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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18279-8.txt b/18279-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c022e41 --- /dev/null +++ b/18279-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2895 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Composition of Indian Geographical Names, by +J. Hammond Trumbull + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Composition of Indian Geographical Names + Illustrated from the Algonkin Languages + +Author: J. Hammond Trumbull + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18279] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMPOSITION OF INDIAN *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Canadian Institute for +Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org).) + + + + + + + + + +THE COMPOSITION OF + +INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, + +ILLUSTRATED FROM THE + +ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. + + +BY J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL. + + +PRESS OF +CASE, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARD, +Hartford, Conn. + +[Transcriber's Note: Published 1870] + + + * * * * * + +[Transcriber's Note: The original book contains some diacriticals that +are represented in this e-text as follows: + + 1. A macron is represented by an =, e.g. [=a] + + 2. A breve is represented by a ), e.g., [)a] + + 3. [n] represents a superscripted n (see Footnote 4). + + 4. [oo] represents an oo ligature (see Footnote 4.)] + + * * * * * + + +ON THE COMPOSITION OF + +INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. + + +A proper name has been defined to be "a mere mark put upon an +individual, and of which it is the characteristic property _to be +destitute of meaning_."[1] If we accept this definition, it follows +that there are no proper names in the aboriginal languages of America. +Every Indian synthesis--names of persons and places not excepted--must +"preserve the consciousness of its roots," and must not only have a +meaning but be so framed as to convey that meaning with precision, to +all who speak the language to which it belongs. Whenever, by phonetic +corruption or by change of circumstance, it loses its +self-interpreting or self-defining power, it must be discarded from +the language. "It requires tradition, society, and literature to +maintain forms which can no longer be analyzed at once."[2] In our own +language, such forms may hold their places by prescriptive right or +force of custom, and names absolutely unmeaning, or applied without +regard to their original meaning, are accepted by common consent as +the distinguishing marks of persons and places. We call a man William +or Charles, Jones or Brown,--or a town, New Lebanon, Cincinnati, Baton +Rouge, or Big Bethel--just as we put a number on a policeman's badge +or on a post-office box, or a trademark on an article of merchandise; +and the number and the mark are as truly and in nearly the same sense +proper names as the others are. + +[Footnote 1: Mill's Logic, B. I. ch. viii.] + +[Footnote 2: Max Müller, Science of Language, (1st Series,) p. 292.] + +Not that personal or proper names, in any language, were _originally_ +mere arbitrary sounds, devoid of meaning. The first James or the first +Brown could, doubtless, have given as good a reason for his name as +the first Abraham. But changes of language and lapse of time made the +names independent of the reasons, and took from them all their +significance. Patrick is not now, _eo nomine_, a 'patrician;' Bridget +is not necessarily 'strong' or 'bright;' and in the name of Mary, +hallowed by its associations, only the etymologist can detect the +primitive 'bitterness.' Boston is no longer 'St. Botolph's Town;' +there is no 'Castle of the inhabitants of Hwiccia' +(_Hwic-wara-ceaster_) to be seen at Worcester; and Hartford is neither +'the ford of harts,' (which the city seal has made it,) nor 'the red +ford,' which its name once indicated. + +In the same way, many Indian geographical names, after their adoption +by Anglo-American colonists, became unmeaning sounds. Their original +character was lost by their transfer to a foreign tongue. Nearly all +have suffered some mutilation or change of form. In many instances, +hardly a trace of true original can be detected in the modern name. +Some have been separated from the localities to which they belonged, +and assigned to others to which they are etymologically inappropriate. +A mountain receives the name of a river; a bay, that of a cape or a +peninsula; a tract of land, that of a rock or a waterfall. And so +'Massachusetts' and 'Connecticut' and 'Narragansett' have come to be +_proper names_, as truly as 'Boston' and 'Hartford' are in their +cis-Atlantic appropriation. + +The Indian languages tolerated no such 'mere marks.' Every name +_described_ the locality to which it was affixed. The description was +sometimes _topographical_; sometimes _historical_, preserving the +memory of a battle, a feast, the dwelling-place of a great sachem, or +the like; sometimes it indicated one of the _natural products_ of the +place, or the _animals_ which resorted to it; occasionally, its +_position_ or _direction_ from a place previously known, or from the +territory of the nation by which the name was given,--as for example, +'the land on the other side of the river,' 'behind the mountain,' 'the +east land,' 'the half-way place,' &c. The same name might be, in fact +it very often was, given to more places than one; but these must not +be so near together that mistakes or doubts could be occasioned by the +repetition. With this precaution, there was no reason why there might +not be as many 'Great Rivers,' 'Bends,' 'Forks,' and 'Water-fall +places' as there are Washingtons, Franklins, Unions, and Fairplays in +the list of American post-offices. + +With few exceptions, the structure of these names is simple. Nearly +all may be referred to one of three classes: + +I. Those formed by the union of two elements, which we will call +_adjectival_ and _substantival_;[3] with or without a locative suffix +or post-position meaning 'at,' 'in,' 'by,' 'near,' &c. + +[Footnote 3: These terms, though not strictly appropriate to Indian +synthesis, are sufficiently explicit for the purposes of this paper. +They are borrowed from the author of "Words and Places" (the Rev. +Isaac Taylor), who has employed them (2d ed., p. 460) as equivalents +of Förstemann's "Bestimmungswort" and "Grundwort," (_Die deutschen +Ortsnamen._ Nordhausen, 1863, pp. 26-107, 109-174). In Indian names, +the "Bestimmungswort" sometimes corresponds to the English +adjective--sometimes to a noun substantive--but is more generally an +_adverb_.] + +II. Those which have a single element, the _substantival_ or +'ground-word,' with its locative suffix. + +III. Those formed from verbs, as participials or verbal nouns, +denoting a _place where_ the action of the verb is performed. To this +class belong, for example, such names as _Mushauwomuk_ (Boston), +'where there is going-by-boat,' _i.e._, a ferry, or canoe-crossing. +Most of these names, however, may be shown by rigid analysis to belong +to one of the two preceding classes, which comprise at least +nine-tenths of all Algonkin local names which have been preserved. + +The examples I shall give of these three classes, will be taken from +Algonkin languages; chiefly from the Massachusetts or Natick (which +was substantially the same as that spoken by the Narragansetts and +Connecticut Indians), the Abnaki, the Lenni-Lenâpe or Delaware, the +Chippewa or Ojibway, and the Knisteno or Cree.[4] + +[Footnote 4: It has not been thought advisable to attempt the +reduction of words or names taken from different languages to a +uniform orthography. When no authorities are named, it may be +understood that the Massachusetts words are taken from Eliot's +translation of the Bible, or from his Indian Grammar; the +Narragansett, from Roger Williams's Indian Key, and his published +letters; the Abnaki, from the Dictionary of Râle (Rasles), edited by +Dr. Pickering; the Delaware, from Zeisberger's Vocabulary and his +Grammar; the Chippewa, from Schoolcraft (Sch.), Baraga's Dictionary +and Grammar (B.), and the Spelling Books published by the American +Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions; and the Cree, from Howse's +Grammar of that language. + +The character _[oo]_ (_oo_ in 'food;' _w_ in 'Wabash,' 'Wisconsin'), +used by Eliot, has been substituted in Abnaki words for the Greek +[Greek: ou ligature] of Râle and the Jesuit missionaries, and for the +[Greek: omega] of Campanius. A small [n] placed above the line, shows +that the vowel which it follows is _nasal_,--and replaces the ń +employed for the same purpose by Râle, and the short line or dash +placed under a vowel, in Pickering's alphabet. + +In Eliot's notation, _oh_ usually represents the sound of _o_ in +_order_ and in _form_,--that of broad _a_; but sometimes it stands for +short _o_, as in _not_.] + + * * * * * + +Of names of the _first_ class, in central and southern New England, +some of the more common substantival components or 'ground-words' are +those which denote _Land_ or _Country_, _River_, _Water_, _Lake_ or +_Pond_, _Fishing-place_, _Rock_, _Mountain_, _Inclosure_, and +_Island_. + +1. The Massachusetts OHKE (Narr. _aűke_; Delaware, _hacki_; Chip. +_ahke_; Abnaki, _'ki_;) signifies LAND, and in local names, PLACE or +COUNTRY. The final vowel is sometimes lost in composition. With the +locative suffix, it becomes _ohkit_ (Del. _hacking_; Chip. _ahki[n]_; +Abn. _kik_;) _at_ or _in_ a place or country. + +To the Narragansetts proper, the country east of Narragansett Bay and +Providence River was _wa[n]pan-auke_, 'east land;' and its people were +called by the Dutch explorers, _Wapenokis_, and by the English, +_Wampanoags_. The tribes of the upper St. Lawrence taught the French, +and tribes south of the Piscataqua taught the English, to give the +name of East-landers--_Abenaquis_, or _Abinakis_--to the Indians of +Maine. The country of the Delawares was 'east land,' _Wapanachki_, to +Algonkin nations of the west. + +The '_Chawwonock_,' or '_Chawonocke_,' of Capt. John Smith,--on what +is now known as Chowan River, in Virginia and North Carolina,--was, to +the Powhattans and other Virginian tribes, the 'south country,' or +_sowan-ohke_, as Eliot wrote it, in Gen. xxiv. 62. + +With the adjectival _sucki_, 'dark-colored,' 'blackish,' we have the +aboriginal name of the South Meadow in Hartford,--_sucki-ohke_, +(written _Sicaiook_, _Suckiaug_, &c.), 'black earth.' + +_Wuskowhanan-auk-it_, 'at the pigeon country,' was the name (as given +by Roger Williams) of a "place where these fowl breed abundantly,"--in +the northern part of the Nipmuck country (now in Worcester county, +Mass.). + +'_Kiskatamenakook_,' the name of a brook (but originally, of some +locality near the brook) in Catskill, N.Y.,[5] is +_kiskato-minak-auke_, 'place of thin-shelled nuts' (or shag-bark +hickory nuts). + +[Footnote 5: Doc. Hist. of New York (4to), vol. iii. p. 656.] + + +2. RIVER. _Seip_ or _sepu_ (Del. _sipo_; Chip. _s[=e]p[=e]_; Abn. +_sip[oo]_;) the Algonkin word for 'river' is derived from a root that +means 'stretched out,' 'extended,' 'become long,' and corresponds +nearly to the English 'stream.' This word rarely, if ever, enters into +the composition of local names, and, so far as I know, it does not +make a part of the name of any river in New England. _Mississippi_ is +_missi-sipu_, 'great river;' _Kitchi-sipi_, 'chief river' or 'greatest +river,' was the Montagnais name of the St. Lawrence;[6] and +_Miste-shipu_ is their modern name for the Moise or 'Great River' +which flows from the lakes of the Labrador peninsula into the Gulf of +St. Lawrence.[7] + +[Footnote 6: Jesuit Relations, 1633, 1636, 1640.] + +[Footnote 7: Hind's Exploration of Labrador, i. 9, 32.] + +Near the Atlantic seaboard, the most common substantival components of +river names are (1) _-tuk_ and (2) _-hanne_, _-han_, or _-huan_. +Neither of these is an independent word. They are inseparable +nouns-generic, or generic affixes. + +-TUK (Abn. _-teg[oo]é_; Del. _-ittuk_;) denotes a river whose waters +are driven _in waves_, by tides or wind. It is found in names of tidal +rivers and estuaries; less frequently, in names of _broad and deep_ +streams, not affected by tides. With the adjectival _missi_, 'great,' +it forms _missi-tuk_,--now written _Mystic_,--the name of 'the great +river' of Boston bay, and of another wide-mouthed tidal river in the +Pequot country, which now divides the towns of Stonington and Groton. + +Near the eastern boundary of the Pequot country, was the river which +the Narragansetts called _Paquat-tuk_, sometimes written _Paquetock_, +now _Pawcatuck_, 'Pequot river,'--the present eastern boundary of +Connecticut. Another adjectival prefix, _pohki_ or _pahke_, 'pure,' +'clear,' found in the name of several tidal streams, is hardly +distinguishable from the former, in the modern forms of _Pacatock_, +_Paucatuck_, &c. + +_Quinni-tuk_ is the 'long tidal-river.' With the locative affix, +_Quinni-tuk-ut_, 'on long river,'--now _Connecticut_,--was the name of +the valley, or lands both sides of the river. In one early deed +(1636), I find the name written _Quinetucquet_; in another, of the +same year, _Quenticutt_. Roger Williams (1643) has _Qunnihticut_, and +calls the Indians of this region _Quintik-óock_, i.e. 'the long river +people.' The _c_ in the second syllable of the modern name has no +business there, and it is difficult to find a reason for its +intrusion. + +'_Lenapewihittuck_' was the Delaware name of 'the river of the +Lenape,' and '_Mohicannittuck_,' of 'the river of the Mohicans' +(Hudson River).[8] + +[Footnote 8: Heckewelder's Historical account, &c., p. 33. He was +mistaken in translating "the word _hittuck_," by "a rapid stream."] + +Of _Pawtucket_ and _Pawtuxet_, the composition is less obvious; but we +have reliable Indian testimony that these names mean, respectively, +'at the falls' and 'at the little falls.' Pequot and Narragansett +interpreters, in 1679, declared that Blackstone's River, was "called +in Indian _Pautuck_ (which signifies, a Fall), because there the fresh +water falls into the salt water."[9] So, the upper falls of the +Quinebaug river (at Danielsonville, Conn.) were called "_Powntuck_, +which is a general name for all Falls," as Indians of that region +testified.[10] There was another Pautucket, 'at the falls' of the +Merrimac (now Lowell); and another on Westfield River, Mass. +_Pawtuxet_, i.e. _pau't-tuk-es-it_, is the regularly formed diminutive +of _paut-tuk-it_. The village of Pawtuxet, four miles south of +Providence, R.I., is "at the little falls" of the river to which their +name has been transferred. The first settlers of Plymouth were +informed by Samoset, that the place which they had chosen for their +plantation was called '_Patuxet_,'--probably because of some 'little +falls' on Town Brook.[11] There was another 'Pautuxet,' or 'Powtuxet,' +on the Quinebaug, at the lower falls; and a river 'Patuxet' +(Patuxent), in Maryland. The same name is ingeniously disguised by +Campanius, as '_Poaetquessing_,' which he mentions as one of the +principal towns of the Indians on the Delaware, just below the lower +falls of that river at Trenton; and 'Poutaxat' was understood by the +Swedes to be the Indian name both of the river and bay.[12] The +adjectival _pawt-_ or _pauat-_ seems to be derived from a root meaning +'to make a loud noise.' It is found in many, perhaps in all Algonkin +languages. '_Pawating_,' as Schoolcraft wrote it, was the Chippewa +name of the Sault Ste. Marie, or Falls of St. Mary's +River,--pronounced _poú-at-ing´_, or _pau-at-u[n]_, the last syllable +representing the locative affix,--"at the Falls." The same name is +found in Virginia, under a disguise which has hitherto prevented its +recognition. Capt. John Smith informs us that the "place of which +their great Emperor taketh his name" of _Powhatan_, or _Pawatan_, was +near "the Falls" of James River,[13] where is now the city of +Richmond. 'Powatan' is _pauat-hanne_, or 'falls on a rapid stream.' + +[Footnote 9: Col. Records of Connecticut, 1677-89, p. 275.] + +[Footnote 10: Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan country, 1705.] + +[Footnote 11: See Mourt's Relation, Dexter's edition, pp. 84, 91, 99. +Misled by a form of this name, _Patackosi_, given in the Appendix to +Savage's Winthrop (ii. 478) and elsewhere, I suggested to Dr. Dexter +another derivation. See his note 297, to Mourt, p. 84.] + +[Footnote 12: Descrip. of New Sweden, b. ii. ch. 1, 2; Proud's Hist. +of Pennsylvania, ii. 252.] + +[Footnote 13: "True Relation of Virginia," &c. (Deane's edition, +Boston, 1866), p. 7. On Smith's map, 1606, the 'King's house,' at +'_Powhatan_,' is marked just below "The Fales" on '_Powhatan flu:_' or +James River.] + +_Acáwmé_ or _Ogkomé_ (Chip. _agami_; Abn. _aga[n]mi_; Del. +_achgameu_;) means 'on the other side,' 'over against,' 'beyond.' As +an adjectival, it is found in _Acawm-auké_, the modern 'Accomac,' a +peninsula east of Chesapeake Bay, which was 'other-side land' to the +Powhatans of Virginia. The site of Plymouth, Mass., was called +'Accomack' by Capt. John Smith,--a name given not by the Indians who +occupied it but by those, probably, who lived farther north, 'on the +other side' of Plymouth Bay. The countries of Europe were called +'other-side lands,'--Narr. _acawmen-óaki_; Abn. _aga[n]men-[oo]ki_. +With _-tuk_, it forms _acawmen-tuk_ (Abn. _aga[n]men-teg[oo]_), +'other-side river,' or, its diminutive, _acawmen-tuk-es_ (Abn. +_aga[n]men-teg[oo]éss[oo]_), 'the small other-side river,'--a name +first given (as _Agamenticus_ or _Accomenticus_) to York, Me., from +the 'small tidal-river beyond' the Piscataqua, on which that town was +planted. + +_Peske-tuk_ (Abn. _peské-teg[oo]é_) denotes a '_divided_ river,' or a +river which another _cleaves_. It is not generally (if ever) applied +to one of the 'forks' which unite to form the main stream, but to some +considerable tributary received by the main stream, or to the division +of the stream by some obstacle, near its mouth, which makes of it a +'double river.' The primary meaning of the (adjectival) root is 'to +divide in two,' and the secondary, 'to split,' 'to divide _forcibly_, +or _abruptly_.' These shades of meaning are not likely to be detected +under the disguises in which river-names come down to our time. Râle +translates _ne-peské_, "je vas dans le chemin qui en coupe un autre:" +_peskahak[oo]n_, "branche." + +_Piscataqua_, Pascataqua, &c., represent the Abn. _peské-teg[oo]é_, +'divided tidal-river.' The word for 'place' (_ohke_, Abn. _'ki_,) +being added, gives the form _Piscataquak_ or _-quog_. There is another +_Piscataway_, in New Jersey,--not far below the junction of the north +and south branches of the Raritan,--and a Piscataway river in +Maryland, which empties into the Potomac; a _Piscataquog_ river, +tributary to the Merrimac, in New Hampshire; a _Piscataquis_ +(diminutive) in Maine, which empties into the Penobscot. _Pasquotank_, +the name of an arm of Albemarle Sound and of a small river which flows +into it, in North Carolina, has probably the same origin. + +The adjectival _peské_, or _piské_, is found in many other compound +names besides those which are formed with _-tuk_ or _-hanne_: as in +_Pascoag_, for _peské-auké_, in Burrilville, R.I., 'the dividing +place' of two branches of Blackstone's River; and _Pesquamscot_, in +South Kingston, R.I., which (if the name is rightly given) is "at the +divided (or cleft) rock,"--_peské-ompsk-ut_,--perhaps some ancient +land-mark, on or near the margin of Worden's Pond. + +_Nôeu-tuk_ (_Nóahtuk_, Eliot), 'in the middle of the river,' may be, +as Mr. Judd[14] and others have supposed, the name which has been +variously corrupted to Norwottock, Nonotuck, Noatucke, Nawottok, &c. +If so, it probably belonged, originally to one of the necks or +peninsulas of meadow, near Northampton,--such as that at Hockanum, +which, by a change in the course of the river at that point, has now +become an island. + +[Footnote 14: History of Hadley, pp. 121, 122.] + +_Tetiquet_ or _Titicut_, which passes for the Indian name of Taunton, +and of a fishing place on Taunton River in the north-west part of +Middleborough, Mass., shows how effectually such names may be +disguised by phonetic corruption and mutilation. _Kehte-tuk-ut_ (or as +Eliot wrote it in Genesis xv. 18, _Kehteihtukqut_) means 'on the great +river.' In the Plymouth Colony Records we find the forms +'_Cauteeticutt_' and '_Coteticutt_,' and elsewhere, +_Kehtehticut_,--the latter, in 1698, as the name of a place on the +great river, "between Taunton and Bridgewater." Hence, 'Teghtacutt,' +'Teightaquid,' 'Tetiquet,' &c.[15] + +[Footnote 15: See Hist. Magazine, vol. iii. p. 48.] + +(2). The other substantival component of river-names, -HANNE or -HAN +(Abn. _-ts[oo]a[n]n_ or _-ta[n]n_; Mass. _-tchuan_;) denotes 'a rapid +stream' or 'current;' primarily, 'flowing water.' In the Massachusetts +and Abnaki, it occurs in such compounds as _anu-tchuan_ (Abn. +_ari'ts[oo]a[n]n_), 'it _over_-flows:' _kussi-tchuan_ (Abn. +_kesi'ts[oo]a[n]n_), 'it _swift_ flows,' &c. + +In Pennsylvania and Virginia, where the streams which rise in the +highlands flow down rapidly descending slopes, _-hanné_ is more common +than _-tuk_ or _sepu_ in river names. _Keht-hanné_ (_kittan_, Zeisb.; +_kithanne_, Hkw.) was a name given to the Delaware River as 'the +principal or greatest stream' of that region: and by the western +Delawares, to the Ohio.[16] With the locative termination, +_Kittanning_ (Penn.) is a place 'on the greatest stream.' The +Schuylkill was _Ganshow-hanné_, 'noisy stream;' the Lackawanna, +_Lechau-hanné_, 'forked stream' or 'stream that forks:'[17] with +affix, _Lechauhannak_ or _Lechauwahannak_, 'at the river-fork,'--for +which Hendrick Aupamut, a Muhhekan, wrote (with dialectic exchange of +_n_ for Delaware _l_) '_Naukhuwwhnauk_,' 'The Forks' of the Miami.[18] +The same name is found in New England, disguised as Newichawanock, +Nuchawanack, &c., as near Berwick, Me., 'at the fork' or confluence of +Cocheco and Salmon Fall rivers,--the '_Neghechewanck_' of Wood's Map +(1634). _Powhatan_, for _Pauat-hanne_, 'at the Falls on a rapid +stream,' has been previously noticed. + +[Footnote 16: Heckewelder, on Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. +vol. iv.] + +[Footnote 17: Ibid.] + +[Footnote 18: Narrative, &c., in Mem. Hist. Society of Pennsylvania, +vol. ii. p. 97.] + +_Alleghany_, or as some prefer to write it, Allegheny,--the Algonkin +name of the Ohio River, but now restricted to one of its +branches,--is probably (Delaware) _welhik-hanné_ or _[oo]lik-hanné_, +'the best (or, the fairest) river.' _Welhik_ (as Zeisberger wrote +it)[19] is the inanimate form of the adjectival, meaning 'best,' 'most +beautiful.' In his Vocabulary, Zeisberger gave this synthesis, with +slight change of orthography, as "_Wulach'neü_" [or +_[oo]lakhanne[oo]_, as Eliot would have written it,] with the free +translation, "_a fine River_, without Falls." The name was indeed more +likely to belong to rivers 'without falls' or other obstruction to the +passage of canoes, but its literal meaning is, as its composition +shows, "best rapid-stream," or "finest rapid-stream;" "La Belle +Riviere" of the French, and the _Oue-yo´_ or _O hee´ yo Gä-hun´-dä_, +"good river" or "the beautiful river," of the Senecas.[20] For this +translation of the name we have very respectable authority,--that of +Christian Frederick Post, a Moravian of Pennsylvania, who lived +seventeen years with the Muhhekan Indians and was twice married among +them, and whose knowledge of the Indian languages enabled him to +render important services to the colony, as a negotiator with the +Delawares and Shawanese of the Ohio, in the French war. In his +"Journal from Philadelphia to the Ohio" in 1758,[21] after mention of +the 'Alleghenny' river, he says: "The _Ohio_, as it is called by the +Sennecas. _Alleghenny_ is the name of the same river in the Delaware +language. _Both words signify the fine_ or _fair river_." La Metairie, +the notary of La Salle's expedition, "calls the Ohio, the +_Olighinsipou_, or _Aleghin_; evidently an Algonkin name,"--as Dr. +Shea remarks.[22] Heckewelder says that the Delawares "still call the +Allegany (Ohio) river, _Alligéwi Sipu_,"--"the river of the +_Alligewi_" as he chooses to translate it. In one form, we have +_wulik-hannésipu_, 'best rapid-stream long-river;' in the other, +_wuliké-sipu_, 'best long-river.' Heckewelder's derivation of the +name, on the authority of a Delaware legend, from the mythic +'Alligewi' or 'Talligewi,'--"a race of Indians said to have once +inhabited that country," who, after great battles fought in +pre-historic times, were driven from it by the all-conquering +Delawares,[23]--is of no value, unless supported by other testimony. +The identification of _Alleghany_ with the Seneca "_De o´ na gä no_, +cold water" [or, cold spring,[24]] proposed by a writer in the +_Historical Magazine_ (vol. iv. p. 184), though not apparent at first +sight, might deserve consideration if there were any reason for +believing the name of the river to be of Iroquois origin,--if it were +probable that an Iroquois name would have been adopted by Algonkin +nations,--or, if the word for 'water' or 'spring' could be made, in +any American language, the substantival component of a _river_ name. + +[Footnote 19: Grammar of the Lenni-Lenape, transl. by Duponceau, p. 43. +"_Wulit_, good." "_Welsit_ (masc. and fem.), the best." "Inanimate, +_Welhik_, best."] + +[Footnote 20: Morgan's League of the Iroquois, p. 436.] + +[Footnote 21: Published in London, 1759, and re-printed in Appendix to +Proud's Hist. of Penn., vol. ii. pp. 65-132.] + +[Footnote 22: Shea's Early Voyages on the Mississippi, p. 75. + +La Metairie's '_Olighinsipou_' suggests another possible derivation +which may be worth mention. The Indian name of the Alleghanies has +been said,--I do not now remember on whose authority,--to mean +'Endless Mountains.' 'Endless' cannot be more exactly expressed in any +Algonkin language than by 'very long' or 'longest,'--in the Delaware, +_Eluwi-guneu_. "The very long or longest river" would be _Eluwi-guneu +sipu_, or, if the words were compounded in one, _Eluwi-gunesipu_.] + +[Footnote 23: Paper on Indian names, _ut supra_, p. 367; Historical +Account, &c., pp. 29-32.] + +[Footnote 24: Morgan's League of the Iroquois, pp. 466, 468.] + +From the river, the name appears to have been transferred by the +English to a range of the "Endless Mountains." + + +3. NIPPE, NIPI (= _n'pi_; Narr. _nip_; Muhh. _nup_; Abn. and Chip. +_nebi_; Del. _m'bi_;) and its diminutives, _nippisse_ and _nips_, were +employed in compound names to denote WATER, generally, without +characterizing it as 'swift flowing,' 'wave moved,' 'tidal,' or +'standing:' as, for example, in the name of a part of a river, where +the stream widening with diminished current becomes lake-like, or of a +stretch of tide-water inland, forming a bay or cove at a river's +mouth. By the northern Algonkins, it appears to have been used for +'lake,' as in the name of _Missi-nippi_ or _Missinabe_ lake ('great +water'), and in that of Lake _Nippissing_, which has the locative +affix, _nippis-ing_, 'at the small lake' north-east of the greater +Lake Huron, which gave a name to the nation of 'Nipissings,' or as the +French called them, '_Nipissiriniens_,'--according to Charlevoix, the +true Algonkins. + +_Quinnipiac_, regarded as the Indian name of New Haven,--also written +Quinnypiock, Quinopiocke, Quillipiack, &c., and by President +Stiles[25] (on the authority of an Indian of East Haven) +_Quinnepyooghq_,--is, probably, 'long water place,' +_quinni-nippe-ohke_, or _quin-nipi-ohke_. _Kennebec_ would seem to be +another form of the same name, from the Abnaki, _k[oo]né-be-ki_, were +it not that Râle wrote,[26] as the name of the river, +'_Aghenibékki_'--suggesting a different adjectival. But Biard, in the +_Relation de la Nouvelle-France_ of 1611, has '_Kinibequi_,' +Champlain, _Quinebequy_, and Vimont, in 1640, '_Quinibequi_,' so that +we are justified in regarding the name as the probable equivalent of +_Quinni-pi-ohke_. + +[Footnote 25: Ms. Itinerary. He was careful to preserve the Indian +pronunciation of local names, and the form in which he gives this name +convinces me that it is not, as I formerly supposed, the +_quinnuppohke_ (or _quinuppeohke_) of Eliot,--meaning 'the surrounding +country' or the 'land all about' the site of New Haven.] + +[Footnote 26: Dictionary, s.v. 'Noms.'] + +_Win-nippe-sauki_ (Winnipiseogee) will be noticed hereafter. + + +4. -PAUG, -POG, -BOG, (Abn. _-béga_ or _-bégat_; Del. _-pécat_;) an +inseparable generic, denoting 'WATER AT REST,' 'standing water,' is +the substantival component of names of small lakes and ponds, +throughout New England.[27] Some of the most common of these names +are,-- + +[Footnote 27: _Paug_ is regularly formed from _pe_ (Abn. _bi_), the +base of _nippe_, and may be translated more exactly by 'where water +is' or 'place of water.'] + +_Massa-paug_, 'great pond,'--which appears in a great variety of +modern forms, as Mashapaug, Mashpaug, Massapogue, Massapog, &c. A +pond in Cranston, near Providence, R.I.; another in Warwick, in the +same State; 'Alexander's Lake,' in Killingly; 'Gardiner's Lake,' in +Salem, Bozrah and Montville; 'Tyler Pond,' in Goshen; ponds in Sharon, +Groton, and Lunenburg, Mass., were each of them the 'Massapaug' or +'great pond' of its vicinity. + +_Quinni-paug_, 'long pond.' One in Killingly, gave a name to +_Quinebaug_ River and the 'Quinebaug country.' Endicott, in 1651, +wrote this name 'Qunnubbágge' (3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iv. 191). +"Quinepoxet," the name of a pond and small river in Princeton, Mass., +appears to be a corruption of the diminutive with the locative affix; +_Quinni-paug-es-it_, 'at the little long pond.' + +_Wongun-paug_, 'crooked (or bent) pond.' There is one of the name in +Coventry, Conn. Written, 'Wangunbog,' 'Wungumbaug,' &c. + +_Petuhkqui-paug_, 'round pond,' now called 'Dumpling Pond,' in +Greenwich, Conn., gave a name to a plain and brook in that town, and, +occasionally, to the plantation settled there, sometimes written +'Petuckquapock.' + +_Nunni-paug_, 'fresh pond.' One in Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard, gave +a name (Nunnepoag) to an Indian village near it. Eliot wrote +_nunnipog_, for 'fresh water,' in James iii. 12. + +_Sonki-paug_ or _so[n]ki-paug_, 'cool pond.' (_Sonkipog_, 'cold +water,' Eliot.) Egunk-sonkipaug, or 'the cool pond (spring) of Egunk' +hill in Sterling, Conn., is named in Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan +country, as one of the east bounds. + +_Pahke-paug_, 'clear pond' or 'pure water pond.' This name occurs in +various forms, as 'Pahcupog,' a pond near Westerly, R.I.;[28] +'Pauquepaug,' transferred from a pond to a brook in Kent and New +Milford; 'Paquabaug,' near Shepaug River, in Roxbury, &c. 'Pequabuck' +river, in Bristol and Farmington, appears to derive its name from some +'clear pond,'--perhaps the one between Bristol and Plymouth. + +[Footnote 28: A bound of Human Garret's land, one mile north-easterly +from Ninigret's old Fort. See _Conn. Col. Records_, ii. 314.] + +Another noun-generic that denotes 'lake' or 'fresh water at rest,' is +found in many Abnaki, northern Algonkin and Chippewa names, but not, +perhaps, in Massachusetts or Connecticut. This is the Algonkin +_-g[)a]mi_, _-g[)o]mi_, or _-gummee_. _Kitchi-gami_ or +'_Kechegummee_,' the Chippewa name of Lake Superior, is 'the greatest, +or chief lake.' _Caucomgomoc_, in Maine, is the Abn. _kaäkou-gami-k_, +'at Big-Gull lake.' _Temi-gami_, 'deep lake,' discharges its waters +into Ottawa River, in Canada; _Kinou-gami_, now Kenocami, 'long lake,' +into the Saguenay, at Chicoutimi. + +There is a _Mitchi-gami_ or (as sometimes written) _machi-gummi_, +'large lake,' in northern Wisconsin, and the river which flows from it +has received the same name, with the locative suffix, +'_Machig[=a]mig_' (for _mitchi-gaming_). A branch of this river is now +called 'Fence River' from a _mitchihikan_ or _mitchikan_, a 'wooden +fence' constructed near its banks, by the Indians, for catching +deer.[29] Father Allouez describes, in the 'Relation' for 1670 (p. +96), a sort of 'fence' or weir which the Indians had built across Fox +River, for taking sturgeon &c., and which they called '_Mitihikan_;' +and shortly after, he mentions the destruction, by the Iroquois, of a +village of Outagamis (Fox Indians) near his mission station, called +_Machihigan-ing_, ['at the _mitchihikan_, or weir?'] on the 'Lake of +the Illinois,' now _Michigan_. Father Dablon, in the next year's +Relation, calls this lake '_Mitchiganons_.' Perhaps there was some +confusion between the names of the 'weir' and the 'great lake,' and +'Michigan' appears to have been adopted as a kind of compromise +between the two. If so, this modern form of the name is corrupt in +more senses than one.[30] + +[Footnote 29: Foster and Whitney's Report on the Geology of Lake +Superior, &c., Pt. II p. 400.] + +[Footnote 30: Râle gives Abn. _mitsegan_, 'fianté.' Thoreau, fishing +in a river in Maine, caught several sucker-like fishes, which his +Abnaki guide threw away, saying they were '_Michegan fish_, i.e., soft +and stinking fish, good for nothing.'--_Maine Woods_, p. 210.] + + +5. -AMAUG, denoting 'A FISHING PLACE' (Abn. _a[n]ma[n]gan_, 'on pęche +lŕ,') is derived from the root _âm_ or _âma_, signifying 'to take by +the mouth;' whence, _âm-aü_, 'he fishes with hook and line,' and Del. +_âman_, a fish-hook. _Wonkemaug_ for _wongun-amaug_, 'crooked +fishing-place,' between Warren and New Preston, in Litchfield county, +is now 'Raumaug Lake.' _Ouschank-amaug_, in East Windsor, was perhaps +the 'eel fishing-place.' The lake in Worcester, _Quansigamaug_, +_Quansigamug_, &c., and now _Quinsigamond_, was 'the pickerel +fishing-place,' _qunnosuog-amaug_. + + +6. ROCK. In composition, -PISK or -PSK (Abn. _pesk[oo]_; Cree, +_-pisk_; Chip. _-bik_;) denotes _hard_ or _flint-like_ rock;[31] +-OMPSK or O[N]BSK, and, by phonetic corruption, -MSK, (from _ompaé_, +'upright,' and _-pisk_,) a 'standing rock.' As a substantival +component of local names, _-ompsk_ and, with the locative affix, +_-ompskut_, are found in such names as-- + +[Footnote 31: Primarily, that which 'breaks,' 'cleaves,' 'splits:' +distinguishing the _harder_ rocks--such as were used for making spear +and arrow heads, axes, chisels, corn-mortars, &c., and for striking +fire,--from the _softer_, such as steatite (soap-stone) from which +pots and other vessels, pipe-bowls, &c., were fashioned.] + +_Petukqui-ompskut_, corrupted to _Pettiquamscut_, 'at the round rock.' +Such a rock, on the east side of Narrow River, north-east from Tower +Hill Church in South Kingston, R.I., was one of the bound marks of, +and gave a name to, the "Pettiquamscut purchase" in the Narragansett +country. + +_Wanashqui-ompskut_ (_wanashquompsqut_, Ezekiel xxvi. 14), 'at the top +of the rock,' or at 'the point of rock.' _Wonnesquam_, _Annis Squam_, +and _Squam_, near Cape Ann, are perhaps corrupt forms of the name of +some 'rock summit' or 'point of rock' thereabouts. _Winnesquamsaukit_ +(for _wanashqui-ompsk-ohk-it_?) near Exeter Falls, N.H., has been +transformed to _Swampscoate_ and _Squamscot_. The name of Swamscot or +Swampscot, formerly part of Lynn, Mass., has a different meaning. It +is from _m'squi-ompsk_, 'Red Rock' (the modern name), near the north +end of Long Beach, which was perhaps "The clifte" mentioned as one of +the bounds of Mr. Humfrey's Swampscot farm, laid out in 1638.[32] +_M'squompskut_ means 'at the red rock.' The sound of the initial _m_ +was easily lost to English ears.[33] + +[Footnote 32: Mass. Records, i. 147, 226.] + +[Footnote 33: _Squantam_, the supposed name of an Algonkin deity, is +only a corrupt form of the verb _m'squantam_, = _musqui-antam_, 'he is +angry,' literally, 'he is _red_ (bloody-) minded.'] + +_Penobscot_, a corruption of the Abnaki _pa[n]na[oo]a[n]bskek_, was +originally the name of a locality on the river so called by the +English. Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in a letter to Dr. Morse in 1823, wrote +'_Pe noom´ ske ook_' as the Indian name of Old Town Falls, "whence the +English name of the River, which would have been better, +_Penobscook_." He gave, as the meaning of this name, "Rocky Falls." +The St. Francis Indians told Thoreau, that it means "Rocky River."[34] +'At the fall of the rock' or 'at the descending rock' is a more nearly +exact translation. The first syllable, _pen-_ (Abn. _pa[n]na_) +represents a root meaning 'to fall from a height,'--as in +_pa[n]n-tek[oo]_, 'fall of a river' or 'rapids;' _pena[n]-ki_, 'fall +of land,' the descent or downward slope of a mountain, &c. + +[Footnote 34: Maine Woods, pp. 145, 324.] + +_Keht-ompskqut_, or 'Ketumpscut' as it was formerly written,[35]--'at +the greatest rock,'--is corrupted to _Catumb_, the name of a reef off +the west end of Fisher's Island. + +[Footnote 35: Pres. Stiles's Itinerary, 1761.] + +_Tomheganomset_[36]--corrupted finally to 'Higganum,' the name of a +brook and parish in the north-east part of Haddam,--appears to have +been, originally, the designation of a locality from which the Indians +procured stone suitable for making axes,--_tomhegun-ompsk-ut_, 'at the +tomahawk rock.' In 'Higganompos,' as the name was sometimes written, +without the locative affix, we have less difficulty in recognizing the +substantival _-ompsk_. + +[Footnote 36: Conn. Col. Records, i. 434.] + +QUSSUK, another word for 'rock' or 'stone,' used by Eliot and Roger +Williams, is not often--perhaps never found in local names. _Hassun_ +or _Assun_ (Chip. _assin´_; Del. _achsin_;) appears in New England +names only as an adjectival (_assuné_, _assini_, 'stony'), but farther +north, it occasionally occurs as the substantival component of such +names as _Mistassinni_, 'the Great Stone,' which gives its name to a +lake in British America, to a tribe of Indians, and to a river that +flows into St. John's Lake.[37] + +[Footnote 37: Hind's Exploration of Labrador, vol. ii. pp. 147, 148.] + + +7. WADCHU (in composition, -ADCHU) means, always, 'mountain' or +'hill.' In _Wachuset_, we have it, with the locative affix _-set_, +'near' or 'in the vicinity of the mountain,'--a name which has been +transferred to the mountain itself. With the adjectival _massa_, +'great,' is formed _mass-adchu-set_, 'near the great mountain,' or +'great hill country,'--now, _Massachusetts_. + +'_Kunckquachu_' and '_Quunkwattchu_,' mentioned in the deeds of Hadley +purchase, in 1658,[38] are forms of _qunu[n]kqu-adchu_, 'high +mountain,'--afterwards belittled as 'Mount Toby.' + +[Footnote 38: History of Hadley, 21, 22, 114.] + +'_Kearsarge_,' the modern name of two well-known mountains in New +Hampshire, disguises _k[oo]wass-adchu_, 'pine mountain.' On Holland's +Map, published in 1784, the southern Kearsarge (in Merrimack county) +is marked "Kyarsarga Mountain; by the Indians, _Cowissewaschook_."[39] +In this form,--which the termination _ok_ (for _ohke_, _auke_, +'land,') shows to belong to the _region_, not exclusively to the +mountain itself,--the analysis becomes more easy. The meaning of the +adjectival is perhaps not quite certain. _K[oo]wa_ (Abn. _k[oo]é_) 'a +pine tree,' with its diminutive, _k[oo]wasse_, is a derivative,--from +a root which means 'sharp,' 'pointed.' It is _possible_, that in this +synthesis, the root preserves its primary signification, and that +'Kearsarge' is the 'pointed' or 'peaked mountain.' + +[Footnote 39: W.F. Goodwin, in Historical Magazine, ix. 28.] + +_Mauch Chunk_ (Penn.) is from Del. _machk_, 'bear' and _wachtschunk_, +'at, or on, the mountain,'--according to Heckewelder, who writes +'_Machkschúnk_,' or the Delaware name of 'the bear's mountain.' + +In the Abnaki and some other Algonkin dialects, the substantival +component of mountain names is -ÁDENÉ,--an inseparable noun-generic. +_Katahdin_ (pronounced _Ktaadn_ by the Indians of Maine), Abn. +_Ket-ádené_, 'the greatest (or chief) mountain,' is the equivalent of +'_Kittatinny_,' the name of a ridge of the Alleghanies, in New Jersey +and Pennsylvania. + + +8. -KOMUK or KOMAKO (Del. _-kamik_, _-kamiké_; Abn. _-kamighe_; Cree, +_-gómmik_; Powhatan, _-comaco_;) cannot be exactly translated by any +one English word. It denotes 'place,' in the sense of _enclosed_, +_limited_ or _appropriated_ space. As a component of local names, it +means, generally, 'an enclosure,' natural or artificial; such as a +house or other building, a village, a planted field, a thicket or +place surrounded by trees, &c. The place of residence of the Sachem, +which (says Roger Williams) was "far different from other houses +[wigwams], both in capacity, and in the fineness and quality of their +mats," was called _sachimâ-komuk_, or, as Edward Winslow wrote it, +'_sachimo comaco_,'--the Sachem-house. _Werowocomoco_, _Weramocomoco_, +&c. in Virginia, was the 'Werowance's house,' and the name appears on +Smith's map, at a place "upon the river Pamauncke [now York River], +where the great King [Powhatan] was resident." + +_Kuppi-komuk_, 'closed place,' 'secure enclosure,' was the name of a +Pequot fastness in a swamp, in Groton, Conn. Roger Williams wrote this +name "Cuppacommock," and understood its meaning to be "a refuge, or +hiding place." Eliot has _kuppóhkomuk_ for a planted 'grove,' in Deut. +xvi. 21, and for a landing-place or safe harbor, Acts xxvii. 40. + +_Nashaue-komuk_, 'half-way house,' was at what is now Chilmark, on +Martha's Vineyard, where there was a village of praying Indians[40] in +1698, and earlier. + +[Footnote 40: About half-way from Tisbury to Gay Head.] + +The Abnaki _keta-kamig[oo]_ means, according to Râle, 'the main +land,'--literally, 'greatest place;' _teteba-kamighé_, 'level place,' +a plain; _pépam-kamighek_, 'the _all_ land,' 'l'univers.' + +_Néssa[oo]a-kamíghé_, meaning 'double place' or '_second_ place,' was +the name of the Abnaki village of St. Francis de Sales, on the St. +Lawrence,[41]--to which the mission was removed about 1700, from its +_first_ station established near the Falls of the Chaudičre in +1683.[42] + +[Footnote 41: Râle, s.v. VILLAGE.] + +[Footnote 42: Shea's Hist. of Catholic Missions, 142, 145.] + + +9. Of two words meaning _Island_, MUNNOHAN or, rejecting the +formative, MUNNOH (Abn. _menahan_; Del. _menatey_; Chip. _minís_, a +diminutive,) is the more common, but is rarely, if ever, found in +composition. The 'Grand _Menan_,' opposite Passammaquoddy Bay, retains +the Abnaki name. Long Island was _Menatey_ or _Manati_, '_the_ +Island,'--to the Delawares, Minsi and other neighboring tribes. Any +smaller island was _menatan_ (Mass. _munnohhan_), the _indefinite_ +form, or _menates_ (Mass. _munnises_, _manisses_), the _diminutive_. +Campanius mentions one '_Manathaan_,' Coopers' Island (now Cherry +Island) near Fort Christina, in the Delaware,[43] and "_Manataanung_ +or _Manaates_, a place settled by the Dutch, who built there a clever +little town, which went on increasing every day,"--now called New +York. (The termination in _-ung_ is the locative affix.) New York +Island was sometimes spoken of as '_the_ island'--'Manaté,' +'Manhatte;' sometimes as '_an_ island'--Manathan, Menatan, +'_Manhatan_;' more accurately, as 'the _small_ island'--Manhaates, +Manattes, and 'the Manados' of the Dutch. The Island Indians +collectively, were called _Manhattans_; those of the small island, +'_Manhatesen_.' "They deeply mistake," as Gov. Stuyvesant's agents +declared, in 1659,[44] "who interpret the general name of +_Manhattans_, unto the particular town built upon a _little Island_; +because it signified the whole country and province." + +[Footnote 43: Description of New Sweden, b. ii. c. 8. (Duponceau's +translation.)] + +[Footnote 44: N.Y. Hist. Soc. Collections, iii. 375.] + +_Manisses_ or Monasses, as Block Island was called, is another form +of the diminutive,--from _munnoh_; and _Manhasset_, otherwise written, +Munhansick, a name of Shelter Island, is the same diminutive with the +locative affix, _munna-es-et_. So is 'Manusses' or 'Mennewies,' an +island near Rye, N.Y.,--now written (with the southern form of the +locative,) _Manussing_. + +_Montauk_ Point, formerly Montauket, Montacut, and by Roger Williams, +_Munnawtawkit_, is probably from _manati_, _auke_, and _-it_ locative; +'in the Island country,' or 'country of the Islanders.' + +The other name of 'Island,' in Algonkin languages, is AHQUEDNE or +OCQUIDNE; with the locative; _ahquednet_, as in Acts xxvii. 16. +(Compare, Cree, _ákootin_, "it suspends, is _sit_-uate, e.g. an island +in the water," from _âkoo_, a verbal root "expressive of a state of +rest." Howse's Grammar, p. 152. Micmac, _agwitk_, "it is in the +water;" whence, _Ep-agwit_, "it lies [sits?] in the water,"[45] the +Indian name of Prince Edward's Island.) This appears to have been +restricted in its application, to islands lying near the main land or +spoken of _with reference_ to the main land. Roger Williams learned +from the Narragansetts to call Rhode Island, _Aquiday_, Aquednet, &c., +'_the_ Island' or 'at the Island,' and a "little island in the mouth +of the Bay," was _Aquedenesick_,[46] or Aquidneset, i.e. 