marvelous material progress of to-day music is more needed than
+ever. Unburdened by the responsibility of fact, it brings relief to the
+soul from the grinding pressure of constant grappling with knowledge.
+The benefits of knowledge are great, but it is also beneficial to be
+uplifted, as we may be by music, from out the perplexing labyrinth of
+the work-a-day world toward the realm of the Divine Ideal.</p>
+
+<p>As a means of culture music is a potent factor in human civilization. It
+is destined to wield even greater influence than has yet been known. It
+has become the household art of to-day. As it enters more and more fully
+into the heart of the home and social life it will more and more enrich
+human existence and aid in ushering in the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth.</p>
+
+<p>If music can do so much for mankind, why are not all musicians great and
+good? Ah, my friend, that is a hard question to answer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> and can only be
+fairly treated by asking another equally difficult question: Why are not
+all people who have enjoyed the advantages of religion wise and noble?
+Consider the gigantic machinery that has been put in motion to
+promulgate Christianity, and note how slow men have been to appropriate
+the teachings of its founder. Slow progress furnishes no argument
+against the mission either of religion or its comrade music.</p>
+
+<p>In common with religion music kindles our finer sensibilities and brings
+us into an atmosphere superior to that which ordinarily surrounds us. It
+requires wisdom to beautify commonplace conditions with what has been
+enjoyed in a&euml;rial regions. Rightly applied, music can lend itself to
+this illumination. As it is better known, its advantages will be more
+completely realized.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h2>Blunders in Music Study</h2>
+
+
+<p>Like a voice from the Unseen, the Eternal, music speaks to the soul of
+man. Its informing word being delivered in the language of the emotional
+nature finds some response to its appeal in every normal human breast.
+Shakespeare indicated this truth when he had his Lorenzo, in the
+Merchant of Venice, say:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The man that hath no music in himself,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The motions of his spirit are dull as night,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And his affections dark as Erebus;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Let no such man be trusted."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is not the normal soul, fresh from its Creator's hands, that is fit
+for such dire evils, but the soul perverted by false conditions and
+surroundings. Where vice has become congenial and the impure reigns
+supreme, that which rouses and expresses noble aspirations and pure
+emotions can find no room. Normal instincts may also be dulled, the
+inner being made, as it were, musically deaf and dumb, by a false
+education which stifles and dwarfs the finer feelings, or by
+circumstances which permit these to remain dormant.</p>
+
+<p>The emotional natures of human beings differ as widely in kind and
+degree as the intellectual and physical natures. In some people
+sensibility predominates, and the irresistible activity of fancy and
+feeling compels the expression in rhythmic tone combinations of ideals
+grasped intuitively. Thus musical genius manifests itself. No amount of
+education can bring it into being, but true culture and wise guidance
+are needed to equip it for its bold flight. "Neither diligence without
+genius, nor genius without education will pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>duce anything thorough,"
+as we read in Horace. Other people with marked aptitude for musical
+expression have reproductive rather than creative endowments. To them
+belongs talent in a greater or less degree, and they are adapted to
+promulgate the message which genius formulated for mankind. Talent may
+be ripened and brightened by suitable environments and fostering care.</p>
+
+<p>There are besides persons led by genius or talent into other avenues
+than those of the tone-world, and the great public with its diverse
+grades of emotional and intellectual gifts. The cultivation of the
+&aelig;sthetic tastes is profitable to all, and no agency contributes so
+freely to it as music. Too many people engaged in purely scientific or
+practical pursuits have failed to realize this. In those nations known
+as musical, and that have become so through generations occupied with
+the art, music study is placed on an equal footing with any other worthy
+pursuit and no life interest is permitted to exclude musical enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>Unless disabled by physical defects, every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> one displays some sense of
+musical sound and rhythmic motion. It is a constant occurrence for
+children, without a word of direction, to mark the time of a stirring
+tune with hands, feet and swaying motions of the body. A lullaby will
+almost invariably soothe a restless infant, and most children old enough
+to distinguish and articulate groups of tones will make some attempt at
+singing the melodies they have often heard. The average child begins
+music lessons with evident pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>It should be no more difficult to strengthen the musical instincts than
+any other faculties. On the contrary, it too often chances that a child
+whose early song efforts have been in excellent time and tune, and not
+without expression, who has marched in time and beat time accurately,
+will, after a period of instruction, utterly disregard sense of rhythm,
+sing out of tune, play wrong notes, or fail to notice when the musical
+instrument used is ever so cruelly out of tune. Uneducated people,
+trusting to intuitive perceptions, promptly decide that such or such a
+child, or person, has been spoiled by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> cultivation. This is merely a
+failure to trace a result to its rightful cause, which lies not in
+cultivation, but in certain blunders in music study.</p>
+
+<p>These blunders begin with the preliminary course on the piano or violin,
+for instance, when a child, having no previous training in the rudiments
+of music, starts with one weekly lesson, and is required to practice a
+prescribed period daily without supervision. To the difficulties of an
+introduction to a musical instrument are added those of learning to read
+notes, to locate them, to appreciate time values and much else. The
+teacher, it may be, knows little of the inner life of music, still less
+of child nature. Manifold perplexities arise, and faltering through
+these the pupil acquires a halting use of the musical vocabulary, with
+other bad habits equally hard to correct. A constant repetition of false
+notes, wrong phrasing, irregular accents, faulty rhythms and a
+meaningless jumble of notes dulls the outer ear and deadens the inner
+tone-sense. Where there is genius, or decided talent, no obstacle can
+wholly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> bar the way to music. Otherwise, it retreats before the
+blundering approach.</p>
+
+<p>Many a mother when advised to direct her child's practicing, or at least
+to encourage it by her presence, has excused herself on the plea that it
+would bore her to listen. If the work bores the mother it is not
+surprising that the child attacks it with mind fixed on metal more
+attractive and eyes seeking the clock. Occupations which are repellent
+in early life leave behind them a memory calculated to render them
+forever distasteful. It is therefore a grave mistake not to make music
+study from the outset throb with vital interest. An appeal to the
+intellect will quicken the &aelig;sthetic instincts, be they never so slender,
+and almost any one will love work that engages all the faculties.</p>
+
+<p>Those pupils are fortunate who come under the influence of a teacher
+with strong, well-balanced personality and ripe knowledge, and are
+treated as rational beings, capable of feeling, thinking and acting. Too
+many music teachers learn their business by experimenting on beginners.
+It has been suggested as a safe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>guard against their blunders, and all
+ignorance, carelessness and imposture, that music might be placed under
+the same legal protection accorded other important factors in social
+life, and that no one be permitted to teach it without a license granted
+by a competent board of judges after the applicant had passed a
+successful examination, theoretical and practical. This would be well if
+there was any certainty of choosing suitable persons to select the
+judges.</p>
+
+<p>A practical Vienna musician, H. Geisler, has recently created no little
+sensation by asserting that the pianoforte, although indispensable for
+the advanced artist, is worthless, even harmful, in primary training,
+and that the methods used in teaching it are based on a total
+misapprehension of the musical development prescribed by nature. Sensual
+and intellectual perceptions must actively exist, he feels, before they
+can be expressed by means of an instrument. It is a mistake to presume
+that manual practice can call them into being, or to disregard the
+supremacy of the tone-sense. He considers the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> human voice the primitive
+educational instrument of music and believes the reasonable order of
+musical education to be: hearing, singing, performing.</p>
+
+<p>This order is to be commended, and might readily be followed if primary
+instruction was given in classes, which being less expensive than
+private tuition, would admit of more frequent lessons and the services
+of a competent teacher. Classes afford the best opportunity for training
+the ear to accuracy in pitch, the eye to steadiness in reading notes,
+the mind to comprehension of key relationships, form and rhythmic
+movement, and the heart to a realization of the beauty and purport of
+music. In classes the stimulating effect of healthy competition may be
+felt, an impulse given to writing notes, transposing phrases and
+melodies, strengthening musical sentiment and refining the taste.</p>
+
+<p>Both the French Solf&egrave;ge method and the English Tonic Sol-fa system prove
+the advantage of rudimentary training in classes. Mrs. John Spencer
+Curwen, wife of the presi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>dent of the London Tonic Sol-fa College, and
+daughter-in-law of the late Rev. John Curwen, founder of the movement it
+represents, has applied to pianoforte teaching the logical principles
+underlying the system, which are those accepted by modern educators as
+the psychological basis of all education. From her point of view the
+music lesson may be made attractive from the moment the pupil is placed
+at the instrument.</p>
+
+<p>Time is taught by her as a mental science, with the pulse as the central
+fact. She proceeds rhythmically rather than arithmetically, making
+constant appeals to that within the child which is associated with
+music. As the ear is expected to verify every fact, whether of time or
+pitch, she deems essential to profitable practicing the daily
+supervision of some person who understands the teacher's requirements.</p>
+
+<p>Many times a child who can readily explain the relative value of every
+note and dot will stumble in the time movement when confronted with a
+mixture of the same notes and dots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> This is because no mental
+connection has been established between the mechanical time sign and its
+sound, which is the outgrowth of instinctive impulses. Time confusion
+may also be caused by confiding too implicitly in loud and persistent
+counting, instead of trusting to the intelligently guided rhythmic
+pulse.</p>
+
+<p>The keenness of musical perception in the blind is a subject of frequent
+comment. It is due to the fact that neither outer nor inner ear is
+distracted by the organ of sight, and the mind is compelled to
+concentrate itself with peculiar intensity on the tone-images aroused
+for its contemplation. When one of the senses is weakened or lost, the
+others become strong through the requirements made on them. This shows
+how much may be gained in music study by throwing responsibility on
+those faculties it is desirable to develop.</p>
+
+<p>There are numerous promising schemes for class work in operation in our
+own country, some of them offering excellent advantages to the student.
+From the music study in our public schools valuable results ought to
+come in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> time. Thus far, unfortunately, it is too often conducted by
+teachers who are themselves without trained musical ability and who
+permit their pupils to shout rather than sing music of an inferior order
+to the accompaniment of a piano wretchedly out of tune.</p>
+
+<p>The much beloved Phillips Brooks once said: "A school song in the heart
+of a child will do as much for his character as a fact in his memory, or
+a principle in his intellect." Unquestionably a love for good music,
+inspired during the formative period, is calculated to open unlimited
+possibilities, and ours could readily be molded into a musical nation if
+a firm foundation for musical knowledge and appreciation were laid in
+our schools. After the rudiments were mastered, it could easily be
+decided which pupils had a natural bent demanding special training.</p>
+
+<p>Where music study becomes compulsory the blunder of permitting the
+compulsion to be felt must be avoided. Socrates of old, in Plato's
+Republic, advised making early education a sort of amusement. Those who
+heed his counsel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> should not forget that in turning music study
+altogether into play work there is danger of weakening the will. The
+tottering footsteps should be guided wisely, as well as tenderly, in the
+first approach to the Temple of Art, that the pupil may learn to walk,
+as well as to observe and think independently. We most prize beauty that
+we are able to discern for ourselves. We gain strength by intelligently
+conquering our own problems and perplexities. "Nothing is impossible,"
+as Mirabeau has said, "for one who can will."</p>
+
+<p>The aim of music study is to know music, to gain a correct conception of
+how it should sound, and so, as far as possible, to make it sound. This
+aim can never be reached by the mere cultivation of technical
+adroitness. Untold sacrifices are made to-day to what becomes the
+unrighteous mammon of technique when the mechanical side of practice is
+exalted above its interpretative aspects. Schumann deemed brilliancy of
+execution only valuable when it served a higher purpose. That higher
+purpose is to reach and express the soul of music. Unless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> enriched by
+it, all mechanism is dead. It is not desirable that every one should
+perform acrobatic feats on some musical instrument, or indulge in vocal
+pyrotechnics, but it is desirable to extract music out of whatever
+technique may be attained. Instead of racing onward with feverish haste
+to ever increased technical skill at the expense of other development,
+it were well for the student to pause until each composition attacked,
+be it but an exercise, could be interpreted with accuracy, intelligence,
+and feeling. We should then have more musicianly players and singers. We
+should more often be brought under the magic spell of exquisitely shaded
+tone that may make a simple little melody alive with beauty.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image003"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image003.jpg"
+alt="BRAHMS" title="BRAHMS" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">BRAHMS</p>
+
+<p>A grave blunder of our present music study is the neglect of ensemble
+playing and singing. Some of the noblest music written is for
+part-singing and for two or more instruments. Much profit and delight
+will be the result of making its acquaintance. Four and eight hand piano
+arrangements of the great overtures and symphonies, too, are valuable
+and enjoyable. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> prepare the way for an appreciation of an
+orchestral performance of these masterpieces, and broaden the musical
+horizon. Where there are several music students in a family it is a pity
+for them to confine their efforts exclusively to the piano, although
+every musician should have some knowledge of this household instrument.
+That is a happy home whose members are united by the playing or singing
+of noble concerted music.</p>
+
+<p>It is an absurd error to suppose that fine soloists cannot succeed in
+ensemble work, or as accompanists. Those who fail have been poorly
+grounded in their art. They may give dazzling performances of works
+bristling with technical difficulties, yet make a sad failure of some
+slow, tender movement that calls for musicianly understanding and
+delicate treatment. The truth is, the requirements for an artistic
+accompanist, or for artistic concerted work, are the same as for an
+artistic soloist: well directed musical aptitude, love of art, an ear
+attuned to listening and large experience in sight-reading.</p>
+
+<p>The music pupils' public recital contributes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> no little to the blunders
+of the day in music study. Especially with piano pupils, the work of the
+year is likely to be shaped with reference to the supreme occasion when
+results attained may be exhibited in the presence of assembled parents
+and friends. The popular demand being for the mastery of technique,
+showy pieces are prepared whose mechanism so claims the attention that
+the principles underlying both technics and interpretation are
+neglected. Well-controlled hands, fingers, wrists and arms, with
+excellent manipulation of the keyboard, may be admired at the recital,
+but little of that effective playing is heard which finds its way to the
+hearer's heart. A dead monotony will too often recall the letter that
+killeth because devoid of the spirit that giveth life.</p>
+
+<p>Sounding notes, even sounding them smoothly, clearly, and rapidly, is
+not necessarily making music, and a succession of them without warmth
+and coloring is truly as inartistic as painting without shading. If it
+were more commonly realized that it is an essential part of the music
+teacher's vocation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> to train the mind and the emotions and through them
+the will and the character, there would be a higher standard for the
+music pupils' recital. No one would be permitted to play, or sing in
+public who could not give an artistic, as well as a technically correct
+performance.</p>
+
+<p>Music students should lose no opportunity to hear the best music, both
+vocal and instrumental. Heard with understanding ears one good concert
+is often worth a dozen lessons, yet many students know nothing in music
+beyond what they have practiced themselves, or heard their
+fellow-students give at rehearsals or recitals. If they attend concerts
+at all, it is rather to observe some schoolmaster method in their own
+particular branch than actually to enjoy music. Trying to gain a musical
+education without a wide acquaintance with the literature of music is
+like attempting to form literary taste without knowing the world's great
+books. To bathe in the glow of the mighty masterpieces of genius
+neutralizes much that is evil. In music they are the only authoritative<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+illustrations between notes and the ideals they represent; they form the
+models and maxims by means of which we approach a knowledge of music.</p>
+
+<p>In view of hearing good music, breathing a musical atmosphere and being
+glorified into artists, vast numbers of American girls seek foreign
+musical centres. They are apt to go without suitable equipment, mental
+or musical, and with inadequate pecuniary provisions. They expect to
+attain in a few months what they are doomed to discover would take years
+to accomplish, and cannot fail to suffer for the blunder. Many of them
+return home disappointed in their aims, and ruined in health. Many of
+them are stranded in strange lands. A crusade should be started against
+indiscriminate going abroad for music study, without thorough
+preparation in every respect.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is, a free, true, fearless hero, such as Wagner found in his
+Siegfried, is needed to slay, with his invincible sword, the dragon of
+sordid materialism, and awaken the slumbering bride of genuine art. A
+storm-god is wanted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> to swing his hammer and finally dissipate the
+clouds that obscure the popular vision. Some one has called for a plumed
+knight at the literary tournament, with visor down, lance in hand,
+booted and spurred for the fight with prevalent errors. One is equally
+needed at the musical tournament.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h2>The Musical Education That Educates</h2>
+
+
+<p>There is a musical education that educates, a musical education that
+refines, strengthens, broadens the character and the views, that ripens
+every God-given instinct and force. It arouses noble thoughts and lofty
+ideals; it quickens the perceptions, opening up a world of beauty that
+is closed to the unobservant; it bears its fortunate possessor into a
+charmed atmosphere, where inspiring, elevating influences prevail. Its
+aim is nothing short of the absolutely symmetrical development of the
+spiritual, intellectual and physical being, in view of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> making the
+well-rounded musician, the well-balanced individual.</p>
+
+<p>The profits derived from a musical education are proportionate to the
+investment. Careless work, an utter disregard of principles, in other
+words, a mere dabbling with music, will afford but superficial results.
+It is precisely the same with a haphazard pursuit of any branch of art,
+science, or literature. Through music the soul of mankind may be
+elevated, the secret recesses of thought and feeling stirred, and every
+emotion of which the individual is capable made active. In order to
+attain its full benefits it is imperative to use it as a profound living
+force, not as a mere surface decoration.</p>
+
+<p>"The musician ever shrouded in himself must cultivate his inmost being
+that he may turn it outward," said Goethe. A true musical education
+provides culture for the inmost being. It tends to enlarge the
+sympathies, enrich social relations and invest daily life with gracious
+dignity. Those who gain it beautify their own lives and thus become able
+to make the world seem more beautiful to others. Those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> who are never
+able to give utterance to the wealth of thought and feeling it has
+aroused in their hearts and imaginations are still happy in possessing
+the store. After all, our main business in art, as in life, is to
+strive. Honest effort meets with its own reward, even where it does not
+lead to what the world calls success.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that he who sows thoughts will reap deeds, habits,
+character. The force of these words is exemplified in the proper study
+of music, which results in a rich harvest of self-restraint,
+self-reliance, industry, patience, perseverance, powers of observation,
+retentive memory, painstaking effort, strength of mind and character. To
+possess these qualities at their best abundant thought must be sown.
+Merely to ring changes on the emotions will not elevate to the heights.
+The musical education that educates makes of the reasoning powers a
+lever that keeps the emotions in their rightful channel.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle, who dominated the world's thought for upwards of two thousand
+years, attributed his acquirements to the command he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> had gained over
+his mind. Fixedness of purpose, steady, undivided attention, mental
+concentration, accuracy, alertness, keen perception and wise
+discrimination are essential to achievement. This is true of giant
+minds; it is equally true of average intellects. The right musical
+education will conduce to these habits. Musical education without them
+must inevitably be a failure.</p>
+
+<p>Music study is many-sided. To make it truly educative it must be pursued
+from both theoretical and practical standpoints. It should include
+technical training which affords facility to express whatever a person
+may have for expression; intellectual training which enables a person to
+grasp the constructive laws of the art, its scope, history and
+&aelig;sthetics, with all that calls into play the analytic and imaginative
+faculties; and spiritual development which imparts warmth and glow to
+everything. Even those who do not advance far in music study would do
+well, as they proceed, to touch the art on as many sides as possible, in
+view of enlarging the musical sense, sharpening the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> musical perception,
+concentrating and multiplying the agencies by virtue of which musical
+knowledge and proficiency are attained.</p>
+
+<p>"Truth," said Madox-Brown, the Pre-Raphaelite, "is the means of art, its
+end the quickening of the soul." Music does more than quicken the soul;
+it reveals the soul, makes it conscious of itself. Springing from the
+deepest and best that is implanted in man, it fertilizes the soil from
+which it uprises. Both beauty and truth are essential to its welfare. As
+Hamilton W. Mabie has said: "We need beauty just as truly as we need
+truth, for it is as much a part of our lives. We have learned in part
+the lesson of morality, but we have yet to learn the lesson of beauty."
+This must be learned through the culture of the &aelig;sthetic taste, a matter
+of slow growth, which should begin with the rudiments, and is best
+fostered in an atmosphere saturated with good music.</p>
+
+<p>Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of hearing good music.
+When it falls on listening ears it removes all desire for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> anything
+coarse or unrefined. Constant companionship with it prepares the ear to
+hear, the inner being to receive, and cannot fail to bring forth fruit.
+The creations of noble minds form practical working-forces in shaping
+character, purifying taste and elevating standards. A literary scholar
+cannot be made of one who has not been brought into close touch with the
+productions of the great masters in literature, nor an artistic painter,
+or sculptor, of one who has never known a great painting or piece of
+statuary. Neither can a thorough musician be made of any one who is
+ignorant of the master-works of music. It is well to realize, with
+Goethe, that the effect of good music is not caused by its novelty, but
+strikes more deeply the more we are familiar with it.</p>
+
+<p>The human voice being practically the foundation of music and the first
+music teacher, every well-educated musician should be able to use it,
+and should have a clear understanding of its possibilities and
+limitations, no matter what his specialty may be. Composers and
+performers alike will derive benefit from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> some dealing with the vocal
+element. Vocal culture is conducive to health, and aids in gaining
+command of the nerves and muscles. They who profit by it will best
+understand the varied nuances of intonation, expression and coloring of
+which music is capable, and will learn how to make a musical instrument
+sing. Likewise vocalists should familiarize themselves with other
+domains of their art, and should be able to handle some instrument, more
+especially the piano or organ, that they may be brought into intimate
+relations with the harmonic structure of music.</p>
+
+<p>To make music study most effective the scientific methods of other
+departments of learning must be applied to it. For the supreme good of
+both art and science need to be brought into close fellowship. Art is
+the child of feeling and imagination; science the child of reason. Art
+requires the illumination of science; science the insight of art. Music
+combines within itself the qualities of art and science. As a science it
+is a well-ordered system of laws, and cannot be comprehended without
+knowl<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>edge of these. As an art, it is its business to awaken a mood, to
+express a sentiment; it is knowledge made efficient by skill&mdash;thought,
+effect, taste and feeling brought into active exercise.</p>
+
+<p>No art, no science, affords opportunity for more magnificent mental
+discipline than music. Moreover, a careful, earnest study of the art
+furnishes a stimulus to activity in other fruitful fields. Although
+subordinate to life and character it contributes freely to these, and
+its best results come from life that is exceeding rich, and character
+that is strong, true and enlightened through broad, general culture. The
+musical education that educates develops something more than mere
+players and singers; it develops thinking, feeling musicians, in whom
+large personalities may be recognized.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen A. Emory of Boston, whose studies in harmony are widely used,
+and who left behind him an influence as a teacher that is far-reaching,
+divined the true secret of musical education, from the rudiments upward,
+and expressed his views freely and clearly. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> thought it indispensable
+for the musician to make music the central point of his efforts and
+equally indispensable for him to have, as supports to this, knowledge
+and theories from countless sources. "It must be as a noble river," he
+said of the pursuit of music; "though small and unobserved in its
+source, winding at first alone its tortuous way through opposing
+obstacles, yet ever broadening and deepening, fed by countless streams
+on either hand till it rolls onward in a mighty sweep, at once a glory
+and a blessing to the earth."</p>
+
+<p>To conquer music a musician must have conquered self. As music can no
+more be absolutely conquered than self, the effort to gain the mastery
+over both necessitates a continual healthy, earnest striving, which
+makes the individual grow in strength, grace and happiness. That
+musician has been rightly trained whose every thought, mood and feeling,
+every muscle and fibre, have been brought under the subjection of his
+will. Professor Huxley uttered the following words that may well be
+applied to a musical education:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"That man, I think, has had a liberal education, who has been so trained
+in his youth that his body is the ready servant of his will and does
+with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable
+of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts
+of equal strength and in smooth working order; ready, like the steam
+engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well
+as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with knowledge of
+the great and fundamental truths of nature and of the laws of her
+operations, one, who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but
+whose passions are trained to come to feel, by a vigorous will, the
+servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty,
+whether of nature, or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect
+others as himself."</p>
+
+<p>The correctness of applying the last clause to the musician will be
+questioned by those who delight in enlarging on the petty jealousies of
+musicians. It will be learned in time that these foibles belong only to
+petty musicians,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> and that no one knows better how to respect others as
+himself than one who has enjoyed the privilege of the musical education
+that educates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h2>How to Interpret Music</h2>
+
+
+<p>Certain learned college professors were once heard discussing methods of
+literary criticism and interpretation. They spoke of external and
+technical forms, and how magnificently these were illustrated in the
+world's acknowledged masterpieces of literature. Every work read or
+studied, they decided, should be carefully weighed, measured and
+analyzed, and should be judged solely by the maxims and laws deduced
+from classical standards. The critical faculty must never be permitted
+to slumber or to sleep. Above all, the literary student should beware of
+trusting to impressions.</p>
+
+<p>Not a word was uttered in regard to the con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>tents of the masterpieces in
+question, the special emotions, the overwhelming passions they revealed,
+the mighty experiences of which they were the result. Nothing was said
+about the source of a great book in the life of its author, or its value
+as a record of what many minds and hearts of an entire epoch have
+thought, felt and desired. The learned professors were so deeply
+concerned with what they considered the demands of strict scholarship
+that they lost sight of the spirit which animates every true work of
+art. To them literature consisted of words, phrases, sentences, figures
+of speech, classical allusions, and well-constructed forms. They
+regarded it apparently as an artificial product, compounded according to
+traditional and cautiously prescribed recipes.</p>
+
+<p>An aged man of letters present, one who was characterized by his ripe
+scholarship, his richly cultured personality, sat listening in silence
+to the conversation. Suddenly he rose up, and, in vibrant tones,
+exclaimed: "Where hath the soul of literature fled, its vital part? If
+we are to trample upon our impressions the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> best that is within us will
+be chilled. Of what avail is education if it does not lead to the
+unfolding of our God-given intuitions? Friends, if the trend of modern
+criticism be to divorce literature from life, the throb and thrill of
+great art will soon cease to be felt."</p>
+
+<p>The lesson conveyed by these words may with equal propriety be applied
+to the field of music. Viewing certain current tendencies the cultured
+musician is often moved to wonder where the soul of music has fled. The
+critical faculty is keenly alive to-day, but musical criticism, shorn of
+its better part, musical appreciation, can never lead to the insight
+requisite for true musical interpretation. Observation and perception,
+intellectual discernment and spiritual penetration are essential to gain
+insight into a great musical composition until its musical ideas, the
+very grade and texture of its style, are absolutely appropriated.</p>
+
+<p>In his "Death in the Desert," Robert Browning tells of the three souls
+that make up the soul of man: the soul which Does; the soul which Knows,
+feels, thinks and wills, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> soul which Is and which constitutes
+man's real self. Appreciation of music requires the utmost activity of
+all three souls. The more we are, the broader our culture, the more we
+think, feel and know, the more we will find in music. Dr. Hiram Corson,
+commenting on Browning's words, says the rectification, or adjustment of
+what Is, that which constitutes our true being, should transcend all
+other aims of education. If this fact were more generally accepted and
+enforced it could soon no longer be said that few persons reach maturity
+without the petrifaction of some faculty of mind and heart.</p>
+
+<p>Every faculty we possess needs to be keenly alive for the interpretation
+of the best in music. One who is accustomed to earnest thinking, quick
+observation and sympathetic penetration will see, hear and feel much
+that utterly escapes those whose best faculties have been permitted to
+lie dormant, or become petrified. The interpreter of music must have
+vital knowledge of the inner, spiritual element of every work of art he
+attempts to reproduce. His imagina<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>tion must be kindled by it, and
+musical imagination is infinitely more precious than musical mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means intended to underrate technical proficiency. No one
+can be a satisfactory exponent of music whose technique is deficient,
+however profound may be his musicianly understanding and feeling. At the
+same time, with every tone, every measure, mechanically correct, a
+performance may fail to move the listener, because it lacks warmth and
+glow. Only they can make others feel who feel themselves, but sentiment
+is apt to be confounded with sentimentality unless it is guided by a
+scholarly mind. The more feeling is spiritualized with thought the
+nobler it will be. Heart and head need to operate in company with
+well-controlled physical forces, in order that a fine interpretation of
+music may be attained. Faultless technique, in the service of a lofty
+ideal, indeed ceases to be mechanical and becomes artistic.</p>
+
+<p>A musical work of art originates in the deep well of the fertile
+imagination of genius, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> can only be drawn forth when the composer is
+in that highly exalted frame of mind we call inspiration. The theme, or
+musical subject, is a vital spark of the divine fire, and has flashed
+unbidden into his consciousness, demanding undivided attention for its
+logical development. With infinite care he molds and groups the musical
+factors which are his working forces, and of which he has both an
+intuitive and a practical knowledge. The manifold forms he fashions all
+combine for one purpose, and lead persistently to one grand climax, from
+which they may return to the repose whence they came. Unity in diversity
+is the goal he sets before himself. All aglow though he is with the joy
+of artistic production, he dare not permit his mind to waver from the
+task in hand.</p>
+
+<p>Music is not to be played with, and the labor of composition is no
+trifling matter. It demands the keenest mental activity, the most
+profound mental concentration. It demands consecration. The composer
+thinks and works in tones, in an ideal realm, far removed from the
+realities of the external world. His busi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>ness is to bring his theme to
+its most magnificent unfolding, treating it with absolute definiteness,
+that his intention may be perfectly clear.</p>
+
+<p>It is the business of the interpreter of music to be so thoroughly
+acquainted with the elements of which music is composed that he can
+promptly recognize the color, complexion and individual character of
+every interval, chord and chord-combination, every consonance and
+dissonance, every timbre and nuance, and every degree of phrasing and
+rhythm. He must have so complete a mastery of his materials and working
+forces that his imagination may be influenced unimpeded by the
+emanations from the composer's imagination which animate the moving
+forms he commands.</p>
+
+<p>It is his business to respond with his whole being to the appeal of the
+musical masterpiece he attempts to interpret, and so express the
+emotions aroused by it from their slumbers in his own bosom that a
+responsive echo may be found in the bosoms of the listeners. A most
+ingeniously constructed music-box, with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> presentation of a
+complicated piece of music, may fail to move a heart that will be
+stirred to its depths by a simple song, into which the singer's whole
+soul has been thrown.</p>
+
+<p>Though the mind of the inventive genius be a mystery that may not fully
+be explained, its product is within the grasp of the intelligent seeker.
+The &aelig;sthetic principles of musical construction rest on certain
+elementary laws governing both the human organism and the phenomena of
+sound, and may become familiar to any one who is capable of study. In
+the same way the established canons of musical expression, observed by
+the skilful artist, consciously or unconsciously, are traceable to
+natural causes. Without realizing the inherent properties of music, as
+well as its technical possibilities and limitations, we cannot know the
+art.</p>
+
+<p>The tonal language is one that is not translatable into words. It is
+composed of an infinite variety of tone-forms, now sharply contrasted,
+now gradually blending into one another, all logically connected, all
+tending to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> form a perfect whole. The profusion of harmonic, melodic,
+dynamic and rhythmic changes it brings forth invests it with a meaning
+far beyond that of words, a musical meaning. Every masterpiece of music
+clothes in tonal form some idea which originated in the composer's mind.
+To the interpreter it is given to invest it with living sound.</p>
+
+<p>Chords and chord combinations all have their individual characteristics.
+Some cause satisfaction, for instance, others unrest. When a chord of
+the dominant seventh is heard, the educated musician knows that a
+solution is demanded. The unspoiled ear and taste instinctively feel
+something unfinished, and are disturbed if it be not followed by a
+return to the key chord. Where the faculties are dormant or petrified,
+its significance will be unobserved.</p>
+
+<p>The story is told of a young lady whose musical education had been
+utterly hollow and false, but who, having been overwhelmed with flattery
+for her voice and her singing, was deluded into a belief that she was
+destined to shine as a star on the operatic stage. She consulted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+famous basso, Karl Formes, who good-naturedly had her sing for him. He
+perceived at once that she possessed neither striking talent nor
+adequate training.</p>
+
+<p>As a supreme test he struck on the piano a chord of the dominant
+seventh, and asked the young aspirant for dramatic glory what she
+thought it meant. Presuming it to be incumbent upon a prospective prima
+donna to have uppermost in her mind the grand passion, she replied, in a
+sentimental tone, "Love!" Promptly Karl Formes sounded the solution to
+the chord. "There is your answer," quoth he. "I ask a question, and it
+is thought I speak of love. Go home, my good girl, and seek some other
+avocation. You have a fair voice, but you are tone-deaf. You can never
+make a musician."</p>
+
+<p>A favorite motto of the piano teacher Leschetitzky is, "Think ten times
+before you play once." If this rule were more generally observed we
+should have better interpreters of music. A great composition should
+completely occupy mind and heart before it is attacked by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> fingers or
+voice. In that case it would be analyzed as to its form, its tonal
+structure, its harmonic relations, its phrasing and rhythms, and its
+musical intention would become luminous. The interpreter would
+understand where accents and other indications of expression should
+occur and why they should so occur, and would be able, in however feeble
+a way, to find and reveal the true heart music that lies hidden in the
+notes.</p>
+
+<p>It is never too early in a course of music study to consider the
+requirements of musical expression. Persistent observance of them will
+inevitably quicken the artistic sense. The rules to which they have
+given rise are for the most part simple and easily explained. For
+obvious reasons, all musical interpretation is expected to imitate song
+as closely as possible. The human voice, the primitive musical
+instrument, in moments of excitement, ascends to a higher pitch,
+increasing in intensity of tone as it sweeps upward. Consequently every
+progression from lower to higher tones, whether played or sung, demands
+a crescendo unless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> some plainly denoted characteristic of the music
+calls for different treatment. A descending passage, as a return to
+tranquillity, requires a decrescendo.</p>
+
+<p>"The outpouring of a feeling toward its object, whether to the endless
+heavens, or forth into the boundless world, or toward a definite,
+limited goal, resembles the surging, the pressing onward of a flood,"
+said the great teacher, Dr. Adolph Kullak. "Reversely, that feeling
+which draws its object into itself has a more tranquillizing movement,
+that especially when the possession of the object is assured, appeases
+itself in equable onward flow toward the goal of a normal state of
+satisfaction. The emotional life is an undulating play of up-surging and
+subsidence, of pressing forward beyond temporal limitations and of
+resigned yielding to temporal necessities. The crescendo and decrescendo
+are the means employed in music for the portrayal of this manifestation
+of emotional life."</p>
+
+<p>Another important matter which may to a great extent be reduced to rule
+is that of ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>centuation. Through it a tone-picture is invested with
+animation, and a clue is given to the disposition of tonal forms.
+Accents are always required to mark the entrance of a theme, a phrase or
+a melody. Where there are several voices, or parts, as in a fugue, each
+voice denotes its appearance with an accent. Every daring assertion
+hazarded in music, as in speech, demands special emphasis. Dissonances
+need to be brought out in such prominence that they may not appear to be
+accidental misconceptions, and that confident expectation may be aroused
+of their ultimate resolution. Accentuation must be regulated by the
+claims of musical delivery. At all times too gentle an accent is without
+effect, too glaring an accent is to be condemned.</p>
+
+<p>Hans von B&uuml;low strenuously advised young musicians to cultivate their
+ears and strive to attain musical beauty in what is termed phrasing,
+which he regarded as the real beginning of greatness in a performer.
+Phrasing and time keeping are two of the prime essentials in mu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>sical
+delivery, and cannot be neglected with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>Time may well be called the pulse of music. Upon some occasions the
+pulse beats more rapidly than others. It is incumbent on the interpreter
+of music to ascertain the harmonic and other causes which determine the
+tempo of a musical composition, as well as those which make slight
+variations from it admissible. Among other points to be noted is the
+fact that sudden transition from repose to restless activity calls for
+an accelerando, while the reverse requires a rallentando.</p>
+
+<p>It is absolutely imperative for one who would interpret music to
+cultivate the memory. The musician who cannot play or sing without notes
+is compelled to expend a large amount of mental activity on reading
+these, and will find it difficult to heed the manifold requirements of
+musical expression and delivery, of which a few hints have here been
+given. A musical composition is never thoroughly understood until it has
+been intelligently memorized. One who can play or sing without notes is
+as free as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> a bird to soar aloft in the blue ether of musical
+imagination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image004"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image004.jpg"
+alt="FRANZ LISZT" title="FRANZ LISZT" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">FRANZ LISZT</p>
+
+<p>Every interpreter of music longs for appreciative listeners, and young
+musicians, in especial, often lament the lack of these. It is well to
+remember that the genuine musical artist is able to create an atmosphere
+whose influences may compel an average audience to sympathetic
+listening. A good plan for the artist is to be surrounded in fancy with
+an audience having sensitively attuned ears, intellectual minds, and
+warm, throbbing hearts. Music played in private before such an imaginary
+audience will gain in quality, and when repeated before an actual public
+will hold that public captive.</p>
+
+<p>We have it from Ruskin that all fatal faults in art that might otherwise
+be good arise from one or other of three things: either from the
+pretence to feel what we do not; the indolence in exercise necessary to
+obtain the power of expressing the Truth; or the presumptuous insistence
+upon, or indulgence in, our own powers and delights, with no care or
+wish that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> should be useful to other people, so only they should be
+admired by them.</p>
+
+<p>These three fatal faults must be avoided, or conquered, by the person
+who would interpret music.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h2>How to Listen to Music</h2>
+
+
+<p>Listening is an art. It requires close and accurate attention, sympathy,
+imagination and genuine culture. Listening to music is an art of high
+degree. Many derive exquisite enjoyment from it, for music is potent and
+universal in its appeal. To listen intelligently to music is an
+accomplishment few have acquired.</p>
+
+<p>A great painting presents itself as a completed whole before the
+observer's eye. It holds on the canvas the fixed place given it by the
+master from whose genius it proceeded. No intermediary force is needed
+to come between it and the impression it makes on the beholder. Music,
+on the contrary, must be aroused from the written, or printed page to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+living tone by the hand or voice of the interpreter, and but a fragment
+at a time can be made perceptible to the listener's ear. Like a
+panorama, it comes and goes before the imagination, its kaleidoscopic
+tints and forms now sharply contrasted, now almost imperceptibly
+graduated one into the other, but all shaping themselves into a logical
+union, stamped with the design of a creative mind. Properly to inspect
+the successive musical images, and grasp their significance, in parts
+and as a whole, demands keen mental alertness.</p>
+
+<p>Many are content to listen to music for the mere sensuous impression it
+creates as it wraps itself about the inner being, lulling a perturbed
+spirit to rest, or awakening longing and aspiration, joy and sadness,
+according to the nature of the music and the hearer's mood. Some even
+take pleasure in formulating into words the sensations evoked by the ebb
+and flow of the tonal waves, and fancy they are thus deriving
+intellectual profit from music.</p>
+
+<p>From both ways of listening helpful results may accrue, but by no means
+the greatest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> Music is far beyond words, and in attempting to translate
+it into these we miss its musical meaning, the best that is in it. As
+listeners we derive our highest &aelig;sthetic and intellectual satisfaction
+from the ability to follow, even anticipate, the composer's intention,
+now finding our expectations fulfilled, now being agreeably
+disappointed. Failure to catch the opening phrase and preliminary
+rhythms of the composition makes it impossible to appreciate the tonal
+forms into which they develop. Nor may the mind linger over any one
+part, if we would grasp the work as an unbroken whole. That musical
+creation alone can afford the noblest delights that prompts and rewards
+the act of thus closely following the composer's thought.</p>
+
+<p>An instance of absolute knowledge of music appears in an anecdote told
+of Johann Sebastian Bach. When he was present at the performance of a
+fugue and one of his two most musical sons was with him, he would, as
+soon as the theme was heard, whisper what devices and developments he
+thought should be introduced. If the composer had conformed to his idea
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> construction he would jog his son to call attention to the fact.
+Otherwise, his exceeding modesty and reverent comprehension of the
+difficulties of the art made him the most lenient of critics.</p>
+
+<p>Few have reached the luminous heights this master of masters trod. Even
+a well-cultivated ear and taste may often be baffled by the intricacies
+of a fugue, symphony or other great work of musical art heard for the
+first time. The best listener beyond the pale of genius will at times
+feel as one astray in a labyrinth of beauty to which for the moment no
+clue appears. A single representation will rarely suffice to reveal the
+full worth of a masterpiece of music. By hearing it often, by admitting
+it, or some reproduction of it, to our own fireside, we will become
+familiar with its contents and learn truly to know it.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are fortunate enough to have been surrounded from childhood up
+by the choicest gems of the tonal language, and whose minds are of the
+deceptive order, will insensibly attain a refinement of taste and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+delicacy of perception no learned dissertation on music could afford. At
+the same time, an acquaintance with the materials and elements of which
+the art is composed and with the laws that govern them, is essential to
+enable even one who has heard much to gain the complete enjoyment that
+comes from understanding. Confident as we are that Prometheus captured
+his fire from Heaven, we ought to learn something of its attributes
+before we accept it at his hands, that we may be able to distinguish a
+true spark of the divine flame from a phosphorescent will-o'-the-wisp.</p>
+
+<p>The idea so largely accepted that music is an unfathomable mystery, like
+all half truths has wrought much mischief, and has greatly retarded
+musical progress in social life. Behind the Divine Art, as behind
+Religion, lies the inscrutable mystery of Life, and in both there is a
+Holy of Holies only the consecrated may enter. Before the portals of
+this are reached there is a broad, fertile field for intellectual
+activity that all may work to advantage, preparing the way to the inner
+sanctuary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The musician is continually confronted with fresh evidence of the
+popular ignorance, even among students of music, in regard to the
+outward form and inner grace of what is conceded to be the most popular
+of all arts. In a roomful of professed music lovers a definition of
+counterpoint was recently called for, and no one present could give an
+intelligent answer. This led to a discussion of musical questions which
+resulted in the disclosure that not one of the company could define
+melody, harmony or rhythm, or had the slightest conception of the
+meaning of the simplest component parts of the art in whose service they
+were making plentiful sacrifices. Some knowledge of these things is
+absolutely imperative, not alone to the student, but to one as well who
+would listen intelligently to music.</p>
+
+<p>Sound and motion constitute the essence of music. Its raw materials are
+an infinitely rich mass of musical sounds that bear within themselves
+the possibility of being molded into form. By the musical builders of
+the past they have been carefully considered, mathemat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>ically
+calculated, and have finally resolved themselves into a recognized
+scale, composed of tones and half tones. These are the composer's
+plastic resources. He shapes them precisely as the sculptor fashions the
+pliable clay with which he strives to bring his ideal to realization.</p>
+
+<p>All sounds are the result of atmospheric vibrations affecting the ear.
+Musical sound, or tone, is produced by regular vibrations, and differs
+from mere noise whose vibrations are irregular and confused. The pitch
+of a musical tone rises in proportion with the rapidity of the
+vibrations that produce it. Tones may be perceived by the human ear
+ranging from about sixteen vibrations in a second to nearly forty
+thousand, more than eleven octaves. Only about seven octaves are used in
+music. The science of acoustics is full of interesting facts of this
+kind, and is of profound value to any one who would gain an insight into
+the structure of music. It is unfortunately much neglected.</p>
+
+<p>The prime elements of music are Melody,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> Harmony and Rhythm. They are
+perhaps as little realized as its raw materials. Melody is a well
+ordered succession of musical sounds, heard one at a time, and selected
+from a defined, accepted series, not taken at random from a
+heterogeneous store. Harmony is a combination of well-ordered sounds
+heard simultaneously, and with suitable concord, or agreement. Rhythm is
+measured movement, or the periodical recurrence of accent; and signifies
+symmetry and proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Melody, unexhausted and inexhaustible, is the initial force, or, as Dr.
+Marx has called it, the life-blood of music. Within itself it bears the
+germ of harmony and rhythm. A succession of tones without harmonious and
+rhythmic regulation would be felt to lack something. Melody has been
+designated the golden thread running through the maze of tone, by which
+the ear is guided and the heart reached. Helmholtz styled it the
+essential basis of music. In a special sense, it is artistically
+constructed song. The creation of an expressive melody is a sure mark of
+genius.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Harmony arranges musical sounds with reference to their union, and is
+regulated by artistic and &aelig;sthetic rules and requirements. It has
+endless modes of transforming, inverting and intensifying its materials,
+thus continually affording new means of development. All the intervals
+and chords used in music had to be discovered, one by one. It often took
+more than a century to bring into a general use a chord effect
+introduced by some adventuresome spirit. Our scale intervals are the
+slowly gained triumphs of the human mind. Modern music did not emerge
+from the darkness of the past until harmony, as we know it, came into
+active being.</p>
+
+<p>Both melody and harmony are controlled by rhythm. It is the master force
+of the musical organism. Before man was the ebb and flow of nature had
+its rhythm. On this elementary rhythm, the one model music finds in
+nature, the inventive mind of man has builded the wonderfully impressive
+art rhythms existing in the masterpieces of music.</p>
+
+<p>Melodies are made up of smaller fragments,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> known as motives, phrases
+and periods, or sentences, all of which are judiciously repeated and
+varied, and derive their individuality from the characteristics of their
+intervals and rhythms.</p>
+
+<p>A motive is the text of a musical composition, the theme of its
+discourse. The most simple motive, with proper handling, may grow into a
+majestic structure. In Beethoven's Fifth Symphony three G flats in
+eighth notes, followed by an E flat in a half note, form a text, as of
+Fate knocking at the door, which, when developed, leads to tremendous
+conflict ending in victory. Those notes that repeat and modify the
+motive and are combined under one slur constitute the phrase, which is
+similar to a clause in a sentence of words. A period, or sentence, in
+music, comprises a musical idea, complete in itself, though of a nature
+to produce, when united with other harmonious ideas, a perfect whole.</p>
+
+<p>A simple melody is usually composed of eight measures, or some number
+divisible by four. There are exceptions, as in "God Save the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> King," our
+"America," of which the first part contains six measures, the second
+part eight.</p>
+
+<p>Habit and instinct show us that no melody can end satisfactorily without
+some cadence leading to a note belonging to the tonic or key chord. Very
+often the first part of a melody will end on a note of the dominant
+chord, from which a progression will arise in the second part that leads
+satisfactorily to a concluding note in the tonic chord.</p>
+
+<p>Counterpoint, literally point against point, is the art of so composing
+music in parts that several parts move simultaneously, making harmony by
+their combination. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries the masters of counterpoint shaped the musical
+materials in use to-day. So anxious were they to attain perfection of
+form they often lost sight of the spirit which alone can give vitality
+to musical utterances. The great Bach infused this into his fugues, the
+highest manifestation of the contrapuntal, or polyphonic music of old.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the growth of the individual led<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> to the growth of monophony
+in music, in which one voice stands out prominently, with an
+accompaniment of other voices. Its instrumental flower was reached in
+the symphony. Melody reigns supreme in monophonic music. Both the canon
+and the fugue form a commonwealth, in which all voices are rated alike.
+Viewed rightly, this suits the modern democratic instinct, and there is
+to-day a tendency to return to polyphonic writing. It is individuality
+in union. In the hands of genius it affords the most refined kind of
+harmony.</p>
+
+<p>A thorough knowledge of counterpoint shows the mistake of regarding it
+merely as a dull relic of a dead past. It is a living reality that, if
+correctly studied, leads to a solid, dignified, flowing style, rich in
+design, and independent in its individuality. Counterpoint, said a
+critic in the London Musical News, shows the student how to make a
+harmonic phrase like a well-shaped tree, of which every bough, twig and
+leaf secures for itself the greatest independence, the fullest measure
+of light and air. Composer, interpreter and listener may all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> profit by
+a comprehension of counterpoint.</p>
+
+<p>From its infancy modern music has been affected by two perpetually
+warring factors, the Classical and the Romantic. The first demands
+reverence for established ideals of formal beauty; the second, striking
+a note of revolt, compels recognition of new ideals. As in all other
+departments of art and life, progress in music comes through the
+continual conflict between the conservative and the radical forces. A
+position viewed as hazardous and unsuitable in one age, becomes the
+accepted position of the next, and those who have been denounced as
+musical heretics come to be regarded as musical heroes. Very often the
+untutored public, trusting to natural instincts, will be in advance of
+the learned critic in accepting some startling innovation. Old laws may
+pass away, new laws may come, but the eternal verities on which all
+manifestations of Truth and Beauty are based can never cease to be.</p>
+
+<p>"The scientific laws of music are transitory, because they have been
+tentatively constructed during the gradual development of the musical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+faculty," says W. H. Hadow, in his valuable "Studies in Modern Music."
+"No power in man is born at full growth; it begins in germ, and
+progresses according to the particular laws that condition its nature.
