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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18277-8.txt b/18277-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb149b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/18277-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3706 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Training of a Public Speaker, by Grenville Kleiser + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Training of a Public Speaker + +Author: Grenville Kleiser + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Morgan, Martin Pettit and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER + +BY GRENVILLE KLEISER + + +_Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity + School, Yale University. Author of_ "_How to Speak + in Public_," "_Great Speeches and How to Make + Them_," "_Complete Guide to Public Speaking_," + "_How to Build Mental Power_," + "_Talks on Talking_," _etc., etc._ + + +[Illustration: Publisher's logo] + +FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY + +NEW YORK AND LONDON + +1920 + + +COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY + +GRENVILLE KLEISER + +[_Printed in the United States of America_] + +Published, February, 1920 + + +Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the +Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 + + + + +PREFACE + + +The power of eloquence to move and persuade men is universally +recognized. To-day the public speaker plays a vital part in the solution +of every great question and problem. Oratory, in the true sense, is not +a lost art, but a potent means of imparting information, instruction, +and persuasion. + +Eloquence is still "the appropriate organ of the highest personal +energy." As one has well said, "The orator is not compelled to wait +through long and weary years to reap the reward of his labors. His +triumphs are instantaneous." + +And again, "To stand up before a vast assembly composed of men of the +most various callings, views, passions, and prejudices, and mold them at +will; to play upon their hearts and minds as a master upon the keys of +a piano; to convince their understandings by the logic, and to thrill +their feelings by the art of the orator; to see every eye watching his +face, and every ear intent on the words that drop from his lips; to see +indifference changed to breathless interest, and aversion to rapturous +enthusiasm; to hear thunders of applause at the close of every period; +to see the whole assembly animated by the feelings which in him are +burning and struggling for utterance; and to think that all this is the +creation of the moment, and has sprung instantaneously from his fiery +brain and the inspiration imparted to it by the circumstances of the +hour;--_this_, perhaps, is the greatest triumph of which the human mind +is capable, and that in which its divinity is most signally revealed." + +The aims and purposes of speaking to-day have radically changed from +former times. Deliberative bodies, composed of busy men, meet now to +discuss and dispose of grave and weighty business. There is little +necessity nor scope for eloquence. Time is too valuable to permit of +prolonged speaking. Men are tacitly expected to "get to the point," and +to be reasonably brief in what they have to say. + +Under these circumstances certain extravagant types of old-time oratory +would be ineffectual to-day. The stentorian and dramatic tones, with +hand inserted in the breast of the coat, with exaggerated facial +expression, and studied posture, would make a speaker to-day an object +of ridicule. + +This applies equally to speech in the law court, pulpit, on the lecture +platform, and in other departments of public address. The implicit +demand everywhere is that the speaker should say what he has to say +naturally, simply, and concisely. + +This does not mean, however, that he must confine himself to plain +statement of fact, with no manifestation of feeling or earnestness. Men +are still influenced and persuaded by impassioned speech. There is +nothing incompatible between deep feeling and clear-cut speech. A man +having profound convictions upon any subject of importance will always +speak on it with fervor and sincerity. + +The widespread interest in the subject of public speaking has suggested +this adaptation of Quintilian's celebrated work on the education of the +orator. This work has long been regarded as one of the most valuable +treatises ever written on oratory, but in its original form it is +ponderous and inaccessible to the average reader. In the present +abridged and modernized form it may be read and studied with benefit by +earnest students of the art of public speaking. + +A brief account of Quintilian says: "Quintilianus, M. Fabius, was born +at Calagurris, in Spain, A. D. 40. He completed his education at Rome, +and began to practise at the bar about 68. But he was chiefly +distinguished as a teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm in his +department from all his rivals, and associating his name, even to a +proverb, with preeminence in the art. By Domitian he was invested with +the insignia and title of consul, and is, moreover, celebrated as the +first public instructor who, in virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, +received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. He is supposed to +have died about 118. The great work of Quintilian is a complete system +of rhetoric, in twelve books, entitled _De Institutione Oratoria Libre +XII_, or sometimes _Institutiones Oratoriæ_, dedicated to his friend +Marcellus Victorius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favorite at +Court. This production bears throughout the impress of a clear, sound +judgment, keen discrimination, and pure taste, improved by extensive +reading, deep reflection, and long practise." + +The text used for this condensation is from the version of J. Patsall, +A.M., London, 1774, according to the Paris edition by Professor Rollin. +Many parts of the original work have been re-written or abridged, while +several chapters have been entirely omitted. + + GRENVILLE KLEISER. +New York City, +August, 1919. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE 15 + +THE EXORDIUM OR INTRODUCTION 43 + +THE NARRATION 67 + +DIVISION AND ARGUMENT 85 + +THE PERORATION 99 + +PASSION AND PERSUASION 119 + +THE STUDY OF WORDS 133 + +ELEGANCE AND GRACE 145 + +COMPOSITION AND STYLE 173 + +COPIOUSNESS OF WORDS 197 + +KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 229 + +CONCLUSION 247 + + + + +RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE + + +WHAT RHETORIC IS + +Rhetoric has been commonly defined as "The power of persuading." This +opinion originated with Isocrates, if the work ascribed to him be really +his; not that he intended to dishonor his profession, tho he gives us a +generous idea of rhetoric by calling it the workmanship of persuasion. +We find almost the same thing in the Gorgias of Plato, but this is the +opinion of that rhetorician, and not of Plato. Cicero has written in +many places that the duty of an orator is to speak in "a manner proper +to persuade"; and in his books of rhetoric, of which undoubtedly he does +not approve himself, he makes the end of eloquence to consist in +persuasion. + +But does not money likewise persuade? Is not credit, the authority of +the speaker, the dignity of a respectable person, attended with the same +effect? Even without speaking a word, the remembrance of past services, +the appearance of distress, a beautiful aspect, make deep impressions on +minds and are decisive in their favor. + +Did Antonius, pleading the cause of M. Aquilius, trust to the force of +his reasons when he abruptly tore open his garment and exposed to view +the honorable wounds he received fighting for his country? This act of +his forced streams of tears from the eyes of the Roman people, who, not +able to resist so moving a spectacle, acquitted the criminal. Sergius +Galba escaped the severity of the laws by appearing in court with his +own little children, and the son of Gallus Sulpitius, in his arms. The +sight of so many wretched objects melted the judges into compassion. +This we find equally attested by some of our historians and by a speech +of Cato. What shall I say of the example of Phryne, whose beauty was of +more service in her cause than all the eloquence of Hyperides; for tho +his pleading was admirable in her defense, yet perceiving it to be +without effect, by suddenly laying open her tunic he disclosed the naked +beauty of her bosom, and made the judges sensible that she had as many +charms for them as for others. Now, if all these instances persuade, +persuasion, then, can not be the end of rhetoric. + +Some, therefore, have seemed to themselves rather more exact who, in the +main of the same way of thinking, define rhetoric as the "Power of +persuading by speaking." It is to this that Gorgias, in the book above +cited, is at last reduced by Socrates. Theodectes does not much differ +from them, if the work ascribed to him be his, or Aristotle's. In this +book the end of rhetoric is supposed to be "The leading of men wherever +one pleases by the faculty of speaking." But this definition is not +sufficiently comprehensive. Many others besides the orator persuade by +their words and lead minds in whatever direction they please. + +Some, therefore, as Aristotle, setting aside the consideration of the +end, have defined rhetoric to be "The power of inventing whatever is +persuasive in a discourse." This definition is equally as faulty as that +just mentioned, and is likewise defective in another respect, as +including only invention, which, separate from elocution, can not +constitute a speech. + +It appears from Plato's Gorgias that he was far from regarding rhetoric +as an art of ill tendency, but that, rather it is, or ought to be, if +we were to conceive an adequate idea of it inseparable from virtue. This +he explains more clearly in his Phædrus, where he says that "The art can +never be perfect without an exact knowledge and strict observance of +justice." I join him in this opinion, and if these were not his real +sentiments, would he have written an apology for Socrates and the +eulogium of those brave citizens who lost their lives in the defense of +their country? This is certainly acting the part of an orator, and if in +any respect he attacks the profession, it is on account of those who +make ill use of eloquence. Socrates, animated with the same spirit, +thought it unworthy of him to pronounce the speech Lysias had composed +for his defense, it being the custom of the orators of those times to +write speeches for arraigned criminals, which the latter pronounced in +their own defense; thus eluding the law that prohibited pleading for +another. Plato, likewise, in his Phædrus, condemns the masters that +separated rhetoric from justice, and preferred probabilities to truth. + +Such are the definitions of rhetoric which have been principally set +forth. To go through all of them is not my purpose, nor do I think it +possible, as most writers on arts have shown a perverse dislike for +defining things as others do or in the same terms as those who wrote +before them. I am far from being influenced by a like spirit of +ambition, and far from flattering myself with the glory of invention, +and I shall rest content with that which seems most rational, that +rhetoric is properly defined as "The science of speaking well." Having +found what is best, it is useless to seek further. + +Accepting this definition, therefore, it will be no difficult matter to +ascertain its end, for if it be "The science of speaking well," then "to +speak well" will be the end it proposes to itself. + + +THE USE OF RHETORIC + +The next question is on the utility of rhetoric, and from this point of +view some direct the bitterest invectives against it, and what is very +unbecoming, exert the force of eloquence against eloquence, saying that +by it the wicked are freed from punishment, and the innocent opprest by +its artifices; that it perverts good counsel, and enforces bad; that it +foments troubles and seditions in States; that it arms nations against +each other, and makes them irreconcilable enemies; and that its power is +never more manifest than when error and lies triumph over truth. + +Comic poets reproach Socrates with teaching how to make a bad cause +good, and Plato represents Lysias and Gorgias boasting the same thing. +To these may be added several examples of Greeks and Romans, and a long +list of orators whose eloquence was not only the ruin of private +persons, but even destructive to whole cities and republics; and for +this reason it was that eloquence was banished from Sparta and so +restricted at Athens that the orator was not allowed to make appeal to +the passions. + +Granting all this as sound argument, we must draw this necessary +inference, that neither generals of armies, nor magistrates, nor +medicine, nor philosophy, will be of any use. Flaminius, an imprudent +general, lost one of our armies. The Gracchi Saturninus, and Glaucia, to +raise themselves to dignity, put Rome into an uproar. Physicians often +administer poisons, and among philosophers some have been found guilty +of the most enormous crimes. Let us not eat of the meats with which our +tables are spread, for meats frequently have caused disease. Let us +never go into houses; they may fall and crush us to death. Let not our +soldiers be armed with swords; a robber may use the same weapon against +us. In short, who does not know that the most necessary things in life, +as air, fire, water, nay, even the celestial bodies, are sometimes very +injurious to our well-being? + +But how many examples can be quoted in our favor? Did not Appius the +Blind, by the force of his eloquence dissuade the Senate from making a +shameful peace with Pyrrhus? Did not Cicero's divine eloquence appear +more popular than the Agrarian law he attacked? Did it not disconcert +the audacious measures of Cataline? And did not he, even in his civil +capacity, obtain by it honors that are conferred on only the most +illustrious conquerors? Is it not the orator who strengthens the +soldier's drooping courage, who animates him amidst the greatest +dangers, and inspires him to choose a glorious death rather than a life +of infamy? + +The example of the Romans, among whom eloquence always has been held in +the greatest veneration, shall have a higher place in my regard than +that of the Spartans and Athenians. It is not to be supposed that the +founders of cities could have made a united people of a vagabond +multitude without the charms of persuasive words, nor that law-givers, +without extraordinary talent for speaking, could have forced men to bend +their necks to the yoke of the laws. Even the precepts of moral life, +tho engraved on our hearts by the finger of nature, are more efficacious +to inspire our hearts with love for them when their beauty is displayed +by the ornaments of eloquent speech. Tho the arms of eloquence may harm +and benefit equally, we must not, therefore, look on that as bad which +may be put to a good use. Doubts of this kind may well be entertained by +such as make "the force persuasion the end of eloquence," but we who +constitute it "The science of speaking well," resolved to acknowledge +none but the good man an orator, must naturally judge that its advantage +is very considerable. + +Certainly, the gracious Author of all beings and Maker of the world, has +distinguished us from the animals in no respect more than by the gift of +speech. They surpass us in bulk, in strength, in the supporting of +toil, in speed, and stand less in need of outside help. Guided by nature +only, they learn sooner to walk, to seek for their food, and to swim +over rivers. They have on their bodies sufficient covering to guard them +against cold; all of them have their natural weapons of defense; their +food lies, in a manner, on all sides of them; and we, indigent beings! +to what anxieties are we put in securing these things? But God, a +beneficent parent, gave us reason for our portion, a gift which makes us +partakers of a life of immortality. But this reason would be of little +use to us, and we would be greatly perplexed to make it known, unless we +could express by words our thoughts. This is what animals lack, more +than thought and understanding, of which it can not be said they are +entirely destitute. For to make themselves secure and commodious +lodges, to interweave their nests with such art, to rear their young +with such care, to teach them to shift for themselves when grown up, to +hoard provisions for the winter, to produce such inimitable works as wax +and honey, are instances perhaps of a glimmering of reason; but because +destitute of speech, all the extraordinary things they do can not +distinguish them from the brute part of creation. Let us consider dumb +persons: how does the heavenly soul, which takes form in their bodies, +operate in them? We perceive, indeed, that its help is but weak, and its +action but languid. + + +THE VALUE OF THE GIFT OF SPEECH + +If, then, the beneficent Creator of the world has not imparted to us a +greater blessing than the gift of speech, what can we esteem more +deserving of our labor and improvement, and what object is more worthy +of our ambition than that of raising ourselves above other men by the +same means by which they raise themselves above beasts, so much the more +as no labor is attended with a more abundant harvest of glory? To be +convinced of this we need only consider by what degrees eloquence has +been brought to the perfection in which we now see it, and how far it +might still be perfected. For, not to mention the advantage and pleasure +a good man reaps from defending his friends, governing the Senate by his +counsels, seeing himself the oracle of the people, and master of armies, +what can be more noble than by the faculty of speaking and thinking, +which is common to all men, to erect for himself such a standard of +praise and glory as to seem to the minds of men not so much to discourse +and speak, but, like Pericles, to make his words thunder and lightning. + + +THE ART OF SPEAKING + +There would be no end were I to expatiate to the limit of my inclination +on the subject of the gift of speech and its utility. I shall pass, +therefore, to the following question, "Whether rhetoric be an art?" +Those who wrote rules for eloquence doubted so little its being so, that +they prefixt no other title to their books than "The art of speaking." +Cicero says that what we call rhetoric is only an artificial eloquence. +If this were an opinion peculiar to orators, it might be thought that +they intended it as a mark of dignity attached to their studies, but +most philosophers, stoics as well as peripatetics, concur in this +opinion. I must confess I had some doubt about discussing this matter, +lest I might seem diffident of its truth; for who can be so devoid of +sense and knowledge as to find art in architecture, in weaving, in +pottery, and imagine that rhetoric, the excellence of which we have +already shown, could arrive at its present state of grandeur and +perfection without the direction of art? I am persuaded that those of +the contrary opinion were so more for the sake of exercising their wit +on the singularity of the subject than from any real conviction. + + +IS ELOQUENCE A GIFT OF NATURE? + +Some maintain that rhetoric is a gift of nature, yet admit that it may +be helped by exercise. Antonius, in Cicero's books of the Orator, calls +it a sort of observation and not an art. But this opinion is not there +asserted as truth, but only to keep up the character of Antonius, who +was a connoisseur at concealing art. Lysias seems to be of the same +opinion, which he defends by saying that the most simple and ignorant +people possess a kind of rhetoric when they speak for themselves. They +find something like an exordium, they make a narration, they prove, +refute, and their prayers and entreaties have the force of a peroration. +Lysias and his adherents proceed afterward to vain subtleties. "That +which is the effect of art," say they, "could not have existed before +art. In all times men have known how to speak for themselves and against +others, but masters of rhetoric have been only of a late date, first +known about the time of Tisias and Corax; therefore oratorical speech +was prior to art, consequently it could not be the result of art, and +therefore, rhetoric is not an art." We shall not endeavor to enquire +into the time when rhetoric began to be taught, but this we may say, +that it is certain Homer makes mention not only of Phoenix, who was a +master, skilled in both speaking and fighting, but also of many other +orators. We may observe likewise from Homer, that all the parts of a +discourse are found in the speech of the three captains deputed to +Achilles, that several young men dispute for the prize of eloquence, and +that among other ornaments of sculpture on the buckler of Achilles, +Vulcan did not forget law-causes and the pleaders of them. + +It will be sufficient, however, to answer that "Everything perfected by +art has its source in nature." If it were not so, we should exclude +medicine from the catalog of arts, the discovery of which was owing to +observations made on things conducive or harmful to public health, and +in the opinion of some it is wholly grounded on experiments. Before it +was reduced to an art, tents and bandages were applied to wounds, rest +and abstinence cured fever; not that the reason of all this was then +known, but the nature of the ailment indicated such curative methods and +forced men to this regimen. In like manner architecture can not be an +art, the first men having built their cottages without its direction. +Music must undergo the same charge, as every nation has its own +peculiarities in dancing and singing. Now, if by rhetoric be meant any +kind of speech, I must own it prior to art; but if not everyone who +speaks is an orator, and if in the primitive ages of the world men did +not speak orator-like, the orator, consequently, must have been made so +by art, and therefore could not exist before it. + + +RHETORIC AND MISREPRESENTATION + +The next objection is not one so much in reality as it is a mere cavil; +that "Art never assents to false opinions, because it can not be +constituted as such without precepts, which are always true; but +rhetoric assents to what is false, therefore it is not an art." I admit +that sometimes rhetoric says false things instead of true, but it does +not follow that it assents to what is false. There is a wide difference +between assenting to a falsehood, and making others assent to it. So it +is that a general of an army often has recourse to stratagems. When +Hannibal perceived himself to be blocked up by Fabius, he ordered +faggots of brush-wood to be fastened about the horns of some oxen, and +fire being set to the faggots, had the cattle driven up the mountains in +the night, in order to make the enemy believe he was about to decamp. +But this was only a false alarm, for he himself very well knew what his +scheme was. When Theopompus the Spartan, by changing clothes with his +wife, made his escape out of prison, the deception was not imposed upon +himself, but upon his guards. Thus, when an orator speaks falsehood +instead of truth, he knows what he is about; he does not yield to it +himself, his intention being to deceive others. When Cicero boasted that +he threw darkness on the minds of the judges, in the cause of Cluentius, +could it be said that he himself was unacquainted with all the +intricacies of his method of confusing their understanding of the facts? +Or shall a painter who so disposes his objects that some seem to project +from the canvas, others to sink in, be supposed not to know that they +are all drawn on a plain surface? + + +THE OBJECT OF A SPEECH + +It is again objected that "Every art proposes to itself an end; but +rhetoric has no end, or does not put into execution the end it proposes +to itself." This is false, as is shown from what already has been said +concerning the end of rhetoric and in what it consists. The orator will +never fail to obtain this end, for he always will speak well. This +objection, therefore, can affect only those who make persuasion the end +of rhetoric; but our orator, and our definition of art, are not +restricted to events. An orator, indeed, strives to gain his cause; but +suppose he loses it, as long as he has pleaded well he fulfils the +injunctions of his art. A pilot desires to come safe into port, but if a +storm sweeps away his ship, is he, on that account, a less experienced +pilot? His keeping constantly to the helm is sufficient proof that he +was not neglecting his duty. A physician tries to cure a sick person, +but if his remedies are hindered in their operation by either the +violence of the disease, the intemperance of the patient, or some +unforeseen accident, he is not to be blamed, because he has satisfied +all the directions of his art. So it is with the orator, whose end is to +speak well; for it is in the act, and not in the effect, that art +consists, as I shall soon make clear. Therefore, it is false to say that +"Art knows when it has obtained its end, but rhetoric knows nothing of +the matter," as if an orator could be ignorant of his speaking well and +to the purpose. + +But it is said, further, that rhetoric, contrary to the custom of all +other arts, adopts vice, because it countenances falsehood and moves the +passions. Neither of these are bad practises, and consequently not +vicious, when grounded on substantial reasons. To disguise truth is +sometimes allowable even in the sage, and if a judge can not be brought +to do justice except by means of the passions, the orator must +necessarily have recourse to them. Very often the judges appointed to +decide are ignorant, and there is necessity for changing their wrongly +conceived opinions, to keep them from error. Should there be a bench, a +tribunal, an assembly of wise and learned judges whose hearts are +inaccessible to hatred, envy, hope, fear, prejudice, and the impositions +of false witnesses, there would be little occasion for the exertions of +eloquence and all that might seem requisite would be only to amuse the +ear with the harmony of cadence. But if the orator has to deal with +light, inconstant, prejudiced, and corrupt judges, and if many +embarrassments must be removed in order to throw light upon truth, then +artful stratagem must fight the battle, and set all its engines to work, +for he who is beaten out of the straight road can not get into it again +except by another turnabout. + + +ELOQUENCE ACQUIRED BY STUDY AND PRACTISE + +These are the principal objections which have been made against +rhetoric. There are others of less moment but derived from the same +source. That rhetoric is an art is thus briefly demonstrated. If art, as +Cleanthes thinks, is a power which prepares a way and establishes an +order, can it be doubted that we must keep to a certain way and a +certain order for speaking well? And if, according to the most generally +accepted opinion, we ought to call art, everything which by a +combination of agreeing and co-exercised principles conducts to a useful +end, have we not already shown that nothing of all this is lacking in +rhetoric? Has it not, likewise, the two constituent parts of other +arts, theory and practise? Again, if dialect be an art, as it is +granted, for the same reason; so is rhetoric an art, the chief +difference lying not so much in the genus as in the species. But we must +not forget this observation, that art must be where a thing is done +according to rule, and not at random; and art must be where he who has +learned succeeds better than he who has not learned. But in matter of +eloquence not only will the ignorant person be surpassed by the learned, +but also the learned by the more learned; otherwise we should not have +so many rules nor so many excellent masters. This ought to be +acknowledged by all, but more especially by us who do not separate +eloquence from the man of integrity. + + + + +THE EXORDIUM OR INTRODUCTION + + +The exordium, or introduction, is that part of the discourse which is +pronounced before the subject is entered upon. As musicians make a +prelude for obtaining silence and attention before they play their +selections, so orators, before they begin their cause, have specified by +the same application that which they say by way of preface for securing +for themselves a kindly feeling in the listeners. + + +THE PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION + +The reason for an exordium is to dispose the auditors to be favorable to +us in the other parts of the discourse. This, as most authors agree, is +accomplished by making them friendly, attentive, and receptive, tho due +regard should be paid to these three particulars throughout the whole +of a speech. + +Sometimes the exordium is applicable to the pleader of the cause, who, +tho he ought to speak very little of himself, and always modestly, will +find it of vast consequence to create a good opinion of himself and to +make himself thought to be an honest man. So it is he will be regarded +not so much as a zealous advocate, as a faithful and irreproachable +witness. His motives for pleading must, therefore, appear to proceed not +from tie of kindred, or friendship, but principally from a desire to +promote the public good, if such motive can be urged, or any other +important consideration. This conduct will befit plaintiffs in a much +greater degree, that they may seem to have brought their action for just +and weighty reasons, or were even compelled to do it from necessity. + +As nothing else gives so great a sanction to the authority of the +speaker as to be free from all suspicion of avarice, hatred, and +ambition, so, also, there is a sort of tacit recommendation of ourselves +if we profess our weak state and inability for contending with the +superior genius and talents of the advocate of the other side. We are +naturally disposed to favor the weak and opprest, and a conscientious +judge hears an orator willingly whom he presumes not to be capable of +making him swerve from his fixt purpose of doing justice. Hence the care +of the ancients for concealing their talents. + + +IDEAS TO AVOID AND TO INCLUDE + +All contemptuous, spiteful, haughty, calumniating expressions must be +avoided and not so much as even insinuated to the defamation of any +particular person or rank, much less against those to whom an affront +would alienate the minds of the judges. To be so imprudent as to attack +judges themselves, not openly, but in any indirect manner, would be most +unwise. + +The advocate for the other side may likewise furnish sufficient matter +for an exordium. Sometimes honorable mention may be made of him, as when +we pretend to be in dread of his interest and eloquence in order to make +them suspected by the judges, and sometimes by casting odium on him, +altho this must be done very seldom. I rather think, from the authority +of the best authors, that whatever affects the orator, affects also the +cause he patronizes, as it is natural for a judge to give more credit to +those whom he more willingly hears. + +We shall procure the favor of the judge not so much by praising him, +which ought to be done with moderation, and is common to both sides, but +rather by making his praise fitting, and connecting it with the interest +of our cause. Thus, in speaking for a person of consequence, we may lay +some stress on the judge's own dignity; for one of mean condition, on +his justice; for the unhappy, on his mercy; for the injured, on his +severity. + + +STUDYING YOUR HEARERS + +It also would not be amiss to become acquainted, if possible, with his +character. For, according as his temper is, harsh or mild, pleasant or +grave, severe or easy, the cause should be made to incline toward the +side which corresponds with his disposition, or to admit some mitigation +or softening where it runs counter to it. + +It may happen sometimes, too, that the judge is our enemy, or the +opponent's friend. This is a circumstance requiring the circumspection +of both parties, yet I think the favored advocate should behave with +great caution, for a judge of a biased disposition will sometimes choose +to pass sentence against his friends, or in favor of those to whom he +bears enmity, that he may not appear to act with injustice. + + +AROUSING EMOTIONS + +Judges have also their private opinions and prejudices, which we must +either strengthen or weaken, according as we see necessary. Fear, too, +sometimes must be removed, as Cicero, in his defense of Milo, endeavors +to assure the judges that Pompey's army, drawn up about the Forum, is +for their protection; and sometimes there will be an occasion to +intimidate them, as the same orator does in one of his pleadings against +Verres. + +There are two ways of proceeding in this last case, the first plausible, +and frequently used, as when it is hinted to them that the Roman people +might entertain an ill opinion of them, or that there might be an appeal +from their judgment; the other desperate, and not so much used, as when +threatened with prosecution themselves if they suffer themselves to be +corrupted. This is a hazardous point, and is conducted with more safety +to the orator when in a large assembly where corrupt judges are +restrained by fear, and the upright have the majority. But I would never +counsel this before a single judge, unless every other resource was +wanting. If necessity requires it, I can not say that it is the business +of the art of oratory to give directions in the matter, any more than to +lodge an appeal, tho that, too, is often of service, or to cite the +judge in justice before he passes sentence, for to threaten, denounce, +or indict may be done by any one else as well as the orator. + +If the cause itself should furnish sufficient reason for gaining the +good will of the judge, out of this whatever is most specious and +favorable may be inserted in the exordium. It will be unnecessary to +enumerate all the favorable circumstances in causes, they being easily +known from the state of facts; besides, no exact enumeration can take +place on account of the great diversity of law-suits. It is the cause +itself, therefore, that must teach us to find and improve these +circumstances; and, in like manner, with a circumstance that may make +against us the cause will inform us how it may either be made entirely +void, or at least invalidated. + +From the cause compassion also sometimes arises, whether we have +already suffered or are likely to suffer anything grievous. For I am not +of the opinion of those who to distinguish the exordium from the +peroration, will have the one to speak of what is past and the other of +what is to come. They are sufficiently distinguished without this +discrimination. In the exordium the orator ought to be more reserved, +and ought only to throw out some hints of the sentiments of compassion +he designs to excite in the minds of the judges; whereas in the +peroration he may pour out all the passions, introduce persons speaking, +and make the dead to come forth, as it were, out of their graves, and +recommend to the judges the care of their dearest pledges. All these +particulars are seldom executed in the exordium. But the manner just +pointed out, it will be very proper to observe in it, and to wear down +all impressions to the contrary made by the opposite side, that as our +situation will be deplorable if we should be defeated in our +expectations, so, on the other hand, the behavior of our opponent would +be insolent and haughty. + + +MATERIAL FOR THE INTRODUCTION + +Besides persons and causes, the exordium likewise is sometimes taken +from their adjuncts, that is, from things relating to the cause and +persons. To persons are applicable not only the pledges above mentioned, +but affinities, friendships, sometimes cities and whole countries are +also likely to suffer by the person's misfortunes. + +Theophrastus adds another kind of exordium, taken from the pleading of +the orator who speaks first. Such seems to be that of Demosthenes for +Ctesiphon, in which he requests the judges to please permit him to +reply as he thinks suitable rather than to follow the rules prescribed +by the accuser. + +As the confidence observable in some orators may easily pass for +arrogance, there are certain ways of behavior which, tho common, will +please, and therefore ought not to be neglected, to prevent their being +used by the opposing side: these are wishing, warding off suspicion, +supplicating, and making a show of trouble and anxiety. + +The judge's attention is secured by inducing him to believe that the +matter under debate is new, important, extraordinary, or of a heinous +nature, or that it equally interests him and the public. Then his mind +is to be roused and agitated by hope, fear, remonstrance, entreaty, and +even by flattery, if it is thought that will be of any use. Another way +of procuring attention may be to promise that we shall take up but +little of their time, as we shall confine ourselves to the subject. + +From what has been said, it appears that different causes require to be +governed by different rules; and five kinds of causes are generally +specified, which are said to be, either honest, base, doubtful, +extraordinary, or obscure. Some add shameful, as a sixth kind, which +others include in base or extraordinary. By extraordinary is understood +that which is contrary to the opinion of men. In a doubtful cause the +judge should be made favorable; in an obscure, docile; in a base, +attentive. An honest cause is sufficient of itself to procure favor. +Extraordinary and base causes lack remedies. + + +TWO TYPES OF INTRODUCTIONS + +Some, therefore, specify two kinds of exordiums, one a beginning, the +other an insinuation. In the first the judges are requested openly to +give their good will and attention; but as this can not take place in +the base kind of cause, the insinuation must steal in upon their minds, +especially when the cause does not seem to appear with a sufficiently +honest aspect, either because the thing itself is wicked, or is a +measure