'at the small +island.' + +[Footnote 45: Dawson's Acadian Geology, App. p. 673.] + +[Footnote 46: 4th Mass. Hist. Collections, vi. 267.] + +_Chippaquiddick_, the modern name of an island divided by a narrow +strait from Martha's Vineyard, is from _cheppi-aquidne_, 'separated +island.' + + +Abnaki names ending in _-ka[n]tti_, or _-kontee_ (Mass. _-kontu_; +Etchemin or Maliseet, _-kodiah_, _-quoddy_; Micmac, _-ka[n]di_, or +_-aikadee_;) may be placed with those of the first class, though this +termination, representing a substantival component, is really only the +locative affix of nouns in the _indefinite plural_. Exact location was +denoted by affixing, to inanimate nouns-singular, _-et_, _-it_ or +_-ut_; proximity, or something _less_ than exact location, by _-set_, +(interposing _s_, the characteristic of diminutives and derogatives) +between the noun and affix. _Plural_ nouns, representing a _definite +number_ of individuals, or a number which might be regarded _as_ +definite, received _-ettu_, _-ittu_, or _-uttu_, in the locative: but +if the number was _indefinite_, or many individuals were spoken of +collectively, the affix was _-kontu_, denoting 'where many are,' or +'place of abundance.' For example, _wadchu_, mountain; _wadchu-ut_, +to, on, or at the mountain; _wadchu-set_, near the mountain; +_wadchuuttu_ (or _-ehtu_), in or among _certain mountains_, known or +indicated (as in Eliot's version of Numbers xxxiii. 47, 48); +_wadchué-kontu_, among mountains, where there are a great many +mountains, for 'in the hill country,' Joshua xiii. 6. So, +_nippe-kontu_, 'in the waters,' i.e. in _many_ waters, or 'where there +is much water,' Deut. iv. 18; v. 8. In Deuteronomy xi. 11, the +conversion to a verb of a noun which had previously received this +affix, shows that the idea of _abundance_ or of _multitude_ is +associated with it: "_ohke wadchuuhkontu[oo]_," i.e. +_wadechué-kontu-[oo]_, "the land is a land of hills," that is, where +are _many_ hills, or where hills are _plenty_. + +This form of verb was rarely used by Eliot and is not alluded to in +his Grammar. It appears to have been less common in the Massachusetts +than in most of the other Algonkin languages. In the Chippewa, an +'abundance verb,' as Baraga[47] calls it, may be formed from any noun, +by adding _-ka_ or _-[)i]ka_ for the indicative present: in the Cree, +by adding _-skow_ or _-ooskow_. In the Abnaki, _-ka_ or _-k[oo]_, or +_-ik[oo]_, forms similar verbs, and verbals. The final _'tti_ of +_ka[n]tti_, represents the impersonal _a'tté_, _eto_, 'there belongs +to it,' 'there is there,' _il y a_. (Abn. _meskik[oo]i'ka[n]tti_, +'where there is abundance of grass,' is the equivalent of the Micmac +"_m'skeegoo-aicadee_, a meadow."[48]) + +[Footnote 47: Otchipwe Grammar, pp. 87, 412.] + +[Footnote 48: Mr. Rand's Micmac Vocabulary, in Schoolcraft's +Collections, vol. v. p. 579.] + +Among Abnaki place-names having this form, the following deserve +notice:-- + +_A[n]mes[oo]k-ka[n]tti_, 'where there is plenty of _alewives_ or +_herrings_;' from Abn. _a[n]ms[oo]ak_ (Narr. _aumsűog_; Mass. +_ômmissuog_, cotton;) literally, 'small fishes,' but appropriated to +fish of the herring tribe, including alewives and menhaden or +bony-fish. Râle gives this as the name of one of the Abnaki villages +on or near the river 'Aghenibekki.' It is the same, probably, as the +'Meesee Contee' or 'Meesucontee,' at Farmington Falls, on Sandy River, +Me.[49] With the suffix of 'place' or 'land,' it has been written +_Amessagunticook_ and _Amasaquanteg_. + +[Footnote 49: Coll. Me. Hist. Society, iv. 31, 105.] + +'_Amoscoggin_,' 'Ammarescoggen,' &c., and the '_Aumoughcawgen_' of +Capt. John Smith, names given to the Kennebec or its main western +branch, the Androscoggin,[50]--appear to have belonged, originally, to +'fishing places' on the river, from Abn. _a[n]m's[oo]a-khíge_, or +_a[n]m's[oo]a-ka[n]gan_. 'Amoskeag,' at the falls of the Merrimack, +has the same meaning, probably; _a[n]m's[oo]a-khíge_ (Mass. +_ômmissakkeag_), a 'fishing-place for alewives.' It certainly does +_not_ mean 'beavers,' or 'pond or marsh' of beavers,--as Mr. +Schoolcraft supposed it to mean.[51] + +[Footnote 50: The statement that the Androscoggin received its present +name in compliment to Edmond Andros, about 1684, is erroneous. This +form of the name appears as early as 1639, in the release by Thomas +Purchase to the Governor of Massachusetts,--correctly printed (from +the original draft in the handwriting of Thomas Lechford) in Mass. +Records, vol. i. p. 272.] + +[Footnote 51: Information respecting the Indian Tribes, &c., vol. iii. +p. 526.] + +_Madamiscomtis_ or _Mattammiscontis_, the name of a tributary of the +Penobscot and of a town in Lincoln county, Me., was translated by Mr. +Greenleaf, in 1823, "Young Alewive stream;" but it appears to +represent _met-a[n]ms[oo]ak-ka[n]tti_, 'a place where there _has been_ +(but is not now) plenty of alewives,' or to which they no longer +resort. Compare Râle's _met-a[n]m[oo]ak_, "les poissons ont faites +leurs oeufs; ils s'en sont allés; il n'y en a plus." + +_Cobbosseecontee_ river, in the south part of Kennebec county, is +named from a place near "the mouth of the stream, where it adjoineth +itself to Kennebec river,"[52] and 'where there was plenty of +sturgeons,'--_kabassak-ka[n]tti_. + +[Footnote 52: Depositions in Coll. Me. Histor. Society, iv. 113.] + +'_Peskadamioukkanti_' is given by Charlevoix, as the Indian name of +"the river of the Etchemins," that is, the St. Croix,--a name which is +now corrupted to _Passamaquoddy_; but this latter form of the name is +probably derived from the _Etchemin_, while Charlevoix wrote the +_Abnaki_ form. The Rev. Elijah Kellogg, in 1828,[53] gave, as the +meaning of 'Passamaquoddie,' 'pollock fish,' and the Rev. Mr. Rand +translates 'Pestumoo-kwoddy' by 'pollock ground.'[54] Cotton's +vocabulary gives '_pâkonnótam_' for 'haddock.' Perhaps +_peskadami[oo]k_, like _a[n]ms[oo]ak_, belonged to more than one +species of fish. + +[Footnote 53: 3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iii. 181.] + +[Footnote 54: Dawson's Acadian Geology, 2d ed., (London, 1868), pp. 3, +8.] + +Of Etchemin and Micmac words having a similar termination, we find +among others,-- + +_Shubenacadie_ (_Chebenacardie_ on Charlevoix' map, and _Shebenacadia_ +on Jeffry's map of 1775). One of the principal rivers of Nova Scotia, +was so named because '_sipen-ak_ were plenty there.' Professor Dawson +was informed by an "ancient Micmac patriarch," that "_Shuben_ or +_Sgabun_ means ground-nuts or Indian potatoes," and by the Rev. Mr. +Rand, of Hantsport, N.S., that "_segubbun_ is a ground-nut, and +_Segubbuna-kaddy_ is the place or region of ground-nuts," &c.[55] It +is not quite certain that _shuben_ and _segubbun_ denote the same +esculent root. The Abnaki name of the wild potato or ground-nut was +_pen_, pl. _penak_ (Chip. _opin-[=i]g_; Del. _obben-ak_); '_sipen_,' +which is obviously the equivalent of _sheben_, Râle describes as +"blanches, plus grosses que des _penak_:" and _sheep'n-ak_ is the +modern Abnaki (Penobscot) name for the bulbous roots of the Yellow +Lily (_Lilium Canadense_). Thoreau's Indian guide in the 'Maine Woods' +told him that these bulbs "were good for soup, that is to cook with +meat to thicken it,"--and taught him how to prepare them.[56] Josselyn +mentions such "a water-lily, with yellow flowers," of which "the +Indians eat the roots" boiled.[57] + +[Footnote 55: Acadian Geology, pp. 1, 3.] + +[Footnote 56: Maine Woods, pp. 194, 284, 326.] + +[Footnote 57: Voyages, p. 44.] + +"_Segoonuma-kaddy_, place of _gaspereaux_; Gaspereau or Alewife +River," "_Boonamoo-kwoddy_, Tom Cod ground," and "_Kata-kaddy_, +eel-ground,"--are given by Professor Dawson, on Mr. Rand's authority. +_Segoonumak_ is the equivalent of Mass. and Narr. _sequanamâuquock_, +'spring (or early summer) fish,' by R. Williams translated 'bream.' +And _boonamoo_,--the _ponamo_ of Charlevoix (i. 127), who confounded +it with some 'species of dog-fish (chien de mer),'--is the +_ap[oo]na[n]-mes[oo]_ of Rasles and _papônaumsu_, 'winter fish,' of +Roger Williams, 'which some call frost-fish,'--_Morrhua pruinosa_. + +The frequent occurrence of this termination in Micmac, Etchemin and +Abnaki local names gives probability to the conjecture, that it came +to be regarded as a general name for the region which these tribes +inhabited,--'L'arcadia,' 'l'Accadie,' and 'la Cadie,' of early +geographers and voyagers. Dr. Kohl has not found this name on any +earlier map than that published by Girolamo Ruscelli in 1561.[58] That +it is of Indian origin there is hardly room for doubt, and of two or +three possible derivations, that from the terminal _-kâdi_, _-kodiah_, +or _-ka[n]tti_, is on the whole preferable. But this termination, in +the sense of 'place of abundance' or in that of 'ground, land, or +place,' cannot be used _separately_, as an independent word, in any +one of the languages which have been mentioned; and it is singular +that, in two or three instances, only this termination should have +been preserved after the first and more important component of the +name was lost. + +[Footnote 58: See Coll. Me. Hist. Society, 2d Ser., vol. i. p. 234.] + +There are two Abnaki words which are not unlike _-ka[n]tti_ in sound, +one or both of which may perhaps be found in some local names: (1) +_ka[oo]di_, 'where he sleeps,' a _lodging place_ of men or animals; +and (2) _ak[oo]daď[oo]i_, in composition or as a prefix, _ak[oo]dé_, +'against the current,' up-stream; as in _ned-ak[oo]té'hémen_, 'I go up +stream,' and _[oo]derak[oo]da[n]na[n]_, 'the fish go up stream.' Some +such synthesis may have given names to fishing-places on tidal rivers, +and I am more inclined to regard the name of 'Tracadie' or 'Tracody' +as a corruption of _[oo]derak[oo]da[n]_, than to derive it (with +Professor Dawson[59] and the Rev. Mr. Rand) from "_Tulluk-kaddy_; +probably, place of residence; dwelling place,"--or rather (for the +termination requires this), where residences or dwellings are +_plenty_,--where there is _abundance_ of dwelling place. There is a +Tracadie in Nova Scotia, another (_Tregaté_, of Champlain) on the +coast of New Brunswick, a Tracody or Tracady Bay in Prince Edward's +Island, and a Tracadigash Point in Chaleur Bay. + +[Footnote 59: Acadian Geology, l.c.] + +Thevet, in _La Cosmographie universelle_,[60] gives an account of his +visit in 1556, to "one of the finest rivers in the whole world which +we call _Norumbegue_, and the aborigines _Agoncy_,"--now Penobscot +Bay. In 'Agoncy' we have, I conjecture, another form of the Abnaki +_-ka[n]tti_, and an equivalent of 'Acadie.' + +[Footnote 60: Cited by Dr. Kohl, in Coll. Me. Hist. Society, N.S., i. +416.] + + * * * * * + +II. Names formed from a single ground-word or substantival,--with or +without a locative or other suffix. + +To this class belong some names already noticed in connection with +compound names to which they are related; such as, _Wachu-set_, 'near +the mountain;' _Menahan_ (_Menan_), _Manati_, _Manathaan_, 'island;' +_Manataan-ung_, _Aquedn-et_, 'on the island,' &c. Of the many which +might be added to these, the limits of this paper permit me to mention +only a few. + +1. NÂĎAG, 'a corner, angle, or point.' This is a verbal, formed from +_nâ-i_, 'it is angular,' 'it _corners_.' Eliot wrote "_yaue naiyag +wetu_" for the "four corners of a house," Job i. 19. Sometimes, _nâi_ +receives, instead of the formative _-ag_, the locative affix (_nâď-it_ +or _nâď-ut_); sometimes it is used as an adjectival prefixed to +_auke_, 'land.' One or another of these forms serves as the name of a +great number of river and sea-coast 'points.' In Connecticut, we find +a '_Nayaug_' at the southern extremity of Mason's Island in Mystic +Bay, and '_Noank_' (formerly written, _Naweag_, _Naiwayonk_, _Noďank_, +&c.) at the west point of Mystic River's mouth, in Groton; _Noag_ or +_Noyaug_, in Glastenbury, &c. In Rhode Island, _Nayatt_ or _Nayot_ +point in Barrington, on Providence Bay, and _Nahiganset_ or +Narragansett, 'the country about the Point.'[61] On Long Island, +_Nyack_ on Peconick Bay, Southampton,[62] and another at the west end +of the Island, opposite Coney Island. There is also a _Nyack_ on the +west side of the Tappan Sea, in New Jersey. + +[Footnote 61: See _Narragansett Club Publications_, vol. i. p. 22 +(note 6).] + +[Footnote 62: On Block's Map, 1616, the "Nahicans" are marked on the +easternmost point of Long Island.] + + +2. WONKUN, 'bended,' 'a bend,' was sometimes used without affix. The +Abnaki equivalent is _[oo]a[n]ghíghen_, 'courbe,' 'croché' (Râle). +There was a _Wongun_, on the Connecticut, between Glastenbury and +Wethersfield, and another, more considerable, a few miles below, in +Middletown. _Wonki_ is found in compound names, as an adjectival; as +in _Wonki-tuk_, 'bent river,' on the Quinebaug, between Plainfield and +Canterbury,--written by early recorders, 'Wongattuck,' 'Wanungatuck,' +&c., and at last transferred from its proper place to a _hill_ and +_brook_ west of the river, where it is disguised as _Nunkertunk_. The +Great Bend between Hadley and Hatfield, Mass., was called +_Kuppo-wonkun-ohk_, 'close bend place,' or 'place shut-in by a bend.' +A tract of meadow west of this bend was called, in 1660, +'Cappowonganick,' and 'Capawonk,' and still retains, I believe, the +latter name.[63] _Wnogquetookoke_, the Indian name of Stockbridge, +Mass., as written by Dr. Edwards in the Muhhecan dialect, describes "a +bend-of-the-river place." + +[Footnote 63: Judd's History of Hadley, 115, 116, 117.] + +Another Abnaki word meaning 'curved,' +'crooked,'--_pika[n]ghén_--occurs in the name _Pika[n]ghenahik_, now +'Crooked Island,' in Penobscot River.[64] + +[Footnote 64: Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in 1823, wrote this name, +_Bakungunahik_.] + + +3. HÓCQUAUN (UHQUÔN, Eliot), 'hook-shaped,' 'a hook,'--is the base of +_Hoccanum_, the name of a tract of land and the stream which bounds +it, in East Hartford, and of other Hoccanums, in Hadley and in +Yarmouth, Mass. Heckewelder[65] wrote "_Okhúcquan, Woâkhúcquoan_ or +(short) _Húcquan_," for the modern 'Occoquan,' the name of a river in +Virginia, and remarked: "All these names signify _a hook_." Campanius +has '_hóckung_' for 'a hook.' + +[Footnote 65: On Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Society, N.S., vol. +iv., p. 377.] + +_Hackensack_ may have had its name from the _húcquan-sauk_, 'hook +mouth,' by which the waters of Newark Bay find their way, around +Bergen Point, by the Kill van Cul, to New York Bay. + + +3. [Transcriber's Note: sic] SÓHK or SAUK, a root that denotes +'pouring out,' is the base of many local names for 'the outlet' or +'discharge' of a river or lake. The Abnaki forms, _sa[n]g[oo]k_, +'sortie de la rivičre (seu) la source,' and _sa[n]ghede'teg[oo]é_ [= +Mass. _saukituk_,] gave names to _Saco_ in Maine, to the river which +has its outflow at that place, and to _Sagadahock_ (_sa[n]ghede'aki_), +'land at the mouth' of Kennebeck river. + +_Saucon_, the name of a creek and township in Northampton county, +Penn., "denotes (says Heckewelder[66]) the outlet of a smaller stream +into a larger one,"--which restricts the denotation too narrowly. The +name means "the outlet,"--and nothing more. Another _Soh´coon_, or +(with the locative) _Saukunk_, "at the mouth" of the Big Beaver, on +the Ohio,--now in the township of Beaver, Penn.,--was a well known +rendezvous of Indian war parties.[67] + +[Footnote 66: Ibid. p. 357.] + +[Footnote 67: Paper on Indian Names, ut supra, p. 366; and 3 Mass. +Historical Collections, vi. 145. [Compare, the Iroquois _Swa-deh´_ and +_Oswa´-go_ (modern _Oswego_), which has the same meaning as Alg. +_sauki_,--"flowing out."--_Morgan's League of the Iroquois_.]] + +_Saganaum_, _Sagana_, now _Saginaw_[68] Bay, on Lake Huron, received +its name from the mouth of the river which flows through it to the +lake. + +[Footnote 68: _Saguinam_, Charlevoix, i. 501; iii. 279.] + +The _Mississagas_ were people of the _missi-sauk_, _missi-sague_, or +(with locative) _missi-sak-ing_,[69] that is 'great outlet.' In the +last half of the seventeenth century they were seated on the banks of +a river which is described as flowing into Lake Huron some twenty or +thirty leagues south of the Sault Ste. Marie (the same river probably +that is now known as the Mississauga, emptying into Manitou Bay,) and +nearly opposite the Straits of Mississauga on the South side of the +Bay, between Manitoulin and Cockburn Islands. So little is known +however of the history and migrations of this people, that it is +perhaps impossible now to identify the 'great outlet' from which they +first had their name. + +[Footnote 69: _Relations des Jésuites_, 1658, p. 22; 1648, p. 62; +1671, pp. 25, 31.] + +The _Saguenay_ (Sagnay, Sagné, Saghuny, etc.), the great tributary of +the St. Lawrence, was so called either from the well-known +trading-place at its mouth, the annual resort of the Montagnars and +all the eastern tribes,[70] or more probably from the 'Grand +Discharge'[71] of its main stream from Lake St. John and its strong +current to and past the rapids at Chicoutimi, and thence on to the St. +Lawrence.[72] Near Lake St. John and the Grand Discharge was another +rendezvous of the scattered tribes. The missionary Saint-Simon in 1671 +described this place as one at which "all the nations inhabiting the +country between the two seas (towards the east and north) assembled to +barter their furs." Hind's Exploration of Labrador, ii. 23. + +[Footnote 70: Charlevoix, Nouv. France, iii. 65; Gallatin's Synopsis, +p. 24.] + +[Footnote 71: This name is still retained.] + +[Footnote 72: When first discovered the Saguenay was not regarded as a +river, but as a strait or passage by which the waters of some northern +sea flowed to the St. Lawrence. But on a French map of 1543, the 'R. +de Sagnay' and the country of 'Sagnay' are laid down. See Maine Hist. +Soc. Collections, 2d Series, vol. i., pp. 331, 354. Charlevoix gives +_Pitchitaouichetz_, as the Indian name of the River.] + +In composition with _-tuk_, 'river' or 'tidal stream,' _sauki_ +(adjectival) gave names to '_Soakatuck_,' now Saugatuck, the mouth of +a river in Fairfield county, Conn.; to '_Sawahquatock_,' or +'_Sawkatuck-et_,' at the outlet of Long Pond or mouth of Herring +River, in Harwich, Mass.; and perhaps to _Massaugatucket_, +(_missi-saukituk-ut_?), in Marshfield, Mass., and in South Kingston, +R.I.,--a name which, in both places, has been shortened to +Saquatucket. + +'_Winnipiseogee_' (pronounced _Win´ ni pe sauk´ e_,) is compounded of +_winni_, _nippe_, and _sauki_, 'good-water discharge,' and the name +must have belonged originally to the _outlet_ by which the waters of +the lake pass to the Merrimack, rather than to the lake itself. +Winnepesauke, Wenepesioco and (with the locative) Winnipesiockett, are +among the early forms of the name. The translation of this synthesis +by 'the Smile of the Great Spirit' is sheer nonsense. Another, first +proposed by the late Judge Potter of New Hampshire, in his History of +Manchester (p. 27),[73]--'the beautiful water of the high place,'--is +demonstrably wrong. It assumes that _is_ or _es_ represents _kees_, +meaning 'high;' to which assumption there are two objections: first, +that there is no evidence that such a word as _kees_, meaning 'high,' +is found in any Algonkin language, and secondly, that if there be such +a word, it must retain its significant root, in any synthesis of which +it makes part,--in other words, that _kees_ could not drop its initial +_k_ and preserve its meaning. I was at first inclined to accept the +more probable translation proposed by 'S.F.S.' [S.F. Streeter?] in +the Historical Magazine for August, 1857,[74]--"the land of the placid +or beautiful lake;" but, in the dialects of New England, _nippisse_ or +_nips_, a diminutive of _nippe_, 'water,' is never used for _paug_, +'lake' or 'standing water;'[75] and if it were sometimes so used, the +extent of Lake Winnepiseogee forbids it to be classed with the 'small +lakes' or 'ponds,' to which, only, the _diminutive_ is appropriate. + +[Footnote 73: And in the _Historical Magazine_, vol. i. p. 246.] + +[Footnote 74: Vol. i. p. 246.] + +[Footnote 75: See pp. 14, 15.] + + +4. NASHAUÉ (Chip. _nássawaiď_ and _ashawiwi_), 'mid-way,' or +'between,' and with _ohke_ or _auk_ added, 'the land between' or 'the +half-way place,'--was the name of several localities. The tract on +which Lancaster, in Worcester county (Mass.) was settled, was +'between' the branches of the river, and so it was called '_Nashaway_' +or '_Nashawake_' (_nashaué-ohke_); and this name was afterwards +transferred from the territory to the river itself. There was another +_Nashaway_ in Connecticut, between Quinnebaug and Five-Mile Rivers in +Windham county, and here, too, the mutilated name of the +_nashaue-ohke_ was transferred, as _Ashawog_ or _Assawog_, to the +Five-Mile River. _Natchaug_ in the same county, the name of the +eastern branch of Shetucket river, belonged originally to the tract +'between' the eastern and western branches; and the Shetucket itself +borrows a name (_nashaue-tuk-ut_) from its place 'between' Yantic and +Quinebaug rivers. A neck of land (now in Griswold, Conn.) "between +Pachaug River and a brook that comes into it from the south," one of +the Muhhekan east boundaries, was called sometimes, _Shawwunk_, 'at +the place between,'--sometimes _Shawwâmug_ (_nashaué-amaug_), 'the +fishing-place between' the rivers, or the 'half-way +fishing-place.'[76] + +[Footnote 76: Chandler's Survey and Map of the Mohegan country, 1705. +Compare the Chip. _ashawiwi-sitagon_, "a place from which water runs +two ways," a dividing ridge or portage _between_ river courses. Owen's +Geological Survey of Wisconsin, etc., p. 312.] + + +5. ASHIM, is once used by Eliot (Cant. iv. 12) for 'fountain.' It +denoted a _spring_ or brook from which water was obtained for +drinking. In the Abnaki, _asiem nebi_, 'il puise de l'eau;' and +_ned-a'sihibe_, 'je puise de l'eau, _fonti vel fluvio_.' (Rasles.) + +_Winne-ashim-ut_, 'at the good spring,' near Romney Marsh, is now +Chelsea, Mass. The name appears in deeds and records as Winnisimmet, +Winisemit, Winnet Semet, etc. The author of the 'New English Canaan' +informs us (book 2, ch. 8), that "At _Weenasemute_ is a water, the +virtue whereof is, to cure barrennesse. The place taketh his name of +that fountaine, which signifieth _quick spring_, or _quickning +spring_. Probatum." + +_Ashimuit_ or _Shumuit_, an Indian village near the line between +Sandwich and Falmouth, Mass.,--_Shaume_, a neck and river in Sandwich +(the _Chawum_ of Capt. John Smith?),--_Shimmoah_, an Indian village on +Nantucket,--may all have derived their names from springs resorted to +by the natives, as was suggested by the Rev. Samuel Deane in a paper +in _Mass. Hist. Collections_, 2d Series, vol. x. pp. 173, 174. + + +6. MATTAPPAN, a participle of _mattappu_ (Chip. _namátabi_), 'he sits +down,' denotes a 'sitting-down place,' or, as generally employed in +local names, _the end of a portage_ between two rivers or from one arm +of the sea to another,--where the canoe was launched again and its +bearers re-embarked. Râle translates the Abnaki equivalent, +_mata[n]be_, by 'il va au bord de l'eau,--a la grčve pour +s'embarquer,' and _meta[n]béniganik_, by 'au bout de delŕ du portage.' + +_Mattapan-ock_, afterwards shortened to _Mattapan_, that part of +Dorchester Neck (South Boston) where "the west country people were set +down" in 1630,[77] may have been so called because it was the end of a +carrying place from South Bay to Dorchester Bay, across the narrowest +part of the peninsula, or--as seems highly probable--because it was +the temporary 'sitting-down place' of the new comers. Elsewhere, we +find the name evidently associated with _portage_. + +[Footnote 77: Blake's Annals of Dorchester, p. 9; Winthrop's Journal, +vol. i. p. 28.] + +On Smith's Map of Virginia, one '_Mattapanient_' appears as the name +of the northern fork (now the _Mattápony_) of Pamaunk (York) River; +another (_Mattpanient_) near the head waters of the Pawtuxunt; and a +third on the 'Chickahamania' not far above its confluence with +Powhatan (James) River. + +_Mattapoiset_, on an inlet of Buzzard's Bay, in Rochester, +Mass.,--another Mattapoiset or 'Mattapuyst,' now Gardner's Neck, in +Swanzea,--and 'Mattapeaset' or 'Mattabesic,' on the great bend of the +Connecticut (now Middletown), derived their names from the same word, +probably. + +On a map of Lake Superior, made by Jesuit missionaries and published +in Paris in 1672, the stream which is marked on modern maps as +'Rivičre aux Traines' or 'Train River,' is named 'R. _Mataban_.' The +small lake from which it flows is the 'end of portage' between the +waters of Lake Michigan and those of Lake Superior. + + +7. CHABENUK, 'a bound mark'; literally, 'that which separates or +divides.' A hill in Griswold, Conn., which was anciently one of the +Muhhekan east bound-marks, was called _Chabinu[n]k_, 'Atchaubennuck,' +and 'Chabunnuck.' The village of praying Indians in Dudley (now +Webster?) Mass., was named _Chabanakongkomuk_ (Eliot, 1668,) or +_-ongkomum_, and the Great Pond still retains, it is said, the name of +Chaubenagungamaug (_chabenukong-amaug_?), "the boundary +fishing-place." This pond was a bound mark between the Nipmucks and +the Muhhekans, and was resorted to by Indians of both nations. + + * * * * * + +III. Participials and verbals employed as place-names may generally, +as was before remarked, be referred to one or the other of the two +preceding classes. The distinction between noun and verb is less +clearly marked in Indian grammar than in English. The name +_Mushauwomuk_ (corrupted to _Shawmut_) may be regarded as a +participle from the verb _mushau[oo]m_ (Narr. _mishoonhom_) 'he goes +by boat,'--or as a noun, meaning 'a ferry,'--or as a name of the first +class, compounded of the adjectival _mush[oo]-n_, 'boat or canoe,' and +_wom[oo]-uk_, habitual or customary _going_, i.e., 'where there is +going-by-boat.' + +The analysis of names of this class is not easy. In most cases, its +results must be regarded as merely provisional. Without some clue +supplied by history or tradition and without accurate knowledge of the +locality to which the name belongs, or _is supposed_ to belong, one +can never be certain of having found the right key to the synthesis, +however well it may seem to fit the lock. Experience Mayhew writing +from Chilmark on Martha's Vineyard, in 1722, gives the Indian name of +the place where he was living as _Nimpanickhickanuh_. If he had not +added the information that the name "signifies in English, _The place +of thunder clefts_," and that it was so called "because there was once +a tree there split in pieces by the thunder," it is not likely that +any one in this generation would have discovered its precise +meaning,--though it might have been conjectured that _neimpau_, or +_nimbau_, 'thunder,' made a part of it. + +_Quilútámende_ was (Heckewelder tells us[78]) the Delaware name of a +place on the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, where, as the Indians say, +"in their wars with the Five Nations, they fell by surprise upon their +enemies. The word or name of this place is therefore, _Where we came +unawares upon them_, &c." Without the tradition, the meaning of the +name would not have been guessed,--or, if guessed, would not have been +confidently accepted. + +[Footnote 78: On Indian Names, in _Trans. Am. Philos. Society_, N.S. +iv. 361.] + +The difficulty of analyzing such names is greatly increased by the +fact that they come to us in corrupt forms. The same name may be +found, in early records, written in a dozen different ways, and some +three or four of these may admit of as many different translations. +Indian grammatical synthesis was _exact_. Every consonant and every +vowel had its office and its place. Not one could be dropped or +transposed, nor could one be added, without _change of meaning_. Now +most of the Indian local names were first written by men who cared +nothing for their meaning and knew nothing of the languages to which +they belonged. Of the few who had learned to speak one or more of +these languages, no two adopted the same way of writing them, and no +one--John Eliot excepted--appears to have been at all careful to write +the same word twice alike. In the seventeenth century men took +considerable liberties with the spelling of their own surnames and +very large liberty with English polysyllables--especially with local +names. Scribes who contrived to find five or six ways of writing +'Hartford' or 'Wethersfield,' were not likely to preserve uniformity +in their dealings with Indian names. A few letters more or less were +of no great consequence, but, generally, the writers tried to keep on +the safe side, by putting in as many as they could find room for; +prefixing a _c_ to every _k_, doubling every _w_ and _g_, and tacking +on a superfluous final _e_, for good measure. + +In some instances, what is supposed to be an Indian place-name is in +fact a _personal_ name, borrowed from some sachem or chief who lived +on or claimed to own the territory. Names of this class are likely to +give trouble to translators. I was puzzled for a long time by +'_Mianus_,' the name of a stream between Stamford and Greenwich,--till +I remembered that _Mayano_, an Indian warrior (who was killed by Capt. +Patrick in 1643) had lived hereabouts; and on searching the Greenwich +records, I found the stream was first mentioned as _Moyannoes_ and +_Mehanno's_ creek, and that it bounded 'Moyannoe's neck' of land. +_Moosup_ river, which flows westerly through Plainfield into the +Quinebaug and which has given names to a post-office and factory +village, was formerly _Moosup's_ river,--Moosup or _Maussup_ being one +of the aliases of a Narragansett sachem who is better known, in the +history of Philip's war, as Pessacus. Heckewelder[79] restores +'Pymatuning,' the name of a place in Pennsylvania, to the Del. +'_Pihmtónink_,' meaning, "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth, or the crooked man's dwelling place," and adds, that he +"knew the man perfectly well," who gave this name to the locality. + +[Footnote 79: On Indian Names (_ut supra_), p. 365.] + +Some of the examples which have been given,--such as _Higganum_, +_Nunkertunk_, _Shawmut_, _Swamscot_ and _Titicut_,--show how the +difficulties of analysis have been increased by phonetic corruption, +sometimes to such a degree as hardly to leave a trace of the original. +Another and not less striking example is presented by _Snipsic_, the +modern name of a pond between Ellington and Tolland. If we had not +access to Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan Country, made in 1705, who +would suppose that 'Snipsic' was the surviving representative of +_Moshenupsuck_, 'great-pond brook' or (literally) 'great-pond outlet,' +at the south end of _Moshenups_ or _Mashenips_ 'great pond?' The +territories of three nations, the Muhhekans, Nipmucks and River +Indians, ran together at this point. + +'_Nameroake_,' '_Namareck_' or '_Namelake_,' in East Windsor, was +transformed to _May-luck_, giving to a brook a name which 'tradition' +derives from the 'luck' of a party of emigrants who came in 'May' to +the Connecticut.[80] The original name appears to have been the +equivalent of 'Nameaug' or 'Nameoke' (New London), and to mean 'the +fishing place,'--_n'amaug_ or _nama-ohke_. + +[Footnote 80: Stiles's History of Ancient Windsor, p. 111.] + +But none of these names exhibits a more curious transformation than +that of '_Bagadoose_' or '_Bigaduce_,' a peninsula on the east side of +Penobscot Bay, now Castine, Me. Williamson's History of Maine (ii. +572) states on the authority of Col. J. Wardwell of Penobscot, in +1820, that this point bore the name of a former resident, a Frenchman, +one 'Major Biguyduce.' Afterwards, the historian was informed that +'_Marche bagyduce_' was an Indian word meaning 'no good cove.' Mr. +Joseph Williamson, in a paper in the Maine Historical Society's +Collections (vol. vi. p. 107) identifies this name with the +_Matchebiguatus_ of Edward Winslow's quitclaim to Massachusetts in +1644,[81] and correctly translates the prefix _matche_ by 'bad,' but +adds: "What _Biguatus_ means, I do not know." Purchas mentions +'_Chebegnadose_,' as an Indian town on the 'Apananawapeske' or +Penobscot.[82] Râle gives, as the name of the place on "the river +where M. de Gastin [Castine] is," _Matsibig[oo]ad[oo]ssek_, and on his +authority we may accept this form as nearly representing the original. +The analysis now becomes more easy. _Matsi-a[n]baga[oo]at-ek_, means +'at the bad-shelter place,--bad _covert_ or cove;' and +_matsi-a[n]baga[oo]at[oo]s-ek_ the diminutive, 'at the small +bad-shelter place.' About two miles and a half above the mouth of the +Kenebec was a place called by the Indians '_Abagadusset_' or +'_Abequaduset_'--the same name without the prefix--meaning 'at the +cove, or place of shelter.' + +[Footnote 81: Printed in note to Savage's Winthrop's Journal, ii. +180.] + +[Footnote 82: See Thornton's Ancient Pemaquid, in Maine Hist. +Collections, v. 156.] + + * * * * * + +The adjectivals employed in the composition of Algonkin names are very +numerous, and hardly admit of classification. Noun, adjective, adverb +or even an active verb may, with slight change of form, serve as a +prefix. But, as was before remarked, every prefix, strictly +considered, is an adverb or must be construed as an adverb,--the +synthesis which serves as a name having generally the verb form. Some +of the most common of these prefixes have been mentioned on preceding +pages. A few others, whose meanings are less obvious and have been +sometimes mistaken by translators, may deserve more particular notice. + +1. POHQUI, POHQUAE´; Narr. _pâuqui_; Abn. _p[oo]'k[oo]ié_; 'open,' +'clear' (primarily, 'broken'). In composition with _ohke_, 'land,' or +formed as a verbal in _-aug_, it denotes 'cleared land' or 'an open +place:' as in the names variously written 'Pahquioque,' 'Paquiaug;' +'Pyquaag;' 'Poquaig,' 'Payquaoge,' &c., in Danbury and Wethersfield, +and in Athol, Mass. + +2. PAHKE (Abn. _pa[n]g[oo]i_,) 'clear,' 'pure'. Found with _paug_, +'standing water' or 'pond,' in such names as 'Pahcupog,' 'Paquabaug,' +&c. See page 16. + +3. PÂGUAN-AÜ, 'he destroys,' 'he slaughters' (Narr. _paúquana_, 'there +is a slaughter') in composition with _ohke_ denotes 'place of +slaughter' or 'of destruction,' and commemorates some sanguinary +victory or disastrous defeat. This is _probably_ the meaning of nearly +all the names written 'Poquannoc,' 'Pequannoc,' 'Pauganuck,' &c., of +places in Bridgeport (Stratfield), Windsor and Groton, Conn., and of a +town in New Jersey. Some of these, however, may possibly be derived +from _paukunni_ and _ohke_, 'dark place.' + +4. PEMI (Abn. _pemai-[oo]i_; Del. _pimé-u_; Cree, _peemé_;) denotes +deviation from a straight line; 'sloping,' 'aslant,' 'twisted.' +PUMMEECHE (Cree, _pimich_; Chip. _pemiji_; Abn. _pemetsi_;) +'crosswise; traverse.' Eliot wrote '_pummeeche may_' for 'cross-way,' +Obad. 14; and _pumetshin_ (literally, 'it crosses') for 'a cross,' as +in _up-pumetshin-eum_, 'his cross,' Luke xiv. 27. _Pemiji-gome_ or +_Pemiji-guma_, 'cross water,' is the Chippewa name for a lake whose +longest diameter crosses the general course of the river which flows +through it,--which stretches _across_, not _with_ the stream. There is +such a lake in Minnesota, near the sources of the Mississippi, just +below the junction of the two primary forks of that river; another +('Pemijigome') in the chain of small lakes which are the northern +sources of the Manidowish (and Chippewa) River in Wisconsin, and still +another near the Lacs des Flambeaux, the source of Flambeau River, an +affluent of the Manidowish. + +The same prefix or its equivalent occurs in the name of a lake in +Maine, near the source of the Alligash branch of St. John's River. Mr. +Greenleaf, in a list of Indian names made in 1823,[83] gave this as +"BAAM´CHE_nun´gamo_ or _Ah_P´MOOJEE`_negmook_." Thoreau[84] was +informed by his Penobscot guide, that the name "means 'Lake that is +crossed;' because the usual course lies across, not along it." There +is another "Cross Lake," in Aroostook county, near the head of Fish +River. We seem to recognize, and with less difficulty, the same prefix +in _Pemigewasset_, but the full composition of that name is not clear. + +[Footnote 83: Report of American Society for Promoting Civilization of +the Indian Tribes, p. 52.] + +[Footnote 84: Maine Woods, 232.] + +PEMI- denotes, not a _crossing of_ but _deviation from_ a straight +line, whether vertical or horizontal. In place-names it may generally +be translated by 'sloping' or 'aslant;' sometimes by 'awry' or +'tortuous.' _Pemadené_, which Râle gives as the Abnaki word for +'mountain,' denotes a _sloping_ mountain-side (_pemi-adené_), in +distinction from one that is steep or precipitous. '_Pemetiq_,' the +Indian name of Mount Desert Island, as written by Father Biard in +1611, is the Abnaki _peme'teki_, 'sloping land.' _Pemaquid_ appears to +be another form of the word which Râle wrote '_Pemaa[n]kke_,' meaning +(with the locative suffix) 'at the place where the land slopes;' where +"le terre penche; est en talus."[85] _Pymatuning_, in Pennsylvania, is +explained by Heckewelder, as "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth; _Pihmtónink_" (from _pimeu_ and _'t[oo]n_). + +[Footnote 85: Abnaki Dictionary, s.v. PENCHER. Compare, p. 545, +"_bimk[oo]é_, il penche naturellement la tęte sur un côte."] + +WANASHQUE, ANASQUI, 'at the extremity of,' 'at the end;' Abn. +_[oo]anask[oo]i[oo]i_, 'au bout;' Cree, _wánnusk[oo]tch_; Chip. +_ishkuč_, _eshqua_. See (pp. 18, 19,) _Wanashqu-ompsk-ut_, +_Wonnesquam_,[86] _Winnesquamsaukit_, _Squamscot_. _Wonasquatucket_, a +small river which divides North Providence and Johnston, R.I., retains +the name which belonged to the point at which it enters an arm of +Narragansett Bay (or Providence River), 'at the end of the +tidal-river.' A stream in Rochester, Mass., which empties into the +head of an inlet from Buzzard's Bay, received the same name. +_Ishquagoma_, on the upper Embarras River, Minnesota, is the 'end +lake,' the extreme point to which canoes go up that stream. + +[Footnote 86: _Wonnesquam_ (as should have been mentioned on the page +referred to) may possibly represent the Abnaki +_[oo]anask[oo]a[n]a[n]mi[oo]i_ or _-mek_ 'at the end of the peninsula' +('au bout de la presqu'ile.' Râle).] + +Names of _fishes_ supply the adjectival components of many place-names +on the sea-coast of New England, on the lakes, and along +river-courses. The difficulty of analyzing such names is the greater +because the same species of fish was known by different names to +different tribes. The more common substantivals are _-amaug_, 'fishing +place; _-tuk_ or _sipu_, 'river;' _ohke_, 'place;' Abn. _-ka[n]tti_, +'place of abundance;' and _-keag_, _-keke_, Abn. _-khigé_, which +appears to denote a peculiar _mode of fishing_,--perhaps, by a +_weir_;[87] possibly, a _spearing-place_. + +[Footnote 87: Schoolcraft derives the name of the _Namakagun_ fork of +the St. Croix river, Wisc., from Chip. "_namai_, sturgeon, and +_kagun_, a yoke or weir."] + +From the generic _namaus_ (_namohs_, El.; Abn. _namés_; Del. +_namees_;) 'a fish'--but probably, one of the _smaller_ sort, for the +form is a diminutive,--come such names as _Nameoke_ or _Nameaug_ (New +London), for _namau-ohke_, 'fish country;' _Namasket_ or _Namasseket_ +(on Taunton River, in Middleborough, Mass.) 'at the fish place,' a +favorite resort of the Indians of that region; _Namaskeak_, now +Amoskeag, on the Merrimack, and _Nam'skeket_ or _Skeekeet_, in +Wellfleet, Mass. + +_M'squammaug_ (Abn. _mesk[oo]amék[oo]_), 'red fish,' i.e. salmon, gave +names to several localities. _Misquamacuck_ or _Squamicut_, now +Westerly, R.I., was 'a salmon place' of the Narragansetts. The initial +_m_ often disappears; and sometimes, so much of the rest of the name +goes with it, that we can only guess at the original synthesis. +'_Gonic_,' a post office and railroad station, near Dover, N.H., on +the Cocheco river, was once '_Squammagonic_,'--and probably, a +salmon-fishing place. + +_Kaúposh_ (Abn. _kabassé_, plu. _kabassak_), 'sturgeon,' is a +component of the name _Cobbosseecontee_, in Maine (page 26, ante), +'where sturgeons are plenty;' and _Cobscook_, an arm of Passamaquoddy +Bay, Pembroke, Me., perhaps stands for _kabassakhigé_, +'sturgeon-catching place.' + +_Aumsuog_ or _Ommissuog_ (Abn. _a[n]ms[oo]ak_), 'small +fish,'--especially alewives and herrings,--is a component of the name +of the Abnaki village on the Kennebec, _A[n]mes[oo]k-ka[n]tti_; of +_Mattammiscontis_, a tributary of the Kennebec (see p. 25, ante), and +_probably_, of _Amoscoggin_ and _Amoskeag_. + +_Qunnôsu_ (pl. _-suog;_ Abn. _k[oo]n[oo]sé;_ Old Alg. _kino[n]jé_; +Chip. _keno´zha_;) is found in the name of _Kenosha_, a town and +county in Wisconsin; perhaps, in _Kenjua_ or _Kenzua_ creek and +township, in Warren county, Pa. _Quinshepaug_ or _Quonshapauge_, in +Mendon, Mass., seems to denote a 'pickerel pond' (_qunnosu-paug_). +_Maskinongé_, i.e. _massa-kino[n]jé_, 'great pike' or maskelunge, +names a river and lake in Canada. + +_Pescatum_, said to mean 'pollock,' occurs as an adjectival in +_Peskadamioukka[n]tti_, the modern _Passamaquoddy_ (p. 26). + +_Naha[n]m[oo]_, the Abnaki name of the 'eel,' is found in +"_Nehumkeag_, the English of which is _Eel Land_, ... a stream or +brook that empties itself into Kennebec River," not far from +Cobbissecontee.[88] This brook was sometimes called by the English, +_Nehumkee_. The Indian name of Salem, Mass., was _Nehumkeke_ or +_Naümkeag_, and a place on the Merrimac, near the mouth of Concord +River (now in Lowell, I believe,) had the same name,--written, +_Naamkeak_. + +[Footnote 88: Col. William Lithgow's deposition, 1767,--in New England +Historical and General Register, xxiv. 24.] + + * * * * * + +In view of the illustrations which have been given, we repeat what was +stated in the beginning of this paper, that Indian place-names are not +_proper names_, that is unmeaning marks, but significant +_appellatives_, each conveying a _description_ of the locality to +which it belongs. In those parts of the country where Indian languages +are still spoken, the analysis of such names is comparatively easy. +Chippewa, Cree, or (in another family) Sioux-Dakota geographical names +may generally be translated with as little difficulty as other words +or syntheses in the same languages. In New England, and especially in +our part of New England, the case is different. We can hardly expect +to ascertain the meaning of all the names which have come down to us +from dead languages of aboriginal tribes. Some of the obstacles to +accurate analysis have been pointed out. Nearly every geographical +name has been mutilated or has suffered change. It would indeed be +strange if Indian polysyntheses, with their frequent gutturals and +nasals, adopted from unwritten languages and by those who were +ignorant of their meanings, had been exempted from the phonetic change +to which all language is subject, as a result of the universal +disposition "to put more facile in the stead of more difficult sounds +or combination of sounds, and to get rid altogether of what is +unnecessary in the words we use."[89] What Professor Haldeman calls +_otosis_, 'that error of the ear by which words are perverted to a +more familiar form,'[90] has effected some curious transformations. +_Swatara_,[91] the name of a stream in Pennsylvania, becomes 'Sweet +Arrow;' the _Potopaco_ of John Smith's map (_p[oo]tuppâg_, a bay or +cove; Eliot,) on a bend of the Potomac, is naturalized as 'Port +Tobacco.' _Nama'auke_, 'the place of fish' in East Windsor, passes +through _Namerack_ and _Namalake_ to the modern 'May Luck.' +_Moskitu-auke_, 'grass land,' in Scituate, R.I., gives the name of +'Mosquito Hawk' to the brook which crosses it.[92] + +[Footnote 89: Whitney's Language and the Study of Language, p. +69.