+Hence it requires one kind of treatment at one stage, another at
+another, both being perfectly right and true in relation to their proper
+period. But there are behind these special rules certain psychological
+laws which seem, so far as we can understand them, to be coeval with
+humanity itself; and these form the permanent code by which music is to
+be judged. The reason why, in past ages, the critics have been so often
+and so disastrously at fault is that they have mistaken the transitory
+for the permanent, the rules of musical science for the laws of musical
+philosophy."</p>
+
+<p>An acquaintance with form as the manifestation of law is essential to an
+intelligent hearing of music. The listener should have at least a
+rudimentary knowledge of musical construction from the simplest ballad
+to the most complex symphony. Having this knowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> it will be possible
+to receive undisturbed the impressions music has to give, and to
+distinguish the trivial and commonplace from the noble and beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The oftener good music is heard the more completely it will be
+appreciated. Therefore, they listen best to music who hear the best
+continually. The assertion is often heard that a person must be educated
+up to an enjoyment of high class music. Certainly, one who has heard
+nothing else must be educated down to an enjoyment of ragtime, with its
+crude rhythms.</p>
+
+<p>"We know a true poem to the extent to which our spirits respond to the
+spiritual appeal it makes," says Dr. Hiram Corson. It is the same with a
+true musical composition. We must take something to it, in order to
+receive something from it. Beyond knowledge comes the intuitive feeling
+which is enriched by knowledge. Through it we may feel the breath of
+life, the spiritual appeal, which belongs to every great work of art and
+which must forever remain inexplicable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h2>The Piano and Piano Players</h2>
+
+
+<p>When Pythagoras, Father of Musical Science, some six centuries before
+our era, marked and sounded musical intervals by mathematical division
+on a string stretched across a board, he was unconsciously laying the
+foundation for our modern pianoforte. How soon keys were added to the
+monochord, as this measuring instrument was named, cannot positively be
+ascertained. We may safely assume it was not slow in adopting the rude
+keyboard ascribed by tradition to Pan pipes, and applied to the portable
+organ of early Christian communities.</p>
+
+<p>After the tenth century the development of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> the monochord seems to have
+begun in earnest. Two or more strings of equal length are now divided
+and set in motion by flat metal wedges, attached to the key levers, and
+called tangents, because they touched the strings. In response to the
+demand for increased range, as many as twenty keys were brought to act
+on a few strings, commanding often three octaves. Guido d'Arezzo, the
+famous sight-reading music teacher of the eleventh century, advised his
+pupils to "exercise the hand in the use of the monochord," showing his
+knowledge of the keyboard. The keyed monochord gained the name
+clavichord. Its box-like case was first placed on a table, later on its
+own stand, and increased in elegance. Not until the eighteenth century
+was each key provided with a separate string.</p>
+
+<p>No unimped triumphal progress can be claimed for the various claviers or
+keyboard instruments that came into use. Dance music found in them a
+congenial field, thus causing many serious-minded people to regard them
+as dangerous tempters to vanity and folly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> In the year 1529, Pietro
+Bembo, a grave theoretician, wrote to his daughter Helena, at her
+convent school: "As to your request to be allowed to learn the clavier,
+I answer that you cannot yet, owing to your youth, understand that
+playing is only suited for volatile, frivolous women; whereas I desire
+you to be the most lovable maiden in the world. Also, it would bring you
+but little pleasure or renown if you should play badly; while to play
+well you would be obliged to devote ten or twelve years to practice,
+without being able to think of anything else. Consider a moment whether
+this would become you. If your friends wish you to play in order to give
+them pleasure, tell them you do not desire to make yourself ridiculous
+in their eyes, and be content with your books and your domestic
+occupations."</p>
+
+<p>A different view was entertained in England during Queen Elizabeth's
+reign, where claviers were in vogue styled virginals, because, as an
+ancient chronicle explained, "virgins do most commonly play on them."
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> virginal was usually of oblong shape, often resembling a lady's
+workbox. With the Virgin Queen it was a prime favorite, although not
+named expressly for her as the flattering fashion of the time led many
+to assume. If she actually did justice to some of the airs with
+variations in the "Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book," she must indeed have
+been proficient on the instrument. Quaint Dr. Charles Burney (1726-1814)
+declares, in his "History of Music," that no performer of his day could
+play them without at least a month's practice.</p>
+
+<p>The clavier gave promise of its destined career in the Elizabethan age.
+Shakespeare immortalized it, and William Byrd (1546-1623) became the
+first clavier master. He and Dr. John Bull (1563-1628), says Oscar Bie,
+in his great work on "The Clavier and Its Masters," "represent the two
+types which run through the entire history of the clavier. Byrd was the
+more intimate, delicate, spiritual intellect; Bull the untamed genius,
+the brilliant executant, the less exquisitely refined artist. It is
+significant that these two types stand to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>gether on the threshold of
+clavier art." Bull had gained his degree at Oxford, the founding of
+whose chair of music is popularly attributed to Alfred the Great.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1400 claviers had appeared whose strings were
+plucked by quills attached to jacks at the end of the key levers. To
+this group belonged the virginal, or virginals, the clavicembalo, the
+harpsichord, or clavecin, and the spinet. Stops were added, as in the
+organ, that varied effects might be produced, and a second keyboard was
+often placed above the first. The case was either rectangular, or
+followed the outlines of the harp, a progenitor of this clavier type. It
+was often highly ornamented, and handsomely mounted. Each string from
+the first had its due length and was tuned to its proper note.</p>
+
+<p>The secular music principle of the sixteenth century that called into
+active being the orchestra led also to a desire for richer musical
+expression in home and social life than the fashionable lute afforded,
+and the clavier advanced in favor. In France, by 1530, the dance, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+promoter of pure instrumental music, was freely transcribed for the
+clavier. Little more than a century later, Jean Baptiste Lully
+(1633-1687) extensively employed the instrument in the orchestration of
+his operas, and wrote solo dances for it.</p>
+
+<p>Fran&ccedil;ois Couperin (1668-1733), now well-nigh forgotten, although once
+mentioned in the same breath with Moli&egrave;re, wrote the pioneer clavier
+instruction book. In it he directs scholars how to avoid a harsh tone,
+and how to form a legato style. He advises parents to select teachers on
+whom implicit reliance may be placed, and teachers to keep the claviers
+of beginners under lock and key that there may be no practicing without
+supervision. His suggestions deserve consideration to-day.</p>
+
+<p>He was the first to encourage professional clavier-playing among women.
+His daughter Marguerite was the first woman appointed official court
+clavier player. He composed for the clavier little picture tunes,
+designed to depict sentiments, moods, phases of character and scenes
+from life. He fashioned many charm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>ing turns of expression, introduced
+an occasional tempo rubato, foreshadowed the intellectual element in
+music and laid the corner-stone of modern piano-playing. Jean Philippe
+Rameau (1683-1764) continued Couperin's work.</p>
+
+<p>What is generally recognized as the first period of clavier-virtuosity
+begins with the Neapolitan Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757), and Johann
+Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), the German of Germans. The style of
+Scarlatti is peculiarly the product of Italian love of beautiful tone,
+and what he wrote, though without depth of motive, kept well in view the
+technical possibilities of the harpsichord. His "Cat's Fugue," and his
+one movement sonatas still appear on concert programmes. In a collection
+of thirty sonatas he explained his purpose in these words: "Amateur, or
+professor, whoever thou art, seek not in these compositions for any
+profound feeling. They are only a frolic of art, meant to increase thy
+confidence in the clavier."</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, with grand old Father Bach,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> the keyboard instrument was
+found capable of mirroring a mighty soul. The germ of all modern musical
+design lies in his clavier writings. It has been aptly said of this
+master of masters that he constructed a great university of music, from
+which all must graduate who would accomplish anything of value in music.
+Men of genius, from Mozart to the present time, have extolled him for
+the beauty of his melodies and harmonies, the expressiveness of his
+modulations, the wealth, spontaneity and logical clearness of his ideas,
+and the superb architecture of his productions. Students miss the soul
+of Bach because of the soulless, mechanical way in which they deface his
+legacy to them.</p>
+
+<p>His "Twelve Little Preludes" alone contain the materials for an entire
+system of music. The "Inventions," too often treated as dry-as-dust
+studies, are laden with beautiful figures and devices that furnish
+inspiration for all time. As indicated by their title, which signifies a
+compound of appropriate expression and just disposition of the members,
+they were de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>signed to cultivate the elements of musical taste, as well
+as freedom and equality of the fingers. His "Well Tempered Clavichord"
+has been called the pianist's Sacred Book. Its Preludes and Fugues
+illustrate every shade of human feeling, and were especially designed to
+exemplify the mode of tuning known as equal temperament, introduced into
+general use by Bach, and still employed by your piano tuner and mine.</p>
+
+<p>Forkel, his biographer, has finely said that Bach considered the voices
+of his fugues a select company of persons conversing together. Each was
+allowed to speak only when there was something to say bearing on the
+subject in hand. A highly characteristic motive, or theme, as
+significant as the noblest "typical phrase," developing into equally
+characteristic progressions and cadences, is a striking feature of the
+Bach fugue. His "Suites" exalted forever the familiar dance tunes of the
+German people. His wonderful "Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue" ushered the
+recitative into purely instrumental music.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As a teacher he was genial, kind, encouraging and in every respect a
+model. He obliged his pupils to write and understand as well as sound
+the notes. In his noble modesty he never held himself aloof as superior
+to others. When pupils were discouraged he reminded them how hard he had
+always been compelled to work, and assured them that equal industry
+would lead them to success. He gave the thumb its proper place on the
+keyboard, and materially improved fingering. Tranquillity and poetic
+beauty being prime essentials of his playing, he preferred to the more
+brilliant harpsichord, or spinet, the clavichord, whose thrilling,
+tremulous tone, owing to its construction, was exceedingly sensitive to
+the player's touch. The early hammer-clavier, or pianoforte, invented in
+1711, by the Italian Cristofori, who derived the hammer idea from the
+dulcimer, did not attract him because of its extreme crudeness.
+Nevertheless, it was destined to develop into the musical instrument
+essential to the perfect interpretation of his clavier music.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>His son and pupil, Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788), proceeding on the
+principles established by his illustrious father, prepared the way for
+the modern pianist. His important theoretical work, "The True Art of
+Clavier Playing," was pronounced by Haydn the school of schools for all
+time. It was highly extolled by Mozart, and to it Clementi ascribed his
+knowledge and skill. In his compositions he was an active agent in the
+crystallization of the sonata form. From him Haydn gained much that he
+later transferred to the orchestra.</p>
+
+<p>Impulse to the second period of clavier virtuosity was given by Wolfgang
+Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832). Mozart, who
+led the Viennese school, developed the singing style of playing and the
+smooth flowing legato. Leaving behind him the triumphs of his
+wonder-boyhood with spinet and harpsichord, he boldly entered the public
+concert-hall with the pianoforte, now greatly advanced by the
+improvements of Silbermann. Mozart brought into use its special
+features, showed its capacity for tone-shading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> and for the reflection
+of sentiment, and may well be said to have launched it on its career.
+Tradition declares that his hand was fashioned for clavier keys, and
+that its graceful movements afforded the eye no less pleasure than the
+ear. His noble technique, based on his profound study of the Bachs, was
+spiritualized by his own glowing fancy. In his playing, as in his
+compositions, every note was a pearl of great price. With his piano
+concertos he showed how clavier and orchestra may converse earnestly
+together without either having its individuality marred. The same
+equilibrium is maintained in his piano and violin sonatas and his other
+concerted chamber music, amid all their persuasive and eloquent
+discourse. His charming four-hand and double piano pieces, written for
+himself and his gifted sister Marianne, and his solo clavier sonatas
+would prove his wealth of musical invention had he not written another
+note.</p>
+
+<p>Clementi, born in Rome, passed most of his life in London, where he
+attracted many pupils. Without great creative genius, he occupied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+himself chiefly with the technical problems of the pianoforte. He opened
+the way for the sonority of tone and imposing diction of the modern
+style. His music abounded in bold, brilliant passages of single and
+double notes. He is even credited with having trilled in octaves with
+one hand. Taking upon himself the management of an English piano
+factory, he extended the keyboard, in 1793, to five and a half octaves.
+Seven octaves were not reached until 1851. His "Gradus ad Parnassum"
+became the parent of Etude literature. Carl Tausig said: "There is but
+one god in technique, Bach, and Clementi is his prophet."</p>
+
+<p>Losing the spirituality of a Mozart the Viennese school was destined to
+degenerate into empty bravura playing. Before its downfall it produced a
+Hummel, a Moscheles and a Czerny, each of whom left in their piano
+studies a valuable bequest to technique. Karl Czerny (1791-1857), called
+king of piano teachers, numbered among his pupils, Liszt, Doehler,
+Thalberg and Jaell. The Clementi school was continued in that familiar
+writer of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> Etudes, Johann Baptist Cramer (1771-1858), and began to show
+respect for the damper pedal. Its most eminent virtuoso was John Field
+(1782-1837) of Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>Between these two schools stood Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827), a
+giant on lofty heights. Every accent of his dramatic music was embodied
+in his piano compositions. Tones furnished him unmistakably a language
+that needed no commentary. "In him," says Oscar Bie, "there were no
+tricks of technique to be admired, no mere virtuosity to praise; but he
+stirred his hearers to the depths of their hearts. Amid his storm and
+stress, whispering and listening, his awakening of the soul, an original
+naturalism of piano-playing was recognized, side by side with the
+naturalism of his creative art. Rhythm was the life of his playing." A
+union of conception and technique was a high aim of Beethoven, and he
+prized the latter only as it fulfilled the requirements of his idealism.
+"The high development of the mechanical in pianoforte playing," he wrote
+to a friend, "will end in banishing all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> genuine emotion from music."
+His prophetic words might serve as a warning to-day.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image005"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image005.jpg"
+alt="LILLIAN NORDICA" title="LILLIAN NORDICA" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">LILLIAN NORDICA</p>
+
+<p>The past century has given us the golden age of the pianoforte. Advanced
+knowledge of acoustics and improved methods of construction have made it
+the magnificent instrument we know in concert hall and home, and to
+which we now apply the more intimate name, piano. Oscar Bie calls it the
+music teacher of all mankind that has become great with the growth of
+modern music. As a photograph may convey to the home an excellent
+conception of a master painting in some distant art gallery, so the
+piano, in addition to the musical creations it has inspired, may present
+to the domestic circle intelligent reproductions of mighty choral,
+operatic and instrumental works. Through its medium the broad field of
+musical history and literature may be surveyed in private with profit
+and pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Piano composers and virtuosos rapidly increase. Carl Maria von Weber
+(1786-1826) stood on the threshold of the fairyland of romance. His
+scheme of a dialogue, in the open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>ing adagio of his "Invitation to the
+Dance," followed by an entrancing waltz and a grave concluding dialogue,
+betokens what he might have accomplished for the piano had he lived
+longer. Franz Schubert (1797-1828) and Robert Schumann (1810-1856) were
+the evangelists par excellence of the new romantic school. Schubert,
+closely allied in spirit to the master-builder, Beethoven, was
+unsurpassed in the refinement of his musical sentiment. The melody
+flooding his soul beautified his piano compositions, to which only a
+delicate touch may do justice. His Impromptus and Moments Musical, small
+impressionist pieces, in which isolated musical ideas are clothed in
+brief artistic forms adapted to the timbre of the instrument, may well
+be thought to have placed piano literature on a new basis.</p>
+
+<p>The romantic temperament of Robert Schumann was nurtured on German
+romantic literature and music. His impressions of nature, life and
+literature he imprisoned in tones. He was a profound student of Bach, to
+whom he traced "the power of combination, poetry and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> humor in the new
+music." Infusing his own vital emotions into polyphonic forms he gave
+the piano far grander tone-pictures than those of Couperin. The dreamy
+fervor and the glowing fire of an impassioned nature may be felt in his
+works, but also many times the lack of balance that belongs with the
+malady by which he was assailed.</p>
+
+<p>His love of music became early interwoven with love for Clara, the
+gifted daughter and pupil of his teacher, Friedrich Wieck. To her he
+dedicated his creative power. An attempt to gain flexibility by means of
+a mechanical contrivance having lamed his fingers, he turned from a
+pianist's career to composition and musical criticism. In becoming his
+wife Clara gave him both hands in more senses than one, and they shone
+together as a double star in the art firmament. Madame Schumann had
+acquired a splendid foundation for her career through the wise guidance
+of her father, whose pedagogic ideas every piano student might consider
+with profit. Her playing was distinguished by its musicianly
+intelligence and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> fine artistic feeling. Earnest simplicity surrounded
+her public and her private life, and the element of personal display was
+wholly foreign to her. She was the ideal woman, artist and teacher who
+remained in active service until a short time before her death, in 1896.</p>
+
+<p>Those were charmed days in Leipsic when the Schumanns and Mendelssohn
+formed the centre of an enthusiastic circle of musicians, and created a
+far-reaching musical atmosphere. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), in his
+work for the piano, adapted to drawing-room use technical devices of his
+day, and in his "Songs without Words" gave a decisive short-story form
+to piano literature. His playing is described as possessing an organ
+firmness of touch without organ ponderosity, and having an expression
+that moved deeply without intoxicating. Living in genial surroundings,
+he was never forced to struggle, and although he climbed through flowery
+paths, he never reached the goal he longed for until his heart broke.</p>
+
+<p>Delicate, sensitive, fastidious, Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Cho<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>pin (1809-1849) delivered
+his musical message with persuasive eloquence through the medium of the
+piano. It was his chosen comrade. With it he exchanged the most subtle
+confidences. Gaining a profound knowledge of its resources he raised it
+to an independent power. Polish patriotism steeped in Parisian elegance
+shaped his genius, and his compositions portray the emotions of his
+people in exquisitely polished tonal language. Spontaneous as was his
+creative power he was most painstaking in regard to the setting of his
+musical ideas and would often devote weeks to re-writing a single page
+that every detail might be perfect. The best that was in him he gave to
+music and to the piano. He enlarged the musical vocabulary, he
+re-created and enriched technique and diction, and to him the musician
+of to-day owes a debt that should never be forgotten. "He is of the race
+of eagles," said his teacher, Elsner. "Let all who aspire follow him in
+his flights toward regions sublime."</p>
+
+<p>The man who, by his demands on the piano, induced improvements in its
+manufacture that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> materially increased its sonority and made it
+available for the modern idea, was Franz Liszt (1811-1886). He will
+always be remembered as the creator of orchestral piano-playing and of
+the symphonic poem. The impetuous rhythms and unfathomable mysteries of
+Magyar and gipsy life surrounding him in Hungary, the land of his birth,
+strongly influenced the shaping of his genius. Like the wandering
+children of nature who had filled the dreams of his childhood, he became
+a wanderer and marched a conqueror, radiant with triumphs, through the
+musical world. Chopin, who shrank from concert-playing, once said to
+him: "You are destined for it. You have the force to overwhelm, control,
+compel the public."</p>
+
+<p>The bewitching tones of the gipsy violinist, Bihary, had fallen on his
+boyish ears "like drops of some fiery, volatile essence," stimulating
+him to effort. On the threshold of manhood he was inspired to apply the
+methods of Paganini to the piano. All his early realistic and
+revolutionary ideas found vent in his pianistic achievements. He gained
+marvelous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> fulness of chord power, great dynamic variety, and numerous
+unexpected solutions of the tone problem. Many technical means of
+expression were invented by him, and a wholly new fingering was required
+for his purposes. He taught the use of a loose wrist, absolute
+independence of the fingers and a new manipulation of the pedals. To
+carry out his designs the third or sustaining pedal became necessary.
+His highest ambition, in his own words, was "to leave to piano players
+the foot-prints of attained advance." In 1839 he ventured on the first
+pure piano recital ever given in the concert hall. His series of
+performances in this line, covering the entire range of piano
+literature, in addition to his own compositions, given entirely without
+notes, led the public to expect playing by heart from all other artists.</p>
+
+<p>As a great pianist, a composer of original conceptions, a magnetic
+conductor, an influential teacher, an intelligent writer on musical
+subjects and a devoted promoter of the interests of art, he stands out
+in bold relief, one of the grand figures in the history of music. His<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+piano paraphrases and transcriptions are poetic re-settings of
+tone-creations he had thoroughly assimilated and made his own. In his
+original works, which Saint-Sa&euml;ns was perhaps the first to appreciate,
+students are now beginning to discover the ripe fruits of his genius.
+Faithful ones among the pupils who flocked about him in classic Weimar
+spread wide his influence, but also much harm was done in his name by
+charlatans who, calling themselves Liszt pupils, cast broadcast the
+fallacy that piano pounding was genuine pianistic power.</p>
+
+<p>Large hearted, liberal minded, whole souled in his devotion to his art
+and its true interests, Franz Liszt seemed wholly without personal
+jealousies, and befriended and brought into public notice a large number
+of artists. Hector Berlioz declared that to him belonged "the sincere
+admiration of earnest minds, as well as the involuntary homage of the
+envious." At the opening of the Baireuth Temple of German Art, in 1876,
+Richard Wagner paid him this tribute in the midst of a joyful company:
+"Here is one who first gave me faith in my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> work when no one knew
+anything of me. But for him, my dear friend, Franz Liszt, you might not
+have had a note from me to-day."</p>
+
+<p>A rival of Liszt in the concert field, especially before a Parisian
+public, was Sigismund Thalberg (1812-1871), who visited this country in
+1855 and literally popularized the piano in America. Alfred Jaell and
+Henri Herz, who had preceded him, doubtless prepared the way for his
+triumphs. He and the "Creole Chopin," Louis Moreau Gottschalk, attracted
+much attention by several joint appearances in our musical centres of
+the time. Thalberg was a pupil of Hummel, and felt the influence of his
+teacher's cold, severely classic style. He possessed a well-trained,
+fascinating mechanism, with scales, chords, arpeggios and octaves that
+were marvels of neatness and accuracy, and a tone that was mellow and
+liquid, though lacking in warmth. His operatic transcriptions, in which
+a central melody is enfolded in arabesques, chords and running passages,
+have long since become antiquated, but his art of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> singing on the piano
+and many of his original studies still remain valuable to the pianist.</p>
+
+<p>When Liszt and Thalberg were in possession of the concert platform, they
+occupied the attention of cartoonists as fully as Paderewski at a later
+date. Liszt, his hair floating wildly, was represented as darting
+through the air on wide-stretched pinions with keyboards attached&mdash;a
+play on Fl&uuml;gel, the German for grand piano. Thalberg, owing to his
+dignified repose, was caricatured as posing in a stiff, rigid manner
+before a box of keys.</p>
+
+<p>Rubinstein and Von B&uuml;low offer two more contrasting personalities. Anton
+Rubinstein (1830-1894) was the impressionist, the subjective artist, who
+re-created every composition he played. The Russian tone-colorist he has
+been called, and the warmth and glow with which he invested every nuance
+can never be forgotten by those who were privileged to hear his Titanic
+interpretations, over whose very blemishes was cast the glamor of the
+impassioned temperament that caused them. "May Heaven forgive me for
+every wrong note I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> have struck!" he exclaimed to a youthful admirer
+after one of his concerts in this country during the season of 1872-3.
+Certainly the listener under the spell of his magnetism could forgive,
+almost forget. Hans von B&uuml;low (1830-1894) was the objective artist,
+whose scholarly attainments and musicianly discernment unraveled the
+most tangled web of phrasing and interpretation. His Beethoven recitals,
+when he was in America in 1875-6, were of especial value to piano
+students. As a piano virtuoso, a teacher, a conductor and an editor of
+musical works, he was a marked educational factor in music.</p>
+
+<p>In his youth Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), the great apostle of modern
+intellectual music, made his d&eacute;but before the musical world as a
+brilliant and versatile pianist. Once, when about to play in public
+Beethoven's magnificent Kreutzer Sonata, with Remenyi, who was the first
+to recognize his genius, he discovered that the piano was half a tone
+below concert pitch, and rather than spoil the effect by having the
+violin tuned down, the boy of nineteen unhesi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>tatingly transposed the
+piano part which he was playing from memory into a higher key. The fire,
+energy and breadth of his rendering, together with the splendid
+musicianship displayed by this feat, deeply impressed the great
+violinist Joachim, who was present, and who became enthusiastic in his
+praise. Schumann, on making his acquaintance, proclaimed the advent of a
+genius who wrote music in which the spirit of the age found its
+consummation, and who, at the piano, unveiled wonders. By others he has
+been called the greatest contrapuntist after Bach, the greatest
+architectonist after Beethoven, the man of creative power who
+assimilated the older forms and invested them with a new life entirely
+his own. His piano works are a rich addition to the pianist's store, but
+whoever would unveil their beautiful proportions, all aglow as they are
+with sacred fire, must have taken a master's degree.</p>
+
+<p>Two pupils of Liszt stand out prominently&mdash;Carl Tausig (1841-1871) and
+Eugene D'Albert (1864- &mdash;&mdash;). The first was dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>tinguished by his
+extraordinary sense for style, and was thought to surpass his master in
+absolute flawlessness of technique. To the second Oscar Bie attributes
+the crown of piano playing in our time. Peter Iljitch Tschaikowsky
+(1840-1893), the distinguished representative of the modern Russian
+school, was an original, dramatic and fertile composer and wrote for the
+piano some of his highly colored and very characteristic music. Edward
+Grieg (1843- &mdash;&mdash;), the national tone-poet of Norway, has given the
+piano some of his most delightful efforts, fresh with the breezes of the
+North.</p>
+
+<p>The veteran French composer, Charles Camille Saint-Sa&euml;ns (1835- &mdash;&mdash;),
+has won great renown as a pianist, and was one of the most precocious
+children on record, having begun the study of the piano when under three
+years of age. He was the teacher that knew how to develop the
+individuality of the young Russian, Leopold Godowsky, who has done such
+remarkable work on two continents, as a teacher and piano virtuoso.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most famous piano teacher of recent times is Theodore
+Leschetitzky, of Vienna. His method is that of common sense, based on
+keen analytical faculties, and he never trains the hand apart from the
+musical sense. His most renowned pupil is Ignace Jan Paderewski, the
+magnetic Pole, whose exquisite touch and tone long made him the idol of
+the concert room, and who, with time, has gained in robustness, but also
+in recklessness of style. Another gifted pupil of the Viennese master is
+Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler, of Chicago, an artiste of rare temperament,
+musical feeling and nervous power, of whom Dr. Hanslick said that her
+virtuosity was stupendous, her delicacy in the finest florid work as
+marvelous as her fascinating energy in the forte passages.</p>
+
+<p>The great tidal wave set in motion by the piano has swept over the
+civilized world, carrying with it hosts of accomplished pianists. Of
+some of those who are familiar figures in our musical centres it has
+been said that Teresa Carre&ntilde;o learned from Rubinstein the art of piano
+necromancy; that Rosenthal is an amaz<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>ing technician whose
+interpretations lack tenderness; that De Pachmann is on terms of
+intimacy with Chopin, and that Rafael Joseffy, the disciple of Tausig,
+combines all that is best in the others with striking methods of his
+own.</p>
+
+<p>Great is the piano, splendid its literature, many its earnest students,
+numerous its worthy exponents. That it is so often made a means of empty
+show is not the fault of the piano, it is due to a tendency of the day
+that calls for superficial glamor. Herbert Spencer was not so wrong as
+some of the critics seem to think when, in his last volume, he said that
+teachers of music and music performers were often corrupters of music.
+Those certainly are corrupters of music who use the piano solely for
+meaningless technical feats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h2>The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin</h2>
+
+
+<p>"The piano bard, the piano rhapsodist, the piano mind, the piano soul is
+Chopin," said Rubinstein. "Tragic, romantic, lyric, heroic, dramatic,
+fantastic, soulful, sweet, dreamy, brilliant, grand, simple, all
+possible expressions are found in his compositions and all are sung by
+him on his instrument."</p>
+
+<p>In these few, bold strokes one who knew him by virtue of close art and
+race kinship, presents an incomparable outline sketch of the Polish
+tone-poet who explored the harmonic vastness of the pianoforte and made
+his own all its mystic secrets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Born and bred on Poland's soil, son of a French father and a Polish
+mother, Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Chopin (1809-1849) combined within himself two natures,
+each complementing the other, both uniting to form a personality not
+understood by every casual observer. He is described as kind, courteous,
+possessed of the most captivating grace and ease of manner, now inclined
+to languorous melancholy, now scintillating with a joyous vivacity that
+was contagious. His sensitive nature, like the most exquisitely
+constructed sounding-board, vibrated with the despairing sadness, the
+suppressed wrath, and the sublime fortitude of the brave, haughty,
+unhappy people he loved, and with his own homesickness when afar from
+his cherished native land.</p>
+
+<p>Patriot and tone-poet in every fibre of his being, his genius inevitably
+claimed as its own the soul's divinest language, pure music, unfettered
+by words. The profound reserve of his nature made it peculiarly
+agreeable to him to gratify the haunting demands of his lyric muse
+through the medium of the one musical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> instrument that lends itself in
+privacy to the exploitation of all the mysteries of harmony. Strong
+conviction in regard to his own calling and clear perception of the
+hidden powers and future mission of the piano early compelled him to
+consecrate to it his unfaltering devotion. He evolved from its more
+intimate domain effects in sympathy with those of the orchestra, yet
+purely individual. He enriched it with new melodic, harmonic and
+rhythmic devices adapted to itself alone, and endowed it with a warmth
+of tone-coloring that spiritualized it for all time.</p>
+
+<p>To the piano he confided all the conflicts that raged within him, all
+the courage and living hope that sustained him. In giving tonal form to
+the deep things of the soul, which are universal in their essence and
+application, he embodied universal rather than merely individual
+emotional experiences, and thus unbared what was most sacred to himself
+without jarring on the innate reticence which made purely personal
+confidences impossible. Although his mode of expression was peculiarly
+his own, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> had received a strong impulse from the popular music of
+Poland. As a child he had become familiar with the folk-songs and dances
+heard in the harvest-fields and at market and village festivals. They
+were his earliest models; on them were builded his first themes. As Bach
+glorified the melodies of the German people, so Chopin glorified those
+of the Poles. The national tonality became to him a vehicle to be
+freighted with his own individual conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>"I should like to be to my people what Uhland was to the Germans," he
+once said to a friend. He addressed himself to the heart of this people
+and immortalized its joys, sorrows and caprices by the force of his
+splendid art. Those who have attempted to interpret him as the
+sentimental hero of minor moods, the tone-poet in whom the weakness of
+despair predominates, have missed the leaping flames, the vivid
+intensity and the heroic manliness permeated with genuine love of beauty
+that animated him. True art softens the harshest accents of suffering by
+placing superior to it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> some elevating idea. So in the most melancholy
+strains of his music one who heeds well may detect the presence of a
+lofty ideal that uplifts and strengthens the travailing soul. It has
+been said of him that he had a sad heart but a joyful mind.</p>
+
+<p>The two teachers of Chopin were Adalbert Zwyny, a Bohemian violinist,
+who taught the piano, and Joseph Elsner, a violinist, organist and
+theorist. "From Zwyny and Elsner even the greatest dunce must learn
+something," he is quoted as saying. Neither of these men attempted to
+hamper his free growth by rigid technical restraints. Their guidance
+left him master of his own genius, at liberty to "soar like the lark
+into the ethereal blue of the skies." He respected them both. A revering
+affection was cherished by him for Elsner, to whom he owed his sense of
+personal responsibility to his art, his habits of serious study and his
+intimate acquaintance with Bach.</p>
+
+<p>There is food for thought in the fact that this Prince Charming of the
+piano, whose magic touch awakened the Sleeping Beauty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the instrument
+of wood and wires, never had a lesson in his life from a mere piano
+specialist. Liszt once said Chopin was the only pianist he ever knew
+that could play the violin on the piano. If he could do so it was
+because he had harkened to the voice of the violin and resolved to show
+that the piano, too, could produce thrilling effects. In the same way he
+had listened to the human voice, and determined that the song of his own
+instrument should be heard. Those who give ear to the piano alone will
+never learn the secret of calling forth its supreme eloquence.</p>
+
+<p>We can see and hear this "Raphael of Music" at the piano, so many and so
+eloquent have been the descriptions given of his playing. It is easy to
+fancy him sweeping the ivory keys with his gossamer touch that enveloped
+with ethereal beauty the most unaccustomed of his complicated chromatic
+modulations. We can feel his individuality pulsating through every tone
+evoked by those individualized fingers of his as they weave measures for
+sylphs of dreamland, or summon to warfare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> heroes of the ideal world. We
+are entranced by his luxuriant tone-coloring, induced to a large extent
+by his original management of the pedals. We marvel at his softly
+whispered, yet ever clearly distinct pianissimo, at the full, round tone
+of its relative fortissimo, that was never harsh or noisy, and at all
+the exquisitely graded nuances that lay between, with those time
+fluctuations expressive of the ebb and flow of his poetic inner being.
+No wonder Balzac maintained that if Chopin should but drum on the table
+his fingers would evoke subtle-sounding music.</p>
+
+<p>And what an example he has left for teachers. Delicately strung as he
+was, he must often have endured tortures from the best of his pupils,
+but so thoroughly was he consecrated to his art that he never faltered
+in his efforts to lift those who confided in him to the a&euml;rial heights
+he had found. A vivid picture of his method of teaching is given in the
+lectures on "Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Chopin's Works and Their Proper Interpretation,"
+by the Pole, Jean Kleczynski.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The basis of this method consisted in refinement of touch, for the
+attainment of which a natural, easy position of the hand was considered
+by Chopin a prime requisite. He prepared each hand with infinite care
+before permitting any attempt at the reproduction of musical ideas. In
+order to place it to advantage he caused it to be thrown lightly on the
+keyboard so that the five fingers rested on the notes E, F sharp, G
+sharp, A sharp and B, and without change of position required the
+practice of exercises calculated to insure independence. The pupil was
+instructed to go through these exercises first staccato, effected by a
+free movement of the wrist, an admirable means of counteracting
+heaviness and clumsiness, then legato-staccato, then accented legato,
+then pure legato, modifying the power from pp to ff, and the movement
+from andante to prestissimo.</p>
+
+<p>He was exceedingly particular about arpeggio work, and insisted upon the
+repetition of every note and passage until all harshness and roughness
+of tone were eliminated. "Is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> a dog barking?" he was known to
+exclaim to an unlucky pupil whose attack in the opening arpeggio of a
+Clementi study lacked the desired quality. A very independent use of the
+thumb was prescribed by him. He never hesitated about placing it on a
+black key when convenient, and had it passed by muscle action alone in
+scales and broken chords whose zealous practice in different forms of
+touch, accent, rhythm and tone were demanded by him.</p>
+
+<p>Individualization of the fingers was one of his strong points, and he
+believed in assigning to each of them its appropriate part. "In a good
+mechanism," he said, "the aim is not to play everything with an equal
+sound, but to acquire beautiful quality of touch and perfect shading."
+Of prime importance in his eyes was a clear, elastic, singing tone, one
+whose exquisite delicacy could never be confounded with feebleness.
+Every dynamic nuance he exacted of fingers that fell with freedom and
+elasticity on the keys, and he knew how to augment the warmth and
+richness of tone-coloring by setting in vibration sympathetic harmonics<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+of the principal notes through judicious employment of the damper pedal.</p>
+
+<p>By precept and example he advocated frequent playing of the preludes and
+fugues of Bach as a means of cultivating musical intelligence, muscular
+independence and touch and tone discrimination. His musical heroes were
+Bach and Mozart, for they represented to him nature, strong
+individuality and poetry in music. At one time he undertook to write a
+method or school of piano-playing, but never progressed beyond the
+opening sentences. A message directly from him would have been
+invaluable to students, and might have averted many unlucky
+misapprehensions of himself and his works. Those of his contemporaries
+who have harkened with rapture to his playing have declared that he
+alone could adequately interpret his tone-creations, or make perfectly
+intelligible his method. Pupils of his and their pupils have faithfully
+endeavored to transmit to the musical world the tradition of his
+individual style. The elect few have come into touch with his vision of
+beauty, but it has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> been mercilessly misinterpreted by thousands of
+ruthless aspirants to musical honors, in the schoolroom, the students'
+recital and the concert hall.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever plays Chopin with sledge-hammer fingers will deaden all sense of
+his poetry, charm and grace. Whoever approaches him with weak
+sentimentalism will miss altogether his dignity and strength. It has
+been said of him that he was Woman in his tenderness and realization of
+the beautiful; and Man in his energy and force of mind. The highest type
+of artist and human being is thus represented. To interpret him requires
+simplicity, purity of style, refined technique, poetic imagination and
+genuine sentiment&mdash;not fitful, fictitious sentimentality.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the much discussed tempo rubato of Chopin many and fatal
+blunders have been made. Players without number have gone stumbling over
+the piano keys with a tottering, spasmodic gait, serenely fancying they
+are heeding the master's design. Reckless, out-of-time playing
+disfigures what is meant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> to express the fluctuation of thought, the
+soul's agitation, the rolling of the waves of time and eternity. The
+rubato, from rubare, to rob, represents a pliable movement that is
+certainly as old as the Greek drama in declamation, and was employed in
+intoning the Gregorian chant. The recitative of the sixteenth century
+gave it prominence, and it passed into instrumental music. Indications
+of it in Bach are too often neglected. Beethoven used it effectively.
+Chopin appropriated it as one of his most potent auxiliaries. In playing
+he emphasized the saying of Mozart: "Let your left hand be the orchestra
+conductor," while his right hand balanced and swayed the melody and its
+arabesques according to the natural pulsation of the emotions. "You see
+that tree," exclaimed Liszt; "its leaves tremble with every breath of
+the wind, but the tree remains unshaken&mdash;that is the rubato." There are
+storms to which even the tree yields. To realize them, to divine the
+laws which regulate the undulating, tempest-tossed rubato, requires
+highly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> matured artistic taste and absolute musical control.</p>
+
+<p>Too sensitive to enjoy playing before miscellaneous audiences whose
+unsympathetic curiosity, he declared, paralyzed him, Chopin was at his
+best when interpreting music in private, for a choice circle of friends
+or pupils, or when absorbed in composition. It is not too much to say
+for him that he ushered in a new era for his chosen instrument,
+spiritualizing its timbre, liberating it from traditional orchestral and
+choral effects, and elevating it to an independent power in the world of
+music. Besides enriching the technique of the piano, he augmented the
+materials of musical expression, contributing fresh charms to those
+prime factors of music melody, harmony and rhythm. New chord extensions,
+passages of double notes, arabesques and harmonic combinations were
+devised by him and he so systematized the use of the pedals that the
+most varied nuances could be produced by them.</p>
+
+<p>In melody and general conception his tone-poems sprang spontaneously
+from his glowing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> fancy, but they were subjected to the most severe
+tests before they were permitted to go out into the world. Every
+ingenious device that gave character to his exquisite cantilena, and
+softened his most startling chord progressions, was evolved by the vivid
+imagination of this master from hitherto hidden qualities of the
+pianoforte. Without him neither it nor modern music could have been what
+it is. An accentuation like the ringing of distant bells is frequently
+heard in his music. To him bell tones were ever ringing, reminding him
+of home, summoning him to the heights.</p>
+
+<p>James Huneker, the raconteur of the Musical Courier, discussing the
+compositions of Chopin, in his delightful and inspiring book, "Chopin,
+the Man and His Music," calls the studies Titanic experiments; the
+preludes, moods in miniature; the nocturnes, night and its melancholy
+mysteries; the ballades, faery dramas; the polonaises, heroic hymns of
+battle; the valses and mazurkas, dances of the soul; the scherzos, the
+work of Chopin the conqueror. In the sonatas and concertos he sees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> the
+princely Pole bravely carrying his banner amid classical currents. For
+the impromptus alone he has found no name and says of them: "To write of
+the four impromptus in their own key of unrestrained feeling and
+pondered intention would not be as easy as recapturing the first
+'careless rapture of the lark.'"</p>
+
+<p>Unquestionably the poetry of Chopin is of the most exquisite lyric
+character, his leadership is supreme. So original was his conception, so
+finished his workmanship, so sublime his purpose, that we may well
+exclaim with Schumann, "He is the boldest, proudest poetic spirit of the
+time." "His greatness is his aristocracy," says Oscar Bie. "He stands
+among musicians in his faultless vesture, a noble from head to foot."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="image006"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image006.jpg"
+alt="PAGANINI" title="PAGANINI" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">PAGANINI</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>Violins and Violinists&mdash;Fact and Fable</h2>
+
+
+<p>That fine old bard who shaped the character of Volker the Fiddler in the
+Nibelungen Lay, had a glowing vision of the power of music and of the
+violin. Players on the videl, or fiddle, abounded in the days of
+chivalry, but Volker, glorified by genius, rises superior to his fellow
+minstrels. The inspiring force of his martial strains renewed the
+courage of way-worn heroes. His gentle measures, pure and melodious as a
+prayer, lulled them to sorely-needed rest.</p>
+
+<p>And what a wonderful bow he wielded! It was mighty and long, fashioned
+like a sword,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> with a keen-edged outer blade, and in his good right hand
+could deal a deft blow on either side. Ever ready for action was he, and
+his friendship for Hagen of Tronje furnished the main elements of that
+grim warrior's power. Together they were long invincible, smiting the
+foe with giant strokes, accompanied by music.</p>
+
+<p>The modern German poet, Wilhelm Jordan, in his Sigfridsage, clothes
+Volker with the attributes of a violin king he loved, and represents him
+tenderly handling the violin. His noble portrayal of a violinist
+testifies no more fully to the mission of the musician than the creation
+of the Nibelungen bard. In August Wilhelmj, once hailed by Henrietta
+Sontag as the coming Paganini, Richard Wagner saw "Volker the Fiddler
+living anew, until death a warrior true." So he wrote in a dedicatory
+verse beneath a portrait of himself, presented to "Volker-Wilhelmj as a
+souvenir of the first Baireuth festival."</p>
+
+<p>The idea of a magic fiddle and a wonderworking fiddler was strongly
+rooted in the popular imagination of many peoples, through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> many ages.
+Typical illustrations are the Wonderful Musician of Grimm's Fairy Tales,
+whose fiddling attracted man and beast, and the lad of Norse folk-lore
+who won a fiddle that could make people dance to any tune he chose. In
+Norway the traditional violin teacher is the cascade-haunting musical
+genius Fossegrim, who, when suitably propitiated, seizes the right hand
+of one that seeks his aid and moves it across the strings until blood
+gushes from the finger-tips. Thenceforth the pupil becomes a master, and
+can make trees leap, rivers stay their course and people bow to his
+will.</p>
+
+<p>Those of us who were brought up on English nursery rhymes early loved
+the fiddle. Old King Cole, that merry old soul, was a prime favorite,
+notwithstanding his fondness for pipe and bowl, because when he called
+for them he called for his fiddlers three and their very fine fiddles.
+According to Robert of Gloucester, the real King Cole, a popular monarch
+of Britain in the third century, was the father of St. Helena, the
+zealous friend of church music. The nursery satire of doubtful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+antiquity is our sole evidence of his devotion to the art.</p>
+
+<p>That John who stoutly refused to sell his fiddle in order to buy his
+wife a gown placed the ideal above the material. It is to be hoped Mrs.
+John enjoyed music more than gay attire. Certainly the dame who was
+forced to dance without her shoe until the master found his
+fiddling-stick knew the worth of the fiddler's art.</p>
+
+<p>It may have been from a play on the word catgut that so many of these
+ditties represent pussy in relation with the fiddle. True fiddler's
+magic belonged to the cat whose fiddling made the cow jump over the
+moon, the little dog laugh and the dish run away with the spoon. Rarely
+accomplished too was the cat that came fiddling out of the barn with a
+pair of bagpipes under her arm, singing "Fiddle cum fee, the mouse has
+married the humble bee."</p>
+
+<p>Scientists tell us that crickets, grasshoppers, locusts and the like are
+fiddlers. Their hind legs are their fiddle-bows, and by drawing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> these
+briskly up and down the projecting veins of their wing-covers they
+produce the sounds that characterize them. Was it in imitation of these
+small winged creatures that man first experimented with the friction of
+bow and strings as a means of making music? Scarcely. It was the result
+of similar instinct on a larger human scale.</p>
+
+<p>String instruments played with a bow may be traced to a remote period
+among various Oriental peoples. An example of their simplest form exists
+in the ravanastron, or banjo-fiddle, supposed to have been invented by
+King Ravana, who reigned in Ceylon some 5,000 years ago. It is formed of
+a small cylindrical sounding-body, with a stick running through it for a
+neck, a bridge, and a single string of silk, or at most two strings. Its
+primitive bow was a long hairless cane rod which produced sound when
+drawn across the silk. Better tone was derived from strings plucked with
+fingers or plectrum, and so the rude contrivance remained long
+undeveloped.</p>
+
+<p>The European violin is the logical outcome<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> of the appliance of the bow
+to those progenitors of the pianoforte, the Greek monochord and lyre,
+precisely as our music is the outgrowth of the diatonic scale developed
+by the Greeks from those instruments. Numerous obstacles stand in the
+way of defining its story, but it is known that from the ninth century
+to the thirteenth bow instruments gained in importance. They divided
+into two classes&mdash;the viol proper, with flat back and breast and
+indented sides, to which belonged the veille, videl, or as it has been
+called, guitar-fiddle, and the pear-shaped type, such as the gigue and
+rebec. The latter is what Chaucer calls the rubible.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly an impulse was given the fiddle by the Moorish rebab, brought
+into Spain in the eighth century, but ancient Celtic bards had long
+before this used a bow instrument&mdash;the chrotta or crwth, derived from
+the lyre, which was introduced by the Romans in their colonizing
+expeditions. As early as 560 A. D., Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of
+Poitiers, wrote to the Duke of Champagne:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Let the barbarians praise thee with the harp,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Let the British crwth sing."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This instrument, whose name signifies bulging box, was common in
+Britain, and was used in Wales until a comparatively recent period. One
+of its distinguishing features was an opening in the lower part for the
+admission of the fingers while playing. A fine specimen is preserved in
+the South Kensington Museum, corresponding well to the following
+description by a Welsh poet of the fifteenth century: "A fair coffer
+with a bow, a girdle, a finger-board and a bridge; its value is a pound;
+it has a frontlet formed like a wheel with the short-nosed bow across.
+In its centre are the circled sounding-holes, and the bulging of its
+back is somewhat like an old man, but on its breast harmony reigns, from
+the sycamore melodious music is obtained. Six pegs, if we screw them,
+will tighten all its chords; six advantageous strings are found, which,
+in a skilful hand, produce a varied sound."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In this same museum is a curious wedge-shaped boxwood fiddle, decorated
+with allegorical scenes, and dated 1578. Dr. Burney states that it has
+no more tone than a violin with a sordine. It is said to have been
+presented by Queen Elizabeth to the Earl of Leicester, and bears both of
+their coats-of-arms in silver on the sounding-board. Besides her other
+accomplishments, the Virgin Queen, we are told, was a violinist. During
+her reign we find the violin mentioned among instruments accompanying
+the drama and various festivities, and viols of diverse kinds were
+freely used. Shakespeare, in Twelfth Night, has Sir Toby enumerate among
+Sir Andrew Aguecheek's attractions skill on the viol-de-gamboys, Sir
+Toby's blunder for the viola da gamba, a fashionable bass viol held
+between the knees. A part was written for this instrument in Bach's St.
+Matthew Passion, and a number of celebrated performers on it are
+recorded in the eighteenth century. Two of these were ladies, Mrs. Sarah
+Ottey and Miss Ford.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Violers and fiddlers formed an essential part of the retinue of many
+monarchs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Charles II., of
+England, had twenty-four at his court, with red bonnets and flaunting
+livery, who played for him while he was dining according to the custom
+he had known at the French court during his exile. Place was grudgingly
+yielded to the violin by friends of the less insistent viol. Butler, in
+Hudibras, styled it "a squeaking engine." Earlier writers mention "the
+scolding violin," and describing the Maypole dance tell of not hearing
+the "minstrelsie for the fiddling." Thus all along its course it has had
+its opponents and deriders as well as its friends.</p>
+
+<p>The soft-toned viol had deeply indented sides to permit a free use of
+the bow, was mostly supplied with frets like a guitar, and had usually
+from five to seven strings. Its different sizes corresponded with the
+soprano, contralto, tenor and bass of the human voice. An extremely
+interesting treble viol much in vogue in the eighteenth century was the
+viola<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> d'amore, with fourteen strings, the seven of gut and silver being
+supplemented by seven sympathetic wire strings running below the
+finger-board and tuned in unison with the bowstrings, vibrating
+harmoniously while these are played. A remarkably well preserved
+specimen of this instrument, made by Eberle of Prague, in 1733, and
+superbly carved on pegbox and scroll, is in the fine private violin
+collection of Mr. D. H. Carr, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is one of the
+few genuine viola d'amores extant. The owner says of it: "The tone is
+simply wonderful, mellow, pure and strong, and of that exquisite harmony
+that comes from the throne of Nature. I know of no other genuine viola
+d'amore, and it compares with the modern copies I have seen as a Raphael
+or a Rubens with some cheap lithograph." These modern copies are the
+result of recent efforts to revive the use of this fascinating
+instrument. A barytone of a kindred nature was the viola di bordone or
+drone viol, so called because there was a suggestion of the buzzing of
+drone-flies, or humble bees, in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> tones of its sympathetic strings,
+which often numbered as many as twenty-four. These violas recall the
+Hardanger peasant fiddle of Norway, of unknown origin and antiquity,
+whose delicate metallic under strings quaver tremulously and
+mysteriously when the bow sets in motion the main strings.</p>
+
+<p>At one time every family of distinction in Britain deemed a chest of
+viols, consisting for the most part of two trebles, two altos, a
+barytone and a bass, as indispensable to the household as the piano is
+thought to-day. It was made effective in accompanying the madrigal, that
+delightful flower of the Elizabethan age. Singers not always being
+available for all of the difficult voice parts viols of the same compass
+supplied the lack. It was but a step for masters of music to compose
+pieces marked "to be sung or played," thus contributing to the forces
+that were lifting instrumental music above mere accompaniment for song
+or dance.</p>
+
+<p>When musicians make demands musical instrument makers are ever ready to
+meet them, and the viol steadily improved. One who con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>tributed to its
+progress was Gasper Duiffoprugcar (1514-1572) a luthier and mosaic
+inlayer, known in the Tyrol, in Bologna, Paris and Lyons. The belief
+that he originated the violin rests chiefly on the elaborately
+ornamented forgeries bearing his name, the work of French imitators from
+1800 to 1840. There is an etching, supposed to be a copy of a portrait
+of himself carved on one of his viols with this motto: "I lived in the
+wood until I was slain by the relentless axe. In life I was silent, but
+in death my melody is exquisite."</p>
+
+<p>The words might apply to the perfected violin, whose evolution was going
+on all through that period of literary and artistic activity known as
+the Renaissance. When or at whose hands it gained its present form is
+unknown. The same doubt encircles its first master player. Perhaps the
+earliest worthy of mention is one Baltzarini, a Piedmontese, appointed
+by Catherine de Medici, in 1577, to lead the music at the French court,
+and said to have started the heroic and historical ballet in France.</p>
+
+<p>He is sometimes confounded with Thomas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> Baltzar, a violinist of Lubec,
+who, in 1656 introduced the practice of shifting in London, where he
+wholly eclipsed David Mell, a much admired clockmaker fiddler, although
+the latter, as a contemporary stoutly averred, "played sweeter, was a
+well-bred gentleman, and was not given to excessive drinking as Baltzar
+was." His marvelous feat of "running his fingers to the end of the
+finger-board and back again with all alacrity" caused a learned Oxford
+connoisseur of music to look if he had hoofs. Notwithstanding the jovial
+tastes of this German, he was appointed leader, by Charles II., of the
+famous violins, and had the final honor of a burial in Westminster
+Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Here reposed also in due time his successor in the royal band, John
+Banister, who had been sent by the king to France for study, and who was
+the first Englishman, unless the amateur Mell be counted, to distinguish
+himself as a performer on the violin. He wrote music for Shakespeare's
+Tempest, and was the first to attempt, in London, concerts at which the
+audience paid for seats. Announcements of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> initial performance,
+September 30, 1672, read: "These are to give notice that at Mr.