not approved by the public. There are many instances of causes +of unseemly appearance, as when general odium is incurred by opposing a +patriot; and a like hostility ensues from acting against a father, a +wretched old man, the blind, or the orphan. + +This may be a general rule for the purpose, "To touch but slightly on +the things that work against us, and to insist chiefly on those which +are for our advantage." If the cause can not be so well maintained, let +us have recourse to the goodness of the person, and if the person is not +condemnable, let us ground our support on the cause. If nothing occurs +to help us out, let us see what may hurt the opponent. For, since to +obtain more favor is a thing to be wished, so the next step to it is to +incur less hatred. + +In things that can not be denied, we must endeavor to show that they are +greatly short of what they are reported to be, or that they have been +done with a different intention, or that they do not in any wise belong +to the present question, or that repentance will make sufficient amends +for them, or that they have already received a proportionate punishment. +Herein, therefore, it will be better and more suitable for an advocate +to act than for the person himself; because when pleading for another he +can praise without the imputation of arrogance, and sometimes can even +reprove with advantage. + +Insinuation seems to be not less necessary when the opponent's action +has pre-possest the minds of the judges, or when they have been fatigued +by the tediousness of the pleading. The first may be got the better of +by promising substantial proofs on our side, and by refuting those of +the opponent. The second, by giving hopes of being brief, and by having +recourse to the means prescribed for making the judge attentive. In the +latter case, too, some seasonable pleasantry, or anything witty to +freshen the mind will have a good effect. It will not be amiss, +likewise, to remove any seeming obstruction. As Cicero says of himself, +he is not unaware that some will find it strange that he, who for so +many years had defended such a number of people, and had given no +offense to anyone, should undertake to accuse Verres. Afterward he shows +that if, on the one hand, he accuses Verres, still, on the other, he +defends the allies of the Roman people. + + +HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT BEGINNING + +The orator should consider what the subject is upon which he is to +speak, before whom, for whom, against whom, at what time, in what place, +under what conditions, what the public think of it, what the judges may +think of it before they hear him, and what he himself has to desire, and +what to apprehend. Whoever makes these reflections will know where he +should naturally begin. But now orators call exordium anything with +which they begin, and consider it of advantage to make the beginning +with some brilliant thought. Undoubtedly many things are taken into the +exordium which are drawn from other parts of the cause or at least are +common to them, but nothing in either respect is better said than that +which can not be said so well elsewhere. + + +THE VALUE OF NATURALNESS + +There are many very engaging things in an exordium which is framed from +the opponent's pleading, and this is because it does not seem to favor +of the closet, but is produced on the spot and comes from the very +thing. By its easy, natural turn, it enhances the reputation of genius. +Its air of simplicity, the judge not being on his guard against it, +begets belief, and tho the discourse in all other parts be elaborate and +written with great accuracy, it will for the most part seem an +extempore oration, the exordium evidently appearing to have nothing +premeditated. + +But nothing else will so well suit an exordium as modesty in the +countenance, voice, thoughts, and composition, so that even in an +uncontrovertible kind of cause, too great confidence ought not to +display itself. Security is always odious in a pleader, and a judge who +is sensible of his authority tacitly demands respect. + +An orator must likewise be exceedingly careful to keep himself from +being suspected, particularly in that regard; therefore, not the least +show of study should be made, because all his art will seem exerted +against the judge, and not to show this is the greatest perfection of +art. This rule has been recommended by all authors, and undoubtedly with +good reason, but sometimes is altered by circumstances, because in +certain causes the judges themselves require studied discourses, and +fancy themselves thought mean of unless accuracy appears in thought and +expression. It is of no significance to instruct them; they must be +pleased. It is indeed difficult to find a medium in this respect, but +the orator may so temper his manner as to speak with justness, and not +with too great a show of art. + + +THE NEED OF SIMPLICITY OF EXPRESSION + +Another rule inculcated by the ancients is not to admit into the +exordium any strange word, too bold a metaphor, an obsolete expression, +or a poetical turn. As yet we are not favorably received by the +auditors, their attention is not entirely held, but when once they +conceive an esteem and are warmly inclined toward us, then is the time +to hazard this liberty, especially when we enter upon parts the natural +fertility of which does not allow the liberty of expression to be +noticed amidst the luster spread about it. + +The style of the exordium ought not to be like that of the argument +proper and the narration, neither ought it to be finely spun out, or +harmonized into periodical cadences, but, rather, it should be simple +and natural, promising neither too much by words nor countenance. A +modest action, also, devoid of the least suspicion of ostentation, will +better insinuate itself into the mind of the auditor. But these ought to +be regulated according to the sentiments we would have the judges imbibe +from us. + +It must be remembered, however, that nowhere is less allowance made than +here for failing in memory or appearing destitute of the power of +articulating many words together. An ill-pronounced exordium may well +be compared to a visage full of scars, and certainly he must be a bad +pilot who puts his ship in danger of sinking, as he is going out of +port. + +In regard to the length of the exordium, it ought to be proportionate to +the nature of the cause. Simple causes admit of a shorter exordium; the +complex, doubtful, and odious, require a longer exordium. Some writers +have prescribed four points as laws for all exordiums,--which is +ridiculous. An immoderate length should be equally avoided, lest it +appear, as some monsters, bigger in the head than in the rest of the +body, and create disgust where it ought only to prepare. + + +"TYING UP" THE INTRODUCTION + +As often as we use an exordium, whether we pass next to the narration, +or immediately to the proofs, we ought always to preserve a connection +between what follows and what goes before. To proceed from one part to +another, by some ingenious thought which disguises the transition, and +to seek applause from such a studied exertion of wit, is quite of a +piece with the cold and childish affectation of our declaimers. If a +long and intricate narration must follow, the judge ought naturally to +be prepared for it. This Cicero often does, as in this passage: "I must +proceed pretty high to clear up this matter to you, which I hope, +gentlemen, you will not be displeased at, because its origin being known +will make you thoroughly acquainted with the particulars proceeding from +it." + + + + +THE NARRATION + + +There are causes so short as to require rather to be proposed than told. +It is sometimes the case with two contending sides, either that they +have no exposition to make, or that agreeing on the fact, they contest +only the right. Sometimes one of the contending parties, most commonly +the plaintiff, need only propose the matter, as most to his advantage, +and then it will be enough for him to say: "I ask for a certain sum of +money due to me according to agreement; I ask for what was bequeathed to +me by will." It is the defendant's business to show that he has no right +to such a debt or legacy. On other occasions it is enough, and more +advisable, for the plaintiff to point out merely the fact: "I say that +Horatius killed his sister." This simple proposition makes known the +whole crime, but the details and the cause of the fact will suit better +the defendant. Let it be supposed, on the other hand, that the fact can +not be denied or excused; then the defendant, instead of narrating, will +best abide by the question of right. Some one is accused of sacrilege +for stealing the money of a private person out of a temple. The pleader +of the cause had better confess the fact than give an account of it. "We +do not deny that this money was taken out of the temple. It was the +money of a private person, and not set apart for any religious use. But +the plaintiff calumniates us by an action for sacrilege. It is, +therefore, your business, gentlemen, to decide whether it can properly +be specified as sacrilege." + + +THE TWO KINDS OF NARRATION + +There are two kinds of narration in judicial matters, the one for the +cause, the other for things belonging to it. "I have not killed that +man." This needs no narration. I admit it does not; but there may be a +narration, and even somewhat long, concerning the probable causes of +innocence in the accused, as his former integrity of life, the +opponent's motives for endangering the life of a guiltless person, and +other circumstances arguing the incredibility of the accusation. The +accuser does not merely say, "You have committed that murder," but shows +reasons to evince its credibility; as, in tragedies, when Teucer imputes +the death of Ajax to Ulysses, he says that "He was found in a lonely +place, near the dead body of his enemy, with his sword all bloody." +Ulysses, in answer, not only denies the crime, but protests there was +no enmity between him and Ajax, and that they never contended but for +glory. Then he relates how he came into that solitary place, how he +found Ajax dead, and that it was Ajax's own sword he drew out of his +wound. To these are subjoined proofs, but the proofs, too, are not +without narration, the plaintiff alleging, "You were in the place where +your enemy was found killed." "I was not," says the defendant, and he +tells where he was. + + +HOW TO MAKE THE CONCLUSION + +The end of the narration is rather more for persuading than informing. +When, therefore, the judges might not require information, yet, if we +consider it advisable to draw them over to our way of thinking, we may +relate the matter with certain precautions, as, that tho they have +knowledge of the affair in general, still would it not be amiss if they +chose to examine into every particular fact as it happened. Sometimes we +may diversify the exposition with a variety of figures and turns; as, +"You remember"; "Perhaps it would be unnecessary to insist any longer on +this point"; "But why should I speak further when you are so well +acquainted with the matter." + +A subject of frequent discussion is to know whether the narration ought +immediately to follow the exordium. They who think it should, seem to +have some reason on their side, for as the design of the exordium is to +dispose the judges to hear us with all the good will, docility, and +attention, we wish, and as arguments can have no effect without previous +knowledge of the cause, it follows naturally that they should have this +knowledge as soon as it can conveniently be given to them. + + +PURPOSES OF THE NARRATION + +If the narration be entirely for us, we may content ourselves with those +three parts, whereby the judge is made the more easily to understand, +remember, and believe. But let none think of finding fault if I require +the narration which is entirely for us, to be probable tho true, for +many things are true but scarcely credible, as, on the contrary, many +things are false tho frequently probable. We ought, therefore, to be +careful that the judge should believe as much what we pretend as the +truth we say, by preserving in both a probability to be credited. + +Those three qualities of the narration belong in like manner to all +other parts of the discourse, for obscurity must be avoided throughout, +and we must everywhere keep within certain bounds, and all that is said +must be probable; but a strict observance of these particulars ought to +be kept more especially in that part wherein the judge receives his +first information, for if there it should happen that he either does not +understand, remember, or believe, our labor in all other parts will be +to no purpose. + + +THE QUALITIES NEEDED FOR SUCCESS + +The narration will be clear and intelligible if, first, it be exprest in +proper and significant words, which have nothing mean and low, nothing +far-fetched, and nothing uncommon. Second, if it distinguishes exactly +things, persons, times, places, causes; all of which should be +accompanied with a suitable delivery, that the judge may retain the more +easily what is said. + +This is a quality neglected by most of our orators, who, charmed by the +applause of a rabble brought together by chance, or even bribed to +applaud with admiration every word and period, can neither endure the +attentive silence of a judicious audience, nor seem to themselves to be +eloquent unless they make everything ring about them with tumultuous +clamor. To explain simply the fact, appears to them too low, and common, +and too much within the reach of the illiterate, but I fancy that what +they despise as easy is not so much because of inclination as because of +inability to effect it. For the more experience we have, the more we +find that nothing else is so difficult as to speak in such a manner that +all who have heard us may think they could acquit themselves equally as +well. The reason for the contrary notion is that what is so said is +considered as merely true and not as fine and beautiful. But will not +the orator express himself in the most perfect manner, when he seems to +speak truth? Now, indeed, the narration is laid out as a champion-ground +for eloquence to display itself in; the voice, the gesture, the +thoughts, the expression, are all worked up to a pitch of extravagance, +and what is monstrous, the action is applauded, and yet the cause is far +from being understood. But we shall forego further reflections on this +misguided notion, lest we offend more by reproving faults, than gratify +by giving advice. + +The narration will have its due brevity if we begin by explaining the +affair from the point where it is of concern to the judge; next, if we +say nothing foreign to the cause; and last, if we avoid all +superfluities, yet without curtailing anything that may give insight +into the cause or be to its advantage. There is a certain brevity of +parts, however, which makes a long whole: "I came to the harbor, I saw a +ship ready for sailing, I asked the price for passengers, I agreed as to +what I should give, I went aboard, we weighed anchor, we cleared the +coast, and sailed on briskly." None of these circumstances could be +exprest in fewer words, but it is sufficient to say, "I sailed from the +port." And as often as the end of a thing sufficiently denotes what went +before, we may rest satisfied with it as facilitating the understanding +of all other circumstances. + +But often when striving to be short, we become obscure, a fault equally +to be avoided, therefore it is better that the narration should have a +little too much, than that it should lack enough. What is redundant, +disgusts; what is necessary is cut down with danger. I would not have +this rule restricted to what is barely sufficient for pronouncing +judgment on, because the narration may be concise, yet not, on that +account, be without ornament. In such cases it would appear as coming +from an illiterate person. Pleasure, indeed, has a secret charm; and the +things which please seem less tedious. A pleasant and smooth road, tho +it be longer, fatigues less than a rugged and disagreeable short cut. I +am not so fond of conciseness as not to make room for brightening a +narration with proper embellishments. If quite homely and curtailed on +all sides, it will be not so much a narration as a poor huddling up of +things together. + + +GETTING YOUR STATEMENTS ACCEPTED + +The best way to make the narration probable is to first consult with +ourselves on whatever is agreeable to nature, that nothing may be said +contrary to it; next, to find causes and reasons for facts, not for all, +but for those belonging to the question; and last, to have characters +answerable to the alleged facts which we would have believed; as, if one +were guilty of theft, we should represent him as a miser; of adultery, +as addicted to impure lusts; of manslaughter, as hot and rash. The +contrary takes place in defense, and the facts must agree with time, +place, and the like. + +Sometimes a cause may be prepared by a proposition, and afterward +narrated. All circumstances are unfavorable to three sons who have +conspired against their father's life. They cast lots who shall strike +the blow. He on whom the lot falls, enters his father's bed-chamber at +night, with a poniard, but has not courage to put the design into +execution. The second and the third do the same. The father wakes. All +confess their wicked purpose, and by virtue of a law made and provided +for such case, they are to be disinherited. But should the father, who +has already made a partition of his estate in their favor, plead their +cause, he may proceed thus: "Children are accused of parricide, whose +father is still alive, and they are sued in consequence of a law that is +not properly applicable to their case. I need not here give an account +of a transaction that is foreign to the point of law in question. But if +you require a confession of my guilt, I have been a hard father to them, +and rather too much occupied in hoarding up the income of my estate, +which would have been better spent in necessaries for them." Afterward +he may say that they did not form this plan by themselves, that they +were instigated to it by others who had more indulgent parents, that the +result clearly showed they were not capable of so unnatural an action, +that there was no necessity for binding themselves by oath if in reality +they could have had such an inclination, nor of casting lots if each did +not want to avoid the perpetration of such a crime. All these +circumstances, such as they are, will be favorably received, softened in +some measure by the short defense of the previous propositions. + + +THE ORDER OF THE NARRATION + +I am not of the opinion of those who think that the facts ought always +to be related in the same order in which they happened. That manner of +narration is best which is of most advantage to the cause, and it may, +not improperly, call in the aid of a diversity of figures. Sometimes we +may pretend that a thing has been overlooked, so that it may be better +exprest elsewhere than it would be in its own order and place; assuring +the judges at the same time that we shall resume the proper order, but +that the cause in this way will be better understood. Sometimes, after +explaining the whole affair, we may subjoin the antecedent causes. And +thus it is that the art of defense, not circumscribed by any one +invariable rule, must be adapted to the nature and circumstances of the +cause. + +It will not be amiss to intimate that nothing enhances so much the +credibility of a narration as the authority of him who makes it, and +this authority it is our duty to acquire, above all, by an +irreproachable life, and next, by the manner of enforcing it. The more +grave and serious it is, the more weight it will have. Here all +suspicion of cunning and artifice should, therefore, be particularly +avoided, for the judges, ever distrustful, are here principally on their +guard, and, likewise, nothing should seem a pure fiction, or the work of +study, which all might rather be believed to proceed from the cause than +the orator. But this we can not endure, and we think our art lost unless +it is seen; whereas it ceases to be art if it is seen. + + + + +DIVISION AND ARGUMENT + + +Some are of the opinion that division should always be used, as by it +the cause will be more clear and the judge more attentive and more +easily taught when he knows of what we speak to him and of what we +intend afterward to speak. Others think this is attended with danger to +the orator, either by his sometimes forgetting what he has promised, or +by something else occurring to the judge or auditor, which he did not +think of in the division. I can not well imagine how this may happen, +unless with one who is either destitute of sense or rash enough to plead +without preparation. In any other respect, nothing else can set a +subject in so clear a light as just division. It is a means to which we +are directed by the guidance of nature, because keeping in sight the +heads on which we propose to speak, is the greatest help the memory can +have. + + +THE MISTAKE OF TOO MANY DIVISIONS + +But if division should seem requisite, I am not inclined to assent to +the notion of those who would have it extend to more than three parts. +Indeed, when the parts are too many, they escape the judge's memory and +distract his attention; but a cause is not scrupulously to be tied down +to this number, as it may require more. + + +DISADVANTAGES OF DIVISIONS + +There are reasons for not always using division, the principal reason +being that most things are better received when seemingly of extempore +invention and not suggestive of study, but arising in the pleading from +the nature of the thing itself. Whence such figures are not unpleasing +as, "I had almost forgotten to say"; "It escaped my memory to acquaint +you"; and "You have given me a good hint." For if the proofs should be +proposed without something of a reputation of this kind, they would +lose, in the sequel, all the graces of novelty. + +The distinguishing of questions, and the discussing of them, should be +equally avoided. But the listeners' passions ought to be excited, and +their attention diverted from its former bias, for it is the orator's +business not so much to instruct as to enforce his eloquence by emotion, +to which nothing can be more contrary than minute and scrupulously exact +division of a discourse into parts. + + +WHEN THE DIVISION IS DESIRABLE + +If many things are to be avoided or refuted, the division will be both +useful and pleasing, causing everything to appear in the order in which +it is to be said. But if we defend a single crime by various ways, +division will be superfluous, as, "I shall make it clear that the person +I defend is not such as to make it seem probable that he could be guilty +of murder; it shall also be shown that he had no motives to induce him +to do it; and lastly, that he was across the sea when this murder took +place." Whatever is cited and argued before the third point must seem +quite unnecessary, for the judge is in haste to have you come to that +which is of most consequence, and the patient, will tacitly call upon +you to acquit yourself of your promise, or, if he has much business to +dispatch, or his dignity puts him above your trifling, or he is of a +peevish humor, he will oblige you to speak to the purpose, and perhaps +do so in disrespectful terms. + + +PITFALLS IN ARGUMENT + +Many doubt the desirability of this kind of defense: "If I had killed +him, I should have done well; but I did not kill him." Where is the +occasion, say they, for the first proposition if the second be true? +They run counter to each other, and whoever advances both, will be +credited in neither. This is partly true, for if the last proposition be +unquestionable, it is the only one that should be used. But if we are +apprehensive of anything in the stronger, we may use both. On these +occasions persons seem to be differently affected; one will believe the +fact, and exculpate the right; another will condemn the right, and +perhaps not credit the fact. So, one dart may be enough for an unerring +hand to hit the mark, but chance and many darts must effect the same +result for an uncertain aim. Cicero clears up this matter in his defense +of Milo. He first shows Clodius to be the aggressor, and then, by a +superabundance of right, adds that tho he might not be the aggressor, it +was brave and glorious in Milo to have delivered Rome of so bad a +citizen. + +Tho division may not always be necessary, yet when properly used it +gives great light and beauty to a discourse. This it effects not only by +adding more perspicuity to what is said, but also by refreshing the +minds of the hearers by a view of each part circumscribed within its +bounds; just so milestones ease in some measure the fatigue of +travelers, it being a pleasure to know the extent of the labor they have +undergone, and to know what remains encourages them to persevere, as a +thing does not necessarily seem long when there is a certainty of coming +to the end. + + +ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ARGUMENT + +Every division, therefore, when it may be employed to advantage, ought +to be first clear and intelligible, for what is worse than being obscure +in a thing, the use of which is to guard against obscurity in other +things? Second, it ought to be short, and not encumbered with any +superfluous word, because we do not enter upon the subject matter, but +only point it out. + +If proofs be strong and cogent, they should be proposed and insisted on +separately; if weak, it will be best to collect them into a body. In the +first case, being persuasive by themselves, it would be improper to +obscure them by the confusion of others: they should appear in their +due light. In the second case, being naturally weak, they should be made +to support each other. If, therefore, they are not greatly effective in +point of quality, they may be in that of number, all of them having a +tendency to prove the same thing; as, if one were accused of killing +another for the sake of inheriting his fortune: "You did expect an +inheritance, and it was something very considerable; you were poor, and +your creditors troubled you more than ever; you also offended him who +had appointed you his heir, and you know that he intended to alter his +will." These proofs taken separately are of little moment, and common; +but collectively their shock is felt, not as a peal of thunder, but as a +shower of hail. + +The judge's memory, however, is not always to be loaded with the +arguments we may invent. They will create disgust, and beget distrust +in him, as he can not think such arguments to be powerful enough which +we ourselves do not think sufficient. But to go on arguing and proving, +in the case of self-evident things, would be a piece of folly not unlike +that of bringing a candle to light us when the sun is in its greatest +splendor. + +To these some add proofs which they call moral, drawn from the milder +passions; and the most powerful, in the opinion of Aristotle, are such +as arise from the person of him who speaks, if he be a man of real +integrity. This is a primary consideration; and a secondary one, remote, +indeed, yet following, will be the probable notion entertained of his +irreproachable life. + + +THE BEST ORDER OF THE ARGUMENT + +It has been a matter of debate, also, whether the strongest proofs +should have place in the beginning, to make an immediate impression on +the hearers, or at the end, to make the impression lasting with them, or +to distribute them, partly in the beginning and partly at the end, +placing the weaker in the middle, or to begin with the weakest and +proceed to the strongest. For my part I think this should depend on the +nature and exigencies of the cause, yet with this reservation, that the +discourse might not dwindle from the powerful into what is nugatory and +frivolous. + +Let the young orator, for whose instruction I make these remarks, +accustom himself as much as possible to copy nature and truth. As in +schools he often engages in sham battles, in imitation of the contests +of the bar, let him even then have an eye to victory, and learn to +strike home, dealing moral blows and putting himself on his defense as +if really in earnest. It is the master's business to require this duty, +and to commend it according as it is well executed. For if they love +praise to the degree of seeking it in their faults, which does them much +harm, they will desire it more passionately when they know it to be the +reward of real merit. The misfortune now is that they commonly pass over +necessary things in silence, considering what is for the good of the +cause as of little or no account if it be not conducive to the +embellishment of the discourse. + + + + +THE PERORATION + + +The peroration, called by some the completion, by others the conclusion, +of a discourse, is of two kinds, and regards either the matters discust +in it or the moving of the passions. + +The repetition of the matter and the collecting it together, which is +called by the Greeks recapitulation, and by some of the Latins +enumeration, serves for refreshing the judge's memory, for placing the +whole cause in one direct point of view, and for enforcing in a body +many proofs which, separately, made less impression. It would seem that +this repetition ought to be very short, and the Greek term sufficiently +denotes that we ought to run over only the principal heads, for if we +are long in doing it, it will not be an enumeration that we make, but, +as it were, a second discourse. The points which may seem to require +this enumeration, however, ought to be pronounced with some emphasis, +and enlivened with opposite thoughts, and diversified by figures, +otherwise nothing will be more disagreeable than a mere cursory +repetition, which would seem to show distrust of the judge's memory. + + +RULES FOR THE PERORATION + +This seems to be the only kind of peroration allowed by most of the +Athenians and by almost all the philosophers who left anything written +on the art of oratory. The Athenians, I suppose, were of that opinion +because it was customary at Athens to silence, by the public crier, any +orator who should attempt to move the passions. I am less surprized at +this opinion among philosophers, every perturbation of the mind being +considered by them as vicious; nor did it seem to them compatible with +sound morality to divert the judge from truth, nor agreeable to the idea +of an honest man to have recourse to any sinister stratagem. Yet moving +the passions will be acknowledged necessary when truth and justice can +not be otherwise obtained and when public good is concerned in the +decision. All agree that recapitulation may also be employed to +advantage in other parts of the pleading, if the cause is complicated +and requires many arguments to defend it, and, on the other hand, it +will admit of no doubt that many causes are so short and simple as to +have no occasion in any part of them for recapitulation. The above rules +for the peroration apply equally to the accuser and to the defendant's +advocate. + +They, likewise, use nearly the same passions, but the accuser more +seldom and more sparingly, and the defendant oftener and with greater +emotions; for it is the business of the former to stir up aversion, +indignation, and other similar passions in the minds of the judges, and +of the latter to bend their hearts to compassion. Yet the accuser is +sometimes not without tears, in deploring the distress of those in whose +behalf he sues for satisfaction, and the defendant sometimes complains +with great vehemence of the persecution raised against him by the +calumnies and conspiracy of his enemies. It would be best, therefore, to +distinguish and discuss separately the different passions excited on the +parts of the plaintiff and defendant, which are most commonly, as I +have said, very like what takes place in the exordium, but are treated +in a freer and fuller manner in the peroration. + + +PURPOSES OF THE PERORATION + +The favor of the judges toward us is more sparingly sued for in the +beginning, it being then sufficient to gain their attention, as the +whole discourse remains in which to make further impressions. But in the +peroration we must strive to bring the judge into that disposition of +the mind which it is necessary for us that he should retain when he +comes to pass judgment. The peroration being finished, we can say no +more, nor can anything be reserved for another place. Both of the +contending sides, therefore, try to conciliate the judge, to make him +unfavorable to the opponent, to rouse and occasionally allay his +passions; and both may find their method of procedure in this short +rule, which is, to keep in view the whole stress of the cause, and +finding what it contains that is favorable, odious, or deplorable, in +reality or in probability, to say those things which would make the +greatest impression on themselves if they sat as judges. + +I have already mentioned in the rules for the exordium how the accuser +might conciliate the judges. Yet some things, which it was enough to +point out there, should be wrought to a fulness in the peroration, +especially if the pleading be against some one universally hated, and a +common disturber, and if the condemnation of the culprit should redound +as much to the honor of the judges as his acquittal to their shame. Thus +Calvus spoke admirably against Vatinius: + +"You know, good sirs, that Vatinius is guilty, and no one is unaware +that you know it." Cicero, in the same way, informs the judges that if +anything is capable of reestablishing the reputation of their judgment, +it must be the condemnation of Verres. If it be proper to intimidate the +judges, as Cicero likewise does, against Verres, this is done with +better effect in the peroration than in the exordium. I have already +explained my sentiments on this point. + + +HOW TO AROUSE EMOTIONS + +In short, when it is requisite to excite envy, hatred, or indignation +there is greater scope for doing this to advantage in the peroration +than elsewhere. The interest in the accused may naturally excite the +judge's envy, the infamy of his crimes may draw upon him his hatred, +the little respect he shows him may rouse his indignation. If he is +stubborn, haughty, presumptuous, let him be painted in all the glaring +colors that aggravate such vicious temper, and these manifested not only +from his words and deeds, but from face, manner, and dress. I remember, +on my first coming to the bar, a shrewd remark of the accuser of +Cossutianus Capito. He pleaded in Greek before the Emperor, but the +meaning of his words was: "Might it not be said that this man disdains +even to respect Cæsar." + +The accuser has recourse frequently to the arousing of compassion, +either by setting forth the distrest state of him for whom he hopes to +find redress, or by describing the desolation and ruin into which his +children and relations are likely thereby to be involved. He may, too, +move the judges by holding out to them a prospect of what may happen +hereafter if injuries and violence remain unpunished, the consequence of +which will be that either his client must abandon his dwelling and the +care of his effects, or must resolve to endure patiently all the +injustice his enemy may try to do him. + +The accuser more frequently will endeavor to caution the judge against +the pity with which the defendant intends to inspire him, and he will +stimulate him, in as great a degree as he can, to judge according to his +conscience. Here, too, will be the place to anticipate whatever it is +thought the opponent may do or say, for it makes the judges more +circumspect regarding the sacredness of their oath, and by it the answer +to the pleading may lose the indulgence which it is expected to receive, +together with the charm of novelty in all the particulars which the +accuser has already cleared up. The judges, besides, may be informed of +the answer they should make to those who might threaten to have their +sentence reversed; and this is another kind of recapitulation. + +The persons concerned are very proper objects for affecting the mind of +the judge, for the judge does not seem to himself to hear so much the +orator weeping over others' misfortunes, as he imagines his ears are +smitten with the feelings and voice of the distrest. Even their dumb +appearance might be a sufficiently moving language to draw tears, and as +their wretchedness would appear in lively colors if they were to speak +it themselves, so proportionately it must be thought to have a powerful +effect when exprest, as it were, from their own mouths. Just so, in +theatrical representations, the same voice, and the same emphatic +pronunciation, become very interesting under the masks used for +personating different characters. With a like view Cicero, tho he gives +not the voice of a suppliant to Milo, but, on the contrary, commends his +unshaken constancy, yet does he adapt to him words and complaints not +unworthy of a man of spirit: "O my labors, to no purpose undertaken! +Deceiving hopes! Useless projects!" + +This exciting of pity, however, should never be long, it being said, not +without reason, that "nothing dries up so soon as tears." If time can +mitigate the pangs of real grief, of course the counterfeit grief +assumed in speaking must sooner vanish; so that if we dally, the auditor +finding himself overcharged with mournful thoughts, tries to resume his +tranquility, and thus ridding himself of the emotion that overpowered +him, soon returns to the exercise of cool reason. We must, therefore, +never allow this kind of emotion to become languid, but when we have +wound up the passions to their greatest height, we must instantly drop +the subject, and not expect that any one will long bewail another's +mishap. Therefore, as in other parts, the discourse should be well +supported, and rather rise, so here particularly it should grow to its +full vigor, because that which makes no addition to what has already +been said seems to diminish it, and a passion soon evaporates that once +begins to subside. + +Tears are excited not only by words but by doing certain things, whence +it is not unusual to present the very persons who are in danger of +condemnation, in a garb suitable to their distress, together with their +children and relations. Accusers, too, make it a custom to show a bloody +sword, fractured bones picked out of wounds, and garments drenched in +blood. Sometime, likewise, they unbind wounds to show their condition, +and strip bodies naked to show the stripes they have received. These +acts are commonly of mighty efficacy, as fully revealing the reality of +the occurrence. Thus it was that Cæsar's robe, bloody all over, exposed +in the Forum, drove the people of Rome into an excess of madness. It was +well known that he was assassinated; his body also lay in state, until +his funeral should take place; yet that garment, still dripping with +blood, formed so graphic a picture of the horrible murder that it seemed +to them to have been perpetrated that very instant. + +It will not be amiss to hint that the success of the peroration depends +much on the manner of the parties in conforming themselves to the +emotions and action of their advocates. Stupidity, rusticity, and a want +of sensibility and attention, as it is said, throw cold water on a cause +against which the orator can not be too well provided. I have, indeed, +often seen them act quite contrary to their advocate's instructions. Not +the least show of concern could be observed in their countenance. They +laughed foolishly and without reason, and made others laugh by some +ridiculous gesticulation or grimace, especially when the heat of a +debate exhibited anything akin to theatrical action. + +An orator of slender ability will acquit himself better if he allows the +judges by themselves to feel the compassion with which his subject may +naturally inspire them, especially since the appearance, and voice, and +studied air of the advocate's countenance are often ridiculed by such as +are not affected by them. Let the orator make an exact estimate of his +powers, therefore, and be conscious of the burden he undertakes. Here +there is no middle state; he must either make his hearers weep, or +expect to be laughed at. + +It should not be imagined, as some have thought, that all exciting of +the passions, all sentimental emotions, ought to be confined to the +exordium and peroration. In them they are most frequent, yet other parts +admit them likewise, but in a shorter compass, as their greatest stress +should be reserved for the end. For here, if anywhere, the orator may be +allowed to open all the streams of eloquence. If we have executed all +other parts to advantage, here we take possession of the minds of the +judges, and having escaped all rocks, may expand all our sails for a +favorable gale; and as amplification makes a great part of the +peroration, we then may raise and embellish our style with the choicest +expressions and brightest thoughts. And, indeed, the conclusion of a +speech should bear some resemblance to that of tragedy and comedy, +wherein the actor courts the spectator's applause. In other parts the +passions may be touched upon, as they naturally rise out of the subject, +and no horrible or sorrowful thing should be set forth without +accompanying it with a suitable sentiment. When the debate may be on the +quality of a thing, it is properly subjoined to the proofs of each thing +brought out. When we plead a cause complicated with a variety of +circumstances, then it will be necessary to use many perorations, as it +were; as Cicero does against Verres, lending his tears occasionally to +Philodamus, to the masters of ships, to the crucified Roman citizens, +and to many others. + + + + +PASSION AND PERSUASION + + +It may well be imagined that nothing else is so important in the whole +art of oratory as the proper use of the passions. A slender genius, +aided by learning or experience, may be sufficient to manage certain +parts to some advantage, yet I think they are fit only for instructing +the judges, and as masters and models for those who take no concern +beyond passing for good speakers. But to possess the secret of forcibly +carrying away the judges, of moving them, as we please, to a certain +disposition of mind, of inflaming them with anger, of softening them to +pity, so as to draw tears from them, all this is rare, tho by it the +orator is made most distinguished and by it eloquence gains empire over +hearts. The cause itself is naturally productive of arguments, and the +better share generally falls to the lot of the more rightful side of the +question, so that whichever side wins by dint of argument, may think +that so far they did not lack an advocate. But when violence is to be +used to influence the minds of the judges, when they are to be turned +from coolly reflecting on the truth that works against us, then comes +the true exercise of the orator's powers; and this is what the +contending parties can not inform us of, nor is it contained in the +state of their cases. Proofs, it is true, make the judges presume that +our cause is the better, but passion makes them wish it to be such, and +as they wish it, they are not far from believing it to be so. For as +soon as they begin to absorb from us our passions of anger, favor, +hatred, or pity, they make the affair their own. As lovers can not be +competent judges of beauty, because love blinds them, so here a judge +attentive to the tumultuous working of a passion, loses sight of the way +by which he should proceed to inquire after the truth. The impetuous +torrent sweeps him away, and he is borne down in the current. The effect +of arguments and witnesses is not known until judgment has been passed, +but the judge who has been affected by the orator, still sitting and +hearing, declares his real sentiments. Has not he who is seen to melt +into tears, already pronounced sentence? Such, then, is the power of +moving the passions, to which the orator ought to direct all his +efforts, this being his principal work and labor, since without it all +other resources are naked, hungry, weak, and unpleasing. The passions +are the very life and soul of persuasion. + + +QUALITIES NEEDED IN THE ORATOR + +What we require in the orator is, in general, a character of goodness, +not only mild and pleasing, but humane, insinuating, amiable, and +charming to the hearer; and its greatest perfection will be if all, as +influenced by it, shall seem to flow from the nature of things and +persons, that so the morals of the orator may shine forth from his +discourse and be known in their genuine colors. This character of +goodness should invariably be maintained by those whom a mutual tie +ought to bind in strict union, whenever it may happen that they suffer +anything from each other, or pardon, or make satisfaction, or admonish, +or reprimand, but far from betraying any real anger or hatred. + +A sentiment very powerful for exciting hatred may arise when an act of +submission to our opponents is understood as a silent reproach of their +insolence. Our willingness to yield must indeed show them to be +insupportable and troublesome, and it commonly happens that they who +have desire for railing, and are too free and hot in their invectives, +do not imagine that the jealousy they create is of far greater prejudice +to them than the malice of their speech. + +All this presupposes that the orator himself ought to be a good and +humane man. The virtues which he commends, if he possibly can, in his +client, he should possess, or be supposed to possess, himself. In this +way will he be of singular advantage to the cause he undertakes, the +good opinion he has created of himself being a prejudice in its favor. +For if while he speaks he appears to be a bad man, he must in +consequence plead ill, because what he says will be thought repugnant to +justice. The style and manner suitable on these occasions ought, +therefore, to be sweet and insinuating, never hot and imperious, never +hazarded in too elevated a strain. It will be sufficient to speak in a +proper, pleasing, and probable way. + +The orator's business in regard to the passions should be not only to +paint atrocious and lamentable things as they are, but even to make +those seem grievous which are considered tolerable, as when we say that +an injurious word is less pardonable than a blow, and that death is +preferable to dishonor. For the powers of eloquence do not consist so +much in forcing the judge into sentiments which the nature of the matter +itself may be sufficient to inspire him with, as they do in producing +and creating, as it were, the same sentiments when the subject may seem +not to admit them. This is the vehemence of oratorical ability which +knows how to equal and even to surpass the enormity and indignity of the +facts it exposes, a quality of singular consequence to the orator, and +one in which Demosthenes excelled all others. + + +THE SECRET OF MOVING THE PASSIONS + +The great secret for moving the passions is to be moved ourselves, for +the imitation of grief, anger, indignation, will often be ridiculous if +conforming to only our words and countenance, while our heart at the +same time is estranged from them. What other reason makes the afflicted +exclaim in so eloquent a manner during the first transports of their +grief? And how, otherwise, do the most ignorant speak eloquently in +anger, unless it be from this force and these mental feelings? + +In such passions, therefore, which we would represent as true copies of +real ones, let us be ourselves like those who unfeignedly suffer, and +let our speech proceed from such a disposition of mind as that in which +we would have the judge be. Will he grieve who hears me speak with an +expressionless face and air of indifference? Will he be angry when I, +who am to excite him to anger, remain cool and sedate? Will he shed +tears when I plead unconcerned? All this is attempting impossibilities. +Nothing warms nor moistens but that which is endued with the quality of +heat or moisture, nor does anything give to another a color it has not +itself. The principal consideration, then, must be that we, ourselves, +retain the impression of which we would have the judges susceptible, and +be ourselves affected before we endeavor to affect others. + + +THE POWER OF MENTAL IMAGERY + +But how shall we be affected, the emotions or passions being not at our +command? This may be done by what we may call visions, whereby the +images of things absent are so represented to the mind that we seem to +see them with our eyes and have them present before us. Whoever can work +up his imagination to an intuitive view of this kind, will be very +successful in moving the passions. + +If I deplore the fate of a man who has been assassinated, may I not +paint in my mind a lively picture of all that probably happened on the +occasion? Shall not the assassin appear to rush forth suddenly from his +lurking place? Shall not the other appear seized with horror? Shall he +not cry out, beg for his life, or fly to save it? Shall I not see the +assassin dealing the deadly blow, and the defenseless wretch falling +dead at his feet? Shall I not picture vividly in my mind the blood +gushing from his wounds, his ghastly face, his groans, and the last gasp +he fetches? + +When there is occasion for moving to compassion, we should believe and, +indeed, be persuaded that the distress and misfortunes of which we speak +have happened to ourselves. Let us place ourselves in the very position +of those for whom we feel sorrow on account of their having suffered +such grievous and unmerited treatment. Let us plead their cause, not as +if it were another's, but taking to ourselves, for a short time, their +whole grief. In this way we shall speak as if the case were our own. I +have seen comedians who, when they have just appeared in a mournful +character, often make their exit with tears in their eyes. If, then, the +expression given to imaginary passions can affect so powerfully, what +should not orators do, whose inner feelings ought to sympathize with +their manner of speaking, which can not happen unless they are truly +affected by the danger to which their clients are exposed. + + +RULES FOR PRACTISE + +In the declamatory exercises of schools it would be expedient, likewise, +to move the passions and imagine the scene as a real one in life, and +it is the more important as there the part is performed rather of a +pleader against some person, than an advocate for some person. We +represent a person who has lost his children, or has been shipwrecked, +or is in danger of losing his life, but of what significance is it to +personate such characters, unless we also assume their real sentiments. +This nature, and these properties of the passions, I thought it +incumbent on me not to conceal from the reader, for I, myself, such as I +am, or have been (for I flatter myself that I have acquired some +reputation at the bar), have often been so affected that not only tears, +but even paleness, and grief, not unlike that which is real, have +betrayed my emotions. + + + + +THE STUDY OF WORDS + + +What now follows requires special labor and care, the purpose being to +treat of elocution, which in the opinion of all orators is the most +difficult part of our work, for M. Antonius says that he has seen many +good speakers, but none eloquent. He thinks it good enough for a speaker +to say whatever is necessary on a subject, but only the most eloquent +may discuss it with grace and elegance. If down to the time he lived in, +this perfection was not discoverable in any orator, and neither in +himself nor in L. Crassus, it is certain that it was lacking in them and +their predecessors only on account of its extreme difficulty. Cicero +says that invention and disposition show the man of sense, but eloquence +the orator. He therefore took particular pains about the rules for this +part, and that he had reason for so doing the very name of eloquence +sufficiently declares. For to be eloquent is nothing else than to be +able to set forth all the lively images you have conceived in your mind, +and to convey them to the hearers in the same rich coloring, without +which all the principles we have laid down are useless, and are like a +sword concealed and kept sheathed in its scabbard. + +This, then, is what we are principally to learn; this is what we can not +attain without the help of art; this ought to be the object of our +study, our exercise, our imitation; this may be full employment for our +whole life; by this, one orator excels another; and from this proceeds +diversity of style. + + +THE PROPER VALUE OF WORDS + +It should not be inferred from what is said here that all our care must +be about words. On the contrary, to such as would abuse this concession +of mine, I declare positively my disapprobation of those persons who, +neglecting things, the nerves of causes, consume themselves in a +frivolous study about words. This they do for the sake of elegance, +which indeed is a fine quality when natural but not when affected. Sound +bodies, with a healthy condition of blood, and strong by exercise, +receive their beauty from the very things from which they receive their +strength. They are fresh-colored, active, and supple, neither too much +nor too little in flesh. Paint and polish them with feminine cosmetics, +and admiration ceases; the very pains taken to make them appear more +beautiful add to the dislike we conceive for them. Yet a magnificent, +and suitable, dress adds authority to man; but an effeminate dress, the +garb of luxury and softness, lays open the corruption of the heart +without adding to the ornament of the body. In like manner, translucent +and flashy elocution weakens the things it clothes. I would, therefore, +recommend care about words, but solicitude about things. + +The choicest expressions are for the most part inherent in things, and +are seen in their own light, but we search after them as if always +hiding and stealing themselves away from us. Thus we never think that +what ought to be said is at hand; we fetch it from afar, and force our +invention. Eloquence requires a more manly temper, and if its whole +body be sound and vigorous, it is quite regardless of the nicety of +paring the nails and adjusting the hair. + + +THE DANGER OF VERBIAGE + +It often happens, too, that an oration becomes worse by attending to +these niceties, because simplicity, the language of truth, is its +greatest ornament, and affectation the reverse. The expressions that +show care, and would also appear as newly formed, fine, and eloquent, +lose the graces at which they aim, and are far from being striking and +well received, because they obscure the sense by spreading a sort of +shadow about it, or by being too crowded they choke it up, like +thick-sown grain that must run up too spindling. That which may be +spoken in a plain, direct manner we express by paraphrase; and we use +repetitions where to say a thing once is enough; and what is well +signified by one word, we load with many, and most things we choose to +signify rather by circumlocution than by proper and pertinent terms. + +A proper word, indeed, now has no charms, nothing appearing to us fine +which might have been said by another word. We borrow metaphors from the +whims and conceits of the most extravagant poets, and we fancy ourselves +exceedingly witty, when others must have a good deal of wit to +understand us. Cicero is explicit in his views in this respect. "The +greatest fault a speech can have," says he, "is when it departs from the +common way of discourse and the custom of common sense." But Cicero +would pass for a harsh and barbarous author, compared to us, who make +little of whatever nature dictates, who seek not ornaments, but +delicacies and refinements, as if there were any beauty in words without +an agreement with things, for if we were to labor throughout our whole +life in consulting their propriety, clearness, ornament, and due +placing, we should lose the whole fruit of our studies. + + +ACQUIRING A PRACTICAL VOCABULARY + +Yet many are seen to hesitate at single words, even while they invent, +and reflect on and measure what they invent. If this were done +designedly to use always the best, this unhappy temper would still be +detestable, as it must check the course of speaking and extinguish the +heat of thought by delay and diffidence. For the orator is wretched, +and, I may say, poor, who can not patiently lose a word. But he will +lose none who first has studied a good manner of speaking, and by +reading well the best authors has furnished himself with a copious +supply of words and made himself expert in the art of placing them. Much +practise will so improve him afterward that he always will have them at +hand and ready for use, the thought fitting in naturally with the proper +manner of expression. + +But all this requires previous study, an acquired faculty, and a rich +fund of words. For solicitude in regard to inventing, judging, and +comparing, should take place when we learn, and not when we speak. +Otherwise they who have not sufficiently cultivated their talents for +speaking will experience the fate of those who have made no provision +for the future. But if a proper stock of words is already prepared, +they will attend as in duty bound, not so much in the way of answering +exigencies as always to seem inherent in the thought and to follow as a +shadow does a body. + + +HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT WORDS + +Yet this care should not exceed its due bounds, for when words are +authorized by use, are significant, elegant, and aptly placed, what more +need we trouble ourselves about? But some eternally will find fault, and +almost scan every syllable, who, even when they have found what is best, +seek after something that is more ancient, remote, and unexpected, not +understanding that the thought must suffer in a discourse, and can have +nothing of value, where only the words are commendable. Let us, +therefore, pay particular regard to elocution, yet, at the same time be +convinced that nothing is to be done for the sake of words, they having +been invented solely for the sake of things. The most proper words +always will be those which are best expressive of the ideas in our mind, +and which produce in the ideas of the judges the effect we desire. Such +undoubtedly will make a speech both admirable and pleasing, but not so +admirable as are prodigies, nor pleasing by a vicious and unseemly +pleasure, but a pleasure reflecting dignity with praise. + + + + +ELEGANCE AND GRACE + + +The orator will recommend himself particularly by the embellishments he +adopts, securing in other ways the approbation of the learned, and in +this also the favor of popular applause. + +Not so much with strong as with shining armor did Cicero engage in the +cause of Cornelius. His success was not due merely to instructing the +judges, and speaking in a pure and clear style. These qualities would +not have brought him the honor of the admiration and applause of the +Roman people. It was the sublimity, magnificence, splendor, and dignity +of his eloquence that forced from them signal demonstrations of their +amazement. Nor would such unusual eulogies have been given him if his +speech had contained nothing extraordinary, nothing but what was common. +And, indeed, I believe that those present were not completely aware of +what they were doing, and that what they did was neither spontaneous, +nor from an act of judgment, but that filled with a sort of enthusiasm, +and not considering the place they were in, they burst forth with +unrestrained excitement. + + +THE VALUE OF BEAUTY OF EXPRESSION + +These ornaments of speech, therefore, may be thought to contribute not a +little to the success of a cause, for they who hear willingly are more +attentive and more disposed to believe. Most commonly it is pleasure +that wins them over, and sometimes they are seized and carried away with +admiration. A glittering sword strikes the eyes with some terror, and +thunder would not so shock us if its crash only, and not its lightning, +was dreaded. Therefore Cicero, with good reason, says in one of his +epistles to Brutus: "The eloquence which does not excite admiration, I +regard as nothing." Aristotle, too, would have us endeavor to attain +this perfection. + +But this embellishment, I must again and again repeat, ought to be +manly, noble, and modest; neither inclining to effeminate delicacy, nor +assuming a color indebted to paint, but glistening with health and +spirits. + +Let none of those who build up their reputation on a corrupt manner of +eloquence, say that I am an enemy to such as speak with elegance. I do +not deny that it is a perfection, but I do not ascribe it to them. Shall +I think a piece of ground better laid out and improved, in which one +shall show me lilies and violets and pleasing cascades, than one where +there is a full harvest or vines laden with grapes? Shall I esteem a +barren planetree and shorn myrtles beyond the fruitful olive and the elm +courting the embraces of the vine? The rich may pride themselves on +these pleasures of the eye, but how little would be their value if they +had nothing else? + +But shall no beauty, no symmetry, be observed in the care of fruit +trees? Undoubtedly there should, and I would place them in a certain +order, and keep a due distance in planting them. What is more beautiful +than the quincunx, which, whatever way you look, retains the same direct +position? Planting them out so will also be of service to the growth of +the trees, by equally attracting the juices of the earth. I should lop +off the aspiring tops of my olive; it will spread more beautifully into +a round form, and will produce fruit on more branches. A horse with +slender flanks is considered handsomer than one not framed in that +manner, and the same quality also shows that he excels in swiftness. An +athlete whose arms from exercise show a full spring and play of the +muscles, is a beautiful sight, and he, likewise, is best fitted as a +combatant. Thus the true species is never without its utility, as even a +meager judgment easily may discern. + + +DEVELOPING VARIETY OF STYLE + +But it will be of more importance to observe that this decent attire +ought to be varied according to the nature of the subject. To begin with +our first division, the same style will not suit equally demonstrative, +deliberative, and judicial causes. The first, calculated for +ostentation, aims at nothing but the pleasure of the auditory. It, +therefore, displays all the riches of art, and exposes to full view all +the pomp of eloquence; not acting by stratagem, nor striving for +victory, but making praise and glory its sole and ultimate end. Whatever +may be pleasing in the thought, beautiful in the expression, agreeable +in the turn, magnificent in the metaphor, elaborate in the composition, +the orator will lay open for inspection and, if it were possible, for +handling, as a merchant exposes his wares; for here the success wholly +regards him and not the cause. + +But when the serious part of a trial is on hand, and the contest is +truly in earnest, care of reputation ought to be the orator's last +concern. For this reason, when everything in a way is at stake, no one +ought to be solicitous about words. I do not say that no ornaments ought +to have place in them, but that they should be more modest and severe, +less apparent, and above all suited to the subject. For in deliberations +the senate require something more elevated; the assemblies of the +people, something more spirited; and at the bar, public and capital +causes, something more accurate. But a private deliberation, and causes +of trivial consequence, as the stating of accounts and the like, need +little beyond the plain and easy manner of common discourse. Would it +not be quite shameful to demand in elaborate periods the payment of +money lent, or appeal to the emotions in speaking of the repairs of a +gutter or sink? + + +THE CHOICE OF WORDS + +As the ornament, as well as perspicuity, of speech consists either in +single words or in many together, we shall consider what they require +separately and what in conjunction. Tho there is good reason for saying +that perspicuity is best suited by proper words, and ornament by +metaphorical, yet we should always know that an impropriety is never +ornamental. But as many words very often signify the same thing, and +therefore are called synonymous, some of these must be more sublime, +more bright, more agreeable, and sweeter and fuller in pronunciation +than others. As the more clear-sounding letters communicate the same +quality to the syllables they compose, so the words composed of these +syllables become more sonorous, and the greater the force or sound of +the syllables is, the more they fill or charm the ear. What the +junction of syllables makes, the copulation of words makes also, a word +sounding well with one, which sound badly with another. + +There is a great diversity in the use of words. Harsh words best express +things of an atrocious nature. In general, the best of simple words are +believed to be such as sound loudest in exclamation, or sweetest in a +pleasing strain. Modest words will ever be preferred to those that must +offend a chaste ear, and no polite discourse ever makes allowance for a +filthy or sordid expression. Magnificent, noble, and sublime words are +to be estimated by their congruity with the subject; for what is +magnificent in one place, swells into bombast in another; and what is +low in a grand matter, may be proper in a humble situation. As in a +splendid style a low word must be very much out of place and, as it +were, a blemish to it, so a sublime and pompous expression is unsuited +to a subject that is plain and familiar, and therefore must be reputed +corrupt, because it raises that which ought to find favor through its +native simplicity. + + +THE MANNER OF DELIVERY + +I shall pass now to the construction of words, observing that their +ornamental use may be considered from two points of view; first, as it +regards the elocution we conceive in our minds; second, the manner of +expressing it. It is of particular consequence that we should be clear +as to what ought to be amplified or diminished; whether we are to speak +with heat or moderation; in a florid or austere style; in a copious or +concise manner; in words of bitter invective, or in those showing placid +and gentle disposition; with magnificence or plainness; gravity or +politeness. Besides which it is equally important to know what +metaphors, what figures, what thoughts, what manner, what disposition, +are best suited for effecting our purpose. + + +FAULTS OF EXPRESSION TO AVOID + +In speaking of the ornaments of a discourse, it may not be amiss to +touch first upon qualities contrary to them, because the principal +perfection consists in being free from faults. We, therefore, must not +expect ornament that is not probable, in a discourse. Cicero calls that +kind of ornament probable which is not more nor less than it ought to +be. Not that it should not appear neat and polished, for this is a part +of ornament, but because too much in anything is always a fault. He +would have authority and weight in words, and thoughts that are +sensible, or conformable to the opinions and manners of men. These +inviolably retained and adhered to, he makes ample allowance for +whatever else may contribute to illustrate a discourse. And thus it is +that metaphors, superlatives, epithets, compound, and synonymous words, +if they seem to express the action and fully represent things, seldom +fail to please. + +We should avoid the fault which makes a sentence appear not full enough, +on account of something defective, tho this is rather a vice of +obscurity than want of ornament in speech. But when it is done for some +particular reason, then it becomes a figure of speech. We should +likewise be aware of tautology, which is a repetition of the same word +or thought, or the use of many similar words or thoughts. Tho this does +not seem to have been much guarded against by some authors of great +note, it is, notwithstanding, a fault, and Cicero himself often falls +into it. + +Similarity of expression is a still greater vice, because the mind is +wearied by lack of the graces of variety, and the discourse being all of +one color, shows a great deficiency in the art of oratory. It, besides, +creates loathing, and at length becomes insupportable, both to the mind +and ear, through the tedious repetition of the same cold thoughts, +figures, and periods. + +There is another fault, that of being over-nice, which is caused by +extreme anxiety to be exact, but which is as far distant from exactness +as superstition is from true religion. In short, every word that +contributes neither to perspicuity nor ornament, may be called vicious. + +A perverse affectation is faulty in all respects. All bombast, and +flimsiness, and studied sweetness, and redundancies, and far-fetched +thoughts, and witticisms, fall under the same denomination. Thus +whatever stretches beyond the bounds of perfection, may be called +affectation, and this happens as often as the genius is lacking in +judgment, and suffers itself to be deceived by an appearance of good. It +is the worst of vices in matters of eloquence, for even when others are +avoided, this is sought after, and its whole trespass is against +elocution. There are vices incident to things, which come from being +devoid of sense, or from being common, or contrary, or unnecessary, and +a corrupt style consists principally in impropriety of words, in their +redundancy, in their obscure import, in a weak composition, and in a +puerile hunting after synonymous or equivocal words. But every perverse +affectation is false in consequence of its idea, tho not everything that +is false is an affectation, the latter saying a thing otherwise than as +nature will have it, and than it ought to be, and than is sufficient. + + +USE OF VIVID DESCRIPTION + +There can not be a greater perfection than to express the things we +speak of in such lively colors as to make them seem really to take place +in our presence. Our words are lacking in full effect, they assume not +that absolute empire they ought to have, when they strike only the ear, +and when the judge who is to take cognizance of the matter is not +sensible of its being emphatically exprest. + +One manner of representation consists in making out of an assemblage of +circumstances the image we endeavor to exhibit. An example of this we +have in Cicero's description of a riotous banquet; he being the only one +who can furnish us with examples of all kinds of ornaments: "I seemed to +myself to see some coming in, others going out; some tottering with +drunkenness, others yawning from yesterday's carousing. In the midst of +these was Gallius, bedaubed with essences, and crowned with flowers. The +floor of their apartment was all in a muck of dirt, streaming with wine, +and strewed all about with chaplets of faded flowers, and fish-bones." +Who could have seen more had he been present? + +In this manner pity grows upon us from hearing of the sacking of a town. +Undoubtedly he who acquaints us of such an event, comprehends all the +incidents of so great a calamity, yet this cursory piece of intelligence +makes but a languid impression upon the mind. But if you enter into +descriptive pictures of all that was included in one word, as it were, +flames will appear spreading through houses and temples; the crash of +falling houses will be heard; and one confused noise formed out of all +together. Some will be seen striving to escape the danger, but know not +where to direct their flight; others embracing for the last time their +parents and relations; here the dismal shrieks of women and piercing +cries of children fill one with pity; there the sighs and groans of old +men, lamenting their unhappy fate for having lived so long as to be +witnesses of their country's desolation. A further addition to these +scenes of woe is the plunder of all things, sacred as well as profane; +the avidity of the soldier prowling after and carrying away his prey; +the wretched citizens dragged away in chains before their haughty +conquerors; mothers struggling to keep with them their children; and +slaughter still exercising its cruelties wherever there is the least +expectation of booty. Tho all these details are comprehended in the idea +of the sacking of a town, yet it is saying less to state merely that the +town was sacked than to describe its destruction in this circumstantial +manner. + +Such circumstances may be made to appear vivid if they retain a likeness +to truth. They may not have happened in reality, yet, as they are +possible, the descriptive evidence is not objectionable. The same +evidence will arise also from accidents, as in the following examples: + + + ... me horror chills, + Shudd'ring, and fear congeals my curdling blood. + TRAPP. + + + ... to their bosoms press'd, + The frighted mothers clasp'd their crying babes. + TRAPP. + + +This perfection, the greatest, in my opinion, a discourse can have, is +very easily acquired by only considering and following nature. For +eloquence is a picture of the happenings of human life, every one +applying to himself what he hears, by making the case in some measure +his own, and the mind receives very willingly that with which it has +become familiar. + +To throw light, also, upon things, similes have been invented, some of +which by way of proof are inserted among arguments, and others are +calculated for expressing the images of things, the point we are here +explaining. + + + ... Thence like wolves + Prowling in gloomy shade, which hunger blind + Urges along, while their forsaken whelps + Expect them with dry jaws. + TRAPP. + + + ... Thence with all his body's force + Flings himself headlong from the steepy height + Down to the ocean: like the bird that flies + Low, skimming o'er the surface, near the sea, + Around the shores, around the fishy rocks. + TRAPP. + + +HOW TO EMPLOY SIMILES AND METAPHORS + +We must be exceedingly cautious in regard to similitudes, that we do not +use such as are either obscure or unknown. For that which is assumed for +the sake of illustrating another thing, ought indeed to be clearer than +that which it so illustrates. + +In speaking of arguments I mentioned a kind of similitude which, as an +ornament to a discourse, contributes to make it sublime, florid, +pleasing, and admirable. For the more far-fetched a similitude is, the +more new and unexpected it will appear. Some may be thought commonplace, +yet will avail much for enforcing belief; as, "As a piece of ground +becomes better and more fertile by cultivation, so does the mind by good +institutions." "As physicians prescribe the amputation of a limb that +manifestly tends to mortification, so would it be necessary to cut off +all bad citizens, tho even allied to us in blood." Here is something +more sublime: "Rocks and solitudes echo back the melody, and the +fiercest beasts are often made more gentle, being astonished by the +harmony of music." But this kind of similitude is often abused by the +too great liberties our declaimers give themselves; for they use such as +are false, and they do not make a just application of them to the +subjects to which they would compare them. + +In every comparison the similitude either goes before, and the thing +follows; or the thing goes before, and the similitude follows. But the +similitude sometimes is free and separate: sometimes, which is best, it +is connected with the thing of which it is the image, this connection +being made to aid and correspond mutually on both sides. Cicero says in +his oration for Murena: "They who have not a genius for playing on the +lyre, may become expert at playing on the flute (a proverbial saying +among the Greeks to specify the man who can not make himself master of +the superior sciences): so among us they who can not become orators, +turn to the study of the law." In another passage of the same oration, +the connected comparison is conceived in a sort of poetical spirit. "As +storms are often raised by the influence of some constellation, and +often suddenly and from some hidden cause which can not be accounted +for, so the stormy agitations we sometimes behold in the assemblies of +the people are often occasioned by a malign influence easily +discoverable by all; and often their cause is so obscure as to seem +merely the effect of chance." There are other similes, which are very +short, as this, "Strolling and wandering through forests like beasts." +And that of Cicero against Clodius, "From which judgment we have seen +him escape naked, like a man from his house on fire." Such similes +constantly occur in common discourse. + +Of a similar kind is an ornament which not only represents things, but +does so in a lively and concise manner. Undoubtedly a conciseness in +which nothing is lacking, is deservedly praised; that which says +precisely only what is necessary, is less estimable; but that which +expresses much in a few words is of all the most beautiful. + +Eloquence does not think it enough to show of what it speaks, in a clear +and evident manner; it uses, besides, a variety of other expedients for +embellishing a discourse. Thus it is that a simple and unaffected style +is not without beauty, but it is a beauty entirely pure and natural, +such as is admired in women. Beauty is also annexed to propriety and +justness of expression, and this beauty is the more elegant as it shows +but little care. There is an abundance that is rich, an abundance that +smiles amidst the gaiety of flowers, and there is more than one sort of +power, for whatever is complete in its kind can not be destitute of its +proper strength and efficacy. + + + + +COMPOSITION AND STYLE + + +I well know that there are some who will not sanction any care in +composition, contending that our words as they flow by chance, however +uncouth they may sound, are not only more natural, but likewise more +manly. If what first sprang from nature, indebted in nowise to care and +industry, be only what they deem natural, I admit that the art of +oratory in this respect has no pretensions to that quality. For it is +certain that the first men did not speak according to the exactness of +the rules of composition; neither were they acquainted with the art of +preparing by an exordium, informing by a narration, proving by +arguments, and moving by passions. They were deficient in all these +particulars, and not in composition only; and if they were not allowed +to make any alterations for the better, of course they would not have +exchanged their cottages for houses, nor their coverings of skins for +more decent apparel, nor the mountains and forests in which they ranged +for the abode of cities in which they enjoy the comforts of social +intercourse. And, indeed, what art do we find coeval with the world, and +what is there of which the value is not enhanced by improvement? Why do +we restrain the luxuriance of our vines? Why do we dig about them? Why +do we grub up the bramble-bushes in our fields? Yet the earth produces +them. Why do we tame animals? Yet are they born with intractable +dispositions. Rather let us say that that is very natural which nature +permits us to meliorate in her handiwork. + + +THE POWER OF SKILFUL COMPOSITION + +How can a jumble of uncouth words be more manly than a manner of +expression which is well joined and properly placed? If some authors +weaken the subjects of which they treat, by straining them into certain +soft and lascivious measures, we must not on that account judge that +this is the fault of composition. As the current of rivers is swifter +and more impetuous in a free and open channel than amidst an obstruction +of rocks breaking and struggling against the flow of their waters, an +oration that is properly connected flows with its whole might, and is +far preferable to one that is craggy and desultory by reason of frequent +interruptions. Why, then, should it be thought that strength and beauty +are incompatible, when, on the contrary, nothing has its just value +without art, and embellishment always attends on it? Do not we observe +the javelin which has been cleverly whirled about, dart through the air +with the best effect; and in managing a bow and arrow, is not the beauty +of the attitude as much more graceful as the aim is more unerring? In +feats of arms, and in all the exercises of the palæstra, is not his +attitude best calculated for defense or offense, who uses a certain art +in all his motions, and keeps to a certain position of the feet? +Composition, therefore, in my opinion, is to thoughts and words what the +dexterous management of a bow or string may be for directing the aim of +missive weapons; and I may say that the most learned are convinced that +it is greatly conducive not only to pleasure, but also to making a good +impression on others. First, because it is scarcely possible that +anything should affect the heart, which begins by grating on the ear. +Secondly, because we are naturally affected by harmony, otherwise the +sounds of musical instruments, tho they express no words, would not +excite in us so great a variety of pleasing emotions. In sacred +canticles, some airs are for elating the heart into raptures, others to +restore the mind to its former tranquillity. The sound of a trumpet is +not the same when it is the signal for a general engagement, and when on +defeat it implores the conqueror's mercy; neither is it the same when an +army marches up to give battle, and when it is intent on retreating. It +was a common practise with the Pythagoric philosophers, on arising in +the morning, to awake their minds by an air on the lyre, in order to +make them more alert for action; and they had recourse to the same +musical entertainment for disposing them to sleep, believing it to be a +means for allaying all tumultuous thoughts which might in any way have +ruffled them in the course of the day. + +If, then, so great a power lies in musical strains and modulations, what +must it be with eloquence, the music of which is a speaking harmony? As +much, indeed, as it is essential for a thought to be exprest in suitable +words, it is equally necessary for the same words to be disposed in +proper order by composition, that they may flow and end harmoniously. +Some things of little consequence in their import, and requiring but a +moderate degree of elocution, are commendable only by this perfection; +and there are others which appear exprest with so much force, beauty, +and sweetness, that if the order in which they stand should be changed +or disturbed, all force, beauty, and sweetness would vanish from them. + + +THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD COMPOSITION + +There are three things necessary in every kind of composition, and these +are order, correction, and number. + + +_1. Order_ + +We shall speak first of order, which applies to words considered +separately or joined together. In regard to the former, care must be +taken that there be no decrease by adding a weaker word to a stronger, +as accusing one of sacrilege, and giving him afterward the name of +thief; or adding the character of wanton fellow to that of a highwayman. +The sense ought to increase and rise, which Cicero observes admirably +where he says: "And thou, with that voice, those lungs, and that +gladiator-like vigor of thy whole body." Here each succeeding thing is +stronger than the one before; but if he had begun with the whole body, +he could not with propriety have descended to the voice and lungs. There +is another natural order in saying men and women, day and night, east +and west. + +Words in prose not being measured, as are the feet which compose verse, +they are, therefore, transferred from place to place, that they may be +joined where they best fit, as in a building where the irregularity, +however great, of rough stones is both suitable and proper. The happiest +composition language can have, however, is to keep to a natural order, +just connection, and a regularly flowing cadence. + +Sometimes there is something very striking about a word. Placed in the +middle of a sentence, it might pass unnoticed, or be obscured by the +other words that lie about it, but when placed at the end the auditor +can not help noting it and retaining it in his mind. + + +_2. Connection_ + +Juncture follows, which is equally requisite in words, articles, +members, and periods, all these having their beauty and faults, in +consequence of their manner of connection. It may be a general +observation that in the placing of syllables, their sound will be +harsher as they are pronounced with a like or different gaping of the +mouth. This, however, is not to be dreaded as a signal fault, and I know +not which is worse here, inattention or too great care. Too scrupulous +fear must damp the heat and retard the impetuosity of speaking, while +at the same time it prevents the mind from attending to thoughts which +are of greater moment. As, therefore, it is carelessness to yield to +these faults, so it is meanness to be too much afraid of them. + + +_3. Number_ + +Numbers are nowhere so much lacking, nor so remarkable, as at the end of +periods; first, because every sense has its bounds, and takes up a +natural space, by which it is divided from the beginning of what +follows: next, because the hearers following the flow of words, and +drawn, as it were, down the current of the oration, are then more +competent judges, when that impetuosity ceases and gives time for +reflection. There should not, therefore, be anything harsh nor abrupt in +that ending, which seems calculated for the respite and recreation of +the mind and ear. This, too, is the resting-place of the oration, this +the auditor expects, and here burst forth all his effusions of praise. + + +THE COMPOSITION OF PERIODS + +The beginning of periods demands as much care as the closing of them, +for here, also, the auditor is attentive. But it is easier to observe +numbers in the beginning of periods, as they are not depending on, nor +connected with, what went before. But the ending of periods, however +graceful it may be in composition and numbers, will lose all its charm +if we proceed to it by a harsh and precipitate beginning. + +As to the composition of the middle parts of a period, care must be +taken not only of their connection with each other, but also that they +may not seem slow, nor long, nor, what is now a great vice, jump and +start from being made up of many short syllables, and producing the same +effect on the ear as the sounds from a child's rattle. For as the +ordering of the beginning and ending is of much importance, as often as +the sense begins or ends; so in the middle, too, there is a sort of +stress which slightly insists; as the feet of people running, which, tho +they make no stop, yet leave a track. It is not only necessary to begin +and end well the several members and articles, but the intermediate +space, tho continued without respiration, ought also to retain a sort of +composition, by reason of the insensible pauses that serve as so many +degrees for pronunciation. + +Cicero gives many names to the period, calling it a winding about, a +circuit, a comprehension, continuation, and circumscription. It is of +two kinds; the one simple when a single thought is drawn out into a +considerable number of words; the other compound, consisting of members +and articles which include several thoughts. + +Wherever the orator has occasion to conduct himself severely, to press +home, to act boldly and resolutely, he should speak by members and +articles. This manner has vast power and efficacy in an oration. The +composition is to adapt itself to the nature of things, therefore, even +rough things being conceived in rough sounds and numbers, that the +hearer may be made to enter into all the passions of the speaker. It +would be advisable, for the most part, to make the narration in members; +or if periods are used, they ought to be more loose and less elaborate +than elsewhere. But I except such narrations as are calculated more for +ornament than for giving information. + + +THE USE OF PERIODS + +The period is proper for the exordiums of greater causes, where the +matter requires solicitude, commendation, pity. Also in common places +and in every sort of amplification; but if you accuse, it ought to be +close and compact; if you praise, it should be full, round, and flowing. +It is likewise of good service in perorations, and may be used without +restriction wherever the composition requires to be set off in a +somewhat grand and noble manner, and when the judge not only has a +thorough knowledge of the matter before him, but is also captivated with +the beauty of the discourse and, trusting to the orator, allows himself +to be led away by the sense of pleasure. + +History does not so much stand in need of a periodical flow of words, as +it likes to move around in a sort of perpetual circle, for all its +members are connected with each other, by its slipping and gliding along +from one subject to the next, just as men, strengthening their pace, +hold and are held, by grasping each other by the hand. Whatever belongs +to the demonstrative kind has freer and more flowing numbers. The +judicial and deliberative, being varied in their matter, occasionally +require a different form of composition. + + +FITTING EXPRESSION TO THOUGHT + +Who doubts that some things are to be exprest in a gentle way, others +with more heat, others sublimely, others contentiously, and others +gravely? Feet composed of long syllables best suit grave, sublime, and +ornamental subjects. The grave will take up a longer space in the +pronunciation, and the sublime and ornamental will demand a clear and +sonorous expression. Feet of short syllables are more agreeable in +arguments, division, raillery, and whatever partakes of the nature of +ordinary conversation. + +The composition of the exordium will differ, therefore, as the subject +may require. For the mind of the judge is not always the same, so that, +according to the time and circumstances, we must declare our mournful +plight, appear modest, tart, grave, insinuating; move to mercy and +exhort to diligence. As the nature of these is different, so their +composition must be conducted in a different way. + +Let it be in some measure a general observation that the composition +ought to be modeled on the manner of pronunciation. In exordiums are we +not most commonly modest, except when in a cause of accusation we strive +to irritate the minds of the judges? Are we not copious and explicit in +narration; in arguments animated and lively, even showing animation in +our actions; in common places and descriptions, exuberant and lavish of +ornaments; and in perorations, for the most part weighed down by +distress? Of the variety which ought to be in a discourse, we may find +another parallel instance in the motions of the body. With all of them, +do not the circumstances regulate their respective degrees of slowness +and celerity? And for dancing as well as singing, does not music use +numbers of which the beating of the time makes us sensible? As our voice +and action are indeed expressive of our inner feelings in regard to the +nature of the things of which we speak, need we, then, be surprized if a +like conformity ought to be found in the feet that enter into the +composition of a piece of eloquence? Ought not sublime matters be made +to walk in majestic solemnity, the mild to keep in a gentle pace, the +brisk and lively to bound with rapidity, and the nice and delicate to +flow smoothly? + + +FAULTS IN COMPOSITION + +If faults in composition be unavoidable, I should rather give preference +to that which is harsh and rough than to that which is nerveless and +weak, the results of an affected style that many now study, and which +constantly corrupts, more and more, by a wantonness in numbers more +becoming a dance than the majesty of eloquence. But I can not say that +any composition is good, however perfect otherwise, which constantly +presents the same form, and continually falls into the same feet. A +constant observing of similar measures and cadences, is a kind of +versification, and all prose in which this fault is discoverable, can +have no allowance made for it, by reason of its manifest affectation +(the very suspicion of which ought to be avoided), and its uniformity, +which, of course, must fatigue and disgust the mind. This vice may have +some engaging charms at first sight, but the greater its sweets are, the +shorter will be their continuance; and the orator once detected of any +anxious concern in this respect, will instantly lose all belief that has +been placed in him, and vainly will he strive to make on others' minds +the impressions he expected to make; for how is it to be expected that +a judge will believe a man, or permit himself to feel grief or anger on +account of one whom he observes to have attended to nothing more than +the display of such trifles? Some of the connections of smooth +composition ought, therefore, to be designedly broken, and it is no +small labor to make them appear not labored. + +Let us not be such slaves to the placing of words as to study +transpositions longer than necessary, lest what we do in order to +please, may displease by being affected. Neither let a fondness for +making the composition flow with smoothness, prevail on us to set aside +a word otherwise proper and becoming; as no word, in reality, can prove +disagreeable enough to be wholly excluded, unless it be that in the +avoiding of such words we consult mere beauty of expression rather than +the good of composition. + +To conclude, composition ought to be graceful, agreeable, varied. Its +parts are three: order, connection, number. Its art consists in adding, +retrenching, changing. Its qualities are according to the nature of the +things discust. The care in composition ought to be great, but not to +take the place of care in thinking and speaking. What deserves to be +particularly attended to is the concealing of the care of composition, +that the numbers may seem to flow of their own accord, and not with the +least constraint or affectation. + + + + +COPIOUSNESS OF WORDS + + +Eloquence will never be solid and robust, unless it collects strength +and consistence from much writing and composing; and without examples +from reading, that labor will go astray for lack of a guide; and tho it +be known how everything ought to be said, yet the orator who is not +possest of a talent for speaking, always ready to exert himself on +occasion, will be like a man watching over a hidden treasure. + +Our orator, who we suppose is familiar with the way of inventing and +disposing things, of making a choice of words, and placing them in +proper order, requires nothing further than the knowledge of the means +whereby in the easiest and best manner he may execute what he has +learned. It can not, then, be doubted that he must acquire a certain +stock of wealth in order to have it ready for use when needed, and this +stock of wealth consists of a plentiful supply of things and words. + + +THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE + +Things are peculiar to each cause, or common to few; but a provision of +words must be made indiscriminately for all subjects. If each word were +precisely significant of each thing, our perplexity would be less, as +then words would immediately present themselves with things, but some +being more proper than others, or more ornamental, or more emphatic, or +more harmonious, all ought not only to be known but to be kept ready and +in sight, as it were, that when they present themselves for the +orator's selection, he easily may make a choice of the best. + +I know that some make a practise of classing together all synonymous +words and committing them to memory, so that out of so many at least one +may more easily come to mind; and when they have used a word, and +shortly after need it again, to avoid repetition they take another of +the same significance. This is of little or no use, for it is only a +crowd that is mustered together, out of which the first at hand is taken +indifferently, whereas the copiousness of language of which I speak is +to be the result of acquisition of judgment in the use of words, with +the view of attaining the true expressive force of eloquence, and not +empty volubility of speech. This can be affected only by hearing and +reading the best things; and it is only by giving it our attention that +we shall know not only the appellations of things, but what is fittest +for every place. + + +THE VALUE OF HEARING SPEAKERS + +With some eloquent compositions we may derive more profit by reading +them, but with some others, more by hearing them pronounced. The speaker +keeps awake all our senses, and inspires us by the fire that animates +him. We are struck, not by the image and exterior of things, but by the +things themselves. All is life and motion, and with solicitude for his +success, we favorably receive all he says, its appeal to us lying in the +charm of novelty. Together with the orator, we find ourselves deeply +interested in the issue of the trial and the safety of the parties whose +defense he has undertaken. Besides these we find that other things +affect us: a fine voice, a graceful action corresponding with what is +said, and a manner of pronunciation, which perhaps is the most powerful +ornament of eloquence; in short, everything conducted and managed in the +way that is most fitting. + + +THE ADVANTAGES OF READING + +In reading, our judgment goes upon surer ground, because often our good +wishes for the speaker, or the applause bestowed on him, surprizes us +into approbation. We are ashamed to differ in opinion from others, and +by a sort of secret bashfulness are kept from believing ourselves more +intelligent than they are; tho indeed we are aware, at the same time, +that the taste of the greater number is vicious, and that sycophants, +even persons hired to applaud, praise things which can not please us; +as, on the other hand, it also happens that a bad taste can have no +relish for the best things. Reading is attended, besides, with the +advantage of being free, and not escaping us by the rapidity which +accompanies action; and we may go over the same things often, should we +doubt their accuracy, or wish to fix them in our memories. Repeating and +reviewing will, therefore, be highly necessary; for as meats are chewed +before they descend into the stomach, in order to facilitate their +digestion, so reading is fittest for being laid up in the memory, that +it may be an object of imitation when it is no longer in a crude state +but has been softened and elaborated by long meditation. + + +HOW TO READ MOST PROFITABLY + +None, however, but the best authors, and such as we are least liable to +be deceived in, demand this care, which should be diligent and extended +even almost to the point of taking the pains to transcribe them. Nor +ought judgment to be passed on the whole from examining a part, but +after the book has been fully perused, it should have a second reading; +especially should this be done with an oration, the perfections of which +are often designedly kept concealed. The orator, indeed, often prepares, +dissembles, lies in wait, and says things in the first part of the +pleading which he avails himself of in the last part. They may, +therefore, be less pleasing in their place, while we still remain +ignorant of the purpose for their being said. For this reason, after a +due consideration of particulars, it would not be amiss to re-read the +whole. + + +WHAT TO READ + +Theophrastus says that the reading of poetry is of vast service to the +orator. Many, and with good reason, are of the same opinion, as from the +poets may be derived sprightliness in thought, sublimity in expression, +force and variety in sentiment, propriety and decorum in character, +together with that diversion for cheering and freshening minds which +have been for any time harassed by the drudgery of the bar. + +Let it be remembered, however, that poets are not in all things to be +imitated by the orator, neither in the liberty of words, nor license of +figures. The whole of that study is calculated for ostentation. Its sole +aim is pleasure, and it invariably pursues it, by fictions of not only +what is false, but of some things that are incredible. It is sure, also, +of meeting with partizans to espouse its cause, because, since it is +bound down to a certain necessity of feet it can not always use proper +words, and being driven out of the straight road, must turn into byways +of speaking, and be compelled to change some words, and to lengthen, +shorten, transpose and divide them. As for orators, they must stand +their ground completely armed in the order of battle, and having to +fight for matters of the highest consequence, must think of nothing but +gaining the victory. + +Still would I not have their armor appear squalid and covered with rust, +but retain rather a brightness that dismays, such as of polished steel, +striking both the mind and eyes with awe, and not the splendor of gold +and silver, a weak safeguard, indeed, and rather dangerous to the +bearer. + +History, likewise, by its mild and grateful sap may afford kind +nutriment to an oratorical composition. Yet the orator should so read +history as to be convinced that most of its perfections ought to be +avoided by him. It nearly borders upon poetry, and may be held as a +poem, unrestrained by the laws of verse. Its object is to narrate, and +not to prove, and its whole business neither intends action nor +contention, but to transmit facts to posterity, and enhance the +reputation of its author. + +In the reading of history there is another benefit, and indeed the +greatest, but one not relative to the present subject. This proceeds +from the knowledge of things and examples, which the orator ought to be +well versed in, so that not all his testimonies may be from the parties, +but many of them may be taken from antiquity, with which, through +history, he will be well acquainted; these testimonies being the more +powerful, as they are exempt from suspicion of prejudice and partiality. + +I shall venture to say that there are few which have stood the test of +time, that may not be read with some profit by the judicious. Cicero +himself confesses that he received great help from old authors, who +were, indeed, very ingenious but were deficient in art. Before I speak +of the respective merit of authors, I must make, in a few words, some +general reflections on the diversity of taste in regard to matters of +eloquence. Some think that the ancients deserve to be read, believing +that they alone have distinguished themselves by natural eloquence and +that strength of language so becoming men. Others are captivated with +the flowery profusion of the orators of the present age, with their +delicate turns, and with all the blandishments they skilfully invent to +charm the ears of an ignorant multitude. Some choose to follow the plain +and direct way of speaking. Others take to be sound and truly Attic +whatever is close, neat, and departs but little from ordinary +conversation. Some are delighted with a more elevated, more impetuous, +and more fiery force of genius. Others, and not a few, like a smooth, +elegant, and polite manner. I shall speak of this difference in taste +more fully when I come to examine the style which may seem most proper +for the orator. + + +QUALITIES OF CLASSIC WRITERS + +_Homer_ + +We may begin properly with Homer. + +He it is who gave birth to, and set the example for all parts of +eloquence, in the same way, as he himself says, as the course of rivers +and springs of fountains owe their origin to the ocean. No one, in great +subjects, has excelled him in elevation; nor in small subjects, in +propriety. He is florid and close, grave and agreeable, admirable for +his concise as well as for his copious manner, and is not only eminent +for poetical, but likewise oratorical, abilities. + + +_Æschylus_ + +Æschylus is the one who gave birth to tragedy. He is sublime, and grave, +and often pompous to a fault. But his plots are mostly ill-contrived and +as ill-conducted. For which reason the Athenians permitted the poets who +came after him to correct his pieces and fit them for the stage, and in +this way many of these poets received the honor of being crowned. + + +_Sophocles and Euripides_ + +Sophocles and Euripides brought tragedy to greater perfection; but the +difference in their manner has occasioned dispute among the learned as +to their relative poetic merits. For my part, I shall leave the matter +undecided, as having nothing to do with my present purpose. It must be +confest, nevertheless, that the study of Euripedes will be of much +greater value to those who are preparing themselves for the bar; for +besides the fact that his style comes nearer the oratorical style, he +likewise abounds in fine thoughts, and in philosophic maxims is almost +on an equality with philosophers, and in his dialog may be compared with +the best speakers at the bar. He is wonderful, again, for his masterly +strokes in moving the passions, and more especially in exciting +sympathy. + + +_Thucydides and Herodotus_ + +There have been many famous writers of history, but all agree in giving +the preference to two, whose perfections, tho different, have received +an almost equal degree of praise. Thucydides is close, concise, and ever +pressing on. Herodotus is sweet, natural, and copious. One is remarkable +for his animated expression of the more impetuous passions, the other +for gentle persuasion in the milder: the former succeeds in harangues +and has more force; the other surpasses in speeches of familiar +intercourse, and gives more pleasure. + + +_Demosthenes_ + +A numerous band of orators follows, for Athens produced ten of them, +contemporary with one another. Demosthenes was by far the chief of them, +and in a manner held to be the only model for eloquence; so great is +his force; so closely together are all things interwoven in his +discourse, and attended with a certain self-command; so great is his +accuracy, he never adopting any idle expression; and so just his +precision that nothing lacking, nothing redundant, can be found in him. +Æschines is more full, more diffusive, and appears the more grand, as he +has more breadth. He has more flesh, but not so many sinews. + + +_Lysias and Isocrates_ + +Lysias, older than these, is subtle and elegant, and if it is enough for +the orator to instruct, none could be found more perfect than he is. +There is nothing idle, nothing far-fetched in him; yet is he more like a +clear brook than a great river. Isocrates, in a different kind of +eloquence, is fine and polished, and better adapted for engaging in a +mock than a real battle. He was attentive to all the beauties of +discourse, and had his reasons for it, having intended his eloquence for +schools and not for contentions at the bar. His invention was easy, he +was very fond of graces and embellishments, and so nice was he in his +composition that his extreme care is not without reprehension. + + +_Plato_ + +Among philosophers, by whom Cicero confesses he has been furnished with +many resourceful aids to eloquence, who doubts that Plato is the chief, +whether we consider the acuteness of his dissertations, or his divine +Homerical faculty of elocution? He soars high above prose, and even +common poetry, which is poetry only because comprised in a certain +number of feet; and he seems to me not so much endowed with the wit of +a man, as inspired by a sort of Delphic oracle. + + +_Xenophon_ + +What shall I say of Xenophon's unaffected agreeableness, so unattainable +by any imitation that the Graces themselves seem to have composed his +language? The testimony of the ancient comedy concerning Pericles, is +very justly applicable to him, "That the Goddess of Persuasion had +seated herself on his lips." + + +_Aristotle and Theophrastus_ + +And what shall I say of the elegance of the other disciples of Socrates? +What of Aristotle? I am at a loss to know what most to admire in him, +his vast and profound erudition, or the great number of his writings, or +his pleasing style and manner, or the inventions and penetration of his +wit, or the variety of his works. And as to Theophrastus, his elocution +has something so noble and so divine that it may be said that from these +qualities came his name. + + +_Vergil_ + +In regard to our Roman authors, we can not more happily begin than with +Vergil, who of all their poets and ours in the epic style, is without +any doubt the one who comes nearest to Homer. Tho obliged to give way to +Homer's heavenly and immortal genius, yet in Vergil are to be found a +greater exactness and care, it being incumbent on him to take more +pains; so that what we lose on the side of eminence of qualities, we +perhaps gain on that of justness and equability. + + +_Cicero_ + +I proceed to our orators, who likewise may put Roman eloquence upon a +par with the Grecian. Cicero I would strenuously oppose against any of +them, tho conscious of the quarrel I should bring upon myself by +comparing him with Demosthenes in a time so critical as this; especially +as my subject does not oblige me to it, neither is it of any +consequence, when it is my real opinion that Demosthenes ought to be +particularly read, or, rather, committed to memory. + +I must say, notwithstanding, that I judge them to be alike in most of +the great qualities they possest; alike in design, disposition, manner +of dividing, of preparing minds, of proving, in short in everything +belonging to invention. In elocution there is some difference. The one +is more compact, the other more copious; the one closes in with his +opponent, the other allows him more ground to fight in; the one is +always subtle and keen in argument, the other is perhaps less so, but +often has more weight; from the one nothing can be retrenched, neither +can anything be added to the other; the one has more study, the other +more nature. + +Still ought we to yield, if for no other reason than because Demosthenes +lived before Cicero, and because the Roman orator, however great, is +indebted for a large part of his merit to the Athenian. For it seems to +me that Cicero, having bent all his thoughts on the Greeks, toward +forming himself on their model, had at length made constituents of his +character the force of Demosthenes, the abundance of Plato, and the +sweetness of Isocrates. Nor did he only, by his application, extract +what was best in these great originals, but by the happy fruitfulness of +his immortal genius he himself produced the greater part, or rather all, +of these same perfections. And to make use of an expression of Pindar, +he does not collect the water from rains to remedy a natural dryness, +but flows continually, himself, from a source of living waters, and +seems to have existed by a peculiar gift of Providence, that in him +eloquence might make trial of her whole strength and her most powerful +exertions. + +For who can instruct with more exactness, and move with more vehemence? +What orator ever possest so pleasing a manner that the very things he +forcibly wrests from you, you fancy you grant him; and when by his +violence he carries away the judge, yet does the judge seem to himself +to obey his own volition, and not to be swept away by that of another? +Besides, in all he says there is so much authority and weight that you +are ashamed to differ from him in opinion; and it is not the zeal of an +advocate you find in him, but rather the faith and sincerity of a +witness or judge. And what, at the same time, is more admirable, all +these qualities, any one of which could not be attained by another +without infinite pains, seem to be his naturally; so that his +discourses, the most charming, the most harmonious, which possibly can +be heard, retain, notwithstanding, so great an air of happy ease that +they seem to have cost him nothing. + +With good reason, therefore, is he said by his contemporaries to reign +at the bar, and he has so far gained the good graces of posterity that +Cicero is now less the name of a man than the name of eloquence itself. +Let us then keep him in view, let him be our model, and let that orator +think he has made considerable progress who has once conceived a love +and taste for Cicero. + + +_Cæsar_ + +If Cæsar had made the bar his principal occupation, no other of our +orators could better have disputed the prize of eloquence with Cicero. +So great is his force, so sharp his wit, so active his fire, that it +plainly appears he spoke with as much spirit as he fought. A wonderful +elegance and purity of language, which he made his particular study, +were a further embellishment of all these talents for eloquence. + + +_Philosophers_ + +It remains only to speak of those who have written on subjects of +philosophy. Hitherto we have had but few of this kind. Cicero, as in +all other respects, so also in this, was a worthy rival of Plato. Brutus +has written some excellent treatises, the merit of which is far superior +to that of his orations. He supports admirably well the weight of his +matter, and seems to feel what he says. Cornelius Celsus, in the manner +of the Skeptics, has written a good many tracts, which are not without +elegance and perspicuity. Plancus, among the Stoics, may be read with +profit, for the sake of becoming acquainted with the things he +discusses. Catius, an Epicurean, has some levity in his way, but in the +main is not an unpleasing author. + + +_Seneca_ + +I have designedly omitted speaking hitherto of Seneca,--who was +proficient in all kinds of eloquence,--on account of the false opinion +people entertained that I not only condemned his writings, but also +personally hated him. I drew this aspersion upon myself by my endeavor +to bring over eloquence to a more austere taste, which had been +corrupted and enervated by very many softnesses and delicacies. Then +Seneca was almost the only author young people read with pleasure. I did +not strive to exclude him absolutely, but could not bear that he should +be preferred to others much better, whom he took all possible pains to +cry down, because he was conscious that he had taken to a different +manner from their way of writing, and he could not otherwise expect to +please people who had a taste for these others. It was Seneca's lot, +however, to be more loved than imitated, and