--"Ein natürliches Volksgefühl, oft auch der Volkswitz, den nicht +mehr verstandenen Namen neu umprägte und mit anderen lebenden Wörtern +in Verbindung setzte." Dr. J. Bender, _Die deutschen Ortsnamen_ (2te +Ausg.) p. 2.] + +[Footnote 90: Haldeman's Analytic Orthography, §279, and "Etymology as +a means of Education," in Pennsylvania School Journal for October, +1868.] + +[Footnote 91: "Swatawro," on Sayer and Bennett's Map, 1775.] + +[Footnote 92: "Whiskey Jack," the name by which the Canada Jay +(Perisoreus Canadensis) is best known to the lumbermen and hunters of +Maine and Canada, is the Montagnais _Ouishcatcha[n]_ (Cree, +_Ouiskeshauneesh_), which has passed perhaps through the transitional +forms of 'Ouiske Jean' and 'Whiskey Johnny.' The Shagbark Hickory +nuts, in the dialect of the Abnakis called _s'k[oo]skada´mennar_, +literally, 'nuts to be cracked with the teeth,' are the +'Kuskatominies' and 'Kisky Thomas' nuts of descendants of the Dutch +colonists of New Jersey and New York. A contraction of the _plural_ +form of a Massachusetts noun-generic,--_asquash_, denoting 'things +which are eaten green, or without cooking,' was adopted as the name of +a garden vegetable,--with conscious reference, perhaps, to the old +English word _squash_, meaning 'something soft or immature.' Sometimes +etymology overreaches itself, by regarding an aboriginal name as the +corrupt form of a foreign one. Thus the _maskalongé_ or 'great +long-nose' of the St. Lawrence (see p. 43) has been reputed of French +extraction,--_masque elongé_: and _sagackomi_, the northern name of a +plant used as a substitute for or to mix with tobacco,--especially, of +the Bearberry, _Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_,--is resolved into +_sac-ŕ-commis_, "on account of the Hudson's Bay officers carrying it +in bags for smoking," as Sir John Richardson believed (Arctic +Searching Expedition, ii. 303). It was left for the ingenuity of a +Westminster Reviewer to discover that _barbecue_ (denoting, in the +language of the Indians of Guiana, a wooden frame or grille on which +all kinds of flesh and fish were dry-roasted, or cured in smoke,) +might be a corruption of the French _barbe ŕ queue_, i.e. 'from snout +to tail;' a suggestion which appears to have found favor with +lexicographers.] + +In Connecticut and Rhode Island special causes operated to corrupt and +transform almost beyond possibility of recognition, many of the Indian +place names. Five different dialects at least were spoken between +Narragansett Bay and the Housatonic River, at the time of the first +coming of the English. In early deeds and conveyances in the colonial +and in local records, we find the same river, lake, tract of land or +bound-mark named sometimes in the Muhhekan, sometimes in the +Narragansett, or Niantic, or Nipmuck, or Connecticut valley, or +Quinnipiac (Quiripee) dialect. The adopted name is often +_extra-limitary_ to the tribe by which it was given. Often, it is a +mixture of, or a sort of compromise between, two dialects; half +Muhhekan, half Narragansett or Nipmuck. In the form in which it comes +to us, we can only guess from what language or languages it has been +corrupted. + +The analysis of those names even whose composition appears to be most +obvious must be accepted as _provisional_ merely. The recovery of a +lost syllable or of a lost guttural or nasal, the correction of a +false accent even, may give to the synthesis another and hitherto +unsuspected meaning. It would be surprising if some of the +translations which have been hazarded in this paper do not prove to be +wide of their mark. Even English etymology is not reckoned among the +exact sciences yet,--and in Algonkin, there is the additional +disadvantage of having no Sanskrit verbs "to go," to fall back on as a +last resort. + +Recent manifestations of an increasing interest in Indian onomatology, +or at least of awakened curiosity to discover the meanings of Indian +names, may perhaps justify the writer in offering, at the close of +this paper, a few suggestions, as to the method of analysis which +appears most likely to give correct results, and as to the tests by +which to judge of the _probability_ that a supposed translation of any +name is the true one. + +1. The earliest recorded form of the name should be sought for, and +every variation from it should be noted. These should be taken so far +as possible from original manuscripts, not from printed copies. + +2. Where the difference of forms is considerable, knowledge of the +character and opportunities of the writer may sometimes determine the +preference of one form to others, as probably the most accurate. A +Massachusetts or Connecticut name written by John Eliot or Experience +Mayhew--or by the famous interpreter, Thomas Stanton--may safely be +assumed to represent the original combination of sounds more exactly +than the form given it by some town-recorder, ignorant of the Indian +language and who perhaps did not always write or spell his own +correctly. + +3. The name should be considered with some reference to the +topographical features of the region to which it belongs. These may +sometimes determine the true meaning when the analysis is doubtful, or +may suggest the meaning which would otherwise have been unsuspected +under the modern form. + +4. Remembering that every letter or sound had its value,--if, in the +analysis of a name, it becomes necessary to get rid of a troublesome +consonant or vowel by assuming it to have been introduced 'for the +sake of euphony,'--it is probable that the interpretation so arrived +at is _not_ the right one. + +5. The components of every place-name--or to speak more generally, the +elements of every Indian synthesis are _significant roots_, not mere +_fractions of words_ arbitrarily selected for new combinations. There +has been no more prolific source of error in dealings with the +etymology and the grammatical structure of the American languages than +that one-sided view of the truth which was given by Duponceau[93] in +the statement that "one or more syllables of each simple word are +generally chosen and combined together, in one compound locution, +often leaving out the harsh consonants for the sake of euphony,"--and +repeated by Heckewelder,[94] when he wrote, that "in the Delaware and +other American languages, parts or parcels of different words, +sometimes a single sound or letter, are compounded together in an +artificial manner so as to avoid the meeting of harsh or disagreeable +sounds," &c. The "single sound or letter" the "one or more syllables," +were chosen not as "part or parcel" of a word but because of their +_inherent significance_. The Delaware "_Pilape_, a youth," is +_not_--as Heckewelder and Duponceau represented it to be[95]--"formed +from _pilsit_, chaste, innocent, and _lenape_, a man," but from PIL- +(Mass. _pen-_, Abn. _pir-_,) strange, novel, _unused_ (and hence) +pure,--and -A[N]PE (Mass. _-omp_, Abn. _a[n]bé_) a male, _vir_. It is +true that the same roots are found in the two words PIL-_sit_ (a +participle of the verb-adjective _pil-esu_, 'he is pure,') and +_len_-A[N]PE, 'common man:' but the statement that "one or more +syllables" are _taken from_ these words to form _Pilape_ is inaccurate +and misleading. It might with as much truth be said that the English +word _boyhood_ is formed from selected syllables of boy-ish and +man-hood; or that purity 'compounds together in an artificial manner' +fractions of _pur_ify and qual_ity_. + +[Footnote 93: Correspondence of Duponceau and Heckewelder, in Trans. +Historical and Literary Committee of Am. Philos. Society, p. 403.] + +[Footnote 94: Ibid., p. 406.] + +[Footnote 95: Preface to Duponceau's translation of Zeisberger's +Grammar, p. 21. On Duponceau's authority, Dr. Pickering accepted this +analysis and gave it currency by repeating it, in his admirable paper +on "Indian Languages," in the Encyclopćdia Americana, vol. vi.] + +We meet with similar analyses in almost every published list of Indian +names. Some examples have been given in the preceding pages of this +paper,--as in the interpretation of 'Winnipisiogee' (p. 32) by 'the +beautiful water of the high place,' _s_ or _[=e]s_ being regarded as +the fractional representative of '_kees_, high.' _Pemigewasset_ has +been translated by 'crooked place of pines' and 'crooked mountain pine +place,'--as if _k[oo]-a_, 'a pine,' or its plural _k[oo]-ash_, could +dispense in composition with its significant base, _k[oo]_, and appear +by a grammatical formative only. + +6. No interpretation of a place-name is correct which makes _bad +grammar_ of the original. The apparatus of Indian synthesis was +cumbersome and perhaps inelegant, but it was nicely adjusted to its +work. The grammatical relations of words were never lost sight of. The +several components of a name had their established order, not +dependent upon the will or skill of the composer. When we read modern +advertisements of "cheap gentlemen's traveling bags" or "steel-faced +carpenters' claw hammers," we may construe such phrases with a +latitude which was not permitted to the Algonkins. If 'Connecticut' +means--as some have supposed it to mean--'long deer place,' it denotes +a place where _long deer_ abounded; if 'Piscataqua' was named 'great +deer river,' it was because the deer found _in_ that river were of +remarkable size. 'Coaquanock' or, as Heckewelder wrote it, +'Cuwequenaku,' the site of Philadelphia, may mean 'pine long-place' +but cannot mean 'long pine-place' or 'grove of long pine trees.' If +'Pemigewasset' is compounded of words signifying 'crooked,' 'pines,' +and 'place,' it denotes 'a place of crooked pines,'--not 'crooked +place of pines.' + +Again--every Indian name is _complete within itself_. A mere +adjectival or qualificative cannot serve independently, leaving the +real ground-word to be supplied by the hearer. River names must +contain some element which denotes 'river;' names of lakes or ponds +something which stands for 'lake' or 'pond.' The Indians had not our +fashion of speech which permits Hudson's River to be called 'the +Hudson,' drops the word 'lake' from 'Champlain' or 'Erie,' and makes +"the Alleghanies" a geographical name. This difference must not be +lost sight of, in analysis or translation. _Agawam_ or _Auguan_ (a +name given to several localities in New England where there are low +flat meadows or marshes,) cannot be the equivalent of the Abnaki +_ag[oo]a[n]n_, which means 'a smoke-dried fish,'[96]--though +_ag[oo]a[n]na-ki_ or something like it (if such a name should be +found), might mean 'smoked-fish place.' _Chickahominy_ does not stand +for 'great corn,' nor _Pawcatuck_ for 'much or many deer;'[97] because +neither 'corn' nor 'deer' designates _place_ or implies fixed +location, and therefore neither can be made the ground-word of a +place-name. _Androscoggin_ or _Amoscoggin_ is not from the Abnaki +'_amaskohegan_, fish-spearing,'[98] for a similar reason (and +moreover, because the termination _-h[=e]gan_ denotes always an +_instrument_, never an _action_ or a _place_; it may belong to 'a +fish-spear,' but not to 'fish spearing' nor to the locality 'where +fish are speared.') + +[Footnote 96: It was so interpreted in the Historical Magazine for +May, 1865 (p. 90).] + +[Footnote 97: Ibid. To this interpretation of _Pawcatuck_ there is the +more obvious objection that a prefix signifying 'much or many' should +be followed not by _ahtuk_ or _attuk_, 'a deer,' but by the plural +_ahtukquog_.] + +[Footnote 98: Etymological Vocabulary of Geographical Names, appended +to the last edition of Webster's Dictionary (1864). It may be proper +to remark in this connection, that the writer's responsibility for the +correctness of translations given in that vocabulary does not extend +beyond his own contributions to it.] + +7. The locative post-position, _-et_, _-it_ or _-ut_,[99] means _in_, +_at_ or _on_,--not 'land' or 'place.' It locates, not the object to +the name of which it is affixed, but _something else_ as related to +that object,--which must be of such a nature that location can be +predicated of it. _Animate nouns_, that is, names of animate objects +cannot receive this affix. 'At the rock' (_ompsk-ut_), 'at the +mountain' (_wadchu-ut_), or 'in the country' (_ohk-it_, _auk-it_), is +intelligible, in Indian or English; 'at the deer,' 'at the bear,' or +'at the sturgeons,' would be nonsense in any language. When animate +nouns occur in place-names, they receive the formative of verbals, or +serve as adjectival prefixes to some localizing ground-word or +noun-generic. + +[Footnote 99: Abnaki and Cree, _-k_ or _-g_,--Delaware and Chippewa, +_-ng_; or _-[n]g_,--with a connecting vowel.] + +8. Finally,--in the analysis of geographical names, differences of +_language_ and _dialect_ must not be disregarded. In determining the +primary meaning of roots, great assistance may be had by the +comparison of derivatives in nearly related languages of the same +stock. But in American languages, the diversity of dialects is even +more remarkable than the identity and constancy of roots. Every tribe, +almost every village had its peculiarities of speech. Names +etymologically identical might have widely different meanings in two +languages, or even in two nations speaking substantially the same +language. The eastern Algonkin generic name for 'fish' (_nâma-us_, +Del. _namai-s_) is restricted by northern and western tribes to a +single species, the sturgeon (Chip. _namai´_,) as _the_ fish, par +excellence. _Attuk_, in Massachusetts was the common fallow-deer,--in +Canada and the north-west the caribou or reindeer. The Abnaki Indian +called his _dog_ (_atié_) by a name which the Chippewa gives his +_horse_ (_oti-un_; _n'di_, my horse).[100] The most common +noun-generic of river names in New England (_-tuk_, 'tidal river') +occurs rarely in those of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is +replaced by _-hanne_ ('rapid stream'), and is unknown to western +Algonkin tribes whose streams are undisturbed by tides. The analysis +of a geographical name must be sought in the language spoken by the +name-givers. The correct translation of a Connecticut or Narragansett +name is not likely to be attained by searching for its several +components in a Chippewa vocabulary; or of the name of a locality near +Hudson's River, by deriving its prefix from an Abnaki adverb and its +ground-word from a Chippewa participle,--as was actually done in a +recently published list of Indian names. + +[Footnote 100: Both words have the same meaning,--that of 'a domestic +animal,' or literally, 'animate property;' 'he who _belongs_ to +me.'] + + + + +INDIAN NAMES. + + +Abagadusset, Abequaduset, 39 + +Abnaki, 7 + +-ACADIE, 26, 27 + +_Acawme-_, 10 + +Accomack, 10 + +-ADCHU, -ACHU, 20 + +-ADENÉ, 21 + +Agamenticus, 10 + +Agoncy, 28 + +AHQUEDNE, 23 + +_Akoode-_, 28 + +Alleghany, 12 + +-AMAUG, 18 + +Amessagunticook, 25 + +Amoskeag, 25 + +_Anasqui-_, 41 + +Androscoggin, 25 + +Anmesookkantti, 25, 42 + +Annis-squam, 18 + +Aquednet, -nesit, 23 + +_Ashawi-_, 33 + +Ashawog, 33 + +ASHIM, 34 + +Ashimuit, 34 + +_Assini-_, 20 + +-AŰKE, 6 + + +Baamcheenunganoo, 40 + +Bagadoose, 38 + +-BIK, 18 + +_Boonamoo-_, 27 + + +Capawonk, 29 + +Cappowonganick, 29 + +Catumb, 19 + +Caucomgomoc, 17 + +Chabanakongkomuk, 35 + +CHABENUK, 35 + +Chawonock, 7 + +Chebegnadose, 39 + +Chippaquiddick, 23 + +Cobbosseecontee, 26, 42 + +Cobbscook, 42 + +-COMACO, 21 + +Connecticut, 8 + +Cuppacommock, 21 + + +_-Ehtu_, _-ettu_, 23, 24 + +_Eshqua-_, 41 + + +-GAMI, 17 + +Ganshow-hanne, 12 + +Gonic, 42 + + +Hackensack, 30 + +-HAN, -HANNE, 8, 12 + +_Hassuni-_, 19 + +Higganum, 19 + +-HITTUCK, 8 + +Hoccanum, 30 + +HOCQUAUN, 30 + + +Ishquagoma, 41 + + +_Kabassé-_, 42 + +-KAMIGHÉ, 21 + +-KAOODI, 28 + +-KANTTI, 22 + +Katahdin, 21 + +_Kauposh-_, 42 + +Kearsarge, 20 + +_Keht-_, _kit-_, 12, 19, 21 + +Kehtetukqut, 12 + +Kennebec, 15 + +Kenjua, 43 + +Kenosha, 43 + +Ketumpscut, 19 + +-KI, 6 + +Kinougami, 17 + +Kiskatamenakook, 7 + +Kittanning, 12 + +Kittatinny, 21 + +Kitchigami, 17 + +Kitchi-sipi, 7 + +-KOMUK, 21 + +-KONTU, 23 + +Kunckquachu, 20 + +_Kuppo-_, 21, 29 + + +Lackawanna, 12 + +Lenapewi-hittuck, 8 + + +Machigamig, 17 + +Manati, 22 + +Manhasset, 23 + +Manhatan, 22 + +Manisses, 22 + +Manussing, 23 + +_Massa-_, _Masha-_, 15 + +Massachusetts, 20 + +Massapaug, 15 + +Massaugatucket, 32 + +Mashenips, 38 + +Maskinonjé, 43 + +Mattabeset, 35 + +Mattammiscontis, 25 + +Mattapan, -ient, 34 + +Mattapony, 35 + +Mattapoiset, 35 + +Matchebiguatus, 39 + +Mauch-chunk, 20 + +MENAN, 22 + +Mennewies, 23 + +Meesucontee, 25 + +Mianus, 37 + +Michigan, 17 + +Missinippi, 15 + +Missisaking, 31 + +Mississippi, 7 + +Misquamacuck, 42 + +Mistassini, 20 + +Miste-shipu, 7 + +Mitchigami, 17 + +Mohicannittuck, 8 + +Montauk, 23 + +Moosup, 37 + +Moshenupsuck, 38 + +-MSK (for -OMPSK), 18 + +Munhansick, 23 + +MUNNOH-HAN, 22 + +Mushauwomuk, 5, 35 + +Mystic, 8 + + +NÂ[=I]AG, 29 + +Namasket, 42 + +Nameaug, 38 + +Namelake, 38 + +Narragansett, 29 + +Nashauekomuk, 21 + +NASHAUÉ, 21, 33 + +Nashua, Nashaway, 33 + +Natchaug, 33 + +Na[=u]mkeag, 43 + +Nayatt, Nayot, 29 + +_Nessaooa-_, 22 + +Newichawanock, 12 + +Nimpanickhickanuh, 37 + +NIPPE, NEBI, 14 + +Nippissing, 15 + +Noank, 29 + +_Nó[=e]u-_, 11 + +Norwottock, 11 + +Noyaug, 29 + +_Nunni-_, 16 + +Nunnepoag, 16 + +Nunkertunk, 29 + +Nyack, 29 + + +Occoquan, 30 + +_Ogkome-_, 10 + +OGQUIDNE, 23 + +Ohio, 13 + +-OHKE, -OKE, 6 + +Okhúcquan, 30 + +Olighin-sipoú, 13 + +-OMPSK, 18 + +Oswego, 31 + +Ouschankamaug, 18 + + +Pacatock, 8 + +_Paguan-_, 40 + +_Pahke-_, 16, 40 + +Pahquioque, 39 + +Paquabaug, 16, 40 + +Paquiaug, 39 + +Pascoag, 11 + +Pasquotank, 11 + +Passamaquoddy, 26, 43 + +Patuxet, -ent, 9 + +-PAUG, 15 + +_Pauqui-_, 39 + +Pauquepaug, 16 + +Pauat-, 9 + +Pautuck, 9 + +Pawating, 9 + +Pawcatuck, 8 + +Pawtucket, 8, 9 + +Pemadené, 41 + +_Pemi-_, 40 + +Pemaquid, 41 + +Pemetiq, 41 + +Pemigewasset, 41 + +_Pemiji-_, 40 + +Pemijigomé, 40 + +_Pen-_, 19 + +Penobscot, 19 + +Pequabuck, 16 + +Pequannoc, 40 + +_Pescatum-_, 26, 43 + +_Peske-_, 10 + +Pesquamscot, 11 + +Pettiquamscut, 18 + +Petuckquapock, 16 + +_Petukqui-_, 16, 18 + +Pikanghenahik, 30 + +_Pimé-_, 40 + +-PISK, -PSK, 18 + +Piscataqua, -quog, 11 + +Piscataway,-aquis, 11 + +Poaetquessing, 9 + +_Pohqui-_, 39 + +_Ponamo-_, 27 + +Poquannoc, 40 + +Poutaxat, 9 + +Powhatan, 10 + +Pymatuning, 38, 41 + +Pyquaag, 39 + +_Pummeecke-_, 40 + + +Quansigamaug, 18 + +Quilutamende, 36 + +_Quinni-_, 8, 15 + +Quinnihticut, 8 + +Quinebaug, 16 + +Quinepoxet, 16 + +Quinnipiac, 15 + +-QUODDY, -KANTTI, 26, 27 + +Quonshapang, 43 + +Qussuk, 16 + +Quunkwadchu, 20 + + +Saco, 30 + +Sagadahock, 30 + +Saganaw, 31 + +Saguenay, 31 + +Saquatucket, 32 + +Saugatuck, 32 + +Saukunk, 31 + +Segoonumakaddy, 27 + +Segubbunakaddy, 26 + +SEPU, SEIP, SIPI, 7 + +Shaume, 34 + +Shawmut, 36 + +Shawwunk, 33 + +Shubenacadie, 26 + +Shumuit, 34 + +Sicaiook, Suckiaug, 7 + +Soakatuck, 32 + +_Sonki-_, 16 + +Sonkipaug, 16 + +Sowanohke, 7 + +Squam, 18 + +Squamacut, 42 + +Squammagonic, 42 + +Squamscot, 18 + +_Sucki-_, 7 + +Swamscot, 18 + + +-TCHUAN, 12 + +Temigami, 17 + +Tetiquet, Titicut, 11 + +Tomheganomset, 19 + +Tracady, -die, 28 + +-TUK, 8 + + +UHQUÔN, 30 + + +WADCHU, 20 + +Wampanoags, 6 + +_Wanashqué-_, 18, 41 + +Wangunbog, 16 + +Wapanachki, 7 + +Werowocomoco, 21 + +Winnepesaukee, 32, 33 + +Winnesquamsaukit, 18 + +Winnisimmit, 34 + +Wnogquetookoke, 30 + +Wonasquatucket, 41 + +WONKUN, WONGUN, 29 + +Wongattuck, 29 + +Wonkemaug, 18 + +Wongunpaug, 16 + +Wonnesquam, 18 + +Wuskowhánanaukit, 7 + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Composition of Indian Geographical +Names, by J. 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Hammond Trumbull + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .footnotes {border: none 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {font-weight: bold; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Composition of Indian Geographical Names, by +J. Hammond Trumbull + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Composition of Indian Geographical Names + Illustrated from the Algonkin Languages + +Author: J. Hammond Trumbull + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18279] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMPOSITION OF INDIAN *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Canadian Institute for +Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org).) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h2>THE COMPOSITION OF</h2> + +<h1>INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES,</h1> + +<h3>ILLUSTRATED FROM THE</h3> + +<h2>ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.</h2> + +<p> </p> + +<h2>BY J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<span class="smcap">press of</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Case, Lockwood & Brainard</span>,<br /> +Hartford, Conn.<br /> +</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">[<i>Transcriber's Note:</i> Published 1870]</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b><a href="#Page_3">On the Composition of Indian +Geographical Names</a></b></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b><a href="#INDIAN_NAMES">Indian Names [Index]</a></b></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><b><a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes</a></b></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p style="text-align: center"><i>Transcriber's Note:</i> The oo ligature in +the original book is here represented as [oo]. See <a href="#Footnote_4_4">footnote 4</a>.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h3>ON THE COMPOSITION OF</h3> + +<h2>INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.</h2> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">A proper name</span> has been defined to be "a mere mark put upon an +individual, and of which it is the characteristic property <i>to be +destitute of meaning</i>."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> If we accept this definition, it follows +that there are no proper names in the aboriginal languages of America. +Every Indian synthesis—names of persons and places not excepted—must +"preserve the consciousness of its roots," and must not only have a +meaning but be so framed as to convey that meaning with precision, to +all who speak the language to which it belongs. Whenever, by phonetic +corruption or by change of circumstance, it loses its +self-interpreting or self-defining power, it must be discarded from +the language. "It requires tradition, society, and literature to +maintain forms which can no longer be analyzed at once."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In our own +language, such forms may hold their places by prescriptive right or +force of custom, and names absolutely unmeaning, or applied without +regard to their original meaning, are accepted by common consent as +the distinguishing marks of persons and places. We call a man William +or Charles, Jones or Brown,—or a town, New Lebanon, Cincinnati, Baton +Rouge, or Big Bethel—just as we put a number on a policeman's badge +or on a post-office box, or a trademark on an article of merchandise; +and the number and the mark are as truly and in nearly the same sense +proper names as the others are.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p><p>Not that personal or proper names, in any language, were <i>originally</i> +mere arbitrary sounds, devoid of meaning. The first James or the first +Brown could, doubtless, have given as good a reason for his name as +the first Abraham. But changes of language and lapse of time made the +names independent of the reasons, and took from them all their +significance. Patrick is not now, <i>eo nomine</i>, a 'patrician;' Bridget +is not necessarily 'strong' or 'bright;' and in the name of Mary, +hallowed by its associations, only the etymologist can detect the +primitive 'bitterness.' Boston is no longer 'St. Botolph's Town;' +there is no 'Castle of the inhabitants of Hwiccia' +(<i>Hwic-wara-ceaster</i>) to be seen at Worcester; and Hartford is neither +'the ford of harts,' (which the city seal has made it,) nor 'the red +ford,' which its name once indicated.</p> + +<p>In the same way, many Indian geographical names, after their adoption +by Anglo-American colonists, became unmeaning sounds. Their original +character was lost by their transfer to a foreign tongue. Nearly all +have suffered some mutilation or change of form. In many instances, +hardly a trace of true original can be detected in the modern name. +Some have been separated from the localities to which they belonged, +and assigned to others to which they are etymologically inappropriate. +A mountain receives the name of a river; a bay, that of a cape or a +peninsula; a tract of land, that of a rock or a waterfall. And so +'Massachusetts' and 'Connecticut' and 'Narragansett' have come to be +<i>proper names</i>, as truly as 'Boston' and 'Hartford' are in their +cis-Atlantic appropriation.</p> + +<p>The Indian languages tolerated no such 'mere marks.' Every name +<i>described</i> the locality to which it was affixed. The description was +sometimes <i>topographical</i>; sometimes <i>historical</i>, preserving the +memory of a battle, a feast, the dwelling-place of a great sachem, or +the like; sometimes it indicated one of the <i>natural products</i> of the +place, or the <i>animals</i> which resorted to it; occasionally, its +<i>position</i> or <i>direction</i> from a place previously known, or from the +territory of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> nation by which the name was given,—as for example, +'the land on the other side of the river,' 'behind the mountain,' 'the +east land,' 'the half-way place,' &c. The same name might be, in fact +it very often was, given to more places than one; but these must not +be so near together that mistakes or doubts could be occasioned by the +repetition. With this precaution, there was no reason why there might +not be as many 'Great Rivers,' 'Bends,' 'Forks,' and 'Water-fall +places' as there are Washingtons, Franklins, Unions, and Fairplays in +the list of American post-offices.</p> + +<p>With few exceptions, the structure of these names is simple. Nearly +all may be referred to one of three classes:</p> + +<p>I. Those formed by the union of two elements, which we will call +<i>adjectival</i> and <i>substantival</i>;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> with or without a locative suffix +or post-position meaning 'at,' 'in,' 'by,' 'near,' &c.</p> + +<p>II. Those which have a single element, the <i>substantival</i> or +'ground-word,' with its locative suffix.</p> + +<p>III. Those formed from verbs, as participials or verbal nouns, +denoting a <i>place where</i> the action of the verb is performed. To this +class belong, for example, such names as <i>Mushauwomuk</i> (Boston), +'where there is going-by-boat,' <i>i.e.</i>, a ferry, or canoe-crossing. +Most of these names, however, may be shown by rigid analysis to belong +to one of the two preceding classes, which comprise at least +nine-tenths of all Algonkin local names which have been preserved.</p> + +<p>The examples I shall give of these three classes, will be taken from +Algonkin languages; chiefly from the Massachu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>setts or Natick (which +was substantially the same as that spoken by the Narragansetts and +Connecticut Indians), the Abnaki, the Lenni-Lenâpe or Delaware, the +Chippewa or Ojibway, and the Knisteno or Cree.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Of names of the <i>first</i> class, in central and southern New England, +some of the more common substantival components or 'ground-words' are +those which denote <i>Land</i> or <i>Country</i>, <i>River</i>, <i>Water</i>, <i>Lake</i> or +<i>Pond</i>, <i>Fishing-place</i>, <i>Rock</i>, <i>Mountain</i>, <i>Inclosure</i>, and +<i>Island</i>.</p> + +<p>1. The Massachusetts <span class="smcap">ohke</span> (Narr. <i>aûke</i>; Delaware, <i>hacki</i>; Chip. +<i>ahke</i>; Abnaki, <i>'ki</i>;) signifies <span class="smcap">land</span>, and in local names, <span class="smcap">place</span> or +<span class="smcap">country</span>. The final vowel is sometimes lost in composition. With the +locative suffix, it becomes <i>ohkit</i> (Del. <i>hacking</i>; Chip. <i>ahki<sup>n</sup></i>; +Abn. <i>kik</i>;) <i>at</i> or <i>in</i> a place or country.</p> + +<p>To the Narragansetts proper, the country east of Narragansett Bay and +Providence River was <i>wa<sup>n</sup>pan-auke</i>, 'east land;' and its people were +called by the Dutch explorers, <i>Wapenokis</i>, and by the English, +<i>Wampanoags</i>. The tribes of the upper St. Lawrence taught the French, +and tribes south of the Pis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>cataqua taught the English, to give the +name of East-landers—<i>Abenaquis</i>, or <i>Abinakis</i>—to the Indians of +Maine. The country of the Delawares was 'east land,' <i>Wapanachki</i>, to +Algonkin nations of the west.</p> + +<p>The '<i>Chawwonock</i>,' or '<i>Chawonocke</i>,' of Capt. John Smith,—on what +is now known as Chowan River, in Virginia and North Carolina,—was, to +the Powhattans and other Virginian tribes, the 'south country,' or +<i>sowan-ohke</i>, as Eliot wrote it, in Gen. xxiv. 62.</p> + +<p>With the adjectival <i>sucki</i>, 'dark-colored,' 'blackish,' we have the +aboriginal name of the South Meadow in Hartford,—<i>sucki-ohke</i>, +(written <i>Sicaiook</i>, <i>Suckiaug</i>, &c.), 'black earth.'</p> + +<p><i>Wuskowhanan-auk-it</i>, 'at the pigeon country,' was the name (as given +by Roger Williams) of a "place where these fowl breed abundantly,"—in +the northern part of the Nipmuck country (now in Worcester county, +Mass.).</p> + +<p>'<i>Kiskatamenakook</i>,' the name of a brook (but originally, of some +locality near the brook) in Catskill, N.Y.,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> is +<i>kiskato-minak-auke</i>, 'place of thin-shelled nuts' (or shag-bark +hickory nuts).</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">River</span>. <i>Seip</i> or <i>sepu</i> (Del. <i>sipo</i>; Chip. <i>sēpē</i>; Abn. +<i>sip[oo]</i>;) the Algonkin word for 'river' is derived from a root that +means 'stretched out,' 'extended,' 'become long,' and corresponds +nearly to the English 'stream.' This word rarely, if ever, enters into +the composition of local names, and, so far as I know, it does not +make a part of the name of any river in New England. <i>Mississippi</i> is +<i>missi-sipu</i>, 'great river;' <i>Kitchi-sipi</i>, 'chief river' or 'greatest +river,' was the Montagnais name of the St. Lawrence;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and +<i>Miste-shipu</i> is their modern name for the Moise or 'Great River' +which flows from the lakes of the Labrador peninsula into the Gulf of +St. Lawrence.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p><p>Near the Atlantic seaboard, the most common substantival components of +river names are (1) <i>-tuk</i> and (2) <i>-hanne</i>, <i>-han</i>, or <i>-huan</i>. +Neither of these is an independent word. They are inseparable +nouns-generic, or generic affixes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">-Tuk</span> (Abn. <i>-teg[oo]é</i>; Del. <i>-ittuk</i>;) denotes a river whose waters +are driven <i>in waves</i>, by tides or wind. It is found in names of tidal +rivers and estuaries; less frequently, in names of <i>broad and deep</i> +streams, not affected by tides. With the adjectival <i>missi</i>, 'great,' +it forms <i>missi-tuk</i>,—now written <i>Mystic</i>,—the name of 'the great +river' of Boston bay, and of another wide-mouthed tidal river in the +Pequot country, which now divides the towns of Stonington and Groton.</p> + +<p>Near the eastern boundary of the Pequot country, was the river which +the Narragansetts called <i>Paquat-tuk</i>, sometimes written <i>Paquetock</i>, +now <i>Pawcatuck</i>, 'Pequot river,'—the present eastern boundary of +Connecticut. Another adjectival prefix, <i>pohki</i> or <i>pahke</i>, 'pure,' +'clear,' found in the name of several tidal streams, is hardly +distinguishable from the former, in the modern forms of <i>Pacatock</i>, +<i>Paucatuck</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Quinni-tuk</i> is the 'long tidal-river.' With the locative affix, +<i>Quinni-tuk-ut</i>, 'on long river,'—now <i>Connecticut</i>,—was the name of +the valley, or lands both sides of the river. In one early deed +(1636), I find the name written <i>Quinetucquet</i>; in another, of the +same year, <i>Quenticutt</i>. Roger Williams (1643) has <i>Qunnihticut</i>, and +calls the Indians of this region <i>Quintik-óock</i>, i.e. 'the long river +people.' The <i>c</i> in the second syllable of the modern name has no +business there, and it is difficult to find a reason for its +intrusion.</p> + +<p>'<i>Lenapewihittuck</i>' was the Delaware name of 'the river of the +Lenape,' and '<i>Mohicannittuck</i>,' of 'the river of the Mohicans' +(Hudson River).<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>Of <i>Pawtucket</i> and <i>Pawtuxet</i>, the composition is less obvious; but we +have reliable Indian testimony that these names mean, respectively, +'at the falls' and 'at the little falls.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> Pequot and Narragansett +interpreters, in 1679, declared that Blackstone's River, was "called +in Indian <i>Pautuck</i> (which signifies, a Fall), because there the fresh +water falls into the salt water."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> So, the upper falls of the +Quinebaug river (at Danielsonville, Conn.) were called "<i>Powntuck</i>, +which is a general name for all Falls," as Indians of that region +testified.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> There was another Pautucket, 'at the falls' of the +Merrimac (now Lowell); and another on Westfield River, Mass. +<i>Pawtuxet</i>, i.e. <i>pau't-tuk-es-it</i>, is the regularly formed diminutive +of <i>paut-tuk-it</i>. The village of Pawtuxet, four miles south of +Providence, R.I., is "at the little falls" of the river to which their +name has been transferred. The first settlers of Plymouth were +informed by Samoset, that the place which they had chosen for their +plantation was called '<i>Patuxet</i>,'—probably because of some 'little +falls' on Town Brook.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> There was another 'Pautuxet,' or 'Powtuxet,' +on the Quinebaug, at the lower falls; and a river 'Patuxet' +(Patuxent), in Maryland. The same name is ingeniously disguised by +Campanius, as '<i>Poaetquessing</i>,' which he mentions as one of the +principal towns of the Indians on the Delaware, just below the lower +falls of that river at Trenton; and 'Poutaxat' was understood by the +Swedes to be the Indian name both of the river and bay.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The +adjectival <i>pawt-</i> or <i>pauat-</i> seems to be derived from a root meaning +'to make a loud noise.' It is found in many, perhaps in all Algonkin +languages. '<i>Pawating</i>,' as Schoolcraft wrote it, was the Chippewa +name of the Sault Ste. Marie, or Falls of St. Mary's +River,—pronounced <i>poú-at-ing´</i>, or <i>pau-at-u<sup>n</sup></i>, the last syllable +representing the locative affix,—"at the Falls."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> The same name is +found in Virginia, under a disguise which has hitherto prevented its +recognition. Capt. John Smith informs us that the "place of which +their great Emperor taketh his name" of <i>Powhatan</i>, or <i>Pawatan</i>, was +near "the Falls" of James River,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> where is now the city of +Richmond. 'Powatan' is <i>pauat-hanne</i>, or 'falls on a rapid stream.'</p> + +<p><i>Acáwmé</i> or <i>Ogkomé</i> (Chip. <i>agami</i>; Abn. <i>aga<sup>n</sup>mi</i>; Del. +<i>achgameu</i>;) means 'on the other side,' 'over against,' 'beyond.' As +an adjectival, it is found in <i>Acawm-auké</i>, the modern 'Accomac,' a +peninsula east of Chesapeake Bay, which was 'other-side land' to the +Powhatans of Virginia. The site of Plymouth, Mass., was called +'Accomack' by Capt. John Smith,—a name given not by the Indians who +occupied it but by those, probably, who lived farther north, 'on the +other side' of Plymouth Bay. The countries of Europe were called +'other-side lands,'—Narr. <i>acawmen-óaki</i>; Abn. <i>aga<sup>n</sup>men-[oo]ki</i>. +With <i>-tuk</i>, it forms <i>acawmen-tuk</i> (Abn. <i>aga<sup>n</sup>men-teg[oo]</i>), +'other-side river,' or, its diminutive, <i>acawmen-tuk-es</i> (Abn. +<i>aga<sup>n</sup>men-teg[oo]éss[oo]</i>), 'the small other-side river,'—a name +first given (as <i>Agamenticus</i> or <i>Accomenticus</i>) to York, Me., from +the 'small tidal-river beyond' the Piscataqua, on which that town was +planted.</p> + +<p><i>Peske-tuk</i> (Abn. <i>peské-teg[oo]é</i>) denotes a '<i>divided</i> river,' or a +river which another <i>cleaves</i>. It is not generally (if ever) applied +to one of the 'forks' which unite to form the main stream, but to some +considerable tributary received by the main stream, or to the division +of the stream by some obstacle, near its mouth, which makes of it a +'double river.' The primary meaning of the (adjectival) root is 'to +divide in two,' and the secondary, 'to split,' 'to divide <i>forcibly</i>, +or <i>abruptly</i>.' These shades of meaning are not likely to be detected +under the disguises in which river-names come down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> to our time. Râle +translates <i>ne-peské</i>, "je vas dans le chemin qui en coupe un autre:" +<i>peskahak[oo]n</i>, "branche."</p> + +<p><i>Piscataqua</i>, Pascataqua, &c., represent the Abn. <i>peské-teg[oo]é</i>, +'divided tidal-river.' The word for 'place' (<i>ohke</i>, Abn. <i>'ki</i>,) +being added, gives the form <i>Piscataquak</i> or <i>-quog</i>. There is another +<i>Piscataway</i>, in New Jersey,—not far below the junction of the north +and south branches of the Raritan,—and a Piscataway river in +Maryland, which empties into the Potomac; a <i>Piscataquog</i> river, +tributary to the Merrimac, in New Hampshire; a <i>Piscataquis</i> +(diminutive) in Maine, which empties into the Penobscot. <i>Pasquotank</i>, +the name of an arm of Albemarle Sound and of a small river which flows +into it, in North Carolina, has probably the same origin.</p> + +<p>The adjectival <i>peské</i>, or <i>piské</i>, is found in many other compound +names besides those which are formed with <i>-tuk</i> or <i>-hanne</i>: as in +<i>Pascoag</i>, for <i>peské-auké</i>, in Burrilville, R.I., 'the dividing +place' of two branches of Blackstone's River; and <i>Pesquamscot</i>, in +South Kingston, R.I., which (if the name is rightly given) is "at the +divided (or cleft) rock,"—<i>peské-ompsk-ut</i>,—perhaps some ancient +land-mark, on or near the margin of Worden's Pond.</p> + +<p><i>Nôeu-tuk</i> (<i>Nóahtuk</i>, Eliot), 'in the middle of the river,' may be, +as Mr. Judd<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and others have supposed, the name which has been +variously corrupted to Norwottock, Nonotuck, Noatucke, Nawottok, &c. +If so, it probably belonged, originally to one of the necks or +peninsulas of meadow, near Northampton,—such as that at Hockanum, +which, by a change in the course of the river at that point, has now +become an island.</p> + +<p><i>Tetiquet</i> or <i>Titicut</i>, which passes for the Indian name of Taunton, +and of a fishing place on Taunton River in the north-west part of +Middleborough, Mass., shows how effectually such names may be +disguised by phonetic corruption and mutilation. <i>Kehte-tuk-ut</i> (or as +Eliot wrote it in Genesis xv. 18, <i>Kehteihtukqut</i>) means 'on the great +river.' In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> Plymouth Colony Records we find the forms +'<i>Cauteeticutt</i>' and '<i>Coteticutt</i>,' and elsewhere, +<i>Kehtehticut</i>,—the latter, in 1698, as the name of a place on the +great river, "between Taunton and Bridgewater." Hence, 'Teghtacutt,' +'Teightaquid,' 'Tetiquet,' &c.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>(2). The other substantival component of river-names, <span class="smcap">-hanne</span> or <span class="smcap">-han</span> +(Abn. <i>-ts[oo]a<sup>n</sup>n</i> or <i>-ta<sup>n</sup>n</i>; Mass. <i>-tchuan</i>;) denotes 'a rapid +stream' or 'current;' primarily, 'flowing water.' In the Massachusetts +and Abnaki, it occurs in such compounds as <i>anu-tchuan</i> (Abn. +<i>ari'ts[oo]a<sup>n</sup>n</i>), 'it <i>over</i>-flows:' <i>kussi-tchuan</i> (Abn. +<i>kesi'ts[oo]a<sup>n</sup>n</i>), 'it <i>swift</i> flows,' &c.</p> + +<p>In Pennsylvania and Virginia, where the streams which rise in the +highlands flow down rapidly descending slopes, <i>-hanné</i> is more common +than <i>-tuk</i> or <i>sepu</i> in river names. <i>Keht-hanné</i> (<i>kittan</i>, Zeisb.; +<i>kithanne</i>, Hkw.) was a name given to the Delaware River as 'the +principal or greatest stream' of that region: and by the western +Delawares, to the Ohio.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> With the locative termination, +<i>Kittanning</i> (Penn.) is a place 'on the greatest stream.' The +Schuylkill was <i>Ganshow-hanné</i>, 'noisy stream;' the Lackawanna, +<i>Lechau-hanné</i>, 'forked stream' or 'stream that forks:'<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> with +affix, <i>Lechauhannak</i> or <i>Lechauwahannak</i>, 'at the river-fork,'—for +which Hendrick Aupamut, a Muhhekan, wrote (with dialectic exchange of +<i>n</i> for Delaware <i>l</i>) '<i>Naukhuwwhnauk</i>,' 'The Forks' of the Miami.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> +The same name is found in New England, disguised as Newichawanock, +Nuchawanack, &c., as near Berwick, Me., 'at the fork' or confluence of +Cocheco and Salmon Fall rivers,—the '<i>Neghechewanck</i>' of Wood's Map +(1634). <i>Powhatan</i>, for <i>Pauat-hanne</i>, 'at the Falls on a rapid +stream,' has been previously noticed.</p> + +<p><i>Alleghany</i>, or as some prefer to write it, Allegheny,—the Algonkin +name of the Ohio River, but now restricted to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> of its +branches,—is probably (Delaware) <i>welhik-hanné</i> or <i>[oo]lik-hanné</i>, +'the best (or, the fairest) river.' <i>Welhik</i> (as Zeisberger wrote +it)<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> is the inanimate form of the adjectival, meaning 'best,' 'most +beautiful.' In his Vocabulary, Zeisberger gave this synthesis, with +slight change of orthography, as "<i>Wulach'neü</i>" [or +<i>[oo]lakhanne[oo]</i>, as Eliot would have written it,] with the free +translation, "<i>a fine River</i>, without Falls." The name was indeed more +likely to belong to rivers 'without falls' or other obstruction to the +passage of canoes, but its literal meaning is, as its composition +shows, "best rapid-stream," or "finest rapid-stream;" "La Belle +Riviere" of the French, and the <i>Oue-yo´</i> or <i>O hee´ yo Gä-hun´-dä</i>, +"good river" or "the beautiful river," of the Senecas.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> For this +translation of the name we have very respectable authority,—that of +Christian Frederick Post, a Moravian of Pennsylvania, who lived +seventeen years with the Muhhekan Indians and was twice married among +them, and whose knowledge of the Indian languages enabled him to +render important services to the colony, as a negotiator with the +Delawares and Shawanese of the Ohio, in the French war. In his +"Journal from Philadelphia to the Ohio" in 1758,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> after mention of +the 'Alleghenny' river, he says: "The <i>Ohio</i>, as it is called by the +Sennecas. <i>Alleghenny</i> is the name of the same river in the Delaware +language. <i>Both words signify the fine</i> or <i>fair river</i>." La Metairie, +the notary of La Salle's expedition, "calls the Ohio, the +<i>Olighinsipou</i>, or <i>Aleghin</i>; evidently an Algonkin name,"—as Dr. +Shea remarks.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Hecke<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>welder says that the Delawares "still call the +Allegany (Ohio) river, <i>Alligéwi Sipu</i>,"—"the river of the +<i>Alligewi</i>" as he chooses to translate it. In one form, we have +<i>wulik-hannésipu</i>, 'best rapid-stream long-river;' in the other, +<i>wuliké-sipu</i>, 'best long-river.' Heckewelder's derivation of the +name, on the authority of a Delaware legend, from the mythic +'Alligewi' or 'Talligewi,'—"a race of Indians said to have once +inhabited that country," who, after great battles fought in +pre-historic times, were driven from it by the all-conquering +Delawares,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>—is of no value, unless supported by other testimony. +The identification of <i>Alleghany</i> with the Seneca "<i>De o´ na gä no</i>, +cold water" [or, cold spring,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>] proposed by a writer in the +<i>Historical Magazine</i> (vol. iv. p. 184), though not apparent at first +sight, might deserve consideration if there were any reason for +believing the name of the river to be of Iroquois origin,—if it were +probable that an Iroquois name would have been adopted by Algonkin +nations,—or, if the word for 'water' or 'spring' could be made, in +any American language, the substantival component of a <i>river</i> name.</p> + +<p>From the river, the name appears to have been transferred by the +English to a range of the "Endless Mountains."