+Banister's house (now called the Musick School) over against the George
+Tavern in White Friars, this present Monday will be performed musick by
+excellent masters, beginning precisely at four o'clock in the afternoon
+and every afternoon for the future at precisely the same hour."</p>
+
+<p>Credit for shaping the first violin has been given Gasparo Bertolotti
+(1542-1609), called Gasparo da Salo, from his birthplace, a suburb of
+Brescia, that pearl of Lombardy so long a bone of contention among
+nations. Violins were doubtless made before his time, but none are known
+to-day dated earlier than his. A pretty legend tells how this skilful
+viol-maker imprisoned in his first violin the golden tones of the
+soprano voice of Marietta, the maiden he loved and from whom death
+parted him. Her likeness, so the story runs, is preserved in the angel
+face, by Benevenuto Cellini, adorning the head. The instrument thus
+famed was purchased for 3,000 Neapolitan ducats by Cardinal
+Aldobrandini, who presented it to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> treasury at Innspr&uuml;ck. Here it
+remained as a curiosity until the French took the city in 1809, when it
+was carried to Vienna and sold to a wealthy Bohemian collector, after
+whose death it came into the possession of Ole Bull.</p>
+
+<p>Gasparo's pupil, Giovanni Paolo Maggini (1581-1631), improved the
+principles of violin-building, and gave the world the modern viola and
+violoncello. A rich viola-like quality characterizes the Maggini violin.
+De Beriot used one in his concerts, and its plaintive tone was thought
+well suited to his style. He refused to part with it for 20,000 francs
+when Wieniawski, in 1859, wished to buy it. To-day it would command a
+far higher price. It is stated on authority that not more than fifty
+instruments of its make now exist, although a large number of French
+imitations claim recognition.</p>
+
+<p>While Gasparo was founding the so-called Brescian school, Andrea Amati
+(1520-1580), a viol and rebec maker of picturesque Cremona, began to
+make violins, doubtless to fill the orders of his patrons. He must have
+be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>lieved the pinnacle of fame reached when King Charles IX. of France,
+in 1566, commissioned him to construct twenty-four violins, twelve large
+and twelve small pattern. They were kept in the Chapel Royal,
+Versailles, until 1790, when they were seized by the mob in the French
+Revolution, and but one of them is known to have escaped destruction.
+Heron-Allen, in his work on violin making, gives a picture of it,
+obtained through the courtesy of its owner, George Somers, an English
+gentleman. Its tone is described as mellow and extremely beautiful, but
+lacking in brilliancy.</p>
+
+<p>As the Amati brothers, Antonio and Geronimo (Hieronymous) Amati
+continued their father's trade, producing instruments similar to his.
+The family reached its flower in Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), son of
+Geronimo. He originated the "Grand Amatis," and attained a purer, more
+resonant tone than his predecessors, although not always adapted to
+modern concert use. One of his violins was the favorite instrument of
+the French virtuoso Delphine Jean Alard (1815-1888), long violin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+professor at the Paris Conservatoire. It has been described as sounding
+like the melodious voice of a child heard beside the rising tide.
+Another fine specimen was exhibited by Mr. J. D. Partello, in 1893, at
+the World's Fair, in Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>Nicolo Amati's influence was felt in his famous pupils. Foremost among
+these was Antonio Stradivarius (1644-1737), whose praises have been sung
+by poets, and whose life was one of unwavering service. His first
+attempts were mere copies, but after he was equipped with his master's
+splendid legacy of tools and wood, his originality asserted itself. His
+"Golden" period was from 1700 to 1725, but he accomplished good work
+until death overtook him. From his bench were sent out some seven
+thousand instruments, including tenors and violoncellos. Of these
+perhaps two thousand were violins.</p>
+
+<p>A romance encircling this master of Cremona tells that in youth he loved
+his master's daughter, but that failing to win her heart and hand, he
+gave himself wholly to his work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> He married, finally, a wealthy widow
+whose means enabled him to pursue his avocation undisturbed by monetary
+anxieties. His labors steadily increased the family property until "as
+rich as Stradivarius" became a common saying in Cremona. Because of his
+achievements and his personal worth, he was held in high esteem. Members
+of royal families, prelates of the church, men of wealth and culture
+throughout Europe, were his personal friends as well as his clients. His
+handsome home, with his workshop and the roofshed where he stored his
+wood, was, until recently, exhibited to visitors. To-day not a vestige
+of it remains. Weary of the importunities of relic-seekers, the
+Cremonese have torn it down, and have banished violins and every
+reminder of them from the town.</p>
+
+<p>The tone of a Stradivarius, in good condition, is round, full and
+exceedingly brilliant, and displays remarkable equality as the player
+passes from string to string. Dr. Joseph Joachim, owner of the famous
+Buda-Pesth Strad, writes of the maker that he "seems to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> given his
+violins a soul that speaks and a heart that beats." The Tuscan Strad,
+one of a set ordered by Marquis Ariberti for the Prince of Tuscany, in
+1690, was sold two hundred years later to Mr. Brandt by a London firm
+for &pound;2,000. Lady Hall&eacute;, court violinist to Queen Alexandra, owns the
+concert Strad of Ernst (1814-1865), composer of the celebrated Elegie,
+and values it at $10,000. A magnificent Stradivarius violin, with an
+exceedingly romantic history, belongs to Carl Gaertner, the veteran
+violinist and musician of Philadelphia, and could not be purchased at
+any price.</p>
+
+<p>Another violin-builder from Nicolo Amati's workshop was Andrea
+Guarnerius (1630-1695), whose sons, Giuseppe and Pietro, followed in his
+footsteps. The family name reached its highest distinction in his
+nephew, Giuseppe (Joseph) Guarnerius (1683-1745), called del Gesu,
+because on his labels the initials I. H. S., surmounted by a Roman
+cross, were placed after his name, indicating that he belonged to a
+Jesuit society.</p>
+
+<p>This Joseph of Cremona figures in story as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> man of fascinating,
+restless personality, who for weeks would squander time and talents and
+then set to work with a zeal equalling that of Master Stradivarius.
+Tradition has it that he was once imprisoned for some bit of
+lawlessness, and was saved from despair by the jailor's daughter who
+brought him the tools and materials required for violin-building. What
+he esteemed the masterpiece of his lonely cell he presented as a
+souvenir to his gentle friend.</p>
+
+<p>The violin about which this legend is woven, dated 1742, was bought by
+Ole Bull from the famous Tarisio collection, and is now the property of
+his son, Mr. Alexander Bull. It has an unusually rich, sonorous tone and
+splendid carrying powers. Similar qualities are attributed to the
+Paganini Guarnerius del Gesu, 1743, known as the "Canon" and kept under
+glass at the Genoa Museum. Mr. Hart, a violin authority, places highest
+in this make the "King Joseph," 1737, long in the private collections of
+Mr. Hawley, Hartford, Connecticut, and of Mr. Ralph Granger, Paradise
+Valley,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> California, and recently put on the market by Lyon &amp; Healy, of
+Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting Nicolo Amati pupil was Jacob Steiner (1621-1683), a
+Tyrolese, who, although bearing a glittering title, "violin maker to the
+Austrian Emperor," was harassed with financial perplexities and died
+insane. His most noted violins were the sixteen "Elector Steiners," one
+sent to each of the Electors and four to the Emperor. During his life
+the average price of his violins was six florins. A century after his
+death the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe's grandfather, paid 3,500
+florins for one of them. It is also recorded that an American gentleman
+on La Fayette's staff, in the Revolutionary War, exchanged for a Steiner
+1,500 acres of the tract where Pittsburg now stands. Mozart's violin, in
+the Mozarteum at Salzburg, is a Steiner.</p>
+
+<p>Many violin-makers did good work in the past, many are achieving success
+to-day. It has been confidently asserted that the violin reached its
+highest possibilities in the old Brescian and Cremona days. Why should
+this be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> the case? The same well-defined principles, based on acoustics
+and other modern sciences, that have led to the steady improvement of
+other musical instruments ought surely to be of some advantage to the
+violin. Indeed, who knows but the day may come when the present will be
+considered its golden age.</p>
+
+<p>While the men of Cremona were still fashioning their models the want of
+good strings was felt. This was met by Angelo Angelucci, known as the
+string-maker of Naples, a man who loved music and passed much time with
+violinists. Through his painstaking efforts such perfection was reached
+that Tartini, who was born the same year as he, 1692, could play his
+most difficult compositions two hundred times on the Angelucci strings,
+whereas he was continually interrupted by the snapping of others.
+Improvements in the bow, often called the tongue of the violin, are due
+to the house of Tourte, in Paris, in the eighteenth century, lightness,
+elasticity and spring coming to it from Francis Tourte, Jr.</p>
+
+<p>Three eminent virtuosi, Corelli, Tartini and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> Viotti, whose united
+careers spanned a period of 150 years, prepared the way for modern
+methods of violin-playing. Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) left his home
+in Fusignano, near Bologna, a young violinist, for an extended concert
+tour. His gentle, sensitive disposition proving unfitted to cope with
+the jealousy of Lully, chief violinist in France, and with sundry
+annoyances in other lands, he returned to Italy and entered the service
+of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome. In the private apartments of the prelate
+there gathered a choice company of music lovers every Monday afternoon
+to hear his latest compositions. Besides his solos these comprised
+groups of idealized dance tunes with harmony of mood for their bond of
+union, and played by two violins, a viola, violoncello and harpsichord.
+They were the parents of modern Chamber Music, the place of assemblage
+furnishing the name.</p>
+
+<p>Refined taste and purity of tone, we are told, distinguished the playing
+of Corelli, and to him are attributed the systematization of bowing and
+the introduction of chord-playing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> He heads the list of musicians who
+protest against talking where there is music. On one occasion when his
+patron was addressing some remarks to another person, he laid down his
+violin, and on being asked the reason said "he feared the music was
+disturbing the conversation." This did not prevent him from being held
+in the highest esteem. After his death Cardinal Ottoboni had a costly
+monument erected over his grave in the Pantheon, and for many years a
+solemn service, consisting of selections from his works, was performed
+there on the anniversary of his funeral.</p>
+
+<p>It was during a period of retirement in the monastery of Assisi that
+Giuseppi Tartini (1692-1770) resolved to quit the law course in the
+University of Padua and seek a career with his violin. He became a great
+master of this, a composer of works still regarded as classics, and a
+scientific writer on musical physics. His letter to his pupil, Signora
+Maddelena Lombardini, contains invaluable advice on violin practice and
+study, especially on the use of the bow, and his treatise on the
+acoustic phe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>nomenon known as "the third sound," together with his work
+on musical embellishments, may at any time be read with profit.</p>
+
+<p>It was after hearing the eccentric violinist Veracini that His Satanic
+Majesty appeared to Tartini in a dream and played for him a violin solo
+surpassing in marvelous character anything that he had ever heard or
+imagined. Trying to write it down in the morning he produced his famous
+"Devil's Sonata," with its double shakes and sinister laugh, a favorite
+of the violinist, but to the composer ever inferior to the music of his
+dreams. It is rather curious that anything of a diabolic nature should
+be associated with this man of amiable and gentle disposition, whose
+care of his scholars, according to Dr. Burney, was constantly paternal.
+Nardini, his favorite and most famous pupil, came from Leghorn to Padua
+to attend him, with filial devotion, in his last illness.</p>
+
+<p>The talents of Corelli and Tartini seem to have been combined in the
+Piedmontese, Giovanni Battiste Viotti (1753-1824), a man of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> poetic,
+philanthropic mind, whose sensitive, retiring disposition unfitted him
+for public life. Wherever he appeared he outshone all other performers,
+yet there was constantly something occurring to wound him. At the Court
+of Versailles he left the platform in disgust because the noisy entrance
+of a distinguished guest interrupted his concerto. In London, after his
+means had been crippled by the French Revolution, he was accused of
+political intrigue.</p>
+
+<p>While living in seclusion near Hamburg he composed some of his finest
+works, among them six violin duets, which he prefaced with the words:
+"This work is the fruit of leisure afforded me by misfortune. Some of
+the pieces were dictated by trouble, others by hope." At one time he
+embarked in a mercantile enterprise, in London, his transactions being
+regulated by the strictest integrity, but, as was inevitable, he soon
+returned to Paris and his art. After he had abandoned the concert room
+one of his greatest pleasures was in improvising violin parts to the
+piano per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>formances of his friend, Madame Montegerault, to the delight
+of all present. He never had more than seven or eight pupils, but his
+influence has been widely felt. Many anecdotes are told of his kindness
+and generosity, and it is an interesting fact that among those who
+sought his advice and patronage was no less a personage than Rossini.</p>
+
+<p>It must be because genius is little understood that its manifestations
+have so often been attributed to evil influences. The popular mind could
+only explain the achievements of the Genoese wizard of the bow, Nicolo
+Paganini (1784-1840) by the belief that he had sold himself body and
+soul to the devil who stood ever at his elbow when he played. When,
+after a taxing concert season, the weary violinist retired to a Swiss
+monastery for rest and practice amid peaceful surroundings, rumor had it
+that he was imprisoned for some dark deed. To crown the delusion, his
+spectre was long supposed to stalk abroad, giving fantastic performances
+on the violin. It is his apparition Gilbert Parker conjures up in "The
+Tall Master."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Paganini is described as a man of tall, gaunt figure, melancholy
+countenance and highly wrought nervous temperament. His successors have
+all profited by his development of the violin's resources, the result of
+combined genius and labor. He was practically a pioneer in the effective
+use of chords, arpeggio passages, octaves and tenths, double and triple
+harmonics and succession of harmonics in thirds and in sixths. His long
+fingers were of invaluable service to him in unusual stretches, and his
+fondness for pizzicato passages may be traced to his familiarity with
+the twang of his father's mandolin. He shone chiefly in his own
+compositions, which were written in keys best suited to the violin.
+Students will find all that he knew of his instrument and everything he
+did in his Le Stregghe (The Witches), the Rondo de la Clochette, and the
+Carnaval de Venise, which have been handed down precisely as he left
+them in manuscript.</p>
+
+<p>Signora Calcagno, who at one time dazzled Italy by the boldness and
+brilliancy of her violin playing, was his pupil when she was seven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+years old. The only other person who could boast having direct
+instructions from him was his young fellow townsman, Camillo Ernesto
+Sivori (1815-1894), who was in his day a great celebrity in European
+musical centres, and who was familiar to concert-goers in this country,
+especially in Boston, during the late forties and early fifties. He was
+thought to produce a small but electric tone, and to play invariably in
+tune. To him his master willed his Stradivarius violin, besides having
+given him in life the famous Vuillaume copy of his Guarnerius, a set of
+manuscript violin studies and a high artistic ideal.</p>
+
+<p>A scholarly teacher and composer for the violin was the German Ludwig
+Spohr (1784-1859), who was born the same year as the wizard Paganini,
+and who, although having less scintillant genius than the weird Italian,
+is believed to have had a more beneficent influence over violin playing
+in his treatment of the instrument. He set an example of purity of style
+and roundness of tone, and raised the violin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> concerto to its present
+dignity. His violin school is a standard work.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the nineteenth century to the present time the
+lists of excellent violinists have rapidly increased and heights of
+technical skill have been reached by many that would have dazzled early
+violin masters. The special tendencies of gifted leaders have divided
+players into defined schools. Among noted exponents of the French school
+may be mentioned Alard and his pupil Sarasate, Dancla and Sauret.
+Charles August de Beriot (1802-1870) was the actual founder of the
+Belgian school whose famous members include the names of Vieuxtemps,
+Leonard, Wieniawski, Thomson and Ysaye. Ferdinand David (1810-1873),
+first head of the violin department at the Leipsic Conservatory, gave
+impulse to the German school. Among his famous pupils are Dr. Joseph
+Joachim, known as one of the musical giants of the nineteenth century;
+August Wilhelmj, the favorite of Wagner, and Carl Gaertner, who, with
+his violin has done so much to cultivate a taste for classical music in
+Philadel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>phia. Among the many lady violinists who have attained a high
+degree of excellence are Madame Norman Neruda, now Lady Hall&eacute;, Teresina
+Tua, Camilla Urso, Geraldine Morgan, Maud Powell and Leonora Jackson.</p>
+
+<p>The only violinist whose memory was ever honored with public monuments
+was Ole Bull (1810-1880), who has been called the Paganini of the North.
+Two statues of him have been unveiled by his countrymen, one in his
+native city, Bergen, Norway, and one in Minneapolis, Minnesota. These
+tributes have been paid not so much to the violinist who swayed the
+emotions of an audience and who could sing a melody on his instrument
+into the hearts of his hearers, as to the patriot, the man who turned
+the eyes of the world to his sturdy little fatherland, and who gave the
+strongest impulse for everything it has accomplished in the past half
+century in art and in literature. Another patriot violinist was the
+Hungarian Eduard Remenyi (1830-1898), who first introduced Johannes
+Brahms to Liszt, and should always be remembered as the discoverer of
+Brahms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The great demand of the day in the violin field, as in that of other
+musical instruments, is for dazzling pyrotechnic feats. It has perhaps
+reached its climax in the young Bohemian Jan Kubelik, whose playing has
+been pronounced technically stupendous. In the mad rush for advanced
+technique, the soul of music it is meant to convey is, alas, too often
+forgotten.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image007"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image007.jpg"
+alt="JENNY LIND" title="JENNY LIND" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">JENNY LIND</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2>
+
+<h2>Queens of Song</h2>
+
+
+<p>Our first queen of song was Vittoria Archilei, that Florentine lady of
+noble birth who labored faithfully with the famous "Academy" to discover
+the secret of the Greek drama. It was she who furthered the success of
+the embryo operas of Emilio del Cavalieri, late in the sixteenth
+century, and roused enthusiasm by her splendid interpretation for Jacopo
+Peri's "Eurydice," the first opera presented to the public. She was
+called "Euterpe" by her Italian contemporaries because her superb voice,
+artistic skill, musical fire and intelligence fitted her to be the muse
+of music. Her memory has been too little honored.</p>
+
+<p>When Lully was giving opera to France he secured the co-operation of
+Marthe le Rochois,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> a gifted student of declamation and song at the
+Paris Acad&eacute;mie Royale de Musique, for whose establishment he had
+obtained letters patent in 1672. So great was his confidence in her
+judgment that he consulted her in all that pertained to his work. Her
+greatest public triumph was in his "Armide." This earliest French queen
+of song is described as a brunette, with mediocre figure and plain face,
+who had wonderful magnetism and sparkling black eyes that mirrored the
+changeful sentiments of an impassioned soul. Her acting and
+voice-control were pronounced remarkable. Her superior powers, unspoiled
+simplicity, frankness and generosity are extolled by that quaint
+historian of the opera, Dury de Noinville. On her retirement from the
+stage, in 1697, the king awarded her a pension of 1,000 livres in token
+of appreciation, and to this the Duc de Sully added 500 livres. She died
+in Paris in the seventieth year of her age, her home having long been
+the resort of eminent artists and literary people.</p>
+
+<p>Katherine Tofts, who made her d&eacute;but in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> Clayton's "Arsinoe, Queen of
+Cyprus," about 1702, was the first dramatic songstress of English birth,
+and is described by Colley Cibber as a beautiful woman with a clear,
+silvery-toned, flexible soprano. Her professional career brought her
+fortune as well as fame, but was short-lived. In the height of her bloom
+her reason gave way, and although judicious treatment restored it for a
+time, she did not return to the stage. As the wife of Mr. Joseph Smith,
+art connoisseur and collector of rare books and prints, she went to
+Venice, where her husband was British Consul, and lived in much state
+until, her malady returning, it became necessary to seclude her.
+Wandering through the garden of her home she fancied herself the queen
+of former days. Steele, in the "Tattler," attributes her disorder to her
+stage habit of absorbing herself in imaginary great personages.</p>
+
+<p>While Mrs. Tofts reigned in Clayton's opera, Signora Francesca Margarita
+de l'Epine, a native of Tuscany, sang Italian airs before and after it.
+Tall, swarthy, brusque in manner, she had a voice and a style that made
+her famous.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> It was she who inaugurated the custom of giving farewell
+concerts. Meeting with brilliant success at a performance announced as
+her last appearance, "she continued," says Dr. Burney, "to sing more
+last and positively last times and never left England at all." There was
+a rivalry between the two queens of song, which being a novelty,
+furnished gossip and laughter for all London. Hughes, that "agreeable
+poet," wrote of it:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Music has learned the discords of the State,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And concerts jar with Whig and Tory hate."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Retiring in 1722 with a fortune of ten thousand pounds, Margarita
+married the learned Dr. Pepusch, who was enabled by her means to pursue
+with ease his scientific studies. In his library she found Queen
+Elizabeth's Virginal Book, and being a skilled harpsichordist, she so
+well mastered its intricacies that people thronged to her home to hear
+her play.</p>
+
+<p>London was divided by another pair of rival queens of song in 1725-6.
+One of these, Fran<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>cesca Cuzzoni, a native of Parma, had created such a
+furore on her first appearance, three years earlier, that the opera
+directors who had engaged her for the season at two thousand guineas
+were encouraged to charge four guineas for admission, and her costumes
+were adopted by fashionable youth and beauty. Although ugly and
+ill-made, she had a sweet, clear dramatic contralto with unrivalled high
+notes, intonations so fixed it seemed impossible for her to sing out of
+tune, and a native flexibility that left unimpeded her creative fancy.
+Handel, in whose operas she sang, composed airs calculated to display
+her charms, but she, confident of her supremacy, rewarded him with
+conduct so capricious that, finding her at last intolerable, he sent to
+Italy for the noble Venetian lady, Faustina Bordoni. She was elegant in
+figure, handsome of face, had an amiable disposition, a ringing
+mezzo-soprano, with a compass from B-flat to G in altissimo, and was
+renowned for her brilliant execution, distinct enunciation, beautiful
+shake, happy memory for embellishments and fine expression.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>However pleased the directors may have been at first to have two popular
+songstresses, they were soon dismayed at the fierce rivalry that sprang
+up between them and was fanned to flames by Master Handel himself, who
+now composed exclusively for Faustina. By increasing the salary of her
+more tractable rival they finally disposed of Cuzzoni, who thenceforth
+through her exaggerated demands, managed to disgust her patrons wherever
+she appeared. Her reckless extravagance left her wholly destitute after
+losing her voice and her husband, Signor Sandoni, a harpsichord-maker.
+She passed her last years in Bologna, subsisting on a miserable pittance
+earned by covering buttons.</p>
+
+<p>Faustina married Adolphe Hasse, the German dramatic composer, and at
+forty-seven sang before Frederick the Great, who was charmed with the
+freshness of her voice. The couple lived until 1783, the one
+eighty-three, the other eighty-four years of age. Dr. Burney visited
+them when they were advanced in the seventies and found Faustina a
+sprightly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> sensible old lady, with a delightful store of reminiscences,
+and her husband a communicative, rational old gentleman, quite free from
+"pedantry, pride and prejudice."</p>
+
+<p>Gertrude Elizabeth Mara, Germany's earliest noted queen of song, began
+her public career in 1755 as a child violinist of six, traveling with
+her father, Johann Schm&auml;ling, a respectable musician of Hesse-Cassel. In
+London her musical gifts proved to include a phenomenal soprano voice,
+which developed a compass from G to E altissimo, unrivalled portamento
+di voce, pure enunciation and precise intonation. She became skilled in
+harmony, theory, sight-reading and harpsichord playing. When she sang,
+her glowing countenance, her supreme acting and the lights and shades of
+her voice made people forget the plainness of her features and the
+insignificance of her form and stature. Her rendering of Handel's airs,
+especially "I Know that My Redeemer Liveth," was pronounced faultless.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick the Great, who as soon expected pleasure from the neighing of
+a horse as from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> a German songstress, vanquished on hearing her,
+retained her as court singer. While in his service she became the wife
+of Jean Mara, a handsome, dissipated court violoncellist, whom she loved
+devotedly, but who led her a sorry life. Returning to London later she
+taught singing at two guineas a lesson. Upon fear being expressed that
+her price, double that of other teachers, would limit her class, she
+said her pupils having her voice as a model could learn in half the time
+required for those who had only the tinkling of a piano to imitate.
+Though she believed singing should be taught by a singer, a tenderness
+for her own experience made her insist that the best way to begin the
+musical education was by having the pupil learn to play the violin. When
+she heard a songstress extolled for rapid vocalization she would ask:
+"Can she sing six plain notes?" This question might afford young singers
+food for reflection. Madame Mara passed her declining years teaching
+singing near her native place, and died at Reval, in 1833. Two years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+earlier, on her eighty-third birthday, Goethe offered her a poetic
+tribute.</p>
+
+<p>At a London farewell concert given by Madame Mara in 1802, she was
+assisted by Mrs. Elizabeth Billington, who has been ranked first among
+English-born queens of song. Her pure soprano had a range of three
+octaves, from A to A, with flute-like upper tones. She sang with
+neatness, agility and precision, could detect the least false intonation
+of instrument or voice, and was attractive in appearance. Haydn
+eulogized her genius in his diary, and in the studio of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, who was painting her portrait as St. Cecilia, exclaimed: "You
+have represented Mrs. Billington listening to the angels, you should
+have made them listening to her." It was she who introduced Mozart's
+operas into England. She only lived to be forty-eight, breaking down in
+1818, from the effects of brutal treatment of her second husband, a
+Frenchman, named Felissent.</p>
+
+<p>Last of the eighteenth century queens of song was Angelica Catalani,
+born some forty miles from Rome in 1779, destined by her father, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+local magistrate, for the cloister, and borne beyond its walls by her
+magnificent voice, with its compass of three octaves, from G to G. She
+is described as a tall, fair woman with a splendid presence, large blue
+eyes, features of perfect symmetry and a winning smile. So great was her
+natural facility she could rise with ease from the faintest sound to the
+most superb crescendo, could send her tones sweeping through the air
+with the most delicious undulations, imitating the swell and fall of a
+bell, and could trill like a bird on each note of a chromatic passage.
+She dazzled her listeners, but left the heart untouched.</p>
+
+<p>Her domestic life was a happy one, and her husband, Captain de
+Vallebregue, adored her, although he knew so little about music that
+once when she complained that the piano was too high he had six inches
+cut off its legs. Surrounded by adulation at home and abroad, her
+self-conceit became inordinate, tempting her to the most absurd feats of
+skill. Her excessive love of display and lack of artistic judgment and
+knowledge finally led her so far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> astray in pitch that she lost all
+prestige. After seventeen years of retirement, she died of cholera in
+1849, in Paris. A few days before she was stricken with the dire
+epidemic Jenny Lind sought and received her blessing.</p>
+
+<p>A queen of song who profoundly impressed her age was Giuditta Pasta,
+born near Milan in 1798, of Hebrew parentage. For her Bellini wrote "La
+Sonnambula" and "Norma," Donizetti his "Anna Bolena," Pacini his
+"Niobe," and she was the star of Rossini's leading operas of the time.
+Her voice, a mezzo-soprano, at first unequal, weak, of slender range and
+lacking flexibility, acquired, through her wonderful genius and industry
+a range of two octaves and a half, reaching D in altissimo, together
+with a sweetness, a fluency, and a chaste, expressive style. Although
+below medium height, in impassioned moments she seemed to rise to
+queenly stature. Both acting and singing were governed by ripe judgment,
+profound sensibility and noble simplicity. She died at Lake Como in
+1865.</p>
+
+<p>So many queens of song have reigned from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> the beginning of the
+nineteenth century to the present time that only a few brilliant names
+may here be mentioned. Among these Henrietta Sontag was the greatest
+German singer of the first half of the century. A distinguished traveler
+tells of having found her when she was eight years old, in 1812, sitting
+on a table, where her mother had placed her, and singing the grand aria
+of the Queen of the Night from the "Magic Flute," her voice, "pure,
+penetrating and of angelic tone," flowing as "unconsciously as a limpid
+rill from the mountain side." At fifteen she made her regular d&eacute;but, and
+we are told that she sang "with the volubility of a bird." During her
+four years at the Conservatory of Prague she had won the prize in every
+class of vocal music, piano and harmony.</p>
+
+<p>Acquitting herself with ease in both German and Italian, and being
+exceedingly versatile, she won equal renown in the operas of Weber,
+Mozart, Rossini, and Donizetti. Paris, in special, marveled at the
+little German who could give satisfaction in Grand Opera. Her voice, a
+pure soprano, reached to D in alt., with upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> notes like silvery
+bell-tones, and its natural pliability was cultivated by taste and
+incessant study. She was of medium stature, elegant form, with light
+hair, fair complexion and soft, expressive blue eyes that lent an
+enchantment to features that were not otherwise striking. In demeanor
+she was artless, unaffected and ladylike. Romantic stories were
+continually in circulation regarding suitors for her hand. As the wife
+of Count Rossi, an attach&eacute; of the Sardinian legation, she retired to
+private life in 1830, and passed many happy years with her husband in
+various capitols of Europe. When, in 1848, owing to financial shipwreck,
+she returned to the stage her voice still charmed by its exquisite
+purity, spirituelle quality and supreme finish. In 1852 she came to
+America and created an immense furore in the musical and fashionable
+world. She died of cholera in Mexico in 1854.</p>
+
+<p>Born the same year as Madame Sontag was Wilhelmine Schr&ouml;der-Devrient,
+one of the world's noblest interpreters of German opera and German
+Lieder, although surpassed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> others in vocal resources. She grew up on
+the stage, and was trained by her father, Friedrich Schr&ouml;der, a baritone
+singer, and her mother, Sophie Schr&ouml;der, known as the "Siddons of
+Germany." Her dramatic soprano was capable of producing the most tender,
+powerful, truthful and intensely thrilling effects, although it was not
+specially tractable and was at times even harsh. It was she who by her
+magnificent interpretation of Leonore, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," first
+revealed the beauty of the part to the public. In Wagner's operas she
+appeared as Senta, in the "Flying Dutchman"; Venus, in "Tannh&auml;user," and
+actually created the r&ocirc;le of Adriano Colonna, in "Rienzi." Goethe, who
+had earlier failed to appreciate Schubert's matchless setting to his
+"Erl King," when he heard Madame Schr&ouml;der-Devrient sing it, exclaimed:
+"Had music instead of words been my vehicle of thought, it is thus I
+should have framed the legend." She died in 1860.</p>
+
+<p>Full of caprice, radiating the fire of genius, wayward and playful as a
+child, Maria Felicit&agrave; Malibran swept like a dazzling meteor across<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> the
+musical firmament. M. Arthur Pougin thus epitomizes her story:</p>
+
+<p>"Daughter of a Spaniard, born in France, married in America, died in
+England, buried in Belgium. Comedienne at five, married at seventeen,
+dead at twenty-eight&mdash;immortal. Beautiful, brilliant, gay as a ray of
+sunlight, with frequent shadings of melancholy; heart full of warmth and
+abandon; devoted to the point of sacrifice; courageous to temerity;
+ardent for pleasure as for work; with a will and energy indomitable. A
+singer without a peer, and a lyric tragedienne capable of exciting the
+instinctive enthusiasm of the masses and the reasonable admiration of
+connoisseurs. Pianist, composer, poet, she drew and painted with taste;
+spoke fluently five languages; was expert in all feminine work, skilled
+in sport and outdoor exercises, and possessed of a striking originality.
+Such was Malibran in part, for the whole could never be expressed."</p>
+
+<p>Her genius developed under the iron control of her father, Manuel del
+Popolo Garcia, who compelled to submission her seemingly intract<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>able
+voice until it became sonorous, superb, a brilliant and fascinating
+contralto, with a range of over three octaves, reaching E in alt. Her
+own indomitable will and exceptional artistic intelligence were prime
+factors in the training. In her heart-searching tones and passionate
+acting her glowing soul was felt. When she was but seventeen, her
+father, seeking an ideal climate, started with his family for Mexico. In
+New York she contracted her unfortunate marriage with the French banker,
+M. Malibran. She soon returned to Paris and the stage, and later having
+obtained a divorce, married the famous violinist De Beriot, with whom
+she had a brief but happy union.</p>
+
+<p>Madame Malibran was said to be equally at home in any known school of
+her time. Mozart and Cimarosa, Boieldieu and Rossini, Cherubini and
+Bellini were all grasped with the same sympathetic comprehension. Sontag
+was her rival, Pasta was yet in the height of her fame, but no contrasts
+whatever dimmed the glory of Malibran. A rare personal charm added to
+her artistic graces. Mr. Chorley de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>scribing her, in his recollections,
+said that she was better than beautiful, insomuch as a "speaking Spanish
+human countenance by Murillo is ten times more fascinating than many a
+faultless face such as Guido could paint." When her death was announced,
+in 1836, Ole Bull, who had known her well, exclaimed: "I cannot realize
+it. A woman with a soul of fire, so highly endowed, so intense. How I
+wept on seeing her as Desdemona! It is not possible she is dead."</p>
+
+<p>Pauline Garcia, thirteen years younger than her remarkable sister, and
+with a voice similar in quality, also did justice to her father's
+rigorous discipline and became famous. She married M. Viardot, opera
+director and critic, and after a brilliant career as a singer, gave long
+and valuable service as a vocal teacher in Paris. She remained in the
+full tide of her activity until she was long past the allotted
+threescore years and ten. It is an interesting fact that Madame Mathilde
+Marchesi, author of a noted vocal method, 24 books of Vocalises, a
+volume of reminiscences, and other works, and once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> famed as a singer,
+is only five years younger than Madame Viardot-Garcia, but at
+seventy-six is still teaching&mdash;still shining as an authority on the art
+of song. Singers seem often to have been long-lived. In truth, there is
+that in music which is life-giving.</p>
+
+<p>A songstress whose name will always be mentioned in the same breath with
+that of the tenor Mario, who became her husband, and with whom she
+toured the United States in 1854, was Giulia Grisi. She was born in
+Milan in 1812, made her d&eacute;but at sixteen, and had an undisputed reign of
+over a quarter of a century. Her voice, a pure soprano of finest
+quality, brilliant and vibrating, spanned two octaves, from C to C. She
+possessed the gift of beauty, and was said to unite the tragic
+inspiration of Pasta with the fire and energy of Malibran. A favorite
+r&ocirc;le with her was that of the Druid priestess in "Norma." Her delivery
+of "Casta Diva" was said to be a transcendant effort of vocalization.</p>
+
+<p>Living to-day in London at the advanced age of ninety-seven is the elder
+brother of Mali<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>bran and Viardot-Garcia, Manuel Garcia, the inventor of
+the laryngoscope, author of the renowned "Art of Song," and teacher of
+Jenny Lind. It was in 1841 that the ever-beloved Swedish Nightingale,
+then twenty-one years old, sought him in Paris, with a voice worn from
+over-exertion and lack of proper management. In ten months she had
+gained all that master could teach her in tone production, blending of
+the registers and breath-control. Her own genius, her splendid
+individuality, her indefatigable perseverance, did the rest in investing
+her dramatic soprano with that sympathetic timbre, that power of
+expressing every phase of her artistic conception, that bird-like
+quality of the upper notes, that marvelous beauty and equality of the
+entire range of two octaves and three quarters (from B below the stave
+to G on the fourth line), that exquisite sonority, that penetrating
+pianissimo, that unrivalled messa di voce, that mastery over technique
+of which so much has been written and said.</p>
+
+<p>Jenny Lind was to Sweden what Ole Bull<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> was to Norway, the inspirer of
+noble achievement. The faithful interpreter of the acknowledged
+masterpieces of genius in opera, oratorio and song, she also freely
+poured forth in gracious waves the poetic, the rugged, and the
+exquisitely polished lays of the Northland, making them known for the
+first time to thousands of people. It was through her pure and noble
+womanhood, quite as much as through her artistic excellence that she
+swayed the public and left so deep and enduring an impression. True to
+the backbone in her artistic allegiance, she believed that art, the
+expression and embodiment of the spiritual principle animating it, could
+not fail to elevate to a high spiritual and moral standard the genuine
+artist.</p>
+
+<p>She had lived thirty-five happy years with her husband, Mr. Otto
+Goldschmidt, pianist, conductor and composer, who still survives her,
+when death overtook her at their home on the Malvern Hills, November 2,
+1887. When the end drew near, one of her daughters threw open the window
+shutters to admit the morning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> sun. As it came streaming into the room,
+Jenny Lind uplifted her voice, and it rang out firm and clear as she
+sang the opening measures of Schumann's glorious "To the Sunshine." The
+notes were her last. A bust of her was unveiled in Westminster Abbey in
+1894.</p>
+
+<p>A Swedish songstress with a powerful, well-trained voice, who before
+Jenny Lind won operatic laurels in foreign lands, was Henrietta
+Nissen-Saloman, also a pupil of Garcia. Later, the brilliant Swedish
+soprano, Christine Nilsson, with a voice of wonderful sweetness and
+beauty, reaching with ease F in alt., with the most thorough skill in
+vocalization, with dramatic intuitions, expressive powers and magnetic
+presence, charmed the public on two continents in such r&ocirc;les as
+Marguerite, Mignon, Elsa, Ophelia and Lucia. She, too, bore through the
+world with her the northern songs she had learned to cherish in
+childhood.</p>
+
+<p>Still another delightful dramatic soprano from the land of Jenny Lind is
+Sigrid Arnoldson, who has a beautiful voice, winning per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>sonality, and
+pronounced musical intelligence. She is still in her prime.</p>
+
+<p>When the name of Adelina Patti is mentioned, we always think of long
+enduring vocal powers, many farewells and high prices. Catalani, in her
+full splendor, earned about $100,000 a season. Malibran's profits for
+eighty-five concerts at La Scala ran to $95,000. Jenny Lind received
+$208,675 for ninety-five concerts under Barnum's management. Patti has
+had as much as $8,395 for one performance, and long received a fee of
+$5,000 a night. In coloratura r&ocirc;les she has been pronounced the greatest
+singer of her time, both in opera and concert. Her voice, noted for its
+wide compass, exceeding sweetness, marvelous flexibility and perfect
+equality, has been so wonderfully well cared for that even now, in her
+sixtieth year, she enjoys singing, although she rarely appears in
+public. Her sister, Carlotta, was also a coloratura vocalist of
+exquisite technique.</p>
+
+<p>Queens of song now pass in swift review before the mind's eye. We recall
+Marietta Alboni, the greatest contralto of the middle of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> the last
+century, with a voice rich, mellow, liquid, pure and endowed with
+passionate tenderness, the only pupil of Rossini; Theresa Tietiens, with
+her mighty dramatic soprano, whose tones were softer than velvet, and
+her noble acting; Marie Piccolomini, a winning mezzo-soprano; Parepa
+Rosa, with her sweet, strong voice and imposing stage presence; Pescha
+Leutner, the star of 1856; Louisa Pyne, the English Sontag; Parodi,
+pupil of Pasta; Etelka Gerster, whose beautiful soprano could fascinate
+if it could not awe; Pauline Lucca, whose originality, artistic
+temperament and intelligence placed her in the front rank of dramatic
+sopranos, and many others.</p>
+
+<p>Amalie Materna, dramatic soprano at the Vienna Court Theatre from 1869
+to 1896, with great musical and dramatic intelligence, with a voice of
+remarkable compass, volume, richness and sustaining power, vibrant with
+passionate intensity, and with a noble stage presence, proved to be
+Wagner's ideal Br&uuml;nnhilde and introduced the r&ocirc;le at Bayreuth in 1876.
+She was also the creator of Kundry at the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> place in 1882. She
+aroused unbounded enthusiasm as Elizabeth in "Tannh&auml;user," and as Isolde
+in "Tristan and Isolde." She is not forgotten by those who heard her in
+various cities of this country.</p>
+
+<p>The same may be said of Marianne Brandt, who sang the part of Kundry at
+the second "Parsifal" representation at Bayreuth, having been Frau
+Materna's alternate in 1882. With her superbly rich, deep-toned voice
+and her splendid vocal and dramatic control she thrilled her audiences
+in her Wagnerian r&ocirc;les, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," and in all she
+attempted, whether in opera or concert. She was a magnificent
+horsewoman, and was perhaps the only Br&uuml;nnhilde who was able to give
+full play on the stage to her Valkyrie charger. It is told by an eye
+witness that before a first appearance in a German city she was borne
+furiously on the stage at rehearsal by her spirited, prancing steed, and
+when she drew him up suddenly, rearing and pawing the air, near the
+footlights, the members of the orchestra dropped their instruments and
+fled affrighted. It was not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> long, however, before she succeeded in
+winning their confidence, and all went well at the evening performance.</p>
+
+<p>Six more radiant queens of song whose reign belongs to these modern
+times must be mentioned in conclusion: Sembrich, Nordica, Calv&eacute;, Melba,
+Sanderson and Eames. These are but a few of the many present day rulers
+in the realms of song.</p>
+
+<p>Marcella Sembrich, a coloratura soprano from Galicia, has a light,
+penetrating, marvelously sweet, and exceedingly flexible voice, with an
+almost perfect vocal mechanism. As one of her admirers has said, her
+tones are as clear as silver bells, and there is something buoyant and
+jubilant in her mode of song. With her genuine art and engaging
+personality she holds her audiences entranced and, being wise enough to
+keep within her special genre, she always succeeds as an actress. She is
+a pupil of the Lampertis, father and son, studied the piano with Liszt,
+becoming an excellent interpreter of Chopin, and is no mean violinist.</p>
+
+<p>An American, born in Farmington, Me.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> Lillian Nordica pursued her vocal
+and musical studies at the New England Conservatory, in Boston, and
+after much experience in church, concert and oratorio singing, studied
+for the opera in Milan, under Signor Sangiovanni. She made her operatic
+d&eacute;but at Brescia in "Traviata," and in Paris as Marguerite, in "Faust."
+Her superb, liquid soprano is pure, smooth and equal throughout its
+entire large compass. She combines feeling with that artistic
+understanding which regulates it, and has been pronounced one of the
+most conscientious and intelligent singers of the day. An admirable
+actress and extremely versatile, she has been successful in Mozart's
+operas, and has won high renown in her Wagnerian r&ocirc;les.</p>
+
+<p>Emma Calv&eacute;, a Spaniard, possessed of all a Spaniard's fire, thrills,
+bewilders, her hearers, though the more thoughtful among them wonder if
+they were not moved rather by her tremendous passionate force and
+powerful magnetism than by her vocal and histrionic art. Her voice is
+superb, yet she often loses a vocal opportunity for dramatic effect,
+often mars its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> beauty in the excitement that tears a passion to
+tatters. Withal there is a charm to her singing that can never be
+forgotten by those who have heard it. Her first triumph was won as the
+interpreter of Santuzza, in "Cavalleria Rusticana," Mascagni himself
+preparing her for the r&ocirc;le. She next created a furore as Carmen, and
+with her fascinating gestures, complete abandon, grace, and dazzling
+beauty made the part one of the most original and bewitching
+impersonations on the stage.</p>
+
+<p>The Australian, Nellie Melba, who takes her stage name from Melbourne,
+her birthplace, has been compared to Patti as a vocal technician. Her
+voice is divine, but she seems powerless to animate her brilliant
+singing with the warmth that glows in her eyes. As an actress she
+completely veils whatever emotions she may feel, and while her marvelous
+vocalization overwhelms her audiences, she meets with her greatest
+triumphs in operas that make the least demands on the dramatic powers.</p>
+
+<p>Massenet wrote the title r&ocirc;les of his "Esclarmonde" and his "Thais" for
+a California girl,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> Sybil Sanderson, and himself trained her for their
+stage presentation. Her success was assured when she made her d&eacute;but in
+the first-named opera at the Opera Comique, in Paris, in 1889. She has a
+voice of that light, pure, flexible quality so characteristic of our
+countrywomen, and is an admirable actress. She is a pupil of Madame
+Marchesi.</p>
+
+<p>Another distinguished pupil of the same teacher is Emma Eames, who was
+born in China of New England parents, and was educated in Boston and in
+Paris. Her voice too is exceedingly flexible, is fresh, pure and clear,
+her intonations are correct and her personality most attractive. She has
+been very successful in Wagnerian r&ocirc;les, makes a superb Elsa, and, in
+the "Meistersinger," an ideal Eva. During her early years on the stage
+her extreme calmness amounted almost to aggravating frigidity, but with
+time she has thawed. She may well be considered a conscientious artist
+endowed with rare musical intuition.</p>
+
+<p>There is no possession more perishable, more delicate, than the human
+voice. When one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> considers the joy it is capable of shedding about it,
+the blessings that may follow in its train, it seems sad to think of the
+reckless waste caused by its neglect and mismanagement. Its life is
+brief enough at best. Let it be cherished to the utmost.</p>
+
+<p>In America where there are to-day more fine voices among women than in
+any other country and where time and means are so freely expended on the
+musical education of girls, the twentieth century should produce nobler
+queens of song than the world has yet known. First, the American girl
+must learn that the real things of life are more to be prized than false
+semblances, and that genuine musical culture resting on a foundation
+built with painstaking care and consecrated artistic zeal, is of far
+higher and more enduring value than the most dazzling feats of display
+which lack solid, intrinsic support.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2>
+
+<h2>The Opera and Its Reformers</h2>
+
+
+<p>The evolution of the drama is intimately associated with that of music
+and both are inseparably entwined with the unfolding of the spiritual
+life of the human race. Man is essentially dramatic by nature, and both
+history and tradition show it to have been among his earliest instincts
+to express his inner emotions by action and song.</p>
+
+<p>From this tendency arose the Greek religious drama. We find it in
+legendary times at the altar of Dionysus, master of the resources of
+vitality, in whose train followed the Muses, actual leaders and
+conductors of human existence. At seed-time and harvest festivals a rude
+chorus, grouped about the altar, told the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> story of the god's wanderings
+and adventures, in simple words, accompanied by gesture, dance and
+music. This expression of thought and feeling mirrored the emotions of
+the worshipers, kindled the imagination, and strengthened the innate
+instinct for freedom. Gradually the narrative detaching itself from the
+choral parts fell to individual singers, the acting became more and more
+a distinct feature of the occasion, ever increasing dramatic quality
+characterized the song, and the materials were at hand for the Greek
+drama so fruitful to us in its results.</p>
+
+<p>Greek poetry, in its matchless beauty, may still be enjoyed by all who
+have powers of literary appreciation. Of Greek music we know little
+beyond the theories which form the basis for modern musical science and
+the fact that it was highly esteemed. Aristotle tells us that it was an
+essential element in Greek stage plays and their greatest embellishment.
+Both &AElig;schylus and Sophocles were practical musicians and composed music
+for their dramas. Euripides, less musician than poet,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> was at least
+able to have the music for his works prepared under his direction.
+Indeed, words, music and scenic effect were inseparably connected in the
+Greek dramas.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image008"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image008.jpg"
+alt="CORELLI" title="CORELLI" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">CORELLI</p>
+
+<p>The enthusiasm these aroused is indicated by the fact that travelers
+from distant lands undertook perilous journeys to attend the famous
+performances at Athens, often remaining in their seats twenty-four hours
+before the play began in order to secure desirable places. Fully fifty
+thousand spectators could be accommodated in the Len&aelig;an Theatre, whose
+stage machinery would make ours seem like a toy model. Many of its
+theatrical exhibitions cost more than the Peloponnesian War.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek life, at the period of its glory, music and the drama were
+esteemed elevating factors in culture. The supreme things of human
+existence were pictured in them. They expressed the world-view of an
+entire people. Under Roman dominion, with its corrupting slavery, they
+degenerated into mere sources of diversion, and finally became
+associated with evil and degrading practices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For this reason and because at best they represented pagan ideals,
+theatrical representations were discouraged by the fathers of the
+primitive Christian Church. The dramatic instinct was not condemned, and
+its imperative needs were appealed to in the church service, which early
+set forth in symbols all that was too mysterious and awe-inspiring for
+words. In order further to reach the mind through the senses, scenes
+from the Scriptures were read in the churches, illustrated with living
+pictures and music. Gradually the characters personated began to speak
+and to move. The drama rose anew at the foot of the altar. Christian
+priests were its reformers, its guardians and its actors. Designed for
+the amusement as well as the instruction of the gaping multitudes, it
+was necessarily a pretty crude affair. Satan was introduced as the
+clown, and laughter was provoked at his discomfiture when routed, or at
+the destruction of those who wilfully cast themselves into his clutches.
+It is not strange that the pious and learned St. Augustine, in the
+fourth century, regretted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> polished dramatic performances at
+Alexandria that in his youth had afforded him so much genuine enjoyment.