his partizans run as wide +from him as he himself had fallen from the ancients. Yet it were to be +wished that they had proved themselves like, or had come near, him. But +they were fond of nothing in him but his faults, and every one strove to +copy them if he could. Then priding themselves on speaking like Seneca, +of course they could not avoid bringing him into disgrace. + +His perfections, however, were many and great. His wit was easy and +fruitful, his erudition considerable, his knowledge extensive--in which +last point he sometimes was led into mistakes, probably by those whom he +had charged to make researches for him. There is hardly a branch of +study on which he has not written something; for we have his orations, +his poems, epistles, and dialogs. In philosophic matters he was not so +accurate, but was admirable for his invectives against vice. + +He has many bright thoughts, and many things are well worth reading in +him for improvement of the moral character; but his elocution is, for +the most part, corrupt, and the more dangerous because its vices are of +a sweet and alluring nature. One could wish he had written with his own +genius and another's judgment. For if he had rejected some things, if he +had less studiously affected some engaging beauties, if he had not been +overfond of all his productions, if he had not weakened the importance +of his matter by frivolous thoughts, he would have been honored by the +approbation of the learned rather than by the love of striplings. + +However, such as he is, he may be read when the taste is formed and +strengthened by a more austere kind of eloquence, if for no other +reason than because he can exercise judgment on both sides. For, as I +have said, many things in him are worthy of praise, worthy even of +admiration if a proper choice had been made, which I wish he had made +himself, as indeed that nature is deserving of an inclination to embrace +what is better, which has ability to effect anything to which it +inclines. + + + + +KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE + + +Knowledge of the civil law will, likewise, be necessary for the orator +whom we have described, and together with it knowledge of the customs +and religion of the commonwealth of which he may take charge, for how +shall he be able to give counsel in public and private deliberations if +ignorant of the many things which happen together particularly to the +establishment of the State? And must he not falsely aver himself to be +the patron of the causes he undertakes, if obliged to borrow from +another what is of greatest consequence in these causes, in some measure +like those who repeat the writings of poets? And how will he accomplish +what he has so undertaken if the things which he requires the judge to +believe, he shall speak on the faith of another, and if he, the reputed +helper of his clients, shall himself stand in need of the help of +another? + + +THOROUGH INFORMATION INDISPENSABLE + +But we will suppose him not reduced to this inconvenience, having +studied his cause sufficiently at home, and having thoroughly informed +himself of all that he has thought proper to lay before the judges: yet +what shall become of him when unforeseen questions arise, which often +are suddenly started on the back of pleadings? Will he not with great +unseemliness look about him? Will he not ask the lower class of +advocates how he shall behave? Can he be accurate in comprehending the +things then whispered to him, when he is to speak on them instantly? +Can he strongly affirm, or speak ingenuously for his clients? Grant that +he may in his pleadings, but what shall be his fate in altercation, when +he must have his answer ready and he has no time for receiving +information? And what if a person learned in the law is not assisting? +What if one who knows little of the matter tells him something that is +wrong? And this is the greatest mischief in ignorance, to believe such a +monitor intelligent. + +Now, as we suppose the orator to be a particularly learned and honest +man, when he has made sufficient study of that which naturally is best, +it will give him little trouble if a lawyer dissents from him in +opinion, since even they are admitted to be of different opinions among +themselves. But if he desires to know their sentiments on any point of +law, he need only read a little, which is the least laborious part of +study. If many men who despaired of acquiring the necessary talents for +speaking in public, have engaged in the study of law, with how much more +ease will the orator effect this, which may be learned by those who from +their own confession could not be orators? + +M. Cato was as much distinguished by his great eloquence as by his great +learning in the law. Scævola and Servius Sulpitius, both eminent +lawyers, were also very eloquent. Cicero not only in pleading never +appeared at a loss in knowledge of the law, but also began to write some +tracts on it. From all these examples it appears that an orator may not +less attend to the teaching than the learning of it. + + +THE MANNER OF THE SPEAKER + +I would not have him who is to speak rise unconcerned, show no change of +color, and betray no sense of danger,--if they do not happen naturally, +they ought at least to be pretended. But this sense should proceed from +solicitude for performing well our duty, not from a motive of fear; and +we may decently betray emotion, but not faint away. The best remedy, +therefore, for bashfulness, is a modest assurance, and however weak the +forehead may be, it ought to be lifted up, and well it may by conscious +merit. + + +THE NEED OF GOOD DELIVERY + +There are natural aids, as specified before, which are improved by care, +and these are the voice, lungs, a good presence, and graceful action, +which are advantages sometimes so considerable as to beget a reputation +for wit. Our age produced orators more copious than Trachallus, but when +he spoke he seemed to surpass them all, so great was the advantage of +his stature, the sprightliness of his glance, the majesty of his aspect, +the beauty of his action, and a voice, not as Cicero desires it should +be, but almost like that of tragedians, and surpassing all the +tragedians I ever heard. I well remember that when he once pleaded in +the Julian Hall before the first bench of judges, and there also, as +usual, the four classes of judges were then sitting, and the whole place +rang with noise, he was not only heard distinctly from the four benches, +but also was applauded, which was a disparagement to those who spoke +after him. But this is the accumulation of what can be wished for, and a +happiness hard to be met with, and as it can not fall to every one's +lot, let the orator strive at least to make himself heard by those +before whom he speaks. + + +THE TEST OF AN ORATION + +Above all, as happens to a great many, let not desire for temporary +praise keep our orator from having an eye to the interest of the cause +he has undertaken. For as generals in waging wars do not always march +their armies over pleasant plains, but often must climb rugged hills, +must lay siege to forts and castles raised on steep rocks and mountains, +and fortified both by nature and by art: so an orator will be pleased +with an opportunity to make great excursions, and when he engages on +champion ground, he will display all his forces so as to make an +exceedingly fine appearance; but if under the necessity of unraveling +the intricacies of some points of law, or placing truth in a clear +light from amidst the obscurity thrown around it, he will not then +ostentatiously ride about, nor will he use a shower of pointed +sentences, as missive weapons; but he will carry on his operations by +frustrating his enemy; by mines, by ambuscade, and by stratagem: all of +which are not much to be commended while they are being used, but after +they have been practised. Whence those men benefit themselves most, who +seem least desirous of praise; for when the frivolous parade of +eloquence has ceased its bursts of thunder among its own applauders, the +more potent applause of true talents will appear in genuine splendor; +the judges will not conceal the impressions which have been made on +them; the sense of the learned will outweigh the opinion of ignorance: +so true it is that it is the winding up of the discourse, and the +success attending it, that must prove its true merit. + + +AVOIDING OSTENTATION + +It was customary with the ancients to hide their eloquence; and M. +Antonius advises orators so to do, in order that they may be the more +believed, and that their stratagems may be less suspected. But the +eloquence of those times could well be concealed, not yet having made an +accession of so many luminaries as to break out through every +intervening obstacle to the transmission of their light. But indeed all +art and design should be kept concealed, as most things when once, +discovered lose their value. In what I have hitherto spoken of, +eloquence loves nothing else so much as privacy. A choice of words, +weight of thought, elegance of figures, either do not exist, or they +appear. But because they appear, they are not therefore to be displayed +with ostentation. Or if one of the two is to be chosen, let the cause +rather than the advocate be praised; still the issue will justify him, +by his having pleaded excellently a very good cause. It is certain that +no one else pleads so ill as he who endeavors to please, while his cause +displeases; because the things by which he pleases must necessarily be +foreign to his subject. + +The orator ought not to be so particular and vain as not to undertake +the pleading of the smaller kind of causes, as beneath him, or as if a +matter of less consequence should in any respect lessen the reputation +he has acquired. Duty indeed is a just motive for his undertaking them, +and he should wish that his friends were never engaged in any other +kind of suits, which in the main are set off with sufficient eloquence +when he has spoken to the purpose. + + +DO NOT ABUSE YOUR OPPONENT + +Some are very liberal in abuse of the advocate of the opposing party, +but unless he has brought it upon himself, I think it is acting very +ungenerously by him, in consideration of the common duties of the +profession. Add to this that these sallies of passion are of no +advantage whatever to him who pleads, the opponent having, in his turn, +an equal right to abuse; and they may even be harmful to the cause, +because the opponent, spurred on to become a real enemy, musters +together all the forces of wit to conquer if possible. Above all, that +modesty is irrecoverably lost which procures for the orator so much +authority and belief, if once departing from the character of a good +man, he degenerates into a brawler and barker, conforming himself not to +the disposition of the judge, but to the caprice and resentment of the +client. + +Taking liberties of this kind frequently leads the orator to hazard some +rash expressions not less dangerous to the cause than to himself. +Pericles was accustomed to wish, with good reason, that no word might +ever enter his mind which could give umbrage to the people. But the +respect he had for the people ought in my opinion to be had for all, who +may have it in their power to do as much hurt; for the words that seemed +strong and bold when exprest, are called foolish when they have given +offense. + + +THOROUGH PREPARATION ESSENTIAL + +As every orator is remarkable for his manner, the care of one having +been imputed to slowness, and the facility of another to rashness, it +may not be amiss to point out here a medium. Let him come for pleading +prepared with all possible care, as it must argue not only neglect, but +also a wicked and treacherous disposition in him, to plead worse than he +can in the cause he undertakes, therefore he should not undertake more +causes than he is well able to handle. + +He should say things, studied and written, in as great a degree as the +subject can bear, and, as Demosthenes says, deeply engraven, if it were +possible, on his memory, and as perfect as may be. This may be done at +the first pleading of a cause, and when in public judgments a cause is +adjourned for some time before it comes to a rehearsing. But when a +direct reply is to be made, due preparations are impracticable; and even +they who are not so ready find what they have written to be rather a +prejudice to them if anything unexpectedly is brought forward; for it is +with reluctance that they part with what they have prepared, and keeping +it in mind during the whole pleading, they are forced to continually +wonder if anything can be taken from it to be included in what they are +obliged to speak extempore. And tho this may be done, there will still +be a lack of connection, and the incoherence will be discoverable from +the different coloring and inequality of style. Thus there is neither an +uninterrupted fluency in what they say extempore, nor a connection +between it and what they recite from memory, for which reason one must +be a hindrance to the other, for the written matter will always bring +to it the attention of the mind, and scarcely ever follow it. Therefore +in these actions, as country-laboring men say, we must stand firmly on +our legs. For, as every cause consists of proving and refuting, whatever +regards the first may be written, and whatever it is certain the +opponent will answer, as sometimes it is certain what he will, may be +refuted with equal care and study. + +Knowing the cause well is one essential point for being prepared in +other respects, and listening attentively to all the opponent states, is +another. Still we may previously think of many particular incidents and +prepare the mind for all emergencies, this being of special advantage in +speaking, the thought being thereby the more easily transmitted and +transferred. + +But when in answering or otherwise there may be necessity for extempore +speaking, the orator will never find himself at a loss and disconcerted, +who has been prepared by discipline, and study, and exercise, with the +powers of facility, and who, as always under arms and ready for +engaging, will no more lack a sufficient flow of speech in the pleading +of causes than he does in conversation on daily and domestic +occurrences; neither will he ever, for lack of coming duly prepared, +decline burdening himself with a cause, if he has time to learn the +state of it, for with anything else he always will be well +acquainted. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +The orator having distinguished himself by these perfections of +eloquence at the bar, in counsels, in the assemblies of the people, in +the senate, and in all the duties of a good citizen, ought to think, +likewise, of making an end worthy of an honest man and the sanctity of +his ministry: not that during the course of his life he ought to cease +being of service to society, or that, endowed with such integrity of +mind and such talent of eloquence, he can continue too long in the +exercise of so noble an employment; but because it is fitting that he +should guard against degrading his character, by doing anything which +may fall short of what he has already done. The orator is indebted for +what he is, not only to knowledge, which increases with his years, but +to his voice, lungs, and strength of body; and when the latter are +impaired by years, or debilitated by infirmities, it is to be feared +that something might be lacking in this great man, either from his +stopping short through fatigue, and out of breath at every effort, or by +not making himself sufficiently heard, or, lastly, by expecting, and not +finding, him to be what he formerly was. + +When the orator does sound a retreat, no less ample fruits of study will +attend on him. He either will write the history of his time for the +instruction of posterity, or he will explain the law to those who came +to ask his advice, or he will write a treatise on eloquence, or that +worthy mouth of his will employ itself in inculcating the finest moral +precepts. As was customary with the ancients, well-disposed youth will +frequent his house, consulting him as an oracle on the true manner of +speaking. As the parent of eloquence will he form them, and as an old +experienced pilot will he give them an account of shores, and harbors, +and what are the presages of storms, and what may be required for +working the ship in contrary or favorable winds. To all this will he be +induced not only by a duty of humanity common to mankind, but also by a +certain pleasure in it; for no one would be glad to see an art going +into decay, in which he himself excelled, and what is more laudable than +to teach others that in which one is perfectly skilled? + +For all I know, the happiest time in an orator's life is when he has +retired from the world to devote himself to rest; and, remote from envy, +and remote from strife, he looks back on his reputation, as from a +harbor of safety; and while still living has a sense of that veneration +which commonly awaits only the dead; thus anticipating the pleasure of +the noble impression posterity will conceive of him. I am conscious that +to the extent of my poor ability, whatever I knew before, and whatever I +could collect for the service of this work, I have candidly and +ingenuously made a communication of, for the instruction of those who +might be willing to reap any advantage from it: and it is enough for an +honest man to have taught what he knows. + +To be good men, which is the first and most important thing, consists +chiefly in the will, and whoever has a sincere desire to be a man of +integrity, will easily learn the arts that teach virtue; and these arts +are not involved in so many perplexities, neither are they of such +great number, as not to be learned by a few years' application. The +ordering of an upright and happy life is attainable by an easy and +compendious method, when inclination is not lacking. Nature begot us +with the best dispositions, and it is so easy to the well-inclined to +learn that which is good, that we can not help being surprized, on +making a due estimate of things, how there can be so many bad persons in +the world. For, as water is naturally a proper element for fish, dry +land for quadrupeds, and air for birds, so indeed it ought to be more +easy to live according to the prescript of nature than to infringe her +laws. + +As to the rest, tho we might measure our age, not by the space of more +advanced years, but by the time of youth, we should find that we had +quite years enough for learning, all things being made shorter by +order, method, and the manner of application. To bring the matter home +to our oratorical studies, of what significance is the custom which I +see kept up by many, of declaiming so many years in schools, and of +expending so much labor on imaginary subjects, when in a moderate time +the rules of eloquence may be learned, and pursuant to their directions, +a real image framed of the contests at the bar? By this I do not mean to +hint in the least that exercises for speaking should ever be +discontinued, but rather that none should grow old in any one particular +exercise for that purpose, for we may require the knowledge of many +sciences, and learn the precepts of morality, and exercise ourselves in +such causes as are agitated at the bar, even while we continue in the +state of scholars. And indeed the art of oratory is such as need not +require many years for learning it. Each of the arts I have mentioned +may be abridged into few books, there being no occasion to consider them +so minutely and so much in detail. Practise remains, which soon makes us +well skilled in them. Knowledge of things is increasing daily, and yet +books are not so many; it is necessary to read in order to acquire this +knowledge, of which either examples as to the things themselves may be +met with in history, or the eloquent expression of them may be found in +orators. It is also necessary that we should read the opinions of +philosophers and lawyers, with some other things deserving of notice. + + +TAKING TIME FOR STUDY + +All this indeed may be compassed, but we ourselves are the cause of our +not having time enough. How small a portion of it do we allot to our +studies! A good part of it is spent in frivolous compliments and paying +and returning visits, a good part of it is taken up in the telling of +idle stories, a good part at the public spectacles, and a good part in +the pleasures of the table. Add to these our great variety of +amusements, and that extravagant indulgence we bestow upon our bodies. +One time we must go on a course of travels, another time we wish +recreation amidst the pleasures of rural life, and another time we are +full of painful solicitude regarding the state of our fortune, +calculating and balancing our loss and gain; and together with these, +how often do we give ourselves up to the intoxication of wine, and in +what a multiplicity of voluptuousness does our profligate mind suffer +itself to be immersed? Should there be an interval for study amidst +these avocations, can it be said to be proper? But were we to devote all +this idle or ill-spent time to study, should we not find life long +enough and time more than enough for becoming learned? This is evident +by only computing the time of the day, besides the advantages of the +night, of which a good part is more than sufficient for sleep. But we +now preposterously compute not the years we have studied, but the years +we have lived. Tho geometricians and grammarians, and the professors of +other arts, spent all their lives, however long, in treating and +discussing their respective arts, does it thence follow that we must +have as many lives as there are things to be learned? But they did not +extend the learning of them to old age, being content with learning them +only, and they spent so many years not so much in their study as in +their practise. + +Now, tho one should despair of reaching to the height of perfection, a +groundless hope even in a person of genius, health, talent, and with +masters to assist him; yet it is noble, as Cicero says, to have a place +in the second, or third, rank. He who can not rival the glory of +Achilles in military exploits, shall not therefore have a mean opinion +of the praise due to Ajax, or Diomedes, and he who can not approach +Homer, need not despise the fame of Tyrteus. If men were to yield to the +thought of imagining none capable of exceeding such eminent persons as +went before them, then they even who are deemed excellent would not have +been so. Vergil would not have excelled Lucretius and Macer; nor Cicero, +Crassus and Hortensius; and no one for the future would pretend to any +advantage over his predecessor. + +Tho the hope of surpassing these great men be but faint, yet it is an +honor to follow them. Have Pollio and Messala, who began to appear at +the bar when Cicero was already possest of the empire of eloquence, +acquired little dignity in their life-time, and left but a small degree +of glory for the remembrance of posterity? True it is that arts brought +to perfection would deserve very ill of human affairs if afterward they +could not at least be kept to the same standard. + + +THE REWARDS OF ELOQUENCE + +Add to this that a moderate share of eloquence is attended with no small +advantage, and if measured by the fruits gathered from it, will almost +be on a par with that which is perfect. It would be no difficult matter +to show from many ancient or modern examples that no other profession +acquires for men, greater honors, wealth, friendship, present and future +glory, were it not degrading to the honor of letters to divert the mind +from the contemplation of the most noble object, the study and +possession of which is such a source of contentment, and fix it on the +less momentous rewards it may have, not unlike those who say they do not +so much seek virtue as the pleasure resulting from it. + +Let us therefore with all the zealous impulses of our heart endeavor to +attain the very majesty of eloquence, than which the immortal gods have +not imparted anything better to mankind, and without which all would be +mute in nature, and destitute of the splendor of a perfect glory and +future remembrance. Let us likewise always make continued progress +toward perfection, and by so doing we shall either reach the height, or +at least shall see many beneath us. + +This is all, as far as in me lies, I could contribute to the promoting +and perfecting of the art of eloquence; the knowledge of which, if it +does not prove of any great advantage to studious youth, will, at least, +what I more heartily wish for, give them a more ardent desire for doing +well. + + + + + * * * * * + +ADVERTISEMENTS + + * * * * * + +How to Read and Declaim + +A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN READING AND DECLAMATION HAVING AS ITS PRIME +OBJECT THE CULTIVATION OF TASTE AND REFINEMENT + +By GRENVILLE KLEISER + +_Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity School; Author +of "How to Speak in Public," etc._ + + +This eminently practical book is divided into five parts: + +PART ONE--Preparatory Course: Twenty Lessons on Naturalness, +Distinctness, Vivacity, Confidence, Simplicity, Deliberateness, and +kindred topics. + +PART TWO--Advance Course: Twenty Lessons on Thought Values, Thought +Directions, Persuasion, Power, Climax, etc., etc. + +PART THREE--Articulation and Pronunciation. + +PART FOUR--Gesture and Facial Expression. + +PART FIVE--The most up-to-date and popular prose and poetic selections +anywhere to be found. + +It is a book to beget intelligent reading, so as to develop in the +student mental alertness, poise, and self-confidence. + +_12mo, Cloth. $1.50, net; by mail, $1.65_ + +FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, Publishers + +NEW YORK and LONDON + + * * * * * + +Kleiser's Complete Guide to Public Speaking + +_By GRENVILLE KLEISER_ + +Famous Author of many Practical Books and Courses + + +The only extensive, comprehensive, encyclopedic work of its kind ever +issued. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Training of a Public Speaker + +Author: Grenville Kleiser + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Morgan, Martin Pettit and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> + +<h1>THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>GRENVILLE KLEISER</h2> + +<h4><i>Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity</i><br /> +<i>School, Yale University. Author of "How to Speak</i><br /> +<i>in Public," "Great Speeches and How to Make</i><br /> +<i>Them," "Complete Guide to Public Speak-</i><br /> +<i>ing," "How to Build Mental Power,"</i><br /> +<i>"Talks on Talking," etc., etc.</i></h4> + +<p class='tbrk'> </p> + +<p class="center"><img src="images/003.png" width='150' height='140' alt="Publisher's logo" /></p> + +<p class='tbrk'> </p> + +<h3>FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY</h3> + +<h4>NEW YORK AND LONDON<br />1920</h4> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1920, by</span></h4> + +<h3>GRENVILLE KLEISER</h3> + +<h4>[<i>Printed in the United States of America</i>]</h4> + +<h4>Published, February, 1920</h4> + +<p class='tbrk'> </p> + +<h4>Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the +Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910</h4> + +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="index"> +<ul> +<li><a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#RHETORIC_AND_ELOQUENCE"><span class="smcap">Rhetoric and Eloquence</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#THE_EXORDIUM_OR_INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">The Exordium or Introduction</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#THE_NARRATION"><span class="smcap">The Narration</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#DIVISION_AND_ARGUMENT"><span class="smcap">Division and Argument</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#THE_PERORATION"><span class="smcap">The Peroration</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#PASSION_AND_PERSUASION"><span class="smcap">Passion and Persuasion</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#THE_STUDY_OF_WORDS"><span class="smcap">The Study of Words</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#ELEGANCE_AND_GRACE"><span class="smcap">Elegance and Grace</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#COMPOSITION_AND_STYLE"><span class="smcap">Composition and Style</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#COPIOUSNESS_OF_WORDS"><span class="smcap">Copiousness of Words</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#KNOWLEDGE_AND_SELF-CONFIDENCE"><span class="smcap">Knowledge and Self-confidence</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#CONCLUSION"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></a></li> +<li><a href="#ADVERTISEMENTS"><span class="smcap">Advertisements</span></a></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>The power of eloquence to move and persuade men is universally +recognized. To-day the public speaker plays a vital part in the solution +of every great question and problem. Oratory, in the true sense, is not +a lost art, but a potent means of imparting information, instruction, +and persuasion.</p> + +<p>Eloquence is still "the appropriate organ of the highest personal +energy." As one has well said, "The orator is not compelled to wait +through long and weary years to reap the reward of his labors. His +triumphs are instantaneous."</p> + +<p>And again, "To stand up before a vast assembly composed of men of the +most various callings, views, passions, and prejudices, and mold them at +will;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> to play upon their hearts and minds as a master upon the keys of +a piano; to convince their understandings by the logic, and to thrill +their feelings by the art of the orator; to see every eye watching his +face, and every ear intent on the words that drop from his lips; to see +indifference changed to breathless interest, and aversion to rapturous +enthusiasm; to hear thunders of applause at the close of every period; +to see the whole assembly animated by the feelings which in him are +burning and struggling for utterance; and to think that all this is the +creation of the moment, and has sprung instantaneously from his fiery +brain and the inspiration imparted to it by the circumstances of the +hour;—<i>this</i>, perhaps, is the greatest triumph of which the human mind +is capable, and that in which its divinity is most signally revealed."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + +<p>The aims and purposes of speaking to-day have radically changed from +former times. Deliberative bodies, composed of busy men, meet now to +discuss and dispose of grave and weighty business. There is little +necessity nor scope for eloquence. Time is too valuable to permit of +prolonged speaking. Men are tacitly expected to "get to the point," and +to be reasonably brief in what they have to say.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances certain extravagant types of old-time oratory +would be ineffectual to-day. The stentorian and dramatic tones, with +hand inserted in the breast of the coat, with exaggerated facial +expression, and studied posture, would make a speaker to-day an object +of ridicule.</p> + +<p>This applies equally to speech in the law court, pulpit, on the lecture +platform, and in other departments of pub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>lic address. The implicit +demand everywhere is that the speaker should say what he has to say +naturally, simply, and concisely.</p> + +<p>This does not mean, however, that he must confine himself to plain +statement of fact, with no manifestation of feeling or earnestness. Men +are still influenced and persuaded by impassioned speech. There is +nothing incompatible between deep feeling and clear-cut speech. A man +having profound convictions upon any subject of importance will always +speak on it with fervor and sincerity.</p> + +<p>The widespread interest in the subject of public speaking has suggested +this adaptation of Quintilian's celebrated work on the education of the +orator. This work has long been regarded as one of the most valuable +treatises ever written on oratory, but in its original form it is +ponderous and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> inaccessible to the average reader. In the present +abridged and modernized form it may be read and studied with benefit by +earnest students of the art of public speaking.</p> + +<p>A brief account of Quintilian says: "Quintilianus, M. Fabius, was born +at Calagurris, in Spain, <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 40. He completed his education at Rome, +and began to practise at the bar about 68. But he was chiefly +distinguished as a teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm in his +department from all his rivals, and associating his name, even to a +proverb, with preeminence in the art. By Domitian he was invested with +the insignia and title of consul, and is, moreover, celebrated as the +first public instructor who, in virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, +received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. He is supposed to +have died about 118. The great work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> of Quintilian is a complete system +of rhetoric, in twelve books, entitled <i>De Institutione Oratoria Libre +XII</i>, or sometimes <i>Institutiones Oratoriæ</i>, dedicated to his friend +Marcellus Victorius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favorite at +Court. This production bears throughout the impress of a clear, sound +judgment, keen discrimination, and pure taste, improved by extensive +reading, deep reflection, and long practise."</p> + +<p>The text used for this condensation is from the version of J. Patsall, +A.M., London, 1774, according to the Paris edition by Professor Rollin. +Many parts of the original work have been re-written or abridged, while +several chapters have been entirely omitted.</p> + +<p class='right'><span class="smcap">Grenville Kleiser</span></p> +<p>New York City,<br />August, 1919.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="RHETORIC_AND_ELOQUENCE" id="RHETORIC_AND_ELOQUENCE"></a>RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE</h2> + +<h3>WHAT RHETORIC IS</h3> + +<p>Rhetoric has been commonly defined as "The power of persuading." This +opinion originated with Isocrates, if the work ascribed to him be really +his; not that he intended to dishonor his profession, tho he gives us a +generous idea of rhetoric by calling it the workmanship of persuasion. +We find almost the same thing in the Gorgias of Plato, but this is the +opinion of that rhetorician, and not of Plato. Cicero has written in +many places that the duty of an orator is to speak in "a manner proper +to persuade"; and in his books of rhetoric, of which undoubtedly he does +not approve himself, he makes the end of eloquence to consist in +persuasion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> + +<p>But does not money likewise persuade? Is not credit, the authority of +the speaker, the dignity of a respectable person, attended with the same +effect? Even without speaking a word, the remembrance of past services, +the appearance of distress, a beautiful aspect, make deep impressions on +minds and are decisive in their favor.</p> + +<p>Did Antonius, pleading the cause of M. Aquilius, trust to the force of +his reasons when he abruptly tore open his garment and exposed to view +the honorable wounds he received fighting for his country? This act of +his forced streams of tears from the eyes of the Roman people, who, not +able to resist so moving a spectacle, acquitted the criminal. Sergius +Galba escaped the severity of the laws by appearing in court with his +own little children, and the son of Gallus Sulpitius, in his arms. The +sight of so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> many wretched objects melted the judges into compassion. +This we find equally attested by some of our historians and by a speech +of Cato. What shall I say of the example of Phryne, whose beauty was of +more service in her cause than all the eloquence of Hyperides; for tho +his pleading was admirable in her defense, yet perceiving it to be +without effect, by suddenly laying open her tunic he disclosed the naked +beauty of her bosom, and made the judges sensible that she had as many +charms for them as for others. Now, if all these instances persuade, +persuasion, then, can not be the end of rhetoric.</p> + +<p>Some, therefore, have seemed to themselves rather more exact who, in the +main of the same way of thinking, define rhetoric as the "Power of +persuading by speaking." It is to this that Gorgias, in the book above +cited, is at last reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> by Socrates. Theodectes does not much differ +from them, if the work ascribed to him be his, or Aristotle's. In this +book the end of rhetoric is supposed to be "The leading of men wherever +one pleases by the faculty of speaking." But this definition is not +sufficiently comprehensive. Many others besides the orator persuade by +their words and lead minds in whatever direction they please.</p> + +<p>Some, therefore, as Aristotle, setting aside the consideration of the +end, have defined rhetoric to be "The power of inventing whatever is +persuasive in a discourse." This definition is equally as faulty as that +just mentioned, and is likewise defective in another respect, as +including only invention, which, separate from elocution, can not +constitute a speech.