</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Nippe</span>, <span class="smcap">Nipi</span> (= <i>n'pi</i>; Narr. <i>nip</i>; Muhh. <i>nup</i>; Abn. and Chip. +<i>nebi</i>; Del. <i>m'bi</i>;) and its diminutives, <i>nippisse</i> and <i>nips</i>, were +employed in compound names to denote <span class="smcap">Water</span>, generally, without +characterizing it as 'swift flowing,' 'wave moved,' 'tidal,' or +'standing:' as, for example, in the name of a part of a river, where +the stream widening with diminished current becomes lake-like, or of a +stretch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> of tide-water inland, forming a bay or cove at a river's +mouth. By the northern Algonkins, it appears to have been used for +'lake,' as in the name of <i>Missi-nippi</i> or <i>Missinabe</i> lake ('great +water'), and in that of Lake <i>Nippissing</i>, which has the locative +affix, <i>nippis-ing</i>, 'at the small lake' north-east of the greater +Lake Huron, which gave a name to the nation of 'Nipissings,' or as the +French called them, '<i>Nipissiriniens</i>,'—according to Charlevoix, the +true Algonkins.</p> + +<p><i>Quinnipiac</i>, regarded as the Indian name of New Haven,—also written +Quinnypiock, Quinopiocke, Quillipiack, &c., and by President +Stiles<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (on the authority of an Indian of East Haven) +<i>Quinnepyooghq</i>,—is, probably, 'long water place,' +<i>quinni-nippe-ohke</i>, or <i>quin-nipi-ohke</i>. <i>Kennebec</i> would seem to be +another form of the same name, from the Abnaki, <i>k[oo]né-be-ki</i>, were +it not that Râle wrote,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> as the name of the river, +'<i>Aghenibékki</i>'—suggesting a different adjectival. But Biard, in the +<i>Relation de la Nouvelle-France</i> of 1611, has '<i>Kinibequi</i>,' +Champlain, <i>Quinebequy</i>, and Vimont, in 1640, '<i>Quinibequi</i>,' so that +we are justified in regarding the name as the probable equivalent of +<i>Quinni-pi-ohke</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Win-nippe-sauki</i> (Winnipiseogee) will be noticed hereafter.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">-Paug</span>, <span class="smcap">-pog</span>, <span class="smcap">-bog</span>, (Abn. <i>-béga</i> or <i>-bégat</i>; Del. <i>-pécat</i>;) an +inseparable generic, denoting '<span class="smcap">water at rest</span>,' 'standing water,' is +the substantival component of names of small lakes and ponds, +throughout New England.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Some of the most common of these names +are,—</p> + +<p><i>Massa-paug</i>, 'great pond,'—which appears in a great variety of +modern forms, as Mashapaug, Mashpaug, Massapogue,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> Massapog, &c. A +pond in Cranston, near Providence, R.I.; another in Warwick, in the +same State; 'Alexander's Lake,' in Killingly; 'Gardiner's Lake,' in +Salem, Bozrah and Montville; 'Tyler Pond,' in Goshen; ponds in Sharon, +Groton, and Lunenburg, Mass., were each of them the 'Massapaug' or +'great pond' of its vicinity.</p> + +<p><i>Quinni-paug</i>, 'long pond.' One in Killingly, gave a name to +<i>Quinebaug</i> River and the 'Quinebaug country.' Endicott, in 1651, +wrote this name 'Qunnubbágge' (3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iv. 191). +"Quinepoxet," the name of a pond and small river in Princeton, Mass., +appears to be a corruption of the diminutive with the locative affix; +<i>Quinni-paug-es-it</i>, 'at the little long pond.'</p> + +<p><i>Wongun-paug</i>, 'crooked (or bent) pond.' There is one of the name in +Coventry, Conn. Written, 'Wangunbog,' 'Wungumbaug,' &c.</p> + +<p><i>Petuhkqui-paug</i>, 'round pond,' now called 'Dumpling Pond,' in +Greenwich, Conn., gave a name to a plain and brook in that town, and, +occasionally, to the plantation settled there, sometimes written +'Petuckquapock.'</p> + +<p><i>Nunni-paug</i>, 'fresh pond.' One in Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard, gave +a name (Nunnepoag) to an Indian village near it. Eliot wrote +<i>nunnipog</i>, for 'fresh water,' in James iii. 12.</p> + +<p><i>Sonki-paug</i> or <i>so<sup>n</sup>ki-paug</i>, 'cool pond.' (<i>Sonkipog</i>, 'cold +water,' Eliot.) Egunk-sonkipaug, or 'the cool pond (spring) of Egunk' +hill in Sterling, Conn., is named in Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan +country, as one of the east bounds.</p> + +<p><i>Pahke-paug</i>, 'clear pond' or 'pure water pond.' This name occurs in +various forms, as 'Pahcupog,' a pond near Westerly, R.I.;<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> +'Pauquepaug,' transferred from a pond to a brook in Kent and New +Milford; 'Paquabaug,' near Shepaug River, in Roxbury, &c. 'Pequabuck' +river, in Bristol and Farmington, appears to derive its name from some +'clear pond,'—perhaps the one between Bristol and Plymouth.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> +<p>Another noun-generic that denotes 'lake' or 'fresh water at rest,' is +found in many Abnaki, northern Algonkin and Chippewa names, but not, +perhaps, in Massachusetts or Connecticut. This is the Algonkin +<i>-gămi</i>, <i>-gŏmi</i>, or <i>-gummee</i>. <i>Kitchi-gami</i> or +'<i>Kechegummee</i>,' the Chippewa name of Lake Superior, is 'the greatest, +or chief lake.' <i>Caucomgomoc</i>, in Maine, is the Abn. <i>kaäkou-gami-k</i>, +'at Big-Gull lake.' <i>Temi-gami</i>, 'deep lake,' discharges its waters +into Ottawa River, in Canada; <i>Kinou-gami</i>, now Kenocami, 'long lake,' +into the Saguenay, at Chicoutimi.</p> + +<p>There is a <i>Mitchi-gami</i> or (as sometimes written) <i>machi-gummi</i>, +'large lake,' in northern Wisconsin, and the river which flows from it +has received the same name, with the locative suffix, +'<i>Machigāmig</i>' (for <i>mitchi-gaming</i>). A branch of this river is now +called 'Fence River' from a <i>mitchihikan</i> or <i>mitchikan</i>, a 'wooden +fence' constructed near its banks, by the Indians, for catching +deer.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Father Allouez describes, in the 'Relation' for 1670 (p. +96), a sort of 'fence' or weir which the Indians had built across Fox +River, for taking sturgeon &c., and which they called '<i>Mitihikan</i>;' +and shortly after, he mentions the destruction, by the Iroquois, of a +village of Outagamis (Fox Indians) near his mission station, called +<i>Machihigan-ing</i>, ['at the <i>mitchihikan</i>, or weir?'] on the 'Lake of +the Illinois,' now <i>Michigan</i>. Father Dablon, in the next year's +Relation, calls this lake '<i>Mitchiganons</i>.' Perhaps there was some +confusion between the names of the 'weir' and the 'great lake,' and +'Michigan' appears to have been adopted as a kind of compromise +between the two. If so, this modern form of the name is corrupt in +more senses than one.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> +<p>5. <span class="smcap">-amaug</span>, denoting '<span class="smcap">a fishing place</span>' (Abn. <i>a<sup>n</sup>ma<sup>n</sup>gan</i>, 'on pêche +là,') is derived from the root <i>âm</i> or <i>âma</i>, signifying 'to take by +the mouth;' whence, <i>âm-aü</i>, 'he fishes with hook and line,' and Del. +<i>âman</i>, a fish-hook. <i>Wonkemaug</i> for <i>wongun-amaug</i>, 'crooked +fishing-place,' between Warren and New Preston, in Litchfield county, +is now 'Raumaug Lake.' <i>Ouschank-amaug</i>, in East Windsor, was perhaps +the 'eel fishing-place.' The lake in Worcester, <i>Quansigamaug</i>, +<i>Quansigamug</i>, &c., and now <i>Quinsigamond</i>, was 'the pickerel +fishing-place,' <i>qunnosuog-amaug</i>.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>6. <span class="smcap">Rock</span>. In composition, <span class="smcap">-pisk</span> or <span class="smcap">-psk</span> (Abn. <i>pesk[oo]</i>; Cree, +<i>-pisk</i>; Chip. <i>-bik</i>;) denotes <i>hard</i> or <i>flint-like</i> rock;<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> +<span class="smcap">-ompsk</span> or <span class="smcap">o<sup>n</sup>bsk</span>, and, by phonetic corruption, <span class="smcap">-msk</span>, (from <i>ompaé</i>, +'upright,' and <i>-pisk</i>,) a 'standing rock.' As a substantival +component of local names, <i>-ompsk</i> and, with the locative affix, +<i>-ompskut</i>, are found in such names as—</p> + +<p><i>Petukqui-ompskut</i>, corrupted to <i>Pettiquamscut</i>, 'at the round rock.' +Such a rock, on the east side of Narrow River, north-east from Tower +Hill Church in South Kingston, R.I., was one of the bound marks of, +and gave a name to, the "Pettiquamscut purchase" in the Narragansett +country.</p> + +<p><i>Wanashqui-ompskut</i> (<i>wanashquompsqut</i>, Ezekiel xxvi. 14), 'at the top +of the rock,' or at 'the point of rock.' <i>Wonnesquam</i>, <i>Annis Squam</i>, +and <i>Squam</i>, near Cape Ann, are perhaps corrupt forms of the name of +some 'rock summit' or 'point of rock' thereabouts. <i>Winnesquamsaukit</i> +(for <i>wanashqui-ompsk-ohk-it</i>?) near Exeter Falls, N.H., has been +transformed to <i>Swampscoate</i> and <i>Squamscot</i>. The name of Swamscot or +Swampscot, formerly part of Lynn, Mass., has a different meaning. It +is from <i>m'squi-ompsk</i>, 'Red Rock' (the modern name), near the north +end of Long Beach, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> was perhaps "The clifte" mentioned as one of +the bounds of Mr. Humfrey's Swampscot farm, laid out in 1638.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +<i>M'squompskut</i> means 'at the red rock.' The sound of the initial <i>m</i> +was easily lost to English ears.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p><i>Penobscot</i>, a corruption of the Abnaki <i>pa<sup>n</sup>na[oo]a<sup>n</sup>bskek</i>, was +originally the name of a locality on the river so called by the +English. Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in a letter to Dr. Morse in 1823, wrote +'<i>Pe noom´ ske ook</i>' as the Indian name of Old Town Falls, "whence the +English name of the River, which would have been better, +<i>Penobscook</i>." He gave, as the meaning of this name, "Rocky Falls." +The St. Francis Indians told Thoreau, that it means "Rocky River."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +'At the fall of the rock' or 'at the descending rock' is a more nearly +exact translation. The first syllable, <i>pen-</i> (Abn. <i>pa<sup>n</sup>na</i>) +represents a root meaning 'to fall from a height,'—as in +<i>pa<sup>n</sup>n-tek[oo]</i>, 'fall of a river' or 'rapids;' <i>pena<sup>n</sup>-ki</i>, 'fall +of land,' the descent or downward slope of a mountain, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Keht-ompskqut</i>, or 'Ketumpscut' as it was formerly written,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>—'at +the greatest rock,'—is corrupted to <i>Catumb</i>, the name of a reef off +the west end of Fisher's Island.</p> + +<p><i>Tomheganomset</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>—corrupted finally to 'Higganum,' the name of a +brook and parish in the north-east part of Haddam,—appears to have +been, originally, the designation of a locality from which the Indians +procured stone suitable for making axes,—<i>tomhegun-ompsk-ut</i>, 'at the +tomahawk rock.' In 'Higganompos,' as the name was sometimes written, +without the locative affix, we have less difficulty in recognizing the +substantival <i>-ompsk</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Qussuk</span>, another word for 'rock' or 'stone,' used by Eliot and Roger +Williams, is not often—perhaps never found in local names. <i>Hassun</i> +or <i>Assun</i> (Chip. <i>assin´</i>; Del. <i>achsin</i>;)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> appears in New England +names only as an adjectival (<i>assuné</i>, <i>assini</i>, 'stony'), but farther +north, it occasionally occurs as the substantival component of such +names as <i>Mistassinni</i>, 'the Great Stone,' which gives its name to a +lake in British America, to a tribe of Indians, and to a river that +flows into St. John's Lake.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>7. <span class="smcap">Wadchu</span> (in composition, <span class="smcap">-adchu</span>) means, always, 'mountain' or +'hill.' In <i>Wachuset</i>, we have it, with the locative affix <i>-set</i>, +'near' or 'in the vicinity of the mountain,'—a name which has been +transferred to the mountain itself. With the adjectival <i>massa</i>, +'great,' is formed <i>mass-adchu-set</i>, 'near the great mountain,' or +'great hill country,'—now, <i>Massachusetts</i>.</p> + +<p>'<i>Kunckquachu</i>' and '<i>Quunkwattchu</i>,' mentioned in the deeds of Hadley +purchase, in 1658,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> are forms of <i>qunu<sup>n</sup>kqu-adchu</i>, 'high +mountain,'—afterwards belittled as 'Mount Toby.'</p> + +<p>'<i>Kearsarge</i>,' the modern name of two well-known mountains in New +Hampshire, disguises <i>k[oo]wass-adchu</i>, 'pine mountain.' On Holland's +Map, published in 1784, the southern Kearsarge (in Merrimack county) +is marked "Kyarsarga Mountain; by the Indians, <i>Cowissewaschook</i>."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> +In this form,—which the termination <i>ok</i> (for <i>ohke</i>, <i>auke</i>, +'land,') shows to belong to the <i>region</i>, not exclusively to the +mountain itself,—the analysis becomes more easy. The meaning of the +adjectival is perhaps not quite certain. <i>K[oo]wa</i> (Abn. <i>k[oo]é</i>) 'a +pine tree,' with its diminutive, <i>k[oo]wasse</i>, is a derivative,—from +a root which means 'sharp,' 'pointed.' It is <i>possible</i>, that in this +synthesis, the root preserves its primary signification, and that +'Kearsarge' is the 'pointed' or 'peaked mountain.'</p> + +<p><i>Mauch Chunk</i> (Penn.) is from Del. <i>machk</i>, 'bear' and <i>wachtschunk</i>, +'at, or on, the mountain,'—according to Heckewelder, who writes +'<i>Machkschúnk</i>,' or the Delaware name of 'the bear's mountain.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the Abnaki and some other Algonkin dialects, the substantival +component of mountain names is <span class="smcap">-ádené</span>,—an inseparable noun-generic. +<i>Katahdin</i> (pronounced <i>Ktaadn</i> by the Indians of Maine), Abn. +<i>Ket-ádené</i>, 'the greatest (or chief) mountain,' is the equivalent of +'<i>Kittatinny</i>,' the name of a ridge of the Alleghanies, in New Jersey +and Pennsylvania.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>8. <span class="smcap">-komuk</span> or <span class="smcap">komako</span> (Del. <i>-kamik</i>, <i>-kamiké</i>; Abn. <i>-kamighe</i>; Cree, +<i>-gómmik</i>; Powhatan, <i>-comaco</i>;) cannot be exactly translated by any +one English word. It denotes 'place,' in the sense of <i>enclosed</i>, +<i>limited</i> or <i>appropriated</i> space. As a component of local names, it +means, generally, 'an enclosure,' natural or artificial; such as a +house or other building, a village, a planted field, a thicket or +place surrounded by trees, &c. The place of residence of the Sachem, +which (says Roger Williams) was "far different from other houses +[wigwams], both in capacity, and in the fineness and quality of their +mats," was called <i>sachimâ-komuk</i>, or, as Edward Winslow wrote it, +'<i>sachimo comaco</i>,'—the Sachem-house. <i>Werowocomoco</i>, <i>Weramocomoco</i>, +&c. in Virginia, was the 'Werowance's house,' and the name appears on +Smith's map, at a place "upon the river Pamauncke [now York River], +where the great King [Powhatan] was resident."</p> + +<p><i>Kuppi-komuk</i>, 'closed place,' 'secure enclosure,' was the name of a +Pequot fastness in a swamp, in Groton, Conn. Roger Williams wrote this +name "Cuppacommock," and understood its meaning to be "a refuge, or +hiding place." Eliot has <i>kuppóhkomuk</i> for a planted 'grove,' in Deut. +xvi. 21, and for a landing-place or safe harbor, Acts xxvii. 40.</p> + +<p><i>Nashaue-komuk</i>, 'half-way house,' was at what is now Chilmark, on +Martha's Vineyard, where there was a village of praying Indians<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> in +1698, and earlier.</p> + +<p>The Abnaki <i>keta-kamig[oo]</i> means, according to Râle, 'the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> main +land,'—literally, 'greatest place;' <i>teteba-kamighé</i>, 'level place,' +a plain; <i>pépam-kamighek</i>, 'the <i>all</i> land,' 'l'univers.'</p> + +<p><i>Néssa[oo]a-kamíghé</i>, meaning 'double place' or '<i>second</i> place,' was +the name of the Abnaki village of St. Francis de Sales, on the St. +Lawrence,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—to which the mission was removed about 1700, from its +<i>first</i> station established near the Falls of the Chaudière in +1683.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>9. Of two words meaning <i>Island</i>, <span class="smcap">munnohan</span> or, rejecting the +formative, <span class="smcap">munnoh</span> (Abn. <i>menahan</i>; Del. <i>menatey</i>; Chip. <i>minís</i>, a +diminutive,) is the more common, but is rarely, if ever, found in +composition. The 'Grand <i>Menan</i>,' opposite Passammaquoddy Bay, retains +the Abnaki name. Long Island was <i>Menatey</i> or <i>Manati</i>, '<i>the</i> +Island,'—to the Delawares, Minsi and other neighboring tribes. Any +smaller island was <i>menatan</i> (Mass. <i>munnohhan</i>), the <i>indefinite</i> +form, or <i>menates</i> (Mass. <i>munnises</i>, <i>manisses</i>), the <i>diminutive</i>. +Campanius mentions one '<i>Manathaan</i>,' Coopers' Island (now Cherry +Island) near Fort Christina, in the Delaware,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and "<i>Manataanung</i> +or <i>Manaates</i>, a place settled by the Dutch, who built there a clever +little town, which went on increasing every day,"—now called New +York. (The termination in <i>-ung</i> is the locative affix.) New York +Island was sometimes spoken of as '<i>the</i> island'—'Manaté,' +'Manhatte;' sometimes as '<i>an</i> island'—Manathan, Menatan, +'<i>Manhatan</i>;' more accurately, as 'the <i>small</i> island'—Manhaates, +Manattes, and 'the Manados' of the Dutch. The Island Indians +collectively, were called <i>Manhattans</i>; those of the small island, +'<i>Manhatesen</i>.' "They deeply mistake," as Gov. Stuyvesant's agents +declared, in 1659,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> "who interpret the general name of +<i>Manhattans</i>, unto the particular town built upon a <i>little Island</i>; +because it signified the whole country and province."</p> + +<p><i>Manisses</i> or Monasses, as Block Island was called, is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>other form +of the diminutive,—from <i>munnoh</i>; and <i>Manhasset</i>, otherwise written, +Munhansick, a name of Shelter Island, is the same diminutive with the +locative affix, <i>munna-es-et</i>. So is 'Manusses' or 'Mennewies,' an +island near Rye, N.Y.,—now written (with the southern form of the +locative,) <i>Manussing</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Montauk</i> Point, formerly Montauket, Montacut, and by Roger Williams, +<i>Munnawtawkit</i>, is probably from <i>manati</i>, <i>auke</i>, and <i>-it</i> locative; +'in the Island country,' or 'country of the Islanders.'</p> + +<p>The other name of 'Island,' in Algonkin languages, is <span class="smcap">ahquedne</span> or +<span class="smcap">ocquidne</span>; with the locative; <i>ahquednet</i>, as in Acts xxvii. 16. +(Compare, Cree, <i>ákootin</i>, "it suspends, is <i>sit</i>-uate, e.g. an island +in the water," from <i>âkoo</i>, a verbal root "expressive of a state of +rest." Howse's Grammar, p. 152. Micmac, <i>agwitk</i>, "it is in the +water;" whence, <i>Ep-agwit</i>, "it lies [sits?] in the water,"<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> the +Indian name of Prince Edward's Island.) This appears to have been +restricted in its application, to islands lying near the main land or +spoken of <i>with reference</i> to the main land. Roger Williams learned +from the Narragansetts to call Rhode Island, <i>Aquiday</i>, Aquednet, &c., +'<i>the</i> Island' or 'at the Island,' and a "little island in the mouth +of the Bay," was <i>Aquedenesick</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> or Aquidneset, i.e. 'at the small +island.'</p> + +<p><i>Chippaquiddick</i>, the modern name of an island divided by a narrow +strait from Martha's Vineyard, is from <i>cheppi-aquidne</i>, 'separated +island.'</p> + + +<p>Abnaki names ending in <i>-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, or <i>-kontee</i> (Mass. <i>-kontu</i>; +Etchemin or Maliseet, <i>-kodiah</i>, <i>-quoddy</i>; Micmac, <i>-ka<sup>n</sup>di</i>, or +<i>-aikadee</i>;) may be placed with those of the first class, though this +termination, representing a substantival component, is really only the +locative affix of nouns in the <i>indefinite plural</i>. Exact location was +denoted by affixing, to inanimate nouns-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>singular, <i>-et</i>, <i>-it</i> or +<i>-ut</i>; proximity, or something <i>less</i> than exact location, by <i>-set</i>, +(interposing <i>s</i>, the characteristic of diminutives and derogatives) +between the noun and affix. <i>Plural</i> nouns, representing a <i>definite +number</i> of individuals, or a number which might be regarded <i>as</i> +definite, received <i>-ettu</i>, <i>-ittu</i>, or <i>-uttu</i>, in the locative: but +if the number was <i>indefinite</i>, or many individuals were spoken of +collectively, the affix was <i>-kontu</i>, denoting 'where many are,' or +'place of abundance.' For example, <i>wadchu</i>, mountain; <i>wadchu-ut</i>, +to, on, or at the mountain; <i>wadchu-set</i>, near the mountain; +<i>wadchuuttu</i> (or <i>-ehtu</i>), in or among <i>certain mountains</i>, known or +indicated (as in Eliot's version of Numbers xxxiii. 47, 48); +<i>wadchué-kontu</i>, among mountains, where there are a great many +mountains, for 'in the hill country,' Joshua xiii. 6. So, +<i>nippe-kontu</i>, 'in the waters,' i.e. in <i>many</i> waters, or 'where there +is much water,' Deut. iv. 18; v. 8. In Deuteronomy xi. 11, the +conversion to a verb of a noun which had previously received this +affix, shows that the idea of <i>abundance</i> or of <i>multitude</i> is +associated with it: "<i>ohke wadchuuhkontu[oo]</i>," i.e. +<i>wadechué-kontu-[oo]</i>, "the land is a land of hills," that is, where +are <i>many</i> hills, or where hills are <i>plenty</i>.</p> + +<p>This form of verb was rarely used by Eliot and is not alluded to in +his Grammar. It appears to have been less common in the Massachusetts +than in most of the other Algonkin languages. In the Chippewa, an +'abundance verb,' as Baraga<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> calls it, may be formed from any noun, +by adding <i>-ka</i> or <i>-ĭka</i> for the indicative present: in the Cree, +by adding <i>-skow</i> or <i>-ooskow</i>. In the Abnaki, <i>-ka</i> or <i>-k[oo]</i>, or +<i>-ik[oo]</i>, forms similar verbs, and verbals. The final <i>'tti</i> of +<i>ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, represents the impersonal <i>a'tté</i>, <i>eto</i>, 'there belongs +to it,' 'there is there,' <i>il y a</i>. (Abn. <i>meskik[oo]i'ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, +'where there is abundance of grass,' is the equivalent of the Micmac +"<i>m'skeegoo-aicadee</i>, a meadow."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p><p>Among Abnaki place-names having this form, the following deserve +notice:—</p> + +<p><i>A<sup>n</sup>mes[oo]k-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, 'where there is plenty of <i>alewives</i> or +<i>herrings</i>;' from Abn. <i>a<sup>n</sup>ms[oo]ak</i> (Narr. <i>aumsûog</i>; Mass. +<i>ômmissuog</i>, cotton;) literally, 'small fishes,' but appropriated to +fish of the herring tribe, including alewives and menhaden or +bony-fish. Râle gives this as the name of one of the Abnaki villages +on or near the river 'Aghenibekki.' It is the same, probably, as the +'Meesee Contee' or 'Meesucontee,' at Farmington Falls, on Sandy River, +Me.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> With the suffix of 'place' or 'land,' it has been written +<i>Amessagunticook</i> and <i>Amasaquanteg</i>.</p> + +<p>'<i>Amoscoggin</i>,' 'Ammarescoggen,' &c., and the '<i>Aumoughcawgen</i>' of +Capt. John Smith, names given to the Kennebec or its main western +branch, the Androscoggin,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>—appear to have belonged, originally, to +'fishing places' on the river, from Abn. <i>a<sup>n</sup>m's[oo]a-khíge</i>, or +<i>a<sup>n</sup>m's[oo]a-ka<sup>n</sup>gan</i>. 'Amoskeag,' at the falls of the Merrimack, +has the same meaning, probably; <i>a<sup>n</sup>m's[oo]a-khíge</i> (Mass. +<i>ômmissakkeag</i>), a 'fishing-place for alewives.' It certainly does +<i>not</i> mean 'beavers,' or 'pond or marsh' of beavers,—as Mr. +Schoolcraft supposed it to mean.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p><i>Madamiscomtis</i> or <i>Mattammiscontis</i>, the name of a tributary of the +Penobscot and of a town in Lincoln county, Me., was translated by Mr. +Greenleaf, in 1823, "Young Alewive stream;" but it appears to +represent <i>met-a<sup>n</sup>ms[oo]ak-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, 'a place where there <i>has been</i> +(but is not now) plenty of alewives,' or to which they no longer +resort. Compare Râle's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> <i>met-a<sup>n</sup>m[oo]ak</i>, "les poissons ont faites +leurs œufs; ils s'en sont allés; il n'y en a plus."</p> + +<p><i>Cobbosseecontee</i> river, in the south part of Kennebec county, is +named from a place near "the mouth of the stream, where it adjoineth +itself to Kennebec river,"<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and 'where there was plenty of +sturgeons,'—<i>kabassak-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>.</p> + +<p>'<i>Peskadamioukkanti</i>' is given by Charlevoix, as the Indian name of +"the river of the Etchemins," that is, the St. Croix,—a name which is +now corrupted to <i>Passamaquoddy</i>; but this latter form of the name is +probably derived from the <i>Etchemin</i>, while Charlevoix wrote the +<i>Abnaki</i> form. The Rev. Elijah Kellogg, in 1828,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> gave, as the +meaning of 'Passamaquoddie,' 'pollock fish,' and the Rev. Mr. Rand +translates 'Pestumoo-kwoddy' by 'pollock ground.'<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Cotton's +vocabulary gives '<i>pâkonnótam</i>' for 'haddock.' Perhaps +<i>peskadami[oo]k</i>, like <i>a<sup>n</sup>ms[oo]ak</i>, belonged to more than one +species of fish.</p> + +<p>Of Etchemin and Micmac words having a similar termination, we find +among others,—</p> + +<p><i>Shubenacadie</i> (<i>Chebenacardie</i> on Charlevoix' map, and <i>Shebenacadia</i> +on Jeffry's map of 1775). One of the principal rivers of Nova Scotia, +was so named because '<i>sipen-ak</i> were plenty there.' Professor Dawson +was informed by an "ancient Micmac patriarch," that "<i>Shuben</i> or +<i>Sgabun</i> means ground-nuts or Indian potatoes," and by the Rev. Mr. +Rand, of Hantsport, N.S., that "<i>segubbun</i> is a ground-nut, and +<i>Segubbuna-kaddy</i> is the place or region of ground-nuts," &c.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> It +is not quite certain that <i>shuben</i> and <i>segubbun</i> denote the same +esculent root. The Abnaki name of the wild potato or ground-nut was +<i>pen</i>, pl. <i>penak</i> (Chip. <i>opin-īg</i>; Del. <i>obben-ak</i>); '<i>sipen</i>,' +which is obviously the equivalent of <i>sheben</i>, Râle describes as +"blanches, plus grosses que des <i>penak</i>:" and <i>sheep'n-ak</i> is the +modern Abnaki (Penobscot) name for the bulbous roots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> of the Yellow +Lily (<i>Lilium Canadense</i>). Thoreau's Indian guide in the 'Maine Woods' +told him that these bulbs "were good for soup, that is to cook with +meat to thicken it,"—and taught him how to prepare them.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Josselyn +mentions such "a water-lily, with yellow flowers," of which "the +Indians eat the roots" boiled.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p>"<i>Segoonuma-kaddy</i>, place of <i>gaspereaux</i>; Gaspereau or Alewife +River," "<i>Boonamoo-kwoddy</i>, Tom Cod ground," and "<i>Kata-kaddy</i>, +eel-ground,"—are given by Professor Dawson, on Mr. Rand's authority. +<i>Segoonumak</i> is the equivalent of Mass. and Narr. <i>sequanamâuquock</i>, +'spring (or early summer) fish,' by R. Williams translated 'bream.' +And <i>boonamoo</i>,—the <i>ponamo</i> of Charlevoix (i. 127), who confounded +it with some 'species of dog-fish (chien de mer),'—is the +<i>ap[oo]na<sup>n</sup>-mes[oo]</i> of Rasles and <i>papônaumsu</i>, 'winter fish,' of +Roger Williams, 'which some call frost-fish,'—<i>Morrhua pruinosa</i>.</p> + +<p>The frequent occurrence of this termination in Micmac, Etchemin and +Abnaki local names gives probability to the conjecture, that it came +to be regarded as a general name for the region which these tribes +inhabited,—'L'arcadia,' 'l'Accadie,' and 'la Cadie,' of early +geographers and voyagers. Dr. Kohl has not found this name on any +earlier map than that published by Girolamo Ruscelli in 1561.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> That +it is of Indian origin there is hardly room for doubt, and of two or +three possible derivations, that from the terminal <i>-kâdi</i>, <i>-kodiah</i>, +or <i>-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, is on the whole preferable. But this termination, in +the sense of 'place of abundance' or in that of 'ground, land, or +place,' cannot be used <i>separately</i>, as an independent word, in any +one of the languages which have been mentioned; and it is singular +that, in two or three instances, only this termination should have +been preserved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> after the first and more important component of the +name was lost.</p> + +<p>There are two Abnaki words which are not unlike <i>-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i> in sound, +one or both of which may perhaps be found in some local names: (1) +<i>ka[oo]di</i>, 'where he sleeps,' a <i>lodging place</i> of men or animals; +and (2) <i>ak[oo]daï[oo]i</i>, in composition or as a prefix, <i>ak[oo]dé</i>, +'against the current,' up-stream; as in <i>ned-ak[oo]té'hémen</i>, 'I go up +stream,' and <i>[oo]derak[oo]da<sup>n</sup>na<sup>n</sup></i>, 'the fish go up stream.' Some +such synthesis may have given names to fishing-places on tidal rivers, +and I am more inclined to regard the name of 'Tracadie' or 'Tracody' +as a corruption of <i>[oo]derak[oo]da<sup>n</sup></i>, than to derive it (with +Professor Dawson<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> and the Rev. Mr. Rand) from "<i>Tulluk-kaddy</i>; +probably, place of residence; dwelling place,"—or rather (for the +termination requires this), where residences or dwellings are +<i>plenty</i>,—where there is <i>abundance</i> of dwelling place. There is a +Tracadie in Nova Scotia, another (<i>Tregaté</i>, of Champlain) on the +coast of New Brunswick, a Tracody or Tracady Bay in Prince Edward's +Island, and a Tracadigash Point in Chaleur Bay.</p> + +<p>Thevet, in <i>La Cosmographie universelle</i>,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> gives an account of his +visit in 1556, to "one of the finest rivers in the whole world which +we call <i>Norumbegue</i>, and the aborigines <i>Agoncy</i>,"—now Penobscot +Bay. In 'Agoncy' we have, I conjecture, another form of the Abnaki +<i>-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, and an equivalent of 'Acadie.'</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>II. Names formed from a single ground-word or substantival,—with or +without a locative or other suffix.</p> + +<p>To this class belong some names already noticed in connection with +compound names to which they are related; such as, <i>Wachu-set</i>, 'near +the mountain;' <i>Menahan</i> (<i>Menan</i>), <i>Manati</i>, <i>Manathaan</i>, 'island;' +<i>Manataan-ung</i>, <i>Aquedn-et</i>, 'on the island,' &c. Of the many which +might be added to these, the limits of this paper permit me to mention +only a few.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Nâïag</span>, 'a corner, angle, or point.' This is a verbal, formed from +<i>nâ-i</i>, 'it is angular,' 'it <i>corners</i>.' Eliot wrote "<i>yaue naiyag +wetu</i>" for the "four corners of a house," Job i. 19. Sometimes, <i>nâi</i> +receives, instead of the formative <i>-ag</i>, the locative affix (<i>nâï-it</i> +or <i>nâï-ut</i>); sometimes it is used as an adjectival prefixed to +<i>auke</i>, 'land.' One or another of these forms serves as the name of a +great number of river and sea-coast 'points.' In Connecticut, we find +a '<i>Nayaug</i>' at the southern extremity of Mason's Island in Mystic +Bay, and '<i>Noank</i>' (formerly written, <i>Naweag</i>, <i>Naiwayonk</i>, <i>Noïank</i>, +&c.) at the west point of Mystic River's mouth, in Groton; <i>Noag</i> or +<i>Noyaug</i>, in Glastenbury, &c. In Rhode Island, <i>Nayatt</i> or <i>Nayot</i> +point in Barrington, on Providence Bay, and <i>Nahiganset</i> or +Narragansett, 'the country about the Point.'<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> On Long Island, +<i>Nyack</i> on Peconick Bay, Southampton,<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> and another at the west end +of the Island, opposite Coney Island. There is also a <i>Nyack</i> on the +west side of the Tappan Sea, in New Jersey.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Wonkun</span>, 'bended,' 'a bend,' was sometimes used without affix. The +Abnaki equivalent is <i>[oo]a<sup>n</sup>ghíghen</i>, 'courbe,' 'croché' (Râle). +There was a <i>Wongun</i>, on the Connecticut, between Glastenbury and +Wethersfield, and another, more considerable, a few miles below, in +Middletown. <i>Wonki</i> is found in compound names, as an adjectival; as +in <i>Wonki-tuk</i>, 'bent river,' on the Quinebaug, between Plainfield and +Canterbury,—written by early recorders, 'Wongattuck,' 'Wanungatuck,' +&c., and at last transferred from its proper place to a <i>hill</i> and +<i>brook</i> west of the river, where it is disguised as <i>Nunkertunk</i>. The +Great Bend between Hadley and Hatfield, Mass., was called +<i>Kuppo-wonkun-ohk</i>, 'close bend place,' or 'place shut-in by a bend.' +A tract of meadow west of this bend was called, in 1660, +'Cappowonganick,' and 'Capa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>wonk,' and still retains, I believe, the +latter name.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> <i>Wnogquetookoke</i>, the Indian name of Stockbridge, +Mass., as written by Dr. Edwards in the Muhhecan dialect, describes "a +bend-of-the-river place."</p> + +<p>Another Abnaki word meaning 'curved,' +'crooked,'—<i>pika<sup>n</sup>ghén</i>—occurs in the name <i>Pika<sup>n</sup>ghenahik</i>, now +'Crooked Island,' in Penobscot River.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Hócquaun</span> (<span class="smcap">uhquôn</span>, Eliot), 'hook-shaped,' 'a hook,'—is the base of +<i>Hoccanum</i>, the name of a tract of land and the stream which bounds +it, in East Hartford, and of other Hoccanums, in Hadley and in +Yarmouth, Mass. Heckewelder<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> wrote "<i>Okhúcquan, Woâkhúcquoan</i> or +(short) <i>Húcquan</i>," for the modern 'Occoquan,' the name of a river in +Virginia, and remarked: "All these names signify <i>a hook</i>." Campanius +has '<i>hóckung</i>' for 'a hook.'</p> + +<p><i>Hackensack</i> may have had its name from the <i>húcquan-sauk</i>, 'hook +mouth,' by which the waters of Newark Bay find their way, around +Bergen Point, by the Kill van Cul, to New York Bay.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: sic">3.</span> <span class="smcap">Sóhk</span> or <span class="smcap">Sauk</span>, a root that denotes +'pouring out,' is the base of many local names for 'the outlet' or +'discharge' of a river or lake. The Abnaki forms, <i>sa<sup>n</sup>g[oo]k</i>, +'sortie de la rivière (seu) la source,' and <i>sa<sup>n</sup>ghede'teg[oo]é</i> [= +Mass. <i>saukituk</i>,] gave names to <i>Saco</i> in Maine, to the river which +has its outflow at that place, and to <i>Sagadahock</i> (<i>sa<sup>n</sup>ghede'aki</i>), +'land at the mouth' of Kennebeck river.</p> + +<p><i>Saucon</i>, the name of a creek and township in Northampton county, +Penn., "denotes (says Heckewelder<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>) the outlet of a smaller stream +into a larger one,"—which restricts the denotation too narrowly. The +name means "the outlet,"—and nothing more. Another <i>Soh´coon</i>, or +(with the locative)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> <i>Saukunk</i>, "at the mouth" of the Big Beaver, on +the Ohio,—now in the township of Beaver, Penn.,—was a well known +rendezvous of Indian war parties.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<p><i>Saganaum</i>, <i>Sagana</i>, now <i>Saginaw</i><a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Bay, on Lake Huron, received +its name from the mouth of the river which flows through it to the +lake.</p> + +<p>The <i>Mississagas</i> were people of the <i>missi-sauk</i>, <i>missi-sague</i>, or +(with locative) <i>missi-sak-ing</i>,<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> that is 'great outlet.' In the +last half of the seventeenth century they were seated on the banks of +a river which is described as flowing into Lake Huron some twenty or +thirty leagues south of the Sault Ste. Marie (the same river probably +that is now known as the Mississauga, emptying into Manitou Bay,) and +nearly opposite the Straits of Mississauga on the South side of the +Bay, between Manitoulin and Cockburn Islands. So little is known +however of the history and migrations of this people, that it is +perhaps impossible now to identify the 'great outlet' from which they +first had their name.</p> + +<p>The <i>Saguenay</i> (Sagnay, Sagné, Saghuny, etc.), the great tributary of +the St. Lawrence, was so called either from the well-known +trading-place at its mouth, the annual resort of the Montagnars and +all the eastern tribes,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> or more probably from the 'Grand +Discharge'<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> of its main stream from Lake St. John and its strong +current to and past the rapids at Chicoutimi, and thence on to the St. +Lawrence.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Near Lake<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> St. John and the Grand Discharge was another +rendezvous of the scattered tribes. The missionary Saint-Simon in 1671 +described this place as one at which "all the nations inhabiting the +country between the two seas (towards the east and north) assembled to +barter their furs." Hind's Exploration of Labrador, ii. 23.</p> + +<p>In composition with <i>-tuk</i>, 'river' or 'tidal stream,' <i>sauki</i> +(adjectival) gave names to '<i>Soakatuck</i>,' now Saugatuck, the mouth of +a river in Fairfield county, Conn.; to '<i>Sawahquatock</i>,' or +'<i>Sawkatuck-et</i>,' at the outlet of Long Pond or mouth of Herring +River, in Harwich, Mass.; and perhaps to <i>Massaugatucket</i>, +(<i>missi-saukituk-ut</i>?), in Marshfield, Mass., and in South Kingston, +R.I.,—a name which, in both places, has been shortened to +Saquatucket.</p> + +<p>'<i>Winnipiseogee</i>' (pronounced <i>Win´ ni pe sauk´ e</i>,) is compounded of +<i>winni</i>, <i>nippe</i>, and <i>sauki</i>, 'good-water discharge,' and the name +must have belonged originally to the <i>outlet</i> by which the waters of +the lake pass to the Merrimack, rather than to the lake itself. +Winnepesauke, Wenepesioco and (with the locative) Winnipesiockett, are +among the early forms of the name. The translation of this synthesis +by 'the Smile of the Great Spirit' is sheer nonsense. Another, first +proposed by the late Judge Potter of New Hampshire, in his History of +Manchester (p. 27),<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>—'the beautiful water of the high place,'—is +demonstrably wrong. It assumes that <i>is</i> or <i>es</i> represents <i>kees</i>, +meaning 'high;' to which assumption there are two objections: first, +that there is no evidence that such a word as <i>kees</i>, meaning 'high,' +is found in any Algonkin language, and secondly, that if there be such +a word, it must retain its significant root, in any synthesis of which +it makes part,—in other words, that <i>kees</i> could not drop its initial +<i>k</i> and preserve its meaning. I was at first inclined to accept the +more probable translation proposed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> 'S.F.S.' [S.F. Streeter?] in +the Historical Magazine for August, 1857,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>—"the land of the placid +or beautiful lake;" but, in the dialects of New England, <i>nippisse</i> or +<i>nips</i>, a diminutive of <i>nippe</i>, 'water,' is never used for <i>paug</i>, +'lake' or 'standing water;'<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> and if it were sometimes so used, the +extent of Lake Winnepiseogee forbids it to be classed with the 'small +lakes' or 'ponds,' to which, only, the <i>diminutive</i> is appropriate.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">Nashaué</span> (Chip. <i>nássawaiï</i> and <i>ashawiwi</i>), 'mid-way,' or +'between,' and with <i>ohke</i> or <i>auk</i> added, 'the land between' or 'the +half-way place,'—was the name of several localities. The tract on +which Lancaster, in Worcester county (Mass.) was settled, was +'between' the branches of the river, and so it was called '<i>Nashaway</i>' +or '<i>Nashawake</i>' (<i>nashaué-ohke</i>); and this name was afterwards +transferred from the territory to the river itself. There was another +<i>Nashaway</i> in Connecticut, between Quinnebaug and Five-Mile Rivers in +Windham county, and here, too, the mutilated name of the +<i>nashaue-ohke</i> was transferred, as <i>Ashawog</i> or <i>Assawog</i>, to the +Five-Mile River. <i>Natchaug</i> in the same county, the name of the +eastern branch of Shetucket river, belonged originally to the tract +'between' the eastern and western branches; and the Shetucket itself +borrows a name (<i>nashaue-tuk-ut</i>) from its place 'between' Yantic and +Quinebaug rivers. A neck of land (now in Griswold, Conn.) "between +Pachaug River and a brook that comes into it from the south," one of +the Muhhekan east boundaries, was called sometimes, <i>Shawwunk</i>, 'at +the place between,'—sometimes <i>Shawwâmug</i> (<i>nashaué-amaug</i>), 'the +fishing-place between' the rivers, or the 'half-way +fishing-place.'<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. <span class="smcap">Ashim</span>, is once used by Eliot (Cant. iv. 12) for 'fountain.' It +denoted a <i>spring</i> or brook from which water was obtained for +drinking. In the Abnaki, <i>asiem nebi</i>, 'il puise de l'eau;' and +<i>ned-a'sihibe</i>, 'je puise de l'eau, <i>fonti vel fluvio</i>.' (Rasles.)</p> + +<p><i>Winne-ashim-ut</i>, 'at the good spring,' near Romney Marsh, is now +Chelsea, Mass. The name appears in deeds and records as Winnisimmet, +Winisemit, Winnet Semet, etc. The author of the 'New English Canaan' +informs us (book 2, ch. 8), that "At <i>Weenasemute</i> is a water, the +virtue whereof is, to cure barrennesse. The place taketh his name of +that fountaine, which signifieth <i>quick spring</i>, or <i>quickning +spring</i>. Probatum."</p> + +<p><i>Ashimuit</i> or <i>Shumuit</i>, an Indian village near the line between +Sandwich and Falmouth, Mass.,—<i>Shaume</i>, a neck and river in Sandwich +(the <i>Chawum</i> of Capt. John Smith?),—<i>Shimmoah</i>, an Indian village on +Nantucket,—may all have derived their names from springs resorted to +by the natives, as was suggested by the Rev. Samuel Deane in a paper +in <i>Mass. Hist. Collections</i>, 2d Series, vol. x. pp. 173, 174.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>6. <span class="smcap">Mattappan</span>, a participle of <i>mattappu</i> (Chip. <i>namátabi</i>), 'he sits +down,' denotes a 'sitting-down place,' or, as generally employed in +local names, <i>the end of a portage</i> between two rivers or from one arm +of the sea to another,—where the canoe was launched again and its +bearers re-embarked. Râle translates the Abnaki equivalent, +<i>mata<sup>n</sup>be</i>, by 'il va au bord de l'eau,—a la grève pour +s'embarquer,' and <i>meta<sup>n</sup>béniganik</i>, by 'au bout de delà du portage.'</p> + +<p><i>Mattapan-ock</i>, afterwards shortened to <i>Mattapan</i>, that part of +Dorchester Neck (South Boston) where "the west country people were set +down" in 1630,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> may have been so called because it was the end of a +carrying place from South Bay to Dorchester Bay, across the narrowest +part of the peninsula, or—as seems highly probable—because it was +the temporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> 'sitting-down place' of the new comers. Elsewhere, we +find the name evidently associated with <i>portage</i>.