+Among the people the church play became so popular that in the course of
+time it was found necessary to erect more spacious stages in the open
+air.</p>
+
+<p>Thus arose the Mystery, Miracle, Morality and Passion Plays, the direct
+progenitors of the Opera and the Oratorio. The descent of the Opera may
+be traced also to another source, to the secular play which persisted in
+the face of ecclesiastical disfavor and the ban that excluded its
+players from the church sacraments.</p>
+
+<p>Strolling histriones, jongleurs and minstrels passed from court to
+court, appeared in castle yards, market places or village greens,
+recited, acted, sang, danced and played on musical instruments. They
+afforded a welcome means of communication with the outside world; they
+broke up the monotony of life when events were few. As modern music
+rests on the two pillars of the Gregorian chant and the folk-song, so
+the opera rests on the two pillars of the religious drama and the
+people's play.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the high tide of the revival of Greek learning in Italy, late in
+the sixteenth century, a group of the aspiring young nobility of
+Florence, gentlemen and gentlewomen, adopting the dignified name of the
+"Academy," resolved to recover the much discussed music of the Greek
+drama. The place of rendezvous was the palace of Count Bardi, a member
+of one of the oldest patrician families in Tuscany. Edifying discourse
+and laudable exercises were indulged in by the guests, among whom were
+several persons of genius and learning. The meetings were presided over
+by the host, himself a poet and composer, as well as a patron of the
+fine arts.</p>
+
+<p>The culture of the times demanded a higher gratification for man's
+dramatic cravings than either rude religious or secular plays afforded.
+Other music was required to depict the emotions than that of the
+contrapuntist, with its puzzling intricacies. So thought these ardent
+Hellenists, and a burning zeal possessed them to mate dramatic poetry
+with a music that would heighten and intensify its expression and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+effect. They who seek are sure to find, even if it be not always the
+object of their search. In the earnest quest of these reformers for
+dramatic truth an unexpected treasure was disclosed.</p>
+
+<p>Vincenzo Galilei, father of Galileo Galilei, opened the way. He was the
+active champion of monody, in which a principal melody was intoned or
+sung to the accompaniment of subordinate harmonies, believing that in
+music designed to arouse personal feeling individualism should
+predominate. The art music of the time was polyphonic, that is,
+constructed by so interweaving melodies that harmonies resulted. Of
+solos in our modern sense nothing was known beyond the folk-songs,
+instinctive outpourings of the human heart, and these learned composers
+had merely used as pegs on which to hang their counterpoint. Not content
+with giving his ideas to the world in the form of a dialogue, Galilei
+composed two musical monologues, between 1581 and 1590, one to the scene
+of Count Ugolino, in Dante's "Inferno," and one to a passage in the
+Lamentations of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> Jeremiah. These the chroniclers tell us he sang very
+sweetly, accompanying himself on the lute. He was also a fine performer
+on the viola.</p>
+
+<p>A dramatic representation at a court marriage, in 1590, in which the
+artificially constructed ecclesiastical music illy fitted the text
+lauding the bride's loveliness, gave a new impulse to the "Academy"
+efforts. Soon there was produced at court, by a company of highborn
+ladies and gentlemen, two pastoral plays: "Il Satiro" and "La
+Disperazione di Fileno," so set to music that they could be sung or
+declaimed throughout. The author of the text was Signora Laura
+Guidiccioni, of the Lucchesini family, renowned in her day for her
+poetic gifts and brilliant attainments. Signor Emilio del Cavalieri was
+the composer, and he triumphantly announced his music as that "of the
+ancients recovered," having power to "excite grief, pity, joy and
+pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>These two "musical dramas," as they were called, contained the germs of
+modern opera, despite their crudities of harmony and monotonous melody.
+That noble songstress, Vittoria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> Archilei, known as "Euterpe" among her
+Italian contemporaries, greatly enhanced the success of the new venture
+with her superb voice, artistic skill, musical fire and splendid
+intelligence. She "whose excellence in music is generally known," as we
+are told, and who was able to "draw tears from her audience" at the
+right moment, also aroused enthusiasm for a third work of a similar
+nature by the same authors, "Il Giuco della Cieco," that appeared in
+1595.</p>
+
+<p>Besides being the first to tell the entire story of a play musically and
+to utilize the solo, Cavalieri introduced various ornaments into vocal
+music and increased the demands on instrumentation. He did not succeed,
+however, in satisfying the Academicians with his attempt to grasp the
+medium between speech and song, and his choruses were thought tedious
+because of their employment of the intricate polyphonic style. Further
+reform was desired.</p>
+
+<p>This came through Jacopo Peri, maestro at the Medician court, and after
+1601 at the court of Ferrara. In studying Greek dramas, as he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> states in
+one of his writings, he became convinced that their musical expression
+was that of highly colored emotional speech. Closely observing diverse
+modes of utterance in daily life, he endeavored to reproduce soft,
+gentle words by half-spoken, half-sung tones, sustained by an
+instrumental bass, and to express excitement by extended intervals,
+lively tempo and suitable distribution of dissonances in the
+accompaniment. To him may be attributed the first dramatic recitative.
+It appeared in his "Daphne," a "Dramma per la Musica," written to text
+by the poet Rinuccini and privately performed at the Palazzo Corsi, in
+1597. This was actually the first opera, although the term was not
+applied to such compositions until half a century later. Several solos
+were added by the court singer, Giulio Caccini, who composed a number of
+songs for a single voice, "in imitation of Galilei," as a contemporary
+stated, "but in a more beautiful and pleasing style." Invited three
+years later to produce a similar work for the festivities attending the
+marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di Medici,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> Peri wrote his
+"Eurydice," and once more Signora Archilei interpreted the leading r&ocirc;le,
+greatly to the composer's satisfaction. It was the first opera performed
+in public. The singing had a bald accompaniment of an orchestra placed
+behind the scenes and consisting of a clavicembalo, or harpsichord, a
+viola da gamba, a theorbo, or large lute, and a flute, the last being
+used to imitate Pan-pipes in the hands of one of the characters.</p>
+
+<p>Seven years afterward, for another court marriage, a musical drama was
+written by a man of genius who completely broke the fetters of ancient
+polyphony. This was Claudio Monteverde, then in his thirty-ninth year,
+and chapel master to the Duke of Mantua. He was the first composer to
+use unprepared chords of the seventh, dominant and diminished, and to
+emphasize passionate situations with dissonances. He invented the
+tremolo and the pizzicato, and originated the vocal duet. His keen
+dramatic sense enabled him to arouse interest through contrasts,
+conspicuously characteristic passages, and independent orchestral
+preludes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> interludes and bits of descriptive tone-painting.</p>
+
+<p>His opera, "Orfeo," 1608, had an orchestra of two harpsichords, two bass
+viols, two violas di gamba, ten tenor viols, two little French violins,
+one harp, two large guitars, three small organs, four trombones, two
+cornets, one piccolo, one clarion and three trumpets. In "Tancredi e
+Clorinda," produced in Venice, in 1624, a string quartet indicated the
+galloping of horses, a prototype of the "Ride of the Valkyries." Like
+Abb&eacute; Liszt, he took holy orders late in life, without ceasing to
+compose. At seventy-four years of age, when the fire of his genius
+burned brightly as ever, he wrote his last opera "L'Incoronazione di
+Poppea." It may truly be said that Monteverde was the great operatic
+reformer, the Wagner, of the seventeenth century, as Gluck was of the
+eighteenth.</p>
+
+<p>An epoch-making event in opera history was the opening, in 1637, of the
+first public opera house in commercial Venice whose wealth afforded her
+citizens leisure to cultivate art. Soon popular demand led to the
+erection of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> many Italian opera-houses. At the same time growing taste
+for magnificence of stage setting and brilliant, dazzling, even
+extravagant song effects, caused neglect of Academician principles. The
+learned and gifted Neapolitan composer, Alessandro Scarlatti, father of
+the famous harpsichordist, gave an impulse in his operas, during the
+last quarter of the century, to sensuous charm and beauty of melody. He
+invested recitative with classic value, enlarged the aria, and devised
+the da capo which became a menace to dramatic truth.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the troubadours had borne melody into the domain of
+sentiment, and laid a solid foundation for musical growth. Adam de la
+Hall&eacute;'s pastoral, "Robin et Marion," was an actual prototype of the
+opera. During the seventeenth century Corneille and Moli&egrave;re refined the
+dramatic taste of their compatriots. Attempts to introduce Italian opera
+only resulted in arousing a desire for an opera in accord with French
+ideals.</p>
+
+<p>This was gratified by Jean Battiste Lully, who had come to the French
+court from Italy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> in boyhood, and had risen, in 1672, from a subordinate
+position to that of chief musician. Undertaking to make reforms, he
+succeeded in giving his adopted country a national opera. He established
+the overture, gave recitative rhetorical force, added coloring to the
+orchestra, and introduced the ballet. New life was infused into the
+traditions he left when Jean Philippe Rameau, in 1733, at fifty years of
+age, wrote his first opera. He was well-known as a theorist and
+composer, and was the author of a harmony treatise in which were set
+forth the laws of chord inversions and derivations, a stroke of genius
+that hopelessly entangled him in perplexities. His instrumentation was
+more highly colored, his rhythms more varied than those of his
+predecessor, and his sincerity of purpose more evident. In common with
+other reformers he was accused of "sacrificing the pleasures of the ear
+to vain harmonic speculations." Some of his many operas were written to
+works of Racine. He died in 1764, in his eighty-first year.</p>
+
+<p>A century earlier the English reached the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> culmination of their Golden
+Age of musical productiveness in Henry Purcell, known as the most
+original genius England has produced. His dramatic powers were fostered
+by the popular masques with their gorgeous show of color and rhythm, and
+in mere boyhood he wrote music for several of them. In 1677, when only
+nineteen, he produced his first opera. He attempted no reform, but his
+instinct for the true relation between the accents of speech and those
+of melody and recitative seems to have been unerring. Saturated with
+native English melody, tingling with fertile fancy and controlled by
+education, whether he wrote for stage, church, or chamber, he evinced a
+freshness and vigor, a breezy picturesqueness and a wealth of rhythmic
+phrases and patterns, and many new orchestral devices. In 1710, fifteen
+years after his early death, the giant Handel began to dominate musical
+England, flooding the stage with operas of the Italian type and finally
+ushering in the reign of the oratorio. The delicate plant of English
+opera never took root.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Italian influence had almost caused the decline of French opera when
+Christopher Willibald Gluck turned to Paris, in 1774, as its
+regenerator. In Vienna, twelve years earlier, he had already produced
+his "Orfeo," whose calm, classic grandeur seemed the embodiment of the
+Greek art spirit. His choice of subjects indicates the enterprise on
+which he had embarked. He sought simplicity, subjugation of music to
+poetic sentiment, dramatic sincerity and organic unity. His operatic
+version of Racine's "Iphig&egrave;nie en Aulide" called forth unbounded
+enthusiasm in the French metropolis directly after his arrival, and led
+to the warfare with the brilliant Italian Piccini, which was as hot as
+any Wagner controversy.</p>
+
+<p>The homage of all time is due this man of genius for the splendid
+courage with which he attacked shams. He claimed it to be the divine
+right of the dramatic composer to have his works sung precisely as he
+had written them, and protested against the innovations that had been
+permitted to suit the caprices and gratify the vanity of singers. It was
+his idea that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the Sinfonia, in other words the Overture or Prelude,
+should indicate the subject and prepare the spectators for the
+characters of the pieces, and that the instrumental coloring should be
+adapted to the mood of the situation, thus anticipating modern
+procedure. He prepared the way for the work of Cherubini, Auber, Gounod,
+Thomas, Massenet, Saint-Sa&euml;ns and others.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, Italian opera, early introduced, long remained fashionable.
+Native dramatic tastes, once fostered by minnesingers and strolling
+players, were kept alive by the "singspiel," or song-play, composed of
+spoken dialogue and popular song, which furnished the actual beginnings
+of German national music drama. The threshold of this was reached, the
+sanctuary of its treasures unlocked, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who,
+without thought of being a reformer, unconsciously infused German spirit
+into Italian forms. It was during the last five years of his brief life,
+from 1786 to 1791, that he produced his operatic masterpieces, "The
+Marriage of Figaro," "Don Gio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>vanni," and "The Magic Flute." His
+marvelous musical and poetic genius, supported by profound scholarship,
+led him into hitherto untried regions of expression, and to him it was
+given to bring humanity on the stage, splendidly depicting the inner
+being of each character in tones. Wagner said of him that he had
+instinctively found dramatic truth and had cast brilliant light on the
+relations of musician and poet.</p>
+
+<p>Ludwig van Beethoven, the great tone-poet, guided by his profound
+comprehension of the deep things of life and his active sympathies to
+absolute truthfulness in delineating human passions, made the next
+advance in his one opera, "Fidelio," written in 1805. Ranked, though it
+is, rather as a symphony for voice and orchestra than as the musical
+complement of a dramatic poem, there is nevertheless infused into some
+of its chief numbers more potent dramatic expression than is found in
+any previous opera. Thoroughly cosmopolitan in subject, it is
+nevertheless German in that its lofty earnestness of tone offers a
+protest against all shallowness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> and sensationalism. The entire story of
+the opera is told in tones in the overture.</p>
+
+<p>The next German to write overtures with a deliberate purpose to
+foreshadow what followed was Carl Maria von Weber, whose greatest opera,
+"Der Freisch&uuml;tz," appeared in 1821. The initial force of the German
+romantic school, he founded his operas on romantic themes, and depicted
+in tones the things of the weird, fantastic and elfish world that
+kindled his imagination. He has been called the connecting link between
+Mozart and Wagner, and in many of his theories he anticipated the
+latter. National to the core, he embodied in his music the finest
+qualities of the folk-song, and noble tone-painter that he was he
+excelled his predecessors in his employment of the orchestra as a means
+of dramatic characterization.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Wagner was long regarded as the great iconoclast whose business
+it was to destroy all that had gone before him in art, but no one ever
+more profoundly reverenced Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber than he.
+The public was persistently informed that his com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>positions were beyond
+ordinary comprehension, and yet designed, as they were, to picture man's
+essential life, they have slowly but surely found their way to the
+popular heart. It was the very essence of his musical dramatic creed
+that to have blood in its veins and sincerity in its soul art must come
+from the people and be addressed to the people. He chose the national
+myth and hero tradition as the basis of his music-drama because of the
+universality of their content and application, and because he believed
+they reflected the German world-view. Himself he regarded as the
+Siegfried whose mission it was to slay the dragon of sordid materialism
+and awaken the slumbering bride of German art.</p>
+
+<p>Bach and Chopin had anticipated him in some of his most startling chord
+progressions. The motives of Bach's fugues and Beethoven's sonatas and
+symphonies, and the so-called "leading motives" of the Frenchman, Hector
+Berlioz, had preceded his "typical motives." Moreover, the orchestration
+of Berlioz had been a precursor of his orchestral tone-coloring.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+Nevertheless, everything he touched was so characteristically applied by
+him as to produce new impressions, and to emphasize the idea of music as
+a language. So peculiarly were music and poetry blended in the delicate
+tissue of his genius that one seemed inseparable from the other. United,
+he believed it to be their mission to inculcate high moral lessons of
+patriotism and love.</p>
+
+<p>He gave the death-blow to an opera whose sole aim is to tickle the ear.
+Many an exquisite melody of Rossini and other Italian composers will
+long continue to live, but their productions as wholes have mostly
+ceased to be satisfying to those of us who have Teutonic blood in our
+veins. The Italian opera composer who holds the highest place to-day in
+the heart of the serious musician is that grand old man of music,
+Giuseppe Verdi, whose genius enabled him to yield four times to the
+spirit of the age, during his long career, and who in his ripe old age
+endeavored to give Italy what Wagner had given the German nation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2>
+
+<h2>Certain Famous Oratorios</h2>
+
+
+<p>About the middle of the sixteenth century, San Filippo Neri, a zealous
+Florentine priest, opened the chapel, or oratory, of his church in Rome,
+for popular hours with his congregation. His main object being "to
+allure young people to pious offices and to detain them from worldly
+pleasure," he endeavored to make the occasions attractive as well as
+edifying, and supplemented religious discourse and spiritual songs with
+dramatized versions of Biblical stories provided with suitable music.
+Associated with him in his labors for a good cause, was no less a
+composer than that great reformer of Catholic church music, Giovanni
+Pierluigi Sante da Palestrina, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> harmonies were declared by a
+music-loving Pope to be those of the celestial Jerusalem. The laudable
+enterprise proved successful. People flocked from all quarters to enjoy
+the gratuitous entertainments, and a form of sacred musical art resulted
+that derived from them its name.</p>
+
+<p>Roswitha, a nun of the Gandersheim cloister, in the tenth century, made
+the earliest attempt recorded to invest church plays with artistic
+worth. Her six religious dramas, written in Latin for the use and
+edification of her sister nuns, were published in a French setting, in
+1845. It was a woman, too, Laura Guidiccioni, a brilliant member of the
+Florence group of aristocratic truth-seekers in art, who wrote the text
+of the first religious musical dramatic composition to which the name
+oratorio became attached. It was set to music of a declamatory style by
+Emilio del Cavalieri, the author's collaborator in the pastoral plays
+that were really embryo operas. The title of the piece, "The
+Representation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> of the Body and the Soul," indicates the allegorical
+nature of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Its initial performance occurred at Rome, February, 1600, in the oratory
+of San Filippo's church, Santa Maria della Vallicella. The composer had
+died some months earlier, but his minute stage directions were
+accurately observed. Behind the scenes was placed an orchestra
+comprising a double lyre, a harpsichord, a large guitar and two flutes,
+to which was added a violin for the leading part in the ritornels, that
+is, instrumental preludes and interludes. The chorus had seats assigned
+on the stage, but rose to sing, employing suitable movements and
+gestures. Time, Morality, Pleasure, and other solo characters bore in
+their hands musical instruments and seemed to play as they acted and
+declaimed their parts, while the playing actually came from the
+concealed instruments. The World, the Body and Human Life illustrated
+the transitoriness of earthly affairs by flinging away the gorgeous
+decorations they had worn when they appeared on the stage, and
+displaying their utter pov<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>erty and wretchedness in the face of death
+and dissolution. The representation ended with a ballet, danced
+"sedately and reverently" to music by the chorus.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the oratorio in its infancy may be gained from this
+description. Except that the subject had a religious bearing, it
+differed little from the opera. With Giacomo Carissimi, director of
+music at San Apollinare, Rome, from 1628 until his death, in 1674, the
+paths of the two diverged. He laid down lines that have been followed in
+the oratorio ever since. Dancing and acting were excluded by him, and
+the r&ocirc;le of narrator introduced. His broad, simple treatment of chords
+enhanced the purity and beauty of everything he wrote, and in his hand
+recitative gained character, grace and musical expressiveness. Only a
+small portion of his epoch-making work has been preserved, but quite
+enough to make clear his title "Father of Oratorio and Cantata."</p>
+
+<p>His pupil, Alessandro Scarlatti, founder of the Neapolitan school and
+practically the musical dictator of Naples, from 1694 to 1725,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> was an
+incredibly prolific composer in almost every known species of musical
+form. His many improvements in vocal and instrumental music operated
+greatly to the advantage of the oratorio. Possessing feeling for
+orchestration to an unusual degree for his time, he grouped musical
+instruments of different timbres with marked boldness and skill, and was
+the first specially to orchestrate recitative. His genius and knowledge
+enabled him to restore counterpoint to its rightful place, and his
+oratorios show great gain in elasticity and form.</p>
+
+<p>Another Alessandro, he who bore the surname Stradella and was the hero
+of Flotow's opera of that name, has figured so freely in romance that it
+is not easy to separate truth from fiction in accounts of his life. Dr.
+Parry says of him that he had a remarkable instinct for choral effects,
+even piling progressions into a climax, that his solo music aims at
+definiteness of structure, that, in 1676, he used a double orchestra
+whose principal instruments were violins, and that his oratorios were
+specially significant, as he cultivated all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> the resources of that form
+of art. His most celebrated composition is an oratorio, "San Giovanni
+Battista," and one of the airs attached to it "Piet&agrave; Signore," a
+beautiful, symmetrical, heart-searching melody, is sung to-day, although
+it is by no means as well known as it deserves.</p>
+
+<p>According to tradition, its tender, worshipful strains sung in the
+church of the Holy Apostles, at Rome, by the composer himself, once
+stayed the hand of an assassin whom jealousy had prompted to slay the
+"Apollo della Musica." So Alessandro Stradella was called, because of
+his great gifts as singer and composer, and his manly beauty. A jubilant
+multitude surrounded him in life, and loud lamentation arose, when, at
+length, he fell a victim to envy and malice. Thus the graceful legend
+runs. Recent writers are trying to make us believe that the famous
+"Piet&agrave; Signore" was a later interpolation in "San Giovanni Battista,"
+and that it may be attributed to this or that composer, a century or
+more after the death of Stradella, in 1681. Un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>less absolute proof be
+afforded us, let us forbear from plucking this gem from his crown.</p>
+
+<p>Composer of fifty operas and many other works, magnificent organist and
+harpsichordist, with musical genius of a Titanic order, intellect that
+was swift, sure and keen, an indomitable will, a lofty philosophy, and a
+lordly personality, George Friedrich Handel, seemingly defeated by
+outrageous fortune, wheeled about like some invincible general whose
+business it was to win the battle and entering the field of the oratorio
+gained a colossal victory. He had for some time passed the half century
+milestone of his life when he scored his greatest achievements in this
+line, and with magic touch transformed existing materials into the
+art-form we know to-day. His "Messiah," which alone would have sufficed
+to immortalize him, was produced, in one of his herculean bursts of
+power, within twenty-three days, when he was well-advanced in his
+fifty-seventh year. It was first given to the public, in Dublin, April
+13, 1742, seven months after its completion. The en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>thusiasm it awakened
+was repeated when it was performed later in London. Here, indeed, the
+audience became so transported that at the opening of the Hallelujah
+chorus every one present, led by the king, rose and remained standing, a
+custom we follow to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Herder calls the "Messiah" a Christian epopee, in musical sounds. It is
+certainly written in the large, grand style of a noble epic, for it had
+large matters to express, and its composer regarded music as a means of
+addressing heart and soul. The theme is treated with reverence, delicacy
+and judgment, and the leading tone is that of a mighty hymn of
+rejoicing. Following an overture that is in itself a revelation, the
+opening tenor recitative, "Comfort Ye, My People," has a convincing ring
+that all is and will be well, mingled with infinite tenderness, and the
+succeeding aria, "Every Valley," is pervaded with the freshness of earth
+newly arisen amid great glory. The heart-rending desolation of
+selections like the contralto air, "He was Despised," only serves to
+ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>centuate the triumph of other portions. Throughout there is a warmth,
+a contrapuntal splendor, a breadth, an elasticity, a richness of
+orchestration, unknown in previous oratorio, unless in parts of some of
+the master's own works. Even in the duet and choruses remodeled from his
+chamber duets, there is that jubilant character that makes them blend
+perfectly with the great whole.</p>
+
+<p>Born and educated on German soil, steeped during his wanderer's years in
+the spirit of the Italian muse, and finally nourished on the cathedral
+music of England, Handel became thoroughly cosmopolitan, appropriating
+what he chose from the influences that surrounded him. The English
+regard him as one of their national glories, call him the "Saxon
+Goliath," the "Michael Angelo of music," a "Bold Briareus with a hundred
+hands," and have carved his form in enduring marble above his tomb in
+Westminster Abbey. Nothing they have said can equal the tribute paid him
+by the dying giant Beethoven, who pointing to Handel's works exclaimed:
+"There is the truth."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another lofty, yet wholly different personality, born also in 1685, is
+found in Johann Sebastian Bach, whose Passion Oratorios, a direct
+outgrowth of the Passion plays of old, furnish materials and inspiration
+for all time. Handel worked in and for the public and fought his battles
+in the great world. Bach was the lonely scholar who lived apart from
+outside turmoil and unabashed in the presence of earthly monarchs,
+reigned supreme in the tone-world. A typical Teuton, his music,
+intensely earnest, highly intellectual, contains the essence of
+Teutonism, and gives full, rich, copious expression to the inmost being
+of humanity. The spirit of Protestant Germany is embodied in his
+religious tone productions which have proved to Protestantism a tower of
+strength. His service in developing the choral alone is inestimable.
+Nothing that he has written, better represents the majesty and sublimity
+of his style than his "Saint Matthew Passion" with its surpassing
+utterances of human sorrow and infinite tenderness.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1790, when Joseph Haydn had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> accepted an invitation to make
+a professional visit to London, his young friend, Mozart, endeavored to
+dissuade him from going on account of his age, but Haydn persisted,
+declaring that he was still active and strong. Eight years later, at
+sixty-six years of age, he wrote his celebrated oratorio "The Creation,"
+with all the vigor and sparkle of youth. The rambles of years in the
+beautiful grounds of Esterhazy had attuned his soul to communion with
+nature, and this work plainly shows his power of putting into tones the
+secrets nature revealed to him. Blissful joyousness and child-like
+na&iuml;vet&eacute; are among its characteristic features.</p>
+
+<p>The style of Beethoven as a composer of sacred music is reflected in his
+single oratorio "Christ on the Mount of Olives," that like his single
+opera stands apart, amply sufficient to prove what he was capable of
+accomplishing. Mendelssohn, in his "St. Paul" and his "Elijah," embodied
+a high ideal, building on his predecessors and attaining, especially in
+the latter, an eclectic spirit that manifests keen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> discrimination. The
+oratorios of Liszt, the "Christus," "St. Elizabeth" and some lesser
+works, reveal high purpose and original treatment of a revelation in
+tones of sacred events. In the oratorios of the Frenchman Gounod,
+preeminently in his "Redemption," it is interesting to find modern
+chorals based on those of the German Bach, and, in fact, as it has been
+aptly said, a modernized treatment of Bach's passion form.</p>
+
+<p>What may be the next step in the evolution of the oratorio it were
+difficult to estimate. Whether modern efforts can ever surpass, or even
+equal, the sublime productions in this field, or whether creative genius
+will be turned into wholly new channels, the future alone may
+determine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="image009"></a></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/image009.jpg"
+alt="SAINT-SA&Euml;NS" title="SAINT-SA&Euml;NS" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">SAINT-SA&Euml;NS</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2>
+
+<h2>Symphony and Symphonic Poem</h2>
+
+
+<p>That adventurous spirit, Claudio Monteverde, who nearly three hundred
+years ago made himself responsible for the first feeble utterances of an
+orchestra that tried to say something for itself, divined the
+possibilities of expression in varying combinations of tone-quality and
+gave vigorous impulse to the germ of the symphony already existing in
+the formless instrumental preludes and interludes of his predecessors
+among opera-makers. His revelation of the charm that lies in exploring
+the resources of instrumentation led to ever increasing demands on the
+orchestra. The pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>lude developed into the operatic overture whose
+business it became to prepare the spectator for what followed. That
+music was capable of conveying an impression in her own tone-language
+was apparent, and in due time the symphony rose majestic from the forge
+of genius.</p>
+
+<p>Prominent among the materials welded into it was the dance of obscure
+origin. As the vocal aria was the result of the simple folk-song
+combined with the intense craving of song's master molders for
+individual expression, so instrumental music striving to walk alone,
+without support from words, gained vital elements through the discovery
+that various phases of mental disposition might be indicated by
+alternating dance tunes differing in rhythm and movement, according to
+Nature's own law of contrasts. That unity of purpose was essential to
+the effectiveness of the diversity was instinctively discerned.</p>
+
+<p>The touch of authority was given to this kind of music, during the last
+two decades of the seventeenth century, by Arcangelo Corelli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> when he
+presented in the camera, or private apartment, of Cardinal Ottoboni's
+palace, in Rome, his idealized dance groups, thoroughly united by
+harmony of mood, yet affording a wholly new tone-picture of this mood in
+each of several movements. These compositions were usually written for
+the harpsichord and perhaps three instruments of the viol order, the
+master himself playing the leading melody on the violin. He called them
+sonatas from sonare, to sound, a name originally applied to any piece
+that was sounded by instruments, not sung by the human voice. They
+prefigured the solo sonata, the entire class of chamber music named from
+the place where they were performed, and the symphony which is a sonata
+for the orchestra. Absolute music was set once for all on the right path
+by them. They ushered in a new era of Art.</p>
+
+<p>Purcell, in England, Domenico Scarlatti and Sammartini, in Italy, the
+Bachs, in Germany, and others continued to fashion the sonata form. It
+ceased to be a mere grouping of dances, the name suite being applied to
+that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> and struck out into independent excursions in the domain of
+fancy. The prevailing melody of its monophonic style proved suitable to
+furnish a subject for the most animated discussion. Three contrasting
+movements were adopted, comprising a summons to attention, an appeal to
+both intellect and emotions, and a lively reaction after excitement.</p>
+
+<p>A German critic has jocosely remarked that the early writers meant the
+sonata to show first what they could do, second what they could feel,
+and third how glad they were to have finished. Time vastly increased its
+importance. Two subjects, a melody in the tonic, another usually in the
+dominant, came to set forth the exposition of the opening movement,
+leading to a free development, with various episodes, and an assured
+return to the original statement. The prevailing character being thus
+defined, the story readily unfolds, aided by related keys, in a slow
+movement and perhaps a minuet or scherzo, and gains its denouement in a
+stirring finale, written in the original key. Each movement has its own
+subjects, its individual devel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>opment, with harmony of plan and idea for
+a bond of union.</p>
+
+<p>The name symphony, from sinfonia, a consonance of sounds, applied
+originally to any selection played by a full band and later to
+instrumental overtures, was given by Joseph Haydn to the orchestral
+sonata form inaugurated by him. His thirty years of musical service to
+the house of Esterhazy, with an orchestra increasing from 16 to 24
+pieces to experiment on, as the solo virtuoso experiments on piano or
+violin, brought him wholly under the spell of the instruments. Their
+individual characteristics afforded him continually new suggestions in
+regard to tone-coloring, and he rose often to audacity, for his time, in
+his harmonic devices. Grace and spirit, originality of invention, joyous
+abandon, a fancy controlled by a studious mind, a profusion of quaint
+humor and a proper division of light and shade, combine to give the
+dominant note to his music. His symphonies recall the fairy tale, with
+its sparkling "once upon a time," and yet like it are not without their
+mysterious shadows. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> everything he has written is felt that faculty
+of smiling amid grief and disappointment and pain that made Haydn, the
+Father of the Symphony, exclaim in his old age, "Life is a charming
+affair."</p>
+
+<p>With Mozart, whose life-work began after, but ended before that of
+Haydn, influencing and being influenced by the latter, the symphony
+broadened in scope and grew richer in warmth of melodious expression,
+definiteness of plan and completeness of form. His profoundly poetic
+musical nature, with its high capacity for joy and sorrow and infinite
+longing, was reflected in all that he wrote. By means of a generous
+employment of free counterpoint, in other words a kind of polyphony in
+which the various voices use different melodies in harmonious
+combination, he gained a potent auxiliary in his cunning workmanship,
+and emphasized the folly of rejecting the contrapuntal experiences, of,
+for instance, a Sebastian Bach. Musical instruments, as well as musical
+materials, were his servants in developing the glowing fancies of his
+marvelously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> constructive brain. The crowning glory of his graceful
+perfection of outline and detail is the noble spirit of serenity which
+illumines all its beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Beethoven further advanced the technique of the symphony, and proved its
+power to "strike fire from the soul of man." Varying his themes while
+repeating them, adding spice to his episodes and working out his entire
+scheme with consummate skill, he was able to construct from a motive of
+a few notes a mighty epic tone-poem. He translated into superb
+orchestral pages the dreams of the human heart, the soul's longing for
+liberty and all the holiest aspirations of the inner being. He discussed
+in tones problems of man's life and destiny, ever displaying sublime
+faith that Fate, however cruel, is powerless to crush the spiritual
+being, the real individuality. His conflicts never fail to end in
+triumph. Well may it be said that the ultimate purpose of a symphony of
+Beethoven is to tell of those things from the deepest depths of which
+events are mere shadows, and that as high feeling de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>mands lofty
+utterance his tonal forms are inevitably worthy of their contents.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-six years younger than Beethoven Schubert lived but a year after
+he had passed away and died in 1828, two years later than Weber, and
+felt the glow of the spirit of romanticism. From the perennial fount of
+song within his breast there streamed fresh melodious strains through
+his symphonies, the ninth and last of which, the C major, ranks him with
+the great symphonists. Intense poetic sentiment, dreamy yet strong
+musical individuality, romantic fulness of plan to embody in tones the
+passionate emotions of a storm and stress period, and much originality
+of orchestral treatment characterize the symphonies of Schumann. He
+rises to towering heights in some passages, but in his daring
+explorations through the tone-world he is often betrayed into a
+vagueness of form, largely traceable perhaps to lack of early technical
+discipline, as well as to lack of mental clarity. Ultra romanticism was
+foreign to the nature and repulsive to the tastes of the refined,
+elegant Mendels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>sohn, yet in spite of himself its influence crept gently
+into his polished works. As a symphonist he displayed fertility in
+picturesque sonorities, facility in tracing the outlines and filling in
+the details of form, keen sense of balance of orchestral tone, thorough
+scientific knowledge of his materials, and, as some one has said, became
+all but a master in the highest sense. His overtures are unquestionably
+romantic, and as their histrionic and scenic titles indicate, partake of
+the nature of programme music.</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to Hector Berlioz, the famous French symphonist, the
+exponent par excellence of programme music, that is, music intended to
+illustrate a special story. He lived from 1803 to 1869, and because of
+his audacity in using new and startling tonal effects was called the
+most flagrant musical heretic of the nineteenth century. He was the
+first to impress on the world the idea of music as a definite language.
+His recurrent themes, called "fixed ideas," prefigured Wagner's "leading
+motives." His skill in combining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> instruments added new lustre to
+orchestration. The personal style he created for himself was the result
+of his studies of older masterpieces, above all those of Gluck which he
+knew by heart, and of his philosophic researches. His four famous
+symphonic works are: "Fantastic Symphony," "Grand Funeral and Triumphal
+Symphony," "Harold in Italy" and "Romeo and Juliet." In a preface to the
+first he thus explains his ideas: "The plan of a musical drama without
+words, requires to be explained beforehand. The programme (which is
+indispensable to the perfect comprehension of the work) ought therefore
+to be considered in the light of the spoken text of an opera, serving to
+lead up to the piece of music, and indicate the character and
+expression."</p>
+
+<p>From programme music came the symphonic poem of which Franz Liszt was
+the creator. Although he found this culmination of the romantic ideal in
+the field of instrumental music in his maturer years, he displayed in it
+the full power of his genius. His great works in this line are a "Faust
+Symphony," "Les Pr&eacute;ludes,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> "Orpheus," "Prometheus," "Mazeppa" and
+"Hamlet." Symphonic in form, although less restricted than the symphony,
+these works are designed to give tone-pictures of the subjects
+designated, or at least of the moods they awaken. "Mazeppa," for
+instance, is described as depicting in a wild movement, rising to
+frenzy, the death ride of the hero, a brief andante proclaims his
+collapse, the following march, introduced by trumpet fanfares and
+increasing to the noblest triumph, his elevation and coronation.</p>
+
+<p>Camille Saint-Sa&euml;ns, without doubt the most original and intellectual
+modern French composer, who at sixty-seven years of age is still in the
+midst of his activity, and who has made his own the spirit of the
+classic composers, owes to the symphonic poem a great part of his
+reputation, and has also written symphonies of great value. His
+orchestration is distinguished by its clarity, power and exquisite
+coloring. The orchestral music of Tschaikowsky, who died in 1893,
+symphonies and symphonic poems, are saturated with the glowing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> Russian
+spirit, are intensely dramatic, sometimes rising to tempestuous bursts
+of passion that are only held in check by the composer's scholarly
+control of his materials. A strong national flavor is also felt in the
+work of Christian Sinding, the Norwegian, whose D minor symphony has
+been styled "a piece born of the gloomy romanticism of the North."
+Edward Grieg, known as the incarnation of the strong, vigorous, breezy
+spirit of the land of the midnight sun, has put some of his most
+characteristic work into symphonic poems and orchestral suites. The
+first composer to convey a message from the North in tones to the
+European world was Gade, the Dane, known as the Symphony Master of the
+North, who was born in 1817 and died in 1890.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to mention in a brief essay all the great workers in
+symphonic forms. One Titanic spirit, Johannes Brahms, (1833-1897) who
+succeeded in striking the dominant note of musical sublimity amid modern
+unrest, is reserved for our final consideration. Of him Schumann said,
+"This John is a prophet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> who will also write revelations," and he has
+revealed to those who can read that high art is the abiding-place of
+reason, that it is moreover compounded of profundity of feeling yoked
+with profundity of intellectual mastery. Dr. Riemann writes of him,
+"From Bach he inherited the depth, from Haydn, the humor, from Mozart,
+the charm, from Beethoven, the strength, from Schubert, the intimateness
+of his art. Truly a wonderfully gifted nature that was able to absorb
+such a fulness of great gifts and still not lose the best of gifts&mdash;the
+strong individuality which makes the master."</p>
+
+<p>Wonderful is the power of instrumental music, absolute music without
+words, that may convey impressions, deep and lasting, no words could
+give. All hail to the memory of Johannes Brahms, who has reminded us of
+its true mission and delivered a message that will ring through the
+twentieth century.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>[<b>Transcriber's Note:</b>  In the caption for the illustration featuring
+Ms. Nordica, the spelling of her first name was corrected from "Lilian"
+to "Lillian."]</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER ***
+
+***** This file should be named 18284-h.htm or 18284-h.zip *****
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,4645 @@
+Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: For Every Music Lover
+       A Series of Practical Essays on Music
+
+Author: Aubertine Woodward Moore
+
+Release Date: April 29, 2006 [EBook #18284]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: MALIBRAN]
+
+
+
+
+FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER
+
+A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ESSAYS ON MUSIC
+
+BY AUBERTINE WOODWARD MOORE
+
+AUTHOR OF "FOR MY MUSICAL FRIEND" ETC.
+
+
+NEW YORK
+DODGE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+55 FIFTH AVENUE
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1902, by
+DODGE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+1. MALIBRAN         _Frontispiece_
+2. MOZART                      22
+3. BRAHMS                      54
+4. FRANZ LISZT                 86
+5. LILLIAN NORDICA            118
+6. PAGANINI                   150
+7. JENNY LIND                 182
+8. CORELLI                    214
+9. SAINT-SAENS                246
+
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+Preface                                                                17
+
+    How we can approach knowledge of music. Mistaken isolation of the
+    art. Those who belong to the privileged class. Music, as well as
+    religion, meant for all. Business of its ministers and teachers.
+    Promise of the twentieth century. Fruitage of our own free soil.
+    American world-view. Purpose of volume.
+
+
+The Origin and Function of Music                                       21
+
+    Story of music affording knowledge of man's inner life. Mythology
+    and legendary lore. Emerson's dualism. Music a mirror. Ruskin and
+    art. Beethoven's lofty revelation. The real thing of Schopenhauer.
+    Views of Carlyle, Wagner and Mazzini. Raw materials. Craving for
+    sympathy in artistic type. Evolution of tone-language. French writer
+    of 1835. Prince of Waldthurn, in 1690. Spencer's theory. Controversy
+    and answer. Music of primeval man and early civilizations. The
+    Vedas. Hebrew scriptures. Basis of scientific laws. Church ritual.
+    Folk-music. Influence of crusades. Modern music architect of its own
+    fortunes. Present musical vocabulary and literature. Counsel of
+    Pythagoras. What Plato taught. Euripides on song. Auerbach. Martin
+    Luther. Napoleon Bonaparte. Bain and Dr. Marx. Shakespeare, in
+    Merchant of Venice. Wagner's unspoiled humanity. Tolstoi in art.
+
+
+Blunders in Music Study                                               43
+
+    Voice from the unseen. Perverted soul. Normal instincts. Genius and
+    talent. AEsthetic tastes. Musical sound and rhythmic motion. Average
+    child. Frequent blunders. Appeal to intellect. Teacher with strong
+    personality. Experimenting with beginners. Legal protection. Vienna
+    musician. Class instruction. French solfege. English tonic sol-fa.
+    Mrs. John Spencer Curwen. Rev. John Curwen. Time a mental science.
+    Musical perception of the blind. Music in public schools. Phillips
+    Brooks on school song. Compulsory study. Socrates. Mirabeau.
+    Schumann on brilliancy. Unrighteous mammon of technique. Soul of
+    music. Neglect of ensemble work. As to accompaniments. Underlying
+    principles. Hearing good music. Going abroad. Wagner's hero. A
+    plumed knight wanted.
+
+
+The Musical Education That Educates                                   61
+
+    Symmetrical development. Well-rounded musician. Well-balanced
+    individual. Profits proportionate to investment. Living force. What
+    Goethe said. Rich harvest. Aristotle on command over mind. Music
+    study many-sided. Madox-Brown on art. Mabie on beauty. Practical
+    forces in shaping character, purifying taste and elevating
+    standards. Master-works. Human voice as music teacher. Scientific
+    methods of study. Both art and science. Mental discipline. Stephen
+    A. Emory. Huxley on education.
+
+
+How to Interpret Music                                                73
+
+    College professors on criticism and interpretation. External and
+    technical forms. Distrusting impressions. Trampling on God-given
+    intuitions. Throb and thrill of great art. Insight requisite for
+    interpretation. Living with masterpieces. Three souls of Browning.
+    Dr. Corson. Every faculty alive. Vital knowledge. Musical
+    imagination. Technical proficiency. Head, hand and physical forces.
+    In service of lofty ideal. Musical art work. Theme. Unfolding.
+    Climax. Labor of composition. Mind of genius. Elementary laws. Tonal
+    language. Karl Formes and operatic aspirant. Motto of Leschetitzky.
+    Marks of expression. Adolph Kullak. Hans von Buelow. Pulse of music.
+    Memory. Ruskin's fatal faults.
+
+
+How to Listen to Music                                                89
+
+    Listening an art. Painting completed whole. Music passing panorama.
+    Not translatable into words. To follow, even anticipate composer.
+    Bach's absolute knowledge. Fire of Prometheus. Inner sanctuary of
+    art. Science of acoustics. Prime elements. Dr. Marx and Helmholtz.
+    Motive. Beethoven's fifth symphony. Phrase. Period. Simple melody.
+    "God Save the King." Our "America." Masters of counterpoint. Bach's
+    fugues. Monophony and polyphony. Classical and romantic. Heretic and
+    hero. Hadow on musical laws. Form the manifestation of these. Good
+    music versus ragtime. Dr. Corson on spiritual appeal.
+
+
+The Piano and Piano Players                                          105
+
+    Pythagoras and musical intervals. Pan pipes. Portable organs.
+    Monochords with keys. Guido d'Arezzo. Clavier type. Virginal in
+    Elizabethan age. Early clavier masters. First woman court clavier
+    player. Scarlatti and Bach. True art of clavier-playing. Sonata
+    form. Where Haydn gained much. Mozart and Clementi. Pianoforte and
+    improvements. Viennese school. Clementi school. Giant on lofty
+    heights. Oscar Bie on Beethoven. Golden age of pianoforte. Piano
+    composers and virtuosi, from Weber to the present time. Teachers and
+    performers often corrupters of music.
+
+
+The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin                                  135
+
+    Rubinstein on Polish patriot and tone-poet who explored harmonic
+    vastness of pianoforte. Like exquisitely constructed sounding-board.
+    Enriched and spiritualized the pianoforte for all time. Universal
+    rather than individual experiences. National tonality. Zwyny and
+    Elsner. Intimate acquaintance with Bach. Prince Charming of the
+    piano. Liszt on Chopin. Raphael of music. Playing and teaching.
+    Tempo rubato. Compositions. Schumann's words. Oscar Bie.
+
+
+Violins and Violinists--Fact and Fable                               151
+
+    Volker the fiddler. Nibelungen lay. Videl of days of chivalry. Bow
+    fashioned like sword. Hagen of Tronje. Wilhelm Jordan, in
+    "Sigfridsage." Henrietta Sontag and the coming Paganini. Wagner's
+    Volker-Wilhelmj at Bayreuth. Magic fiddles and wonderworking
+    fiddlers. Grimm's Fairy Tales. Norse folk-lore. English nursery
+    rhymes. Crickets as fiddlers. Progenitors of violin. The violin of
+    Queen Elizabeth and her age. Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. Household
+    of Charles II. Butler, in Hudibras. Viola d'amore in Milwaukee, Wis.
+    Brescian and Cremonese violin-makers. Early violinists. Value and
+    history of some violins. Strings and bow. Violin virtuosi from
+    Corelli to our day. Mad rush for technique.
+
+
+Queens of Song                                                       183
+
+    Florentine lady, Vittoria Archilei. Embryo opera of Cavalieri.
+    Peri's "Eurydice." Euterpe. Marthe le Rochois and Lully's operas.
+    Rival queens in London. Steele, in "Tattler." Second pair of rivals,
+    Cuzzoni and Faustina. Master Handel. Germany's earliest queen of
+    song. Frederick the Great and German singers. Mrs. Billington. Haydn
+    and Sir Joshua Reynold's St. Cecilia. Mozart's operas introduced
+    into England. Catalani. Pasta. Sontag. Schroeder-Devrient and
+    Goethe's "Erl King." Malibran a dazzling Meteor. Another daughter of
+    Manuel del Popolo Garcia. Marchesi, Grisi and Mario. Manuel Garcia
+    and the Swedish Nightingale. Other Swedish songstresses. Patti.
+    Queens of song pass in review. Two Wagner interpreters. A Valkyrie's
+    horse. A word for American girls.
+
+
+The Opera and Its Reformers                                          213
+
+    Evolution of drama. At the altar of Dionysus. Greek poetry and
+    music. Aristotle on Greek stage-plays. AEschylus and Sophocles.
+    Euripides. Words, music and scenic effect. Lenaean theatre
+    exhibitions. More costly than Peloponnesian war. Roman dominion.
+    Primitive Christian church. St. Augustine. Mystery, miracle,
+    morality and passion plays. Strolling histriones, etc. Florence
+    "Academy." Vincenzo Galilei. Monody. Polyphonic music. Emilio del
+    Cavalieri. Vittorio Archilei. Music of Greeks recovered. Peri.
+    Monteverde and his work. First opera house. Alessandro Scarlatti.
+    Troubadours. Lully, Rameau and French opera. Purcell, Handel and
+    music in England. Gluck, the regenerator. German opera. Mozart,
+    Beethoven, Weber and Wagner. What came from Bach, Chopin and
+    Berlioz. Rossini's melodies. Wagner's influence. Verdi, the grand
+    old man.
+
+
+Certain Famous Oratorios                                             235
+
+    Neri's oratory. Dramatized versions of biblical stories. Palestrina
+    and harmonies of celestial Jerusalem. Religious dramas of Roswitha.
+    Laura Guidiccioni's first oratorio text. Music by Cavalieri. At
+    Santa Maria della Vallicella. Orchestra behind the scene.
+    Description. Carissimi, "father of oratorio and cantata."
+    Alessandro Scarlatti. Another Alessandro. Dr. Parry's opinion. "San
+    Giovanni Battista" and famous air. Tradition about Stradella. What
+    recent writers say. Handel and the "Messiah." Bach and the "Passion
+    Music." "The Creation" and Haydn. Beethoven's "Mount of Olives."
+    Mendelssohn, in "St. Paul" and "Elijah." Oratorios of Liszt and
+    Gounod. Next step in the evolution.
+
+
+Symphony and Symphonic Poem                                          247
+
+    That adventurous spirit, Monteverde. Charm in exploring resources of
+    instrumentation. Operatic overture. Forge of genius. Dance of
+    obscure origin. Craving for individual expression. Touch of
+    authority by Corelli. Cardinal Ottoboni's palace. Symphony, a sonata
+    for orchestra. Purcell, Scarlatti, Sammartini and the Bachs.
+    Monophonic style. Contrasting movements. German critic on early
+    sonata. Further explanation. Meaning of symphony. Haydn with
+    Esterhazy orchestra. Father of the symphony. Mozart. Beethoven.
+    Schubert. Schumann. Mendelssohn. Berlioz, the musical heretic. His
+    "fixed idea" and programme music. Liszt and symphonic poem.
+    Saint-Saens. Tschaikowsky and Russian spirit. Sinding. Grieg. Gade.
+    Brahms and absolute music.
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+We cannot gain experience by being brought into contact with the
+experiences of others, nor can we know music by reading about it. Only
+by taking it into our hearts and homes, by admitting it to our intimate
+companionship, can we approach a knowledge of the art that has enriched
+so many lives, even though it has never yet completely fulfilled its
+function. At the same time, every music lover is helped to new ideas,
+inspired to fresh efforts, by suggestions and statements from those who
+have themselves had deep experiences in their search for the inner
+sanctuary of the Temple of Art.
+
+Musicians have been too much inclined to treat their art as something to
+be exclusively appropriated by a favored class of men and women, and are
+themselves greatly to blame for its mistaken isolation. True, music has
+its privileged class. To this belongs the mind of creative genius that
+can formulate in tones the universal passions, the eternal verities of
+the soul. In it may also be numbered those gifted beings whose
+interpretative powers peculiarly adapt them to spread abroad the
+utterances of genius. Precisely in the same way religion has its
+prophets and its ministers. Music, as well as religion, is meant for
+everyone, and the business of its ministers and teachers is to convey to
+all the message of its prophets.
+
+The nineteenth century was the period of achievement. There is every
+reason to believe that the twentieth century will be the period of still
+nobler achievement, beyond all in the realm of the spirit. Then will
+music find its most splendid opportunity, and in our own free soil it
+will yield its richest fruitage. Amid the favorable conditions of
+liberty it will flourish to the utmost, and will come to afford blessed
+relief from the pressure of materialism. During the era we are entering
+no unworthy teacher will be permitted to trifle with the unfolding
+musical instincts of childhood. The study of music will take an honored
+place in the curriculum of every school, academy, college and
+university, as an essential factor in culture. Then music among us will
+come to reflect our deepest, truest consciousness, the American
+world-view.