</p> + +<p>It appears from Plato's Gorgias that he was far from regarding rhetoric +as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> an art of ill tendency, but that, rather it is, or ought to be, if +we were to conceive an adequate idea of it inseparable from virtue. This +he explains more clearly in his Phædrus, where he says that "The art can +never be perfect without an exact knowledge and strict observance of +justice." I join him in this opinion, and if these were not his real +sentiments, would he have written an apology for Socrates and the +eulogium of those brave citizens who lost their lives in the defense of +their country? This is certainly acting the part of an orator, and if in +any respect he attacks the profession, it is on account of those who +make ill use of eloquence. Socrates, animated with the same spirit, +thought it unworthy of him to pronounce the speech Lysias had composed +for his defense, it being the custom of the orators of those times to +write speeches for ar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>raigned criminals, which the latter pronounced in +their own defense; thus eluding the law that prohibited pleading for +another. Plato, likewise, in his Phædrus, condemns the masters that +separated rhetoric from justice, and preferred probabilities to truth.</p> + +<p>Such are the definitions of rhetoric which have been principally set +forth. To go through all of them is not my purpose, nor do I think it +possible, as most writers on arts have shown a perverse dislike for +defining things as others do or in the same terms as those who wrote +before them. I am far from being influenced by a like spirit of +ambition, and far from flattering myself with the glory of invention, +and I shall rest content with that which seems most rational, that +rhetoric is properly defined as "The science of speaking well." Having +found what is best, it is useless to seek further.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<p>Accepting this definition, therefore, it will be no difficult matter to +ascertain its end, for if it be "The science of speaking well," then "to +speak well" will be the end it proposes to itself.</p> + +<h3>THE USE OF RHETORIC</h3> + +<p>The next question is on the utility of rhetoric, and from this point of +view some direct the bitterest invectives against it, and what is very +unbecoming, exert the force of eloquence against eloquence, saying that +by it the wicked are freed from punishment, and the innocent opprest by +its artifices; that it perverts good counsel, and enforces bad; that it +foments troubles and seditions in States; that it arms nations against +each other, and makes them irreconcilable enemies; and that its power is +never more manifest than when error and lies triumph over truth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<p>Comic poets reproach Socrates with teaching how to make a bad cause +good, and Plato represents Lysias and Gorgias boasting the same thing. +To these may be added several examples of Greeks and Romans, and a long +list of orators whose eloquence was not only the ruin of private +persons, but even destructive to whole cities and republics; and for +this reason it was that eloquence was banished from Sparta and so +restricted at Athens that the orator was not allowed to make appeal to +the passions.</p> + +<p>Granting all this as sound argument, we must draw this necessary +inference, that neither generals of armies, nor magistrates, nor +medicine, nor philosophy, will be of any use. Flaminius, an imprudent +general, lost one of our armies. The Gracchi Saturninus, and Glaucia, to +raise themselves to dignity, put Rome into an uproar. Physicians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> often +administer poisons, and among philosophers some have been found guilty +of the most enormous crimes. Let us not eat of the meats with which our +tables are spread, for meats frequently have caused disease. Let us +never go into houses; they may fall and crush us to death. Let not our +soldiers be armed with swords; a robber may use the same weapon against +us. In short, who does not know that the most necessary things in life, +as air, fire, water, nay, even the celestial bodies, are sometimes very +injurious to our well-being?</p> + +<p>But how many examples can be quoted in our favor? Did not Appius the +Blind, by the force of his eloquence dissuade the Senate from making a +shameful peace with Pyrrhus? Did not Cicero's divine eloquence appear +more popular than the Agrarian law he at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>tacked? Did it not disconcert +the audacious measures of Cataline? And did not he, even in his civil +capacity, obtain by it honors that are conferred on only the most +illustrious conquerors? Is it not the orator who strengthens the +soldier's drooping courage, who animates him amidst the greatest +dangers, and inspires him to choose a glorious death rather than a life +of infamy?</p> + +<p>The example of the Romans, among whom eloquence always has been held in +the greatest veneration, shall have a higher place in my regard than +that of the Spartans and Athenians. It is not to be supposed that the +founders of cities could have made a united people of a vagabond +multitude without the charms of persuasive words, nor that law-givers, +without extraordinary talent for speaking, could have forced men to bend +their necks to the yoke of the laws. Even the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> precepts of moral life, +tho engraved on our hearts by the finger of nature, are more efficacious +to inspire our hearts with love for them when their beauty is displayed +by the ornaments of eloquent speech. Tho the arms of eloquence may harm +and benefit equally, we must not, therefore, look on that as bad which +may be put to a good use. Doubts of this kind may well be entertained by +such as make "the force persuasion the end of eloquence," but we who +constitute it "The science of speaking well," resolved to acknowledge +none but the good man an orator, must naturally judge that its advantage +is very considerable.</p> + +<p>Certainly, the gracious Author of all beings and Maker of the world, has +distinguished us from the animals in no respect more than by the gift of +speech. They surpass us in bulk, in strength, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> the supporting of +toil, in speed, and stand less in need of outside help. Guided by nature +only, they learn sooner to walk, to seek for their food, and to swim +over rivers. They have on their bodies sufficient covering to guard them +against cold; all of them have their natural weapons of defense; their +food lies, in a manner, on all sides of them; and we, indigent beings! +to what anxieties are we put in securing these things? But God, a +beneficent parent, gave us reason for our portion, a gift which makes us +partakers of a life of immortality. But this reason would be of little +use to us, and we would be greatly perplexed to make it known, unless we +could express by words our thoughts. This is what animals lack, more +than thought and understanding, of which it can not be said they are +entirely destitute. For to make themselves secure and commodious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +lodges, to interweave their nests with such art, to rear their young +with such care, to teach them to shift for themselves when grown up, to +hoard provisions for the winter, to produce such inimitable works as wax +and honey, are instances perhaps of a glimmering of reason; but because +destitute of speech, all the extraordinary things they do can not +distinguish them from the brute part of creation. Let us consider dumb +persons: how does the heavenly soul, which takes form in their bodies, +operate in them? We perceive, indeed, that its help is but weak, and its +action but languid.</p> + +<h3>THE VALUE OF THE GIFT OF SPEECH</h3> + +<p>If, then, the beneficent Creator of the world has not imparted to us a +greater blessing than the gift of speech, what can we esteem more +deserving of our labor and improvement, and what ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>ject is more worthy +of our ambition than that of raising ourselves above other men by the +same means by which they raise themselves above beasts, so much the more +as no labor is attended with a more abundant harvest of glory? To be +convinced of this we need only consider by what degrees eloquence has +been brought to the perfection in which we now see it, and how far it +might still be perfected. For, not to mention the advantage and pleasure +a good man reaps from defending his friends, governing the Senate by his +counsels, seeing himself the oracle of the people, and master of armies, +what can be more noble than by the faculty of speaking and thinking, +which is common to all men, to erect for himself such a standard of +praise and glory as to seem to the minds of men not so much to discourse +and speak, but, like Pericles, to make his words thunder and lightning.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE ART OF SPEAKING</h3> + +<p>There would be no end were I to expatiate to the limit of my inclination +on the subject of the gift of speech and its utility. I shall pass, +therefore, to the following question, "Whether rhetoric be an art?" +Those who wrote rules for eloquence doubted so little its being so, that +they prefixt no other title to their books than "The art of speaking." +Cicero says that what we call rhetoric is only an artificial eloquence. +If this were an opinion peculiar to orators, it might be thought that +they intended it as a mark of dignity attached to their studies, but +most philosophers, stoics as well as peripatetics, concur in this +opinion. I must confess I had some doubt about discussing this matter, +lest I might seem diffident of its truth; for who can be so devoid of +sense and knowledge as to find art in architecture, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> weaving, in +pottery, and imagine that rhetoric, the excellence of which we have +already shown, could arrive at its present state of grandeur and +perfection without the direction of art? I am persuaded that those of +the contrary opinion were so more for the sake of exercising their wit +on the singularity of the subject than from any real conviction.</p> + +<h3>IS ELOQUENCE A GIFT OF NATURE?</h3> + +<p>Some maintain that rhetoric is a gift of nature, yet admit that it may +be helped by exercise. Antonius, in Cicero's books of the Orator, calls +it a sort of observation and not an art. But this opinion is not there +asserted as truth, but only to keep up the character of Antonius, who +was a connoisseur at concealing art. Lysias seems to be of the same +opinion, which he defends by saying that the most simple and ignorant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +people possess a kind of rhetoric when they speak for themselves. They +find something like an exordium, they make a narration, they prove, +refute, and their prayers and entreaties have the force of a peroration. +Lysias and his adherents proceed afterward to vain subtleties. "That +which is the effect of art," say they, "could not have existed before +art. In all times men have known how to speak for themselves and against +others, but masters of rhetoric have been only of a late date, first +known about the time of Tisias and Corax; therefore oratorical speech +was prior to art, consequently it could not be the result of art, and +therefore, rhetoric is not an art." We shall not endeavor to enquire +into the time when rhetoric began to be taught, but this we may say, +that it is certain Homer makes mention not only of Phœnix, who was a +master, skilled in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> both speaking and fighting, but also of many other +orators. We may observe likewise from Homer, that all the parts of a +discourse are found in the speech of the three captains deputed to +Achilles, that several young men dispute for the prize of eloquence, and +that among other ornaments of sculpture on the buckler of Achilles, +Vulcan did not forget law-causes and the pleaders of them.</p> + +<p>It will be sufficient, however, to answer that "Everything perfected by +art has its source in nature." If it were not so, we should exclude +medicine from the catalog of arts, the discovery of which was owing to +observations made on things conducive or harmful to public health, and +in the opinion of some it is wholly grounded on experiments. Before it +was reduced to an art, tents and bandages were applied to wounds, rest +and abstinence cured fever; not that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> reason of all this was then +known, but the nature of the ailment indicated such curative methods and +forced men to this regimen. In like manner architecture can not be an +art, the first men having built their cottages without its direction. +Music must undergo the same charge, as every nation has its own +peculiarities in dancing and singing. Now, if by rhetoric be meant any +kind of speech, I must own it prior to art; but if not everyone who +speaks is an orator, and if in the primitive ages of the world men did +not speak orator-like, the orator, consequently, must have been made so +by art, and therefore could not exist before it.</p> + +<h3>RHETORIC AND MISREPRESENTATION</h3> + +<p>The next objection is not one so much in reality as it is a mere cavil; +that "Art never assents to false opinions, because it can not be +constituted as such without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> precepts, which are always true; but +rhetoric assents to what is false, therefore it is not an art." I admit +that sometimes rhetoric says false things instead of true, but it does +not follow that it assents to what is false. There is a wide difference +between assenting to a falsehood, and making others assent to it. So it +is that a general of an army often has recourse to stratagems. When +Hannibal perceived himself to be blocked up by Fabius, he ordered +faggots of brush-wood to be fastened about the horns of some oxen, and +fire being set to the faggots, had the cattle driven up the mountains in +the night, in order to make the enemy believe he was about to decamp. +But this was only a false alarm, for he himself very well knew what his +scheme was. When Theopompus the Spartan, by changing clothes with his +wife, made his escape out of prison, the deception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> was not imposed upon +himself, but upon his guards. Thus, when an orator speaks falsehood +instead of truth, he knows what he is about; he does not yield to it +himself, his intention being to deceive others. When Cicero boasted that +he threw darkness on the minds of the judges, in the cause of Cluentius, +could it be said that he himself was unacquainted with all the +intricacies of his method of confusing their understanding of the facts? +Or shall a painter who so disposes his objects that some seem to project +from the canvas, others to sink in, be supposed not to know that they +are all drawn on a plain surface?</p> + +<h3>THE OBJECT OF A SPEECH</h3> + +<p>It is again objected that "Every art proposes to itself an end; but +rhetoric has no end, or does not put into execution the end it proposes +to itself." This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> is false, as is shown from what already has been said +concerning the end of rhetoric and in what it consists. The orator will +never fail to obtain this end, for he always will speak well. This +objection, therefore, can affect only those who make persuasion the end +of rhetoric; but our orator, and our definition of art, are not +restricted to events. An orator, indeed, strives to gain his cause; but +suppose he loses it, as long as he has pleaded well he fulfils the +injunctions of his art. A pilot desires to come safe into port, but if a +storm sweeps away his ship, is he, on that account, a less experienced +pilot? His keeping constantly to the helm is sufficient proof that he +was not neglecting his duty. A physician tries to cure a sick person, +but if his remedies are hindered in their operation by either the +violence of the disease, the intemperance of the patient,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> or some +unforeseen accident, he is not to be blamed, because he has satisfied +all the directions of his art. So it is with the orator, whose end is to +speak well; for it is in the act, and not in the effect, that art +consists, as I shall soon make clear. Therefore, it is false to say that +"Art knows when it has obtained its end, but rhetoric knows nothing of +the matter," as if an orator could be ignorant of his speaking well and +to the purpose.</p> + +<p>But it is said, further, that rhetoric, contrary to the custom of all +other arts, adopts vice, because it countenances falsehood and moves the +passions. Neither of these are bad practises, and consequently not +vicious, when grounded on substantial reasons. To disguise truth is +sometimes allowable even in the sage, and if a judge can not be brought +to do justice except by means of the pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>sions, the orator must +necessarily have recourse to them. Very often the judges appointed to +decide are ignorant, and there is necessity for changing their wrongly +conceived opinions, to keep them from error. Should there be a bench, a +tribunal, an assembly of wise and learned judges whose hearts are +inaccessible to hatred, envy, hope, fear, prejudice, and the impositions +of false witnesses, there would be little occasion for the exertions of +eloquence and all that might seem requisite would be only to amuse the +ear with the harmony of cadence. But if the orator has to deal with +light, inconstant, prejudiced, and corrupt judges, and if many +embarrassments must be removed in order to throw light upon truth, then +artful stratagem must fight the battle, and set all its engines to work, +for he who is beaten out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> of the straight road can not get into it again +except by another turnabout.</p> + +<h3>ELOQUENCE ACQUIRED BY STUDY AND PRACTISE</h3> + +<p>These are the principal objections which have been made against +rhetoric. There are others of less moment but derived from the same +source. That rhetoric is an art is thus briefly demonstrated. If art, as +Cleanthes thinks, is a power which prepares a way and establishes an +order, can it be doubted that we must keep to a certain way and a +certain order for speaking well? And if, according to the most generally +accepted opinion, we ought to call art, everything which by a +combination of agreeing and co-exercised principles conducts to a useful +end, have we not already shown that nothing of all this is lacking in +rhetoric?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> Has it not, likewise, the two constituent parts of other +arts, theory and practise? Again, if dialect be an art, as it is +granted, for the same reason; so is rhetoric an art, the chief +difference lying not so much in the genus as in the species. But we must +not forget this observation, that art must be where a thing is done +according to rule, and not at random; and art must be where he who has +learned succeeds better than he who has not learned. But in matter of +eloquence not only will the ignorant person be surpassed by the learned, +but also the learned by the more learned; otherwise we should not have +so many rules nor so many excellent masters. This ought to be +acknowledged by all, but more especially by us who do not separate +eloquence from the man of integrity.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="THE_EXORDIUM_OR_INTRODUCTION" id="THE_EXORDIUM_OR_INTRODUCTION"></a>THE EXORDIUM OR INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p>The exordium, or introduction, is that part of the discourse which is +pronounced before the subject is entered upon. As musicians make a +prelude for obtaining silence and attention before they play their +selections, so orators, before they begin their cause, have specified by +the same application that which they say by way of preface for securing +for themselves a kindly feeling in the listeners.</p> + +<h3>THE PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION</h3> + +<p>The reason for an exordium is to dispose the auditors to be favorable to +us in the other parts of the discourse. This, as most authors agree, is +accomplished by making them friendly, attentive, and receptive, tho due +regard should be paid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> to these three particulars throughout the whole +of a speech.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the exordium is applicable to the pleader of the cause, who, +tho he ought to speak very little of himself, and always modestly, will +find it of vast consequence to create a good opinion of himself and to +make himself thought to be an honest man. So it is he will be regarded +not so much as a zealous advocate, as a faithful and irreproachable +witness. His motives for pleading must, therefore, appear to proceed not +from tie of kindred, or friendship, but principally from a desire to +promote the public good, if such motive can be urged, or any other +important consideration. This conduct will befit plaintiffs in a much +greater degree, that they may seem to have brought their action for just +and weighty reasons, or were even compelled to do it from necessity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> + +<p>As nothing else gives so great a sanction to the authority of the +speaker as to be free from all suspicion of avarice, hatred, and +ambition, so, also, there is a sort of tacit recommendation of ourselves +if we profess our weak state and inability for contending with the +superior genius and talents of the advocate of the other side. We are +naturally disposed to favor the weak and opprest, and a conscientious +judge hears an orator willingly whom he presumes not to be capable of +making him swerve from his fixt purpose of doing justice. Hence the care +of the ancients for concealing their talents.</p> + +<h3>IDEAS TO AVOID AND TO INCLUDE</h3> + +<p>All contemptuous, spiteful, haughty, calumniating expressions must be +avoided and not so much as even insinuated to the defamation of any +particular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> person or rank, much less against those to whom an affront +would alienate the minds of the judges. To be so imprudent as to attack +judges themselves, not openly, but in any indirect manner, would be most +unwise.</p> + +<p>The advocate for the other side may likewise furnish sufficient matter +for an exordium. Sometimes honorable mention may be made of him, as when +we pretend to be in dread of his interest and eloquence in order to make +them suspected by the judges, and sometimes by casting odium on him, +altho this must be done very seldom. I rather think, from the authority +of the best authors, that whatever affects the orator, affects also the +cause he patronizes, as it is natural for a judge to give more credit to +those whom he more willingly hears.</p> + +<p>We shall procure the favor of the judge not so much by praising him,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +which ought to be done with moderation, and is common to both sides, but +rather by making his praise fitting, and connecting it with the interest +of our cause. Thus, in speaking for a person of consequence, we may lay +some stress on the judge's own dignity; for one of mean condition, on +his justice; for the unhappy, on his mercy; for the injured, on his +severity.</p> + +<h3>STUDYING YOUR HEARERS</h3> + +<p>It also would not be amiss to become acquainted, if possible, with his +character. For, according as his temper is, harsh or mild, pleasant or +grave, severe or easy, the cause should be made to incline toward the +side which corresponds with his disposition, or to admit some mitigation +or softening where it runs counter to it.</p> + +<p>It may happen sometimes, too, that the judge is our enemy, or the +opponent's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> friend. This is a circumstance requiring the circumspection +of both parties, yet I think the favored advocate should behave with +great caution, for a judge of a biased disposition will sometimes choose +to pass sentence against his friends, or in favor of those to whom he +bears enmity, that he may not appear to act with injustice.</p> + +<h3>AROUSING EMOTIONS</h3> + +<p>Judges have also their private opinions and prejudices, which we must +either strengthen or weaken, according as we see necessary. Fear, too, +sometimes must be removed, as Cicero, in his defense of Milo, endeavors +to assure the judges that Pompey's army, drawn up about the Forum, is +for their protection; and sometimes there will be an occasion to +intimidate them, as the same orator does in one of his pleadings against +Verres.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are two ways of proceeding in this last case, the first plausible, +and frequently used, as when it is hinted to them that the Roman people +might entertain an ill opinion of them, or that there might be an appeal +from their judgment; the other desperate, and not so much used, as when +threatened with prosecution themselves if they suffer themselves to be +corrupted. This is a hazardous point, and is conducted with more safety +to the orator when in a large assembly where corrupt judges are +restrained by fear, and the upright have the majority. But I would never +counsel this before a single judge, unless every other resource was +wanting. If necessity requires it, I can not say that it is the business +of the art of oratory to give directions in the matter, any more than to +lodge an appeal, tho that, too, is often of service, or to cite the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +judge in justice before he passes sentence, for to threaten, denounce, +or indict may be done by any one else as well as the orator.</p> + +<p>If the cause itself should furnish sufficient reason for gaining the +good will of the judge, out of this whatever is most specious and +favorable may be inserted in the exordium. It will be unnecessary to +enumerate all the favorable circumstances in causes, they being easily +known from the state of facts; besides, no exact enumeration can take +place on account of the great diversity of law-suits. It is the cause +itself, therefore, that must teach us to find and improve these +circumstances; and, in like manner, with a circumstance that may make +against us the cause will inform us how it may either be made entirely +void, or at least invalidated.</p> + +<p>From the cause compassion also some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>times arises, whether we have +already suffered or are likely to suffer anything grievous. For I am not +of the opinion of those who to distinguish the exordium from the +peroration, will have the one to speak of what is past and the other of +what is to come. They are sufficiently distinguished without this +discrimination. In the exordium the orator ought to be more reserved, +and ought only to throw out some hints of the sentiments of compassion +he designs to excite in the minds of the judges; whereas in the +peroration he may pour out all the passions, introduce persons speaking, +and make the dead to come forth, as it were, out of their graves, and +recommend to the judges the care of their dearest pledges. All these +particulars are seldom executed in the exordium. But the manner just +pointed out, it will be very proper to observe in it, and to wear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> down +all impressions to the contrary made by the opposite side, that as our +situation will be deplorable if we should be defeated in our +expectations, so, on the other hand, the behavior of our opponent would +be insolent and haughty.</p> + +<h3>MATERIAL FOR THE INTRODUCTION</h3> + +<p>Besides persons and causes, the exordium likewise is sometimes taken +from their adjuncts, that is, from things relating to the cause and +persons. To persons are applicable not only the pledges above mentioned, +but affinities, friendships, sometimes cities and whole countries are +also likely to suffer by the person's misfortunes.</p> + +<p>Theophrastus adds another kind of exordium, taken from the pleading of +the orator who speaks first. Such seems to be that of Demosthenes for +Ctesiphon, in which he requests the judges to please<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> permit him to +reply as he thinks suitable rather than to follow the rules prescribed +by the accuser.</p> + +<p>As the confidence observable in some orators may easily pass for +arrogance, there are certain ways of behavior which, tho common, will +please, and therefore ought not to be neglected, to prevent their being +used by the opposing side: these are wishing, warding off suspicion, +supplicating, and making a show of trouble and anxiety.</p> + +<p>The judge's attention is secured by inducing him to believe that the +matter under debate is new, important, extraordinary, or of a heinous +nature, or that it equally interests him and the public. Then his mind +is to be roused and agitated by hope, fear, remonstrance, entreaty, and +even by flattery, if it is thought that will be of any use. Another way +of procuring attention may be to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> promise that we shall take up but +little of their time, as we shall confine ourselves to the subject.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, it appears that different causes require to be +governed by different rules; and five kinds of causes are generally +specified, which are said to be, either honest, base, doubtful, +extraordinary, or obscure. Some add shameful, as a sixth kind, which +others include in base or extraordinary. By extraordinary is understood +that which is contrary to the opinion of men. In a doubtful cause the +judge should be made favorable; in an obscure, docile; in a base, +attentive. An honest cause is sufficient of itself to procure favor. +Extraordinary and base causes lack remedies.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<h3>TWO TYPES OF INTRODUCTIONS</h3> + +<p>Some, therefore, specify two kinds of exordiums, one a beginning, the +other an insinuation. In the first the judges are requested openly to +give their good will and attention; but as this can not take place in +the base kind of cause, the insinuation must steal in upon their minds, +especially when the cause does not seem to appear with a sufficiently +honest aspect, either because the thing itself is wicked, or is a +measure not approved by the public. There are many instances of causes +of unseemly appearance, as when general odium is incurred by opposing a +patriot; and a like hostility ensues from acting against a father, a +wretched old man, the blind, or the orphan.</p> + +<p>This may be a general rule for the purpose, "To touch but slightly on +the things that work against us, and to insist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> chiefly on those which +are for our advantage." If the cause can not be so well maintained, let +us have recourse to the goodness of the person, and if the person is not +condemnable, let us ground our support on the cause. If nothing occurs +to help us out, let us see what may hurt the opponent. For, since to +obtain more favor is a thing to be wished, so the next step to it is to +incur less hatred.</p> + +<p>In things that can not be denied, we must endeavor to show that they are +greatly short of what they are reported to be, or that they have been +done with a different intention, or that they do not in any wise belong +to the present question, or that repentance will make sufficient amends +for them, or that they have already received a proportionate punishment. +Herein, therefore, it will be better and more suitable for an advocate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +to act than for the person himself; because when pleading for another he +can praise without the imputation of arrogance, and sometimes can even +reprove with advantage.</p> + +<p>Insinuation seems to be not less necessary when the opponent's action +has pre-possest the minds of the judges, or when they have been fatigued +by the tediousness of the pleading. The first may be got the better of +by promising substantial proofs on our side, and by refuting those of +the opponent. The second, by giving hopes of being brief, and by having +recourse to the means prescribed for making the judge attentive. In the +latter case, too, some seasonable pleasantry, or anything witty to +freshen the mind will have a good effect. It will not be amiss, +likewise, to remove any seeming obstruction. As Cicero says of himself, +he is not unaware that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> some will find it strange that he, who for so +many years had defended such a number of people, and had given no +offense to anyone, should undertake to accuse Verres. Afterward he shows +that if, on the one hand, he accuses Verres, still, on the other, he +defends the allies of the Roman people.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT BEGINNING</h3> + +<p>The orator should consider what the subject is upon which he is to +speak, before whom, for whom, against whom, at what time, in what place, +under what conditions, what the public think of it, what the judges may +think of it before they hear him, and what he himself has to desire, and +what to apprehend. Whoever makes these reflections will know where he +should naturally begin. But now orators call exordium anything with +which they begin, and consider it of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> advantage to make the beginning +with some brilliant thought. Undoubtedly many things are taken into the +exordium which are drawn from other parts of the cause or at least are +common to them, but nothing in either respect is better said than that +which can not be said so well elsewhere.</p> + +<h3>THE VALUE OF NATURALNESS</h3> + +<p>There are many very engaging things in an exordium which is framed from +the opponent's pleading, and this is because it does not seem to favor +of the closet, but is produced on the spot and comes from the very +thing. By its easy, natural turn, it enhances the reputation of genius. +Its air of simplicity, the judge not being on his guard against it, +begets belief, and tho the discourse in all other parts be elaborate and +written with great accuracy, it will for the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> part seem an +extempore oration, the exordium evidently appearing to have nothing +premeditated.</p> + +<p>But nothing else will so well suit an exordium as modesty in the +countenance, voice, thoughts, and composition, so that even in an +uncontrovertible kind of cause, too great confidence ought not to +display itself. Security is always odious in a pleader, and a judge who +is sensible of his authority tacitly demands respect.</p> + +<p>An orator must likewise be exceedingly careful to keep himself from +being suspected, particularly in that regard; therefore, not the least +show of study should be made, because all his art will seem exerted +against the judge, and not to show this is the greatest perfection of +art. This rule has been recommended by all authors, and undoubtedly with +good reason, but sometimes is altered by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> circumstances, because in +certain causes the judges themselves require studied discourses, and +fancy themselves thought mean of unless accuracy appears in thought and +expression. It is of no significance to instruct them; they must be +pleased. It is indeed difficult to find a medium in this respect, but +the orator may so temper his manner as to speak with justness, and not +with too great a show of art.</p> + +<h3>THE NEED OF SIMPLICITY OF EXPRESSION</h3> + +<p>Another rule inculcated by the ancients is not to admit into the +exordium any strange word, too bold a metaphor, an obsolete expression, +or a poetical turn. As yet we are not favorably received by the +auditors, their attention is not entirely held, but when once they +conceive an esteem and are warmly inclined toward us, then is the time +to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> hazard this liberty, especially when we enter upon parts the natural +fertility of which does not allow the liberty of expression to be +noticed amidst the luster spread about it.</p> + +<p>The style of the exordium ought not to be like that of the argument +proper and the narration, neither ought it to be finely spun out, or +harmonized into periodical cadences, but, rather, it should be simple +and natural, promising neither too much by words nor countenance. A +modest action, also, devoid of the least suspicion of ostentation, will +better insinuate itself into the mind of the auditor. But these ought to +be regulated according to the sentiments we would have the judges imbibe +from us.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered, however, that nowhere is less allowance made than +here for failing in memory or appearing destitute of the power of +articulating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> many words together. An ill-pronounced exordium may well +be compared to a visage full of scars, and certainly he must be a bad +pilot who puts his ship in danger of sinking, as he is going out of +port.</p> + +<p>In regard to the length of the exordium, it ought to be proportionate to +the nature of the cause. Simple causes admit of a shorter exordium; the +complex, doubtful, and odious, require a longer exordium. Some writers +have prescribed four points as laws for all exordiums,—which is +ridiculous. An immoderate length should be equally avoided, lest it +appear, as some monsters, bigger in the head than in the rest of the +body, and create disgust where it ought only to prepare.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + +<h3>"TYING UP" THE INTRODUCTION</h3> + +<p>As often as we use an exordium, whether we pass next to the narration, +or immediately to the proofs, we ought always to preserve a connection +between what follows and what goes before. To proceed from one part to +another, by some ingenious thought which disguises the transition, and +to seek applause from such a studied exertion of wit, is quite of a +piece with the cold and childish affectation of our declaimers. If a +long and intricate narration must follow, the judge ought naturally to +be prepared for it. This Cicero often does, as in this passage: "I must +proceed pretty high to clear up this matter to you, which I hope, +gentlemen, you will not be displeased at, because its origin being known +will make you thoroughly acquainted with the particulars proceeding from +it."