</p> + +<p>On Smith's Map of Virginia, one '<i>Mattapanient</i>' appears as the name +of the northern fork (now the <i>Mattápony</i>) of Pamaunk (York) River; +another (<i>Mattpanient</i>) near the head waters of the Pawtuxunt; and a +third on the 'Chickahamania' not far above its confluence with +Powhatan (James) River.</p> + +<p><i>Mattapoiset</i>, on an inlet of Buzzard's Bay, in Rochester, +Mass.,—another Mattapoiset or 'Mattapuyst,' now Gardner's Neck, in +Swanzea,—and 'Mattapeaset' or 'Mattabesic,' on the great bend of the +Connecticut (now Middletown), derived their names from the same word, +probably.</p> + +<p>On a map of Lake Superior, made by Jesuit missionaries and published +in Paris in 1672, the stream which is marked on modern maps as +'Rivière aux Traines' or 'Train River,' is named 'R. <i>Mataban</i>.' The +small lake from which it flows is the 'end of portage' between the +waters of Lake Michigan and those of Lake Superior.</p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>7. <span class="smcap">Chabenuk</span>, 'a bound mark'; literally, 'that which separates or +divides.' A hill in Griswold, Conn., which was anciently one of the +Muhhekan east bound-marks, was called <i>Chabinu<sup>n</sup>k</i>, 'Atchaubennuck,' +and 'Chabunnuck.' The village of praying Indians in Dudley (now +Webster?) Mass., was named <i>Chabanakongkomuk</i> (Eliot, 1668,) or +<i>-ongkomum</i>, and the Great Pond still retains, it is said, the name of +Chaubenagungamaug (<i>chabenukong-amaug</i>?), "the boundary +fishing-place." This pond was a bound mark between the Nipmucks and +the Muhhekans, and was resorted to by Indians of both nations.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>III. Participials and verbals employed as place-names may generally, +as was before remarked, be referred to one or the other of the two +preceding classes. The distinction between noun and verb is less +clearly marked in Indian grammar than in English. The name +<i>Mushauwomuk</i> (corrupted to <i>Shaw</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span><i>mut</i>) may be regarded as a +participle from the verb <i>mushau[oo]m</i> (Narr. <i>mishoonhom</i>) 'he goes +by boat,'—or as a noun, meaning 'a ferry,'—or as a name of the first +class, compounded of the adjectival <i>mush[oo]-n</i>, 'boat or canoe,' and +<i>wom[oo]-uk</i>, habitual or customary <i>going</i>, i.e., 'where there is +going-by-boat.'</p> + +<p>The analysis of names of this class is not easy. In most cases, its +results must be regarded as merely provisional. Without some clue +supplied by history or tradition and without accurate knowledge of the +locality to which the name belongs, or <i>is supposed</i> to belong, one +can never be certain of having found the right key to the synthesis, +however well it may seem to fit the lock. Experience Mayhew writing +from Chilmark on Martha's Vineyard, in 1722, gives the Indian name of +the place where he was living as <i>Nimpanickhickanuh</i>. If he had not +added the information that the name "signifies in English, <i>The place +of thunder clefts</i>," and that it was so called "because there was once +a tree there split in pieces by the thunder," it is not likely that +any one in this generation would have discovered its precise +meaning,—though it might have been conjectured that <i>neimpau</i>, or +<i>nimbau</i>, 'thunder,' made a part of it.</p> + +<p><i>Quilútámende</i> was (Heckewelder tells us<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>) the Delaware name of a +place on the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, where, as the Indians say, +"in their wars with the Five Nations, they fell by surprise upon their +enemies. The word or name of this place is therefore, <i>Where we came +unawares upon them</i>, &c." Without the tradition, the meaning of the +name would not have been guessed,—or, if guessed, would not have been +confidently accepted.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of analyzing such names is greatly increased by the +fact that they come to us in corrupt forms. The same name may be +found, in early records, written in a dozen different ways, and some +three or four of these may admit of as many different translations. +Indian grammatical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> synthesis was <i>exact</i>. Every consonant and every +vowel had its office and its place. Not one could be dropped or +transposed, nor could one be added, without <i>change of meaning</i>. Now +most of the Indian local names were first written by men who cared +nothing for their meaning and knew nothing of the languages to which +they belonged. Of the few who had learned to speak one or more of +these languages, no two adopted the same way of writing them, and no +one—John Eliot excepted—appears to have been at all careful to write +the same word twice alike. In the seventeenth century men took +considerable liberties with the spelling of their own surnames and +very large liberty with English polysyllables—especially with local +names. Scribes who contrived to find five or six ways of writing +'Hartford' or 'Wethersfield,' were not likely to preserve uniformity +in their dealings with Indian names. A few letters more or less were +of no great consequence, but, generally, the writers tried to keep on +the safe side, by putting in as many as they could find room for; +prefixing a <i>c</i> to every <i>k</i>, doubling every <i>w</i> and <i>g</i>, and tacking +on a superfluous final <i>e</i>, for good measure.</p> + +<p>In some instances, what is supposed to be an Indian place-name is in +fact a <i>personal</i> name, borrowed from some sachem or chief who lived +on or claimed to own the territory. Names of this class are likely to +give trouble to translators. I was puzzled for a long time by +'<i>Mianus</i>,' the name of a stream between Stamford and Greenwich,—till +I remembered that <i>Mayano</i>, an Indian warrior (who was killed by Capt. +Patrick in 1643) had lived hereabouts; and on searching the Greenwich +records, I found the stream was first mentioned as <i>Moyannoes</i> and +<i>Mehanno's</i> creek, and that it bounded 'Moyannoe's neck' of land. +<i>Moosup</i> river, which flows westerly through Plainfield into the +Quinebaug and which has given names to a post-office and factory +village, was formerly <i>Moosup's</i> river,—Moosup or <i>Maussup</i> being one +of the aliases of a Narragansett sachem who is better known, in the +history of Philip's war, as Pessacus. Heckewelder<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> restores +'Pyma<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>tuning,' the name of a place in Pennsylvania, to the Del. +'<i>Pihmtónink</i>,' meaning, "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth, or the crooked man's dwelling place," and adds, that he +"knew the man perfectly well," who gave this name to the locality.</p> + +<p>Some of the examples which have been given,—such as <i>Higganum</i>, +<i>Nunkertunk</i>, <i>Shawmut</i>, <i>Swamscot</i> and <i>Titicut</i>,—show how the +difficulties of analysis have been increased by phonetic corruption, +sometimes to such a degree as hardly to leave a trace of the original. +Another and not less striking example is presented by <i>Snipsic</i>, the +modern name of a pond between Ellington and Tolland. If we had not +access to Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan Country, made in 1705, who +would suppose that 'Snipsic' was the surviving representative of +<i>Moshenupsuck</i>, 'great-pond brook' or (literally) 'great-pond outlet,' +at the south end of <i>Moshenups</i> or <i>Mashenips</i> 'great pond?' The +territories of three nations, the Muhhekans, Nipmucks and River +Indians, ran together at this point.</p> + +<p>'<i>Nameroake</i>,' '<i>Namareck</i>' or '<i>Namelake</i>,' in East Windsor, was +transformed to <i>May-luck</i>, giving to a brook a name which 'tradition' +derives from the 'luck' of a party of emigrants who came in 'May' to +the Connecticut.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> The original name appears to have been the +equivalent of 'Nameaug' or 'Nameoke' (New London), and to mean 'the +fishing place,'—<i>n'amaug</i> or <i>nama-ohke</i>.</p> + +<p>But none of these names exhibits a more curious transformation than +that of '<i>Bagadoose</i>' or '<i>Bigaduce</i>,' a peninsula on the east side of +Penobscot Bay, now Castine, Me. Williamson's History of Maine (ii. +572) states on the authority of Col. J. Wardwell of Penobscot, in +1820, that this point bore the name of a former resident, a Frenchman, +one 'Major Biguyduce.' Afterwards, the historian was informed that +'<i>Marche bagyduce</i>' was an Indian word meaning 'no good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> cove.' Mr. +Joseph Williamson, in a paper in the Maine Historical Society's +Collections (vol. vi. p. 107) identifies this name with the +<i>Matchebiguatus</i> of Edward Winslow's quitclaim to Massachusetts in +1644,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> and correctly translates the prefix <i>matche</i> by 'bad,' but +adds: "What <i>Biguatus</i> means, I do not know." Purchas mentions +'<i>Chebegnadose</i>,' as an Indian town on the 'Apananawapeske' or +Penobscot.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Râle gives, as the name of the place on "the river +where M. de Gastin [Castine] is," <i>Matsibig[oo]ad[oo]ssek</i>, and on his +authority we may accept this form as nearly representing the original. +The analysis now becomes more easy. <i>Matsi-a<sup>n</sup>baga[oo]at-ek</i>, means +'at the bad-shelter place,—bad <i>covert</i> or cove;' and +<i>matsi-a<sup>n</sup>baga[oo]at[oo]s-ek</i> the diminutive, 'at the small +bad-shelter place.' About two miles and a half above the mouth of the +Kenebec was a place called by the Indians '<i>Abagadusset</i>' or +'<i>Abequaduset</i>'—the same name without the prefix—meaning 'at the +cove, or place of shelter.'</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The adjectivals employed in the composition of Algonkin names are very +numerous, and hardly admit of classification. Noun, adjective, adverb +or even an active verb may, with slight change of form, serve as a +prefix. But, as was before remarked, every prefix, strictly +considered, is an adverb or must be construed as an adverb,—the +synthesis which serves as a name having generally the verb form. Some +of the most common of these prefixes have been mentioned on preceding +pages. A few others, whose meanings are less obvious and have been +sometimes mistaken by translators, may deserve more particular notice.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Pohqui</span>, <span class="smcap">pohquae´</span>; Narr. <i>pâuqui</i>; Abn. <i>p[oo]'k[oo]ié</i>; 'open,' +'clear' (primarily, 'broken'). In composition with <i>ohke</i>, 'land,' or +formed as a verbal in <i>-aug</i>, it denotes 'cleared land' or 'an open +place:' as in the names variously written 'Pahquioque,' 'Paquiaug;' +'Pyquaag;' 'Poquaig,' 'Payquaoge,' &c., in Danbury and Wethersfield, +and in Athol, Mass.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Pahke</span> (Abn. <i>pa<sup>n</sup>g[oo]i</i>,) 'clear,' 'pure'. Found with <i>paug</i>, +'standing water' or 'pond,' in such names as 'Pahcupog,' 'Paquabaug,' +&c. See <a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Pâguan-aü</span>, 'he destroys,' 'he slaughters' (Narr. <i>paúquana</i>, 'there +is a slaughter') in composition with <i>ohke</i> denotes 'place of +slaughter' or 'of destruction,' and commemorates some sanguinary +victory or disastrous defeat. This is <i>probably</i> the meaning of nearly +all the names written 'Poquannoc,' 'Pequannoc,' 'Pauganuck,' &c., of +places in Bridgeport (Stratfield), Windsor and Groton, Conn., and of a +town in New Jersey. Some of these, however, may possibly be derived +from <i>paukunni</i> and <i>ohke</i>, 'dark place.'</p> + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">Pemi</span> (Abn. <i>pemai-[oo]i</i>; Del. <i>pimé-u</i>; Cree, <i>peemé</i>;) denotes +deviation from a straight line; 'sloping,' 'aslant,' 'twisted.' +<span class="smcap">Pummeeche</span> (Cree, <i>pimich</i>; Chip. <i>pemiji</i>; Abn. <i>pemetsi</i>;) +'crosswise; traverse.' Eliot wrote '<i>pummeeche may</i>' for 'cross-way,' +Obad. 14; and <i>pumetshin</i> (literally, 'it crosses') for 'a cross,' as +in <i>up-pumetshin-eum</i>, 'his cross,' Luke xiv. 27. <i>Pemiji-gome</i> or +<i>Pemiji-guma</i>, 'cross water,' is the Chippewa name for a lake whose +longest diameter crosses the general course of the river which flows +through it,—which stretches <i>across</i>, not <i>with</i> the stream. There is +such a lake in Minnesota, near the sources of the Mississippi, just +below the junction of the two primary forks of that river; another +('Pemijigome') in the chain of small lakes which are the northern +sources of the Manidowish (and Chippewa) River in Wisconsin, and still +another near the Lacs des Flambeaux, the source of Flambeau River, an +affluent of the Manidowish.</p> + +<p>The same prefix or its equivalent occurs in the name of a lake in +Maine, near the source of the Alligash branch of St. John's River. Mr. +Greenleaf, in a list of Indian names made in 1823,<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> gave this as +"<span class="smcap">Baam´che</span><i>nun´gamo</i> or <i>Ah</i><span class="smcap">p´moojee</span>`<i>negmook</i>." Thoreau<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> was +informed by his Penobscot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> guide, that the name "means 'Lake that is +crossed;' because the usual course lies across, not along it." There +is another "Cross Lake," in Aroostook county, near the head of Fish +River. We seem to recognize, and with less difficulty, the same prefix +in <i>Pemigewasset</i>, but the full composition of that name is not clear.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pemi-</span> denotes, not a <i>crossing of</i> but <i>deviation from</i> a straight +line, whether vertical or horizontal. In place-names it may generally +be translated by 'sloping' or 'aslant;' sometimes by 'awry' or +'tortuous.' <i>Pemadené</i>, which Râle gives as the Abnaki word for +'mountain,' denotes a <i>sloping</i> mountain-side (<i>pemi-adené</i>), in +distinction from one that is steep or precipitous. '<i>Pemetiq</i>,' the +Indian name of Mount Desert Island, as written by Father Biard in +1611, is the Abnaki <i>peme'teki</i>, 'sloping land.' <i>Pemaquid</i> appears to +be another form of the word which Râle wrote '<i>Pemaa<sup>n</sup>kke</i>,' meaning +(with the locative suffix) 'at the place where the land slopes;' where +"le terre penche; est en talus."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> <i>Pymatuning</i>, in Pennsylvania, is +explained by Heckewelder, as "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth; <i>Pihmtónink</i>" (from <i>pimeu</i> and <i>'t[oo]n</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wanashque</span>, <span class="smcap">Anasqui</span>, 'at the extremity of,' 'at the end;' Abn. +<i>[oo]anask[oo]i[oo]i</i>, 'au bout;' Cree, <i>wánnusk[oo]tch</i>; Chip. +<i>ishkuè</i>, <i>eshqua</i>. See (pp. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, +<a href="#Page_19">19</a>,) <i>Wanashqu-ompsk-ut</i>, +<i>Wonnesquam</i>,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> <i>Winnesquamsaukit</i>, <i>Squamscot</i>. <i>Wonasquatucket</i>, a +small river which divides North Providence and Johnston, R.I., retains +the name which belonged to the point at which it enters an arm of +Narragansett Bay (or Providence River), 'at the end of the +tidal-river.' A stream in Rochester, Mass., which empties into the +head of an inlet from Buzzard's Bay, received the same name. +<i>Ishquagoma</i>, on the upper Embarras<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> River, Minnesota, is the 'end +lake,' the extreme point to which canoes go up that stream.</p> + +<p>Names of <i>fishes</i> supply the adjectival components of many place-names +on the sea-coast of New England, on the lakes, and along +river-courses. The difficulty of analyzing such names is the greater +because the same species of fish was known by different names to +different tribes. The more common substantivals are <i>-amaug</i>, 'fishing +place; <i>-tuk</i> or <i>sipu</i>, 'river;' <i>ohke</i>, 'place;' Abn. <i>-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, +'place of abundance;' and <i>-keag</i>, <i>-keke</i>, Abn. <i>-khigé</i>, which +appears to denote a peculiar <i>mode of fishing</i>,—perhaps, by a +<i>weir</i>;<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> possibly, a <i>spearing-place</i>.</p> + +<p>From the generic <i>namaus</i> (<i>namohs</i>, El.; Abn. <i>namés</i>; Del. +<i>namees</i>;) 'a fish'—but probably, one of the <i>smaller</i> sort, for the +form is a diminutive,—come such names as <i>Nameoke</i> or <i>Nameaug</i> (New +London), for <i>namau-ohke</i>, 'fish country;' <i>Namasket</i> or <i>Namasseket</i> +(on Taunton River, in Middleborough, Mass.) 'at the fish place,' a +favorite resort of the Indians of that region; <i>Namaskeak</i>, now +Amoskeag, on the Merrimack, and <i>Nam'skeket</i> or <i>Skeekeet</i>, in +Wellfleet, Mass.</p> + +<p><i>M'squammaug</i> (Abn. <i>mesk[oo]amék[oo]</i>), 'red fish,' i.e. salmon, gave +names to several localities. <i>Misquamacuck</i> or <i>Squamicut</i>, now +Westerly, R.I., was 'a salmon place' of the Narragansetts. The initial +<i>m</i> often disappears; and sometimes, so much of the rest of the name +goes with it, that we can only guess at the original synthesis. +'<i>Gonic</i>,' a post office and railroad station, near Dover, N.H., on +the Cocheco river, was once '<i>Squammagonic</i>,'—and probably, a +salmon-fishing place.</p> + +<p><i>Kaúposh</i> (Abn. <i>kabassé</i>, plu. <i>kabassak</i>), 'sturgeon,' is a +component of the name <i>Cobbosseecontee</i>, in Maine (<a href="#Page_26">page 26</a>, ante), +'where sturgeons are plenty;' and <i>Cobscook</i>, an arm of Passamaquoddy +Bay, Pembroke, Me., perhaps stands for <i>kabassakhigé</i>, +'sturgeon-catching place.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Aumsuog</i> or <i>Ommissuog</i> (Abn. <i>a<sup>n</sup>ms[oo]ak</i>), 'small +fish,'—especially alewives and herrings,—is a component of the name +of the Abnaki village on the Kennebec, <i>A<sup>n</sup>mes[oo]k-ka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>; of +<i>Mattammiscontis</i>, a tributary of the Kennebec (see <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>, ante), and +<i>probably</i>, of <i>Amoscoggin</i> and <i>Amoskeag</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Qunnôsu</i> (pl. <i>-suog;</i> Abn. <i>k[oo]n[oo]sé;</i> Old Alg. <i>kino<sup>n</sup>jé</i>; +Chip. <i>keno´zha</i>;) is found in the name of <i>Kenosha</i>, a town and +county in Wisconsin; perhaps, in <i>Kenjua</i> or <i>Kenzua</i> creek and +township, in Warren county, Pa. <i>Quinshepaug</i> or <i>Quonshapauge</i>, in +Mendon, Mass., seems to denote a 'pickerel pond' (<i>qunnosu-paug</i>). +<i>Maskinongé</i>, i.e. <i>massa-kino<sup>n</sup>jé</i>, 'great pike' or maskelunge, +names a river and lake in Canada.</p> + +<p><i>Pescatum</i>, said to mean 'pollock,' occurs as an adjectival in +<i>Peskadamioukka<sup>n</sup>tti</i>, the modern <i>Passamaquoddy</i> (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Naha<sup>n</sup>m[oo]</i>, the Abnaki name of the 'eel,' is found in +"<i>Nehumkeag</i>, the English of which is <i>Eel Land</i>, ... a stream or +brook that empties itself into Kennebec River," not far from +Cobbissecontee.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> This brook was sometimes called by the English, +<i>Nehumkee</i>. The Indian name of Salem, Mass., was <i>Nehumkeke</i> or +<i>Naümkeag</i>, and a place on the Merrimac, near the mouth of Concord +River (now in Lowell, I believe,) had the same name,—written, +<i>Naamkeak</i>.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>In view of the illustrations which have been given, we repeat what was +stated in the beginning of this paper, that Indian place-names are not +<i>proper names</i>, that is unmeaning marks, but significant +<i>appellatives</i>, each conveying a <i>description</i> of the locality to +which it belongs. In those parts of the country where Indian languages +are still spoken, the analysis of such names is comparatively easy. +Chippewa, Cree, or (in another family) Sioux-Dakota geographical names +may generally be translated with as little difficulty as other words +or syntheses in the same languages. In New England, and especially in +our part of New England, the case is different.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> We can hardly expect +to ascertain the meaning of all the names which have come down to us +from dead languages of aboriginal tribes. Some of the obstacles to +accurate analysis have been pointed out. Nearly every geographical +name has been mutilated or has suffered change. It would indeed be +strange if Indian polysyntheses, with their frequent gutturals and +nasals, adopted from unwritten languages and by those who were +ignorant of their meanings, had been exempted from the phonetic change +to which all language is subject, as a result of the universal +disposition "to put more facile in the stead of more difficult sounds +or combination of sounds, and to get rid altogether of what is +unnecessary in the words we use."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> What Professor Haldeman calls +<i>otosis</i>, 'that error of the ear by which words are perverted to a +more familiar form,'<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> has effected some curious transformations. +<i>Swatara</i>,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> the name of a stream in Pennsylvania, becomes 'Sweet +Arrow;' the <i>Potopaco</i> of John Smith's map (<i>p[oo]tuppâg</i>, a bay or +cove; Eliot,) on a bend of the Potomac, is naturalized as 'Port +Tobacco.' <i>Nama'auke</i>, 'the place of fish' in East Windsor, passes +through <i>Namerack</i> and <i>Namalake</i> to the modern 'May Luck.' +<i>Moskitu-auke</i>, 'grass land,' in Scituate, R.I., gives the name of +'Mosquito Hawk' to the brook which crosses it.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p><p>In Connecticut and Rhode Island special causes operated to corrupt and +transform almost beyond possibility of recognition, many of the Indian +place names. Five different dialects at least were spoken between +Narragansett Bay and the Housatonic River, at the time of the first +coming of the English. In early deeds and conveyances in the colonial +and in local records, we find the same river, lake, tract of land or +bound-mark named sometimes in the Muhhekan, sometimes in the +Narragansett, or Niantic, or Nipmuck, or Connecticut valley, or +Quinnipiac (Quiripee) dialect. The adopted name is often +<i>extra-limitary</i> to the tribe by which it was given. Often, it is a +mixture of, or a sort of compromise between, two dialects; half +Muhhekan, half Narragansett or Nipmuck. In the form in which it comes +to us, we can only guess from what language or languages it has been +corrupted.</p> + +<p>The analysis of those names even whose composition appears to be most +obvious must be accepted as <i>provisional</i> merely. The recovery of a +lost syllable or of a lost guttural or nasal, the correction of a +false accent even, may give to the synthesis another and hitherto +unsuspected meaning. It would be surprising if some of the +translations which have been hazarded in this paper do not prove to be +wide of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> mark. Even English etymology is not reckoned among the +exact sciences yet,—and in Algonkin, there is the additional +disadvantage of having no Sanskrit verbs "to go," to fall back on as a +last resort.</p> + +<p>Recent manifestations of an increasing interest in Indian onomatology, +or at least of awakened curiosity to discover the meanings of Indian +names, may perhaps justify the writer in offering, at the close of +this paper, a few suggestions, as to the method of analysis which +appears most likely to give correct results, and as to the tests by +which to judge of the <i>probability</i> that a supposed translation of any +name is the true one.</p> + +<p>1. The earliest recorded form of the name should be sought for, and +every variation from it should be noted. These should be taken so far +as possible from original manuscripts, not from printed copies.</p> + +<p>2. Where the difference of forms is considerable, knowledge of the +character and opportunities of the writer may sometimes determine the +preference of one form to others, as probably the most accurate. A +Massachusetts or Connecticut name written by John Eliot or Experience +Mayhew—or by the famous interpreter, Thomas Stanton—may safely be +assumed to represent the original combination of sounds more exactly +than the form given it by some town-recorder, ignorant of the Indian +language and who perhaps did not always write or spell his own +correctly.</p> + +<p>3. The name should be considered with some reference to the +topographical features of the region to which it belongs. These may +sometimes determine the true meaning when the analysis is doubtful, or +may suggest the meaning which would otherwise have been unsuspected +under the modern form.</p> + +<p>4. Remembering that every letter or sound had its value,—if, in the +analysis of a name, it becomes necessary to get rid of a troublesome +consonant or vowel by assuming it to have been introduced 'for the +sake of euphony,'—it is probable that the interpretation so arrived +at is <i>not</i> the right one.</p> + +<p>5. The components of every place-name—or to speak more generally, the +elements of every Indian synthesis are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> <i>significant roots</i>, not mere +<i>fractions of words</i> arbitrarily selected for new combinations. There +has been no more prolific source of error in dealings with the +etymology and the grammatical structure of the American languages than +that one-sided view of the truth which was given by Duponceau<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> in +the statement that "one or more syllables of each simple word are +generally chosen and combined together, in one compound locution, +often leaving out the harsh consonants for the sake of euphony,"—and +repeated by Heckewelder,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> when he wrote, that "in the Delaware and +other American languages, parts or parcels of different words, +sometimes a single sound or letter, are compounded together in an +artificial manner so as to avoid the meeting of harsh or disagreeable +sounds," &c. The "single sound or letter" the "one or more syllables," +were chosen not as "part or parcel" of a word but because of their +<i>inherent significance</i>. The Delaware "<i>Pilape</i>, a youth," is +<i>not</i>—as Heckewelder and Duponceau represented it to be<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>—"formed +from <i>pilsit</i>, chaste, innocent, and <i>lenape</i>, a man," but from <span class="smcap">pil-</span> +(Mass. <i>pen-</i>, Abn. <i>pir-</i>,) strange, novel, <i>unused</i> (and hence) +pure,—and <span class="smcap">-a<sup>n</sup>pe</span> (Mass. <i>-omp</i>, Abn. <i>a<sup>n</sup>bé</i>) a male, <i>vir</i>. It is +true that the same roots are found in the two words <span class="smcap">pil</span>-<i>sit</i> (a +participle of the verb-adjective <i>pil-esu</i>, 'he is pure,') and +<i>len</i>-<span class="smcap">a<sup>n</sup>pe</span>, 'common man:' but the statement that "one or more +syllables" are <i>taken from</i> these words to form <i>Pilape</i> is inaccurate +and misleading. It might with as much truth be said that the English +word <i>boyhood</i> is formed from selected syllables of boy-ish and +man-hood; or that purity 'compounds together in an artificial manner' +fractions of <i>pur</i>ify and qual<i>ity</i>.</p> + +<p>We meet with similar analyses in almost every published list of Indian +names. Some examples have been given in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> the preceding pages of this +paper,—as in the interpretation of 'Winnipisiogee' (p. 32) by 'the +beautiful water of the high place,' <i>s</i> or <i>ēs</i> being regarded as +the fractional representative of '<i>kees</i>, high.' <i>Pemigewasset</i> has +been translated by 'crooked place of pines' and 'crooked mountain pine +place,'—as if <i>k[oo]-a</i>, 'a pine,' or its plural <i>k[oo]-ash</i>, could +dispense in composition with its significant base, <i>k[oo]</i>, and appear +by a grammatical formative only.</p> + +<p>6. No interpretation of a place-name is correct which makes <i>bad +grammar</i> of the original. The apparatus of Indian synthesis was +cumbersome and perhaps inelegant, but it was nicely adjusted to its +work. The grammatical relations of words were never lost sight of. The +several components of a name had their established order, not +dependent upon the will or skill of the composer. When we read modern +advertisements of "cheap gentlemen's traveling bags" or "steel-faced +carpenters' claw hammers," we may construe such phrases with a +latitude which was not permitted to the Algonkins. If 'Connecticut' +means—as some have supposed it to mean—'long deer place,' it denotes +a place where <i>long deer</i> abounded; if 'Piscataqua' was named 'great +deer river,' it was because the deer found <i>in</i> that river were of +remarkable size. 'Coaquanock' or, as Heckewelder wrote it, +'Cuwequenaku,' the site of Philadelphia, may mean 'pine long-place' +but cannot mean 'long pine-place' or 'grove of long pine trees.' If +'Pemigewasset' is compounded of words signifying 'crooked,' 'pines,' +and 'place,' it denotes 'a place of crooked pines,'—not 'crooked +place of pines.'</p> + +<p>Again—every Indian name is <i>complete within itself</i>. A mere +adjectival or qualificative cannot serve independently, leaving the +real ground-word to be supplied by the hearer. River names must +contain some element which denotes 'river;' names of lakes or ponds +something which stands for 'lake' or 'pond.' The Indians had not our +fashion of speech which permits Hudson's River to be called 'the +Hudson,' drops the word 'lake' from 'Champlain' or 'Erie,' and makes +"the Alleghanies" a geographical name. This difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> must not be +lost sight of, in analysis or translation. <i>Agawam</i> or <i>Auguan</i> (a +name given to several localities in New England where there are low +flat meadows or marshes,) cannot be the equivalent of the Abnaki +<i>ag[oo]a<sup>n</sup>n</i>, which means 'a smoke-dried fish,'<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>—though +<i>ag[oo]a<sup>n</sup>na-ki</i> or something like it (if such a name should be +found), might mean 'smoked-fish place.' <i>Chickahominy</i> does not stand +for 'great corn,' nor <i>Pawcatuck</i> for 'much or many deer;'<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> because +neither 'corn' nor 'deer' designates <i>place</i> or implies fixed +location, and therefore neither can be made the ground-word of a +place-name. <i>Androscoggin</i> or <i>Amoscoggin</i> is not from the Abnaki +'<i>amaskohegan</i>, fish-spearing,'<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> for a similar reason (and +moreover, because the termination <i>-hēgan</i> denotes always an +<i>instrument</i>, never an <i>action</i> or a <i>place</i>; it may belong to 'a +fish-spear,' but not to 'fish spearing' nor to the locality 'where +fish are speared.')</p> + +<p>7. The locative post-position, <i>-et</i>, <i>-it</i> or <i>-ut</i>,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> means <i>in</i>, +<i>at</i> or <i>on</i>,—not 'land' or 'place.' It locates, not the object to +the name of which it is affixed, but <i>something else</i> as related to +that object,—which must be of such a nature that location can be +predicated of it. <i>Animate nouns</i>, that is, names of animate objects +cannot receive this affix. 'At the rock' (<i>ompsk-ut</i>), 'at the +mountain' (<i>wadchu-ut</i>), or 'in the country' (<i>ohk-it</i>, <i>auk-it</i>), is +intelligible, in Indian or English; 'at the deer,' 'at the bear,' or +'at the sturgeons,' would be nonsense in any language. When animate +nouns occur in place-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>names, they receive the formative of verbals, or +serve as adjectival prefixes to some localizing ground-word or +noun-generic.</p> + +<p>8. Finally,—in the analysis of geographical names, differences of +<i>language</i> and <i>dialect</i> must not be disregarded. In determining the +primary meaning of roots, great assistance may be had by the +comparison of derivatives in nearly related languages of the same +stock. But in American languages, the diversity of dialects is even +more remarkable than the identity and constancy of roots. Every tribe, +almost every village had its peculiarities of speech. Names +etymologically identical might have widely different meanings in two +languages, or even in two nations speaking substantially the same +language. The eastern Algonkin generic name for 'fish' (<i>nâma-us</i>, +Del. <i>namai-s</i>) is restricted by northern and western tribes to a +single species, the sturgeon (Chip. <i>namai´</i>,) as <i>the</i> fish, par +excellence. <i>Attuk</i>, in Massachusetts was the common fallow-deer,—in +Canada and the north-west the caribou or reindeer. The Abnaki Indian +called his <i>dog</i> (<i>atié</i>) by a name which the Chippewa gives his +<i>horse</i> (<i>oti-un</i>; <i>n'di</i>, my horse).<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> The most common +noun-generic of river names in New England (<i>-tuk</i>, 'tidal river') +occurs rarely in those of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is +replaced by <i>-hanne</i> ('rapid stream'), and is unknown to western +Algonkin tribes whose streams are undisturbed by tides. The analysis +of a geographical name must be sought in the language spoken by the +name-givers. The correct translation of a Connecticut or Narragansett +name is not likely to be attained by searching for its several +components in a Chippewa vocabulary; or of the name of a locality near +Hudson's River, by deriving its prefix from an Abnaki adverb and its +ground-word from a Chippewa participle,—as was actually done in a +recently published list of Indian names.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDIAN_NAMES" id="INDIAN_NAMES"></a>INDIAN NAMES.</h2> + + +<p>Abagadusset, Abequaduset, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Abnaki, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">acadie</span>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></p> + +<p><i>Acawme-</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p>Accomack, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">adchu</span>, -<span class="smcap">achu</span>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">adené</span>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>Agamenticus, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p>Agoncy, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ahquedne</span>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p><i>Akoode-</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></p> + +<p>Alleghany, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">amaug</span>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Amessagunticook, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p> + +<p>Amoskeag, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p> + +<p><i>Anasqui-</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p>Androscoggin, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p> + +<p>Anmesookkantti, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Annis-squam, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Aquednet, -nesit, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p><i>Ashawi-</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Ashawog, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ashim</span>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p>Ashimuit, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p><i>Assini-</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">Aûke</span>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Baamcheenunganoo, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Bagadoose, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">Bik</span>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p><i>Boonamoo-</i>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Capawonk, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Cappowonganick, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Catumb, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>Caucomgomoc, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Chabanakongkomuk, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chabenuk</span>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p>Chawonock, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Chebegnadose, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Chippaquiddick, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Cobbosseecontee, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Cobbscook, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">comaco</span>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>Connecticut, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p>Cuppacommock, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><i>-Ehtu</i>, <i>-ettu</i>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></p> + +<p><i>Eshqua-</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>-<span class="smcap">gami</span>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Ganshow-hanne, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Gonic, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Hackensack, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">han</span>, -<span class="smcap">hanne</span>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p><i>Hassuni-</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>Higganum, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">hittuck</span>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p>Hoccanum, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hocquaun</span>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Ishquagoma, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><i>Kabassé-</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">kamighé</span>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">kaoodi</span>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">kantti</span>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Katahdin, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p><i>Kauposh-</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Kearsarge, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p><i>Keht-</i>, <i>kit-</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>Kehtetukqut, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Kennebec, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Kenjua, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Kenosha, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Ketumpscut, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">ki</span>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></p> + +<p>Kinougami, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Kiskatamenakook, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Kittanning, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Kittatinny, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>Kitchigami, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Kitchi-sipi, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">komuk</span>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">kontu</span>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Kunckquachu, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p><i>Kuppo-</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Lackawanna, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Lenapewi-hittuck, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Machigamig, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Manati, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Manhasset, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Manhatan, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Manisses, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Manussing, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p><i>Massa-</i>, <i>Masha-</i>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Massachusetts, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p>Massapaug, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Massaugatucket, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></p> + +<p>Mashenips, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p> + +<p>Maskinonjé, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Mattabeset, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p>Mattammiscontis, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p> + +<p>Mattapan, -ient, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p>Mattapony, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p>Mattapoiset, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p>Matchebiguatus, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Mauch-chunk, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Menan</span>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Mennewies, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Meesucontee, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p> + +<p>Mianus, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></p> + +<p>Michigan, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Missinippi, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Missisaking, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p> + +<p>Mississippi, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Misquamacuck, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Mistassini, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p>Miste-shipu, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Mitchigami, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Mohicannittuck, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p>Montauk, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Moosup, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></p> + +<p>Moshenupsuck, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">msk</span> (for -<span class="smcap">ompsk</span>), <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Munhansick, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Munnoh-han</span>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Mushauwomuk, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></p> + +<p>Mystic, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Nâīag</span>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Namasket, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Nameaug, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p> + +<p>Namelake, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p> + +<p>Narragansett, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Nashauekomuk, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nashaué</span>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Nashua, Nashaway, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Natchaug, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Naūmkeag, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Nayatt, Nayot, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p><i>Nessaooa-</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p> + +<p>Newichawanock, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Nimpanickhickanuh, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">nippe</span>, <span class="smcap">nebi</span>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></p> + +<p>Nippissing, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Noank, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p><i>Nóēu-</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Norwottock, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Noyaug, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p><i>Nunni-</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Nunnepoag, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Nunkertunk, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Nyack, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Occoquan, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p><i>Ogkome-</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ogquidne</span>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></p> + +<p>Ohio, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">Ohke</span>, -<span