+
+It is with a desire to stimulate thought and incite to action that the
+present volume has been prepared for every music lover. The essays
+contained in it have not previously appeared in print. They are composed
+to a large extent of materials used by the author in her lectures and
+informal talks on music and its history. That her readers may be led to
+seek further acquaintance with the divine art is her earnest wish.
+
+Many thanks are due L. C. Page & Company, of Boston, for kind permission
+to use the portrait of Corelli, from their "Famous Violinists," by Henry
+C. Lahee.
+
+AUBERTINE WOODWARD MOORE.
+MADISON, WIS.
+
+
+
+
+FOR EVERY MUSIC LOVER
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Origin and Function of Music
+
+
+One of the most interesting of the many interesting stories of our
+civilization is the story of Music. It affords an intimate knowledge of
+the inner life of man as manifested in different epochs of the world's
+history. He who has failed to follow it has failed to comprehend the
+noblest phenomena of human progress.
+
+Mythology and legendary lore abound in delightful traditions in regard
+to the birth of music. The untutored philosophers of primitive humanity
+and the learned philosophers of ancient civilizations alike strove to
+solve the sweet, elusive mystery surrounding the art. Through the myths
+and legends based on their speculations runs a suggestion of divine
+origin.
+
+The Egyptians of old saw in their sublime god, Osiris, and his ideal
+spouse, Isis, the authors of music. Among the Hindus it was regarded as
+a priceless gift from the great god Brahma, who was its creator and
+whose peerless consort, Sarasvati, was its guardian. Poetic fancies in
+these lines permeate the early literature of diverse peoples.
+
+This is not surprising. Abundant testimony proves that the existence of
+music is coeval with that of mankind; that it is based on the
+modulations of the human voice and the agitations of the human muscles
+and nerves caused by the infinite variations of the spiritual and
+emotional sensations, needs and aspirations of humanity; that it has
+grown with man's growth, developed with man's development, and that
+its origin is as divine as that of man.
+
+[Illustration: MOZART]
+
+The inevitable dualism which Emerson found bisecting all nature appears
+also in music, which is both spiritual and material. The spiritual part
+of music appeals to the spiritual part of man, addressing each heart
+according to the cravings and capacities of each. The material part of
+music may be compared to the body in which man's spirit is housed. It is
+the vehicle which conveys the message of music from soul to soul through
+the medium of the human ear with its matchless harp of nerve-fibres and
+its splendid sounding-board, the eardrum.
+
+Music is the mirror which most perfectly reflects man's inner being and
+the essence of all things. Ruskin saw clearly that he alone can love art
+well who loves better what art mirrors. This may especially be applied
+to music, which offers, as a Beethoven has said, a more lofty revelation
+than all wisdom and philosophy.
+
+Having no model in nature, being neither an imitation of any actual
+object, nor a repetition of anything experienced, music stands alone
+among the arts. It represents the real thing, as Schopenhauer has it,
+the thing itself, not the mere semblance. Were we able to give a
+thoroughly satisfactory explanation of music, he declares, we should
+have the true philosophy of the universe.
+
+"Music is a kind of inarticulate, unfathomable speech, which leads us to
+the edge of the Infinite, and impels us for a moment to gaze into it,"
+exclaimed Carlyle. Wagner found in music the conscious language of
+feeling, that which ennobles the sensual and realizes the spiritual.
+"Music is the harmonious voice of creation, an echo of the invisible
+world, one note of the divine concord which the entire universe is
+destined one day to sound," wrote Mazzini. Literature is rich in noble
+definitions of the divine art.
+
+From a matter of fact standpoint music consists of a vast concourse of
+tones which are its raw materials and bear within themselves the
+possibility of being moulded into form. Utterances and actions
+illustrating these raw materials are common to all living creatures. A
+dog, reiterating short barks of joy, or giving vent to prolonged howls
+of distress, is actuated by an impulse similar to that of the human
+infant as it uplifts its voice to express its small emotions. The sounds
+uttered by primeval man as the direct expression of his emotions were
+unquestionably of a like nature.
+
+The tendency to manifest feeling by means of sound is universally
+admitted, and sound, freighted with feeling, is peculiarly exciting to
+human beings. The agitations of a mob may be increased by the emotional
+tones of its prime movers, and we all know that the power of an orator
+depends more on his skill in handling his voice than on what he says.
+
+A craving for sympathy exists in all animate beings. It is strong in
+mankind and becomes peculiarly intense in the type known as artistic.
+The fulness of his own emotions compels the musician to utterance. To
+strike a sympathetic chord in other sensitive breasts it becomes
+necessary to devise forms of expression that may be unmistakably
+intelligible.
+
+Out of such elements the tone-language has grown, precisely as the
+word-language grew out of men's early attempts to communicate facts to
+one another. Its story records a slow, painstaking building up of
+principles to control its raw materials; for music, as we understand it,
+cannot exist without some kind of design. Vague sounds produce vague,
+fleeting impressions. Definiteness in tonal relations and rhythmic plan
+is requisite to produce a defined, enduring impression. In primitive
+states of music rhythmic sounds were heard, defined by the pulses but
+with little or no change of pitch, and sounds varying in pitch without
+regularity of impulse. A high degree of intellectuality was reached
+before our modern scales were evolved from long-continued attempts at
+making well-balanced successions of sounds. As musical art advanced
+rhythm and melodic expression became united.
+
+The study of the origin, function and evolution of music, according to
+modern scientific methods, is a matter of comparatively recent date. As
+late as 1835 a French writer of the history of music expressed profound
+regret that he had been unable to determine when music was invented, or
+to discover the inventor's name. It was his opinion that musical man had
+profited largely from the voices of the feathered tribes. He seriously
+asserted that the duck had evidently furnished a model for the clarionet
+and oboe, and Sir Chanticleer for the trumpet. An entire chapter of his
+book he devoted to surmises concerning the "Music before the Flood." The
+poor man felt himself superior to the poetic fancies of the ancients,
+which at least foreshadowed the Truth, but had found no firm ground on
+which to stand.
+
+Much finer were the instincts of Capellmeister Wolfgang Kasper, Prince
+of Waldthurn, whose historical treatise on Music appeared in Dresden in
+1690. He boldly declared the author of music to be the good God himself,
+who fashioned the air to transmit musical sounds, the ear to receive
+them, the soul of man to throb with emotions demanding utterance, and
+all nature to be filled with sources of inspiration. The good
+Capellmeister was in close touch with the Truth.
+
+It was in 1835, the same year that the French writer mentioned offered
+his wild speculations, that Herbert Spencer, from the standpoint of a
+scientist, produced his essay on the "Origin and Function of Music,"
+which has proved invaluable in arousing discriminating thought in these
+lines. Many years elapsed before its worth to musicians was realized.
+To-day it is widely known and far-reaching in its influence.
+
+In those inner agitations which cause muscular expansion and
+contraction, and find expression in the inflections and cadences of the
+voice, Herbert Spencer saw the foundations of music. He unhesitatingly
+defined it as emotional speech, the language of the feelings, whose
+function was to increase the sympathies and broaden the horizon of
+mankind. Besides frankly placing music at the head of the fine arts, he
+declared that those sensations of unexperienced felicity it arouses,
+those impressions of an unknown, ideal existence it calls forth, may be
+regarded as a prophecy to the fulfilment of which music is itself partly
+instrumental. Our strange capacity for being affected by melody and
+harmony cannot but imply that it is possible to realize the delights
+they suggest. On these suppositions might be comprehended the power and
+significance of music which must otherwise remain a mystery. The
+progress of musical culture, he thought, could not be too much applauded
+as a noble means of ministering to human welfare. Mr. Spencer's theory
+has of late led to much controversy. Its author has been censured for
+setting forth no explanation of the place of harmony in modern music,
+and for not realizing what a musical composition is. In his last volume,
+"Facts and Comments," which contains many valuable thoughts not
+previously published, he declares that his critics have obviously
+confounded the origin of a thing and that which originates from it.
+"Here we have a striking example of the way in which an hypothesis is
+made to appear untenable by representing it as being something which it
+does not profess to be," he says. "I gave an account of the origin of
+music, and now I am blamed because my conception of the origin of music
+does not include a conception of music as fully developed. If to some
+one who said that an oak comes from an acorn it were replied that he had
+manifestly never seen an oak, since an acorn contains no trace of all
+its complexities of form and structure, the reply would not be thought a
+rational one;" but he believes it would be quite as rational as to
+suppose he had not realized what a musical composition is because his
+theory of the origin of music says nothing about the characteristics of
+an overture or a quartet.
+
+Of the music of primeval man we can form an estimate from the music of
+still existing uncivilized races. As the vocabulary of their speech is
+limited, so the notes of their music are few, but expressive gestures
+and modulations of the voice supplement both. With advancing
+civilization the emotions of which the human heart are capable become
+more complex and demand larger means of expression. Some belief in the
+healing, helpful, uplifting power of music has always prevailed. It
+remains for independent, practical, modern man to present the art to the
+world as a thing of law and order, whose ineffable beauty and
+beneficence may reach the lives of the average man and woman.
+
+Without the growth of the individual, music cannot grow; without freedom
+of thought, neither the language of tones nor that of words can gain
+full, free utterance. Freedom is essential to the life of the indwelling
+spirit. Wherever the flow of thought and fancy is impeded, or the
+energies of the individual held in check, there music is cramped. In
+China, where conditions have crushed spiritual and intellectual liberty,
+the art remains to this day in a crude rhythmical or percussion state,
+although it was early honored as the gift of superior beings. The
+Chinese philosopher detected a grand world music in the harmonious order
+of the heavens and the earth, and wrote voluminous works on musical
+theory. When it came to putting this into practice tones were combined
+in a pedantic fashion.
+
+In all ages and climes music has ministered to religion and education.
+The sacred Vedas bear testimony to the high place it held in Hindu
+worship and life. Proud records of stone reveal its dignified role in
+the civilization of Egypt, where Plato stated there had existed ten
+thousand years before his day music that could only have emanated from
+gods or godlike men. The art was taught by the temple priests, and the
+education of no young person was complete without a knowledge of it.
+
+Egyptian musical culture impressed itself on the Greeks, and also on the
+Israelites, whose tone-language gained warmth and coloring from various
+Oriental sources. Hebrew scriptures abound in tributes to the worth of
+music which was intimately related to the political life, mental
+consciousness and national sentiment of the Children of Israel. Through
+music they approached the unseen King of kings with the plaintive
+outpourings of their grief-laden hearts and with their joyful hymns of
+praise and thanksgiving.
+
+From the polished Greeks we gained a basis for the scientific laws
+governing our musical art. The splendid music of which we read in
+ancient writings has for the most part vanished with the lives it
+enriched. Relegated to the guardianship of exclusive classes its most
+sacred secrets were kept from the people, and it could not possibly have
+attained the expansion we know.
+
+Music has been called the handmaiden of Christianity, but may more
+appropriately be designated its loyal helpmeet. Whatever synagogue or
+other melodies may have first served to voice the sentiments kindled by
+the Gospel of Glad Tidings it was inevitable that the new religious
+thought should seek and find new musical expression.
+
+In shaping a ritual for general use, an accompaniment of suitable music
+had to be considered. The fathers of the church constituted themselves
+also the guides of music. Those forms which give symmetry and
+proportion to the outward structure of the tonal art were pruned and
+polished under ecclesiastical surveillance until spontaneity was
+endangered. Happily in the spirit of Christianity is that which ever
+proves a remedy for the mistakes of law-givers. The religion that
+inculcates respect for the individual has furthered the advance of music
+and of spirituality.
+
+Beyond the confines of the church was another musical growth, springing
+up by the wayside and in remote places. Folk-music it is called, and it
+gives untrammeled utterance to human longings, human grief and despair,
+and human wondering over the mysteries of life, death and the great
+Beyond. Untutored people had always found vent in this kind of music for
+pent-up feelings, and the folk-music of the Christian world, during the
+Crusades, gained a new element in the fragments of Oriental melody
+transplanted into its midst. In time, through the combined wisdom of
+gifted composers and large-minded ecclesiastical rulers, the music of
+the church and the music of the people became united, and modern music
+was born.
+
+Architecture, painting, sculpture and poetry possess practical proofs of
+their past achievements and on these their present endeavors are
+builded. Modern music has been compelled to be the architect of its own
+fortunes. It is the one new art of our era, and, as the youngest in the
+family of arts, it has but recently reached a high state of development.
+
+During those eleven Christian centuries, from the latter part of the
+fourth century, when the corner-stone for our musical system was laid,
+until the wonderful exploration period of the fifteenth was well
+advanced, the masters of music were absorbed in controlling the elements
+of their art. Since then event has crowded upon event with rapidly
+increasing ratio. During the past two centuries the progress of the art
+has been like a tale in fairyland. We now possess a magnificent musical
+vocabulary, a splendid musical literature, yet so accustomed are we to
+grand treasure-troves we perhaps prize them no more than the meagre
+stores of the past were prized.
+
+Music is often mentioned in literature as a means of discipline,
+inspiration and refreshment. We read in Homer that Achilles was
+instructed in the art that he might learn to moderate his passions;
+Pythagoras, father of Musical Science, counseled his disciples to
+refresh themselves at the fount of music before retiring to their
+couches at night in order to restore the inner harmony of their souls,
+and to seek strength in the morning from the same source. Plato taught
+that music is as essential to the mind as air is to the body, and that
+children should be familiarized with harmonies and rhythms that they
+might be more gentle, harmonious and rhythmical, consequently better
+fitted for speech and action.
+
+"Song brings of itself a cheerfulness that wakes the heart to joy,"
+exclaimed Euripides, and certain it is a large measure of joy surrounds
+those who live in an atmosphere of music. It has a magic wand that lifts
+man beyond the petty worries of his existence. "Music is a shower-bath
+of the soul," said Schopenhauer, "washing away all that is impure." Or
+as Auerbach put it: "Music washes from the soul the dust of everyday
+life."
+
+Realizing the influence of music, Martin Luther sang the Reformation
+into the hearts of the people with his noble chorals in which every one
+might join. He called music a mistress of order and good manners, and
+introduced it into the schools as a means of refinement and discipline,
+in whose presence anger and all evil would depart. "A schoolmaster,"
+said he, "ought to have skill in music, otherwise I would not regard
+him; neither should we ordain young men to the office of preaching
+unless they have been well exercised in the art, for it maketh a fine
+people." It were well if teachers and ministers to-day more generally
+appreciated the value of music to them and their work.
+
+Music is an essential factor in great national movements. Every
+commander knows how inspiring and comforting it is to his men. Napoleon
+Bonaparte, who was not readily lifted out of himself and who complained
+that music jarred his nerves, was shrewd enough to observe its effect on
+marching troops, and to order the bands of different regiments to play
+daily in front of hospitals to soothe and cheer the wounded. The one
+tune he prized, Malbrook, he hummed as he started for his last campaign.
+In the solitude of St. Helena he said: "Of all liberal arts music has
+the greatest influence over the passions, and it is that to which the
+legislator ought to give the most encouragement."
+
+An art that in some form is found in the varied activities of all
+people, at all times, must be the common heritage of humanity. "It does
+not speak to one class but to mankind," said Robert Franz, the German
+song writer. Alexander Bain called it the most available, universal and
+influential of the fine arts, and Dr. Marx, the musical theorist,
+thought music beneficial to the moral and spiritual estate of the
+masses.
+
+Truly indeed has it been said that its universality gives music its high
+worth. Mirroring neither your inner life alone nor mine, but the
+world's essence, the transfiguration of what seems real, the divine
+Ideal, some spark of which glows in every bosom, each individual may
+feel in it whatever he is capable of feeling. The soul's language, it
+takes up the thread dropped by words and gives utterance to those
+refined sentiments and holy aspirations words are inadequate to awaken
+or express. Its message is borne from heart to heart, revealing to each
+things unseen, according as it is prepared to receive them.
+
+In the Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare made Lorenzo speak to Jessica of
+the harmony that is in immortal souls and say that "whilst this muddy
+vesture of decay doth grossly close it in we cannot hear it." To refine
+this muddy vesture, to render the spirit attentive, to bring light,
+sweetness, strength, harmony and beauty into daily life is the central
+function of music which, from the cradle to the grave, is man's most
+intimate companion.
+
+Richard Wagner devoutly believed it would prepare the way for an
+unspoiled, unfettered humanity, illumined by a perception of Truth and
+Beauty and united by a bond of sympathy and love. This ideal union is
+the goal at which Tolstoi aims in his "What is Art?" He defines art as a
+human activity to be enjoyed by all, whose purpose is the transmission
+of the most exalted feelings to which men have arisen; but the union he
+proposes would have to be consummated by a leveling process. All art
+that cannot without preparation reach the uncultured classes is
+denounced by him. He is most bitter in his denunciation of Wagner, who
+fought for a democratic art, but who wished to attain it by raising the
+lowliest of his fellow-creatures to an ever loftier plane of high
+thinking and feeling.
+
+According to Tolstoi, art began to degenerate when it separated itself
+from religion. There must have been dense mist before the Russian sage's
+mental vision when he fancied this separation possible. Art, especially
+musical art, is a vital part of religion, and cannot be put asunder from
+it. Like thought, music, since the bonds of church and state have been
+broken, has spread wide its pinions and soared to hitherto unsuspected
+heights. All noble music is sacred.
+
+Amid the marvelous material progress of to-day music is more needed than
+ever. Unburdened by the responsibility of fact, it brings relief to the
+soul from the grinding pressure of constant grappling with knowledge.
+The benefits of knowledge are great, but it is also beneficial to be
+uplifted, as we may be by music, from out the perplexing labyrinth of
+the work-a-day world toward the realm of the Divine Ideal.
+
+As a means of culture music is a potent factor in human civilization. It
+is destined to wield even greater influence than has yet been known. It
+has become the household art of to-day. As it enters more and more fully
+into the heart of the home and social life it will more and more enrich
+human existence and aid in ushering in the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth.
+
+If music can do so much for mankind, why are not all musicians great and
+good? Ah, my friend, that is a hard question to answer, and can only be
+fairly treated by asking another equally difficult question: Why are not
+all people who have enjoyed the advantages of religion wise and noble?
+Consider the gigantic machinery that has been put in motion to
+promulgate Christianity, and note how slow men have been to appropriate
+the teachings of its founder. Slow progress furnishes no argument
+against the mission either of religion or its comrade music.
+
+In common with religion music kindles our finer sensibilities and brings
+us into an atmosphere superior to that which ordinarily surrounds us. It
+requires wisdom to beautify commonplace conditions with what has been
+enjoyed in aerial regions. Rightly applied, music can lend itself to
+this illumination. As it is better known, its advantages will be more
+completely realized.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Blunders in Music Study
+
+
+Like a voice from the Unseen, the Eternal, music speaks to the soul of
+man. Its informing word being delivered in the language of the emotional
+nature finds some response to its appeal in every normal human breast.
+Shakespeare indicated this truth when he had his Lorenzo, in the
+Merchant of Venice, say:
+
+    _"The man that hath no music in himself,
+    Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
+    Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils;
+    The motions of his spirit are dull as night,
+    And his affections dark as Erebus;
+    Let no such man be trusted."_
+
+It is not the normal soul, fresh from its Creator's hands, that is fit
+for such dire evils, but the soul perverted by false conditions and
+surroundings. Where vice has become congenial and the impure reigns
+supreme, that which rouses and expresses noble aspirations and pure
+emotions can find no room. Normal instincts may also be dulled, the
+inner being made, as it were, musically deaf and dumb, by a false
+education which stifles and dwarfs the finer feelings, or by
+circumstances which permit these to remain dormant.
+
+The emotional natures of human beings differ as widely in kind and
+degree as the intellectual and physical natures. In some people
+sensibility predominates, and the irresistible activity of fancy and
+feeling compels the expression in rhythmic tone combinations of ideals
+grasped intuitively. Thus musical genius manifests itself. No amount of
+education can bring it into being, but true culture and wise guidance
+are needed to equip it for its bold flight. "Neither diligence without
+genius, nor genius without education will produce anything thorough,"
+as we read in Horace. Other people with marked aptitude for musical
+expression have reproductive rather than creative endowments. To them
+belongs talent in a greater or less degree, and they are adapted to
+promulgate the message which genius formulated for mankind. Talent may
+be ripened and brightened by suitable environments and fostering care.
+
+There are besides persons led by genius or talent into other avenues
+than those of the tone-world, and the great public with its diverse
+grades of emotional and intellectual gifts. The cultivation of the
+aesthetic tastes is profitable to all, and no agency contributes so
+freely to it as music. Too many people engaged in purely scientific or
+practical pursuits have failed to realize this. In those nations known
+as musical, and that have become so through generations occupied with
+the art, music study is placed on an equal footing with any other worthy
+pursuit and no life interest is permitted to exclude musical enthusiasm.
+
+Unless disabled by physical defects, every one displays some sense of
+musical sound and rhythmic motion. It is a constant occurrence for
+children, without a word of direction, to mark the time of a stirring
+tune with hands, feet and swaying motions of the body. A lullaby will
+almost invariably soothe a restless infant, and most children old enough
+to distinguish and articulate groups of tones will make some attempt at
+singing the melodies they have often heard. The average child begins
+music lessons with evident pleasure.
+
+It should be no more difficult to strengthen the musical instincts than
+any other faculties. On the contrary, it too often chances that a child
+whose early song efforts have been in excellent time and tune, and not
+without expression, who has marched in time and beat time accurately,
+will, after a period of instruction, utterly disregard sense of rhythm,
+sing out of tune, play wrong notes, or fail to notice when the musical
+instrument used is ever so cruelly out of tune. Uneducated people,
+trusting to intuitive perceptions, promptly decide that such or such a
+child, or person, has been spoiled by cultivation. This is merely a
+failure to trace a result to its rightful cause, which lies not in
+cultivation, but in certain blunders in music study.
+
+These blunders begin with the preliminary course on the piano or violin,
+for instance, when a child, having no previous training in the rudiments
+of music, starts with one weekly lesson, and is required to practice a
+prescribed period daily without supervision. To the difficulties of an
+introduction to a musical instrument are added those of learning to read
+notes, to locate them, to appreciate time values and much else. The
+teacher, it may be, knows little of the inner life of music, still less
+of child nature. Manifold perplexities arise, and faltering through
+these the pupil acquires a halting use of the musical vocabulary, with
+other bad habits equally hard to correct. A constant repetition of false
+notes, wrong phrasing, irregular accents, faulty rhythms and a
+meaningless jumble of notes dulls the outer ear and deadens the inner
+tone-sense. Where there is genius, or decided talent, no obstacle can
+wholly bar the way to music. Otherwise, it retreats before the
+blundering approach.
+
+Many a mother when advised to direct her child's practicing, or at least
+to encourage it by her presence, has excused herself on the plea that it
+would bore her to listen. If the work bores the mother it is not
+surprising that the child attacks it with mind fixed on metal more
+attractive and eyes seeking the clock. Occupations which are repellent
+in early life leave behind them a memory calculated to render them
+forever distasteful. It is therefore a grave mistake not to make music
+study from the outset throb with vital interest. An appeal to the
+intellect will quicken the aesthetic instincts, be they never so slender,
+and almost any one will love work that engages all the faculties.
+
+Those pupils are fortunate who come under the influence of a teacher
+with strong, well-balanced personality and ripe knowledge, and are
+treated as rational beings, capable of feeling, thinking and acting. Too
+many music teachers learn their business by experimenting on beginners.
+It has been suggested as a safeguard against their blunders, and all
+ignorance, carelessness and imposture, that music might be placed under
+the same legal protection accorded other important factors in social
+life, and that no one be permitted to teach it without a license granted
+by a competent board of judges after the applicant had passed a
+successful examination, theoretical and practical. This would be well if
+there was any certainty of choosing suitable persons to select the
+judges.
+
+A practical Vienna musician, H. Geisler, has recently created no little
+sensation by asserting that the pianoforte, although indispensable for
+the advanced artist, is worthless, even harmful, in primary training,
+and that the methods used in teaching it are based on a total
+misapprehension of the musical development prescribed by nature. Sensual
+and intellectual perceptions must actively exist, he feels, before they
+can be expressed by means of an instrument. It is a mistake to presume
+that manual practice can call them into being, or to disregard the
+supremacy of the tone-sense. He considers the human voice the primitive
+educational instrument of music and believes the reasonable order of
+musical education to be: hearing, singing, performing.
+
+This order is to be commended, and might readily be followed if primary
+instruction was given in classes, which being less expensive than
+private tuition, would admit of more frequent lessons and the services
+of a competent teacher. Classes afford the best opportunity for training
+the ear to accuracy in pitch, the eye to steadiness in reading notes,
+the mind to comprehension of key relationships, form and rhythmic
+movement, and the heart to a realization of the beauty and purport of
+music. In classes the stimulating effect of healthy competition may be
+felt, an impulse given to writing notes, transposing phrases and
+melodies, strengthening musical sentiment and refining the taste.
+
+Both the French Solfege method and the English Tonic Sol-fa system prove
+the advantage of rudimentary training in classes. Mrs. John Spencer
+Curwen, wife of the president of the London Tonic Sol-fa College, and
+daughter-in-law of the late Rev. John Curwen, founder of the movement it
+represents, has applied to pianoforte teaching the logical principles
+underlying the system, which are those accepted by modern educators as
+the psychological basis of all education. From her point of view the
+music lesson may be made attractive from the moment the pupil is placed
+at the instrument.
+
+Time is taught by her as a mental science, with the pulse as the central
+fact. She proceeds rhythmically rather than arithmetically, making
+constant appeals to that within the child which is associated with
+music. As the ear is expected to verify every fact, whether of time or
+pitch, she deems essential to profitable practicing the daily
+supervision of some person who understands the teacher's requirements.
+
+Many times a child who can readily explain the relative value of every
+note and dot will stumble in the time movement when confronted with a
+mixture of the same notes and dots. This is because no mental
+connection has been established between the mechanical time sign and its
+sound, which is the outgrowth of instinctive impulses. Time confusion
+may also be caused by confiding too implicitly in loud and persistent
+counting, instead of trusting to the intelligently guided rhythmic
+pulse.
+
+The keenness of musical perception in the blind is a subject of frequent
+comment. It is due to the fact that neither outer nor inner ear is
+distracted by the organ of sight, and the mind is compelled to
+concentrate itself with peculiar intensity on the tone-images aroused
+for its contemplation. When one of the senses is weakened or lost, the
+others become strong through the requirements made on them. This shows
+how much may be gained in music study by throwing responsibility on
+those faculties it is desirable to develop.
+
+There are numerous promising schemes for class work in operation in our
+own country, some of them offering excellent advantages to the student.
+From the music study in our public schools valuable results ought to
+come in time. Thus far, unfortunately, it is too often conducted by
+teachers who are themselves without trained musical ability and who
+permit their pupils to shout rather than sing music of an inferior order
+to the accompaniment of a piano wretchedly out of tune.
+
+The much beloved Phillips Brooks once said: "A school song in the heart
+of a child will do as much for his character as a fact in his memory, or
+a principle in his intellect." Unquestionably a love for good music,
+inspired during the formative period, is calculated to open unlimited
+possibilities, and ours could readily be molded into a musical nation if
+a firm foundation for musical knowledge and appreciation were laid in
+our schools. After the rudiments were mastered, it could easily be
+decided which pupils had a natural bent demanding special training.
+
+Where music study becomes compulsory the blunder of permitting the
+compulsion to be felt must be avoided. Socrates of old, in Plato's
+Republic, advised making early education a sort of amusement. Those who
+heed his counsel should not forget that in turning music study
+altogether into play work there is danger of weakening the will. The
+tottering footsteps should be guided wisely, as well as tenderly, in the
+first approach to the Temple of Art, that the pupil may learn to walk,
+as well as to observe and think independently. We most prize beauty that
+we are able to discern for ourselves. We gain strength by intelligently
+conquering our own problems and perplexities. "Nothing is impossible,"
+as Mirabeau has said, "for one who can will."
+
+The aim of music study is to know music, to gain a correct conception of
+how it should sound, and so, as far as possible, to make it sound. This
+aim can never be reached by the mere cultivation of technical
+adroitness. Untold sacrifices are made to-day to what becomes the
+unrighteous mammon of technique when the mechanical side of practice is
+exalted above its interpretative aspects. Schumann deemed brilliancy of
+execution only valuable when it served a higher purpose. That higher
+purpose is to reach and express the soul of music. Unless enriched by
+it, all mechanism is dead. It is not desirable that every one should
+perform acrobatic feats on some musical instrument, or indulge in vocal
+pyrotechnics, but it is desirable to extract music out of whatever
+technique may be attained. Instead of racing onward with feverish haste
+to ever increased technical skill at the expense of other development,
+it were well for the student to pause until each composition attacked,
+be it but an exercise, could be interpreted with accuracy, intelligence,
+and feeling. We should then have more musicianly players and singers. We
+should more often be brought under the magic spell of exquisitely shaded
+tone that may make a simple little melody alive with beauty.
+
+[Illustration: BRAHMS]
+
+A grave blunder of our present music study is the neglect of ensemble
+playing and singing. Some of the noblest music written is for
+part-singing and for two or more instruments. Much profit and delight
+will be the result of making its acquaintance. Four and eight hand piano
+arrangements of the great overtures and symphonies, too, are valuable
+and enjoyable. They prepare the way for an appreciation of an
+orchestral performance of these masterpieces, and broaden the musical
+horizon. Where there are several music students in a family it is a pity
+for them to confine their efforts exclusively to the piano, although
+every musician should have some knowledge of this household instrument.
+That is a happy home whose members are united by the playing or singing
+of noble concerted music.
+
+It is an absurd error to suppose that fine soloists cannot succeed in
+ensemble work, or as accompanists. Those who fail have been poorly
+grounded in their art. They may give dazzling performances of works
+bristling with technical difficulties, yet make a sad failure of some
+slow, tender movement that calls for musicianly understanding and
+delicate treatment. The truth is, the requirements for an artistic
+accompanist, or for artistic concerted work, are the same as for an
+artistic soloist: well directed musical aptitude, love of art, an ear
+attuned to listening and large experience in sight-reading.
+
+The music pupils' public recital contributes no little to the blunders
+of the day in music study. Especially with piano pupils, the work of the
+year is likely to be shaped with reference to the supreme occasion when
+results attained may be exhibited in the presence of assembled parents
+and friends. The popular demand being for the mastery of technique,
+showy pieces are prepared whose mechanism so claims the attention that
+the principles underlying both technics and interpretation are
+neglected. Well-controlled hands, fingers, wrists and arms, with
+excellent manipulation of the keyboard, may be admired at the recital,
+but little of that effective playing is heard which finds its way to the
+hearer's heart. A dead monotony will too often recall the letter that
+killeth because devoid of the spirit that giveth life.
+
+Sounding notes, even sounding them smoothly, clearly, and rapidly, is
+not necessarily making music, and a succession of them without warmth
+and coloring is truly as inartistic as painting without shading. If it
+were more commonly realized that it is an essential part of the music
+teacher's vocation to train the mind and the emotions and through them
+the will and the character, there would be a higher standard for the
+music pupils' recital. No one would be permitted to play, or sing in
+public who could not give an artistic, as well as a technically correct
+performance.
+
+Music students should lose no opportunity to hear the best music, both
+vocal and instrumental. Heard with understanding ears one good concert
+is often worth a dozen lessons, yet many students know nothing in music
+beyond what they have practiced themselves, or heard their
+fellow-students give at rehearsals or recitals. If they attend concerts
+at all, it is rather to observe some schoolmaster method in their own
+particular branch than actually to enjoy music. Trying to gain a musical
+education without a wide acquaintance with the literature of music is
+like attempting to form literary taste without knowing the world's great
+books. To bathe in the glow of the mighty masterpieces of genius
+neutralizes much that is evil. In music they are the only authoritative
+illustrations between notes and the ideals they represent; they form the
+models and maxims by means of which we approach a knowledge of music.
+
+In view of hearing good music, breathing a musical atmosphere and being
+glorified into artists, vast numbers of American girls seek foreign
+musical centres. They are apt to go without suitable equipment, mental
+or musical, and with inadequate pecuniary provisions. They expect to
+attain in a few months what they are doomed to discover would take years
+to accomplish, and cannot fail to suffer for the blunder. Many of them
+return home disappointed in their aims, and ruined in health. Many of
+them are stranded in strange lands. A crusade should be started against
+indiscriminate going abroad for music study, without thorough
+preparation in every respect.
+
+The fact is, a free, true, fearless hero, such as Wagner found in his
+Siegfried, is needed to slay, with his invincible sword, the dragon of
+sordid materialism, and awaken the slumbering bride of genuine art. A
+storm-god is wanted to swing his hammer and finally dissipate the
+clouds that obscure the popular vision. Some one has called for a plumed
+knight at the literary tournament, with visor down, lance in hand,
+booted and spurred for the fight with prevalent errors. One is equally
+needed at the musical tournament.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Musical Education That Educates
+
+
+There is a musical education that educates, a musical education that
+refines, strengthens, broadens the character and the views, that ripens
+every God-given instinct and force. It arouses noble thoughts and lofty
+ideals; it quickens the perceptions, opening up a world of beauty that
+is closed to the unobservant; it bears its fortunate possessor into a
+charmed atmosphere, where inspiring, elevating influences prevail. Its
+aim is nothing short of the absolutely symmetrical development of the
+spiritual, intellectual and physical being, in view of making the
+well-rounded musician, the well-balanced individual.
+
+The profits derived from a musical education are proportionate to the
+investment. Careless work, an utter disregard of principles, in other
+words, a mere dabbling with music, will afford but superficial results.
+It is precisely the same with a haphazard pursuit of any branch of art,
+science, or literature. Through music the soul of mankind may be
+elevated, the secret recesses of thought and feeling stirred, and every
+emotion of which the individual is capable made active. In order to
+attain its full benefits it is imperative to use it as a profound living
+force, not as a mere surface decoration.
+
+"The musician ever shrouded in himself must cultivate his inmost being
+that he may turn it outward," said Goethe. A true musical education
+provides culture for the inmost being. It tends to enlarge the
+sympathies, enrich social relations and invest daily life with gracious
+dignity. Those who gain it beautify their own lives and thus become able
+to make the world seem more beautiful to others. Those who are never
+able to give utterance to the wealth of thought and feeling it has
+aroused in their hearts and imaginations are still happy in possessing
+the store. After all, our main business in art, as in life, is to
+strive. Honest effort meets with its own reward, even where it does not
+lead to what the world calls success.
+
+It has been said that he who sows thoughts will reap deeds, habits,
+character. The force of these words is exemplified in the proper study
+of music, which results in a rich harvest of self-restraint,
+self-reliance, industry, patience, perseverance, powers of observation,
+retentive memory, painstaking effort, strength of mind and character. To
+possess these qualities at their best abundant thought must be sown.
+Merely to ring changes on the emotions will not elevate to the heights.
+The musical education that educates makes of the reasoning powers a
+lever that keeps the emotions in their rightful channel.
+
+Aristotle, who dominated the world's thought for upwards of two thousand
+years, attributed his acquirements to the command he had gained over
+his mind. Fixedness of purpose, steady, undivided attention, mental
+concentration, accuracy, alertness, keen perception and wise
+discrimination are essential to achievement. This is true of giant
+minds; it is equally true of average intellects. The right musical
+education will conduce to these habits. Musical education without them
+must inevitably be a failure.
+
+Music study is many-sided. To make it truly educative it must be pursued
+from both theoretical and practical standpoints. It should include
+technical training which affords facility to express whatever a person
+may have for expression; intellectual training which enables a person to
+grasp the constructive laws of the art, its scope, history and
+aesthetics, with all that calls into play the analytic and imaginative
+faculties; and spiritual development which imparts warmth and glow to
+everything. Even those who do not advance far in music study would do
+well, as they proceed, to touch the art on as many sides as possible, in
+view of enlarging the musical sense, sharpening the musical perception,
+concentrating and multiplying the agencies by virtue of which musical
+knowledge and proficiency are attained.
+
+"Truth," said Madox-Brown, the Pre-Raphaelite, "is the means of art, its
+end the quickening of the soul." Music does more than quicken the soul;
+it reveals the soul, makes it conscious of itself. Springing from the
+deepest and best that is implanted in man, it fertilizes the soil from
+which it uprises. Both beauty and truth are essential to its welfare. As
+Hamilton W. Mabie has said: "We need beauty just as truly as we need
+truth, for it is as much a part of our lives. We have learned in part
+the lesson of morality, but we have yet to learn the lesson of beauty."
+This must be learned through the culture of the aesthetic taste, a matter
+of slow growth, which should begin with the rudiments, and is best
+fostered in an atmosphere saturated with good music.
+
+Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of hearing good music.
+When it falls on listening ears it removes all desire for anything
+coarse or unrefined. Constant companionship with it prepares the ear to
+hear, the inner being to receive, and cannot fail to bring forth fruit.
+The creations of noble minds form practical working-forces in shaping
+character, purifying taste and elevating standards. A literary scholar
+cannot be made of one who has not been brought into close touch with the
+productions of the great masters in literature, nor an artistic painter,
+or sculptor, of one who has never known a great painting or piece of
+statuary. Neither can a thorough musician be made of any one who is
+ignorant of the master-works of music. It is well to realize, with
+Goethe, that the effect of good music is not caused by its novelty, but
+strikes more deeply the more we are familiar with it.
+
+The human voice being practically the foundation of music and the first
+music teacher, every well-educated musician should be able to use it,
+and should have a clear understanding of its possibilities and
+limitations, no matter what his specialty may be. Composers and
+performers alike will derive benefit from some dealing with the vocal
+element. Vocal culture is conducive to health, and aids in gaining
+command of the nerves and muscles. They who profit by it will best
+understand the varied nuances of intonation, expression and coloring of
+which music is capable, and will learn how to make a musical instrument
+sing. Likewise vocalists should familiarize themselves with other
+domains of their art, and should be able to handle some instrument, more
+especially the piano or organ, that they may be brought into intimate
+relations with the harmonic structure of music.
+
+To make music study most effective the scientific methods of other
+departments of learning must be applied to it. For the supreme good of
+both art and science need to be brought into close fellowship. Art is
+the child of feeling and imagination; science the child of reason. Art
+requires the illumination of science; science the insight of art. Music
+combines within itself the qualities of art and science. As a science it
+is a well-ordered system of laws, and cannot be comprehended without
+knowledge of these. As an art, it is its business to awaken a mood, to
+express a sentiment; it is knowledge made efficient by skill--thought,
+effect, taste and feeling brought into active exercise.
+
+No art, no science, affords opportunity for more magnificent mental
+discipline than music. Moreover, a careful, earnest study of the art
+furnishes a stimulus to activity in other fruitful fields. Although
+subordinate to life and character it contributes freely to these, and
+its best results come from life that is exceeding rich, and character
+that is strong, true and enlightened through broad, general culture. The
+musical education that educates develops something more than mere
+players and singers; it develops thinking, feeling musicians, in whom
+large personalities may be recognized.
+
+Stephen A. Emory of Boston, whose studies in harmony are widely used,
+and who left behind him an influence as a teacher that is far-reaching,
+divined the true secret of musical education, from the rudiments upward,
+and expressed his views freely and clearly. He thought it indispensable
+for the musician to make music the central point of his efforts and
+equally indispensable for him to have, as supports to this, knowledge
+and theories from countless sources. "It must be as a noble river," he
+said of the pursuit of music; "though small and unobserved in its
+source, winding at first alone its tortuous way through opposing
+obstacles, yet ever broadening and deepening, fed by countless streams
+on either hand till it rolls onward in a mighty sweep, at once a glory
+and a blessing to the earth."
+
+To conquer music a musician must have conquered self. As music can no
+more be absolutely conquered than self, the effort to gain the mastery
+over both necessitates a continual healthy, earnest striving, which
+makes the individual grow in strength, grace and happiness. That
+musician has been rightly trained whose every thought, mood and feeling,
+every muscle and fibre, have been brought under the subjection of his
+will. Professor Huxley uttered the following words that may well be
+applied to a musical education:
+
+"That man, I think, has had a liberal education, who has been so trained
+in his youth that his body is the ready servant of his will and does
+with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable
+of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts
+of equal strength and in smooth working order; ready, like the steam
+engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well
+as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with knowledge of
+the great and fundamental truths of nature and of the laws of her
+operations, one, who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but
+whose passions are trained to come to feel, by a vigorous will, the
+servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty,
+whether of nature, or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect
+others as himself."
+
+The correctness of applying the last clause to the musician will be
+questioned by those who delight in enlarging on the petty jealousies of
+musicians. It will be learned in time that these foibles belong only to
+petty musicians, and that no one knows better how to respect others as
+himself than one who has enjoyed the privilege of the musical education
+that educates.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+How to Interpret Music
+
+
+Certain learned college professors were once heard discussing methods of
+literary criticism and interpretation. They spoke of external and
+technical forms, and how magnificently these were illustrated in the
+world's acknowledged masterpieces of literature. Every work read or
+studied, they decided, should be carefully weighed, measured and
+analyzed, and should be judged solely by the maxims and laws deduced
+from classical standards. The critical faculty must never be permitted
+to slumber or to sleep. Above all, the literary student should beware of
+trusting to impressions.
+
+Not a word was uttered in regard to the contents of the masterpieces in
+question, the special emotions, the overwhelming passions they revealed,
+the mighty experiences of which they were the result. Nothing was said
+about the source of a great book in the life of its author, or its value
+as a record of what many minds and hearts of an entire epoch have
+thought, felt and desired. The learned professors were so deeply
+concerned with what they considered the demands of strict scholarship
+that they lost sight of the spirit which animates every true work of
+art. To them literature consisted of words, phrases, sentences, figures
+of speech, classical allusions, and well-constructed forms. They
+regarded it apparently as an artificial product, compounded according to
+traditional and cautiously prescribed recipes.
+
+An aged man of letters present, one who was characterized by his ripe
+scholarship, his richly cultured personality, sat listening in silence
+to the conversation. Suddenly he rose up, and, in vibrant tones,
+exclaimed: "Where hath the soul of literature fled, its vital part? If
+we are to trample upon our impressions the best that is within us will
+be chilled. Of what avail is education if it does not lead to the
+unfolding of our God-given intuitions? Friends, if the trend of modern
+criticism be to divorce literature from life, the throb and thrill of
+great art will soon cease to be felt."
+
+The lesson conveyed by these words may with equal propriety be applied
+to the field of music. Viewing certain current tendencies the cultured
+musician is often moved to wonder where the soul of music has fled. The
+critical faculty is keenly alive to-day, but musical criticism, shorn of
+its better part, musical appreciation, can never lead to the insight
+requisite for true musical interpretation. Observation and perception,
+intellectual discernment and spiritual penetration are essential to gain
+insight into a great musical composition until its musical ideas, the
+very grade and texture of its style, are absolutely appropriated.
+
+In his "Death in the Desert," Robert Browning tells of the three souls
+that make up the soul of man: the soul which Does; the soul which Knows,
+feels, thinks and wills, and the soul which Is and which constitutes
+man's real self. Appreciation of music requires the utmost activity of
+all three souls. The more we are, the broader our culture, the more we
+think, feel and know, the more we will find in music. Dr. Hiram Corson,
+commenting on Browning's words, says the rectification, or adjustment of
+what Is, that which constitutes our true being, should transcend all
+other aims of education. If this fact were more generally accepted and
+enforced it could soon no longer be said that few persons reach maturity
+without the petrifaction of some faculty of mind and heart.
+
+Every faculty we possess needs to be keenly alive for the interpretation
+of the best in music. One who is accustomed to earnest thinking, quick
+observation and sympathetic penetration will see, hear and feel much
+that utterly escapes those whose best faculties have been permitted to
+lie dormant, or become petrified. The interpreter of music must have
+vital knowledge of the inner, spiritual element of every work of art he
+attempts to reproduce. His imagination must be kindled by it, and
+musical imagination is infinitely more precious than musical mechanism.
+
+It is by no means intended to underrate technical proficiency. No one
+can be a satisfactory exponent of music whose technique is deficient,
+however profound may be his musicianly understanding and feeling. At the
+same time, with every tone, every measure, mechanically correct, a
+performance may fail to move the listener, because it lacks warmth and
+glow. Only they can make others feel who feel themselves, but sentiment
+is apt to be confounded with sentimentality unless it is guided by a
+scholarly mind. The more feeling is spiritualized with thought the
+nobler it will be. Heart and head need to operate in company with
+well-controlled physical forces, in order that a fine interpretation of
+music may be attained. Faultless technique, in the service of a lofty
+ideal, indeed ceases to be mechanical and becomes artistic.
+
+A musical work of art originates in the deep well of the fertile
+imagination of genius, and can only be drawn forth when the composer is
+in that highly exalted frame of mind we call inspiration. The theme, or
+musical subject, is a vital spark of the divine fire, and has flashed
+unbidden into his consciousness, demanding undivided attention for its
+logical development. With infinite care he molds and groups the musical
+factors which are his working forces, and of which he has both an
+intuitive and a practical knowledge. The manifold forms he fashions all
+combine for one purpose, and lead persistently to one grand climax, from
+which they may return to the repose whence they came. Unity in diversity
+is the goal he sets before himself. All aglow though he is with the joy
+of artistic production, he dare not permit his mind to waver from the
+task in hand.
+
+Music is not to be played with, and the labor of composition is no
+trifling matter. It demands the keenest mental activity, the most
+profound mental concentration. It demands consecration. The composer
+thinks and works in tones, in an ideal realm, far removed from the
+realities of the external world. His business is to bring his theme to
+its most magnificent unfolding, treating it with absolute definiteness,
+that his intention may be perfectly clear.
+
+It is the business of the interpreter of music to be so thoroughly
+acquainted with the elements of which music is composed that he can
+promptly recognize the color, complexion and individual character of
+every interval, chord and chord-combination, every consonance and
+dissonance, every timbre and nuance, and every degree of phrasing and
+rhythm. He must have so complete a mastery of his materials and working
+forces that his imagination may be influenced unimpeded by the
+emanations from the composer's imagination which animate the moving
+forms he commands.
+
+It is his business to respond with his whole being to the appeal of the
+musical masterpiece he attempts to interpret, and so express the
+emotions aroused by it from their slumbers in his own bosom that a
+responsive echo may be found in the bosoms of the listeners. A most
+ingeniously constructed music-box, with the presentation of a
+complicated piece of music, may fail to move a heart that will be
+stirred to its depths by a simple song, into which the singer's whole
+soul has been thrown.
+
+Though the mind of the inventive genius be a mystery that may not fully
+be explained, its product is within the grasp of the intelligent seeker.
+The aesthetic principles of musical construction rest on certain
+elementary laws governing both the human organism and the phenomena of
+sound, and may become familiar to any one who is capable of study. In
+the same way the established canons of musical expression, observed by
+the skilful artist, consciously or unconsciously, are traceable to
+natural causes. Without realizing the inherent properties of music, as
+well as its technical possibilities and limitations, we cannot know the
+art.
+
+The tonal language is one that is not translatable into words. It is
+composed of an infinite variety of tone-forms, now sharply contrasted,
+now gradually blending into one another, all logically connected, all
+tending to form a perfect whole. The profusion of harmonic, melodic,
+dynamic and rhythmic changes it brings forth invests it with a meaning
+far beyond that of words, a musical meaning. Every masterpiece of music
+clothes in tonal form some idea which originated in the composer's mind.
+To the interpreter it is given to invest it with living sound.
+
+Chords and chord combinations all have their individual characteristics.
+Some cause satisfaction, for instance, others unrest. When a chord of
+the dominant seventh is heard, the educated musician knows that a
+solution is demanded. The unspoiled ear and taste instinctively feel
+something unfinished, and are disturbed if it be not followed by a
+return to the key chord. Where the faculties are dormant or petrified,
+its significance will be unobserved.
+
+The story is told of a young lady whose musical education had been
+utterly hollow and false, but who, having been overwhelmed with flattery
+for her voice and her singing, was deluded into a belief that she was
+destined to shine as a star on the operatic stage. She consulted the
+famous basso, Karl Formes, who good-naturedly had her sing for him. He
+perceived at once that she possessed neither striking talent nor
+adequate training.
+
+As a supreme test he struck on the piano a chord of the dominant
+seventh, and asked the young aspirant for dramatic glory what she
+thought it meant. Presuming it to be incumbent upon a prospective prima
+donna to have uppermost in her mind the grand passion, she replied, in a
+sentimental tone, "Love!" Promptly Karl Formes sounded the solution to
+the chord. "There is your answer," quoth he. "I ask a question, and it
+is thought I speak of love. Go home, my good girl, and seek some other
+avocation. You have a fair voice, but you are tone-deaf. You can never
+make a musician."
+
+A favorite motto of the piano teacher Leschetitzky is, "Think ten times
+before you play once." If this rule were more generally observed we
+should have better interpreters of music. A great composition should
+completely occupy mind and heart before it is attacked by fingers or
+voice. In that case it would be analyzed as to its form, its tonal
+structure, its harmonic relations, its phrasing and rhythms, and its
+musical intention would become luminous. The interpreter would
+understand where accents and other indications of expression should
+occur and why they should so occur, and would be able, in however feeble
+a way, to find and reveal the true heart music that lies hidden in the
+notes.