</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="THE_NARRATION" id="THE_NARRATION"></a>THE NARRATION</h2> + +<p>There are causes so short as to require rather to be proposed than told. +It is sometimes the case with two contending sides, either that they +have no exposition to make, or that agreeing on the fact, they contest +only the right. Sometimes one of the contending parties, most commonly +the plaintiff, need only propose the matter, as most to his advantage, +and then it will be enough for him to say: "I ask for a certain sum of +money due to me according to agreement; I ask for what was bequeathed to +me by will." It is the defendant's business to show that he has no right +to such a debt or legacy. On other occasions it is enough, and more +advisable, for the plaintiff to point out merely the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> fact: "I say that +Horatius killed his sister." This simple proposition makes known the +whole crime, but the details and the cause of the fact will suit better +the defendant. Let it be supposed, on the other hand, that the fact can +not be denied or excused; then the defendant, instead of narrating, will +best abide by the question of right. Some one is accused of sacrilege +for stealing the money of a private person out of a temple. The pleader +of the cause had better confess the fact than give an account of it. "We +do not deny that this money was taken out of the temple. It was the +money of a private person, and not set apart for any religious use. But +the plaintiff calumniates us by an action for sacrilege. It is, +therefore, your business, gentlemen, to decide whether it can properly +be specified as sacrilege."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE TWO KINDS OF NARRATION</h3> + +<p>There are two kinds of narration in judicial matters, the one for the +cause, the other for things belonging to it. "I have not killed that +man." This needs no narration. I admit it does not; but there may be a +narration, and even somewhat long, concerning the probable causes of +innocence in the accused, as his former integrity of life, the +opponent's motives for endangering the life of a guiltless person, and +other circumstances arguing the incredibility of the accusation. The +accuser does not merely say, "You have committed that murder," but shows +reasons to evince its credibility; as, in tragedies, when Teucer imputes +the death of Ajax to Ulysses, he says that "He was found in a lonely +place, near the dead body of his enemy, with his sword all bloody." +Ulysses, in answer, not only denies the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> crime, but protests there was +no enmity between him and Ajax, and that they never contended but for +glory. Then he relates how he came into that solitary place, how he +found Ajax dead, and that it was Ajax's own sword he drew out of his +wound. To these are subjoined proofs, but the proofs, too, are not +without narration, the plaintiff alleging, "You were in the place where +your enemy was found killed." "I was not," says the defendant, and he +tells where he was.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO MAKE THE CONCLUSION</h3> + +<p>The end of the narration is rather more for persuading than informing. +When, therefore, the judges might not require information, yet, if we +consider it advisable to draw them over to our way of thinking, we may +relate the matter with certain precautions, as, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> tho they have +knowledge of the affair in general, still would it not be amiss if they +chose to examine into every particular fact as it happened. Sometimes we +may diversify the exposition with a variety of figures and turns; as, +"You remember"; "Perhaps it would be unnecessary to insist any longer on +this point"; "But why should I speak further when you are so well +acquainted with the matter."</p> + +<p>A subject of frequent discussion is to know whether the narration ought +immediately to follow the exordium. They who think it should, seem to +have some reason on their side, for as the design of the exordium is to +dispose the judges to hear us with all the good will, docility, and +attention, we wish, and as arguments can have no effect without previous +knowledge of the cause, it follows naturally that they should have this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +knowledge as soon as it can conveniently be given to them.</p> + +<h3>PURPOSES OF THE NARRATION</h3> + +<p>If the narration be entirely for us, we may content ourselves with those +three parts, whereby the judge is made the more easily to understand, +remember, and believe. But let none think of finding fault if I require +the narration which is entirely for us, to be probable tho true, for +many things are true but scarcely credible, as, on the contrary, many +things are false tho frequently probable. We ought, therefore, to be +careful that the judge should believe as much what we pretend as the +truth we say, by preserving in both a probability to be credited.</p> + +<p>Those three qualities of the narration belong in like manner to all +other parts of the discourse, for obscurity must be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> avoided throughout, +and we must everywhere keep within certain bounds, and all that is said +must be probable; but a strict observance of these particulars ought to +be kept more especially in that part wherein the judge receives his +first information, for if there it should happen that he either does not +understand, remember, or believe, our labor in all other parts will be +to no purpose.</p> + +<h3>THE QUALITIES NEEDED FOR SUCCESS</h3> + +<p>The narration will be clear and intelligible if, first, it be exprest in +proper and significant words, which have nothing mean and low, nothing +far-fetched, and nothing uncommon. Second, if it distinguishes exactly +things, persons, times, places, causes; all of which should be +accompanied with a suitable delivery, that the judge may retain the more +easily what is said.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is a quality neglected by most of our orators, who, charmed by the +applause of a rabble brought together by chance, or even bribed to +applaud with admiration every word and period, can neither endure the +attentive silence of a judicious audience, nor seem to themselves to be +eloquent unless they make everything ring about them with tumultuous +clamor. To explain simply the fact, appears to them too low, and common, +and too much within the reach of the illiterate, but I fancy that what +they despise as easy is not so much because of inclination as because of +inability to effect it. For the more experience we have, the more we +find that nothing else is so difficult as to speak in such a manner that +all who have heard us may think they could acquit themselves equally as +well. The reason for the contrary notion is that what is so said is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +considered as merely true and not as fine and beautiful. But will not +the orator express himself in the most perfect manner, when he seems to +speak truth? Now, indeed, the narration is laid out as a champion-ground +for eloquence to display itself in; the voice, the gesture, the +thoughts, the expression, are all worked up to a pitch of extravagance, +and what is monstrous, the action is applauded, and yet the cause is far +from being understood. But we shall forego further reflections on this +misguided notion, lest we offend more by reproving faults, than gratify +by giving advice.</p> + +<p>The narration will have its due brevity if we begin by explaining the +affair from the point where it is of concern to the judge; next, if we +say nothing foreign to the cause; and last, if we avoid all +superfluities, yet without curtailing anything that may give insight +into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> cause or be to its advantage. There is a certain brevity of +parts, however, which makes a long whole: "I came to the harbor, I saw a +ship ready for sailing, I asked the price for passengers, I agreed as to +what I should give, I went aboard, we weighed anchor, we cleared the +coast, and sailed on briskly." None of these circumstances could be +exprest in fewer words, but it is sufficient to say, "I sailed from the +port." And as often as the end of a thing sufficiently denotes what went +before, we may rest satisfied with it as facilitating the understanding +of all other circumstances.</p> + +<p>But often when striving to be short, we become obscure, a fault equally +to be avoided, therefore it is better that the narration should have a +little too much, than that it should lack enough. What is redundant, +disgusts; what is necessary is cut down with danger. I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> would not have +this rule restricted to what is barely sufficient for pronouncing +judgment on, because the narration may be concise, yet not, on that +account, be without ornament. In such cases it would appear as coming +from an illiterate person. Pleasure, indeed, has a secret charm; and the +things which please seem less tedious. A pleasant and smooth road, tho +it be longer, fatigues less than a rugged and disagreeable short cut. I +am not so fond of conciseness as not to make room for brightening a +narration with proper embellishments. If quite homely and curtailed on +all sides, it will be not so much a narration as a poor huddling up of +things together.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> +<h3>GETTING YOUR STATEMENTS ACCEPTED</h3> + +<p>The best way to make the narration probable is to first consult with +ourselves on whatever is agreeable to nature, that nothing may be said +contrary to it; next, to find causes and reasons for facts, not for all, +but for those belonging to the question; and last, to have characters +answerable to the alleged facts which we would have believed; as, if one +were guilty of theft, we should represent him as a miser; of adultery, +as addicted to impure lusts; of manslaughter, as hot and rash. The +contrary takes place in defense, and the facts must agree with time, +place, and the like.</p> + +<p>Sometimes a cause may be prepared by a proposition, and afterward +narrated. All circumstances are unfavorable to three sons who have +conspired<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> against their father's life. They cast lots who shall strike +the blow. He on whom the lot falls, enters his father's bed-chamber at +night, with a poniard, but has not courage to put the design into +execution. The second and the third do the same. The father wakes. All +confess their wicked purpose, and by virtue of a law made and provided +for such case, they are to be disinherited. But should the father, who +has already made a partition of his estate in their favor, plead their +cause, he may proceed thus: "Children are accused of parricide, whose +father is still alive, and they are sued in consequence of a law that is +not properly applicable to their case. I need not here give an account +of a transaction that is foreign to the point of law in question. But if +you require a confession of my guilt, I have been a hard father to them, +and rather too much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> occupied in hoarding up the income of my estate, +which would have been better spent in necessaries for them." Afterward +he may say that they did not form this plan by themselves, that they +were instigated to it by others who had more indulgent parents, that the +result clearly showed they were not capable of so unnatural an action, +that there was no necessity for binding themselves by oath if in reality +they could have had such an inclination, nor of casting lots if each did +not want to avoid the perpetration of such a crime. All these +circumstances, such as they are, will be favorably received, softened in +some measure by the short defense of the previous propositions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE ORDER OF THE NARRATION</h3> + +<p>I am not of the opinion of those who think that the facts ought always +to be related in the same order in which they happened. That manner of +narration is best which is of most advantage to the cause, and it may, +not improperly, call in the aid of a diversity of figures. Sometimes we +may pretend that a thing has been overlooked, so that it may be better +exprest elsewhere than it would be in its own order and place; assuring +the judges at the same time that we shall resume the proper order, but +that the cause in this way will be better understood. Sometimes, after +explaining the whole affair, we may subjoin the antecedent causes. And +thus it is that the art of defense, not circumscribed by any one +invariable rule, must be adapted to the nature and circumstances of the +cause.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will not be amiss to intimate that nothing enhances so much the +credibility of a narration as the authority of him who makes it, and +this authority it is our duty to acquire, above all, by an +irreproachable life, and next, by the manner of enforcing it. The more +grave and serious it is, the more weight it will have. Here all +suspicion of cunning and artifice should, therefore, be particularly +avoided, for the judges, ever distrustful, are here principally on their +guard, and, likewise, nothing should seem a pure fiction, or the work of +study, which all might rather be believed to proceed from the cause than +the orator. But this we can not endure, and we think our art lost unless +it is seen; whereas it ceases to be art if it is seen.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="DIVISION_AND_ARGUMENT" id="DIVISION_AND_ARGUMENT"></a>DIVISION AND ARGUMENT</h2> + +<p>Some are of the opinion that division should always be used, as by it +the cause will be more clear and the judge more attentive and more +easily taught when he knows of what we speak to him and of what we +intend afterward to speak. Others think this is attended with danger to +the orator, either by his sometimes forgetting what he has promised, or +by something else occurring to the judge or auditor, which he did not +think of in the division. I can not well imagine how this may happen, +unless with one who is either destitute of sense or rash enough to plead +without preparation. In any other respect, nothing else can set a +subject in so clear a light as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> just division. It is a means to which we +are directed by the guidance of nature, because keeping in sight the +heads on which we propose to speak, is the greatest help the memory can +have.</p> + +<h3>THE MISTAKE OF TOO MANY DIVISIONS</h3> + +<p>But if division should seem requisite, I am not inclined to assent to +the notion of those who would have it extend to more than three parts. +Indeed, when the parts are too many, they escape the judge's memory and +distract his attention; but a cause is not scrupulously to be tied down +to this number, as it may require more.</p> + +<h3>DISADVANTAGES OF DIVISIONS</h3> + +<p>There are reasons for not always using division, the principal reason +being that most things are better received when seemingly of extempore +invention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> and not suggestive of study, but arising in the pleading from +the nature of the thing itself. Whence such figures are not unpleasing +as, "I had almost forgotten to say"; "It escaped my memory to acquaint +you"; and "You have given me a good hint." For if the proofs should be +proposed without something of a reputation of this kind, they would +lose, in the sequel, all the graces of novelty.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing of questions, and the discussing of them, should be +equally avoided. But the listeners' passions ought to be excited, and +their attention diverted from its former bias, for it is the orator's +business not so much to instruct as to enforce his eloquence by emotion, +to which nothing can be more contrary than minute and scrupulously exact +division of a discourse into parts.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> +<h3>WHEN THE DIVISION IS DESIRABLE</h3> + +<p>If many things are to be avoided or refuted, the division will be both +useful and pleasing, causing everything to appear in the order in which +it is to be said. But if we defend a single crime by various ways, +division will be superfluous, as, "I shall make it clear that the person +I defend is not such as to make it seem probable that he could be guilty +of murder; it shall also be shown that he had no motives to induce him +to do it; and lastly, that he was across the sea when this murder took +place." Whatever is cited and argued before the third point must seem +quite unnecessary, for the judge is in haste to have you come to that +which is of most consequence, and the patient, will tacitly call upon +you to acquit yourself of your promise, or, if he has much business to +dispatch, or his dignity puts him above your tri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>fling, or he is of a +peevish humor, he will oblige you to speak to the purpose, and perhaps +do so in disrespectful terms.</p> + +<h3>PITFALLS IN ARGUMENT</h3> + +<p>Many doubt the desirability of this kind of defense: "If I had killed +him, I should have done well; but I did not kill him." Where is the +occasion, say they, for the first proposition if the second be true? +They run counter to each other, and whoever advances both, will be +credited in neither. This is partly true, for if the last proposition be +unquestionable, it is the only one that should be used. But if we are +apprehensive of anything in the stronger, we may use both. On these +occasions persons seem to be differently affected; one will believe the +fact, and exculpate the right; another will condemn the right, and +perhaps not credit the fact. So, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> dart may be enough for an unerring +hand to hit the mark, but chance and many darts must effect the same +result for an uncertain aim. Cicero clears up this matter in his defense +of Milo. He first shows Clodius to be the aggressor, and then, by a +superabundance of right, adds that tho he might not be the aggressor, it +was brave and glorious in Milo to have delivered Rome of so bad a +citizen.</p> + +<p>Tho division may not always be necessary, yet when properly used it +gives great light and beauty to a discourse. This it effects not only by +adding more perspicuity to what is said, but also by refreshing the +minds of the hearers by a view of each part circumscribed within its +bounds; just so milestones ease in some measure the fatigue of +travelers, it being a pleasure to know the extent of the labor they have +undergone, and to know what remains encourages them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> to persevere, as a +thing does not necessarily seem long when there is a certainty of coming +to the end.</p> + +<h3>ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ARGUMENT</h3> + +<p>Every division, therefore, when it may be employed to advantage, ought +to be first clear and intelligible, for what is worse than being obscure +in a thing, the use of which is to guard against obscurity in other +things? Second, it ought to be short, and not encumbered with any +superfluous word, because we do not enter upon the subject matter, but +only point it out.</p> + +<p>If proofs be strong and cogent, they should be proposed and insisted on +separately; if weak, it will be best to collect them into a body. In the +first case, being persuasive by themselves, it would be improper to +obscure them by the confusion of others: they should appear in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> their +due light. In the second case, being naturally weak, they should be made +to support each other. If, therefore, they are not greatly effective in +point of quality, they may be in that of number, all of them having a +tendency to prove the same thing; as, if one were accused of killing +another for the sake of inheriting his fortune: "You did expect an +inheritance, and it was something very considerable; you were poor, and +your creditors troubled you more than ever; you also offended him who +had appointed you his heir, and you know that he intended to alter his +will." These proofs taken separately are of little moment, and common; +but collectively their shock is felt, not as a peal of thunder, but as a +shower of hail.</p> + +<p>The judge's memory, however, is not always to be loaded with the +arguments we may invent. They will create disgust,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> and beget distrust +in him, as he can not think such arguments to be powerful enough which +we ourselves do not think sufficient. But to go on arguing and proving, +in the case of self-evident things, would be a piece of folly not unlike +that of bringing a candle to light us when the sun is in its greatest +splendor.</p> + +<p>To these some add proofs which they call moral, drawn from the milder +passions; and the most powerful, in the opinion of Aristotle, are such +as arise from the person of him who speaks, if he be a man of real +integrity. This is a primary consideration; and a secondary one, remote, +indeed, yet following, will be the probable notion entertained of his +irreproachable life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE BEST ORDER OF THE ARGUMENT</h3> + +<p>It has been a matter of debate, also, whether the strongest proofs +should have place in the beginning, to make an immediate impression on +the hearers, or at the end, to make the impression lasting with them, or +to distribute them, partly in the beginning and partly at the end, +placing the weaker in the middle, or to begin with the weakest and +proceed to the strongest. For my part I think this should depend on the +nature and exigencies of the cause, yet with this reservation, that the +discourse might not dwindle from the powerful into what is nugatory and +frivolous.</p> + +<p>Let the young orator, for whose instruction I make these remarks, +accustom himself as much as possible to copy nature and truth. As in +schools he often engages in sham battles, in imitation of the contests +of the bar, let him even then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> have an eye to victory, and learn to +strike home, dealing moral blows and putting himself on his defense as +if really in earnest. It is the master's business to require this duty, +and to commend it according as it is well executed. For if they love +praise to the degree of seeking it in their faults, which does them much +harm, they will desire it more passionately when they know it to be the +reward of real merit. The misfortune now is that they commonly pass over +necessary things in silence, considering what is for the good of the +cause as of little or no account if it be not conducive to the +embellishment of the discourse.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="THE_PERORATION" id="THE_PERORATION"></a>THE PERORATION</h2> + +<p>The peroration, called by some the completion, by others the conclusion, +of a discourse, is of two kinds, and regards either the matters discust +in it or the moving of the passions.</p> + +<p>The repetition of the matter and the collecting it together, which is +called by the Greeks recapitulation, and by some of the Latins +enumeration, serves for refreshing the judge's memory, for placing the +whole cause in one direct point of view, and for enforcing in a body +many proofs which, separately, made less impression. It would seem that +this repetition ought to be very short, and the Greek term sufficiently +denotes that we ought to run over only the principal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> heads, for if we +are long in doing it, it will not be an enumeration that we make, but, +as it were, a second discourse. The points which may seem to require +this enumeration, however, ought to be pronounced with some emphasis, +and enlivened with opposite thoughts, and diversified by figures, +otherwise nothing will be more disagreeable than a mere cursory +repetition, which would seem to show distrust of the judge's memory.</p> + +<h3>RULES FOR THE PERORATION</h3> + +<p>This seems to be the only kind of peroration allowed by most of the +Athenians and by almost all the philosophers who left anything written +on the art of oratory. The Athenians, I suppose, were of that opinion +because it was customary at Athens to silence, by the public crier, any +orator who should attempt to move the passions. I am less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> surprized at +this opinion among philosophers, every perturbation of the mind being +considered by them as vicious; nor did it seem to them compatible with +sound morality to divert the judge from truth, nor agreeable to the idea +of an honest man to have recourse to any sinister stratagem. Yet moving +the passions will be acknowledged necessary when truth and justice can +not be otherwise obtained and when public good is concerned in the +decision. All agree that recapitulation may also be employed to +advantage in other parts of the pleading, if the cause is complicated +and requires many arguments to defend it, and, on the other hand, it +will admit of no doubt that many causes are so short and simple as to +have no occasion in any part of them for recapitulation. The above rules +for the peroration apply equally to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> accuser and to the defendant's +advocate.</p> + +<p>They, likewise, use nearly the same passions, but the accuser more +seldom and more sparingly, and the defendant oftener and with greater +emotions; for it is the business of the former to stir up aversion, +indignation, and other similar passions in the minds of the judges, and +of the latter to bend their hearts to compassion. Yet the accuser is +sometimes not without tears, in deploring the distress of those in whose +behalf he sues for satisfaction, and the defendant sometimes complains +with great vehemence of the persecution raised against him by the +calumnies and conspiracy of his enemies. It would be best, therefore, to +distinguish and discuss separately the different passions excited on the +parts of the plaintiff and defendant, which are most com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>monly, as I +have said, very like what takes place in the exordium, but are treated +in a freer and fuller manner in the peroration.</p> + +<h3>PURPOSES OF THE PERORATION</h3> + +<p>The favor of the judges toward us is more sparingly sued for in the +beginning, it being then sufficient to gain their attention, as the +whole discourse remains in which to make further impressions. But in the +peroration we must strive to bring the judge into that disposition of +the mind which it is necessary for us that he should retain when he +comes to pass judgment. The peroration being finished, we can say no +more, nor can anything be reserved for another place. Both of the +contending sides, therefore, try to conciliate the judge, to make him +unfavorable to the opponent, to rouse and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> occasionally allay his +passions; and both may find their method of procedure in this short +rule, which is, to keep in view the whole stress of the cause, and +finding what it contains that is favorable, odious, or deplorable, in +reality or in probability, to say those things which would make the +greatest impression on themselves if they sat as judges.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned in the rules for the exordium how the accuser +might conciliate the judges. Yet some things, which it was enough to +point out there, should be wrought to a fulness in the peroration, +especially if the pleading be against some one universally hated, and a +common disturber, and if the condemnation of the culprit should redound +as much to the honor of the judges as his acquittal to their shame. Thus +Calvus spoke admirably against Vatinius:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> + +<p>"You know, good sirs, that Vatinius is guilty, and no one is unaware +that you know it." Cicero, in the same way, informs the judges that if +anything is capable of reestablishing the reputation of their judgment, +it must be the condemnation of Verres. If it be proper to intimidate the +judges, as Cicero likewise does, against Verres, this is done with +better effect in the peroration than in the exordium. I have already +explained my sentiments on this point.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO AROUSE EMOTIONS</h3> + +<p>In short, when it is requisite to excite envy, hatred, or indignation +there is greater scope for doing this to advantage in the peroration +than elsewhere. The interest in the accused may naturally excite the +judge's envy, the infamy of his crimes may draw upon him his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> hatred, +the little respect he shows him may rouse his indignation. If he is +stubborn, haughty, presumptuous, let him be painted in all the glaring +colors that aggravate such vicious temper, and these manifested not only +from his words and deeds, but from face, manner, and dress. I remember, +on my first coming to the bar, a shrewd remark of the accuser of +Cossutianus Capito. He pleaded in Greek before the Emperor, but the +meaning of his words was: "Might it not be said that this man disdains +even to respect Cæsar."</p> + +<p>The accuser has recourse frequently to the arousing of compassion, +either by setting forth the distrest state of him for whom he hopes to +find redress, or by describing the desolation and ruin into which his +children and relations are likely thereby to be involved. He may, too, +move the judges by hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>ing out to them a prospect of what may happen +hereafter if injuries and violence remain unpunished, the consequence of +which will be that either his client must abandon his dwelling and the +care of his effects, or must resolve to endure patiently all the +injustice his enemy may try to do him.</p> + +<p>The accuser more frequently will endeavor to caution the judge against +the pity with which the defendant intends to inspire him, and he will +stimulate him, in as great a degree as he can, to judge according to his +conscience. Here, too, will be the place to anticipate whatever it is +thought the opponent may do or say, for it makes the judges more +circumspect regarding the sacredness of their oath, and by it the answer +to the pleading may lose the indulgence which it is expected to receive, +together with the charm of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> novelty in all the particulars which the +accuser has already cleared up. The judges, besides, may be informed of +the answer they should make to those who might threaten to have their +sentence reversed; and this is another kind of recapitulation.</p> + +<p>The persons concerned are very proper objects for affecting the mind of +the judge, for the judge does not seem to himself to hear so much the +orator weeping over others' misfortunes, as he imagines his ears are +smitten with the feelings and voice of the distrest. Even their dumb +appearance might be a sufficiently moving language to draw tears, and as +their wretchedness would appear in lively colors if they were to speak +it themselves, so proportionately it must be thought to have a powerful +effect when exprest, as it were, from their own mouths.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> Just so, in +theatrical representations, the same voice, and the same emphatic +pronunciation, become very interesting under the masks used for +personating different characters. With a like view Cicero, tho he gives +not the voice of a suppliant to Milo, but, on the contrary, commends his +unshaken constancy, yet does he adapt to him words and complaints not +unworthy of a man of spirit: "O my labors, to no purpose undertaken! +Deceiving hopes! Useless projects!"</p> + +<p>This exciting of pity, however, should never be long, it being said, not +without reason, that "nothing dries up so soon as tears." If time can +mitigate the pangs of real grief, of course the counterfeit grief +assumed in speaking must sooner vanish; so that if we dally, the auditor +finding himself overcharged with mournful thoughts, tries to resume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> his +tranquility, and thus ridding himself of the emotion that overpowered +him, soon returns to the exercise of cool reason. We must, therefore, +never allow this kind of emotion to become languid, but when we have +wound up the passions to their greatest height, we must instantly drop +the subject, and not expect that any one will long bewail another's +mishap. Therefore, as in other parts, the discourse should be well +supported, and rather rise, so here particularly it should grow to its +full vigor, because that which makes no addition to what has already +been said seems to diminish it, and a passion soon evaporates that once +begins to subside.</p> + +<p>Tears are excited not only by words but by doing certain things, whence +it is not unusual to present the very persons who are in danger of +condemna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>tion, in a garb suitable to their distress, together with their +children and relations. Accusers, too, make it a custom to show a bloody +sword, fractured bones picked out of wounds, and garments drenched in +blood. Sometime, likewise, they unbind wounds to show their condition, +and strip bodies naked to show the stripes they have received. These +acts are commonly of mighty efficacy, as fully revealing the reality of +the occurrence. Thus it was that Cæsar's robe, bloody all over, exposed +in the Forum, drove the people of Rome into an excess of madness. It was +well known that he was assassinated; his body also lay in state, until +his funeral should take place; yet that garment, still dripping with +blood, formed so graphic a picture of the horrible murder that it seemed +to them to have been perpetrated that very instant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will not be amiss to hint that the success of the peroration depends +much on the manner of the parties in conforming themselves to the +emotions and action of their advocates. Stupidity, rusticity, and a want +of sensibility and attention, as it is said, throw cold water on a cause +against which the orator can not be too well provided. I have, indeed, +often seen them act quite contrary to their advocate's instructions. Not +the least show of concern could be observed in their countenance. They +laughed foolishly and without reason, and made others laugh by some +ridiculous gesticulation or grimace, especially when the heat of a +debate exhibited anything akin to theatrical action.</p> + +<p>An orator of slender ability will acquit himself better if he allows the +judges by themselves to feel the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>passion with which his subject may +naturally inspire them, especially since the appearance, and voice, and +studied air of the advocate's countenance are often ridiculed by such as +are not affected by them. Let the orator make an exact estimate of his +powers, therefore, and be conscious of the burden he undertakes. Here +there is no middle state; he must either make his hearers weep, or +expect to be laughed at.</p> + +<p>It should not be imagined, as some have thought, that all exciting of +the passions, all sentimental emotions, ought to be confined to the +exordium and peroration. In them they are most frequent, yet other parts +admit them likewise, but in a shorter compass, as their greatest stress +should be reserved for the end. For here, if anywhere, the orator may be +allowed to open all the streams of eloquence. If we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> executed all +other parts to advantage, here we take possession of the minds of the +judges, and having escaped all rocks, may expand all our sails for a +favorable gale; and as amplification makes a great part of the +peroration, we then may raise and embellish our style with the choicest +expressions and brightest thoughts. And, indeed, the conclusion of a +speech should bear some resemblance to that of tragedy and comedy, +wherein the actor courts the spectator's applause. In other parts the +passions may be touched upon, as they naturally rise out of the subject, +and no horrible or sorrowful thing should be set forth without +accompanying it with a suitable sentiment. When the debate may be on the +quality of a thing, it is properly subjoined to the proofs of each thing +brought out. When we plead a cause complicated with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> variety of +circumstances, then it will be necessary to use many perorations, as it +were; as Cicero does against Verres, lending his tears occasionally to +Philodamus, to the masters of ships, to the crucified Roman citizens, +and to many others.