class="smcap">oke</span>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></p> + +<p>Okhúcquan, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p>Olighin-sipoú, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">ompsk</span>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Oswego, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p> + +<p>Ouschankamaug, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Pacatock, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p><i>Paguan-</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p><i>Pahke-</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Pahquioque, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Paquabaug, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Paquiaug, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Pascoag, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Pasquotank, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Passamaquoddy, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Patuxet, -ent, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">paug</span>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p><i>Pauqui-</i>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p>Pauquepaug, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Pauat-, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>Pautuck, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>Pawating, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>Pawcatuck, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p>Pawtucket, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>Pemadené, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p><i>Pemi-</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Pemaquid, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p>Pemetiq, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p>Pemigewasset, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p><i>Pemiji-</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Pemijigomé, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p><i>Pen-</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>Penobscot, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>Pequabuck, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Pequannoc, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p><i>Pescatum-</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p><i>Peske-</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p>Pesquamscot, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Pettiquamscut, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Petuckquapock, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p><i>Petukqui-</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Pikanghenahik, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p><i>Pimé-</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">pisk</span>, -<span class="smcap">psk</span>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Piscataqua, -quog, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Piscataway,-aquis, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Poaetquessing, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p><i>Pohqui-</i>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p><i>Ponamo-</i>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></p> + +<p>Poquannoc, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + +<p>Poutaxat, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></p> + +<p>Powhatan, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></p> + +<p>Pymatuning, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p>Pyquaag, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></p> + +<p><i>Pummeecke-</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Quansigamaug, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Quilutamende, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></p> + +<p><i>Quinni-</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>Quinnihticut, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + +<p>Quinebaug, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Quinepoxet, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Quinnipiac, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">quoddy</span>, -<span class="smcap">kantti</span>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></p> + +<p>Quonshapang, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></p> + +<p>Qussuk, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Quunkwadchu, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>Saco, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p>Sagadahock, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p>Saganaw, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p> + +<p>Saguenay, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p> + +<p>Saquatucket, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></p> + +<p>Saugatuck, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></p> + +<p>Saukunk, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p> + +<p>Segoonumakaddy, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></p> + +<p>Segubbunakaddy, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sepu</span>, <span class="smcap">Seip</span>, <span class="smcap">sipi</span>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Shaume, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p>Shawmut, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></p> + +<p>Shawwunk, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Shubenacadie, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></p> + +<p>Shumuit, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p>Sicaiook, Suckiaug, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Soakatuck, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></p> + +<p><i>Sonki-</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Sonkipaug, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Sowanohke, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Squam, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Squamacut, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Squammagonic, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></p> + +<p>Squamscot, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p><i>Sucki-</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Swamscot, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p>-<span class="smcap">tchuan</span>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></p> + +<p>Temigami, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p> + +<p>Tetiquet, Titicut, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></p> + +<p>Tomheganomset, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p> + +<p>Tracady, -die, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></p> + +<p>-<span class="smcap">tuk</span>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Uhquôn</span>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Wadchu</span>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></p> + +<p>Wampanoags, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></p> + +<p><i>Wanashqué-</i>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p>Wangunbog, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Wapanachki, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<p>Werowocomoco, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p> + +<p>Winnepesaukee, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></p> + +<p>Winnesquamsaukit, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Winnisimmit, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p> + +<p>Wnogquetookoke, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></p> + +<p>Wonasquatucket, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wonkun</span>, <span class="smcap">Wongun</span>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Wongattuck, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p> + +<p>Wonkemaug, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Wongunpaug, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></p> + +<p>Wonnesquam, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p> + +<p>Wuskowhánanaukit, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Mill's Logic, B. I. ch. viii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Max Müller, Science of Language, (1st Series,) p. 292.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> These terms, though not strictly appropriate to Indian +synthesis, are sufficiently explicit for the purposes of this paper. +They are borrowed from the author of "Words and Places" (the Rev. +Isaac Taylor), who has employed them (2d ed., p. 460) as equivalents +of Förstemann's "Bestimmungswort" and "Grundwort," (<i>Die deutschen +Ortsnamen.</i> Nordhausen, 1863, pp. 26-107, 109-174). In Indian names, +the "Bestimmungswort" sometimes corresponds to the English +adjective—sometimes to a noun substantive—but is more generally an +<i>adverb</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> It has not been thought advisable to attempt the +reduction of words or names taken from different languages to a +uniform orthography. When no authorities are named, it may be +understood that the Massachusetts words are taken from Eliot's +translation of the Bible, or from his Indian Grammar; the +Narragansett, from Roger Williams's Indian Key, and his published +letters; the Abnaki, from the Dictionary of Râle (Rasles), edited by +Dr. Pickering; the Delaware, from Zeisberger's Vocabulary and his +Grammar; the Chippewa, from Schoolcraft (Sch.), Baraga's Dictionary +and Grammar (B.), and the Spelling Books published by the American +Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions; and the Cree, from Howse's +Grammar of that language. +</p><p> +The character <span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: oo ligature in original"><i>[oo]</i></span> (<i>oo</i> in 'food;' <i>w</i> in 'Wabash,' 'Wisconsin'), +used by Eliot, has been substituted in Abnaki words for the Greek +<span lang="el" title="Transcriber's Note: Greek ou ligature symbol in original"><i>ou</i></span> of Râle and the Jesuit missionaries, and for the +<span lang="el" title="Greek: omega">ω</span> of Campanius. A small <sup>n</sup> placed above the line, shows +that the vowel which it follows is <i>nasal</i>,—and replaces the ñ +employed for the same purpose by Râle, and the short line or dash +placed under a vowel, in Pickering's alphabet. +</p><p> +In Eliot's notation, <i>oh</i> usually represents the sound of <i>o</i> in +<i>order</i> and in <i>form</i>,—that of broad <i>a</i>; but sometimes it stands for +short <i>o</i>, as in <i>not</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Doc. Hist. of New York (4to), vol. iii. p. 656.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Jesuit Relations, 1633, 1636, 1640.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Hind's Exploration of Labrador, i. 9, 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Heckewelder's Historical account, &c., p. 33. He was +mistaken in translating "the word <i>hittuck</i>," by "a rapid stream."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Col. Records of Connecticut, 1677-89, p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan country, 1705.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See Mourt's Relation, Dexter's edition, pp. 84, 91, 99. +Misled by a form of this name, <i>Patackosi</i>, given in the Appendix to +Savage's Winthrop (ii. 478) and elsewhere, I suggested to Dr. Dexter +another derivation. See his note 297, to Mourt, p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Descrip. of New Sweden, b. ii. ch. 1, 2; Proud's Hist. +of Pennsylvania, ii. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "True Relation of Virginia," &c. (Deane's edition, +Boston, 1866), p. 7. On Smith's map, 1606, the 'King's house,' at +'<i>Powhatan</i>,' is marked just below "The Fales" on '<i>Powhatan flu:</i>' or +James River.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> History of Hadley, pp. 121, 122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See Hist. Magazine, vol. iii. p. 48.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Heckewelder, on Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. +vol. iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Ibid.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Narrative, &c., in Mem. Hist. Society of Pennsylvania, +vol. ii. p. 97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Grammar of the Lenni-Lenape, transl. by Duponceau, p. 43. +"<i>Wulit</i>, good." "<i>Welsit</i> (masc. and fem.), the best." "Inanimate, +<i>Welhik</i>, best."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Morgan's League of the Iroquois, p. 436.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Published in London, 1759, and re-printed in Appendix to +Proud's Hist. of Penn., vol. ii. pp. 65-132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Shea's Early Voyages on the Mississippi, p. 75. +</p><p> +La Metairie's '<i>Olighinsipou</i>' suggests another possible derivation +which may be worth mention. The Indian name of the Alleghanies has +been said,—I do not now remember on whose authority,—to mean +'Endless Mountains.' 'Endless' cannot be more exactly expressed in any +Algonkin language than by 'very long' or 'longest,'—in the Delaware, +<i>Eluwi-guneu</i>. "The very long or longest river" would be <i>Eluwi-guneu +sipu</i>, or, if the words were compounded in one, <i>Eluwi-gunesipu</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Paper on Indian names, <i>ut supra</i>, p. 367; Historical +Account, &c., pp. 29-32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Morgan's League of the Iroquois, pp. 466, 468.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Ms. Itinerary. He was careful to preserve the Indian +pronunciation of local names, and the form in which he gives this name +convinces me that it is not, as I formerly supposed, the +<i>quinnuppohke</i> (or <i>quinuppeohke</i>) of Eliot,—meaning 'the surrounding +country' or the 'land all about' the site of New Haven.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Dictionary, s.v. 'Noms.'</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Paug</i> is regularly formed from <i>pe</i> (Abn. <i>bi</i>), the +base of <i>nippe</i>, and may be translated more exactly by 'where water +is' or 'place of water.'</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> A bound of Human Garret's land, one mile north-easterly +from Ninigret's old Fort. See <i>Conn. Col. Records</i>, ii. 314.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Foster and Whitney's Report on the Geology of Lake +Superior, &c., Pt. II p. 400.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Râle gives Abn. <i>mitsegan</i>, 'fianté.' Thoreau, fishing +in a river in Maine, caught several sucker-like fishes, which his +Abnaki guide threw away, saying they were '<i>Michegan fish</i>, i.e., soft +and stinking fish, good for nothing.'—<i>Maine Woods</i>, p. 210.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Primarily, that which 'breaks,' 'cleaves,' 'splits:' +distinguishing the <i>harder</i> rocks—such as were used for making spear +and arrow heads, axes, chisels, corn-mortars, &c., and for striking +fire,—from the <i>softer</i>, such as steatite (soap-stone) from which +pots and other vessels, pipe-bowls, &c., were fashioned.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Mass. Records, i. 147, 226.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Squantam</i>, the supposed name of an Algonkin deity, is +only a corrupt form of the verb <i>m'squantam</i>, = <i>musqui-antam</i>, 'he is +angry,' literally, 'he is <i>red</i> (bloody-) minded.'</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Maine Woods, pp. 145, 324.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Pres. Stiles's Itinerary, 1761.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Conn. Col. Records, i. 434.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Hind's Exploration of Labrador, vol. ii. pp. 147, 148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> History of Hadley, 21, 22, 114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> W.F. Goodwin, in Historical Magazine, ix. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> About half-way from Tisbury to Gay Head.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Râle, s.v. <span class="smcap">Village</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Shea's Hist. of Catholic Missions, 142, 145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Description of New Sweden, b. ii. c. 8. (Duponceau's +translation.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> N.Y. Hist. Soc. Collections, iii. 375.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Dawson's Acadian Geology, App. p. 673.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> 4th Mass. Hist. Collections, vi. 267.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Otchipwe Grammar, pp. 87, 412.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Mr. Rand's Micmac Vocabulary, in Schoolcraft's +Collections, vol. v. p. 579.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Coll. Me. Hist. Society, iv. 31, 105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The statement that the Androscoggin received its present +name in compliment to Edmond Andros, about 1684, is erroneous. This +form of the name appears as early as 1639, in the release by Thomas +Purchase to the Governor of Massachusetts,—correctly printed (from +the original draft in the handwriting of Thomas Lechford) in Mass. +Records, vol. i. p. 272.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Information respecting the Indian Tribes, &c., vol. iii. +p. 526.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Depositions in Coll. Me. Histor. Society, iv. 113.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> 3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iii. 181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Dawson's Acadian Geology, 2d ed., (London, 1868), pp. 3, +8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Acadian Geology, pp. 1, 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Maine Woods, pp. 194, 284, 326.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Voyages, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See Coll. Me. Hist. Society, 2d Ser., vol. i. p. 234.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Acadian Geology, l.c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Cited by Dr. Kohl, in Coll. Me. Hist. Society, N.S., i. +416.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See <i>Narragansett Club Publications</i>, vol. i. p. 22 +(note 6).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> On Block's Map, 1616, the "Nahicans" are marked on the +easternmost point of Long Island.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Judd's History of Hadley, 115, 116, 117.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in 1823, wrote this name, +<i>Bakungunahik</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> On Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Society, N.S., vol. +iv., p. 377.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Ibid. p. 357.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Paper on Indian Names, ut supra, p. 366; and 3 Mass. +Historical Collections, vi. 145. [Compare, the Iroquois <i>Swa-deh´</i> and +<i>Oswa´-go</i> (modern <i>Oswego</i>), which has the same meaning as Alg. +<i>sauki</i>,—"flowing out."—<i>Morgan's League of the Iroquois</i>.]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>Saguinam</i>, Charlevoix, i. 501; iii. 279.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>Relations des Jésuites</i>, 1658, p. 22; 1648, p. 62; +1671, pp. 25, 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Charlevoix, Nouv. France, iii. 65; Gallatin's Synopsis, +p. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> This name is still retained.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> When first discovered the Saguenay was not regarded as a +river, but as a strait or passage by which the waters of some northern +sea flowed to the St. Lawrence. But on a French map of 1543, the 'R. +de Sagnay' and the country of 'Sagnay' are laid down. See Maine Hist. +Soc. Collections, 2d Series, vol. i., pp. 331, 354. Charlevoix gives +<i>Pitchitaouichetz</i>, as the Indian name of the River.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> And in the <i>Historical Magazine</i>, vol. i. p. 246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Vol. i. p. 246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See pp. + <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Chandler's Survey and Map of the Mohegan country, 1705. +Compare the Chip. <i>ashawiwi-sitagon</i>, "a place from which water runs +two ways," a dividing ridge or portage <i>between</i> river courses. Owen's +Geological Survey of Wisconsin, etc., p. 312.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Blake's Annals of Dorchester, p. 9; Winthrop's Journal, +vol. i. p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> On Indian Names, in <i>Trans. Am. Philos. Society</i>, N.S. +iv. 361.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> On Indian Names (<i>ut supra</i>), p. 365.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Stiles's History of Ancient Windsor, p. 111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Printed in note to Savage's Winthrop's Journal, ii. +180.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See Thornton's Ancient Pemaquid, in Maine Hist. +Collections, v. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Report of American Society for Promoting Civilization of +the Indian Tribes, p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Maine Woods, 232.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Abnaki Dictionary, s.v. <span class="smcap">Pencher</span>. Compare, p. 545, +"<i>bimk[oo]é</i>, il penche naturellement la tête sur un côte."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Wonnesquam</i> (as should have been mentioned on the page +referred to) may possibly represent the Abnaki +<i>[oo]anask[oo]a<sup>n</sup>a<sup>n</sup>mi[oo]i</i> or <i>-mek</i> 'at the end of the peninsula' +('au bout de la presqu'ile.' Râle).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Schoolcraft derives the name of the <i>Namakagun</i> fork of +the St. Croix river, Wisc., from Chip. "<i>namai</i>, sturgeon, and +<i>kagun</i>, a yoke or weir."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Col. William Lithgow's deposition, 1767,—in New England +Historical and General Register, xxiv. 24.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Whitney's Language and the Study of Language, p. +69.—"Ein natürliches Volksgefühl, oft auch der Volkswitz, den nicht +mehr verstandenen Namen neu umprägte und mit anderen lebenden Wörtern +in Verbindung setzte." Dr. J. Bender, <i>Die deutschen Ortsnamen</i> (2te +Ausg.) p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Haldeman's Analytic Orthography, §279, and "Etymology as +a means of Education," in Pennsylvania School Journal for October, +1868.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> "Swatawro," on Sayer and Bennett's Map, 1775.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> "Whiskey Jack," the name by which the Canada Jay +(Perisoreus Canadensis) is best known to the lumbermen and hunters of +Maine and Canada, is the Montagnais <i>Ouishcatcha<sup>n</sup></i> (Cree, +<i>Ouiskeshauneesh</i>), which has passed perhaps through the transitional +forms of 'Ouiske Jean' and 'Whiskey Johnny.' The Shagbark Hickory +nuts, in the dialect of the Abnakis called <i>s'k[oo]skada´mennar</i>, +literally, 'nuts to be cracked with the teeth,' are the +'Kuskatominies' and 'Kisky Thomas' nuts of descendants of the Dutch +colonists of New Jersey and New York. A contraction of the <i>plural</i> +form of a Massachusetts noun-generic,—<i>asquash</i>, denoting 'things +which are eaten green, or without cooking,' was adopted as the name of +a garden vegetable,—with conscious reference, perhaps, to the old +English word <i>squash</i>, meaning 'something soft or immature.' Sometimes +etymology overreaches itself, by regarding an aboriginal name as the +corrupt form of a foreign one. Thus the <i>maskalongé</i> or 'great +long-nose' of the St. Lawrence (see <a href="#Page_43">p. 43</a>) has been reputed of French +extraction,—<i>masque elongé</i>: and <i>sagackomi</i>, the northern name of a +plant used as a substitute for or to mix with tobacco,—especially, of +the Bearberry, <i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</i>,—is resolved into +<i>sac-à-commis</i>, "on account of the Hudson's Bay officers carrying it +in bags for smoking," as Sir John Richardson believed (Arctic +Searching Expedition, ii. 303). It was left for the ingenuity of a +Westminster Reviewer to discover that <i>barbecue</i> (denoting, in the +language of the Indians of Guiana, a wooden frame or grille on which +all kinds of flesh and fish were dry-roasted, or cured in smoke,) +might be a corruption of the French <i>barbe à queue</i>, i.e. 'from snout +to tail;' a suggestion which appears to have found favor with +lexicographers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Correspondence of Duponceau and Heckewelder, in Trans. +Historical and Literary Committee of Am. Philos. Society, p. 403.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Ibid., p. 406.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Preface to Duponceau's translation of Zeisberger's +Grammar, p. 21. On Duponceau's authority, Dr. Pickering accepted this +analysis and gave it currency by repeating it, in his admirable paper +on "Indian Languages," in the Encyclopædia Americana, vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> It was so interpreted in the Historical Magazine for +May, 1865 (p. 90).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Ibid. To this interpretation of <i>Pawcatuck</i> there is the +more obvious objection that a prefix signifying 'much or many' should +be followed not by <i>ahtuk</i> or <i>attuk</i>, 'a deer,' but by the plural +<i>ahtukquog</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Etymological Vocabulary of Geographical Names, appended +to the last edition of Webster's Dictionary (1864). It may be proper +to remark in this connection, that the writer's responsibility for the +correctness of translations given in that vocabulary does not extend +beyond his own contributions to it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Abnaki and Cree, <i>-k</i> or <i>-g</i>,—Delaware and Chippewa, +<i>-ng</i>; or <i>-<sup>n</sup>g</i>,—with a connecting vowel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Both words have the same meaning,—that of 'a domestic +animal,' or literally, 'animate property;' 'he who <i>belongs</i> to +me.'</p></div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Composition of Indian Geographical +Names, by J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Composition of Indian Geographical Names + Illustrated from the Algonkin Languages + +Author: J. Hammond Trumbull + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18279] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMPOSITION OF INDIAN *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Henry Craig, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Canadian Institute for +Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org).) + + + + + + + + + +THE COMPOSITION OF + +INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES, + +ILLUSTRATED FROM THE + +ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. + + +BY J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL. + + +PRESS OF +CASE, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARD, +Hartford, Conn. + +[Transcriber's Note: Published 1870] + + + * * * * * + +[Transcriber's Note: The original book contains some diacriticals that +are represented in this e-text as follows: + + 1. A macron is represented by an =, e.g. [=a] + + 2. A breve is represented by a ), e.g., [)a] + + 3. [n] represents a superscripted n (see Footnote 4). + + 4. [oo] represents an oo ligature (see Footnote 4.)] + + * * * * * + + +ON THE COMPOSITION OF + +INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. + + +A proper name has been defined to be "a mere mark put upon an +individual, and of which it is the characteristic property _to be +destitute of meaning_."[1] If we accept this definition, it follows +that there are no proper names in the aboriginal languages of America. +Every Indian synthesis--names of persons and places not excepted--must +"preserve the consciousness of its roots," and must not only have a +meaning but be so framed as to convey that meaning with precision, to +all who speak the language to which it belongs. Whenever, by phonetic +corruption or by change of circumstance, it loses its +self-interpreting or self-defining power, it must be discarded from +the language. "It requires tradition, society, and literature to +maintain forms which can no longer be analyzed at once."[2] In our own +language, such forms may hold their places by prescriptive right or +force of custom, and names absolutely unmeaning, or applied without +regard to their original meaning, are accepted by common consent as +the distinguishing marks of persons and places. We call a man William +or Charles, Jones or Brown,--or a town, New Lebanon, Cincinnati, Baton +Rouge, or Big Bethel--just as we put a number on a policeman's badge +or on a post-office box, or a trademark on an article of merchandise; +and the number and the mark are as truly and in nearly the same sense +proper names as the others are. + +[Footnote 1: Mill's Logic, B. I. ch. viii.] + +[Footnote 2: Max Mueller, Science of Language, (1st Series,) p. 292.] + +Not that personal or proper names, in any language, were _originally_ +mere arbitrary sounds, devoid of meaning. The first James or the first +Brown could, doubtless, have given as good a reason for his name as +the first Abraham. But changes of language and lapse of time made the +names independent of the reasons, and took from them all their +significance. Patrick is not now, _eo nomine_, a 'patrician;' Bridget +is not necessarily 'strong' or 'bright;' and in the name of Mary, +hallowed by its associations, only the etymologist can detect the +primitive 'bitterness.' Boston is no longer 'St. Botolph's Town;' +there is no 'Castle of the inhabitants of Hwiccia' +(_Hwic-wara-ceaster_) to be seen at Worcester; and Hartford is neither +'the ford of harts,' (which the city seal has made it,) nor 'the red +ford,' which its name once indicated. + +In the same way, many Indian geographical names, after their adoption +by Anglo-American colonists, became unmeaning sounds. Their original +character was lost by their transfer to a foreign tongue. Nearly all +have suffered some mutilation or change of form. In many instances, +hardly a trace of true original can be detected in the modern name. +Some have been separated from the localities to which they belonged, +and assigned to others to which they are etymologically inappropriate. +A mountain receives the name of a river; a bay, that of a cape or a +peninsula; a tract of land, that of a rock or a waterfall. And so +'Massachusetts' and 'Connecticut' and 'Narragansett' have come to be +_proper names_, as truly as 'Boston' and 'Hartford' are in their +cis-Atlantic appropriation. + +The Indian languages tolerated no such 'mere marks.' Every name +_described_ the locality to which it was affixed. The description was +sometimes _topographical_; sometimes _historical_, preserving the +memory of a battle, a feast, the dwelling-place of a great sachem, or +the like; sometimes it indicated one of the _natural products_ of the +place, or the _animals_ which resorted to it; occasionally, its +_position_ or _direction_ from a place previously known, or from the +territory of the nation by which the name was given,--as for example, +'the land on the other side of the river,' 'behind the mountain,' 'the +east land,' 'the half-way place,' &c. The same name might be, in fact +it very often was, given to more places than one; but these must not +be so near together that mistakes or doubts could be occasioned by the +repetition. With this precaution, there was no reason why there might +not be as many 'Great Rivers,' 'Bends,' 'Forks,' and 'Water-fall +places' as there are Washingtons, Franklins, Unions, and Fairplays in +the list of American post-offices. + +With few exceptions, the structure of these names is simple. Nearly +all may be referred to one of three classes: + +I. Those formed by the union of two elements, which we will call +_adjectival_ and _substantival_;[3] with or without a locative suffix +or post-position meaning 'at,' 'in,' 'by,' 'near,' &c. + +[Footnote 3: These terms, though not strictly appropriate to Indian +synthesis, are sufficiently explicit for the purposes of this paper. +They are borrowed from the author of "Words and Places" (the Rev. +Isaac Taylor), who has employed them (2d ed., p. 460) as equivalents +of Foerstemann's "Bestimmungswort" and "Grundwort," (_Die deutschen +Ortsnamen._ Nordhausen, 1863, pp. 26-107, 109-174). In Indian names, +the "Bestimmungswort" sometimes corresponds to the English +adjective--sometimes to a noun substantive--but is more generally an +_adverb_.] + +II. Those which have a single element, the _substantival_ or +'ground-word,' with its locative suffix. + +III. Those formed from verbs, as participials or verbal nouns, +denoting a _place where_ the action of the verb is performed. To this +class belong, for example, such names as _Mushauwomuk_ (Boston), +'where there is going-by-boat,' _i.e._, a ferry, or canoe-crossing. +Most of these names, however, may be shown by rigid analysis to belong +to one of the two preceding classes, which comprise at least +nine-tenths of all Algonkin local names which have been preserved. + +The examples I shall give of these three classes, will be taken from +Algonkin languages; chiefly from the Massachusetts or Natick (which +was substantially the same as that spoken by the Narragansetts and +Connecticut Indians), the Abnaki, the Lenni-Lenape or Delaware, the +Chippewa or Ojibway, and the Knisteno or Cree.[4] + +[Footnote 4: It has not been thought advisable to attempt the +reduction of words or names taken from different languages to a +uniform orthography. When no authorities are named, it may be +understood that the Massachusetts words are taken from Eliot's +translation of the Bible, or from his Indian Grammar; the +Narragansett, from Roger Williams's Indian Key, and his published +letters; the Abnaki, from the Dictionary of Rale (Rasles), edited by +Dr. Pickering; the Delaware, from Zeisberger's Vocabulary and his +Grammar; the Chippewa, from Schoolcraft (Sch.), Baraga's Dictionary +and Grammar (B.), and the Spelling Books published by the American +Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions; and the Cree, from Howse's +Grammar of that language. + +The character _[oo]_ (_oo_ in 'food;' _w_ in 'Wabash,' 'Wisconsin'), +used by Eliot, has been substituted in Abnaki words for the Greek +[Greek: ou ligature] of Rale and the Jesuit missionaries, and for the +[Greek: omega] of Campanius. A small [n] placed above the line, shows +that the vowel which it follows is _nasal_,--and replaces the n +employed for the same purpose by Rale, and the short line or dash +placed under a vowel, in Pickering's alphabet. + +In Eliot's notation, _oh_ usually represents the sound of _o_ in +_order_ and in _form_,--that of broad _a_; but sometimes it stands for +short _o_, as in _not_.] + + * * * * * + +Of names of the _first_ class, in central and southern New England, +some of the more common substantival components or 'ground-words' are +those which denote _Land_ or _Country_, _River_, _Water_, _Lake_ or +_Pond_, _Fishing-place_, _Rock_, _Mountain_, _Inclosure_, and +_Island_. + +1. The Massachusetts OHKE (Narr. _auke_; Delaware, _hacki_; Chip. +_ahke_; Abnaki, _'ki_;) signifies LAND, and in local names, PLACE or +COUNTRY. The final vowel is sometimes lost in composition. With the +locative suffix, it becomes _ohkit_ (Del. _hacking_; Chip. _ahki[n]_; +Abn. _kik_;) _at_ or _in_ a place or country. + +To the Narragansetts proper, the country east of Narragansett Bay and +Providence River was _wa[n]pan-auke_, 'east land;' and its people were +called by the Dutch explorers, _Wapenokis_, and by the English, +_Wampanoags_. The tribes of the upper St. Lawrence taught the French, +and tribes south of the Piscataqua taught the English, to give the +name of East-landers--_Abenaquis_, or _Abinakis_--to the Indians of +Maine. The country of the Delawares was 'east land,' _Wapanachki_, to +Algonkin nations of the west. + +The '_Chawwonock_,' or '_Chawonocke_,' of Capt. John Smith,--on what +is now known as Chowan River, in Virginia and North Carolina,--was, to +the Powhattans and other Virginian tribes, the 'south country,' or +_sowan-ohke_, as Eliot wrote it, in Gen. xxiv. 62. + +With the adjectival _sucki_, 'dark-colored,' 'blackish,' we have the +aboriginal name of the South Meadow in Hartford,--_sucki-ohke_, +(written _Sicaiook_, _Suckiaug_, &c.), 'black earth.' + +_Wuskowhanan-auk-it_, 'at the pigeon country,' was the name (as given +by Roger Williams) of a "place where these fowl breed abundantly,"--in +the northern part of the Nipmuck country (now in Worcester county, +Mass.). + +'_Kiskatamenakook_,' the name of a brook (but originally, of some +locality near the brook) in Catskill, N.Y.,[5] is +_kiskato-minak-auke_, 'place of thin-shelled nuts' (or shag-bark +hickory nuts). + +[Footnote 5: Doc. Hist. of New York (4to), vol. iii. p. 656.] + + +2. RIVER. _Seip_ or _sepu_ (Del. _sipo_; Chip. _s[=e]p[=e]_; Abn. +_sip[oo]_;) the Algonkin word for 'river' is derived from a root that +means 'stretched out,' 'extended,' 'become long,' and corresponds +nearly to the English 'stream.' This word rarely, if ever, enters into +the composition of local names, and, so far as I know, it does not +make a part of the name of any river in New England. _Mississippi_ is +_missi-sipu_, 'great river;' _Kitchi-sipi_, 'chief river' or 'greatest +river,' was the Montagnais name of the St. Lawrence;[6] and +_Miste-shipu_ is their modern name for the Moise or 'Great River' +which flows from the lakes of the Labrador peninsula into the Gulf of +St. Lawrence.[7] + +[Footnote 6: Jesuit Relations, 1633, 1636, 1640.] + +[Footnote 7: Hind's Exploration of Labrador, i. 9, 32.] + +Near the Atlantic seaboard, the most common substantival components of +river names are (1) _-tuk_ and (2) _-hanne_, _-han_, or _-huan_. +Neither of these is an independent word. They are inseparable +nouns-generic, or generic affixes. + +-TUK (Abn. _-teg[oo]e_; Del. _-ittuk_;) denotes a river whose waters +are driven _in waves_, by tides or wind. It is found in names of tidal +rivers and estuaries; less frequently, in names of _broad and deep_ +streams, not affected by tides. With the adjectival _missi_, 'great,' +it forms _missi-tuk_,--now written _Mystic_,--the name of 'the great +river' of Boston bay, and of another wide-mouthed tidal river in the +Pequot country, which now divides the towns of Stonington and Groton. + +Near the eastern boundary of the Pequot country, was the river which +the Narragansetts called _Paquat-tuk_, sometimes written _Paquetock_, +now _Pawcatuck_, 'Pequot river,'--the present eastern boundary of +Connecticut. Another adjectival prefix, _pohki_ or _pahke_, 'pure,' +'clear,' found in the name of several tidal streams, is hardly +distinguishable from the former, in the modern forms of _Pacatock_, +_Paucatuck_, &c. + +_Quinni-tuk_ is the 'long tidal-river.' With the locative affix, +_Quinni-tuk-ut_, 'on long river,'--now _Connecticut_,--was the name of +the valley, or lands both sides of the river. In one early deed +(1636), I find the name written _Quinetucquet_; in another, of the +same year, _Quenticutt_. Roger Williams (1643) has _Qunnihticut_, and +calls the Indians of this region _Quintik-oock_, i.e. 'the long river +people.' The _c_ in the second syllable of the modern name has no +business there, and it is difficult to find a reason for its +intrusion. + +'_Lenapewihittuck_' was the Delaware name of 'the river of the +Lenape,' and '_Mohicannittuck_,' of 'the river of the Mohicans' +(Hudson River).[8] + +[Footnote 8: Heckewelder's Historical account, &c., p. 33. He was +mistaken in translating "the word _hittuck_," by "a rapid stream."] + +Of _Pawtucket_ and _Pawtuxet_, the composition is less obvious; but we +have reliable Indian testimony that these names mean, respectively, +'at the falls' and 'at the little falls.' Pequot and Narragansett +interpreters, in 1679, declared that Blackstone's River, was "called +in Indian _Pautuck_ (which signifies, a Fall), because there the fresh +water falls into the salt water."[9] So, the upper falls of the +Quinebaug river (at Danielsonville, Conn.) were called "_Powntuck_, +which is a general name for all Falls," as Indians of that region +testified.[10] There was another Pautucket, 'at the falls' of the +Merrimac (now Lowell); and another on Westfield River, Mass. +_Pawtuxet_, i.e. _pau't-tuk-es-it_, is the regularly formed diminutive +of _paut-tuk-it_. The village of Pawtuxet, four miles south of +Providence, R.I., is "at the little falls" of the river to which their +name has been transferred. The first settlers of Plymouth were +informed by Samoset, that the place which they had chosen for their +plantation was called '_Patuxet_,'--probably because of some 'little +falls' on Town Brook.[11] There was another 'Pautuxet,' or 'Powtuxet,' +on the Quinebaug, at the lower falls; and a river 'Patuxet' +(Patuxent), in Maryland. The same name is ingeniously disguised by +Campanius, as '_Poaetquessing_,' which he mentions as one of the +principal towns of the Indians on the Delaware, just below the lower +falls of that river at Trenton; and 'Poutaxat' was understood by the +Swedes to be the Indian name both of the river and bay.[12] The +adjectival _pawt-_ or _pauat-_ seems to be derived from a root meaning +'to make a loud noise.' It is found in many, perhaps in all Algonkin +languages. '_Pawating_,' as Schoolcraft wrote it, was the Chippewa +name of the Sault Ste. Marie, or Falls of St. Mary's +River,--pronounced _pou-at-ing'_, or _pau-at-u[n]_, the last syllable +representing the locative affix,--"at the Falls." The same name is +found in Virginia, under a disguise which has hitherto prevented its +recognition. Capt. John Smith informs us that the "place of which +their great Emperor taketh his name" of _Powhatan_, or _Pawatan_, was +near "the Falls" of James River,[13] where is now the city of +Richmond. 'Powatan' is _pauat-hanne_, or 'falls on a rapid stream.' + +[Footnote 9: Col. Records of Connecticut, 1677-89, p. 275.] + +[Footnote 10: Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan country, 1705.] + +[Footnote 11: See Mourt's Relation, Dexter's edition, pp. 84, 91, 99. +Misled by a form of this name, _Patackosi_, given in the Appendix to +Savage's Winthrop (ii. 478) and elsewhere, I suggested to Dr. Dexter +another derivation. See his note 297, to Mourt, p. 84.] + +[Footnote 12: Descrip. of New Sweden, b. ii. ch. 1, 2; Proud's Hist. +of Pennsylvania, ii. 252.] + +[Footnote 13: "True Relation of Virginia," &c. (Deane's edition, +Boston, 1866), p. 7. On Smith's map, 1606, the 'King's house,' at +'_Powhatan_,' is marked just below "The Fales" on '_Powhatan flu:_' or +James River.] + +_Acawme_ or _Ogkome_ (Chip. _agami_; Abn. _aga[n]mi_; Del. +_achgameu_;) means 'on the other side,' 'over against,' 'beyond.' As +an adjectival, it is found in _Acawm-auke_, the modern 'Accomac,' a +peninsula east of Chesapeake Bay, which was 'other-side land' to the +Powhatans of Virginia. The site of Plymouth, Mass., was called +'Accomack' by Capt. John Smith,--a name given not by the Indians who +occupied it but by those, probably, who lived farther north, 'on the +other side' of Plymouth Bay. The countries of Europe were called +'other-side lands,'--Narr. _acawmen-oaki_; Abn. _aga[n]men-[oo]ki_. +With _-tuk_, it forms _acawmen-tuk_ (Abn. _aga[n]men-teg[oo]_), +'other-side river,' or, its diminutive, _acawmen-tuk-es_ (Abn. +_aga[n]men-teg[oo]ess[oo]_), 'the small other-side river,'--a name +first given (as _Agamenticus_ or _Accomenticus_) to York, Me., from +the 'small tidal-river beyond' the Piscataqua, on which that town was +planted. + +_Peske-tuk_ (Abn. _peske-teg[oo]e_) denotes a '_divided_ river,' or a +river which another _cleaves_. It is not generally (if ever) applied +to one of the 'forks' which unite to form the main stream, but to some +considerable tributary received by the main stream, or to the division +of the stream by some obstacle, near its mouth, which makes of it a +'double river.' The primary meaning of the (adjectival) root is 'to +divide in two,' and the secondary, 'to split,' 'to divide _forcibly_, +or _abruptly_.' These shades of meaning are not likely to be detected +under the disguises in which river-names come down to our time. Rale +translates _ne-peske_, "je vas dans le chemin qui en coupe un autre:" +_peskahak[oo]n_, "branche." + +_Piscataqua_, Pascataqua, &c., represent the Abn. _peske-teg[oo]e_, +'divided tidal-river.' The word for 'place' (_ohke_, Abn. _'ki_,) +being added, gives the form _Piscataquak_ or _-quog_. There is another +_Piscataway_, in New Jersey,--not far below the junction of the north +and south branches of the Raritan,--and a Piscataway river in +Maryland, which empties into the Potomac; a _Piscataquog_ river, +tributary to the Merrimac, in New Hampshire; a _Piscataquis_ +(diminutive) in Maine, which empties into the Penobscot. _Pasquotank_, +the name of an arm of Albemarle Sound and of a small river which flows +into it, in North Carolina, has probably the same origin. + +The adjectival _peske_, or _piske_, is found in many other compound +names besides those which are formed with _-tuk_ or _-hanne_: as in +_Pascoag_, for _peske-auke_, in Burrilville, R.I., 'the dividing +place' of two branches of Blackstone's River; and _Pesquamscot_, in +South Kingston, R.I., which (if the name is rightly given) is "at the +divided (or cleft) rock,"--_peske-ompsk-ut_,--perhaps some ancient +land-mark, on or near the margin of Worden's Pond. + +_Noeu-tuk_ (_Noahtuk_, Eliot), 'in the middle of the river,' may be, +as Mr. Judd[14] and others have supposed, the name which has been +variously corrupted to Norwottock, Nonotuck, Noatucke, Nawottok, &c. +If so, it probably belonged, originally to one of the necks or +peninsulas of meadow, near Northampton,--such as that at Hockanum, +which, by a change in the course of the river at that point, has now +become an island. + +[Footnote 14: History of Hadley, pp. 121, 122.] + +_Tetiquet_ or _Titicut_, which passes for the Indian name of Taunton, +and of a fishing place on Taunton River in the north-west part of +Middleborough, Mass., shows how effectually such names may be +disguised by phonetic corruption and mutilation. _Kehte-tuk-ut_ (or as +Eliot wrote it in Genesis xv. 18, _Kehteihtukqut_) means 'on the great +river.' In the Plymouth Colony Records we find the forms +'_Cauteeticutt_' and '_Coteticutt_,' and elsewhere, +_Kehtehticut_,--the latter, in 1698, as the name of a place on the +great river, "between Taunton and Bridgewater." Hence, 'Teghtacutt,' +'Teightaquid,' 'Tetiquet,' &c.