+
+It is never too early in a course of music study to consider the
+requirements of musical expression. Persistent observance of them will
+inevitably quicken the artistic sense. The rules to which they have
+given rise are for the most part simple and easily explained. For
+obvious reasons, all musical interpretation is expected to imitate song
+as closely as possible. The human voice, the primitive musical
+instrument, in moments of excitement, ascends to a higher pitch,
+increasing in intensity of tone as it sweeps upward. Consequently every
+progression from lower to higher tones, whether played or sung, demands
+a crescendo unless some plainly denoted characteristic of the music
+calls for different treatment. A descending passage, as a return to
+tranquillity, requires a decrescendo.
+
+"The outpouring of a feeling toward its object, whether to the endless
+heavens, or forth into the boundless world, or toward a definite,
+limited goal, resembles the surging, the pressing onward of a flood,"
+said the great teacher, Dr. Adolph Kullak. "Reversely, that feeling
+which draws its object into itself has a more tranquillizing movement,
+that especially when the possession of the object is assured, appeases
+itself in equable onward flow toward the goal of a normal state of
+satisfaction. The emotional life is an undulating play of up-surging and
+subsidence, of pressing forward beyond temporal limitations and of
+resigned yielding to temporal necessities. The crescendo and decrescendo
+are the means employed in music for the portrayal of this manifestation
+of emotional life."
+
+Another important matter which may to a great extent be reduced to rule
+is that of accentuation. Through it a tone-picture is invested with
+animation, and a clue is given to the disposition of tonal forms.
+Accents are always required to mark the entrance of a theme, a phrase or
+a melody. Where there are several voices, or parts, as in a fugue, each
+voice denotes its appearance with an accent. Every daring assertion
+hazarded in music, as in speech, demands special emphasis. Dissonances
+need to be brought out in such prominence that they may not appear to be
+accidental misconceptions, and that confident expectation may be aroused
+of their ultimate resolution. Accentuation must be regulated by the
+claims of musical delivery. At all times too gentle an accent is without
+effect, too glaring an accent is to be condemned.
+
+Hans von Buelow strenuously advised young musicians to cultivate their
+ears and strive to attain musical beauty in what is termed phrasing,
+which he regarded as the real beginning of greatness in a performer.
+Phrasing and time keeping are two of the prime essentials in musical
+delivery, and cannot be neglected with impunity.
+
+Time may well be called the pulse of music. Upon some occasions the
+pulse beats more rapidly than others. It is incumbent on the interpreter
+of music to ascertain the harmonic and other causes which determine the
+tempo of a musical composition, as well as those which make slight
+variations from it admissible. Among other points to be noted is the
+fact that sudden transition from repose to restless activity calls for
+an accelerando, while the reverse requires a rallentando.
+
+It is absolutely imperative for one who would interpret music to
+cultivate the memory. The musician who cannot play or sing without notes
+is compelled to expend a large amount of mental activity on reading
+these, and will find it difficult to heed the manifold requirements of
+musical expression and delivery, of which a few hints have here been
+given. A musical composition is never thoroughly understood until it has
+been intelligently memorized. One who can play or sing without notes is
+as free as a bird to soar aloft in the blue ether of musical
+imagination.
+
+[Illustration: FRANZ LISZT]
+
+Every interpreter of music longs for appreciative listeners, and young
+musicians, in especial, often lament the lack of these. It is well to
+remember that the genuine musical artist is able to create an atmosphere
+whose influences may compel an average audience to sympathetic
+listening. A good plan for the artist is to be surrounded in fancy with
+an audience having sensitively attuned ears, intellectual minds, and
+warm, throbbing hearts. Music played in private before such an imaginary
+audience will gain in quality, and when repeated before an actual public
+will hold that public captive.
+
+We have it from Ruskin that all fatal faults in art that might otherwise
+be good arise from one or other of three things: either from the
+pretence to feel what we do not; the indolence in exercise necessary to
+obtain the power of expressing the Truth; or the presumptuous insistence
+upon, or indulgence in, our own powers and delights, with no care or
+wish that they should be useful to other people, so only they should be
+admired by them.
+
+These three fatal faults must be avoided, or conquered, by the person
+who would interpret music.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+How to Listen to Music
+
+
+Listening is an art. It requires close and accurate attention, sympathy,
+imagination and genuine culture. Listening to music is an art of high
+degree. Many derive exquisite enjoyment from it, for music is potent and
+universal in its appeal. To listen intelligently to music is an
+accomplishment few have acquired.
+
+A great painting presents itself as a completed whole before the
+observer's eye. It holds on the canvas the fixed place given it by the
+master from whose genius it proceeded. No intermediary force is needed
+to come between it and the impression it makes on the beholder. Music,
+on the contrary, must be aroused from the written, or printed page to
+living tone by the hand or voice of the interpreter, and but a fragment
+at a time can be made perceptible to the listener's ear. Like a
+panorama, it comes and goes before the imagination, its kaleidoscopic
+tints and forms now sharply contrasted, now almost imperceptibly
+graduated one into the other, but all shaping themselves into a logical
+union, stamped with the design of a creative mind. Properly to inspect
+the successive musical images, and grasp their significance, in parts
+and as a whole, demands keen mental alertness.
+
+Many are content to listen to music for the mere sensuous impression it
+creates as it wraps itself about the inner being, lulling a perturbed
+spirit to rest, or awakening longing and aspiration, joy and sadness,
+according to the nature of the music and the hearer's mood. Some even
+take pleasure in formulating into words the sensations evoked by the ebb
+and flow of the tonal waves, and fancy they are thus deriving
+intellectual profit from music.
+
+From both ways of listening helpful results may accrue, but by no means
+the greatest. Music is far beyond words, and in attempting to translate
+it into these we miss its musical meaning, the best that is in it. As
+listeners we derive our highest aesthetic and intellectual satisfaction
+from the ability to follow, even anticipate, the composer's intention,
+now finding our expectations fulfilled, now being agreeably
+disappointed. Failure to catch the opening phrase and preliminary
+rhythms of the composition makes it impossible to appreciate the tonal
+forms into which they develop. Nor may the mind linger over any one
+part, if we would grasp the work as an unbroken whole. That musical
+creation alone can afford the noblest delights that prompts and rewards
+the act of thus closely following the composer's thought.
+
+An instance of absolute knowledge of music appears in an anecdote told
+of Johann Sebastian Bach. When he was present at the performance of a
+fugue and one of his two most musical sons was with him, he would, as
+soon as the theme was heard, whisper what devices and developments he
+thought should be introduced. If the composer had conformed to his idea
+of construction he would jog his son to call attention to the fact.
+Otherwise, his exceeding modesty and reverent comprehension of the
+difficulties of the art made him the most lenient of critics.
+
+Few have reached the luminous heights this master of masters trod. Even
+a well-cultivated ear and taste may often be baffled by the intricacies
+of a fugue, symphony or other great work of musical art heard for the
+first time. The best listener beyond the pale of genius will at times
+feel as one astray in a labyrinth of beauty to which for the moment no
+clue appears. A single representation will rarely suffice to reveal the
+full worth of a masterpiece of music. By hearing it often, by admitting
+it, or some reproduction of it, to our own fireside, we will become
+familiar with its contents and learn truly to know it.
+
+Those who are fortunate enough to have been surrounded from childhood up
+by the choicest gems of the tonal language, and whose minds are of the
+deceptive order, will insensibly attain a refinement of taste and
+delicacy of perception no learned dissertation on music could afford. At
+the same time, an acquaintance with the materials and elements of which
+the art is composed and with the laws that govern them, is essential to
+enable even one who has heard much to gain the complete enjoyment that
+comes from understanding. Confident as we are that Prometheus captured
+his fire from Heaven, we ought to learn something of its attributes
+before we accept it at his hands, that we may be able to distinguish a
+true spark of the divine flame from a phosphorescent will-o'-the-wisp.
+
+The idea so largely accepted that music is an unfathomable mystery, like
+all half truths has wrought much mischief, and has greatly retarded
+musical progress in social life. Behind the Divine Art, as behind
+Religion, lies the inscrutable mystery of Life, and in both there is a
+Holy of Holies only the consecrated may enter. Before the portals of
+this are reached there is a broad, fertile field for intellectual
+activity that all may work to advantage, preparing the way to the inner
+sanctuary.
+
+The musician is continually confronted with fresh evidence of the
+popular ignorance, even among students of music, in regard to the
+outward form and inner grace of what is conceded to be the most popular
+of all arts. In a roomful of professed music lovers a definition of
+counterpoint was recently called for, and no one present could give an
+intelligent answer. This led to a discussion of musical questions which
+resulted in the disclosure that not one of the company could define
+melody, harmony or rhythm, or had the slightest conception of the
+meaning of the simplest component parts of the art in whose service they
+were making plentiful sacrifices. Some knowledge of these things is
+absolutely imperative, not alone to the student, but to one as well who
+would listen intelligently to music.
+
+Sound and motion constitute the essence of music. Its raw materials are
+an infinitely rich mass of musical sounds that bear within themselves
+the possibility of being molded into form. By the musical builders of
+the past they have been carefully considered, mathematically
+calculated, and have finally resolved themselves into a recognized
+scale, composed of tones and half tones. These are the composer's
+plastic resources. He shapes them precisely as the sculptor fashions the
+pliable clay with which he strives to bring his ideal to realization.
+
+All sounds are the result of atmospheric vibrations affecting the ear.
+Musical sound, or tone, is produced by regular vibrations, and differs
+from mere noise whose vibrations are irregular and confused. The pitch
+of a musical tone rises in proportion with the rapidity of the
+vibrations that produce it. Tones may be perceived by the human ear
+ranging from about sixteen vibrations in a second to nearly forty
+thousand, more than eleven octaves. Only about seven octaves are used in
+music. The science of acoustics is full of interesting facts of this
+kind, and is of profound value to any one who would gain an insight into
+the structure of music. It is unfortunately much neglected.
+
+The prime elements of music are Melody, Harmony and Rhythm. They are
+perhaps as little realized as its raw materials. Melody is a well
+ordered succession of musical sounds, heard one at a time, and selected
+from a defined, accepted series, not taken at random from a
+heterogeneous store. Harmony is a combination of well-ordered sounds
+heard simultaneously, and with suitable concord, or agreement. Rhythm is
+measured movement, or the periodical recurrence of accent; and signifies
+symmetry and proportion.
+
+Melody, unexhausted and inexhaustible, is the initial force, or, as Dr.
+Marx has called it, the life-blood of music. Within itself it bears the
+germ of harmony and rhythm. A succession of tones without harmonious and
+rhythmic regulation would be felt to lack something. Melody has been
+designated the golden thread running through the maze of tone, by which
+the ear is guided and the heart reached. Helmholtz styled it the
+essential basis of music. In a special sense, it is artistically
+constructed song. The creation of an expressive melody is a sure mark of
+genius.
+
+Harmony arranges musical sounds with reference to their union, and is
+regulated by artistic and aesthetic rules and requirements. It has
+endless modes of transforming, inverting and intensifying its materials,
+thus continually affording new means of development. All the intervals
+and chords used in music had to be discovered, one by one. It often took
+more than a century to bring into a general use a chord effect
+introduced by some adventuresome spirit. Our scale intervals are the
+slowly gained triumphs of the human mind. Modern music did not emerge
+from the darkness of the past until harmony, as we know it, came into
+active being.
+
+Both melody and harmony are controlled by rhythm. It is the master force
+of the musical organism. Before man was the ebb and flow of nature had
+its rhythm. On this elementary rhythm, the one model music finds in
+nature, the inventive mind of man has builded the wonderfully impressive
+art rhythms existing in the masterpieces of music.
+
+Melodies are made up of smaller fragments, known as motives, phrases
+and periods, or sentences, all of which are judiciously repeated and
+varied, and derive their individuality from the characteristics of their
+intervals and rhythms.
+
+A motive is the text of a musical composition, the theme of its
+discourse. The most simple motive, with proper handling, may grow into a
+majestic structure. In Beethoven's Fifth Symphony three G flats in
+eighth notes, followed by an E flat in a half note, form a text, as of
+Fate knocking at the door, which, when developed, leads to tremendous
+conflict ending in victory. Those notes that repeat and modify the
+motive and are combined under one slur constitute the phrase, which is
+similar to a clause in a sentence of words. A period, or sentence, in
+music, comprises a musical idea, complete in itself, though of a nature
+to produce, when united with other harmonious ideas, a perfect whole.
+
+A simple melody is usually composed of eight measures, or some number
+divisible by four. There are exceptions, as in "God Save the King," our
+"America," of which the first part contains six measures, the second
+part eight.
+
+Habit and instinct show us that no melody can end satisfactorily without
+some cadence leading to a note belonging to the tonic or key chord. Very
+often the first part of a melody will end on a note of the dominant
+chord, from which a progression will arise in the second part that leads
+satisfactorily to a concluding note in the tonic chord.
+
+Counterpoint, literally point against point, is the art of so composing
+music in parts that several parts move simultaneously, making harmony by
+their combination. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries the masters of counterpoint shaped the musical
+materials in use to-day. So anxious were they to attain perfection of
+form they often lost sight of the spirit which alone can give vitality
+to musical utterances. The great Bach infused this into his fugues, the
+highest manifestation of the contrapuntal, or polyphonic music of old.
+
+Meanwhile the growth of the individual led to the growth of monophony
+in music, in which one voice stands out prominently, with an
+accompaniment of other voices. Its instrumental flower was reached in
+the symphony. Melody reigns supreme in monophonic music. Both the canon
+and the fugue form a commonwealth, in which all voices are rated alike.
+Viewed rightly, this suits the modern democratic instinct, and there is
+to-day a tendency to return to polyphonic writing. It is individuality
+in union. In the hands of genius it affords the most refined kind of
+harmony.
+
+A thorough knowledge of counterpoint shows the mistake of regarding it
+merely as a dull relic of a dead past. It is a living reality that, if
+correctly studied, leads to a solid, dignified, flowing style, rich in
+design, and independent in its individuality. Counterpoint, said a
+critic in the London Musical News, shows the student how to make a
+harmonic phrase like a well-shaped tree, of which every bough, twig and
+leaf secures for itself the greatest independence, the fullest measure
+of light and air. Composer, interpreter and listener may all profit by
+a comprehension of counterpoint.
+
+From its infancy modern music has been affected by two perpetually
+warring factors, the Classical and the Romantic. The first demands
+reverence for established ideals of formal beauty; the second, striking
+a note of revolt, compels recognition of new ideals. As in all other
+departments of art and life, progress in music comes through the
+continual conflict between the conservative and the radical forces. A
+position viewed as hazardous and unsuitable in one age, becomes the
+accepted position of the next, and those who have been denounced as
+musical heretics come to be regarded as musical heroes. Very often the
+untutored public, trusting to natural instincts, will be in advance of
+the learned critic in accepting some startling innovation. Old laws may
+pass away, new laws may come, but the eternal verities on which all
+manifestations of Truth and Beauty are based can never cease to be.
+
+"The scientific laws of music are transitory, because they have been
+tentatively constructed during the gradual development of the musical
+faculty," says W. H. Hadow, in his valuable "Studies in Modern Music."
+"No power in man is born at full growth; it begins in germ, and
+progresses according to the particular laws that condition its nature.
+Hence it requires one kind of treatment at one stage, another at
+another, both being perfectly right and true in relation to their proper
+period. But there are behind these special rules certain psychological
+laws which seem, so far as we can understand them, to be coeval with
+humanity itself; and these form the permanent code by which music is to
+be judged. The reason why, in past ages, the critics have been so often
+and so disastrously at fault is that they have mistaken the transitory
+for the permanent, the rules of musical science for the laws of musical
+philosophy."
+
+An acquaintance with form as the manifestation of law is essential to an
+intelligent hearing of music. The listener should have at least a
+rudimentary knowledge of musical construction from the simplest ballad
+to the most complex symphony. Having this knowledge it will be possible
+to receive undisturbed the impressions music has to give, and to
+distinguish the trivial and commonplace from the noble and beautiful.
+
+The oftener good music is heard the more completely it will be
+appreciated. Therefore, they listen best to music who hear the best
+continually. The assertion is often heard that a person must be educated
+up to an enjoyment of high class music. Certainly, one who has heard
+nothing else must be educated down to an enjoyment of ragtime, with its
+crude rhythms.
+
+"We know a true poem to the extent to which our spirits respond to the
+spiritual appeal it makes," says Dr. Hiram Corson. It is the same with a
+true musical composition. We must take something to it, in order to
+receive something from it. Beyond knowledge comes the intuitive feeling
+which is enriched by knowledge. Through it we may feel the breath of
+life, the spiritual appeal, which belongs to every great work of art and
+which must forever remain inexplicable.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Piano and Piano Players
+
+
+When Pythagoras, Father of Musical Science, some six centuries before
+our era, marked and sounded musical intervals by mathematical division
+on a string stretched across a board, he was unconsciously laying the
+foundation for our modern pianoforte. How soon keys were added to the
+monochord, as this measuring instrument was named, cannot positively be
+ascertained. We may safely assume it was not slow in adopting the rude
+keyboard ascribed by tradition to Pan pipes, and applied to the portable
+organ of early Christian communities.
+
+After the tenth century the development of the monochord seems to have
+begun in earnest. Two or more strings of equal length are now divided
+and set in motion by flat metal wedges, attached to the key levers, and
+called tangents, because they touched the strings. In response to the
+demand for increased range, as many as twenty keys were brought to act
+on a few strings, commanding often three octaves. Guido d'Arezzo, the
+famous sight-reading music teacher of the eleventh century, advised his
+pupils to "exercise the hand in the use of the monochord," showing his
+knowledge of the keyboard. The keyed monochord gained the name
+clavichord. Its box-like case was first placed on a table, later on its
+own stand, and increased in elegance. Not until the eighteenth century
+was each key provided with a separate string.
+
+No unimped triumphal progress can be claimed for the various claviers or
+keyboard instruments that came into use. Dance music found in them a
+congenial field, thus causing many serious-minded people to regard them
+as dangerous tempters to vanity and folly. In the year 1529, Pietro
+Bembo, a grave theoretician, wrote to his daughter Helena, at her
+convent school: "As to your request to be allowed to learn the clavier,
+I answer that you cannot yet, owing to your youth, understand that
+playing is only suited for volatile, frivolous women; whereas I desire
+you to be the most lovable maiden in the world. Also, it would bring you
+but little pleasure or renown if you should play badly; while to play
+well you would be obliged to devote ten or twelve years to practice,
+without being able to think of anything else. Consider a moment whether
+this would become you. If your friends wish you to play in order to give
+them pleasure, tell them you do not desire to make yourself ridiculous
+in their eyes, and be content with your books and your domestic
+occupations."
+
+A different view was entertained in England during Queen Elizabeth's
+reign, where claviers were in vogue styled virginals, because, as an
+ancient chronicle explained, "virgins do most commonly play on them."
+The virginal was usually of oblong shape, often resembling a lady's
+workbox. With the Virgin Queen it was a prime favorite, although not
+named expressly for her as the flattering fashion of the time led many
+to assume. If she actually did justice to some of the airs with
+variations in the "Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book," she must indeed have
+been proficient on the instrument. Quaint Dr. Charles Burney (1726-1814)
+declares, in his "History of Music," that no performer of his day could
+play them without at least a month's practice.
+
+The clavier gave promise of its destined career in the Elizabethan age.
+Shakespeare immortalized it, and William Byrd (1546-1623) became the
+first clavier master. He and Dr. John Bull (1563-1628), says Oscar Bie,
+in his great work on "The Clavier and Its Masters," "represent the two
+types which run through the entire history of the clavier. Byrd was the
+more intimate, delicate, spiritual intellect; Bull the untamed genius,
+the brilliant executant, the less exquisitely refined artist. It is
+significant that these two types stand together on the threshold of
+clavier art." Bull had gained his degree at Oxford, the founding of
+whose chair of music is popularly attributed to Alfred the Great.
+
+As early as the year 1400 claviers had appeared whose strings were
+plucked by quills attached to jacks at the end of the key levers. To
+this group belonged the virginal, or virginals, the clavicembalo, the
+harpsichord, or clavecin, and the spinet. Stops were added, as in the
+organ, that varied effects might be produced, and a second keyboard was
+often placed above the first. The case was either rectangular, or
+followed the outlines of the harp, a progenitor of this clavier type. It
+was often highly ornamented, and handsomely mounted. Each string from
+the first had its due length and was tuned to its proper note.
+
+The secular music principle of the sixteenth century that called into
+active being the orchestra led also to a desire for richer musical
+expression in home and social life than the fashionable lute afforded,
+and the clavier advanced in favor. In France, by 1530, the dance, that
+promoter of pure instrumental music, was freely transcribed for the
+clavier. Little more than a century later, Jean Baptiste Lully
+(1633-1687) extensively employed the instrument in the orchestration of
+his operas, and wrote solo dances for it.
+
+Francois Couperin (1668-1733), now well-nigh forgotten, although once
+mentioned in the same breath with Moliere, wrote the pioneer clavier
+instruction book. In it he directs scholars how to avoid a harsh tone,
+and how to form a legato style. He advises parents to select teachers on
+whom implicit reliance may be placed, and teachers to keep the claviers
+of beginners under lock and key that there may be no practicing without
+supervision. His suggestions deserve consideration to-day.
+
+He was the first to encourage professional clavier-playing among women.
+His daughter Marguerite was the first woman appointed official court
+clavier player. He composed for the clavier little picture tunes,
+designed to depict sentiments, moods, phases of character and scenes
+from life. He fashioned many charming turns of expression, introduced
+an occasional tempo rubato, foreshadowed the intellectual element in
+music and laid the corner-stone of modern piano-playing. Jean Philippe
+Rameau (1683-1764) continued Couperin's work.
+
+What is generally recognized as the first period of clavier-virtuosity
+begins with the Neapolitan Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757), and Johann
+Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), the German of Germans. The style of
+Scarlatti is peculiarly the product of Italian love of beautiful tone,
+and what he wrote, though without depth of motive, kept well in view the
+technical possibilities of the harpsichord. His "Cat's Fugue," and his
+one movement sonatas still appear on concert programmes. In a collection
+of thirty sonatas he explained his purpose in these words: "Amateur, or
+professor, whoever thou art, seek not in these compositions for any
+profound feeling. They are only a frolic of art, meant to increase thy
+confidence in the clavier."
+
+In Germany, with grand old Father Bach, the keyboard instrument was
+found capable of mirroring a mighty soul. The germ of all modern musical
+design lies in his clavier writings. It has been aptly said of this
+master of masters that he constructed a great university of music, from
+which all must graduate who would accomplish anything of value in music.
+Men of genius, from Mozart to the present time, have extolled him for
+the beauty of his melodies and harmonies, the expressiveness of his
+modulations, the wealth, spontaneity and logical clearness of his ideas,
+and the superb architecture of his productions. Students miss the soul
+of Bach because of the soulless, mechanical way in which they deface his
+legacy to them.
+
+His "Twelve Little Preludes" alone contain the materials for an entire
+system of music. The "Inventions," too often treated as dry-as-dust
+studies, are laden with beautiful figures and devices that furnish
+inspiration for all time. As indicated by their title, which signifies a
+compound of appropriate expression and just disposition of the members,
+they were designed to cultivate the elements of musical taste, as well
+as freedom and equality of the fingers. His "Well Tempered Clavichord"
+has been called the pianist's Sacred Book. Its Preludes and Fugues
+illustrate every shade of human feeling, and were especially designed to
+exemplify the mode of tuning known as equal temperament, introduced into
+general use by Bach, and still employed by your piano tuner and mine.
+
+Forkel, his biographer, has finely said that Bach considered the voices
+of his fugues a select company of persons conversing together. Each was
+allowed to speak only when there was something to say bearing on the
+subject in hand. A highly characteristic motive, or theme, as
+significant as the noblest "typical phrase," developing into equally
+characteristic progressions and cadences, is a striking feature of the
+Bach fugue. His "Suites" exalted forever the familiar dance tunes of the
+German people. His wonderful "Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue" ushered the
+recitative into purely instrumental music.
+
+As a teacher he was genial, kind, encouraging and in every respect a
+model. He obliged his pupils to write and understand as well as sound
+the notes. In his noble modesty he never held himself aloof as superior
+to others. When pupils were discouraged he reminded them how hard he had
+always been compelled to work, and assured them that equal industry
+would lead them to success. He gave the thumb its proper place on the
+keyboard, and materially improved fingering. Tranquillity and poetic
+beauty being prime essentials of his playing, he preferred to the more
+brilliant harpsichord, or spinet, the clavichord, whose thrilling,
+tremulous tone, owing to its construction, was exceedingly sensitive to
+the player's touch. The early hammer-clavier, or pianoforte, invented in
+1711, by the Italian Cristofori, who derived the hammer idea from the
+dulcimer, did not attract him because of its extreme crudeness.
+Nevertheless, it was destined to develop into the musical instrument
+essential to the perfect interpretation of his clavier music.
+
+His son and pupil, Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788), proceeding on the
+principles established by his illustrious father, prepared the way for
+the modern pianist. His important theoretical work, "The True Art of
+Clavier Playing," was pronounced by Haydn the school of schools for all
+time. It was highly extolled by Mozart, and to it Clementi ascribed his
+knowledge and skill. In his compositions he was an active agent in the
+crystallization of the sonata form. From him Haydn gained much that he
+later transferred to the orchestra.
+
+Impulse to the second period of clavier virtuosity was given by Wolfgang
+Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832). Mozart, who
+led the Viennese school, developed the singing style of playing and the
+smooth flowing legato. Leaving behind him the triumphs of his
+wonder-boyhood with spinet and harpsichord, he boldly entered the public
+concert-hall with the pianoforte, now greatly advanced by the
+improvements of Silbermann. Mozart brought into use its special
+features, showed its capacity for tone-shading and for the reflection
+of sentiment, and may well be said to have launched it on its career.
+Tradition declares that his hand was fashioned for clavier keys, and
+that its graceful movements afforded the eye no less pleasure than the
+ear. His noble technique, based on his profound study of the Bachs, was
+spiritualized by his own glowing fancy. In his playing, as in his
+compositions, every note was a pearl of great price. With his piano
+concertos he showed how clavier and orchestra may converse earnestly
+together without either having its individuality marred. The same
+equilibrium is maintained in his piano and violin sonatas and his other
+concerted chamber music, amid all their persuasive and eloquent
+discourse. His charming four-hand and double piano pieces, written for
+himself and his gifted sister Marianne, and his solo clavier sonatas
+would prove his wealth of musical invention had he not written another
+note.
+
+Clementi, born in Rome, passed most of his life in London, where he
+attracted many pupils. Without great creative genius, he occupied
+himself chiefly with the technical problems of the pianoforte. He opened
+the way for the sonority of tone and imposing diction of the modern
+style. His music abounded in bold, brilliant passages of single and
+double notes. He is even credited with having trilled in octaves with
+one hand. Taking upon himself the management of an English piano
+factory, he extended the keyboard, in 1793, to five and a half octaves.
+Seven octaves were not reached until 1851. His "Gradus ad Parnassum"
+became the parent of Etude literature. Carl Tausig said: "There is but
+one god in technique, Bach, and Clementi is his prophet."
+
+Losing the spirituality of a Mozart the Viennese school was destined to
+degenerate into empty bravura playing. Before its downfall it produced a
+Hummel, a Moscheles and a Czerny, each of whom left in their piano
+studies a valuable bequest to technique. Karl Czerny (1791-1857), called
+king of piano teachers, numbered among his pupils, Liszt, Doehler,
+Thalberg and Jaell. The Clementi school was continued in that familiar
+writer of Etudes, Johann Baptist Cramer (1771-1858), and began to show
+respect for the damper pedal. Its most eminent virtuoso was John Field
+(1782-1837) of Dublin.
+
+Between these two schools stood Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827), a
+giant on lofty heights. Every accent of his dramatic music was embodied
+in his piano compositions. Tones furnished him unmistakably a language
+that needed no commentary. "In him," says Oscar Bie, "there were no
+tricks of technique to be admired, no mere virtuosity to praise; but he
+stirred his hearers to the depths of their hearts. Amid his storm and
+stress, whispering and listening, his awakening of the soul, an original
+naturalism of piano-playing was recognized, side by side with the
+naturalism of his creative art. Rhythm was the life of his playing." A
+union of conception and technique was a high aim of Beethoven, and he
+prized the latter only as it fulfilled the requirements of his idealism.
+"The high development of the mechanical in pianoforte playing," he wrote
+to a friend, "will end in banishing all genuine emotion from music."
+His prophetic words might serve as a warning to-day.
+
+[Illustration: LILLIAN NORDICA]
+
+The past century has given us the golden age of the pianoforte. Advanced
+knowledge of acoustics and improved methods of construction have made it
+the magnificent instrument we know in concert hall and home, and to
+which we now apply the more intimate name, piano. Oscar Bie calls it the
+music teacher of all mankind that has become great with the growth of
+modern music. As a photograph may convey to the home an excellent
+conception of a master painting in some distant art gallery, so the
+piano, in addition to the musical creations it has inspired, may present
+to the domestic circle intelligent reproductions of mighty choral,
+operatic and instrumental works. Through its medium the broad field of
+musical history and literature may be surveyed in private with profit
+and pleasure.
+
+Piano composers and virtuosos rapidly increase. Carl Maria von Weber
+(1786-1826) stood on the threshold of the fairyland of romance. His
+scheme of a dialogue, in the opening adagio of his "Invitation to the
+Dance," followed by an entrancing waltz and a grave concluding dialogue,
+betokens what he might have accomplished for the piano had he lived
+longer. Franz Schubert (1797-1828) and Robert Schumann (1810-1856) were
+the evangelists par excellence of the new romantic school. Schubert,
+closely allied in spirit to the master-builder, Beethoven, was
+unsurpassed in the refinement of his musical sentiment. The melody
+flooding his soul beautified his piano compositions, to which only a
+delicate touch may do justice. His Impromptus and Moments Musical, small
+impressionist pieces, in which isolated musical ideas are clothed in
+brief artistic forms adapted to the timbre of the instrument, may well
+be thought to have placed piano literature on a new basis.
+
+The romantic temperament of Robert Schumann was nurtured on German
+romantic literature and music. His impressions of nature, life and
+literature he imprisoned in tones. He was a profound student of Bach, to
+whom he traced "the power of combination, poetry and humor in the new
+music." Infusing his own vital emotions into polyphonic forms he gave
+the piano far grander tone-pictures than those of Couperin. The dreamy
+fervor and the glowing fire of an impassioned nature may be felt in his
+works, but also many times the lack of balance that belongs with the
+malady by which he was assailed.
+
+His love of music became early interwoven with love for Clara, the
+gifted daughter and pupil of his teacher, Friedrich Wieck. To her he
+dedicated his creative power. An attempt to gain flexibility by means of
+a mechanical contrivance having lamed his fingers, he turned from a
+pianist's career to composition and musical criticism. In becoming his
+wife Clara gave him both hands in more senses than one, and they shone
+together as a double star in the art firmament. Madame Schumann had
+acquired a splendid foundation for her career through the wise guidance
+of her father, whose pedagogic ideas every piano student might consider
+with profit. Her playing was distinguished by its musicianly
+intelligence and fine artistic feeling. Earnest simplicity surrounded
+her public and her private life, and the element of personal display was
+wholly foreign to her. She was the ideal woman, artist and teacher who
+remained in active service until a short time before her death, in 1896.
+
+Those were charmed days in Leipsic when the Schumanns and Mendelssohn
+formed the centre of an enthusiastic circle of musicians, and created a
+far-reaching musical atmosphere. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), in his
+work for the piano, adapted to drawing-room use technical devices of his
+day, and in his "Songs without Words" gave a decisive short-story form
+to piano literature. His playing is described as possessing an organ
+firmness of touch without organ ponderosity, and having an expression
+that moved deeply without intoxicating. Living in genial surroundings,
+he was never forced to struggle, and although he climbed through flowery
+paths, he never reached the goal he longed for until his heart broke.
+
+Delicate, sensitive, fastidious, Frederic Chopin (1809-1849) delivered
+his musical message with persuasive eloquence through the medium of the
+piano. It was his chosen comrade. With it he exchanged the most subtle
+confidences. Gaining a profound knowledge of its resources he raised it
+to an independent power. Polish patriotism steeped in Parisian elegance
+shaped his genius, and his compositions portray the emotions of his
+people in exquisitely polished tonal language. Spontaneous as was his
+creative power he was most painstaking in regard to the setting of his
+musical ideas and would often devote weeks to re-writing a single page
+that every detail might be perfect. The best that was in him he gave to
+music and to the piano. He enlarged the musical vocabulary, he
+re-created and enriched technique and diction, and to him the musician
+of to-day owes a debt that should never be forgotten. "He is of the race
+of eagles," said his teacher, Elsner. "Let all who aspire follow him in
+his flights toward regions sublime."
+
+The man who, by his demands on the piano, induced improvements in its
+manufacture that materially increased its sonority and made it
+available for the modern idea, was Franz Liszt (1811-1886). He will
+always be remembered as the creator of orchestral piano-playing and of
+the symphonic poem. The impetuous rhythms and unfathomable mysteries of
+Magyar and gipsy life surrounding him in Hungary, the land of his birth,
+strongly influenced the shaping of his genius. Like the wandering
+children of nature who had filled the dreams of his childhood, he became
+a wanderer and marched a conqueror, radiant with triumphs, through the
+musical world. Chopin, who shrank from concert-playing, once said to
+him: "You are destined for it. You have the force to overwhelm, control,
+compel the public."
+
+The bewitching tones of the gipsy violinist, Bihary, had fallen on his
+boyish ears "like drops of some fiery, volatile essence," stimulating
+him to effort. On the threshold of manhood he was inspired to apply the
+methods of Paganini to the piano. All his early realistic and
+revolutionary ideas found vent in his pianistic achievements. He gained
+marvelous fulness of chord power, great dynamic variety, and numerous
+unexpected solutions of the tone problem. Many technical means of
+expression were invented by him, and a wholly new fingering was required
+for his purposes. He taught the use of a loose wrist, absolute
+independence of the fingers and a new manipulation of the pedals. To
+carry out his designs the third or sustaining pedal became necessary.
+His highest ambition, in his own words, was "to leave to piano players
+the foot-prints of attained advance." In 1839 he ventured on the first
+pure piano recital ever given in the concert hall. His series of
+performances in this line, covering the entire range of piano
+literature, in addition to his own compositions, given entirely without
+notes, led the public to expect playing by heart from all other artists.
+
+As a great pianist, a composer of original conceptions, a magnetic
+conductor, an influential teacher, an intelligent writer on musical
+subjects and a devoted promoter of the interests of art, he stands out
+in bold relief, one of the grand figures in the history of music. His
+piano paraphrases and transcriptions are poetic re-settings of
+tone-creations he had thoroughly assimilated and made his own. In his
+original works, which Saint-Saens was perhaps the first to appreciate,
+students are now beginning to discover the ripe fruits of his genius.
+Faithful ones among the pupils who flocked about him in classic Weimar
+spread wide his influence, but also much harm was done in his name by
+charlatans who, calling themselves Liszt pupils, cast broadcast the
+fallacy that piano pounding was genuine pianistic power.
+
+Large hearted, liberal minded, whole souled in his devotion to his art
+and its true interests, Franz Liszt seemed wholly without personal
+jealousies, and befriended and brought into public notice a large number
+of artists. Hector Berlioz declared that to him belonged "the sincere
+admiration of earnest minds, as well as the involuntary homage of the
+envious." At the opening of the Baireuth Temple of German Art, in 1876,
+Richard Wagner paid him this tribute in the midst of a joyful company:
+"Here is one who first gave me faith in my work when no one knew
+anything of me. But for him, my dear friend, Franz Liszt, you might not
+have had a note from me to-day."
+
+A rival of Liszt in the concert field, especially before a Parisian
+public, was Sigismund Thalberg (1812-1871), who visited this country in
+1855 and literally popularized the piano in America. Alfred Jaell and
+Henri Herz, who had preceded him, doubtless prepared the way for his
+triumphs. He and the "Creole Chopin," Louis Moreau Gottschalk, attracted
+much attention by several joint appearances in our musical centres of
+the time. Thalberg was a pupil of Hummel, and felt the influence of his
+teacher's cold, severely classic style. He possessed a well-trained,
+fascinating mechanism, with scales, chords, arpeggios and octaves that
+were marvels of neatness and accuracy, and a tone that was mellow and
+liquid, though lacking in warmth. His operatic transcriptions, in which
+a central melody is enfolded in arabesques, chords and running passages,
+have long since become antiquated, but his art of singing on the piano
+and many of his original studies still remain valuable to the pianist.
+
+When Liszt and Thalberg were in possession of the concert platform, they
+occupied the attention of cartoonists as fully as Paderewski at a later
+date. Liszt, his hair floating wildly, was represented as darting
+through the air on wide-stretched pinions with keyboards attached--a
+play on Fluegel, the German for grand piano. Thalberg, owing to his
+dignified repose, was caricatured as posing in a stiff, rigid manner
+before a box of keys.
+
+Rubinstein and Von Buelow offer two more contrasting personalities. Anton
+Rubinstein (1830-1894) was the impressionist, the subjective artist, who
+re-created every composition he played. The Russian tone-colorist he has
+been called, and the warmth and glow with which he invested every nuance
+can never be forgotten by those who were privileged to hear his Titanic
+interpretations, over whose very blemishes was cast the glamor of the
+impassioned temperament that caused them. "May Heaven forgive me for
+every wrong note I have struck!" he exclaimed to a youthful admirer
+after one of his concerts in this country during the season of 1872-3.
+Certainly the listener under the spell of his magnetism could forgive,
+almost forget. Hans von Buelow (1830-1894) was the objective artist,
+whose scholarly attainments and musicianly discernment unraveled the
+most tangled web of phrasing and interpretation. His Beethoven recitals,
+when he was in America in 1875-6, were of especial value to piano
+students. As a piano virtuoso, a teacher, a conductor and an editor of
+musical works, he was a marked educational factor in music.
+
+In his youth Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), the great apostle of modern
+intellectual music, made his debut before the musical world as a
+brilliant and versatile pianist. Once, when about to play in public
+Beethoven's magnificent Kreutzer Sonata, with Remenyi, who was the first
+to recognize his genius, he discovered that the piano was half a tone
+below concert pitch, and rather than spoil the effect by having the
+violin tuned down, the boy of nineteen unhesitatingly transposed the
+piano part which he was playing from memory into a higher key. The fire,
+energy and breadth of his rendering, together with the splendid
+musicianship displayed by this feat, deeply impressed the great
+violinist Joachim, who was present, and who became enthusiastic in his
+praise. Schumann, on making his acquaintance, proclaimed the advent of a
+genius who wrote music in which the spirit of the age found its
+consummation, and who, at the piano, unveiled wonders. By others he has
+been called the greatest contrapuntist after Bach, the greatest
+architectonist after Beethoven, the man of creative power who
+assimilated the older forms and invested them with a new life entirely
+his own. His piano works are a rich addition to the pianist's store, but
+whoever would unveil their beautiful proportions, all aglow as they are
+with sacred fire, must have taken a master's degree.
+
+Two pupils of Liszt stand out prominently--Carl Tausig (1841-1871) and
+Eugene D'Albert (1864- ----). The first was distinguished by his
+extraordinary sense for style, and was thought to surpass his master in
+absolute flawlessness of technique. To the second Oscar Bie attributes
+the crown of piano playing in our time. Peter Iljitch Tschaikowsky
+(1840-1893), the distinguished representative of the modern Russian
+school, was an original, dramatic and fertile composer and wrote for the
+piano some of his highly colored and very characteristic music. Edward
+Grieg (1843- ----), the national tone-poet of Norway, has given the
+piano some of his most delightful efforts, fresh with the breezes of the
+North.
+
+The veteran French composer, Charles Camille Saint-Saens (1835- ----),
+has won great renown as a pianist, and was one of the most precocious
+children on record, having begun the study of the piano when under three
+years of age. He was the teacher that knew how to develop the
+individuality of the young Russian, Leopold Godowsky, who has done such
+remarkable work on two continents, as a teacher and piano virtuoso.
+
+Perhaps the most famous piano teacher of recent times is Theodore
+Leschetitzky, of Vienna. His method is that of common sense, based on
+keen analytical faculties, and he never trains the hand apart from the
+musical sense. His most renowned pupil is Ignace Jan Paderewski, the
+magnetic Pole, whose exquisite touch and tone long made him the idol of
+the concert room, and who, with time, has gained in robustness, but also
+in recklessness of style. Another gifted pupil of the Viennese master is
+Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler, of Chicago, an artiste of rare temperament,
+musical feeling and nervous power, of whom Dr. Hanslick said that her
+virtuosity was stupendous, her delicacy in the finest florid work as
+marvelous as her fascinating energy in the forte passages.
+
+The great tidal wave set in motion by the piano has swept over the
+civilized world, carrying with it hosts of accomplished pianists. Of
+some of those who are familiar figures in our musical centres it has
+been said that Teresa Carreno learned from Rubinstein the art of piano
+necromancy; that Rosenthal is an amazing technician whose
+interpretations lack tenderness; that De Pachmann is on terms of
+intimacy with Chopin, and that Rafael Joseffy, the disciple of Tausig,
+combines all that is best in the others with striking methods of his
+own.
+
+Great is the piano, splendid its literature, many its earnest students,
+numerous its worthy exponents. That it is so often made a means of empty
+show is not the fault of the piano, it is due to a tendency of the day
+that calls for superficial glamor. Herbert Spencer was not so wrong as
+some of the critics seem to think when, in his last volume, he said that
+teachers of music and music performers were often corrupters of music.
+Those certainly are corrupters of music who use the piano solely for
+meaningless technical feats.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Poetry and Leadership of Chopin
+
+
+"The piano bard, the piano rhapsodist, the piano mind, the piano soul is
+Chopin," said Rubinstein. "Tragic, romantic, lyric, heroic, dramatic,
+fantastic, soulful, sweet, dreamy, brilliant, grand, simple, all
+possible expressions are found in his compositions and all are sung by
+him on his instrument."
+
+In these few, bold strokes one who knew him by virtue of close art and
+race kinship, presents an incomparable outline sketch of the Polish
+tone-poet who explored the harmonic vastness of the pianoforte and made
+his own all its mystic secrets.
+
+Born and bred on Poland's soil, son of a French father and a Polish
+mother, Frederic Chopin (1809-1849) combined within himself two natures,
+each complementing the other, both uniting to form a personality not
+understood by every casual observer. He is described as kind, courteous,
+possessed of the most captivating grace and ease of manner, now inclined
+to languorous melancholy, now scintillating with a joyous vivacity that
+was contagious. His sensitive nature, like the most exquisitely
+constructed sounding-board, vibrated with the despairing sadness, the
+suppressed wrath, and the sublime fortitude of the brave, haughty,
+unhappy people he loved, and with his own homesickness when afar from
+his cherished native land.
+
+Patriot and tone-poet in every fibre of his being, his genius inevitably
+claimed as its own the soul's divinest language, pure music, unfettered
+by words. The profound reserve of his nature made it peculiarly
+agreeable to him to gratify the haunting demands of his lyric muse
+through the medium of the one musical instrument that lends itself in
+privacy to the exploitation of all the mysteries of harmony. Strong
+conviction in regard to his own calling and clear perception of the
+hidden powers and future mission of the piano early compelled him to
+consecrate to it his unfaltering devotion. He evolved from its more
+intimate domain effects in sympathy with those of the orchestra, yet
+purely individual. He enriched it with new melodic, harmonic and
+rhythmic devices adapted to itself alone, and endowed it with a warmth
+of tone-coloring that spiritualized it for all time.
+
+To the piano he confided all the conflicts that raged within him, all
+the courage and living hope that sustained him. In giving tonal form to
+the deep things of the soul, which are universal in their essence and
+application, he embodied universal rather than merely individual
+emotional experiences, and thus unbared what was most sacred to himself
+without jarring on the innate reticence which made purely personal
+confidences impossible. Although his mode of expression was peculiarly
+his own, he had received a strong impulse from the popular music of
+Poland. As a child he had become familiar with the folk-songs and dances
+heard in the harvest-fields and at market and village festivals. They
+were his earliest models; on them were builded his first themes. As Bach
+glorified the melodies of the German people, so Chopin glorified those
+of the Poles. The national tonality became to him a vehicle to be
+freighted with his own individual conceptions.
+
+"I should like to be to my people what Uhland was to the Germans," he
+once said to a friend. He addressed himself to the heart of this people
+and immortalized its joys, sorrows and caprices by the force of his
+splendid art. Those who have attempted to interpret him as the
+sentimental hero of minor moods, the tone-poet in whom the weakness of
+despair predominates, have missed the leaping flames, the vivid
+intensity and the heroic manliness permeated with genuine love of beauty
+that animated him. True art softens the harshest accents of suffering by
+placing superior to it some elevating idea. So in the most melancholy
+strains of his music one who heeds well may detect the presence of a
+lofty ideal that uplifts and strengthens the travailing soul. It has
+been said of him that he had a sad heart but a joyful mind.
+
+The two teachers of Chopin were Adalbert Zwyny, a Bohemian violinist,
+who taught the piano, and Joseph Elsner, a violinist, organist and
+theorist. "From Zwyny and Elsner even the greatest dunce must learn
+something," he is quoted as saying. Neither of these men attempted to
+hamper his free growth by rigid technical restraints. Their guidance
+left him master of his own genius, at liberty to "soar like the lark
+into the ethereal blue of the skies." He respected them both. A revering
+affection was cherished by him for Elsner, to whom he owed his sense of
+personal responsibility to his art, his habits of serious study and his
+intimate acquaintance with Bach.
+
+There is food for thought in the fact that this Prince Charming of the
+piano, whose magic touch awakened the Sleeping Beauty of the instrument
+of wood and wires, never had a lesson in his life from a mere piano
+specialist. Liszt once said Chopin was the only pianist he ever knew
+that could play the violin on the piano. If he could do so it was
+because he had harkened to the voice of the violin and resolved to show
+that the piano, too, could produce thrilling effects. In the same way he
+had listened to the human voice, and determined that the song of his own
+instrument should be heard. Those who give ear to the piano alone will
+never learn the secret of calling forth its supreme eloquence.
+
+We can see and hear this "Raphael of Music" at the piano, so many and so
+eloquent have been the descriptions given of his playing. It is easy to
+fancy him sweeping the ivory keys with his gossamer touch that enveloped
+with ethereal beauty the most unaccustomed of his complicated chromatic
+modulations. We can feel his individuality pulsating through every tone
+evoked by those individualized fingers of his as they weave measures for
+sylphs of dreamland, or summon to warfare heroes of the ideal world. We
+are entranced by his luxuriant tone-coloring, induced to a large extent
+by his original management of the pedals. We marvel at his softly
+whispered, yet ever clearly distinct pianissimo, at the full, round tone
+of its relative fortissimo, that was never harsh or noisy, and at all
+the exquisitely graded nuances that lay between, with those time
+fluctuations expressive of the ebb and flow of his poetic inner being.
+No wonder Balzac maintained that if Chopin should but drum on the table
+his fingers would evoke subtle-sounding music.
+
+And what an example he has left for teachers. Delicately strung as he
+was, he must often have endured tortures from the best of his pupils,
+but so thoroughly was he consecrated to his art that he never faltered
+in his efforts to lift those who confided in him to the aerial heights
+he had found. A vivid picture of his method of teaching is given in the
+lectures on "Frederic Chopin's Works and Their Proper Interpretation,"
+by the Pole, Jean Kleczynski.
+
+The basis of this method consisted in refinement of touch, for the
+attainment of which a natural, easy position of the hand was considered
+by Chopin a prime requisite. He prepared each hand with infinite care
+before permitting any attempt at the reproduction of musical ideas. In
+order to place it to advantage he caused it to be thrown lightly on the
+keyboard so that the five fingers rested on the notes E, F sharp, G
+sharp, A sharp and B, and without change of position required the
+practice of exercises calculated to insure independence. The pupil was
+instructed to go through these exercises first staccato, effected by a
+free movement of the wrist, an admirable means of counteracting
+heaviness and clumsiness, then legato-staccato, then accented legato,
+then pure legato, modifying the power from pp to ff, and the movement
+from andante to prestissimo.
+
+He was exceedingly particular about arpeggio work, and insisted upon the
+repetition of every note and passage until all harshness and roughness
+of tone were eliminated. "Is that a dog barking?" he was known to
+exclaim to an unlucky pupil whose attack in the opening arpeggio of a
+Clementi study lacked the desired quality. A very independent use of the
+thumb was prescribed by him. He never hesitated about placing it on a
+black key when convenient, and had it passed by muscle action alone in
+scales and broken chords whose zealous practice in different forms of
+touch, accent, rhythm and tone were demanded by him.
+
+Individualization of the fingers was one of his strong points, and he
+believed in assigning to each of them its appropriate part. "In a good
+mechanism," he said, "the aim is not to play everything with an equal
+sound, but to acquire beautiful quality of touch and perfect shading."
+Of prime importance in his eyes was a clear, elastic, singing tone, one
+whose exquisite delicacy could never be confounded with feebleness.
+Every dynamic nuance he exacted of fingers that fell with freedom and
+elasticity on the keys, and he knew how to augment the warmth and
+richness of tone-coloring by setting in vibration sympathetic harmonics
+of the principal notes through judicious employment of the damper pedal.
+
+By precept and example he advocated frequent playing of the preludes and
+fugues of Bach as a means of cultivating musical intelligence, muscular
+independence and touch and tone discrimination. His musical heroes were
+Bach and Mozart, for they represented to him nature, strong
+individuality and poetry in music. At one time he undertook to write a
+method or school of piano-playing, but never progressed beyond the
+opening sentences. A message directly from him would have been
+invaluable to students, and might have averted many unlucky
+misapprehensions of himself and his works. Those of his contemporaries
+who have harkened with rapture to his playing have declared that he
+alone could adequately interpret his tone-creations, or make perfectly
+intelligible his method. Pupils of his and their pupils have faithfully
+endeavored to transmit to the musical world the tradition of his
+individual style. The elect few have come into touch with his vision of
+beauty, but it has been mercilessly misinterpreted by thousands of
+ruthless aspirants to musical honors, in the schoolroom, the students'
+recital and the concert hall.