[15] + +[Footnote 15: See Hist. Magazine, vol. iii. p. 48.] + +(2). The other substantival component of river-names, -HANNE or -HAN +(Abn. _-ts[oo]a[n]n_ or _-ta[n]n_; Mass. _-tchuan_;) denotes 'a rapid +stream' or 'current;' primarily, 'flowing water.' In the Massachusetts +and Abnaki, it occurs in such compounds as _anu-tchuan_ (Abn. +_ari'ts[oo]a[n]n_), 'it _over_-flows:' _kussi-tchuan_ (Abn. +_kesi'ts[oo]a[n]n_), 'it _swift_ flows,' &c. + +In Pennsylvania and Virginia, where the streams which rise in the +highlands flow down rapidly descending slopes, _-hanne_ is more common +than _-tuk_ or _sepu_ in river names. _Keht-hanne_ (_kittan_, Zeisb.; +_kithanne_, Hkw.) was a name given to the Delaware River as 'the +principal or greatest stream' of that region: and by the western +Delawares, to the Ohio.[16] With the locative termination, +_Kittanning_ (Penn.) is a place 'on the greatest stream.' The +Schuylkill was _Ganshow-hanne_, 'noisy stream;' the Lackawanna, +_Lechau-hanne_, 'forked stream' or 'stream that forks:'[17] with +affix, _Lechauhannak_ or _Lechauwahannak_, 'at the river-fork,'--for +which Hendrick Aupamut, a Muhhekan, wrote (with dialectic exchange of +_n_ for Delaware _l_) '_Naukhuwwhnauk_,' 'The Forks' of the Miami.[18] +The same name is found in New England, disguised as Newichawanock, +Nuchawanack, &c., as near Berwick, Me., 'at the fork' or confluence of +Cocheco and Salmon Fall rivers,--the '_Neghechewanck_' of Wood's Map +(1634). _Powhatan_, for _Pauat-hanne_, 'at the Falls on a rapid +stream,' has been previously noticed. + +[Footnote 16: Heckewelder, on Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. +vol. iv.] + +[Footnote 17: Ibid.] + +[Footnote 18: Narrative, &c., in Mem. Hist. Society of Pennsylvania, +vol. ii. p. 97.] + +_Alleghany_, or as some prefer to write it, Allegheny,--the Algonkin +name of the Ohio River, but now restricted to one of its +branches,--is probably (Delaware) _welhik-hanne_ or _[oo]lik-hanne_, +'the best (or, the fairest) river.' _Welhik_ (as Zeisberger wrote +it)[19] is the inanimate form of the adjectival, meaning 'best,' 'most +beautiful.' In his Vocabulary, Zeisberger gave this synthesis, with +slight change of orthography, as "_Wulach'neue_" [or +_[oo]lakhanne[oo]_, as Eliot would have written it,] with the free +translation, "_a fine River_, without Falls." The name was indeed more +likely to belong to rivers 'without falls' or other obstruction to the +passage of canoes, but its literal meaning is, as its composition +shows, "best rapid-stream," or "finest rapid-stream;" "La Belle +Riviere" of the French, and the _Oue-yo'_ or _O hee' yo Gae-hun'-dae_, +"good river" or "the beautiful river," of the Senecas.[20] For this +translation of the name we have very respectable authority,--that of +Christian Frederick Post, a Moravian of Pennsylvania, who lived +seventeen years with the Muhhekan Indians and was twice married among +them, and whose knowledge of the Indian languages enabled him to +render important services to the colony, as a negotiator with the +Delawares and Shawanese of the Ohio, in the French war. In his +"Journal from Philadelphia to the Ohio" in 1758,[21] after mention of +the 'Alleghenny' river, he says: "The _Ohio_, as it is called by the +Sennecas. _Alleghenny_ is the name of the same river in the Delaware +language. _Both words signify the fine_ or _fair river_." La Metairie, +the notary of La Salle's expedition, "calls the Ohio, the +_Olighinsipou_, or _Aleghin_; evidently an Algonkin name,"--as Dr. +Shea remarks.[22] Heckewelder says that the Delawares "still call the +Allegany (Ohio) river, _Alligewi Sipu_,"--"the river of the +_Alligewi_" as he chooses to translate it. In one form, we have +_wulik-hannesipu_, 'best rapid-stream long-river;' in the other, +_wulike-sipu_, 'best long-river.' Heckewelder's derivation of the +name, on the authority of a Delaware legend, from the mythic +'Alligewi' or 'Talligewi,'--"a race of Indians said to have once +inhabited that country," who, after great battles fought in +pre-historic times, were driven from it by the all-conquering +Delawares,[23]--is of no value, unless supported by other testimony. +The identification of _Alleghany_ with the Seneca "_De o' na gae no_, +cold water" [or, cold spring,[24]] proposed by a writer in the +_Historical Magazine_ (vol. iv. p. 184), though not apparent at first +sight, might deserve consideration if there were any reason for +believing the name of the river to be of Iroquois origin,--if it were +probable that an Iroquois name would have been adopted by Algonkin +nations,--or, if the word for 'water' or 'spring' could be made, in +any American language, the substantival component of a _river_ name. + +[Footnote 19: Grammar of the Lenni-Lenape, transl. by Duponceau, p. 43. +"_Wulit_, good." "_Welsit_ (masc. and fem.), the best." "Inanimate, +_Welhik_, best."] + +[Footnote 20: Morgan's League of the Iroquois, p. 436.] + +[Footnote 21: Published in London, 1759, and re-printed in Appendix to +Proud's Hist. of Penn., vol. ii. pp. 65-132.] + +[Footnote 22: Shea's Early Voyages on the Mississippi, p. 75. + +La Metairie's '_Olighinsipou_' suggests another possible derivation +which may be worth mention. The Indian name of the Alleghanies has +been said,--I do not now remember on whose authority,--to mean +'Endless Mountains.' 'Endless' cannot be more exactly expressed in any +Algonkin language than by 'very long' or 'longest,'--in the Delaware, +_Eluwi-guneu_. "The very long or longest river" would be _Eluwi-guneu +sipu_, or, if the words were compounded in one, _Eluwi-gunesipu_.] + +[Footnote 23: Paper on Indian names, _ut supra_, p. 367; Historical +Account, &c., pp. 29-32.] + +[Footnote 24: Morgan's League of the Iroquois, pp. 466, 468.] + +From the river, the name appears to have been transferred by the +English to a range of the "Endless Mountains." + + +3. NIPPE, NIPI (= _n'pi_; Narr. _nip_; Muhh. _nup_; Abn. and Chip. +_nebi_; Del. _m'bi_;) and its diminutives, _nippisse_ and _nips_, were +employed in compound names to denote WATER, generally, without +characterizing it as 'swift flowing,' 'wave moved,' 'tidal,' or +'standing:' as, for example, in the name of a part of a river, where +the stream widening with diminished current becomes lake-like, or of a +stretch of tide-water inland, forming a bay or cove at a river's +mouth. By the northern Algonkins, it appears to have been used for +'lake,' as in the name of _Missi-nippi_ or _Missinabe_ lake ('great +water'), and in that of Lake _Nippissing_, which has the locative +affix, _nippis-ing_, 'at the small lake' north-east of the greater +Lake Huron, which gave a name to the nation of 'Nipissings,' or as the +French called them, '_Nipissiriniens_,'--according to Charlevoix, the +true Algonkins. + +_Quinnipiac_, regarded as the Indian name of New Haven,--also written +Quinnypiock, Quinopiocke, Quillipiack, &c., and by President +Stiles[25] (on the authority of an Indian of East Haven) +_Quinnepyooghq_,--is, probably, 'long water place,' +_quinni-nippe-ohke_, or _quin-nipi-ohke_. _Kennebec_ would seem to be +another form of the same name, from the Abnaki, _k[oo]ne-be-ki_, were +it not that Rale wrote,[26] as the name of the river, +'_Aghenibekki_'--suggesting a different adjectival. But Biard, in the +_Relation de la Nouvelle-France_ of 1611, has '_Kinibequi_,' +Champlain, _Quinebequy_, and Vimont, in 1640, '_Quinibequi_,' so that +we are justified in regarding the name as the probable equivalent of +_Quinni-pi-ohke_. + +[Footnote 25: Ms. Itinerary. He was careful to preserve the Indian +pronunciation of local names, and the form in which he gives this name +convinces me that it is not, as I formerly supposed, the +_quinnuppohke_ (or _quinuppeohke_) of Eliot,--meaning 'the surrounding +country' or the 'land all about' the site of New Haven.] + +[Footnote 26: Dictionary, s.v. 'Noms.'] + +_Win-nippe-sauki_ (Winnipiseogee) will be noticed hereafter. + + +4. -PAUG, -POG, -BOG, (Abn. _-bega_ or _-begat_; Del. _-pecat_;) an +inseparable generic, denoting 'WATER AT REST,' 'standing water,' is +the substantival component of names of small lakes and ponds, +throughout New England.[27] Some of the most common of these names +are,-- + +[Footnote 27: _Paug_ is regularly formed from _pe_ (Abn. _bi_), the +base of _nippe_, and may be translated more exactly by 'where water +is' or 'place of water.'] + +_Massa-paug_, 'great pond,'--which appears in a great variety of +modern forms, as Mashapaug, Mashpaug, Massapogue, Massapog, &c. A +pond in Cranston, near Providence, R.I.; another in Warwick, in the +same State; 'Alexander's Lake,' in Killingly; 'Gardiner's Lake,' in +Salem, Bozrah and Montville; 'Tyler Pond,' in Goshen; ponds in Sharon, +Groton, and Lunenburg, Mass., were each of them the 'Massapaug' or +'great pond' of its vicinity. + +_Quinni-paug_, 'long pond.' One in Killingly, gave a name to +_Quinebaug_ River and the 'Quinebaug country.' Endicott, in 1651, +wrote this name 'Qunnubbagge' (3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iv. 191). +"Quinepoxet," the name of a pond and small river in Princeton, Mass., +appears to be a corruption of the diminutive with the locative affix; +_Quinni-paug-es-it_, 'at the little long pond.' + +_Wongun-paug_, 'crooked (or bent) pond.' There is one of the name in +Coventry, Conn. Written, 'Wangunbog,' 'Wungumbaug,' &c. + +_Petuhkqui-paug_, 'round pond,' now called 'Dumpling Pond,' in +Greenwich, Conn., gave a name to a plain and brook in that town, and, +occasionally, to the plantation settled there, sometimes written +'Petuckquapock.' + +_Nunni-paug_, 'fresh pond.' One in Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard, gave +a name (Nunnepoag) to an Indian village near it. Eliot wrote +_nunnipog_, for 'fresh water,' in James iii. 12. + +_Sonki-paug_ or _so[n]ki-paug_, 'cool pond.' (_Sonkipog_, 'cold +water,' Eliot.) Egunk-sonkipaug, or 'the cool pond (spring) of Egunk' +hill in Sterling, Conn., is named in Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan +country, as one of the east bounds. + +_Pahke-paug_, 'clear pond' or 'pure water pond.' This name occurs in +various forms, as 'Pahcupog,' a pond near Westerly, R.I.;[28] +'Pauquepaug,' transferred from a pond to a brook in Kent and New +Milford; 'Paquabaug,' near Shepaug River, in Roxbury, &c. 'Pequabuck' +river, in Bristol and Farmington, appears to derive its name from some +'clear pond,'--perhaps the one between Bristol and Plymouth. + +[Footnote 28: A bound of Human Garret's land, one mile north-easterly +from Ninigret's old Fort. See _Conn. Col. Records_, ii. 314.] + +Another noun-generic that denotes 'lake' or 'fresh water at rest,' is +found in many Abnaki, northern Algonkin and Chippewa names, but not, +perhaps, in Massachusetts or Connecticut. This is the Algonkin +_-g[)a]mi_, _-g[)o]mi_, or _-gummee_. _Kitchi-gami_ or +'_Kechegummee_,' the Chippewa name of Lake Superior, is 'the greatest, +or chief lake.' _Caucomgomoc_, in Maine, is the Abn. _kaaekou-gami-k_, +'at Big-Gull lake.' _Temi-gami_, 'deep lake,' discharges its waters +into Ottawa River, in Canada; _Kinou-gami_, now Kenocami, 'long lake,' +into the Saguenay, at Chicoutimi. + +There is a _Mitchi-gami_ or (as sometimes written) _machi-gummi_, +'large lake,' in northern Wisconsin, and the river which flows from it +has received the same name, with the locative suffix, +'_Machig[=a]mig_' (for _mitchi-gaming_). A branch of this river is now +called 'Fence River' from a _mitchihikan_ or _mitchikan_, a 'wooden +fence' constructed near its banks, by the Indians, for catching +deer.[29] Father Allouez describes, in the 'Relation' for 1670 (p. +96), a sort of 'fence' or weir which the Indians had built across Fox +River, for taking sturgeon &c., and which they called '_Mitihikan_;' +and shortly after, he mentions the destruction, by the Iroquois, of a +village of Outagamis (Fox Indians) near his mission station, called +_Machihigan-ing_, ['at the _mitchihikan_, or weir?'] on the 'Lake of +the Illinois,' now _Michigan_. Father Dablon, in the next year's +Relation, calls this lake '_Mitchiganons_.' Perhaps there was some +confusion between the names of the 'weir' and the 'great lake,' and +'Michigan' appears to have been adopted as a kind of compromise +between the two. If so, this modern form of the name is corrupt in +more senses than one.[30] + +[Footnote 29: Foster and Whitney's Report on the Geology of Lake +Superior, &c., Pt. II p. 400.] + +[Footnote 30: Rale gives Abn. _mitsegan_, 'fiante.' Thoreau, fishing +in a river in Maine, caught several sucker-like fishes, which his +Abnaki guide threw away, saying they were '_Michegan fish_, i.e., soft +and stinking fish, good for nothing.'--_Maine Woods_, p. 210.] + + +5. -AMAUG, denoting 'A FISHING PLACE' (Abn. _a[n]ma[n]gan_, 'on peche +la,') is derived from the root _am_ or _ama_, signifying 'to take by +the mouth;' whence, _am-aue_, 'he fishes with hook and line,' and Del. +_aman_, a fish-hook. _Wonkemaug_ for _wongun-amaug_, 'crooked +fishing-place,' between Warren and New Preston, in Litchfield county, +is now 'Raumaug Lake.' _Ouschank-amaug_, in East Windsor, was perhaps +the 'eel fishing-place.' The lake in Worcester, _Quansigamaug_, +_Quansigamug_, &c., and now _Quinsigamond_, was 'the pickerel +fishing-place,' _qunnosuog-amaug_. + + +6. ROCK. In composition, -PISK or -PSK (Abn. _pesk[oo]_; Cree, +_-pisk_; Chip. _-bik_;) denotes _hard_ or _flint-like_ rock;[31] +-OMPSK or O[N]BSK, and, by phonetic corruption, -MSK, (from _ompae_, +'upright,' and _-pisk_,) a 'standing rock.' As a substantival +component of local names, _-ompsk_ and, with the locative affix, +_-ompskut_, are found in such names as-- + +[Footnote 31: Primarily, that which 'breaks,' 'cleaves,' 'splits:' +distinguishing the _harder_ rocks--such as were used for making spear +and arrow heads, axes, chisels, corn-mortars, &c., and for striking +fire,--from the _softer_, such as steatite (soap-stone) from which +pots and other vessels, pipe-bowls, &c., were fashioned.] + +_Petukqui-ompskut_, corrupted to _Pettiquamscut_, 'at the round rock.' +Such a rock, on the east side of Narrow River, north-east from Tower +Hill Church in South Kingston, R.I., was one of the bound marks of, +and gave a name to, the "Pettiquamscut purchase" in the Narragansett +country. + +_Wanashqui-ompskut_ (_wanashquompsqut_, Ezekiel xxvi. 14), 'at the top +of the rock,' or at 'the point of rock.' _Wonnesquam_, _Annis Squam_, +and _Squam_, near Cape Ann, are perhaps corrupt forms of the name of +some 'rock summit' or 'point of rock' thereabouts. _Winnesquamsaukit_ +(for _wanashqui-ompsk-ohk-it_?) near Exeter Falls, N.H., has been +transformed to _Swampscoate_ and _Squamscot_. The name of Swamscot or +Swampscot, formerly part of Lynn, Mass., has a different meaning. It +is from _m'squi-ompsk_, 'Red Rock' (the modern name), near the north +end of Long Beach, which was perhaps "The clifte" mentioned as one of +the bounds of Mr. Humfrey's Swampscot farm, laid out in 1638.[32] +_M'squompskut_ means 'at the red rock.' The sound of the initial _m_ +was easily lost to English ears.[33] + +[Footnote 32: Mass. Records, i. 147, 226.] + +[Footnote 33: _Squantam_, the supposed name of an Algonkin deity, is +only a corrupt form of the verb _m'squantam_, = _musqui-antam_, 'he is +angry,' literally, 'he is _red_ (bloody-) minded.'] + +_Penobscot_, a corruption of the Abnaki _pa[n]na[oo]a[n]bskek_, was +originally the name of a locality on the river so called by the +English. Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in a letter to Dr. Morse in 1823, wrote +'_Pe noom' ske ook_' as the Indian name of Old Town Falls, "whence the +English name of the River, which would have been better, +_Penobscook_." He gave, as the meaning of this name, "Rocky Falls." +The St. Francis Indians told Thoreau, that it means "Rocky River."[34] +'At the fall of the rock' or 'at the descending rock' is a more nearly +exact translation. The first syllable, _pen-_ (Abn. _pa[n]na_) +represents a root meaning 'to fall from a height,'--as in +_pa[n]n-tek[oo]_, 'fall of a river' or 'rapids;' _pena[n]-ki_, 'fall +of land,' the descent or downward slope of a mountain, &c. + +[Footnote 34: Maine Woods, pp. 145, 324.] + +_Keht-ompskqut_, or 'Ketumpscut' as it was formerly written,[35]--'at +the greatest rock,'--is corrupted to _Catumb_, the name of a reef off +the west end of Fisher's Island. + +[Footnote 35: Pres. Stiles's Itinerary, 1761.] + +_Tomheganomset_[36]--corrupted finally to 'Higganum,' the name of a +brook and parish in the north-east part of Haddam,--appears to have +been, originally, the designation of a locality from which the Indians +procured stone suitable for making axes,--_tomhegun-ompsk-ut_, 'at the +tomahawk rock.' In 'Higganompos,' as the name was sometimes written, +without the locative affix, we have less difficulty in recognizing the +substantival _-ompsk_. + +[Footnote 36: Conn. Col. Records, i. 434.] + +QUSSUK, another word for 'rock' or 'stone,' used by Eliot and Roger +Williams, is not often--perhaps never found in local names. _Hassun_ +or _Assun_ (Chip. _assin'_; Del. _achsin_;) appears in New England +names only as an adjectival (_assune_, _assini_, 'stony'), but farther +north, it occasionally occurs as the substantival component of such +names as _Mistassinni_, 'the Great Stone,' which gives its name to a +lake in British America, to a tribe of Indians, and to a river that +flows into St. John's Lake.[37] + +[Footnote 37: Hind's Exploration of Labrador, vol. ii. pp. 147, 148.] + + +7. WADCHU (in composition, -ADCHU) means, always, 'mountain' or +'hill.' In _Wachuset_, we have it, with the locative affix _-set_, +'near' or 'in the vicinity of the mountain,'--a name which has been +transferred to the mountain itself. With the adjectival _massa_, +'great,' is formed _mass-adchu-set_, 'near the great mountain,' or +'great hill country,'--now, _Massachusetts_. + +'_Kunckquachu_' and '_Quunkwattchu_,' mentioned in the deeds of Hadley +purchase, in 1658,[38] are forms of _qunu[n]kqu-adchu_, 'high +mountain,'--afterwards belittled as 'Mount Toby.' + +[Footnote 38: History of Hadley, 21, 22, 114.] + +'_Kearsarge_,' the modern name of two well-known mountains in New +Hampshire, disguises _k[oo]wass-adchu_, 'pine mountain.' On Holland's +Map, published in 1784, the southern Kearsarge (in Merrimack county) +is marked "Kyarsarga Mountain; by the Indians, _Cowissewaschook_."[39] +In this form,--which the termination _ok_ (for _ohke_, _auke_, +'land,') shows to belong to the _region_, not exclusively to the +mountain itself,--the analysis becomes more easy. The meaning of the +adjectival is perhaps not quite certain. _K[oo]wa_ (Abn. _k[oo]e_) 'a +pine tree,' with its diminutive, _k[oo]wasse_, is a derivative,--from +a root which means 'sharp,' 'pointed.' It is _possible_, that in this +synthesis, the root preserves its primary signification, and that +'Kearsarge' is the 'pointed' or 'peaked mountain.' + +[Footnote 39: W.F. Goodwin, in Historical Magazine, ix. 28.] + +_Mauch Chunk_ (Penn.) is from Del. _machk_, 'bear' and _wachtschunk_, +'at, or on, the mountain,'--according to Heckewelder, who writes +'_Machkschunk_,' or the Delaware name of 'the bear's mountain.' + +In the Abnaki and some other Algonkin dialects, the substantival +component of mountain names is -ADENE,--an inseparable noun-generic. +_Katahdin_ (pronounced _Ktaadn_ by the Indians of Maine), Abn. +_Ket-adene_, 'the greatest (or chief) mountain,' is the equivalent of +'_Kittatinny_,' the name of a ridge of the Alleghanies, in New Jersey +and Pennsylvania. + + +8. -KOMUK or KOMAKO (Del. _-kamik_, _-kamike_; Abn. _-kamighe_; Cree, +_-gommik_; Powhatan, _-comaco_;) cannot be exactly translated by any +one English word. It denotes 'place,' in the sense of _enclosed_, +_limited_ or _appropriated_ space. As a component of local names, it +means, generally, 'an enclosure,' natural or artificial; such as a +house or other building, a village, a planted field, a thicket or +place surrounded by trees, &c. The place of residence of the Sachem, +which (says Roger Williams) was "far different from other houses +[wigwams], both in capacity, and in the fineness and quality of their +mats," was called _sachima-komuk_, or, as Edward Winslow wrote it, +'_sachimo comaco_,'--the Sachem-house. _Werowocomoco_, _Weramocomoco_, +&c. in Virginia, was the 'Werowance's house,' and the name appears on +Smith's map, at a place "upon the river Pamauncke [now York River], +where the great King [Powhatan] was resident." + +_Kuppi-komuk_, 'closed place,' 'secure enclosure,' was the name of a +Pequot fastness in a swamp, in Groton, Conn. Roger Williams wrote this +name "Cuppacommock," and understood its meaning to be "a refuge, or +hiding place." Eliot has _kuppohkomuk_ for a planted 'grove,' in Deut. +xvi. 21, and for a landing-place or safe harbor, Acts xxvii. 40. + +_Nashaue-komuk_, 'half-way house,' was at what is now Chilmark, on +Martha's Vineyard, where there was a village of praying Indians[40] in +1698, and earlier. + +[Footnote 40: About half-way from Tisbury to Gay Head.] + +The Abnaki _keta-kamig[oo]_ means, according to Rale, 'the main +land,'--literally, 'greatest place;' _teteba-kamighe_, 'level place,' +a plain; _pepam-kamighek_, 'the _all_ land,' 'l'univers.' + +_Nessa[oo]a-kamighe_, meaning 'double place' or '_second_ place,' was +the name of the Abnaki village of St. Francis de Sales, on the St. +Lawrence,[41]--to which the mission was removed about 1700, from its +_first_ station established near the Falls of the Chaudiere in +1683.[42] + +[Footnote 41: Rale, s.v. VILLAGE.] + +[Footnote 42: Shea's Hist. of Catholic Missions, 142, 145.] + + +9. Of two words meaning _Island_, MUNNOHAN or, rejecting the +formative, MUNNOH (Abn. _menahan_; Del. _menatey_; Chip. _minis_, a +diminutive,) is the more common, but is rarely, if ever, found in +composition. The 'Grand _Menan_,' opposite Passammaquoddy Bay, retains +the Abnaki name. Long Island was _Menatey_ or _Manati_, '_the_ +Island,'--to the Delawares, Minsi and other neighboring tribes. Any +smaller island was _menatan_ (Mass. _munnohhan_), the _indefinite_ +form, or _menates_ (Mass. _munnises_, _manisses_), the _diminutive_. +Campanius mentions one '_Manathaan_,' Coopers' Island (now Cherry +Island) near Fort Christina, in the Delaware,[43] and "_Manataanung_ +or _Manaates_, a place settled by the Dutch, who built there a clever +little town, which went on increasing every day,"--now called New +York. (The termination in _-ung_ is the locative affix.) New York +Island was sometimes spoken of as '_the_ island'--'Manate,' +'Manhatte;' sometimes as '_an_ island'--Manathan, Menatan, +'_Manhatan_;' more accurately, as 'the _small_ island'--Manhaates, +Manattes, and 'the Manados' of the Dutch. The Island Indians +collectively, were called _Manhattans_; those of the small island, +'_Manhatesen_.' "They deeply mistake," as Gov. Stuyvesant's agents +declared, in 1659,[44] "who interpret the general name of +_Manhattans_, unto the particular town built upon a _little Island_; +because it signified the whole country and province." + +[Footnote 43: Description of New Sweden, b. ii. c. 8. (Duponceau's +translation.)] + +[Footnote 44: N.Y. Hist. Soc. Collections, iii. 375.] + +_Manisses_ or Monasses, as Block Island was called, is another form +of the diminutive,--from _munnoh_; and _Manhasset_, otherwise written, +Munhansick, a name of Shelter Island, is the same diminutive with the +locative affix, _munna-es-et_. So is 'Manusses' or 'Mennewies,' an +island near Rye, N.Y.,--now written (with the southern form of the +locative,) _Manussing_. + +_Montauk_ Point, formerly Montauket, Montacut, and by Roger Williams, +_Munnawtawkit_, is probably from _manati_, _auke_, and _-it_ locative; +'in the Island country,' or 'country of the Islanders.' + +The other name of 'Island,' in Algonkin languages, is AHQUEDNE or +OCQUIDNE; with the locative; _ahquednet_, as in Acts xxvii. 16. +(Compare, Cree, _akootin_, "it suspends, is _sit_-uate, e.g. an island +in the water," from _akoo_, a verbal root "expressive of a state of +rest." Howse's Grammar, p. 152. Micmac, _agwitk_, "it is in the +water;" whence, _Ep-agwit_, "it lies [sits?] in the water,"[45] the +Indian name of Prince Edward's Island.) This appears to have been +restricted in its application, to islands lying near the main land or +spoken of _with reference_ to the main land. Roger Williams learned +from the Narragansetts to call Rhode Island, _Aquiday_, Aquednet, &c., +'_the_ Island' or 'at the Island,' and a "little island in the mouth +of the Bay," was _Aquedenesick_,[46] or Aquidneset, i.e. 'at the small +island.' + +[Footnote 45: Dawson's Acadian Geology, App. p. 673.] + +[Footnote 46: 4th Mass. Hist. Collections, vi. 267.] + +_Chippaquiddick_, the modern name of an island divided by a narrow +strait from Martha's Vineyard, is from _cheppi-aquidne_, 'separated +island.' + + +Abnaki names ending in _-ka[n]tti_, or _-kontee_ (Mass. _-kontu_; +Etchemin or Maliseet, _-kodiah_, _-quoddy_; Micmac, _-ka[n]di_, or +_-aikadee_;) may be placed with those of the first class, though this +termination, representing a substantival component, is really only the +locative affix of nouns in the _indefinite plural_. Exact location was +denoted by affixing, to inanimate nouns-singular, _-et_, _-it_ or +_-ut_; proximity, or something _less_ than exact location, by _-set_, +(interposing _s_, the characteristic of diminutives and derogatives) +between the noun and affix. _Plural_ nouns, representing a _definite +number_ of individuals, or a number which might be regarded _as_ +definite, received _-ettu_, _-ittu_, or _-uttu_, in the locative: but +if the number was _indefinite_, or many individuals were spoken of +collectively, the affix was _-kontu_, denoting 'where many are,' or +'place of abundance.' For example, _wadchu_, mountain; _wadchu-ut_, +to, on, or at the mountain; _wadchu-set_, near the mountain; +_wadchuuttu_ (or _-ehtu_), in or among _certain mountains_, known or +indicated (as in Eliot's version of Numbers xxxiii. 47, 48); +_wadchue-kontu_, among mountains, where there are a great many +mountains, for 'in the hill country,' Joshua xiii. 6. So, +_nippe-kontu_, 'in the waters,' i.e. in _many_ waters, or 'where there +is much water,' Deut. iv. 18; v. 8. In Deuteronomy xi. 11, the +conversion to a verb of a noun which had previously received this +affix, shows that the idea of _abundance_ or of _multitude_ is +associated with it: "_ohke wadchuuhkontu[oo]_," i.e. +_wadechue-kontu-[oo]_, "the land is a land of hills," that is, where +are _many_ hills, or where hills are _plenty_. + +This form of verb was rarely used by Eliot and is not alluded to in +his Grammar. It appears to have been less common in the Massachusetts +than in most of the other Algonkin languages. In the Chippewa, an +'abundance verb,' as Baraga[47] calls it, may be formed from any noun, +by adding _-ka_ or _-[)i]ka_ for the indicative present: in the Cree, +by adding _-skow_ or _-ooskow_. In the Abnaki, _-ka_ or _-k[oo]_, or +_-ik[oo]_, forms similar verbs, and verbals. The final _'tti_ of +_ka[n]tti_, represents the impersonal _a'tte_, _eto_, 'there belongs +to it,' 'there is there,' _il y a_. (Abn. _meskik[oo]i'ka[n]tti_, +'where there is abundance of grass,' is the equivalent of the Micmac +"_m'skeegoo-aicadee_, a meadow."[48]) + +[Footnote 47: Otchipwe Grammar, pp. 87, 412.] + +[Footnote 48: Mr. Rand's Micmac Vocabulary, in Schoolcraft's +Collections, vol. v. p. 579.] + +Among Abnaki place-names having this form, the following deserve +notice:-- + +_A[n]mes[oo]k-ka[n]tti_, 'where there is plenty of _alewives_ or +_herrings_;' from Abn. _a[n]ms[oo]ak_ (Narr. _aumsuog_; Mass. +_ommissuog_, cotton;) literally, 'small fishes,' but appropriated to +fish of the herring tribe, including alewives and menhaden or +bony-fish. Rale gives this as the name of one of the Abnaki villages +on or near the river 'Aghenibekki.' It is the same, probably, as the +'Meesee Contee' or 'Meesucontee,' at Farmington Falls, on Sandy River, +Me.[49] With the suffix of 'place' or 'land,' it has been written +_Amessagunticook_ and _Amasaquanteg_. + +[Footnote 49: Coll. Me. Hist. Society, iv. 31, 105.] + +'_Amoscoggin_,' 'Ammarescoggen,' &c., and the '_Aumoughcawgen_' of +Capt. John Smith, names given to the Kennebec or its main western +branch, the Androscoggin,[50]--appear to have belonged, originally, to +'fishing places' on the river, from Abn. _a[n]m's[oo]a-khige_, or +_a[n]m's[oo]a-ka[n]gan_. 'Amoskeag,' at the falls of the Merrimack, +has the same meaning, probably; _a[n]m's[oo]a-khige_ (Mass. +_ommissakkeag_), a 'fishing-place for alewives.' It certainly does +_not_ mean 'beavers,' or 'pond or marsh' of beavers,--as Mr. +Schoolcraft supposed it to mean.[51] + +[Footnote 50: The statement that the Androscoggin received its present +name in compliment to Edmond Andros, about 1684, is erroneous. This +form of the name appears as early as 1639, in the release by Thomas +Purchase to the Governor of Massachusetts,--correctly printed (from +the original draft in the handwriting of Thomas Lechford) in Mass. +Records, vol. i. p. 272.] + +[Footnote 51: Information respecting the Indian Tribes, &c., vol. iii. +p. 526.] + +_Madamiscomtis_ or _Mattammiscontis_, the name of a tributary of the +Penobscot and of a town in Lincoln county, Me., was translated by Mr. +Greenleaf, in 1823, "Young Alewive stream;" but it appears to +represent _met-a[n]ms[oo]ak-ka[n]tti_, 'a place where there _has been_ +(but is not now) plenty of alewives,' or to which they no longer +resort. Compare Rale's _met-a[n]m[oo]ak_, "les poissons ont faites +leurs oeufs; ils s'en sont alles; il n'y en a plus." + +_Cobbosseecontee_ river, in the south part of Kennebec county, is +named from a place near "the mouth of the stream, where it adjoineth +itself to Kennebec river,"[52] and 'where there was plenty of +sturgeons,'--_kabassak-ka[n]tti_. + +[Footnote 52: Depositions in Coll. Me. Histor. Society, iv. 113.] + +'_Peskadamioukkanti_' is given by Charlevoix, as the Indian name of +"the river of the Etchemins," that is, the St. Croix,--a name which is +now corrupted to _Passamaquoddy_; but this latter form of the name is +probably derived from the _Etchemin_, while Charlevoix wrote the +_Abnaki_ form. The Rev. Elijah Kellogg, in 1828,[53] gave, as the +meaning of 'Passamaquoddie,' 'pollock fish,' and the Rev. Mr. Rand +translates 'Pestumoo-kwoddy' by 'pollock ground.'[54] Cotton's +vocabulary gives '_pakonnotam_' for 'haddock.' Perhaps +_peskadami[oo]k_, like _a[n]ms[oo]ak_, belonged to more than one +species of fish. + +[Footnote 53: 3 Mass. Hist. Coll., iii. 181.] + +[Footnote 54: Dawson's Acadian Geology, 2d ed., (London, 1868), pp. 3, +8.] + +Of Etchemin and Micmac words having a similar termination, we find +among others,-- + +_Shubenacadie_ (_Chebenacardie_ on Charlevoix' map, and _Shebenacadia_ +on Jeffry's map of 1775). One of the principal rivers of Nova Scotia, +was so named because '_sipen-ak_ were plenty there.' Professor Dawson +was informed by an "ancient Micmac patriarch," that "_Shuben_ or +_Sgabun_ means ground-nuts or Indian potatoes," and by the Rev. Mr. +Rand, of Hantsport, N.S., that "_segubbun_ is a ground-nut, and +_Segubbuna-kaddy_ is the place or region of ground-nuts," &c.[55] It +is not quite certain that _shuben_ and _segubbun_ denote the same +esculent root. The Abnaki name of the wild potato or ground-nut was +_pen_, pl. _penak_ (Chip. _opin-[=i]g_; Del. _obben-ak_); '_sipen_,' +which is obviously the equivalent of _sheben_, Rale describes as +"blanches, plus grosses que des _penak_:" and _sheep'n-ak_ is the +modern Abnaki (Penobscot) name for the bulbous roots of the Yellow +Lily (_Lilium Canadense_). Thoreau's Indian guide in the 'Maine Woods' +told him that these bulbs "were good for soup, that is to cook with +meat to thicken it,"--and taught him how to prepare them.[56] Josselyn +mentions such "a water-lily, with yellow flowers," of which "the +Indians eat the roots" boiled.[57] + +[Footnote 55: Acadian Geology, pp. 1, 3.] + +[Footnote 56: Maine Woods, pp. 194, 284, 326.] + +[Footnote 57: Voyages, p. 44.] + +"_Segoonuma-kaddy_, place of _gaspereaux_; Gaspereau or Alewife +River," "_Boonamoo-kwoddy_, Tom Cod ground," and "_Kata-kaddy_, +eel-ground,"--are given by Professor Dawson, on Mr. Rand's authority. +_Segoonumak_ is the equivalent of Mass. and Narr. _sequanamauquock_, +'spring (or early summer) fish,' by R. Williams translated 'bream.' +And _boonamoo_,--the _ponamo_ of Charlevoix (i. 127), who confounded +it with some 'species of dog-fish (chien de mer),'--is the +_ap[oo]na[n]-mes[oo]_ of Rasles and _paponaumsu_, 'winter fish,' of +Roger Williams, 'which some call frost-fish,'--_Morrhua pruinosa_. + +The frequent occurrence of this termination in Micmac, Etchemin and +Abnaki local names gives probability to the conjecture, that it came +to be regarded as a general name for the region which these tribes +inhabited,--'L'arcadia,' 'l'Accadie,' and 'la Cadie,' of early +geographers and voyagers. Dr. Kohl has not found this name on any +earlier map than that published by Girolamo Ruscelli in 1561.[58] That +it is of Indian origin there is hardly room for doubt, and of two or +three possible derivations, that from the terminal _-kadi_, _-kodiah_, +or _-ka[n]tti_, is on the whole preferable. But this termination, in +the sense of 'place of abundance' or in that of 'ground, land, or +place,' cannot be used _separately_, as an independent word, in any +one of the languages which have been mentioned; and it is singular +that, in two or three instances, only this termination should have +been preserved after the first and more important component of the +name was lost. + +[Footnote 58: See Coll. Me. Hist. Society, 2d Ser., vol. i. p. 234.] + +There are two Abnaki words which are not unlike _-ka[n]tti_ in sound, +one or both of which may perhaps be found in some local names: (1) +_ka[oo]di_, 'where he sleeps,' a _lodging place_ of men or animals; +and (2) _ak[oo]dai[oo]i_, in composition or as a prefix, _ak[oo]de_, +'against the current,' up-stream; as in _ned-ak[oo]te'hemen_, 'I go up +stream,' and _[oo]derak[oo]da[n]na[n]_, 'the fish go up stream.' Some +such synthesis may have given names to fishing-places on tidal rivers, +and I am more inclined to regard the name of 'Tracadie' or 'Tracody' +as a corruption of _[oo]derak[oo]da[n]_, than to derive it (with +Professor Dawson[59] and the Rev. Mr. Rand) from "_Tulluk-kaddy_; +probably, place of residence; dwelling place,"--or rather (for the +termination requires this), where residences or dwellings are +_plenty_,--where there is _abundance_ of dwelling place. There is a +Tracadie in Nova Scotia, another (_Tregate_, of Champlain) on the +coast of New Brunswick, a Tracody or Tracady Bay in Prince Edward's +Island, and a Tracadigash Point in Chaleur Bay. + +[Footnote 59: Acadian Geology, l.c.] + +Thevet, in _La Cosmographie universelle_,[60] gives an account of his +visit in 1556, to "one of the finest rivers in the whole world which +we call _Norumbegue_, and the aborigines _Agoncy_,"--now Penobscot +Bay. In 'Agoncy' we have, I conjecture, another form of the Abnaki +_-ka[n]tti_, and an equivalent of 'Acadie.' + +[Footnote 60: Cited by Dr. Kohl, in Coll. Me. Hist. Society, N.S., i. +416.] + + * * * * * + +II. Names formed from a single ground-word or substantival,--with or +without a locative or other suffix. + +To this class belong some names already noticed in connection with +compound names to which they are related; such as, _Wachu-set_, 'near +the mountain;' _Menahan_ (_Menan_), _Manati_, _Manathaan_, 'island;' +_Manataan-ung_, _Aquedn-et_, 'on the island,' &c. Of the many which +might be added to these, the limits of this paper permit me to mention +only a few. + +1. NAIAG, 'a corner, angle, or point.' This is a verbal, formed from +_na-i_, 'it is angular,' 'it _corners_.' Eliot wrote "_yaue naiyag +wetu_" for the "four corners of a house," Job i. 19. Sometimes, _nai_ +receives, instead of the formative _-ag_, the locative affix (_nai-it_ +or _nai-ut_); sometimes it is used as an adjectival prefixed to +_auke_, 'land.' One or another of these forms serves as the name of a +great number of river and sea-coast 'points.' In Connecticut, we find +a '_Nayaug_' at the southern extremity of Mason's Island in Mystic +Bay, and '_Noank_' (formerly written, _Naweag_, _Naiwayonk_, _Noiank_, +&c.) at the west point of Mystic River's mouth, in Groton; _Noag_ or +_Noyaug_, in Glastenbury, &c. In Rhode Island, _Nayatt_ or _Nayot_ +point in Barrington, on Providence Bay, and _Nahiganset_ or +Narragansett, 'the country about the Point.'[61] On Long Island, +_Nyack_ on Peconick Bay, Southampton,[62] and another at the west end +of the Island, opposite Coney Island. There is also a _Nyack_ on the +west side of the Tappan Sea, in New Jersey. + +[Footnote 61: See _Narragansett Club Publications_, vol. i. p. 22 +(note 6).] + +[Footnote 62: On Block's Map, 1616, the "Nahicans" are marked on the +easternmost point of Long Island.] + + +2. WONKUN, 'bended,' 'a bend,' was sometimes used without affix. The +Abnaki equivalent is _[oo]a[n]ghighen_, 'courbe,' 'croche' (Rale). +There was a _Wongun_, on the Connecticut, between Glastenbury and +Wethersfield, and another, more considerable, a few miles below, in +Middletown. _Wonki_ is found in compound names, as an adjectival; as +in _Wonki-tuk_, 'bent river,' on the Quinebaug, between Plainfield and +Canterbury,--written by early recorders, 'Wongattuck,' 'Wanungatuck,' +&c., and at last transferred from its proper place to a _hill_ and +_brook_ west of the river, where it is disguised as _Nunkertunk_. The +Great Bend between Hadley and Hatfield, Mass., was called +_Kuppo-wonkun-ohk_, 'close bend place,' or 'place shut-in by a bend.' +A tract of meadow west of this bend was called, in 1660, +'Cappowonganick,' and 'Capawonk,' and still retains, I believe, the +latter name.[63] _Wnogquetookoke_, the Indian name of Stockbridge, +Mass., as written by Dr. Edwards in the Muhhecan dialect, describes "a +bend-of-the-river place." + +[Footnote 63: Judd's History of Hadley, 115, 116, 117.] + +Another Abnaki word meaning 'curved,' +'crooked,'--_pika[n]ghen_--occurs in the name _Pika[n]ghenahik_, now +'Crooked Island,' in Penobscot River.[64] + +[Footnote 64: Mr. Moses Greenleaf, in 1823, wrote this name, +_Bakungunahik_.] + + +3. HOCQUAUN (UHQUON, Eliot), 'hook-shaped,' 'a hook,'--is the base of +_Hoccanum_, the name of a tract of land and the stream which bounds +it, in East Hartford, and of other Hoccanums, in Hadley and in +Yarmouth, Mass. Heckewelder[65] wrote "_Okhucquan, Woakhucquoan_ or +(short) _Hucquan_," for the modern 'Occoquan,' the name of a river in +Virginia, and remarked: "All these names signify _a hook_." Campanius +has '_hockung_' for 'a hook.' + +[Footnote 65: On Indian names, in Trans. Am. Phil. Society, N.S., vol. +iv., p. 377.] + +_Hackensack_ may have had its name from the _hucquan-sauk_, 'hook +mouth,' by which the waters of Newark Bay find their way, around +Bergen Point, by the Kill van Cul, to New York Bay. + + +3. [Transcriber's Note: sic] SOHK or SAUK, a root that denotes +'pouring out,' is the base of many local names for 'the outlet' or +'discharge' of a river or lake. The Abnaki forms, _sa[n]g[oo]k_, +'sortie de la riviere (seu) la source,' and _sa[n]ghede'teg[oo]e_ [= +Mass. _saukituk_,] gave names to _Saco_ in Maine, to the river which +has its outflow at that place, and to _Sagadahock_ (_sa[n]ghede'aki_), +'land at the mouth' of Kennebeck river. + +_Saucon_, the name of a creek and township in Northampton county, +Penn., "denotes (says Heckewelder[66]) the outlet of a smaller stream +into a larger one,"--which restricts the denotation too narrowly. The +name means "the outlet,"--and nothing more. Another _Soh'coon_, or +(with the locative) _Saukunk_, "at the mouth" of the Big Beaver, on +the Ohio,--now in the township of Beaver, Penn.,--was a well known +rendezvous of Indian war parties.[67] + +[Footnote 66: Ibid. p. 357.] + +[Footnote 67: Paper on Indian Names, ut supra, p. 366; and 3 Mass. +Historical Collections, vi. 145. [Compare, the Iroquois _Swa-deh'_ and +_Oswa'-go_ (modern _Oswego_), which has the same meaning as Alg. +_sauki_,--"flowing out."--_Morgan's League of the Iroquois_.]] + +_Saganaum_, _Sagana_, now _Saginaw_[68] Bay, on Lake Huron, received +its name from the mouth of the river which flows through it to the +lake. + +[Footnote 68: _Saguinam_, Charlevoix, i. 501; iii. 279.] + +The _Mississagas_ were people of the _missi-sauk_, _missi-sague_, or +(with locative) _missi-sak-ing_,[69] that is 'great outlet.' In the +last half of the seventeenth century they were seated on the banks of +a river which is described as flowing into Lake Huron some twenty or +thirty leagues south of the Sault Ste. Marie (the same river probably +that is now known as the Mississauga, emptying into Manitou Bay,) and +nearly opposite the Straits of Mississauga on the South side of the +Bay, between Manitoulin and Cockburn Islands. So little is known +however of the history and migrations of this people, that it is +perhaps impossible now to identify the 'great outlet' from which they +first had their name. + +[Footnote 69: _Relations des Jesuites_, 1658, p. 22; 1648, p. 62; +1671, pp. 25, 31.] + +The _Saguenay_ (Sagnay, Sagne, Saghuny, etc.), the great tributary of +the St. Lawrence, was so called either from the well-known +trading-place at its mouth, the annual resort of the Montagnars and +all the eastern tribes,[70] or more probably from the 'Grand +Discharge'[71] of its main stream from Lake St. John and its strong +current to and past the rapids at Chicoutimi, and thence on to the St. +Lawrence.[72] Near Lake St. John and the Grand Discharge was another +rendezvous of the scattered tribes. The missionary Saint-Simon in 1671 +described this place as one at which "all the nations inhabiting the +country between the two seas (towards the east and north) assembled to +barter their furs." Hind's Exploration of Labrador, ii. 23. + +[Footnote 70: Charlevoix, Nouv. France, iii. 65; Gallatin's Synopsis, +p. 24.] + +[Footnote 71: This name is still retained.] + +[Footnote 72: When first discovered the Saguenay was not regarded as a +river, but as a strait or passage by which the waters of some northern +sea flowed to the St. Lawrence. But on a French map of 1543, the 'R. +de Sagnay' and the country of 'Sagnay' are laid down. See Maine Hist. +Soc. Collections, 2d Series, vol. i., pp. 331, 354. Charlevoix gives +_Pitchitaouichetz_, as the Indian name of the River.] + +In composition with _-tuk_, 'river' or 'tidal stream,' _sauki_ +(adjectival) gave names to '_Soakatuck_,' now Saugatuck, the mouth of +a river in Fairfield county, Conn.; to '_Sawahquatock_,' or +'_Sawkatuck-et_,' at the outlet of Long Pond or mouth of Herring +River, in Harwich, Mass.; and perhaps to _Massaugatucket_, +(_missi-saukituk-ut_?), in Marshfield, Mass., and in South Kingston, +R.I.,--a name which, in both places, has been shortened to +Saquatucket. + +'_Winnipiseogee_' (pronounced _Win' ni pe sauk' e_,) is compounded of +_winni_, _nippe_, and _sauki_, 'good-water discharge,' and the name +must have belonged originally to the _outlet_ by which the waters of +the lake pass to the Merrimack, rather than to the lake itself. +Winnepesauke, Wenepesioco and (with the locative) Winnipesiockett, are +among the early forms of the name. The translation of this synthesis +by 'the Smile of the Great Spirit' is sheer nonsense. Another, first +proposed by the late Judge Potter of New Hampshire, in his History of +Manchester (p. 27),[73]--'the beautiful water of the high place,'--is +demonstrably wrong. It assumes that _is_ or _es_ represents _kees_, +meaning 'high;' to which assumption there are two objections: first, +that there is no evidence that such a word as _kees_, meaning 'high,' +is found in any Algonkin language, and secondly, that if there be such +a word, it must retain its significant root, in any synthesis of which +it makes part,--in other words, that _kees_ could not drop its initial +_k_ and preserve its meaning. I was at first inclined to accept the +more probable translation proposed by 'S.F.S.' [S.F. Streeter?] in +the Historical Magazine for August, 1857,[74]--"the land of the placid +or beautiful lake;" but, in the dialects of New England, _nippisse_ or +_nips_, a diminutive of _nippe_, 'water,' is never used for _paug_, +'lake' or 'standing water;'[75] and if it were sometimes so used, the +extent of Lake Winnepiseogee forbids it to be classed with the 'small +lakes' or 'ponds,' to which, only, the _diminutive_ is appropriate. + +[Footnote 73: And in the _Historical Magazine_, vol. i. p. 246.] + +[Footnote 74: Vol. i. p. 246.] + +[Footnote 75: See pp. 14, 15.] + + +4. NASHAUE (Chip. _nassawaii_ and _ashawiwi_), 'mid-way,' or +'between,' and with _ohke_ or _auk_ added, 'the land between' or 'the +half-way place,'--was the name of several localities. The tract on +which Lancaster, in Worcester county (Mass.) was settled, was +'between' the branches of the river, and so it was called '_Nashaway_' +or '_Nashawake_' (_nashaue-ohke_); and this name was afterwards +transferred from the territory to the river itself. There was another +_Nashaway_ in Connecticut, between Quinnebaug and Five-Mile Rivers in +Windham county, and here, too, the mutilated name of the +_nashaue-ohke_ was transferred, as _Ashawog_ or _Assawog_, to the +Five-Mile River. _Natchaug_ in the same county, the name of the +eastern branch of Shetucket river, belonged originally to the tract +'between' the eastern and western branches; and the Shetucket itself +borrows a name (_nashaue-tuk-ut_) from its place 'between' Yantic and +Quinebaug rivers. A neck of land (now in Griswold, Conn.) "between +Pachaug River and a brook that comes into it from the south," one of +the Muhhekan east boundaries, was called sometimes, _Shawwunk_, 'at +the place between,'--sometimes _Shawwamug_ (_nashaue-amaug_), 'the +fishing-place between' the rivers, or the 'half-way +fishing-place.'[76] + +[Footnote 76: Chandler's Survey and Map of the Mohegan country, 1705. +Compare the Chip. _ashawiwi-sitagon_, "a place from which water runs +two ways," a dividing ridge or portage _between_ river courses. Owen's +Geological Survey of Wisconsin, etc., p. 312.] + + +5. ASHIM, is once used by Eliot (Cant. iv. 12) for 'fountain.' It +denoted a _spring_ or brook from which water was obtained for +drinking. In the Abnaki, _asiem nebi_, 'il puise de l'eau;' and +_ned-a'sihibe_, 'je puise de l'eau, _fonti vel fluvio_.' (Rasles.) + +_Winne-ashim-ut_, 'at the good spring,' near Romney Marsh, is now +Chelsea, Mass. The name appears in deeds and records as Winnisimmet, +Winisemit, Winnet Semet, etc. The author of the 'New English Canaan' +informs us (book 2, ch. 8), that "At _Weenasemute_ is a water, the +virtue whereof is, to cure barrennesse. The place taketh his name of +that fountaine, which signifieth _quick spring_, or _quickning +spring_. Probatum." + +_Ashimuit_ or _Shumuit_, an Indian village near the line between +Sandwich and Falmouth, Mass.,--_Shaume_, a neck and river in Sandwich +(the _Chawum_ of Capt. John Smith?),--_Shimmoah_, an Indian village on +Nantucket,--may all have derived their names from springs resorted to +by the natives, as was suggested by the Rev. Samuel Deane in a paper +in _Mass. Hist. Collections_, 2d Series, vol. x. pp. 173, 174. + + +6. MATTAPPAN, a participle of _mattappu_ (Chip. _namatabi_), 'he sits +down,' denotes a 'sitting-down place,' or, as generally employed in +local names, _the end of a portage_ between two rivers or from one arm +of the sea to another,--where the canoe was launched again and its +bearers re-embarked. Rale translates the Abnaki equivalent, +_mata[n]be_, by 'il va au bord de l'eau,--a la greve pour +s'embarquer,' and _meta[n]beniganik_, by 'au bout de dela du portage.' + +_Mattapan-ock_, afterwards shortened to _Mattapan_, that part of +Dorchester Neck (South Boston) where "the west country people were set +down" in 1630,[77] may have been so called because it was the end of a +carrying place from South Bay to Dorchester Bay, across the narrowest +part of the peninsula, or--as seems highly probable--because it was +the temporary 'sitting-down place' of the new comers. Elsewhere, we +find the name evidently associated with _portage_. + +[Footnote 77: Blake's Annals of Dorchester, p. 9; Winthrop's Journal, +vol. i. p. 28.] + +On Smith's Map of Virginia, one '_Mattapanient_' appears as the name +of the northern fork (now the _Mattapony_) of Pamaunk (York) River; +another (_Mattpanient_) near the head waters of the Pawtuxunt; and a +third on the 'Chickahamania' not far above its confluence with +Powhatan (James) River. + +_Mattapoiset_, on an inlet of Buzzard's Bay, in Rochester, +Mass.,--another Mattapoiset or 'Mattapuyst,' now Gardner's Neck, in +Swanzea,--and 'Mattapeaset' or 'Mattabesic,' on the great bend of the +Connecticut (now Middletown), derived their names from the same word, +probably. + +On a map of Lake Superior, made by Jesuit missionaries and published +in Paris in 1672, the stream which is marked on modern maps as +'Riviere aux Traines' or 'Train River,' is named 'R. _Mataban_.' The +small lake from which it flows is the 'end of portage' between the +waters of Lake Michigan and those of Lake Superior. + + +7. CHABENUK, 'a bound mark'; literally, 'that which separates or +divides.' A hill in Griswold, Conn., which was anciently one of the +Muhhekan east bound-marks, was called _Chabinu[n]k_, 'Atchaubennuck,' +and 'Chabunnuck.' The village of praying Indians in Dudley (now +Webster?) Mass., was named _Chabanakongkomuk_ (Eliot, 1668,) or +_-ongkomum_, and the Great Pond still retains, it is said, the name of +Chaubenagungamaug (_chabenukong-amaug_?), "the boundary +fishing-place." This pond was a bound mark between the Nipmucks and +the Muhhekans, and was resorted to by Indians of both nations. + + * * * * * + +III. Participials and verbals employed as place-names may generally, +as was before remarked, be referred to one or the other of the two +preceding classes. The distinction between noun and verb is less +clearly marked in Indian grammar than in English. The name +_Mushauwomuk_ (corrupted to _Shawmut_) may be regarded as a +participle from the verb _mushau[oo]m_ (Narr. _mishoonhom_) 'he goes +by boat,'--or as a noun, meaning 'a ferry,'--or as a name of the first +class, compounded of the adjectival _mush[oo]-n_, 'boat or canoe,' and +_wom[oo]-uk_, habitual or customary _going_, i.e., 'where there is +going-by-boat.' + +The analysis of names of this class is not easy. In most cases, its +results must be regarded as merely provisional. Without some clue +supplied by history or tradition and without accurate knowledge of the +locality to which the name belongs, or _is supposed_ to belong, one +can never be certain of having found the right key to the synthesis, +however well it may seem to fit the lock. Experience Mayhew writing +from Chilmark on Martha's Vineyard, in 1722, gives the Indian name of +the place where he was living as _Nimpanickhickanuh_. If he had not +added the information that the name "signifies in English, _The place +of thunder clefts_," and that it was so called "because there was once +a tree there split in pieces by the thunder," it is not likely that +any one in this generation would have discovered its precise +meaning,--though it might have been conjectured that _neimpau_, or +_nimbau_, 'thunder,' made a part of it. + +_Quilutamende_ was (Heckewelder tells us[78]) the Delaware name of a +place on the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, where, as the Indians say, +"in their wars with the Five Nations, they fell by surprise upon their +enemies. The word or name of this place is therefore, _Where we came +unawares upon them_, &c." Without the tradition, the meaning of the +name would not have been guessed,--or, if guessed, would not have been +confidently accepted. + +[Footnote 78: On Indian Names, in _Trans. Am. Philos. Society_, N.S. +iv. 361.] + +The difficulty of analyzing such names is greatly increased by the +fact that they come to us in corrupt forms. The same name may be +found, in early records, written in a dozen different ways, and some +three or four of these may admit of as many different translations. +Indian grammatical synthesis was _exact_. Every consonant and every +vowel had its office and its place. Not one could be dropped or +transposed, nor could one be added, without _change of meaning_. Now +most of the Indian local names were first written by men who cared +nothing for their meaning and knew nothing of the languages to which +they belonged. Of the few who had learned to speak one or more of +these languages, no two adopted the same way of writing them, and no +one--John Eliot excepted--appears to have been at all careful to write +the same word twice alike. In the seventeenth century men took +considerable liberties with the spelling of their own surnames and +very large liberty with English polysyllables--especially with local +names. Scribes who contrived to find five or six ways of writing +'Hartford' or 'Wethersfield,' were not likely to preserve uniformity +in their dealings with Indian names. A few letters more or less were +of no great consequence, but, generally, the writers tried to keep on +the safe side, by putting in as many as they could find room for; +prefixing a _c_ to every _k_, doubling every _w_ and _g_, and tacking +on a superfluous final _e_, for good measure. + +In some instances, what is supposed to be an Indian place-name is in +fact a _personal_ name, borrowed from some sachem or chief who lived +on or claimed to own the territory. Names of this class are likely to +give trouble to translators. I was puzzled for a long time by +'_Mianus_,' the name of a stream between Stamford and Greenwich,--till +I remembered that _Mayano_, an Indian warrior (who was killed by Capt. +Patrick in 1643) had lived hereabouts; and on searching the Greenwich +records, I found the stream was first mentioned as _Moyannoes_ and +_Mehanno's_ creek, and that it bounded 'Moyannoe's neck' of land. +_Moosup_ river, which flows westerly through Plainfield into the +Quinebaug and which has given names to a post-office and factory +village, was formerly _Moosup's_ river,--Moosup or _Maussup_ being one +of the aliases of a Narragansett sachem who is better known, in the +history of Philip's war, as Pessacus. Heckewelder[79] restores +'Pymatuning,' the name of a place in Pennsylvania, to the Del. +'_Pihmtonink_,' meaning, "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth, or the crooked man's dwelling place," and adds, that he +"knew the man perfectly well," who gave this name to the locality. + +[Footnote 79: On Indian Names (_ut supra_), p. 365.] + +Some of the examples which have been given,--such as _Higganum_, +_Nunkertunk_, _Shawmut_, _Swamscot_ and _Titicut_,--show how the +difficulties of analysis have been increased by phonetic corruption, +sometimes to such a degree as hardly to leave a trace of the original. +Another and not less striking example is presented by _Snipsic_, the +modern name of a pond between Ellington and Tolland. If we had not +access to Chandler's Survey of the Mohegan Country, made in 1705, who +would suppose that 'Snipsic' was the surviving representative of +_Moshenupsuck_, 'great-pond brook' or (literally) 'great-pond outlet,' +at the south end of _Moshenups_ or _Mashenips_ 'great pond?' The +territories of three nations, the Muhhekans, Nipmucks and River +Indians, ran together at this point. + +'_Nameroake_,' '_Namareck_' or '_Namelake_,' in East Windsor, was +transformed to _May-luck_, giving to a brook a name which 'tradition' +derives from the 'luck' of a party of emigrants who came in 'May' to +the Connecticut.[80] The original name appears to have been the +equivalent of 'Nameaug' or 'Nameoke' (New London), and to mean 'the +fishing place,'--_n'amaug_ or _nama-ohke_. + +[Footnote 80: Stiles's History of Ancient Windsor, p. 111.] + +But none of these names exhibits a more curious transformation than +that of '_Bagadoose_' or '_Bigaduce_,' a peninsula on the east side of +Penobscot Bay, now Castine, Me. Williamson's History of Maine (ii. +572) states on the authority of Col. J. Wardwell of Penobscot, in +1820, that this point bore the name of a former resident, a Frenchman, +one 'Major Biguyduce.' Afterwards, the historian was informed that +'_Marche bagyduce_' was an Indian word meaning 'no good cove.' Mr. +Joseph Williamson, in a paper in the Maine Historical Society's +Collections (vol. vi. p. 107) identifies this name with the +_Matchebiguatus_ of Edward Winslow's quitclaim to Massachusetts in +1644,[81] and correctly translates the prefix _matche_ by 'bad,' but +adds: "What _Biguatus_ means, I do not know." Purchas mentions +'_Chebegnadose_,' as an Indian town on the 'Apananawapeske' or +Penobscot.[82] Rale gives, as the name of the place on "the river +where M. de Gastin [Castine] is," _Matsibig[oo]ad[oo]ssek_, and on his +authority we may accept this form as nearly representing the original. +The analysis now becomes more easy. _Matsi-a[n]baga[oo]at-ek_, means +'at the bad-shelter place,--bad _covert_ or cove;' and +_matsi-a[n]baga[oo]at[oo]s-ek_ the diminutive, 'at the small +bad-shelter place.' About two miles and a half above the mouth of the +Kenebec was a place called by the Indians '_Abagadusset_' or +'_Abequaduset_'--the same name without the prefix--meaning 'at the +cove, or place of shelter.' + +[Footnote 81: Printed in note to Savage's Winthrop's Journal, ii. +180.] + +[Footnote 82: See Thornton's Ancient Pemaquid, in Maine Hist. +Collections, v. 156.] + + * * * * * + +The adjectivals employed in the composition of Algonkin names are very +numerous, and hardly admit of classification. Noun, adjective, adverb +or even an active verb may, with slight change of form, serve as a +prefix. But, as was before remarked, every prefix, strictly +considered, is an adverb or must be construed as an adverb,--the +synthesis which serves as a name having generally the verb form. Some +of the most common of these prefixes have been mentioned on preceding +pages. A few others, whose meanings are less obvious and have been +sometimes mistaken by translators, may deserve more particular notice. + +1. POHQUI, POHQUAE'; Narr. _pauqui_; Abn. _p[oo]'k[oo]ie_; 'open,' +'clear' (primarily, 'broken'). In composition with _ohke_, 'land,' or +formed as a verbal in _-aug_, it denotes 'cleared land' or 'an open +place:' as in the names variously written 'Pahquioque,' 'Paquiaug;' +'Pyquaag;' 'Poquaig,' 'Payquaoge,' &c., in Danbury and Wethersfield, +and in Athol, Mass. + +2. PAHKE (Abn. _pa[n]g[oo]i_,) 'clear,' 'pure'. Found with _paug_, +'standing water' or 'pond,' in such names as 'Pahcupog,' 'Paquabaug,' +&c. See page 16. + +3. PAGUAN-AUe, 'he destroys,' 'he slaughters' (Narr. _pauquana_, 'there +is a slaughter') in composition with _ohke_ denotes 'place of +slaughter' or 'of destruction,' and commemorates some sanguinary +victory or disastrous defeat. This is _probably_ the meaning of nearly +all the names written 'Poquannoc,' 'Pequannoc,' 'Pauganuck,' &c., of +places in Bridgeport (Stratfield), Windsor and Groton, Conn., and of a +town in New Jersey. Some of these, however, may possibly be derived +from _paukunni_ and _ohke_, 'dark place.' + +4. PEMI (Abn. _pemai-[oo]i_; Del. _pime-u_; Cree, _peeme_;) denotes +deviation from a straight line; 'sloping,' 'aslant,' 'twisted.' +PUMMEECHE (Cree, _pimich_; Chip. _pemiji_; Abn. _pemetsi_;) +'crosswise; traverse.' Eliot wrote '_pummeeche may_' for 'cross-way,' +Obad. 14; and _pumetshin_ (literally, 'it crosses') for 'a cross,' as +in _up-pumetshin-eum_, 'his cross,' Luke xiv. 27. _Pemiji-gome_ or +_Pemiji-guma_, 'cross water,' is the Chippewa name for a lake whose +longest diameter crosses the general course of the river which flows +through it,--which stretches _across_, not _with_ the stream. There is +such a lake in Minnesota, near the sources of the Mississippi, just +below the junction of the two primary forks of that river; another +('Pemijigome') in the chain of small lakes which are the northern +sources of the Manidowish (and Chippewa) River in Wisconsin, and still +another near the Lacs des Flambeaux, the source of Flambeau River, an +affluent of the Manidowish. + +The same prefix or its equivalent occurs in the name of a lake in +Maine, near the source of the Alligash branch of St. John's River. Mr. +Greenleaf, in a list of Indian names made in 1823,[83] gave this as +"BAAM'CHE_nun'gamo_ or _Ah_P'MOOJEE`_negmook_." Thoreau[84] was +informed by his Penobscot guide, that the name "means 'Lake that is +crossed;' because the usual course lies across, not along it." There +is another "Cross Lake," in Aroostook county, near the head of Fish +River. We seem to recognize, and with less difficulty, the same prefix +in _Pemigewasset_, but the full composition of that name is not clear. + +[Footnote 83: Report of American Society for Promoting Civilization of +the Indian Tribes, p. 52.] + +[Footnote 84: Maine Woods, 232.] + +PEMI- denotes, not a _crossing of_ but _deviation from_ a straight +line, whether vertical or horizontal. In place-names it may generally +be translated by 'sloping' or 'aslant;' sometimes by 'awry' or +'tortuous.' _Pemadene_, which Rale gives as the Abnaki word for +'mountain,' denotes a _sloping_ mountain-side (_pemi-adene_), in +distinction from one that is steep or precipitous. '_Pemetiq_,' the +Indian name of Mount Desert Island, as written by Father Biard in +1611, is the Abnaki _peme'teki_, 'sloping land.' _Pemaquid_ appears to +be another form of the word which Rale wrote '_Pemaa[n]kke_,' meaning +(with the locative suffix) 'at the place where the land slopes;' where +"le terre penche; est en talus."[85] _Pymatuning_, in Pennsylvania, is +explained by Heckewelder, as "the dwelling place of the man with the +crooked mouth; _Pihmtonink_" (from _pimeu_ and _'t[oo]n_). + +[Footnote 85: Abnaki Dictionary, s.v. PENCHER. Compare, p. 545, +"_bimk[oo]e_, il penche naturellement la tete sur un cote."] + +WANASHQUE, ANASQUI, 'at the extremity of,' 'at the end;' Abn. +_[oo]anask[oo]i[oo]i_, 'au bout;' Cree, _wannusk[oo]tch_; Chip. +_ishkue_, _eshqua_. See (pp. 18, 19,) _Wanashqu-ompsk-ut_, +_Wonnesquam_,[86] _Winnesquamsaukit_, _Squamscot_. _Wonasquatucket_, a +small river which divides North Providence and Johnston, R.I., retains +the name which belonged to the point at which it enters an arm of +Narragansett Bay (or Providence River), 'at the end of the +tidal-river.' A stream in Rochester, Mass., which empties into the +head of an inlet from Buzzard's Bay, received the same name. +_Ishquagoma_, on the upper Embarras River, Minnesota, is the 'end +lake,' the extreme point to which canoes go up that stream. + +[Footnote 86: _Wonnesquam_ (as should have been mentioned on the page +referred to) may possibly represent the Abnaki +_[oo]anask[oo]a[n]a[n]mi[oo]i_ or _-mek_ 'at the end of the peninsula' +('au bout de la presqu'ile.' Rale).] + +Names of _fishes_ supply the adjectival components of many place-names +on the sea-coast of New England, on the lakes, and along +river-courses. The difficulty of analyzing such names is the greater +because the same species of fish was known by different names to +different tribes. The more common substantivals are _-amaug_, 'fishing +place; _-tuk_ or _sipu_, 'river;' _ohke_, 'place;' Abn. _-ka[n]tti_, +'place of abundance;' and _-keag_, _-keke_, Abn. _-khige_, which +appears to denote a peculiar _mode of fishing_,--perhaps, by a +_weir_;[87] possibly, a _spearing-place_. + +[Footnote 87: Schoolcraft derives the name of the _Namakagun_ fork of +the St. Croix river, Wisc., from Chip. "_namai_, sturgeon, and +_kagun_, a yoke or weir."] + +From the generic _namaus_ (_namohs_, El.; Abn. _names_; Del. +_namees_;) 'a fish'--but probably, one of the _smaller_ sort, for the +form is a diminutive,--come such names as _Nameoke_ or _Nameaug_ (New +London), for _namau-ohke_, 'fish country;' _Namasket_ or _Namasseket_ +(on Taunton River, in Middleborough, Mass.) 'at the fish place,' a +favorite resort of the Indians of that region; _Namaskeak_, now +Amoskeag, on the Merrimack, and _Nam'skeket_ or _Skeekeet_, in +Wellfleet, Mass. + +_M'squammaug_ (Abn. _mesk[oo]amek[oo]_), 'red fish,' i.e. salmon, gave +names to several localities. _Misquamacuck_ or _Squamicut_, now +Westerly, R.I., was 'a salmon place' of the Narragansetts. The initial +_m_ often disappears; and sometimes, so much of the rest of the name +goes with it, that we can only guess at the original synthesis. +'_Gonic_,' a post office and railroad station, near Dover, N.H., on +the Cocheco river, was once '_Squammagonic_,'--and probably, a +salmon-fishing place. + +_Kauposh_ (Abn. _kabasse_, plu. _kabassak_), 'sturgeon,' is a +component of the name _Cobbosseecontee_, in Maine (page 26, ante), +'where sturgeons are plenty;' and _Cobscook_, an arm of Passamaquoddy +Bay, Pembroke, Me., perhaps stands for _kabassakhige_, +'sturgeon-catching place.' + +_Aumsuog_ or _Ommissuog_ (Abn. _a[n]ms[oo]ak_), 'small +fish,'--especially alewives and herrings,--is a component of the name +of the Abnaki village on the Kennebec, _A[n]mes[oo]k-ka[n]tti_; of +_Mattammiscontis_, a tributary of the Kennebec (see p. 25, ante), and +_probably_, of _Amoscoggin_ and _Amoskeag_. + +_Qunnosu_ (pl. _-suog;_ Abn. _k[oo]n[oo]se;_ Old Alg. _kino[n]je_; +Chip. _keno'zha_;) is found in the name of _Kenosha_, a town and +county in Wisconsin; perhaps, in _Kenjua_ or _Kenzua_ creek and +township, in Warren county, Pa. _Quinshepaug_ or _Quonshapauge_, in +Mendon, Mass., seems to denote a 'pickerel pond' (_qunnosu-paug_). +_Maskinonge_, i.e. _massa-kino[n]je_, 'great pike' or maskelunge, +names a river and lake in Canada. + +_Pescatum_, said to mean 'pollock,' occurs as an adjectival in +_Peskadamioukka[n]tti_, the modern _Passamaquoddy_ (p. 26). + +_Naha[n]m[oo]_, the Abnaki name of the 'eel,' is found in +"_Nehumkeag_, the English of which is _Eel Land_, ... a stream or +brook that empties itself into Kennebec River," not far from +Cobbissecontee.[88] This brook was sometimes called by the English, +_Nehumkee_. The Indian name of Salem, Mass., was _Nehumkeke_ or +_Nauemkeag_, and a place on the Merrimac, near the mouth of Concord +River (now in Lowell, I believe,) had the same name,--written, +_Naamkeak_. + +[Footnote 88: Col. William Lithgow's deposition, 1767,--in New England +Historical and General Register, xxiv. 24.] + + * * * * * + +In view of the illustrations which have been given, we repeat what was +stated in the beginning of this paper, that Indian place-names are not +_proper names_, that is unmeaning marks, but significant +_appellatives_, each conveying a _description_ of the locality to +which it belongs. In those parts of the country where Indian languages +are still spoken, the analysis of such names is comparatively easy. +Chippewa, Cree, or (in another family) Sioux-Dakota geographical names +may generally be translated with as little difficulty as other words +or syntheses in the same languages. In New England, and especially in +our part of New England, the case is different. We can hardly expect +to ascertain the meaning of all the names which have come down to us +from dead languages of aboriginal tribes. Some of the obstacles to +accurate analysis have been pointed out. Nearly every geographical +name has been mutilated or has suffered change. It would indeed be +strange if Indian polysyntheses, with their frequent gutturals and +nasals, adopted from unwritten languages and by those who were +ignorant of their meanings, had been exempted from the phonetic change +to which all language is subject, as a result of the universal +disposition "to put more facile in the stead of more difficult sounds +or combination of sounds, and to get rid altogether of what is +unnecessary in the words we use."[89] What Professor Haldeman calls +_otosis_, 'that error of the ear by which words are perverted to a +more familiar form,'[90] has effected some curious transformations. +_Swatara_,[91] the name of a stream in Pennsylvania, becomes 'Sweet +Arrow;' the _Potopaco_ of John Smith's map (_p[oo]tuppag_, a bay or +cove; Eliot,) on a bend of the Potomac, is naturalized as 'Port +Tobacco.' _Nama'auke_, 'the place of fish' in East Windsor, passes +through _Namerack_ and _Namalake_ to the modern 'May Luck.' +_Moskitu-auke_, 'grass land,' in Scituate, R.I., gives the name of +'Mosquito Hawk' to the brook which crosses it.[92] + +[Footnote 89: Whitney's Language and the Study of Language, p. +69.--"Ein natuerliches Volksgefuehl, oft auch der Volkswitz, den nicht +mehr verstandenen Namen neu umpraegte und mit anderen lebenden Woertern +in Verbindung setzte." Dr. J. Bender, _Die deutschen Ortsnamen_ (2te +Ausg.) p. 2.] + +[Footnote 90: Haldeman's Analytic Orthography, Sec.279, and "Etymology as +a means of Education," in Pennsylvania School Journal for October, +1868.] + +[Footnote 91: "Swatawro," on Sayer and Bennett's Map, 1775.] + +[Footnote 92: "Whiskey Jack," the name by which the Canada Jay +(Perisoreus Canadensis) is best known to the lumbermen and hunters of +Maine and Canada, is the Montagnais _Ouishcatcha[n]_ (Cree, +_Ouiskeshauneesh_), which has passed perhaps through the transitional +forms of 'Ouiske Jean' and 'Whiskey Johnny.' The Shagbark Hickory +nuts, in the dialect of the Abnakis called _s'k[oo]skada'mennar_, +literally, 'nuts to be cracked with the teeth,' are the +'Kuskatominies' and 'Kisky Thomas' nuts of descendants of the Dutch +colonists of New Jersey and New York. A contraction of the _plural_ +form of a Massachusetts noun-generic,--_asquash_, denoting 'things +which are eaten green, or without cooking,' was adopted as the name of +a garden vegetable,--with conscious reference, perhaps, to the old +English word _squash_, meaning 'something soft or immature.' Sometimes +etymology overreaches itself, by regarding an aboriginal name as the +corrupt form of a foreign one. Thus the _maskalonge_ or 'great +long-nose' of the St. Lawrence (see p. 43) has been reputed of French +extraction,--_masque elonge_: and _sagackomi_, the northern name of a +plant used as a substitute for or to mix with tobacco,--especially, of +the Bearberry, _Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_,--is resolved into +_sac-a-commis_, "on account of the Hudson's Bay officers carrying it +in bags for smoking," as Sir John Richardson believed (Arctic +Searching Expedition, ii. 303). It was left for the ingenuity of a +Westminster Reviewer to discover that _barbecue_ (denoting, in the +language of the Indians of Guiana, a wooden frame or grille on which +all kinds of flesh and fish were dry-roasted, or cured in smoke,) +might be a corruption of the French _barbe a queue_, i.e. 'from snout +to tail;' a suggestion which appears to have found favor with +lexicographers.] + +In Connecticut and Rhode Island special causes operated to corrupt and +transform almost beyond possibility of recognition, many of the Indian +place names. Five different dialects at least were spoken between +Narragansett Bay and the Housatonic River, at the time of the first +coming of the English. In early deeds and conveyances in the colonial +and in local records, we find the same river, lake, tract of land or +bound-mark named sometimes in the Muhhekan, sometimes in the +Narragansett, or Niantic, or Nipmuck, or Connecticut valley, or +Quinnipiac (Quiripee) dialect. The adopted name is often +_extra-limitary_ to the tribe by which it was given. Often, it is a +mixture of, or a sort of compromise between, two dialects; half +Muhhekan, half Narragansett or Nipmuck. In the form in which it comes +to us, we can only guess from what language or languages it has been +corrupted. + +The analysis of those names even whose composition appears to be most +obvious must be accepted as _provisional_ merely. The recovery of a +lost syllable or of a lost guttural or nasal, the correction of a +false accent even, may give to the synthesis another and hitherto +unsuspected meaning. It would be surprising if some of the +translations which have been hazarded in this paper do not prove to be +wide of their mark. Even English etymology is not reckoned among the +exact sciences yet,--and in Algonkin, there is the additional +disadvantage of having no Sanskrit verbs "to go," to fall back on as a +last resort. + +Recent manifestations of an increasing interest in Indian onomatology, +or at least of awakened curiosity to discover the meanings of Indian +names, may perhaps justify the writer in offering, at the close of +this paper, a few suggestions, as to the method of analysis which +appears most likely to give correct results, and as to the tests by +which to judge of the _probability_ that a supposed translation of any +name is the true one. + +1. The earliest recorded form of the name should be sought for, and +every variation from it should be noted. These should be taken so far +as possible from original manuscripts, not from printed copies. + +2. Where the difference of forms is considerable, knowledge of the +character and opportunities of the writer may sometimes determine the +preference of one form to others, as probably the most accurate. A +Massachusetts or Connecticut name written by John Eliot or Experience +Mayhew--or by the famous interpreter, Thomas Stanton--may safely be +assumed to represent the original combination of sounds more exactly +than the form given it by some town-recorder, ignorant of the Indian +language and who perhaps did not always write or spell his own +correctly. + +3. The name should be considered with some reference to the +topographical features of the region to which it belongs. These may +sometimes determine the true meaning when the analysis is doubtful, or +may suggest the meaning which would otherwise have been unsuspected +under the modern form. + +4. Remembering that every letter or sound had its value,--if, in the +analysis of a name, it becomes necessary to get rid of a troublesome +consonant or vowel by assuming it to have been introduced 'for the +sake of euphony,'--it is probable that the interpretation so arrived +at is _not_ the right one. + +5. The components of every place-name--or to speak more generally, the +elements of every Indian synthesis are _significant roots_, not mere +_fractions of words_ arbitrarily selected for new combinations. There +has been no more prolific source of error in dealings with the +etymology and the grammatical structure of the American languages than +that one-sided view of the truth which was given by Duponceau[93] in +the statement that "one or more syllables of each simple word are +generally chosen and combined together, in one compound locution, +often leaving out the harsh consonants for the sake of euphony,"--and +repeated by Heckewelder,[94] when he wrote, that "in the Delaware and +other American languages, parts or parcels of different words, +sometimes a single sound or letter, are compounded together in an +artificial manner so as to avoid the meeting of harsh or disagreeable +sounds," &c. The "single sound or letter" the "one or more syllables," +were chosen not as "part or parcel" of a word but because of their +_inherent significance_. The Delaware "_Pilape_, a youth," is +_not_--as Heckewelder and Duponceau represented it to be[95]--"formed +from _pilsit_, chaste, innocent, and _lenape_, a man," but from PIL- +(Mass. _pen-_, Abn. _pir-_,) strange, novel, _unused_ (and hence) +pure,--and -A[N]PE (Mass. _-omp_, Abn. _a[n]be_) a male, _vir_. It is +true that the same roots are found in the two words PIL-_sit_ (a +participle of the verb-adjective _pil-esu_, 'he is pure,') and +_len_-A[N]PE, 'common man:' but the statement that "one or more +syllables" are _taken from_ these words to form _Pilape_ is inaccurate +and misleading. It might with as much truth be said that the English +word _boyhood_ is formed from selected syllables of boy-ish and +man-hood; or that purity 'compounds together in an artificial manner' +fractions of _pur_ify and qual_ity_. + +[Footnote 93: Correspondence of Duponceau and Heckewelder, in Trans. +Historical and Literary Committee of Am. Philos. Society, p. 403.] + +[Footnote 94: Ibid., p. 406.] + +[Footnote 95: Preface to Duponceau's translation of Zeisberger's +Grammar, p. 21. On Duponceau's authority, Dr. Pickering accepted this +analysis and gave it currency by repeating it, in his admirable paper +on "Indian Languages," in the Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. vi.] + +We meet with similar analyses in almost every published list of Indian +names. Some examples have been given in the preceding pages of this +paper,--as in the interpretation of 'Winnipisiogee' (p. 32) by 'the +beautiful water of the high place,' _s_ or _[=e]s_ being regarded as +the fractional representative of '_kees_, high.' _Pemigewasset_ has +been translated by 'crooked place of pines' and 'crooked mountain pine +place,'--as if _k[oo]-a_, 'a pine,' or its plural _k[oo]-ash_, could +dispense in composition with its significant base, _k[oo]_, and appear +by a grammatical formative only. + +6. No interpretation of a place-name is correct which makes _bad +grammar_ of the original. The apparatus of Indian synthesis was +cumbersome and perhaps inelegant, but it was nicely adjusted to its +work. The grammatical relations of words were never lost sight of. The +several components of a name had their established order, not +dependent upon the will or skill of the composer. When we read modern +advertisements of "cheap gentlemen's traveling bags" or "steel-faced +carpenters' claw hammers," we may construe such phrases with a +latitude which was not permitted to the Algonkins. If 'Connecticut' +means--as some have supposed it to mean--'long deer place,' it denotes +a place where _long deer_ abounded; if 'Piscataqua' was named 'great +deer river,' it was because the deer found _in_ that river were of +remarkable size. 'Coaquanock' or, as Heckewelder wrote it, +'Cuwequenaku,' the site of Philadelphia, may mean 'pine long-place' +but cannot mean 'long pine-place' or 'grove of long pine trees.' If +'Pemigewasset' is compounded of words signifying 'crooked,' 'pines,' +and 'place,' it denotes 'a place of crooked pines,'--not 'crooked +place of pines.' + +Again--every Indian name is _complete within itself_. A mere +adjectival or qualificative cannot serve independently, leaving the +real ground-word to be supplied by the hearer. River names must +contain some element which denotes 'river;' names of lakes or ponds +something which stands for 'lake' or 'pond.' The Indians had not our +fashion of speech which permits Hudson's River to be called 'the +Hudson,' drops the word 'lake' from 'Champlain' or 'Erie,' and makes +"the Alleghanies" a geographical name. This difference must not be +lost sight of, in analysis or translation. _Agawam_ or _Auguan_ (a +name given to several localities in New England where there are low +flat meadows or marshes,) cannot be the equivalent of the Abnaki +_ag[oo]a[n]n_, which means 'a smoke-dried fish,'[96]--though +_ag[oo]a[n]na-ki_ or something like it (if such a name should be +found), might mean 'smoked-fish place.' _Chickahominy_ does not stand +for 'great corn,' nor _Pawcatuck_ for 'much or many deer;'[97] because +neither 'corn' nor 'deer' designates _place_ or implies fixed +location, and therefore neither can be made the ground-word of a +place-name. _Androscoggin_ or _Amoscoggin_ is not from the Abnaki +'_amaskohegan_, fish-spearing,'[98] for a similar reason (and +moreover, because the termination _-h[=e]gan_ denotes always an +_instrument_, never an _action_ or a _place_; it may belong to 'a +fish-spear,' but not to 'fish spearing' nor to the locality 'where +fish are speared.') + +[Footnote 96: It was so interpreted in the Historical Magazine for +May, 1865 (p. 90).] + +[Footnote 97: Ibid. To this interpretation of _Pawcatuck_ there is the +more obvious objection that a prefix signifying 'much or many' should +be followed not by _ahtuk_ or _attuk_, 'a deer,' but by the plural +_ahtukquog_.] + +[Footnote 98: Etymological Vocabulary of Geographical Names, appended +to the last edition of Webster's Dictionary (1864). It may be proper +to remark in this connection, that the writer's responsibility for the +correctness of translations given in that vocabulary does not extend +beyond his own contributions to it.] + +7. The locative post-position, _-et_, _-it_ or _-ut_,[99] means _in_, +_at_ or _on_,--not 'land' or 'place.' It locates, not the object to +the name of which it is affixed, but _something else_ as related to +that object,--which must be of such a nature that location can be +predicated of it. _Animate nouns_, that is, names of animate objects +cannot receive this affix. 'At the rock' (_ompsk-ut_), 'at the +mountain' (_wadchu-ut_), or 'in the country' (_ohk-it_, _auk-it_), is +intelligible, in Indian or English; 'at the deer,' 'at the bear,' or +'at the sturgeons,' would be nonsense in any language. When animate +nouns occur in place-names, they receive the formative of verbals, or +serve as adjectival prefixes to some localizing ground-word or +noun-generic. + +[Footnote 99: Abnaki and Cree, _-k_ or _-g_,--Delaware and Chippewa, +_-ng_; or _-[n]g_,--with a connecting vowel.] + +8. Finally,--in the analysis of geographical names, differences of +_language_ and _dialect_ must not be disregarded. In determining the +primary meaning of roots, great assistance may be had by the +comparison of derivatives in nearly related languages of the same +stock. But in American languages, the diversity of dialects is even +more remarkable than the identity and constancy of roots. Every tribe, +almost every village had its peculiarities of speech. Names +etymologically identical might have widely different meanings in two +languages, or even in two nations speaking substantially the same +language. The eastern Algonkin generic name for 'fish' (_nama-us_, +Del. _namai-s_) is restricted by northern and western tribes to a +single species, the sturgeon (Chip. _namai'_,) as _the_ fish, par +excellence. _Attuk_, in Massachusetts was the common fallow-deer,--in +Canada and the north-west the caribou or reindeer. The Abnaki Indian +called his _dog_ (_atie_) by a name which the Chippewa gives his +_horse_ (_oti-un_; _n'di_, my horse).[100] The most common +noun-generic of river names in New England (_-tuk_, 'tidal river') +occurs rarely in those of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is +replaced by _-hanne_ ('rapid stream'), and is unknown to western +Algonkin tribes whose streams are undisturbed by tides. The analysis +of a geographical name must be sought in the language spoken by the +name-givers. The correct translation of a Connecticut or Narragansett +name is not likely to be attained by searching for its several +components in a Chippewa vocabulary; or of the name of a locality near +Hudson's River, by deriving its prefix from an Abnaki adverb and its +ground-word from a Chippewa participle,--as was actually done in a +recently published list of Indian names. + +[Footnote 100: Both words have the same meaning,--that of 'a domestic +animal,' or literally, 'animate property;' 'he who _belongs_ to +me.'] + + + + +INDIAN NAMES. + + +Abagadusset, Abequaduset, 39 + +Abnaki, 7 + +-ACADIE, 26, 27 + +_Acawme-_, 10 + +Accomack, 10 + +-ADCHU, -ACHU, 20 + +-ADENE, 21 + +Agamenticus, 10 + +Agoncy, 28 + +AHQUEDNE, 23 + +_Akoode-_, 28 + +Alleghany, 12 + +-AMAUG, 18 + +Amessagunticook, 25 + +Amoskeag, 25 + +_Anasqui-_, 41 + +Androscoggin, 25 + +Anmesookkantti, 25, 42 + +Annis-squam, 18 + +Aquednet, -nesit, 23 + +_Ashawi-_, 33 + +Ashawog, 33 + +ASHIM, 34 + +Ashimuit, 34 + +_Assini-_, 20 + +-AUKE, 6 + + +Baamcheenunganoo, 40 + +Bagadoose, 38 + +-BIK, 18 + +_Boonamoo-_, 27 + + +Capawonk, 29 + +Cappowonganick, 29 + +Catumb, 19 + +Caucomgomoc, 17 + +Chabanakongkomuk, 35 + +CHABENUK, 35 + +Chawonock, 7 + +Chebegnadose, 39 + +Chippaquiddick, 23 + +Cobbosseecontee, 26, 42 + +Cobbscook, 42 + +-COMACO, 21 + +Connecticut, 8 + +Cuppacommock, 21 + + +_-Ehtu_, _-ettu_, 23, 24 + +_Eshqua-_, 41 + + +-GAMI, 17 + +Ganshow-hanne, 12 + +Gonic, 42 + + +Hackensack, 30 + +-HAN, -HANNE, 8, 12 + +_Hassuni-_, 19 + +Higganum, 19 + +-HITTUCK, 8 + +Hoccanum, 30 + +HOCQUAUN, 30 + + +Ishquagoma, 41 + + +_Kabasse-_, 42 + +-KAMIGHE, 21 + +-KAOODI, 28 + +-KANTTI, 22 + +Katahdin, 21 + +_Kauposh-_, 42 + +Kearsarge, 20 + +_Keht-_, _kit-_, 12, 19, 21 + +Kehtetukqut, 12 + +Kennebec, 15 + +Kenjua, 43 + +Kenosha, 43 + +Ketumpscut, 19 + +-KI, 6 + +Kinougami, 17 + +Kiskatamenakook, 7 + +Kittanning, 12 + +Kittatinny, 21 + +Kitchigami, 17 + +Kitchi-sipi, 7 + +-KOMUK, 21 + +-KONTU, 23 + +Kunckquachu, 20 + +_Kuppo-_, 21, 29 + + +Lackawanna, 12 + +Lenapewi-hittuck, 8 + + +Machigamig, 17 + +Manati, 22 + +Manhasset, 23 + +Manhatan, 22 + +Manisses, 22 + +Manussing, 23 + +_Massa-_, _Masha-_, 15 + +Massachusetts, 20 + +Massapaug, 15 + +Massaugatucket, 32 + +Mashenips, 38 + +Maskinonje, 43 + +Mattabeset, 35 + +Mattammiscontis, 25 + +Mattapan, -ient, 34 + +Mattapony, 35 + +Mattapoiset, 35 + +Matchebiguatus, 39 + +Mauch-chunk, 20 + +MENAN, 22 + +Mennewies, 23 + +Meesucontee, 25 + +Mianus, 37 + +Michigan, 17 + +Missinippi, 15 + +Missisaking, 31 + +Mississippi, 7 + +Misquamacuck, 42 + +Mistassini, 20 + +Miste-shipu, 7 + +Mitchigami, 17 + +Mohicannittuck, 8 + +Montauk, 23 + +Moosup, 37 + +Moshenupsuck, 38 + +-MSK (for -OMPSK), 18 + +Munhansick, 23 + +MUNNOH-HAN, 22 + +Mushauwomuk, 5, 35 + +Mystic, 8 + + +NA[=I]AG, 29 + +Namasket, 42 + +Nameaug, 38 + +Namelake, 38 + +Narragansett, 29 + +Nashauekomuk, 21 + +NASHAUE, 21, 33 + +Nashua, Nashaway, 33 + +Natchaug, 33 + +Na[=u]mkeag, 43 + +Nayatt, Nayot, 29 + +_Nessaooa-_, 22 + +Newichawanock, 12 + +Nimpanickhickanuh, 37 + +NIPPE, NEBI, 14 + +Nippissing, 15 + +Noank, 29 + +_No[=e]u-_, 11 + +Norwottock, 11 + +Noyaug, 29 + +_Nunni-_, 16 + +Nunnepoag, 16 + +Nunkertunk, 29 + +Nyack, 29 + + +Occoquan, 30 + +_Ogkome-_, 10 + +OGQUIDNE, 23 + +Ohio, 13 + +-OHKE, -OKE, 6 + +Okhucquan, 30 + +Olighin-sipou, 13 + +-OMPSK, 18 + +Oswego, 31 + +Ouschankamaug, 18 + + +Pacatock, 8 + +_Paguan-_, 40 + +_Pahke-_, 16, 40 + +Pahquioque, 39 + +Paquabaug, 16, 40 + +Paquiaug, 39 + +Pascoag, 11 + +Pasquotank, 11 + +Passamaquoddy, 26, 43 + +Patuxet, -ent, 9 + +-PAUG, 15 + +_Pauqui-_, 39 + +Pauquepaug, 16 + +Pauat-, 9 + +Pautuck, 9 + +Pawating, 9 + +Pawcatuck, 8 + +Pawtucket, 8, 9 + +Pemadene, 41 + +_Pemi-_, 40 + +Pemaquid, 41 + +Pemetiq, 41 + +Pemigewasset, 41 + +_Pemiji-_, 40 + +Pemijigome, 40 + +_Pen-_, 19 + +Penobscot, 19 + +Pequabuck, 16 + +Pequannoc, 40 + +_Pescatum-_, 26, 43 + +_Peske-_, 10 + +Pesquamscot, 11 + +Pettiquamscut, 18 + +Petuckquapock, 16 + +_Petukqui-_, 16, 18 + +Pikanghenahik, 30 + +_Pime-_, 40 + +-PISK, -PSK, 18 + +Piscataqua, -quog, 11 + +Piscataway,-aquis, 11 + +Poaetquessing, 9 + +_Pohqui-_, 39 + +_Ponamo-_, 27 + +Poquannoc, 40 + +Poutaxat, 9 + +Powhatan, 10 + +Pymatuning, 38, 41 + +Pyquaag, 39 + +_Pummeecke-_, 40 + + +Quansigamaug, 18 + +Quilutamende, 36 + +_Quinni-_, 8, 15 + +Quinnihticut, 8 + +Quinebaug, 16 + +Quinepoxet, 16 + +Quinnipiac, 15 + +-QUODDY, -KANTTI, 26, 27 + +Quonshapang, 43 + +Qussuk, 16 + +Quunkwadchu, 20 + + +Saco, 30 + +Sagadahock, 30 + +Saganaw, 31 + +Saguenay, 31 + +Saquatucket, 32 + +Saugatuck, 32 + +Saukunk, 31 + +Segoonumakaddy, 27 + +Segubbunakaddy, 26 + +SEPU, SEIP, SIPI, 7 + +Shaume, 34 + +Shawmut, 36 + +Shawwunk, 33 + +Shubenacadie, 26 + +Shumuit, 34 + +Sicaiook, Suckiaug, 7 + +Soakatuck, 32 + +_Sonki-_, 16 + +Sonkipaug, 16 + +Sowanohke, 7 + +Squam, 18 + +Squamacut, 42 + +Squammagonic, 42 + +Squamscot, 18 + +_Sucki-_, 7 + +Swamscot, 18 + + +-TCHUAN, 12 + +Temigami, 17 + +Tetiquet, Titicut, 11 + +Tomheganomset, 19 + +Tracady, -die, 28 + +-TUK, 8 + + +UHQUON, 30 + + +WADCHU, 20 + +Wampanoags, 6 + +_Wanashque-_, 18, 41 + +Wangunbog, 16 + +Wapanachki, 7 + +Werowocomoco, 21 + +Winnepesaukee, 32, 33 + +Winnesquamsaukit, 18 + +Winnisimmit, 34 + +Wnogquetookoke, 30 + +Wonasquatucket, 41 + +WONKUN, WONGUN, 29 + +Wongattuck, 29 + +Wonkemaug, 18 + +Wongunpaug, 16 + +Wonnesquam, 18 + +Wuskowhananaukit, 7 + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Composition of Indian Geographical +Names, by J. 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