+
+Whoever plays Chopin with sledge-hammer fingers will deaden all sense of
+his poetry, charm and grace. Whoever approaches him with weak
+sentimentalism will miss altogether his dignity and strength. It has
+been said of him that he was Woman in his tenderness and realization of
+the beautiful; and Man in his energy and force of mind. The highest type
+of artist and human being is thus represented. To interpret him requires
+simplicity, purity of style, refined technique, poetic imagination and
+genuine sentiment--not fitful, fictitious sentimentality.
+
+In regard to the much discussed tempo rubato of Chopin many and fatal
+blunders have been made. Players without number have gone stumbling over
+the piano keys with a tottering, spasmodic gait, serenely fancying they
+are heeding the master's design. Reckless, out-of-time playing
+disfigures what is meant to express the fluctuation of thought, the
+soul's agitation, the rolling of the waves of time and eternity. The
+rubato, from rubare, to rob, represents a pliable movement that is
+certainly as old as the Greek drama in declamation, and was employed in
+intoning the Gregorian chant. The recitative of the sixteenth century
+gave it prominence, and it passed into instrumental music. Indications
+of it in Bach are too often neglected. Beethoven used it effectively.
+Chopin appropriated it as one of his most potent auxiliaries. In playing
+he emphasized the saying of Mozart: "Let your left hand be the orchestra
+conductor," while his right hand balanced and swayed the melody and its
+arabesques according to the natural pulsation of the emotions. "You see
+that tree," exclaimed Liszt; "its leaves tremble with every breath of
+the wind, but the tree remains unshaken--that is the rubato." There are
+storms to which even the tree yields. To realize them, to divine the
+laws which regulate the undulating, tempest-tossed rubato, requires
+highly matured artistic taste and absolute musical control.
+
+Too sensitive to enjoy playing before miscellaneous audiences whose
+unsympathetic curiosity, he declared, paralyzed him, Chopin was at his
+best when interpreting music in private, for a choice circle of friends
+or pupils, or when absorbed in composition. It is not too much to say
+for him that he ushered in a new era for his chosen instrument,
+spiritualizing its timbre, liberating it from traditional orchestral and
+choral effects, and elevating it to an independent power in the world of
+music. Besides enriching the technique of the piano, he augmented the
+materials of musical expression, contributing fresh charms to those
+prime factors of music melody, harmony and rhythm. New chord extensions,
+passages of double notes, arabesques and harmonic combinations were
+devised by him and he so systematized the use of the pedals that the
+most varied nuances could be produced by them.
+
+In melody and general conception his tone-poems sprang spontaneously
+from his glowing fancy, but they were subjected to the most severe
+tests before they were permitted to go out into the world. Every
+ingenious device that gave character to his exquisite cantilena, and
+softened his most startling chord progressions, was evolved by the vivid
+imagination of this master from hitherto hidden qualities of the
+pianoforte. Without him neither it nor modern music could have been what
+it is. An accentuation like the ringing of distant bells is frequently
+heard in his music. To him bell tones were ever ringing, reminding him
+of home, summoning him to the heights.
+
+James Huneker, the raconteur of the Musical Courier, discussing the
+compositions of Chopin, in his delightful and inspiring book, "Chopin,
+the Man and His Music," calls the studies Titanic experiments; the
+preludes, moods in miniature; the nocturnes, night and its melancholy
+mysteries; the ballades, faery dramas; the polonaises, heroic hymns of
+battle; the valses and mazurkas, dances of the soul; the scherzos, the
+work of Chopin the conqueror. In the sonatas and concertos he sees the
+princely Pole bravely carrying his banner amid classical currents. For
+the impromptus alone he has found no name and says of them: "To write of
+the four impromptus in their own key of unrestrained feeling and
+pondered intention would not be as easy as recapturing the first
+'careless rapture of the lark.'"
+
+Unquestionably the poetry of Chopin is of the most exquisite lyric
+character, his leadership is supreme. So original was his conception, so
+finished his workmanship, so sublime his purpose, that we may well
+exclaim with Schumann, "He is the boldest, proudest poetic spirit of the
+time." "His greatness is his aristocracy," says Oscar Bie. "He stands
+among musicians in his faultless vesture, a noble from head to foot."
+
+[Illustration: PAGANINI]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+Violins and Violinists--Fact and Fable
+
+
+That fine old bard who shaped the character of Volker the Fiddler in the
+Nibelungen Lay, had a glowing vision of the power of music and of the
+violin. Players on the videl, or fiddle, abounded in the days of
+chivalry, but Volker, glorified by genius, rises superior to his fellow
+minstrels. The inspiring force of his martial strains renewed the
+courage of way-worn heroes. His gentle measures, pure and melodious as a
+prayer, lulled them to sorely-needed rest.
+
+And what a wonderful bow he wielded! It was mighty and long, fashioned
+like a sword, with a keen-edged outer blade, and in his good right hand
+could deal a deft blow on either side. Ever ready for action was he, and
+his friendship for Hagen of Tronje furnished the main elements of that
+grim warrior's power. Together they were long invincible, smiting the
+foe with giant strokes, accompanied by music.
+
+The modern German poet, Wilhelm Jordan, in his Sigfridsage, clothes
+Volker with the attributes of a violin king he loved, and represents him
+tenderly handling the violin. His noble portrayal of a violinist
+testifies no more fully to the mission of the musician than the creation
+of the Nibelungen bard. In August Wilhelmj, once hailed by Henrietta
+Sontag as the coming Paganini, Richard Wagner saw "Volker the Fiddler
+living anew, until death a warrior true." So he wrote in a dedicatory
+verse beneath a portrait of himself, presented to "Volker-Wilhelmj as a
+souvenir of the first Baireuth festival."
+
+The idea of a magic fiddle and a wonderworking fiddler was strongly
+rooted in the popular imagination of many peoples, through many ages.
+Typical illustrations are the Wonderful Musician of Grimm's Fairy Tales,
+whose fiddling attracted man and beast, and the lad of Norse folk-lore
+who won a fiddle that could make people dance to any tune he chose. In
+Norway the traditional violin teacher is the cascade-haunting musical
+genius Fossegrim, who, when suitably propitiated, seizes the right hand
+of one that seeks his aid and moves it across the strings until blood
+gushes from the finger-tips. Thenceforth the pupil becomes a master, and
+can make trees leap, rivers stay their course and people bow to his
+will.
+
+Those of us who were brought up on English nursery rhymes early loved
+the fiddle. Old King Cole, that merry old soul, was a prime favorite,
+notwithstanding his fondness for pipe and bowl, because when he called
+for them he called for his fiddlers three and their very fine fiddles.
+According to Robert of Gloucester, the real King Cole, a popular monarch
+of Britain in the third century, was the father of St. Helena, the
+zealous friend of church music. The nursery satire of doubtful
+antiquity is our sole evidence of his devotion to the art.
+
+That John who stoutly refused to sell his fiddle in order to buy his
+wife a gown placed the ideal above the material. It is to be hoped Mrs.
+John enjoyed music more than gay attire. Certainly the dame who was
+forced to dance without her shoe until the master found his
+fiddling-stick knew the worth of the fiddler's art.
+
+It may have been from a play on the word catgut that so many of these
+ditties represent pussy in relation with the fiddle. True fiddler's
+magic belonged to the cat whose fiddling made the cow jump over the
+moon, the little dog laugh and the dish run away with the spoon. Rarely
+accomplished too was the cat that came fiddling out of the barn with a
+pair of bagpipes under her arm, singing "Fiddle cum fee, the mouse has
+married the humble bee."
+
+Scientists tell us that crickets, grasshoppers, locusts and the like are
+fiddlers. Their hind legs are their fiddle-bows, and by drawing these
+briskly up and down the projecting veins of their wing-covers they
+produce the sounds that characterize them. Was it in imitation of these
+small winged creatures that man first experimented with the friction of
+bow and strings as a means of making music? Scarcely. It was the result
+of similar instinct on a larger human scale.
+
+String instruments played with a bow may be traced to a remote period
+among various Oriental peoples. An example of their simplest form exists
+in the ravanastron, or banjo-fiddle, supposed to have been invented by
+King Ravana, who reigned in Ceylon some 5,000 years ago. It is formed of
+a small cylindrical sounding-body, with a stick running through it for a
+neck, a bridge, and a single string of silk, or at most two strings. Its
+primitive bow was a long hairless cane rod which produced sound when
+drawn across the silk. Better tone was derived from strings plucked with
+fingers or plectrum, and so the rude contrivance remained long
+undeveloped.
+
+The European violin is the logical outcome of the appliance of the bow
+to those progenitors of the pianoforte, the Greek monochord and lyre,
+precisely as our music is the outgrowth of the diatonic scale developed
+by the Greeks from those instruments. Numerous obstacles stand in the
+way of defining its story, but it is known that from the ninth century
+to the thirteenth bow instruments gained in importance. They divided
+into two classes--the viol proper, with flat back and breast and
+indented sides, to which belonged the veille, videl, or as it has been
+called, guitar-fiddle, and the pear-shaped type, such as the gigue and
+rebec. The latter is what Chaucer calls the rubible.
+
+Possibly an impulse was given the fiddle by the Moorish rebab, brought
+into Spain in the eighth century, but ancient Celtic bards had long
+before this used a bow instrument--the chrotta or crwth, derived from
+the lyre, which was introduced by the Romans in their colonizing
+expeditions. As early as 560 A. D., Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of
+Poitiers, wrote to the Duke of Champagne:
+
+    _"Let the barbarians praise thee with the harp,
+    Let the British crwth sing."_
+
+This instrument, whose name signifies bulging box, was common in
+Britain, and was used in Wales until a comparatively recent period. One
+of its distinguishing features was an opening in the lower part for the
+admission of the fingers while playing. A fine specimen is preserved in
+the South Kensington Museum, corresponding well to the following
+description by a Welsh poet of the fifteenth century: "A fair coffer
+with a bow, a girdle, a finger-board and a bridge; its value is a pound;
+it has a frontlet formed like a wheel with the short-nosed bow across.
+In its centre are the circled sounding-holes, and the bulging of its
+back is somewhat like an old man, but on its breast harmony reigns, from
+the sycamore melodious music is obtained. Six pegs, if we screw them,
+will tighten all its chords; six advantageous strings are found, which,
+in a skilful hand, produce a varied sound."
+
+In this same museum is a curious wedge-shaped boxwood fiddle, decorated
+with allegorical scenes, and dated 1578. Dr. Burney states that it has
+no more tone than a violin with a sordine. It is said to have been
+presented by Queen Elizabeth to the Earl of Leicester, and bears both of
+their coats-of-arms in silver on the sounding-board. Besides her other
+accomplishments, the Virgin Queen, we are told, was a violinist. During
+her reign we find the violin mentioned among instruments accompanying
+the drama and various festivities, and viols of diverse kinds were
+freely used. Shakespeare, in Twelfth Night, has Sir Toby enumerate among
+Sir Andrew Aguecheek's attractions skill on the viol-de-gamboys, Sir
+Toby's blunder for the viola da gamba, a fashionable bass viol held
+between the knees. A part was written for this instrument in Bach's St.
+Matthew Passion, and a number of celebrated performers on it are
+recorded in the eighteenth century. Two of these were ladies, Mrs. Sarah
+Ottey and Miss Ford.
+
+Violers and fiddlers formed an essential part of the retinue of many
+monarchs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Charles II., of
+England, had twenty-four at his court, with red bonnets and flaunting
+livery, who played for him while he was dining according to the custom
+he had known at the French court during his exile. Place was grudgingly
+yielded to the violin by friends of the less insistent viol. Butler, in
+Hudibras, styled it "a squeaking engine." Earlier writers mention "the
+scolding violin," and describing the Maypole dance tell of not hearing
+the "minstrelsie for the fiddling." Thus all along its course it has had
+its opponents and deriders as well as its friends.
+
+The soft-toned viol had deeply indented sides to permit a free use of
+the bow, was mostly supplied with frets like a guitar, and had usually
+from five to seven strings. Its different sizes corresponded with the
+soprano, contralto, tenor and bass of the human voice. An extremely
+interesting treble viol much in vogue in the eighteenth century was the
+viola d'amore, with fourteen strings, the seven of gut and silver being
+supplemented by seven sympathetic wire strings running below the
+finger-board and tuned in unison with the bowstrings, vibrating
+harmoniously while these are played. A remarkably well preserved
+specimen of this instrument, made by Eberle of Prague, in 1733, and
+superbly carved on pegbox and scroll, is in the fine private violin
+collection of Mr. D. H. Carr, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is one of the
+few genuine viola d'amores extant. The owner says of it: "The tone is
+simply wonderful, mellow, pure and strong, and of that exquisite harmony
+that comes from the throne of Nature. I know of no other genuine viola
+d'amore, and it compares with the modern copies I have seen as a Raphael
+or a Rubens with some cheap lithograph." These modern copies are the
+result of recent efforts to revive the use of this fascinating
+instrument. A barytone of a kindred nature was the viola di bordone or
+drone viol, so called because there was a suggestion of the buzzing of
+drone-flies, or humble bees, in the tones of its sympathetic strings,
+which often numbered as many as twenty-four. These violas recall the
+Hardanger peasant fiddle of Norway, of unknown origin and antiquity,
+whose delicate metallic under strings quaver tremulously and
+mysteriously when the bow sets in motion the main strings.
+
+At one time every family of distinction in Britain deemed a chest of
+viols, consisting for the most part of two trebles, two altos, a
+barytone and a bass, as indispensable to the household as the piano is
+thought to-day. It was made effective in accompanying the madrigal, that
+delightful flower of the Elizabethan age. Singers not always being
+available for all of the difficult voice parts viols of the same compass
+supplied the lack. It was but a step for masters of music to compose
+pieces marked "to be sung or played," thus contributing to the forces
+that were lifting instrumental music above mere accompaniment for song
+or dance.
+
+When musicians make demands musical instrument makers are ever ready to
+meet them, and the viol steadily improved. One who contributed to its
+progress was Gasper Duiffoprugcar (1514-1572) a luthier and mosaic
+inlayer, known in the Tyrol, in Bologna, Paris and Lyons. The belief
+that he originated the violin rests chiefly on the elaborately
+ornamented forgeries bearing his name, the work of French imitators from
+1800 to 1840. There is an etching, supposed to be a copy of a portrait
+of himself carved on one of his viols with this motto: "I lived in the
+wood until I was slain by the relentless axe. In life I was silent, but
+in death my melody is exquisite."
+
+The words might apply to the perfected violin, whose evolution was going
+on all through that period of literary and artistic activity known as
+the Renaissance. When or at whose hands it gained its present form is
+unknown. The same doubt encircles its first master player. Perhaps the
+earliest worthy of mention is one Baltzarini, a Piedmontese, appointed
+by Catherine de Medici, in 1577, to lead the music at the French court,
+and said to have started the heroic and historical ballet in France.
+
+He is sometimes confounded with Thomas Baltzar, a violinist of Lubec,
+who, in 1656 introduced the practice of shifting in London, where he
+wholly eclipsed David Mell, a much admired clockmaker fiddler, although
+the latter, as a contemporary stoutly averred, "played sweeter, was a
+well-bred gentleman, and was not given to excessive drinking as Baltzar
+was." His marvelous feat of "running his fingers to the end of the
+finger-board and back again with all alacrity" caused a learned Oxford
+connoisseur of music to look if he had hoofs. Notwithstanding the jovial
+tastes of this German, he was appointed leader, by Charles II., of the
+famous violins, and had the final honor of a burial in Westminster
+Abbey.
+
+Here reposed also in due time his successor in the royal band, John
+Banister, who had been sent by the king to France for study, and who was
+the first Englishman, unless the amateur Mell be counted, to distinguish
+himself as a performer on the violin. He wrote music for Shakespeare's
+Tempest, and was the first to attempt, in London, concerts at which the
+audience paid for seats. Announcements of the initial performance,
+September 30, 1672, read: "These are to give notice that at Mr.
+Banister's house (now called the Musick School) over against the George
+Tavern in White Friars, this present Monday will be performed musick by
+excellent masters, beginning precisely at four o'clock in the afternoon
+and every afternoon for the future at precisely the same hour."
+
+Credit for shaping the first violin has been given Gasparo Bertolotti
+(1542-1609), called Gasparo da Salo, from his birthplace, a suburb of
+Brescia, that pearl of Lombardy so long a bone of contention among
+nations. Violins were doubtless made before his time, but none are known
+to-day dated earlier than his. A pretty legend tells how this skilful
+viol-maker imprisoned in his first violin the golden tones of the
+soprano voice of Marietta, the maiden he loved and from whom death
+parted him. Her likeness, so the story runs, is preserved in the angel
+face, by Benevenuto Cellini, adorning the head. The instrument thus
+famed was purchased for 3,000 Neapolitan ducats by Cardinal
+Aldobrandini, who presented it to the treasury at Innsprueck. Here it
+remained as a curiosity until the French took the city in 1809, when it
+was carried to Vienna and sold to a wealthy Bohemian collector, after
+whose death it came into the possession of Ole Bull.
+
+Gasparo's pupil, Giovanni Paolo Maggini (1581-1631), improved the
+principles of violin-building, and gave the world the modern viola and
+violoncello. A rich viola-like quality characterizes the Maggini violin.
+De Beriot used one in his concerts, and its plaintive tone was thought
+well suited to his style. He refused to part with it for 20,000 francs
+when Wieniawski, in 1859, wished to buy it. To-day it would command a
+far higher price. It is stated on authority that not more than fifty
+instruments of its make now exist, although a large number of French
+imitations claim recognition.
+
+While Gasparo was founding the so-called Brescian school, Andrea Amati
+(1520-1580), a viol and rebec maker of picturesque Cremona, began to
+make violins, doubtless to fill the orders of his patrons. He must have
+believed the pinnacle of fame reached when King Charles IX. of France,
+in 1566, commissioned him to construct twenty-four violins, twelve large
+and twelve small pattern. They were kept in the Chapel Royal,
+Versailles, until 1790, when they were seized by the mob in the French
+Revolution, and but one of them is known to have escaped destruction.
+Heron-Allen, in his work on violin making, gives a picture of it,
+obtained through the courtesy of its owner, George Somers, an English
+gentleman. Its tone is described as mellow and extremely beautiful, but
+lacking in brilliancy.
+
+As the Amati brothers, Antonio and Geronimo (Hieronymous) Amati
+continued their father's trade, producing instruments similar to his.
+The family reached its flower in Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), son of
+Geronimo. He originated the "Grand Amatis," and attained a purer, more
+resonant tone than his predecessors, although not always adapted to
+modern concert use. One of his violins was the favorite instrument of
+the French virtuoso Delphine Jean Alard (1815-1888), long violin
+professor at the Paris Conservatoire. It has been described as sounding
+like the melodious voice of a child heard beside the rising tide.
+Another fine specimen was exhibited by Mr. J. D. Partello, in 1893, at
+the World's Fair, in Chicago.
+
+Nicolo Amati's influence was felt in his famous pupils. Foremost among
+these was Antonio Stradivarius (1644-1737), whose praises have been sung
+by poets, and whose life was one of unwavering service. His first
+attempts were mere copies, but after he was equipped with his master's
+splendid legacy of tools and wood, his originality asserted itself. His
+"Golden" period was from 1700 to 1725, but he accomplished good work
+until death overtook him. From his bench were sent out some seven
+thousand instruments, including tenors and violoncellos. Of these
+perhaps two thousand were violins.
+
+A romance encircling this master of Cremona tells that in youth he loved
+his master's daughter, but that failing to win her heart and hand, he
+gave himself wholly to his work. He married, finally, a wealthy widow
+whose means enabled him to pursue his avocation undisturbed by monetary
+anxieties. His labors steadily increased the family property until "as
+rich as Stradivarius" became a common saying in Cremona. Because of his
+achievements and his personal worth, he was held in high esteem. Members
+of royal families, prelates of the church, men of wealth and culture
+throughout Europe, were his personal friends as well as his clients. His
+handsome home, with his workshop and the roofshed where he stored his
+wood, was, until recently, exhibited to visitors. To-day not a vestige
+of it remains. Weary of the importunities of relic-seekers, the
+Cremonese have torn it down, and have banished violins and every
+reminder of them from the town.
+
+The tone of a Stradivarius, in good condition, is round, full and
+exceedingly brilliant, and displays remarkable equality as the player
+passes from string to string. Dr. Joseph Joachim, owner of the famous
+Buda-Pesth Strad, writes of the maker that he "seems to have given his
+violins a soul that speaks and a heart that beats." The Tuscan Strad,
+one of a set ordered by Marquis Ariberti for the Prince of Tuscany, in
+1690, was sold two hundred years later to Mr. Brandt by a London firm
+for L2,000. Lady Halle, court violinist to Queen Alexandra, owns the
+concert Strad of Ernst (1814-1865), composer of the celebrated Elegie,
+and values it at $10,000. A magnificent Stradivarius violin, with an
+exceedingly romantic history, belongs to Carl Gaertner, the veteran
+violinist and musician of Philadelphia, and could not be purchased at
+any price.
+
+Another violin-builder from Nicolo Amati's workshop was Andrea
+Guarnerius (1630-1695), whose sons, Giuseppe and Pietro, followed in his
+footsteps. The family name reached its highest distinction in his
+nephew, Giuseppe (Joseph) Guarnerius (1683-1745), called del Gesu,
+because on his labels the initials I. H. S., surmounted by a Roman
+cross, were placed after his name, indicating that he belonged to a
+Jesuit society.
+
+This Joseph of Cremona figures in story as a man of fascinating,
+restless personality, who for weeks would squander time and talents and
+then set to work with a zeal equalling that of Master Stradivarius.
+Tradition has it that he was once imprisoned for some bit of
+lawlessness, and was saved from despair by the jailor's daughter who
+brought him the tools and materials required for violin-building. What
+he esteemed the masterpiece of his lonely cell he presented as a
+souvenir to his gentle friend.
+
+The violin about which this legend is woven, dated 1742, was bought by
+Ole Bull from the famous Tarisio collection, and is now the property of
+his son, Mr. Alexander Bull. It has an unusually rich, sonorous tone and
+splendid carrying powers. Similar qualities are attributed to the
+Paganini Guarnerius del Gesu, 1743, known as the "Canon" and kept under
+glass at the Genoa Museum. Mr. Hart, a violin authority, places highest
+in this make the "King Joseph," 1737, long in the private collections of
+Mr. Hawley, Hartford, Connecticut, and of Mr. Ralph Granger, Paradise
+Valley, California, and recently put on the market by Lyon & Healy, of
+Chicago.
+
+An interesting Nicolo Amati pupil was Jacob Steiner (1621-1683), a
+Tyrolese, who, although bearing a glittering title, "violin maker to the
+Austrian Emperor," was harassed with financial perplexities and died
+insane. His most noted violins were the sixteen "Elector Steiners," one
+sent to each of the Electors and four to the Emperor. During his life
+the average price of his violins was six florins. A century after his
+death the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe's grandfather, paid 3,500
+florins for one of them. It is also recorded that an American gentleman
+on La Fayette's staff, in the Revolutionary War, exchanged for a Steiner
+1,500 acres of the tract where Pittsburg now stands. Mozart's violin, in
+the Mozarteum at Salzburg, is a Steiner.
+
+Many violin-makers did good work in the past, many are achieving success
+to-day. It has been confidently asserted that the violin reached its
+highest possibilities in the old Brescian and Cremona days. Why should
+this be the case? The same well-defined principles, based on acoustics
+and other modern sciences, that have led to the steady improvement of
+other musical instruments ought surely to be of some advantage to the
+violin. Indeed, who knows but the day may come when the present will be
+considered its golden age.
+
+While the men of Cremona were still fashioning their models the want of
+good strings was felt. This was met by Angelo Angelucci, known as the
+string-maker of Naples, a man who loved music and passed much time with
+violinists. Through his painstaking efforts such perfection was reached
+that Tartini, who was born the same year as he, 1692, could play his
+most difficult compositions two hundred times on the Angelucci strings,
+whereas he was continually interrupted by the snapping of others.
+Improvements in the bow, often called the tongue of the violin, are due
+to the house of Tourte, in Paris, in the eighteenth century, lightness,
+elasticity and spring coming to it from Francis Tourte, Jr.
+
+Three eminent virtuosi, Corelli, Tartini and Viotti, whose united
+careers spanned a period of 150 years, prepared the way for modern
+methods of violin-playing. Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) left his home
+in Fusignano, near Bologna, a young violinist, for an extended concert
+tour. His gentle, sensitive disposition proving unfitted to cope with
+the jealousy of Lully, chief violinist in France, and with sundry
+annoyances in other lands, he returned to Italy and entered the service
+of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome. In the private apartments of the prelate
+there gathered a choice company of music lovers every Monday afternoon
+to hear his latest compositions. Besides his solos these comprised
+groups of idealized dance tunes with harmony of mood for their bond of
+union, and played by two violins, a viola, violoncello and harpsichord.
+They were the parents of modern Chamber Music, the place of assemblage
+furnishing the name.
+
+Refined taste and purity of tone, we are told, distinguished the playing
+of Corelli, and to him are attributed the systematization of bowing and
+the introduction of chord-playing. He heads the list of musicians who
+protest against talking where there is music. On one occasion when his
+patron was addressing some remarks to another person, he laid down his
+violin, and on being asked the reason said "he feared the music was
+disturbing the conversation." This did not prevent him from being held
+in the highest esteem. After his death Cardinal Ottoboni had a costly
+monument erected over his grave in the Pantheon, and for many years a
+solemn service, consisting of selections from his works, was performed
+there on the anniversary of his funeral.
+
+It was during a period of retirement in the monastery of Assisi that
+Giuseppi Tartini (1692-1770) resolved to quit the law course in the
+University of Padua and seek a career with his violin. He became a great
+master of this, a composer of works still regarded as classics, and a
+scientific writer on musical physics. His letter to his pupil, Signora
+Maddelena Lombardini, contains invaluable advice on violin practice and
+study, especially on the use of the bow, and his treatise on the
+acoustic phenomenon known as "the third sound," together with his work
+on musical embellishments, may at any time be read with profit.
+
+It was after hearing the eccentric violinist Veracini that His Satanic
+Majesty appeared to Tartini in a dream and played for him a violin solo
+surpassing in marvelous character anything that he had ever heard or
+imagined. Trying to write it down in the morning he produced his famous
+"Devil's Sonata," with its double shakes and sinister laugh, a favorite
+of the violinist, but to the composer ever inferior to the music of his
+dreams. It is rather curious that anything of a diabolic nature should
+be associated with this man of amiable and gentle disposition, whose
+care of his scholars, according to Dr. Burney, was constantly paternal.
+Nardini, his favorite and most famous pupil, came from Leghorn to Padua
+to attend him, with filial devotion, in his last illness.
+
+The talents of Corelli and Tartini seem to have been combined in the
+Piedmontese, Giovanni Battiste Viotti (1753-1824), a man of poetic,
+philanthropic mind, whose sensitive, retiring disposition unfitted him
+for public life. Wherever he appeared he outshone all other performers,
+yet there was constantly something occurring to wound him. At the Court
+of Versailles he left the platform in disgust because the noisy entrance
+of a distinguished guest interrupted his concerto. In London, after his
+means had been crippled by the French Revolution, he was accused of
+political intrigue.
+
+While living in seclusion near Hamburg he composed some of his finest
+works, among them six violin duets, which he prefaced with the words:
+"This work is the fruit of leisure afforded me by misfortune. Some of
+the pieces were dictated by trouble, others by hope." At one time he
+embarked in a mercantile enterprise, in London, his transactions being
+regulated by the strictest integrity, but, as was inevitable, he soon
+returned to Paris and his art. After he had abandoned the concert room
+one of his greatest pleasures was in improvising violin parts to the
+piano performances of his friend, Madame Montegerault, to the delight
+of all present. He never had more than seven or eight pupils, but his
+influence has been widely felt. Many anecdotes are told of his kindness
+and generosity, and it is an interesting fact that among those who
+sought his advice and patronage was no less a personage than Rossini.
+
+It must be because genius is little understood that its manifestations
+have so often been attributed to evil influences. The popular mind could
+only explain the achievements of the Genoese wizard of the bow, Nicolo
+Paganini (1784-1840) by the belief that he had sold himself body and
+soul to the devil who stood ever at his elbow when he played. When,
+after a taxing concert season, the weary violinist retired to a Swiss
+monastery for rest and practice amid peaceful surroundings, rumor had it
+that he was imprisoned for some dark deed. To crown the delusion, his
+spectre was long supposed to stalk abroad, giving fantastic performances
+on the violin. It is his apparition Gilbert Parker conjures up in "The
+Tall Master."
+
+Paganini is described as a man of tall, gaunt figure, melancholy
+countenance and highly wrought nervous temperament. His successors have
+all profited by his development of the violin's resources, the result of
+combined genius and labor. He was practically a pioneer in the effective
+use of chords, arpeggio passages, octaves and tenths, double and triple
+harmonics and succession of harmonics in thirds and in sixths. His long
+fingers were of invaluable service to him in unusual stretches, and his
+fondness for pizzicato passages may be traced to his familiarity with
+the twang of his father's mandolin. He shone chiefly in his own
+compositions, which were written in keys best suited to the violin.
+Students will find all that he knew of his instrument and everything he
+did in his Le Stregghe (The Witches), the Rondo de la Clochette, and the
+Carnaval de Venise, which have been handed down precisely as he left
+them in manuscript.
+
+Signora Calcagno, who at one time dazzled Italy by the boldness and
+brilliancy of her violin playing, was his pupil when she was seven
+years old. The only other person who could boast having direct
+instructions from him was his young fellow townsman, Camillo Ernesto
+Sivori (1815-1894), who was in his day a great celebrity in European
+musical centres, and who was familiar to concert-goers in this country,
+especially in Boston, during the late forties and early fifties. He was
+thought to produce a small but electric tone, and to play invariably in
+tune. To him his master willed his Stradivarius violin, besides having
+given him in life the famous Vuillaume copy of his Guarnerius, a set of
+manuscript violin studies and a high artistic ideal.
+
+A scholarly teacher and composer for the violin was the German Ludwig
+Spohr (1784-1859), who was born the same year as the wizard Paganini,
+and who, although having less scintillant genius than the weird Italian,
+is believed to have had a more beneficent influence over violin playing
+in his treatment of the instrument. He set an example of purity of style
+and roundness of tone, and raised the violin concerto to its present
+dignity. His violin school is a standard work.
+
+From the beginning of the nineteenth century to the present time the
+lists of excellent violinists have rapidly increased and heights of
+technical skill have been reached by many that would have dazzled early
+violin masters. The special tendencies of gifted leaders have divided
+players into defined schools. Among noted exponents of the French school
+may be mentioned Alard and his pupil Sarasate, Dancla and Sauret.
+Charles August de Beriot (1802-1870) was the actual founder of the
+Belgian school whose famous members include the names of Vieuxtemps,
+Leonard, Wieniawski, Thomson and Ysaye. Ferdinand David (1810-1873),
+first head of the violin department at the Leipsic Conservatory, gave
+impulse to the German school. Among his famous pupils are Dr. Joseph
+Joachim, known as one of the musical giants of the nineteenth century;
+August Wilhelmj, the favorite of Wagner, and Carl Gaertner, who, with
+his violin has done so much to cultivate a taste for classical music in
+Philadelphia. Among the many lady violinists who have attained a high
+degree of excellence are Madame Norman Neruda, now Lady Halle, Teresina
+Tua, Camilla Urso, Geraldine Morgan, Maud Powell and Leonora Jackson.
+
+The only violinist whose memory was ever honored with public monuments
+was Ole Bull (1810-1880), who has been called the Paganini of the North.
+Two statues of him have been unveiled by his countrymen, one in his
+native city, Bergen, Norway, and one in Minneapolis, Minnesota. These
+tributes have been paid not so much to the violinist who swayed the
+emotions of an audience and who could sing a melody on his instrument
+into the hearts of his hearers, as to the patriot, the man who turned
+the eyes of the world to his sturdy little fatherland, and who gave the
+strongest impulse for everything it has accomplished in the past half
+century in art and in literature. Another patriot violinist was the
+Hungarian Eduard Remenyi (1830-1898), who first introduced Johannes
+Brahms to Liszt, and should always be remembered as the discoverer of
+Brahms.
+
+The great demand of the day in the violin field, as in that of other
+musical instruments, is for dazzling pyrotechnic feats. It has perhaps
+reached its climax in the young Bohemian Jan Kubelik, whose playing has
+been pronounced technically stupendous. In the mad rush for advanced
+technique, the soul of music it is meant to convey is, alas, too often
+forgotten.
+
+[Illustration: JENNY LIND]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+Queens of Song
+
+
+Our first queen of song was Vittoria Archilei, that Florentine lady of
+noble birth who labored faithfully with the famous "Academy" to discover
+the secret of the Greek drama. It was she who furthered the success of
+the embryo operas of Emilio del Cavalieri, late in the sixteenth
+century, and roused enthusiasm by her splendid interpretation for Jacopo
+Peri's "Eurydice," the first opera presented to the public. She was
+called "Euterpe" by her Italian contemporaries because her superb voice,
+artistic skill, musical fire and intelligence fitted her to be the muse
+of music. Her memory has been too little honored.
+
+When Lully was giving opera to France he secured the co-operation of
+Marthe le Rochois, a gifted student of declamation and song at the
+Paris Academie Royale de Musique, for whose establishment he had
+obtained letters patent in 1672. So great was his confidence in her
+judgment that he consulted her in all that pertained to his work. Her
+greatest public triumph was in his "Armide." This earliest French queen
+of song is described as a brunette, with mediocre figure and plain face,
+who had wonderful magnetism and sparkling black eyes that mirrored the
+changeful sentiments of an impassioned soul. Her acting and
+voice-control were pronounced remarkable. Her superior powers, unspoiled
+simplicity, frankness and generosity are extolled by that quaint
+historian of the opera, Dury de Noinville. On her retirement from the
+stage, in 1697, the king awarded her a pension of 1,000 livres in token
+of appreciation, and to this the Duc de Sully added 500 livres. She died
+in Paris in the seventieth year of her age, her home having long been
+the resort of eminent artists and literary people.
+
+Katherine Tofts, who made her debut in Clayton's "Arsinoe, Queen of
+Cyprus," about 1702, was the first dramatic songstress of English birth,
+and is described by Colley Cibber as a beautiful woman with a clear,
+silvery-toned, flexible soprano. Her professional career brought her
+fortune as well as fame, but was short-lived. In the height of her bloom
+her reason gave way, and although judicious treatment restored it for a
+time, she did not return to the stage. As the wife of Mr. Joseph Smith,
+art connoisseur and collector of rare books and prints, she went to
+Venice, where her husband was British Consul, and lived in much state
+until, her malady returning, it became necessary to seclude her.
+Wandering through the garden of her home she fancied herself the queen
+of former days. Steele, in the "Tattler," attributes her disorder to her
+stage habit of absorbing herself in imaginary great personages.
+
+While Mrs. Tofts reigned in Clayton's opera, Signora Francesca Margarita
+de l'Epine, a native of Tuscany, sang Italian airs before and after it.
+Tall, swarthy, brusque in manner, she had a voice and a style that made
+her famous. It was she who inaugurated the custom of giving farewell
+concerts. Meeting with brilliant success at a performance announced as
+her last appearance, "she continued," says Dr. Burney, "to sing more
+last and positively last times and never left England at all." There was
+a rivalry between the two queens of song, which being a novelty,
+furnished gossip and laughter for all London. Hughes, that "agreeable
+poet," wrote of it:
+
+    _"Music has learned the discords of the State,
+    And concerts jar with Whig and Tory hate."_
+
+Retiring in 1722 with a fortune of ten thousand pounds, Margarita
+married the learned Dr. Pepusch, who was enabled by her means to pursue
+with ease his scientific studies. In his library she found Queen
+Elizabeth's Virginal Book, and being a skilled harpsichordist, she so
+well mastered its intricacies that people thronged to her home to hear
+her play.
+
+London was divided by another pair of rival queens of song in 1725-6.
+One of these, Francesca Cuzzoni, a native of Parma, had created such a
+furore on her first appearance, three years earlier, that the opera
+directors who had engaged her for the season at two thousand guineas
+were encouraged to charge four guineas for admission, and her costumes
+were adopted by fashionable youth and beauty. Although ugly and
+ill-made, she had a sweet, clear dramatic contralto with unrivalled high
+notes, intonations so fixed it seemed impossible for her to sing out of
+tune, and a native flexibility that left unimpeded her creative fancy.
+Handel, in whose operas she sang, composed airs calculated to display
+her charms, but she, confident of her supremacy, rewarded him with
+conduct so capricious that, finding her at last intolerable, he sent to
+Italy for the noble Venetian lady, Faustina Bordoni. She was elegant in
+figure, handsome of face, had an amiable disposition, a ringing
+mezzo-soprano, with a compass from B-flat to G in altissimo, and was
+renowned for her brilliant execution, distinct enunciation, beautiful
+shake, happy memory for embellishments and fine expression.
+
+However pleased the directors may have been at first to have two popular
+songstresses, they were soon dismayed at the fierce rivalry that sprang
+up between them and was fanned to flames by Master Handel himself, who
+now composed exclusively for Faustina. By increasing the salary of her
+more tractable rival they finally disposed of Cuzzoni, who thenceforth
+through her exaggerated demands, managed to disgust her patrons wherever
+she appeared. Her reckless extravagance left her wholly destitute after
+losing her voice and her husband, Signor Sandoni, a harpsichord-maker.
+She passed her last years in Bologna, subsisting on a miserable pittance
+earned by covering buttons.
+
+Faustina married Adolphe Hasse, the German dramatic composer, and at
+forty-seven sang before Frederick the Great, who was charmed with the
+freshness of her voice. The couple lived until 1783, the one
+eighty-three, the other eighty-four years of age. Dr. Burney visited
+them when they were advanced in the seventies and found Faustina a
+sprightly, sensible old lady, with a delightful store of reminiscences,
+and her husband a communicative, rational old gentleman, quite free from
+"pedantry, pride and prejudice."
+
+Gertrude Elizabeth Mara, Germany's earliest noted queen of song, began
+her public career in 1755 as a child violinist of six, traveling with
+her father, Johann Schmaeling, a respectable musician of Hesse-Cassel. In
+London her musical gifts proved to include a phenomenal soprano voice,
+which developed a compass from G to E altissimo, unrivalled portamento
+di voce, pure enunciation and precise intonation. She became skilled in
+harmony, theory, sight-reading and harpsichord playing. When she sang,
+her glowing countenance, her supreme acting and the lights and shades of
+her voice made people forget the plainness of her features and the
+insignificance of her form and stature. Her rendering of Handel's airs,
+especially "I Know that My Redeemer Liveth," was pronounced faultless.
+
+Frederick the Great, who as soon expected pleasure from the neighing of
+a horse as from a German songstress, vanquished on hearing her,
+retained her as court singer. While in his service she became the wife
+of Jean Mara, a handsome, dissipated court violoncellist, whom she loved
+devotedly, but who led her a sorry life. Returning to London later she
+taught singing at two guineas a lesson. Upon fear being expressed that
+her price, double that of other teachers, would limit her class, she
+said her pupils having her voice as a model could learn in half the time
+required for those who had only the tinkling of a piano to imitate.
+Though she believed singing should be taught by a singer, a tenderness
+for her own experience made her insist that the best way to begin the
+musical education was by having the pupil learn to play the violin. When
+she heard a songstress extolled for rapid vocalization she would ask:
+"Can she sing six plain notes?" This question might afford young singers
+food for reflection. Madame Mara passed her declining years teaching
+singing near her native place, and died at Reval, in 1833. Two years
+earlier, on her eighty-third birthday, Goethe offered her a poetic
+tribute.
+
+At a London farewell concert given by Madame Mara in 1802, she was
+assisted by Mrs. Elizabeth Billington, who has been ranked first among
+English-born queens of song. Her pure soprano had a range of three
+octaves, from A to A, with flute-like upper tones. She sang with
+neatness, agility and precision, could detect the least false intonation
+of instrument or voice, and was attractive in appearance. Haydn
+eulogized her genius in his diary, and in the studio of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, who was painting her portrait as St. Cecilia, exclaimed: "You
+have represented Mrs. Billington listening to the angels, you should
+have made them listening to her." It was she who introduced Mozart's
+operas into England. She only lived to be forty-eight, breaking down in
+1818, from the effects of brutal treatment of her second husband, a
+Frenchman, named Felissent.
+
+Last of the eighteenth century queens of song was Angelica Catalani,
+born some forty miles from Rome in 1779, destined by her father, a
+local magistrate, for the cloister, and borne beyond its walls by her
+magnificent voice, with its compass of three octaves, from G to G. She
+is described as a tall, fair woman with a splendid presence, large blue
+eyes, features of perfect symmetry and a winning smile. So great was her
+natural facility she could rise with ease from the faintest sound to the
+most superb crescendo, could send her tones sweeping through the air
+with the most delicious undulations, imitating the swell and fall of a
+bell, and could trill like a bird on each note of a chromatic passage.
+She dazzled her listeners, but left the heart untouched.
+
+Her domestic life was a happy one, and her husband, Captain de
+Vallebregue, adored her, although he knew so little about music that
+once when she complained that the piano was too high he had six inches
+cut off its legs. Surrounded by adulation at home and abroad, her
+self-conceit became inordinate, tempting her to the most absurd feats of
+skill. Her excessive love of display and lack of artistic judgment and
+knowledge finally led her so far astray in pitch that she lost all
+prestige. After seventeen years of retirement, she died of cholera in
+1849, in Paris. A few days before she was stricken with the dire
+epidemic Jenny Lind sought and received her blessing.
+
+A queen of song who profoundly impressed her age was Giuditta Pasta,
+born near Milan in 1798, of Hebrew parentage. For her Bellini wrote "La
+Sonnambula" and "Norma," Donizetti his "Anna Bolena," Pacini his
+"Niobe," and she was the star of Rossini's leading operas of the time.
+Her voice, a mezzo-soprano, at first unequal, weak, of slender range and
+lacking flexibility, acquired, through her wonderful genius and industry
+a range of two octaves and a half, reaching D in altissimo, together
+with a sweetness, a fluency, and a chaste, expressive style. Although
+below medium height, in impassioned moments she seemed to rise to
+queenly stature. Both acting and singing were governed by ripe judgment,
+profound sensibility and noble simplicity. She died at Lake Como in
+1865.
+
+So many queens of song have reigned from the beginning of the
+nineteenth century to the present time that only a few brilliant names
+may here be mentioned. Among these Henrietta Sontag was the greatest
+German singer of the first half of the century. A distinguished traveler
+tells of having found her when she was eight years old, in 1812, sitting
+on a table, where her mother had placed her, and singing the grand aria
+of the Queen of the Night from the "Magic Flute," her voice, "pure,
+penetrating and of angelic tone," flowing as "unconsciously as a limpid
+rill from the mountain side." At fifteen she made her regular debut, and
+we are told that she sang "with the volubility of a bird." During her
+four years at the Conservatory of Prague she had won the prize in every
+class of vocal music, piano and harmony.
+
+Acquitting herself with ease in both German and Italian, and being
+exceedingly versatile, she won equal renown in the operas of Weber,
+Mozart, Rossini, and Donizetti. Paris, in special, marveled at the
+little German who could give satisfaction in Grand Opera. Her voice, a
+pure soprano, reached to D in alt., with upper notes like silvery
+bell-tones, and its natural pliability was cultivated by taste and
+incessant study. She was of medium stature, elegant form, with light
+hair, fair complexion and soft, expressive blue eyes that lent an
+enchantment to features that were not otherwise striking. In demeanor
+she was artless, unaffected and ladylike. Romantic stories were
+continually in circulation regarding suitors for her hand. As the wife
+of Count Rossi, an attache of the Sardinian legation, she retired to
+private life in 1830, and passed many happy years with her husband in
+various capitols of Europe. When, in 1848, owing to financial shipwreck,
+she returned to the stage her voice still charmed by its exquisite
+purity, spirituelle quality and supreme finish. In 1852 she came to
+America and created an immense furore in the musical and fashionable
+world. She died of cholera in Mexico in 1854.
+
+Born the same year as Madame Sontag was Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient,
+one of the world's noblest interpreters of German opera and German
+Lieder, although surpassed by others in vocal resources. She grew up on
+the stage, and was trained by her father, Friedrich Schroeder, a baritone
+singer, and her mother, Sophie Schroeder, known as the "Siddons of
+Germany." Her dramatic soprano was capable of producing the most tender,
+powerful, truthful and intensely thrilling effects, although it was not
+specially tractable and was at times even harsh. It was she who by her
+magnificent interpretation of Leonore, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," first
+revealed the beauty of the part to the public. In Wagner's operas she
+appeared as Senta, in the "Flying Dutchman"; Venus, in "Tannhaeuser," and
+actually created the role of Adriano Colonna, in "Rienzi." Goethe, who
+had earlier failed to appreciate Schubert's matchless setting to his
+"Erl King," when he heard Madame Schroeder-Devrient sing it, exclaimed:
+"Had music instead of words been my vehicle of thought, it is thus I
+should have framed the legend." She died in 1860.
+
+Full of caprice, radiating the fire of genius, wayward and playful as a
+child, Maria Felicita Malibran swept like a dazzling meteor across the
+musical firmament. M. Arthur Pougin thus epitomizes her story:
+
+"Daughter of a Spaniard, born in France, married in America, died in
+England, buried in Belgium. Comedienne at five, married at seventeen,
+dead at twenty-eight--immortal. Beautiful, brilliant, gay as a ray of
+sunlight, with frequent shadings of melancholy; heart full of warmth and
+abandon; devoted to the point of sacrifice; courageous to temerity;
+ardent for pleasure as for work; with a will and energy indomitable. A
+singer without a peer, and a lyric tragedienne capable of exciting the
+instinctive enthusiasm of the masses and the reasonable admiration of
+connoisseurs. Pianist, composer, poet, she drew and painted with taste;
+spoke fluently five languages; was expert in all feminine work, skilled
+in sport and outdoor exercises, and possessed of a striking originality.
+Such was Malibran in part, for the whole could never be expressed."
+
+Her genius developed under the iron control of her father, Manuel del
+Popolo Garcia, who compelled to submission her seemingly intractable
+voice until it became sonorous, superb, a brilliant and fascinating
+contralto, with a range of over three octaves, reaching E in alt. Her
+own indomitable will and exceptional artistic intelligence were prime
+factors in the training. In her heart-searching tones and passionate
+acting her glowing soul was felt. When she was but seventeen, her
+father, seeking an ideal climate, started with his family for Mexico. In
+New York she contracted her unfortunate marriage with the French banker,
+M. Malibran. She soon returned to Paris and the stage, and later having
+obtained a divorce, married the famous violinist De Beriot, with whom
+she had a brief but happy union.
+
+Madame Malibran was said to be equally at home in any known school of
+her time. Mozart and Cimarosa, Boieldieu and Rossini, Cherubini and
+Bellini were all grasped with the same sympathetic comprehension. Sontag
+was her rival, Pasta was yet in the height of her fame, but no contrasts
+whatever dimmed the glory of Malibran. A rare personal charm added to
+her artistic graces. Mr. Chorley describing her, in his recollections,
+said that she was better than beautiful, insomuch as a "speaking Spanish
+human countenance by Murillo is ten times more fascinating than many a
+faultless face such as Guido could paint." When her death was announced,
+in 1836, Ole Bull, who had known her well, exclaimed: "I cannot realize
+it. A woman with a soul of fire, so highly endowed, so intense. How I
+wept on seeing her as Desdemona! It is not possible she is dead."
+
+Pauline Garcia, thirteen years younger than her remarkable sister, and
+with a voice similar in quality, also did justice to her father's
+rigorous discipline and became famous. She married M. Viardot, opera
+director and critic, and after a brilliant career as a singer, gave long
+and valuable service as a vocal teacher in Paris. She remained in the
+full tide of her activity until she was long past the allotted
+threescore years and ten. It is an interesting fact that Madame Mathilde
+Marchesi, author of a noted vocal method, 24 books of Vocalises, a
+volume of reminiscences, and other works, and once famed as a singer,
+is only five years younger than Madame Viardot-Garcia, but at
+seventy-six is still teaching--still shining as an authority on the art
+of song. Singers seem often to have been long-lived. In truth, there is
+that in music which is life-giving.
+
+A songstress whose name will always be mentioned in the same breath with
+that of the tenor Mario, who became her husband, and with whom she
+toured the United States in 1854, was Giulia Grisi. She was born in
+Milan in 1812, made her debut at sixteen, and had an undisputed reign of
+over a quarter of a century. Her voice, a pure soprano of finest
+quality, brilliant and vibrating, spanned two octaves, from C to C. She
+possessed the gift of beauty, and was said to unite the tragic
+inspiration of Pasta with the fire and energy of Malibran. A favorite
+role with her was that of the Druid priestess in "Norma." Her delivery
+of "Casta Diva" was said to be a transcendant effort of vocalization.
+
+Living to-day in London at the advanced age of ninety-seven is the elder
+brother of Malibran and Viardot-Garcia, Manuel Garcia, the inventor of
+the laryngoscope, author of the renowned "Art of Song," and teacher of
+Jenny Lind. It was in 1841 that the ever-beloved Swedish Nightingale,
+then twenty-one years old, sought him in Paris, with a voice worn from
+over-exertion and lack of proper management. In ten months she had
+gained all that master could teach her in tone production, blending of
+the registers and breath-control. Her own genius, her splendid
+individuality, her indefatigable perseverance, did the rest in investing
+her dramatic soprano with that sympathetic timbre, that power of
+expressing every phase of her artistic conception, that bird-like
+quality of the upper notes, that marvelous beauty and equality of the
+entire range of two octaves and three quarters (from B below the stave
+to G on the fourth line), that exquisite sonority, that penetrating
+pianissimo, that unrivalled messa di voce, that mastery over technique
+of which so much has been written and said.
+
+Jenny Lind was to Sweden what Ole Bull was to Norway, the inspirer of
+noble achievement. The faithful interpreter of the acknowledged
+masterpieces of genius in opera, oratorio and song, she also freely
+poured forth in gracious waves the poetic, the rugged, and the
+exquisitely polished lays of the Northland, making them known for the
+first time to thousands of people. It was through her pure and noble
+womanhood, quite as much as through her artistic excellence that she
+swayed the public and left so deep and enduring an impression. True to
+the backbone in her artistic allegiance, she believed that art, the
+expression and embodiment of the spiritual principle animating it, could
+not fail to elevate to a high spiritual and moral standard the genuine
+artist.
+
+She had lived thirty-five happy years with her husband, Mr. Otto
+Goldschmidt, pianist, conductor and composer, who still survives her,
+when death overtook her at their home on the Malvern Hills, November 2,
+1887. When the end drew near, one of her daughters threw open the window
+shutters to admit the morning sun. As it came streaming into the room,
+Jenny Lind uplifted her voice, and it rang out firm and clear as she
+sang the opening measures of Schumann's glorious "To the Sunshine." The
+notes were her last. A bust of her was unveiled in Westminster Abbey in
+1894.
+
+A Swedish songstress with a powerful, well-trained voice, who before
+Jenny Lind won operatic laurels in foreign lands, was Henrietta
+Nissen-Saloman, also a pupil of Garcia. Later, the brilliant Swedish
+soprano, Christine Nilsson, with a voice of wonderful sweetness and
+beauty, reaching with ease F in alt., with the most thorough skill in
+vocalization, with dramatic intuitions, expressive powers and magnetic
+presence, charmed the public on two continents in such roles as
+Marguerite, Mignon, Elsa, Ophelia and Lucia. She, too, bore through the
+world with her the northern songs she had learned to cherish in
+childhood.
+
+Still another delightful dramatic soprano from the land of Jenny Lind is
+Sigrid Arnoldson, who has a beautiful voice, winning personality, and
+pronounced musical intelligence. She is still in her prime.
+
+When the name of Adelina Patti is mentioned, we always think of long
+enduring vocal powers, many farewells and high prices. Catalani, in her
+full splendor, earned about $100,000 a season. Malibran's profits for
+eighty-five concerts at La Scala ran to $95,000. Jenny Lind received
+$208,675 for ninety-five concerts under Barnum's management. Patti has
+had as much as $8,395 for one performance, and long received a fee of
+$5,000 a night. In coloratura roles she has been pronounced the greatest
+singer of her time, both in opera and concert. Her voice, noted for its
+wide compass, exceeding sweetness, marvelous flexibility and perfect
+equality, has been so wonderfully well cared for that even now, in her
+sixtieth year, she enjoys singing, although she rarely appears in
+public. Her sister, Carlotta, was also a coloratura vocalist of
+exquisite technique.
+
+Queens of song now pass in swift review before the mind's eye. We recall
+Marietta Alboni, the greatest contralto of the middle of the last
+century, with a voice rich, mellow, liquid, pure and endowed with
+passionate tenderness, the only pupil of Rossini; Theresa Tietiens, with
+her mighty dramatic soprano, whose tones were softer than velvet, and
+her noble acting; Marie Piccolomini, a winning mezzo-soprano; Parepa
+Rosa, with her sweet, strong voice and imposing stage presence; Pescha
+Leutner, the star of 1856; Louisa Pyne, the English Sontag; Parodi,
+pupil of Pasta; Etelka Gerster, whose beautiful soprano could fascinate
+if it could not awe; Pauline Lucca, whose originality, artistic
+temperament and intelligence placed her in the front rank of dramatic
+sopranos, and many others.
+
+Amalie Materna, dramatic soprano at the Vienna Court Theatre from 1869
+to 1896, with great musical and dramatic intelligence, with a voice of
+remarkable compass, volume, richness and sustaining power, vibrant with
+passionate intensity, and with a noble stage presence, proved to be
+Wagner's ideal Bruennhilde and introduced the role at Bayreuth in 1876.
+She was also the creator of Kundry at the same place in 1882. She
+aroused unbounded enthusiasm as Elizabeth in "Tannhaeuser," and as Isolde
+in "Tristan and Isolde." She is not forgotten by those who heard her in
+various cities of this country.
+
+The same may be said of Marianne Brandt, who sang the part of Kundry at
+the second "Parsifal" representation at Bayreuth, having been Frau
+Materna's alternate in 1882. With her superbly rich, deep-toned voice
+and her splendid vocal and dramatic control she thrilled her audiences
+in her Wagnerian roles, in Beethoven's "Fidelio," and in all she
+attempted, whether in opera or concert. She was a magnificent
+horsewoman, and was perhaps the only Bruennhilde who was able to give
+full play on the stage to her Valkyrie charger. It is told by an eye
+witness that before a first appearance in a German city she was borne
+furiously on the stage at rehearsal by her spirited, prancing steed, and
+when she drew him up suddenly, rearing and pawing the air, near the
+footlights, the members of the orchestra dropped their instruments and
+fled affrighted. It was not long, however, before she succeeded in
+winning their confidence, and all went well at the evening performance.
+
+Six more radiant queens of song whose reign belongs to these modern
+times must be mentioned in conclusion: Sembrich, Nordica, Calve, Melba,
+Sanderson and Eames. These are but a few of the many present day rulers
+in the realms of song.
+
+Marcella Sembrich, a coloratura soprano from Galicia, has a light,
+penetrating, marvelously sweet, and exceedingly flexible voice, with an
+almost perfect vocal mechanism. As one of her admirers has said, her
+tones are as clear as silver bells, and there is something buoyant and
+jubilant in her mode of song. With her genuine art and engaging
+personality she holds her audiences entranced and, being wise enough to
+keep within her special genre, she always succeeds as an actress. She is
+a pupil of the Lampertis, father and son, studied the piano with Liszt,
+becoming an excellent interpreter of Chopin, and is no mean violinist.
+
+An American, born in Farmington, Me., Lillian Nordica pursued her vocal
+and musical studies at the New England Conservatory, in Boston, and
+after much experience in church, concert and oratorio singing, studied
+for the opera in Milan, under Signor Sangiovanni. She made her operatic
+debut at Brescia in "Traviata," and in Paris as Marguerite, in "Faust."
+Her superb, liquid soprano is pure, smooth and equal throughout its
+entire large compass. She combines feeling with that artistic
+understanding which regulates it, and has been pronounced one of the
+most conscientious and intelligent singers of the day. An admirable
+actress and extremely versatile, she has been successful in Mozart's
+operas, and has won high renown in her Wagnerian roles.
+
+Emma Calve, a Spaniard, possessed of all a Spaniard's fire, thrills,
+bewilders, her hearers, though the more thoughtful among them wonder if
+they were not moved rather by her tremendous passionate force and
+powerful magnetism than by her vocal and histrionic art. Her voice is
+superb, yet she often loses a vocal opportunity for dramatic effect,
+often mars its beauty in the excitement that tears a passion to
+tatters. Withal there is a charm to her singing that can never be
+forgotten by those who have heard it. Her first triumph was won as the
+interpreter of Santuzza, in "Cavalleria Rusticana," Mascagni himself
+preparing her for the role. She next created a furore as Carmen, and
+with her fascinating gestures, complete abandon, grace, and dazzling
+beauty made the part one of the most original and bewitching
+impersonations on the stage.
+
+The Australian, Nellie Melba, who takes her stage name from Melbourne,
+her birthplace, has been compared to Patti as a vocal technician. Her
+voice is divine, but she seems powerless to animate her brilliant
+singing with the warmth that glows in her eyes. As an actress she
+completely veils whatever emotions she may feel, and while her marvelous
+vocalization overwhelms her audiences, she meets with her greatest
+triumphs in operas that make the least demands on the dramatic powers.
+
+Massenet wrote the title roles of his "Esclarmonde" and his "Thais" for
+a California girl, Sybil Sanderson, and himself trained her for their
+stage presentation. Her success was assured when she made her debut in
+the first-named opera at the Opera Comique, in Paris, in 1889. She has a
+voice of that light, pure, flexible quality so characteristic of our
+countrywomen, and is an admirable actress. She is a pupil of Madame
+Marchesi.
+
+Another distinguished pupil of the same teacher is Emma Eames, who was
+born in China of New England parents, and was educated in Boston and in
+Paris. Her voice too is exceedingly flexible, is fresh, pure and clear,
+her intonations are correct and her personality most attractive. She has
+been very successful in Wagnerian roles, makes a superb Elsa, and, in
+the "Meistersinger," an ideal Eva. During her early years on the stage
+her extreme calmness amounted almost to aggravating frigidity, but with
+time she has thawed. She may well be considered a conscientious artist
+endowed with rare musical intuition.
+
+There is no possession more perishable, more delicate, than the human
+voice. When one considers the joy it is capable of shedding about it,
+the blessings that may follow in its train, it seems sad to think of the
+reckless waste caused by its neglect and mismanagement. Its life is
+brief enough at best. Let it be cherished to the utmost.
+
+In America where there are to-day more fine voices among women than in
+any other country and where time and means are so freely expended on the
+musical education of girls, the twentieth century should produce nobler
+queens of song than the world has yet known. First, the American girl
+must learn that the real things of life are more to be prized than false
+semblances, and that genuine musical culture resting on a foundation
+built with painstaking care and consecrated artistic zeal, is of far
+higher and more enduring value than the most dazzling feats of display
+which lack solid, intrinsic support.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+The Opera and Its Reformers
+
+
+The evolution of the drama is intimately associated with that of music
+and both are inseparably entwined with the unfolding of the spiritual
+life of the human race. Man is essentially dramatic by nature, and both
+history and tradition show it to have been among his earliest instincts
+to express his inner emotions by action and song.
+
+From this tendency arose the Greek religious drama. We find it in
+legendary times at the altar of Dionysus, master of the resources of
+vitality, in whose train followed the Muses, actual leaders and
+conductors of human existence. At seed-time and harvest festivals a rude
+chorus, grouped about the altar, told the story of the god's wanderings
+and adventures, in simple words, accompanied by gesture, dance and
+music. This expression of thought and feeling mirrored the emotions of
+the worshipers, kindled the imagination, and strengthened the innate
+instinct for freedom. Gradually the narrative detaching itself from the
+choral parts fell to individual singers, the acting became more and more
+a distinct feature of the occasion, ever increasing dramatic quality
+characterized the song, and the materials were at hand for the Greek
+drama so fruitful to us in its results.
+
+Greek poetry, in its matchless beauty, may still be enjoyed by all who
+have powers of literary appreciation. Of Greek music we know little
+beyond the theories which form the basis for modern musical science and
+the fact that it was highly esteemed. Aristotle tells us that it was an
+essential element in Greek stage plays and their greatest embellishment.
+Both AEschylus and Sophocles were practical musicians and composed music
+for their dramas. Euripides, less musician than poet, was at least
+able to have the music for his works prepared under his direction.
+Indeed, words, music and scenic effect were inseparably connected in the
+Greek dramas.
+
+[Illustration: CORELLI]
+
+The enthusiasm these aroused is indicated by the fact that travelers
+from distant lands undertook perilous journeys to attend the famous
+performances at Athens, often remaining in their seats twenty-four hours
+before the play began in order to secure desirable places. Fully fifty
+thousand spectators could be accommodated in the Lenaean Theatre, whose
+stage machinery would make ours seem like a toy model. Many of its
+theatrical exhibitions cost more than the Peloponnesian War.
+
+In Greek life, at the period of its glory, music and the drama were
+esteemed elevating factors in culture. The supreme things of human
+existence were pictured in them. They expressed the world-view of an
+entire people. Under Roman dominion, with its corrupting slavery, they
+degenerated into mere sources of diversion, and finally became
+associated with evil and degrading practices.
+
+For this reason and because at best they represented pagan ideals,
+theatrical representations were discouraged by the fathers of the
+primitive Christian Church. The dramatic instinct was not condemned, and
+its imperative needs were appealed to in the church service, which early
+set forth in symbols all that was too mysterious and awe-inspiring for
+words. In order further to reach the mind through the senses, scenes
+from the Scriptures were read in the churches, illustrated with living
+pictures and music. Gradually the characters personated began to speak
+and to move. The drama rose anew at the foot of the altar. Christian
+priests were its reformers, its guardians and its actors. Designed for
+the amusement as well as the instruction of the gaping multitudes, it
+was necessarily a pretty crude affair. Satan was introduced as the
+clown, and laughter was provoked at his discomfiture when routed, or at
+the destruction of those who wilfully cast themselves into his clutches.
+It is not strange that the pious and learned St. Augustine, in the
+fourth century, regretted the polished dramatic performances at
+Alexandria that in his youth had afforded him so much genuine enjoyment.
+Among the people the church play became so popular that in the course of
+time it was found necessary to erect more spacious stages in the open
+air.
+
+Thus arose the Mystery, Miracle, Morality and Passion Plays, the direct
+progenitors of the Opera and the Oratorio. The descent of the Opera may
+be traced also to another source, to the secular play which persisted in
+the face of ecclesiastical disfavor and the ban that excluded its
+players from the church sacraments.
+
+Strolling histriones, jongleurs and minstrels passed from court to
+court, appeared in castle yards, market places or village greens,
+recited, acted, sang, danced and played on musical instruments. They
+afforded a welcome means of communication with the outside world; they
+broke up the monotony of life when events were few. As modern music
+rests on the two pillars of the Gregorian chant and the folk-song, so
+the opera rests on the two pillars of the religious drama and the
+people's play.
+
+During the high tide of the revival of Greek learning in Italy, late in
+the sixteenth century, a group of the aspiring young nobility of
+Florence, gentlemen and gentlewomen, adopting the dignified name of the
+"Academy," resolved to recover the much discussed music of the Greek
+drama. The place of rendezvous was the palace of Count Bardi, a member
+of one of the oldest patrician families in Tuscany. Edifying discourse
+and laudable exercises were indulged in by the guests, among whom were
+several persons of genius and learning. The meetings were presided over
+by the host, himself a poet and composer, as well as a patron of the
+fine arts.
+
+The culture of the times demanded a higher gratification for man's
+dramatic cravings than either rude religious or secular plays afforded.
+Other music was required to depict the emotions than that of the
+contrapuntist, with its puzzling intricacies. So thought these ardent
+Hellenists, and a burning zeal possessed them to mate dramatic poetry
+with a music that would heighten and intensify its expression and
+effect. They who seek are sure to find, even if it be not always the
+object of their search. In the earnest quest of these reformers for
+dramatic truth an unexpected treasure was disclosed.
+
+Vincenzo Galilei, father of Galileo Galilei, opened the way. He was the
+active champion of monody, in which a principal melody was intoned or
+sung to the accompaniment of subordinate harmonies, believing that in
+music designed to arouse personal feeling individualism should
+predominate. The art music of the time was polyphonic, that is,
+constructed by so interweaving melodies that harmonies resulted. Of
+solos in our modern sense nothing was known beyond the folk-songs,
+instinctive outpourings of the human heart, and these learned composers
+had merely used as pegs on which to hang their counterpoint. Not content
+with giving his ideas to the world in the form of a dialogue, Galilei
+composed two musical monologues, between 1581 and 1590, one to the scene
+of Count Ugolino, in Dante's "Inferno," and one to a passage in the
+Lamentations of Jeremiah. These the chroniclers tell us he sang very
+sweetly, accompanying himself on the lute. He was also a fine performer
+on the viola.
+
+A dramatic representation at a court marriage, in 1590, in which the
+artificially constructed ecclesiastical music illy fitted the text
+lauding the bride's loveliness, gave a new impulse to the "Academy"
+efforts. Soon there was produced at court, by a company of highborn
+ladies and gentlemen, two pastoral plays: "Il Satiro" and "La
+Disperazione di Fileno," so set to music that they could be sung or
+declaimed throughout. The author of the text was Signora Laura
+Guidiccioni, of the Lucchesini family, renowned in her day for her
+poetic gifts and brilliant attainments. Signor Emilio del Cavalieri was
+the composer, and he triumphantly announced his music as that "of the
+ancients recovered," having power to "excite grief, pity, joy and
+pleasure."
+
+These two "musical dramas," as they were called, contained the germs of
+modern opera, despite their crudities of harmony and monotonous melody.
+That noble songstress, Vittoria Archilei, known as "Euterpe" among her
+Italian contemporaries, greatly enhanced the success of the new venture
+with her superb voice, artistic skill, musical fire and splendid
+intelligence. She "whose excellence in music is generally known," as we
+are told, and who was able to "draw tears from her audience" at the
+right moment, also aroused enthusiasm for a third work of a similar
+nature by the same authors, "Il Giuco della Cieco," that appeared in
+1595.
+
+Besides being the first to tell the entire story of a play musically and
+to utilize the solo, Cavalieri introduced various ornaments into vocal
+music and increased the demands on instrumentation. He did not succeed,
+however, in satisfying the Academicians with his attempt to grasp the
+medium between speech and song, and his choruses were thought tedious
+because of their employment of the intricate polyphonic style. Further
+reform was desired.
+
+This came through Jacopo Peri, maestro at the Medician court, and after
+1601 at the court of Ferrara. In studying Greek dramas, as he states in
+one of his writings, he became convinced that their musical expression
+was that of highly colored emotional speech. Closely observing diverse
+modes of utterance in daily life, he endeavored to reproduce soft,
+gentle words by half-spoken, half-sung tones, sustained by an
+instrumental bass, and to express excitement by extended intervals,
+lively tempo and suitable distribution of dissonances in the
+accompaniment. To him may be attributed the first dramatic recitative.
+It appeared in his "Daphne," a "Dramma per la Musica," written to text
+by the poet Rinuccini and privately performed at the Palazzo Corsi, in
+1597. This was actually the first opera, although the term was not
+applied to such compositions until half a century later. Several solos
+were added by the court singer, Giulio Caccini, who composed a number of
+songs for a single voice, "in imitation of Galilei," as a contemporary
+stated, "but in a more beautiful and pleasing style." Invited three
+years later to produce a similar work for the festivities attending the
+marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di Medici, Peri wrote his
+"Eurydice," and once more Signora Archilei interpreted the leading role,
+greatly to the composer's satisfaction. It was the first opera performed
+in public. The singing had a bald accompaniment of an orchestra placed
+behind the scenes and consisting of a clavicembalo, or harpsichord, a
+viola da gamba, a theorbo, or large lute, and a flute, the last being
+used to imitate Pan-pipes in the hands of one of the characters.
+
+Seven years afterward, for another court marriage, a musical drama was
+written by a man of genius who completely broke the fetters of ancient
+polyphony. This was Claudio Monteverde, then in his thirty-ninth year,
+and chapel master to the Duke of Mantua. He was the first composer to
+use unprepared chords of the seventh, dominant and diminished, and to
+emphasize passionate situations with dissonances. He invented the
+tremolo and the pizzicato, and originated the vocal duet. His keen
+dramatic sense enabled him to arouse interest through contrasts,
+conspicuously characteristic passages, and independent orchestral
+preludes, interludes and bits of descriptive tone-painting.
+
+His opera, "Orfeo," 1608, had an orchestra of two harpsichords, two bass
+viols, two violas di gamba, ten tenor viols, two little French violins,
+one harp, two large guitars, three small organs, four trombones, two
+cornets, one piccolo, one clarion and three trumpets. In "Tancredi e
+Clorinda," produced in Venice, in 1624, a string quartet indicated the
+galloping of horses, a prototype of the "Ride of the Valkyries." Like
+Abbe Liszt, he took holy orders late in life, without ceasing to
+compose. At seventy-four years of age, when the fire of his genius
+burned brightly as ever, he wrote his last opera "L'Incoronazione di
+Poppea." It may truly be said that Monteverde was the great operatic
+reformer, the Wagner, of the seventeenth century, as Gluck was of the
+eighteenth.
+
+An epoch-making event in opera history was the opening, in 1637, of the
+first public opera house in commercial Venice whose wealth afforded her
+citizens leisure to cultivate art. Soon popular demand led to the
+erection of many Italian opera-houses. At the same time growing taste
+for magnificence of stage setting and brilliant, dazzling, even
+extravagant song effects, caused neglect of Academician principles. The
+learned and gifted Neapolitan composer, Alessandro Scarlatti, father of
+the famous harpsichordist, gave an impulse in his operas, during the
+last quarter of the century, to sensuous charm and beauty of melody. He
+invested recitative with classic value, enlarged the aria, and devised
+the da capo which became a menace to dramatic truth.
+
+In France, the troubadours had borne melody into the domain of
+sentiment, and laid a solid foundation for musical growth. Adam de la
+Halle's pastoral, "Robin et Marion," was an actual prototype of the
+opera. During the seventeenth century Corneille and Moliere refined the
+dramatic taste of their compatriots. Attempts to introduce Italian opera
+only resulted in arousing a desire for an opera in accord with French
+ideals.
+
+This was gratified by Jean Battiste Lully, who had come to the French
+court from Italy in boyhood, and had risen, in 1672, from a subordinate
+position to that of chief musician. Undertaking to make reforms, he
+succeeded in giving his adopted country a national opera. He established
+the overture, gave recitative rhetorical force, added coloring to the
+orchestra, and introduced the ballet. New life was infused into the
+traditions he left when Jean Philippe Rameau, in 1733, at fifty years of
+age, wrote his first opera. He was well-known as a theorist and
+composer, and was the author of a harmony treatise in which were set
+forth the laws of chord inversions and derivations, a stroke of genius
+that hopelessly entangled him in perplexities. His instrumentation was
+more highly colored, his rhythms more varied than those of his
+predecessor, and his sincerity of purpose more evident. In common with
+other reformers he was accused of "sacrificing the pleasures of the ear
+to vain harmonic speculations." Some of his many operas were written to
+works of Racine. He died in 1764, in his eighty-first year.
+
+A century earlier the English reached the culmination of their Golden
+Age of musical productiveness in Henry Purcell, known as the most
+original genius England has produced. His dramatic powers were fostered
+by the popular masques with their gorgeous show of color and rhythm, and
+in mere boyhood he wrote music for several of them. In 1677, when only
+nineteen, he produced his first opera. He attempted no reform, but his
+instinct for the true relation between the accents of speech and those
+of melody and recitative seems to have been unerring. Saturated with
+native English melody, tingling with fertile fancy and controlled by
+education, whether he wrote for stage, church, or chamber, he evinced a
+freshness and vigor, a breezy picturesqueness and a wealth of rhythmic
+phrases and patterns, and many new orchestral devices. In 1710, fifteen
+years after his early death, the giant Handel began to dominate musical
+England, flooding the stage with operas of the Italian type and finally
+ushering in the reign of the oratorio. The delicate plant of English
+opera never took root.
+
+Italian influence had almost caused the decline of French opera when
+Christopher Willibald Gluck turned to Paris, in 1774, as its
+regenerator. In Vienna, twelve years earlier, he had already produced
+his "Orfeo," whose calm, classic grandeur seemed the embodiment of the
+Greek art spirit. His choice of subjects indicates the enterprise on
+which he had embarked. He sought simplicity, subjugation of music to
+poetic sentiment, dramatic sincerity and organic unity. His operatic
+version of Racine's "Iphigenie en Aulide" called forth unbounded
+enthusiasm in the French metropolis directly after his arrival, and led
+to the warfare with the brilliant Italian Piccini, which was as hot as
+any Wagner controversy.
+
+The homage of all time is due this man of genius for the splendid
+courage with which he attacked shams. He claimed it to be the divine
+right of the dramatic composer to have his works sung precisely as he
+had written them, and protested against the innovations that had been
+permitted to suit the caprices and gratify the vanity of singers. It was
+his idea that the Sinfonia, in other words the Overture or Prelude,
+should indicate the subject and prepare the spectators for the
+characters of the pieces, and that the instrumental coloring should be
+adapted to the mood of the situation, thus anticipating modern
+procedure. He prepared the way for the work of Cherubini, Auber, Gounod,
+Thomas, Massenet, Saint-Saens and others.
+
+In Germany, Italian opera, early introduced, long remained fashionable.
+Native dramatic tastes, once fostered by minnesingers and strolling
+players, were kept alive by the "singspiel," or song-play, composed of
+spoken dialogue and popular song, which furnished the actual beginnings
+of German national music drama. The threshold of this was reached, the
+sanctuary of its treasures unlocked, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who,
+without thought of being a reformer, unconsciously infused German spirit
+into Italian forms. It was during the last five years of his brief life,
+from 1786 to 1791, that he produced his operatic masterpieces, "The
+Marriage of Figaro," "Don Giovanni," and "The Magic Flute." His
+marvelous musical and poetic genius, supported by profound scholarship,
+led him into hitherto untried regions of expression, and to him it was
+given to bring humanity on the stage, splendidly depicting the inner
+being of each character in tones. Wagner said of him that he had
+instinctively found dramatic truth and had cast brilliant light on the
+relations of musician and poet.
+
+Ludwig van Beethoven, the great tone-poet, guided by his profound
+comprehension of the deep things of life and his active sympathies to
+absolute truthfulness in delineating human passions, made the next
+advance in his one opera, "Fidelio," written in 1805. Ranked, though it
+is, rather as a symphony for voice and orchestra than as the musical
+complement of a dramatic poem, there is nevertheless infused into some
+of its chief numbers more potent dramatic expression than is found in
+any previous opera. Thoroughly cosmopolitan in subject, it is
+nevertheless German in that its lofty earnestness of tone offers a
+protest against all shallowness and sensationalism. The entire story of
+the opera is told in tones in the overture.
+
+The next German to write overtures with a deliberate purpose to
+foreshadow what followed was Carl Maria von Weber, whose greatest opera,
+"Der Freischuetz," appeared in 1821. The initial force of the German
+romantic school, he founded his operas on romantic themes, and depicted
+in tones the things of the weird, fantastic and elfish world that
+kindled his imagination. He has been called the connecting link between
+Mozart and Wagner, and in many of his theories he anticipated the
+latter. National to the core, he embodied in his music the finest
+qualities of the folk-song, and noble tone-painter that he was he
+excelled his predecessors in his employment of the orchestra as a means
+of dramatic characterization.
+
+Richard Wagner was long regarded as the great iconoclast whose business
+it was to destroy all that had gone before him in art, but no one ever
+more profoundly reverenced Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber than he.
+The public was persistently informed that his compositions were beyond
+ordinary comprehension, and yet designed, as they were, to picture man's
+essential life, they have slowly but surely found their way to the
+popular heart. It was the very essence of his musical dramatic creed
+that to have blood in its veins and sincerity in its soul art must come
+from the people and be addressed to the people. He chose the national
+myth and hero tradition as the basis of his music-drama because of the
+universality of their content and application, and because he believed
+they reflected the German world-view. Himself he regarded as the
+Siegfried whose mission it was to slay the dragon of sordid materialism
+and awaken the slumbering bride of German art.
+
+Bach and Chopin had anticipated him in some of his most startling chord
+progressions. The motives of Bach's fugues and Beethoven's sonatas and
+symphonies, and the so-called "leading motives" of the Frenchman, Hector
+Berlioz, had preceded his "typical motives." Moreover, the orchestration
+of Berlioz had been a precursor of his orchestral tone-coloring.
+Nevertheless, everything he touched was so characteristically applied by
+him as to produce new impressions, and to emphasize the idea of music as
+a language. So peculiarly were music and poetry blended in the delicate
+tissue of his genius that one seemed inseparable from the other. United,
+he believed it to be their mission to inculcate high moral lessons of
+patriotism and love.
+
+He gave the death-blow to an opera whose sole aim is to tickle the ear.
+Many an exquisite melody of Rossini and other Italian composers will
+long continue to live, but their productions as wholes have mostly
+ceased to be satisfying to those of us who have Teutonic blood in our
+veins. The Italian opera composer who holds the highest place to-day in
+the heart of the serious musician is that grand old man of music,
+Giuseppe Verdi, whose genius enabled him to yield four times to the
+spirit of the age, during his long career, and who in his ripe old age
+endeavored to give Italy what Wagner had given the German nation.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+Certain Famous Oratorios
+
+
+About the middle of the sixteenth century, San Filippo Neri, a zealous
+Florentine priest, opened the chapel, or oratory, of his church in Rome,
+for popular hours with his congregation. His main object being "to
+allure young people to pious offices and to detain them from worldly
+pleasure," he endeavored to make the occasions attractive as well as
+edifying, and supplemented religious discourse and spiritual songs with
+dramatized versions of Biblical stories provided with suitable music.
+Associated with him in his labors for a good cause, was no less a
+composer than that great reformer of Catholic church music, Giovanni
+Pierluigi Sante da Palestrina, whose harmonies were declared by a
+music-loving Pope to be those of the celestial Jerusalem. The laudable
+enterprise proved successful. People flocked from all quarters to enjoy
+the gratuitous entertainments, and a form of sacred musical art resulted
+that derived from them its name.
+
+Roswitha, a nun of the Gandersheim cloister, in the tenth century, made
+the earliest attempt recorded to invest church plays with artistic
+worth. Her six religious dramas, written in Latin for the use and
+edification of her sister nuns, were published in a French setting, in
+1845. It was a woman, too, Laura Guidiccioni, a brilliant member of the
+Florence group of aristocratic truth-seekers in art, who wrote the text
+of the first religious musical dramatic composition to which the name
+oratorio became attached. It was set to music of a declamatory style by
+Emilio del Cavalieri, the author's collaborator in the pastoral plays
+that were really embryo operas. The title of the piece, "The
+Representation of the Body and the Soul," indicates the allegorical
+nature of the subject.
+
+Its initial performance occurred at Rome, February, 1600, in the oratory
+of San Filippo's church, Santa Maria della Vallicella. The composer had
+died some months earlier, but his minute stage directions were
+accurately observed. Behind the scenes was placed an orchestra
+comprising a double lyre, a harpsichord, a large guitar and two flutes,
+to which was added a violin for the leading part in the ritornels, that
+is, instrumental preludes and interludes. The chorus had seats assigned
+on the stage, but rose to sing, employing suitable movements and
+gestures. Time, Morality, Pleasure, and other solo characters bore in
+their hands musical instruments and seemed to play as they acted and
+declaimed their parts, while the playing actually came from the
+concealed instruments. The World, the Body and Human Life illustrated
+the transitoriness of earthly affairs by flinging away the gorgeous
+decorations they had worn when they appeared on the stage, and
+displaying their utter poverty and wretchedness in the face of death
+and dissolution. The representation ended with a ballet, danced
+"sedately and reverently" to music by the chorus.
+
+Some idea of the oratorio in its infancy may be gained from this
+description. Except that the subject had a religious bearing, it
+differed little from the opera. With Giacomo Carissimi, director of
+music at San Apollinare, Rome, from 1628 until his death, in 1674, the
+paths of the two diverged. He laid down lines that have been followed in
+the oratorio ever since. Dancing and acting were excluded by him, and
+the role of narrator introduced. His broad, simple treatment of chords
+enhanced the purity and beauty of everything he wrote, and in his hand
+recitative gained character, grace and musical expressiveness. Only a
+small portion of his epoch-making work has been preserved, but quite
+enough to make clear his title "Father of Oratorio and Cantata."
+
+His pupil, Alessandro Scarlatti, founder of the Neapolitan school and
+practically the musical dictator of Naples, from 1694 to 1725, was an
+incredibly prolific composer in almost every known species of musical
+form. His many improvements in vocal and instrumental music operated
+greatly to the advantage of the oratorio. Possessing feeling for
+orchestration to an unusual degree for his time, he grouped musical
+instruments of different timbres with marked boldness and skill, and was
+the first specially to orchestrate recitative. His genius and knowledge
+enabled him to restore counterpoint to its rightful place, and his
+oratorios show great gain in elasticity and form.
+
+Another Alessandro, he who bore the surname Stradella and was the hero
+of Flotow's opera of that name, has figured so freely in romance that it
+is not easy to separate truth from fiction in accounts of his life. Dr.
+Parry says of him that he had a remarkable instinct for choral effects,
+even piling progressions into a climax, that his solo music aims at
+definiteness of structure, that, in 1676, he used a double orchestra
+whose principal instruments were violins, and that his oratorios were
+specially significant, as he cultivated all the resources of that form
+of art. His most celebrated composition is an oratorio, "San Giovanni
+Battista," and one of the airs attached to it "Pieta Signore," a
+beautiful, symmetrical, heart-searching melody, is sung to-day, although
+it is by no means as well known as it deserves.
+
+According to tradition, its tender, worshipful strains sung in the
+church of the Holy Apostles, at Rome, by the composer himself, once
+stayed the hand of an assassin whom jealousy had prompted to slay the
+"Apollo della Musica." So Alessandro Stradella was called, because of
+his great gifts as singer and composer, and his manly beauty. A jubilant
+multitude surrounded him in life, and loud lamentation arose, when, at
+length, he fell a victim to envy and malice. Thus the graceful legend
+runs. Recent writers are trying to make us believe that the famous
+"Pieta Signore" was a later interpolation in "San Giovanni Battista,"
+and that it may be attributed to this or that composer, a century or
+more after the death of Stradella, in 1681. Unless absolute proof be
+afforded us, let us forbear from plucking this gem from his crown.
+
+Composer of fifty operas and many other works, magnificent organist and
+harpsichordist, with musical genius of a Titanic order, intellect that
+was swift, sure and keen, an indomitable will, a lofty philosophy, and a
+lordly personality, George Friedrich Handel, seemingly defeated by
+outrageous fortune, wheeled about like some invincible general whose
+business it was to win the battle and entering the field of the oratorio
+gained a colossal victory. He had for some time passed the half century
+milestone of his life when he scored his greatest achievements in this
+line, and with magic touch transformed existing materials into the
+art-form we know to-day. His "Messiah," which alone would have sufficed
+to immortalize him, was produced, in one of his herculean bursts of
+power, within twenty-three days, when he was well-advanced in his
+fifty-seventh year. It was first given to the public, in Dublin, April
+13, 1742, seven months after its completion. The enthusiasm it awakened
+was repeated when it was performed later in London. Here, indeed, the
+audience became so transported that at the opening of the Hallelujah
+chorus every one present, led by the king, rose and remained standing, a
+custom we follow to-day.
+
+Herder calls the "Messiah" a Christian epopee, in musical sounds. It is
+certainly written in the large, grand style of a noble epic, for it had
+large matters to express, and its composer regarded music as a means of
+addressing heart and soul. The theme is treated with reverence, delicacy
+and judgment, and the leading tone is that of a mighty hymn of
+rejoicing. Following an overture that is in itself a revelation, the
+opening tenor recitative, "Comfort Ye, My People," has a convincing ring
+that all is and will be well, mingled with infinite tenderness, and the
+succeeding aria, "Every Valley," is pervaded with the freshness of earth
+newly arisen amid great glory. The heart-rending desolation of
+selections like the contralto air, "He was Despised," only serves to
+accentuate the triumph of other portions. Throughout there is a warmth,
+a contrapuntal splendor, a breadth, an elasticity, a richness of
+orchestration, unknown in previous oratorio, unless in parts of some of
+the master's own works. Even in the duet and choruses remodeled from his
+chamber duets, there is that jubilant character that makes them blend
+perfectly with the great whole.
+
+Born and educated on German soil, steeped during his wanderer's years in
+the spirit of the Italian muse, and finally nourished on the cathedral
+music of England, Handel became thoroughly cosmopolitan, appropriating
+what he chose from the influences that surrounded him. The English
+regard him as one of their national glories, call him the "Saxon
+Goliath," the "Michael Angelo of music," a "Bold Briareus with a hundred
+hands," and have carved his form in enduring marble above his tomb in
+Westminster Abbey. Nothing they have said can equal the tribute paid him
+by the dying giant Beethoven, who pointing to Handel's works exclaimed:
+"There is the truth."
+
+Another lofty, yet wholly different personality, born also in 1685, is
+found in Johann Sebastian Bach, whose Passion Oratorios, a direct
+outgrowth of the Passion plays of old, furnish materials and inspiration
+for all time. Handel worked in and for the public and fought his battles
+in the great world. Bach was the lonely scholar who lived apart from
+outside turmoil and unabashed in the presence of earthly monarchs,
+reigned supreme in the tone-world. A typical Teuton, his music,
+intensely earnest, highly intellectual, contains the essence of
+Teutonism, and gives full, rich, copious expression to the inmost being
+of humanity. The spirit of Protestant Germany is embodied in his
+religious tone productions which have proved to Protestantism a tower of
+strength. His service in developing the choral alone is inestimable.
+Nothing that he has written, better represents the majesty and sublimity
+of his style than his "Saint Matthew Passion" with its surpassing
+utterances of human sorrow and infinite tenderness.
+
+In the year 1790, when Joseph Haydn had accepted an invitation to make
+a professional visit to London, his young friend, Mozart, endeavored to
+dissuade him from going on account of his age, but Haydn persisted,
+declaring that he was still active and strong. Eight years later, at
+sixty-six years of age, he wrote his celebrated oratorio "The Creation,"
+with all the vigor and sparkle of youth. The rambles of years in the
+beautiful grounds of Esterhazy had attuned his soul to communion with
+nature, and this work plainly shows his power of putting into tones the
+secrets nature revealed to him. Blissful joyousness and child-like
+naivete are among its characteristic features.
+
+The style of Beethoven as a composer of sacred music is reflected in his
+single oratorio "Christ on the Mount of Olives," that like his single
+opera stands apart, amply sufficient to prove what he was capable of
+accomplishing. Mendelssohn, in his "St. Paul" and his "Elijah," embodied
+a high ideal, building on his predecessors and attaining, especially in
+the latter, an eclectic spirit that manifests keen discrimination. The
+oratorios of Liszt, the "Christus," "St. Elizabeth" and some lesser
+works, reveal high purpose and original treatment of a revelation in
+tones of sacred events. In the oratorios of the Frenchman Gounod,
+preeminently in his "Redemption," it is interesting to find modern
+chorals based on those of the German Bach, and, in fact, as it has been
+aptly said, a modernized treatment of Bach's passion form.
+
+What may be the next step in the evolution of the oratorio it were
+difficult to estimate. Whether modern efforts can ever surpass, or even
+equal, the sublime productions in this field, or whether creative genius
+will be turned into wholly new channels, the future alone may
+determine.
+
+[Illustration: SAINT-SAENS]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+Symphony and Symphonic Poem
+
+
+That adventurous spirit, Claudio Monteverde, who nearly three hundred
+years ago made himself responsible for the first feeble utterances of an
+orchestra that tried to say something for itself, divined the
+possibilities of expression in varying combinations of tone-quality and
+gave vigorous impulse to the germ of the symphony already existing in
+the formless instrumental preludes and interludes of his predecessors
+among opera-makers. His revelation of the charm that lies in exploring
+the resources of instrumentation led to ever increasing demands on the
+orchestra. The prelude developed into the operatic overture whose
+business it became to prepare the spectator for what followed. That
+music was capable of conveying an impression in her own tone-language
+was apparent, and in due time the symphony rose majestic from the forge
+of genius.
+
+Prominent among the materials welded into it was the dance of obscure
+origin. As the vocal aria was the result of the simple folk-song
+combined with the intense craving of song's master molders for
+individual expression, so instrumental music striving to walk alone,
+without support from words, gained vital elements through the discovery
+that various phases of mental disposition might be indicated by
+alternating dance tunes differing in rhythm and movement, according to
+Nature's own law of contrasts. That unity of purpose was essential to
+the effectiveness of the diversity was instinctively discerned.
+
+The touch of authority was given to this kind of music, during the last
+two decades of the seventeenth century, by Arcangelo Corelli when he
+presented in the camera, or private apartment, of Cardinal Ottoboni's
+palace, in Rome, his idealized dance groups, thoroughly united by
+harmony of mood, yet affording a wholly new tone-picture of this mood in
+each of several movements. These compositions were usually written for
+the harpsichord and perhaps three instruments of the viol order, the
+master himself playing the leading melody on the violin. He called them
+sonatas from sonare, to sound, a name originally applied to any piece
+that was sounded by instruments, not sung by the human voice. They
+prefigured the solo sonata, the entire class of chamber music named from
+the place where they were performed, and the symphony which is a sonata
+for the orchestra. Absolute music was set once for all on the right path
+by them. They ushered in a new era of Art.
+
+Purcell, in England, Domenico Scarlatti and Sammartini, in Italy, the
+Bachs, in Germany, and others continued to fashion the sonata form. It
+ceased to be a mere grouping of dances, the name suite being applied to
+that, and struck out into independent excursions in the domain of
+fancy. The prevailing melody of its monophonic style proved suitable to
+furnish a subject for the most animated discussion. Three contrasting
+movements were adopted, comprising a summons to attention, an appeal to
+both intellect and emotions, and a lively reaction after excitement.
+
+A German critic has jocosely remarked that the early writers meant the
+sonata to show first what they could do, second what they could feel,
+and third how glad they were to have finished. Time vastly increased its
+importance. Two subjects, a melody in the tonic, another usually in the
+dominant, came to set forth the exposition of the opening movement,
+leading to a free development, with various episodes, and an assured
+return to the original statement. The prevailing character being thus
+defined, the story readily unfolds, aided by related keys, in a slow
+movement and perhaps a minuet or scherzo, and gains its denouement in a
+stirring finale, written in the original key. Each movement has its own
+subjects, its individual development, with harmony of plan and idea for
+a bond of union.
+
+The name symphony, from sinfonia, a consonance of sounds, applied
+originally to any selection played by a full band and later to
+instrumental overtures, was given by Joseph Haydn to the orchestral
+sonata form inaugurated by him. His thirty years of musical service to
+the house of Esterhazy, with an orchestra increasing from 16 to 24
+pieces to experiment on, as the solo virtuoso experiments on piano or
+violin, brought him wholly under the spell of the instruments. Their
+individual characteristics afforded him continually new suggestions in
+regard to tone-coloring, and he rose often to audacity, for his time, in
+his harmonic devices. Grace and spirit, originality of invention, joyous
+abandon, a fancy controlled by a studious mind, a profusion of quaint
+humor and a proper division of light and shade, combine to give the
+dominant note to his music. His symphonies recall the fairy tale, with
+its sparkling "once upon a time," and yet like it are not without their
+mysterious shadows. In everything he has written is felt that faculty
+of smiling amid grief and disappointment and pain that made Haydn, the
+Father of the Symphony, exclaim in his old age, "Life is a charming
+affair."
+
+With Mozart, whose life-work began after, but ended before that of
+Haydn, influencing and being influenced by the latter, the symphony
+broadened in scope and grew richer in warmth of melodious expression,
+definiteness of plan and completeness of form. His profoundly poetic
+musical nature, with its high capacity for joy and sorrow and infinite
+longing, was reflected in all that he wrote. By means of a generous
+employment of free counterpoint, in other words a kind of polyphony in
+which the various voices use different melodies in harmonious
+combination, he gained a potent auxiliary in his cunning workmanship,
+and emphasized the folly of rejecting the contrapuntal experiences, of,
+for instance, a Sebastian Bach. Musical instruments, as well as musical
+materials, were his servants in developing the glowing fancies of his
+marvelously constructive brain. The crowning glory of his graceful
+perfection of outline and detail is the noble spirit of serenity which
+illumines all its beauty.
+
+Beethoven further advanced the technique of the symphony, and proved its
+power to "strike fire from the soul of man." Varying his themes while
+repeating them, adding spice to his episodes and working out his entire
+scheme with consummate skill, he was able to construct from a motive of
+a few notes a mighty epic tone-poem. He translated into superb
+orchestral pages the dreams of the human heart, the soul's longing for
+liberty and all the holiest aspirations of the inner being. He discussed
+in tones problems of man's life and destiny, ever displaying sublime
+faith that Fate, however cruel, is powerless to crush the spiritual
+being, the real individuality. His conflicts never fail to end in
+triumph. Well may it be said that the ultimate purpose of a symphony of
+Beethoven is to tell of those things from the deepest depths of which
+events are mere shadows, and that as high feeling demands lofty
+utterance his tonal forms are inevitably worthy of their contents.
+
+Twenty-six years younger than Beethoven Schubert lived but a year after
+he had passed away and died in 1828, two years later than Weber, and
+felt the glow of the spirit of romanticism. From the perennial fount of
+song within his breast there streamed fresh melodious strains through
+his symphonies, the ninth and last of which, the C major, ranks him with
+the great symphonists. Intense poetic sentiment, dreamy yet strong
+musical individuality, romantic fulness of plan to embody in tones the
+passionate emotions of a storm and stress period, and much originality
+of orchestral treatment characterize the symphonies of Schumann. He
+rises to towering heights in some passages, but in his daring
+explorations through the tone-world he is often betrayed into a
+vagueness of form, largely traceable perhaps to lack of early technical
+discipline, as well as to lack of mental clarity. Ultra romanticism was
+foreign to the nature and repulsive to the tastes of the refined,
+elegant Mendelssohn, yet in spite of himself its influence crept gently
+into his polished works. As a symphonist he displayed fertility in
+picturesque sonorities, facility in tracing the outlines and filling in
+the details of form, keen sense of balance of orchestral tone, thorough
+scientific knowledge of his materials, and, as some one has said, became
+all but a master in the highest sense. His overtures are unquestionably
+romantic, and as their histrionic and scenic titles indicate, partake of
+the nature of programme music.
+
+This brings us to Hector Berlioz, the famous French symphonist, the
+exponent par excellence of programme music, that is, music intended to
+illustrate a special story. He lived from 1803 to 1869, and because of
+his audacity in using new and startling tonal effects was called the
+most flagrant musical heretic of the nineteenth century. He was the
+first to impress on the world the idea of music as a definite language.
+His recurrent themes, called "fixed ideas," prefigured Wagner's "leading
+motives." His skill in combining instruments added new lustre to
+orchestration. The personal style he created for himself was the result
+of his studies of older masterpieces, above all those of Gluck which he
+knew by heart, and of his philosophic researches. His four famous
+symphonic works are: "Fantastic Symphony," "Grand Funeral and Triumphal
+Symphony," "Harold in Italy" and "Romeo and Juliet." In a preface to the
+first he thus explains his ideas: "The plan of a musical drama without
+words, requires to be explained beforehand. The programme (which is
+indispensable to the perfect comprehension of the work) ought therefore
+to be considered in the light of the spoken text of an opera, serving to
+lead up to the piece of music, and indicate the character and
+expression."
+
+From programme music came the symphonic poem of which Franz Liszt was
+the creator. Although he found this culmination of the romantic ideal in
+the field of instrumental music in his maturer years, he displayed in it
+the full power of his genius. His great works in this line are a "Faust
+Symphony," "Les Preludes," "Orpheus," "Prometheus," "Mazeppa" and
+"Hamlet." Symphonic in form, although less restricted than the symphony,
+these works are designed to give tone-pictures of the subjects
+designated, or at least of the moods they awaken. "Mazeppa," for
+instance, is described as depicting in a wild movement, rising to
+frenzy, the death ride of the hero, a brief andante proclaims his
+collapse, the following march, introduced by trumpet fanfares and
+increasing to the noblest triumph, his elevation and coronation.
+
+Camille Saint-Saens, without doubt the most original and intellectual
+modern French composer, who at sixty-seven years of age is still in the
+midst of his activity, and who has made his own the spirit of the
+classic composers, owes to the symphonic poem a great part of his
+reputation, and has also written symphonies of great value. His
+orchestration is distinguished by its clarity, power and exquisite
+coloring. The orchestral music of Tschaikowsky, who died in 1893,
+symphonies and symphonic poems, are saturated with the glowing Russian
+spirit, are intensely dramatic, sometimes rising to tempestuous bursts
+of passion that are only held in check by the composer's scholarly
+control of his materials. A strong national flavor is also felt in the
+work of Christian Sinding, the Norwegian, whose D minor symphony has
+been styled "a piece born of the gloomy romanticism of the North."
+Edward Grieg, known as the incarnation of the strong, vigorous, breezy
+spirit of the land of the midnight sun, has put some of his most
+characteristic work into symphonic poems and orchestral suites. The
+first composer to convey a message from the North in tones to the
+European world was Gade, the Dane, known as the Symphony Master of the
+North, who was born in 1817 and died in 1890.
+
+It is impossible to mention in a brief essay all the great workers in
+symphonic forms. One Titanic spirit, Johannes Brahms, (1833-1897) who
+succeeded in striking the dominant note of musical sublimity amid modern
+unrest, is reserved for our final consideration. Of him Schumann said,
+"This John is a prophet who will also write revelations," and he has
+revealed to those who can read that high art is the abiding-place of
+reason, that it is moreover compounded of profundity of feeling yoked
+with profundity of intellectual mastery. Dr. Riemann writes of him,
+"From Bach he inherited the depth, from Haydn, the humor, from Mozart,
+the charm, from Beethoven, the strength, from Schubert, the intimateness
+of his art. Truly a wonderfully gifted nature that was able to absorb
+such a fulness of great gifts and still not lose the best of gifts--the
+strong individuality which makes the master."
+
+Wonderful is the power of instrumental music, absolute music without
+words, that may convey impressions, deep and lasting, no words could
+give. All hail to the memory of Johannes Brahms, who has reminded us of
+its true mission and delivered a message that will ring through the
+twentieth century.
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:  In the caption for the illustration featuring
+Ms. Nordica, the spelling of her first name was corrected from "Lilian"
+to "Lillian."]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's For Every Music Lover, by Aubertine Woodward Moore
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