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PASSION_AND_PERSUASION" id="PASSION_AND_PERSUASION"></a>PASSION AND PERSUASION</h2> + +<p>It may well be imagined that nothing else is so important in the whole +art of oratory as the proper use of the passions. A slender genius, +aided by learning or experience, may be sufficient to manage certain +parts to some advantage, yet I think they are fit only for instructing +the judges, and as masters and models for those who take no concern +beyond passing for good speakers. But to possess the secret of forcibly +carrying away the judges, of moving them, as we please, to a certain +disposition of mind, of inflaming them with anger, of softening them to +pity, so as to draw tears from them, all this is rare, tho by it the +orator is made most distinguished and by it elo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>quence gains empire over +hearts. The cause itself is naturally productive of arguments, and the +better share generally falls to the lot of the more rightful side of the +question, so that whichever side wins by dint of argument, may think +that so far they did not lack an advocate. But when violence is to be +used to influence the minds of the judges, when they are to be turned +from coolly reflecting on the truth that works against us, then comes +the true exercise of the orator's powers; and this is what the +contending parties can not inform us of, nor is it contained in the +state of their cases. Proofs, it is true, make the judges presume that +our cause is the better, but passion makes them wish it to be such, and +as they wish it, they are not far from believing it to be so. For as +soon as they begin to absorb from us<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> our passions of anger, favor, +hatred, or pity, they make the affair their own. As lovers can not be +competent judges of beauty, because love blinds them, so here a judge +attentive to the tumultuous working of a passion, loses sight of the way +by which he should proceed to inquire after the truth. The impetuous +torrent sweeps him away, and he is borne down in the current. The effect +of arguments and witnesses is not known until judgment has been passed, +but the judge who has been affected by the orator, still sitting and +hearing, declares his real sentiments. Has not he who is seen to melt +into tears, already pronounced sentence? Such, then, is the power of +moving the passions, to which the orator ought to direct all his +efforts, this being his principal work and labor, since without it all +other resources are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> naked, hungry, weak, and unpleasing. The passions +are the very life and soul of persuasion.</p> + +<h3>QUALITIES NEEDED IN THE ORATOR</h3> + +<p>What we require in the orator is, in general, a character of goodness, +not only mild and pleasing, but humane, insinuating, amiable, and +charming to the hearer; and its greatest perfection will be if all, as +influenced by it, shall seem to flow from the nature of things and +persons, that so the morals of the orator may shine forth from his +discourse and be known in their genuine colors. This character of +goodness should invariably be maintained by those whom a mutual tie +ought to bind in strict union, whenever it may happen that they suffer +anything from each other, or pardon, or make satisfaction, or admonish, +or reprimand, but far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> from betraying any real anger or hatred.</p> + +<p>A sentiment very powerful for exciting hatred may arise when an act of +submission to our opponents is understood as a silent reproach of their +insolence. Our willingness to yield must indeed show them to be +insupportable and troublesome, and it commonly happens that they who +have desire for railing, and are too free and hot in their invectives, +do not imagine that the jealousy they create is of far greater prejudice +to them than the malice of their speech.</p> + +<p>All this presupposes that the orator himself ought to be a good and +humane man. The virtues which he commends, if he possibly can, in his +client, he should possess, or be supposed to possess, himself. In this +way will he be of singular advantage to the cause he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> undertakes, the +good opinion he has created of himself being a prejudice in its favor. +For if while he speaks he appears to be a bad man, he must in +consequence plead ill, because what he says will be thought repugnant to +justice. The style and manner suitable on these occasions ought, +therefore, to be sweet and insinuating, never hot and imperious, never +hazarded in too elevated a strain. It will be sufficient to speak in a +proper, pleasing, and probable way.</p> + +<p>The orator's business in regard to the passions should be not only to +paint atrocious and lamentable things as they are, but even to make +those seem grievous which are considered tolerable, as when we say that +an injurious word is less pardonable than a blow, and that death is +preferable to dishonor. For the powers of eloquence do not consist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> so +much in forcing the judge into sentiments which the nature of the matter +itself may be sufficient to inspire him with, as they do in producing +and creating, as it were, the same sentiments when the subject may seem +not to admit them. This is the vehemence of oratorical ability which +knows how to equal and even to surpass the enormity and indignity of the +facts it exposes, a quality of singular consequence to the orator, and +one in which Demosthenes excelled all others.</p> + +<h3>THE SECRET OF MOVING THE PASSIONS</h3> + +<p>The great secret for moving the passions is to be moved ourselves, for +the imitation of grief, anger, indignation, will often be ridiculous if +conforming to only our words and countenance, while our heart at the +same time is estranged from them. What other rea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>son makes the afflicted +exclaim in so eloquent a manner during the first transports of their +grief? And how, otherwise, do the most ignorant speak eloquently in +anger, unless it be from this force and these mental feelings?</p> + +<p>In such passions, therefore, which we would represent as true copies of +real ones, let us be ourselves like those who unfeignedly suffer, and +let our speech proceed from such a disposition of mind as that in which +we would have the judge be. Will he grieve who hears me speak with an +expressionless face and air of indifference? Will he be angry when I, +who am to excite him to anger, remain cool and sedate? Will he shed +tears when I plead unconcerned? All this is attempting impossibilities. +Nothing warms nor moistens but that which is endued with the quality of +heat or moisture, nor does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> anything give to another a color it has not +itself. The principal consideration, then, must be that we, ourselves, +retain the impression of which we would have the judges susceptible, and +be ourselves affected before we endeavor to affect others.</p> + +<h3>THE POWER OF MENTAL IMAGERY</h3> + +<p>But how shall we be affected, the emotions or passions being not at our +command? This may be done by what we may call visions, whereby the +images of things absent are so represented to the mind that we seem to +see them with our eyes and have them present before us. Whoever can work +up his imagination to an intuitive view of this kind, will be very +successful in moving the passions.</p> + +<p>If I deplore the fate of a man who has been assassinated, may I not +paint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> in my mind a lively picture of all that probably happened on the +occasion? Shall not the assassin appear to rush forth suddenly from his +lurking place? Shall not the other appear seized with horror? Shall he +not cry out, beg for his life, or fly to save it? Shall I not see the +assassin dealing the deadly blow, and the defenseless wretch falling +dead at his feet? Shall I not picture vividly in my mind the blood +gushing from his wounds, his ghastly face, his groans, and the last gasp +he fetches?</p> + +<p>When there is occasion for moving to compassion, we should believe and, +indeed, be persuaded that the distress and misfortunes of which we speak +have happened to ourselves. Let us place ourselves in the very position +of those for whom we feel sorrow on account of their having suffered +such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> grievous and unmerited treatment. Let us plead their cause, not as +if it were another's, but taking to ourselves, for a short time, their +whole grief. In this way we shall speak as if the case were our own. I +have seen comedians who, when they have just appeared in a mournful +character, often make their exit with tears in their eyes. If, then, the +expression given to imaginary passions can affect so powerfully, what +should not orators do, whose inner feelings ought to sympathize with +their manner of speaking, which can not happen unless they are truly +affected by the danger to which their clients are exposed.</p> + +<h3>RULES FOR PRACTISE</h3> + +<p>In the declamatory exercises of schools it would be expedient, likewise, +to move the passions and imagine the scene as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> a real one in life, and +it is the more important as there the part is performed rather of a +pleader against some person, than an advocate for some person. We +represent a person who has lost his children, or has been shipwrecked, +or is in danger of losing his life, but of what significance is it to +personate such characters, unless we also assume their real sentiments. +This nature, and these properties of the passions, I thought it +incumbent on me not to conceal from the reader, for I, myself, such as I +am, or have been (for I flatter myself that I have acquired some +reputation at the bar), have often been so affected that not only tears, +but even paleness, and grief, not unlike that which is real, have +betrayed my emotions.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="THE_STUDY_OF_WORDS" id="THE_STUDY_OF_WORDS"></a>THE STUDY OF WORDS</h2> + +<p>What now follows requires special labor and care, the purpose being to +treat of elocution, which in the opinion of all orators is the most +difficult part of our work, for M. Antonius says that he has seen many +good speakers, but none eloquent. He thinks it good enough for a speaker +to say whatever is necessary on a subject, but only the most eloquent +may discuss it with grace and elegance. If down to the time he lived in, +this perfection was not discoverable in any orator, and neither in +himself nor in L. Crassus, it is certain that it was lacking in them and +their predecessors only on account of its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> extreme difficulty. Cicero +says that invention and disposition show the man of sense, but eloquence +the orator. He therefore took particular pains about the rules for this +part, and that he had reason for so doing the very name of eloquence +sufficiently declares. For to be eloquent is nothing else than to be +able to set forth all the lively images you have conceived in your mind, +and to convey them to the hearers in the same rich coloring, without +which all the principles we have laid down are useless, and are like a +sword concealed and kept sheathed in its scabbard.</p> + +<p>This, then, is what we are principally to learn; this is what we can not +attain without the help of art; this ought to be the object of our +study, our exercise, our imitation; this may be full employment for our +whole life; by this, one orator excels another;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> and from this proceeds +diversity of style.</p> + +<h3>THE PROPER VALUE OF WORDS</h3> + +<p>It should not be inferred from what is said here that all our care must +be about words. On the contrary, to such as would abuse this concession +of mine, I declare positively my disapprobation of those persons who, +neglecting things, the nerves of causes, consume themselves in a +frivolous study about words. This they do for the sake of elegance, +which indeed is a fine quality when natural but not when affected. Sound +bodies, with a healthy condition of blood, and strong by exercise, +receive their beauty from the very things from which they receive their +strength. They are fresh-colored, active, and supple, neither too much +nor too little in flesh. Paint and polish them with feminine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> cosmetics, +and admiration ceases; the very pains taken to make them appear more +beautiful add to the dislike we conceive for them. Yet a magnificent, +and suitable, dress adds authority to man; but an effeminate dress, the +garb of luxury and softness, lays open the corruption of the heart +without adding to the ornament of the body. In like manner, translucent +and flashy elocution weakens the things it clothes. I would, therefore, +recommend care about words, but solicitude about things.</p> + +<p>The choicest expressions are for the most part inherent in things, and +are seen in their own light, but we search after them as if always +hiding and stealing themselves away from us. Thus we never think that +what ought to be said is at hand; we fetch it from afar, and force our +invention. Eloquence requires a more manly temper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> and if its whole +body be sound and vigorous, it is quite regardless of the nicety of +paring the nails and adjusting the hair.</p> + +<h3>THE DANGER OF VERBIAGE</h3> + +<p>It often happens, too, that an oration becomes worse by attending to +these niceties, because simplicity, the language of truth, is its +greatest ornament, and affectation the reverse. The expressions that +show care, and would also appear as newly formed, fine, and eloquent, +lose the graces at which they aim, and are far from being striking and +well received, because they obscure the sense by spreading a sort of +shadow about it, or by being too crowded they choke it up, like +thick-sown grain that must run up too spindling. That which may be +spoken in a plain, direct manner we express by paraphrase; and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> use +repetitions where to say a thing once is enough; and what is well +signified by one word, we load with many, and most things we choose to +signify rather by circumlocution than by proper and pertinent terms.</p> + +<p>A proper word, indeed, now has no charms, nothing appearing to us fine +which might have been said by another word. We borrow metaphors from the +whims and conceits of the most extravagant poets, and we fancy ourselves +exceedingly witty, when others must have a good deal of wit to +understand us. Cicero is explicit in his views in this respect. "The +greatest fault a speech can have," says he, "is when it departs from the +common way of discourse and the custom of common sense." But Cicero +would pass for a harsh and barbarous author, compared to us, who make +little of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> whatever nature dictates, who seek not ornaments, but +delicacies and refinements, as if there were any beauty in words without +an agreement with things, for if we were to labor throughout our whole +life in consulting their propriety, clearness, ornament, and due +placing, we should lose the whole fruit of our studies.</p> + +<h3>ACQUIRING A PRACTICAL VOCABULARY</h3> + +<p>Yet many are seen to hesitate at single words, even while they invent, +and reflect on and measure what they invent. If this were done +designedly to use always the best, this unhappy temper would still be +detestable, as it must check the course of speaking and extinguish the +heat of thought by delay and diffidence. For the orator is wretched, +and, I may say, poor, who can not patiently lose a word. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> he will +lose none who first has studied a good manner of speaking, and by +reading well the best authors has furnished himself with a copious +supply of words and made himself expert in the art of placing them. Much +practise will so improve him afterward that he always will have them at +hand and ready for use, the thought fitting in naturally with the proper +manner of expression.</p> + +<p>But all this requires previous study, an acquired faculty, and a rich +fund of words. For solicitude in regard to inventing, judging, and +comparing, should take place when we learn, and not when we speak. +Otherwise they who have not sufficiently cultivated their talents for +speaking will experience the fate of those who have made no provision +for the future. But if a proper stock of words is already pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>pared, +they will attend as in duty bound, not so much in the way of answering +exigencies as always to seem inherent in the thought and to follow as a +shadow does a body.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT WORDS</h3> + +<p>Yet this care should not exceed its due bounds, for when words are +authorized by use, are significant, elegant, and aptly placed, what more +need we trouble ourselves about? But some eternally will find fault, and +almost scan every syllable, who, even when they have found what is best, +seek after something that is more ancient, remote, and unexpected, not +understanding that the thought must suffer in a discourse, and can have +nothing of value, where only the words are commendable. Let us, +therefore, pay particular regard to elocution, yet, at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> the same time be +convinced that nothing is to be done for the sake of words, they having +been invented solely for the sake of things. The most proper words +always will be those which are best expressive of the ideas in our mind, +and which produce in the ideas of the judges the effect we desire. Such +undoubtedly will make a speech both admirable and pleasing, but not so +admirable as are prodigies, nor pleasing by a vicious and unseemly +pleasure, but a pleasure reflecting dignity with praise.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="ELEGANCE_AND_GRACE" id="ELEGANCE_AND_GRACE"></a>ELEGANCE AND GRACE</h2> + +<p>The orator will recommend himself particularly by the embellishments he +adopts, securing in other ways the approbation of the learned, and in +this also the favor of popular applause.</p> + +<p>Not so much with strong as with shining armor did Cicero engage in the +cause of Cornelius. His success was not due merely to instructing the +judges, and speaking in a pure and clear style. These qualities would +not have brought him the honor of the admiration and applause of the +Roman people. It was the sublimity, magnificence, splendor, and dignity +of his eloquence that forced from them signal demonstrations of their +amazement. Nor would such unusual eulogies have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> been given him if his +speech had contained nothing extraordinary, nothing but what was common. +And, indeed, I believe that those present were not completely aware of +what they were doing, and that what they did was neither spontaneous, +nor from an act of judgment, but that filled with a sort of enthusiasm, +and not considering the place they were in, they burst forth with +unrestrained excitement.</p> + +<h3>THE VALUE OF BEAUTY OF EXPRESSION</h3> + +<p>These ornaments of speech, therefore, may be thought to contribute not a +little to the success of a cause, for they who hear willingly are more +attentive and more disposed to believe. Most commonly it is pleasure +that wins them over, and sometimes they are seized and carried away with +admiration. A glittering sword strikes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> eyes with some terror, and +thunder would not so shock us if its crash only, and not its lightning, +was dreaded. Therefore Cicero, with good reason, says in one of his +epistles to Brutus: "The eloquence which does not excite admiration, I +regard as nothing." Aristotle, too, would have us endeavor to attain +this perfection.</p> + +<p>But this embellishment, I must again and again repeat, ought to be +manly, noble, and modest; neither inclining to effeminate delicacy, nor +assuming a color indebted to paint, but glistening with health and +spirits.</p> + +<p>Let none of those who build up their reputation on a corrupt manner of +eloquence, say that I am an enemy to such as speak with elegance. I do +not deny that it is a perfection, but I do not ascribe it to them. Shall +I think a piece of ground better laid out and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> improved, in which one +shall show me lilies and violets and pleasing cascades, than one where +there is a full harvest or vines laden with grapes? Shall I esteem a +barren planetree and shorn myrtles beyond the fruitful olive and the elm +courting the embraces of the vine? The rich may pride themselves on +these pleasures of the eye, but how little would be their value if they +had nothing else?</p> + +<p>But shall no beauty, no symmetry, be observed in the care of fruit +trees? Undoubtedly there should, and I would place them in a certain +order, and keep a due distance in planting them. What is more beautiful +than the quincunx, which, whatever way you look, retains the same direct +position? Planting them out so will also be of service to the growth of +the trees, by equally attracting the juices of the earth. I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> should lop +off the aspiring tops of my olive; it will spread more beautifully into +a round form, and will produce fruit on more branches. A horse with +slender flanks is considered handsomer than one not framed in that +manner, and the same quality also shows that he excels in swiftness. An +athlete whose arms from exercise show a full spring and play of the +muscles, is a beautiful sight, and he, likewise, is best fitted as a +combatant. Thus the true species is never without its utility, as even a +meager judgment easily may discern.</p> + +<h3>DEVELOPING VARIETY OF STYLE</h3> + +<p>But it will be of more importance to observe that this decent attire +ought to be varied according to the nature of the subject. To begin with +our first division, the same style will not suit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> equally demonstrative, +deliberative, and judicial causes. The first, calculated for +ostentation, aims at nothing but the pleasure of the auditory. It, +therefore, displays all the riches of art, and exposes to full view all +the pomp of eloquence; not acting by stratagem, nor striving for +victory, but making praise and glory its sole and ultimate end. Whatever +may be pleasing in the thought, beautiful in the expression, agreeable +in the turn, magnificent in the metaphor, elaborate in the composition, +the orator will lay open for inspection and, if it were possible, for +handling, as a merchant exposes his wares; for here the success wholly +regards him and not the cause.</p> + +<p>But when the serious part of a trial is on hand, and the contest is +truly in earnest, care of reputation ought to be the orator's last +concern. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> this reason, when everything in a way is at stake, no one +ought to be solicitous about words. I do not say that no ornaments ought +to have place in them, but that they should be more modest and severe, +less apparent, and above all suited to the subject. For in deliberations +the senate require something more elevated; the assemblies of the +people, something more spirited; and at the bar, public and capital +causes, something more accurate. But a private deliberation, and causes +of trivial consequence, as the stating of accounts and the like, need +little beyond the plain and easy manner of common discourse. Would it +not be quite shameful to demand in elaborate periods the payment of +money lent, or appeal to the emotions in speaking of the repairs of a +gutter or sink?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE CHOICE OF WORDS</h3> + +<p>As the ornament, as well as perspicuity, of speech consists either in +single words or in many together, we shall consider what they require +separately and what in conjunction. Tho there is good reason for saying +that perspicuity is best suited by proper words, and ornament by +metaphorical, yet we should always know that an impropriety is never +ornamental. But as many words very often signify the same thing, and +therefore are called synonymous, some of these must be more sublime, +more bright, more agreeable, and sweeter and fuller in pronunciation +than others. As the more clear-sounding letters communicate the same +quality to the syllables they compose, so the words composed of these +syllables become more sonorous, and the greater the force or sound of +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> syllables is, the more they fill or charm the ear. What the +junction of syllables makes, the copulation of words makes also, a word +sounding well with one, which sound badly with another.</p> + +<p>There is a great diversity in the use of words. Harsh words best express +things of an atrocious nature. In general, the best of simple words are +believed to be such as sound loudest in exclamation, or sweetest in a +pleasing strain. Modest words will ever be preferred to those that must +offend a chaste ear, and no polite discourse ever makes allowance for a +filthy or sordid expression. Magnificent, noble, and sublime words are +to be estimated by their congruity with the subject; for what is +magnificent in one place, swells into bombast in another; and what is +low in a grand matter, may be proper in a humble<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> situation. As in a +splendid style a low word must be very much out of place and, as it +were, a blemish to it, so a sublime and pompous expression is unsuited +to a subject that is plain and familiar, and therefore must be reputed +corrupt, because it raises that which ought to find favor through its +native simplicity.</p> + +<h3>THE MANNER OF DELIVERY</h3> + +<p>I shall pass now to the construction of words, observing that their +ornamental use may be considered from two points of view; first, as it +regards the elocution we conceive in our minds; second, the manner of +expressing it. It is of particular consequence that we should be clear +as to what ought to be amplified or diminished; whether we are to speak +with heat or moderation; in a florid or austere style; in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> a copious or +concise manner; in words of bitter invective, or in those showing placid +and gentle disposition; with magnificence or plainness; gravity or +politeness. Besides which it is equally important to know what +metaphors, what figures, what thoughts, what manner, what disposition, +are best suited for effecting our purpose.</p> + +<h3>FAULTS OF EXPRESSION TO AVOID</h3> + +<p>In speaking of the ornaments of a discourse, it may not be amiss to +touch first upon qualities contrary to them, because the principal +perfection consists in being free from faults. We, therefore, must not +expect ornament that is not probable, in a discourse. Cicero calls that +kind of ornament probable which is not more nor less than it ought to +be. Not that it should not appear neat and polished, for this is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> a part +of ornament, but because too much in anything is always a fault. He +would have authority and weight in words, and thoughts that are +sensible, or conformable to the opinions and manners of men. These +inviolably retained and adhered to, he makes ample allowance for +whatever else may contribute to illustrate a discourse. And thus it is +that metaphors, superlatives, epithets, compound, and synonymous words, +if they seem to express the action and fully represent things, seldom +fail to please.</p> + +<p>We should avoid the fault which makes a sentence appear not full enough, +on account of something defective, tho this is rather a vice of +obscurity than want of ornament in speech. But when it is done for some +particular reason, then it becomes a figure of speech. We should +likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> be aware of tautology, which is a repetition of the same word +or thought, or the use of many similar words or thoughts. Tho this does +not seem to have been much guarded against by some authors of great +note, it is, notwithstanding, a fault, and Cicero himself often falls +into it.</p> + +<p>Similarity of expression is a still greater vice, because the mind is +wearied by lack of the graces of variety, and the discourse being all of +one color, shows a great deficiency in the art of oratory. It, besides, +creates loathing, and at length becomes insupportable, both to the mind +and ear, through the tedious repetition of the same cold thoughts, +figures, and periods.</p> + +<p>There is another fault, that of being over-nice, which is caused by +extreme anxiety to be exact, but which is as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> far distant from exactness +as superstition is from true religion. In short, every word that +contributes neither to perspicuity nor ornament, may be called vicious.</p> + +<p>A perverse affectation is faulty in all respects. All bombast, and +flimsiness, and studied sweetness, and redundancies, and far-fetched +thoughts, and witticisms, fall under the same denomination. Thus +whatever stretches beyond the bounds of perfection, may be called +affectation, and this happens as often as the genius is lacking in +judgment, and suffers itself to be deceived by an appearance of good. It +is the worst of vices in matters of eloquence, for even when others are +avoided, this is sought after, and its whole trespass is against +elocution. There are vices incident to things, which come from being +devoid of sense, or from being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> common, or contrary, or unnecessary, and +a corrupt style consists principally in impropriety of words, in their +redundancy, in their obscure import, in a weak composition, and in a +puerile hunting after synonymous or equivocal words. But every perverse +affectation is false in consequence of its idea, tho not everything that +is false is an affectation, the latter saying a thing otherwise than as +nature will have it, and than it ought to be, and than is sufficient.</p> + +<h3>USE OF VIVID DESCRIPTION</h3> + +<p>There can not be a greater perfection than to express the things we +speak of in such lively colors as to make them seem really to take place +in our presence. Our words are lacking in full effect, they assume not +that absolute empire they ought to have, when they strike only the ear, +and when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> the judge who is to take cognizance of the matter is not +sensible of its being emphatically exprest.</p> + +<p>One manner of representation consists in making out of an assemblage of +circumstances the image we endeavor to exhibit. An example of this we +have in Cicero's description of a riotous banquet; he being the only one +who can furnish us with examples of all kinds of ornaments: "I seemed to +myself to see some coming in, others going out; some tottering with +drunkenness, others yawning from yesterday's carousing. In the midst of +these was Gallius, bedaubed with essences, and crowned with flowers. The +floor of their apartment was all in a muck of dirt, streaming with wine, +and strewed all about with chaplets of faded flowers, and fish-bones." +Who could have seen more had he been present?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this manner pity grows upon us from hearing of the sacking of a town. +Undoubtedly he who acquaints us of such an event, comprehends all the +incidents of so great a calamity, yet this cursory piece of intelligence +makes but a languid impression upon the mind. But if you enter into +descriptive pictures of all that was included in one word, as it were, +flames will appear spreading through houses and temples; the crash of +falling houses will be heard; and one confused noise formed out of all +together. Some will be seen striving to escape the danger, but know not +where to direct their flight; others embracing for the last time their +parents and relations; here the dismal shrieks of women and piercing +cries of children fill one with pity; there the sighs and groans of old +men, lamenting their unhappy fate for hav<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>ing lived so long as to be +witnesses of their country's desolation. A further addition to these +scenes of woe is the plunder of all things, sacred as well as profane; +the avidity of the soldier prowling after and carrying away his prey; +the wretched citizens dragged away in chains before their haughty +conquerors; mothers struggling to keep with them their children; and +slaughter still exercising its cruelties wherever there is the least +expectation of booty. Tho all these details are comprehended in the idea +of the sacking of a town, yet it is saying less to state merely that the +town was sacked than to describe its destruction in this circumstantial +manner.</p> + +<p>Such circumstances may be made to appear vivid if they retain a likeness +to truth. They may not have happened in reality, yet, as they are +possible,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> the descriptive evidence is not objectionable. The same +evidence will arise also from accidents, as in the following examples:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<div class="i8">... me horror chills,</div> +<div>Shudd'ring, and fear congeals my curdling blood.</div> +<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Trapp</span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="stanza"> +<div class="i2">... to their bosoms press'd,</div> +<div>The frighted mothers clasp'd their crying babes.</div> +<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Trapp</span>.</div> +</div></div> + +<p>This perfection, the greatest, in my opinion, a discourse can have, is +very easily acquired by only considering and following nature. For +eloquence is a picture of the happenings of human life, every one +applying to himself what he hears, by making the case in some measure +his own, and the mind receives very willingly that with which it has +become familiar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + +<p>To throw light, also, upon things, similes have been invented, some of +which by way of proof are inserted among arguments, and others are +calculated for expressing the images of things, the point we are here +explaining.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<div class="i8">... Thence like wolves</div> +<div>Prowling in gloomy shade, which hunger blind</div> +<div>Urges along, while their forsaken whelps</div> +<div>Expect them with dry jaws.</div> +<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Trapp</span>.</div> +</div><div class="stanza"> + +<div>... Thence with all his body's force</div> +<div>Flings himself headlong from the steepy height</div> +<div>Down to the ocean: like the bird that flies</div> +<div>Low, skimming o'er the surface, near the sea,</div> +<div>Around the shores, around the fishy rocks.</div> +<div class="right"><span class="smcap">Trapp</span>.</div> +</div></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> +<h3>HOW TO EMPLOY SIMILES AND METAPHORS</h3> + +<p>We must be exceedingly cautious in regard to similitudes, that we do not +use such as are either obscure or unknown. For that which is assumed for +the sake of illustrating another thing, ought indeed to be clearer than +that which it so illustrates.</p> + +<p>In speaking of arguments I mentioned a kind of similitude which, as an +ornament to a discourse, contributes to make it sublime, florid, +pleasing, and admirable. For the more far-fetched a similitude is, the +more new and unexpected it will appear. Some may be thought commonplace, +yet will avail much for enforcing belief; as, "As a piece of ground +becomes better and more fertile by cultivation, so does the mind by good +institutions." "As physicians prescribe the amputation of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> limb that +manifestly tends to mortification, so would it be necessary to cut off +all bad citizens, tho even allied to us in blood." Here is something +more sublime: "Rocks and solitudes echo back the melody, and the +fiercest beasts are often made more gentle, being astonished by the +harmony of music." But this kind of similitude is often abused by the +too great liberties our declaimers give themselves; for they use such as +are false, and they do not make a just application of them to the +subjects to which they would compare them.</p> + +<p>In every comparison the similitude either goes before, and the thing +follows; or the thing goes before, and the similitude follows. But the +similitude sometimes is free and separate: sometimes, which is best, it +is connected with the thing of which it is the image,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> this connection +being made to aid and correspond mutually on both sides. Cicero says in +his oration for Murena: "They who have not a genius for playing on the +lyre, may become expert at playing on the flute (a proverbial saying +among the Greeks to specify the man who can not make himself master of +the superior sciences): so among us they who can not become orators, +turn to the study of the law." In another passage of the same oration, +the connected comparison is conceived in a sort of poetical spirit. "As +storms are often raised by the influence of some constellation, and +often suddenly and from some hidden cause which can not be accounted +for, so the stormy agitations we sometimes behold in the assemblies of +the people are often occasioned by a malign influence easily +discoverable by all; and often their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> cause is so obscure as to seem +merely the effect of chance." There are other similes, which are very +short, as this, "Strolling and wandering through forests like beasts." +And that of Cicero against Clodius, "From which judgment we have seen +him escape naked, like a man from his house on fire." Such similes +constantly occur in common discourse.</p> + +<p>Of a similar kind is an ornament which not only represents things, but +does so in a lively and concise manner. Undoubtedly a conciseness in +which nothing is lacking, is deservedly praised; that which says +precisely only what is necessary, is less estimable; but that which +expresses much in a few words is of all the most beautiful.</p> + +<p>Eloquence does not think it enough to show of what it speaks, in a clear +and evident manner; it uses, besides,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> a variety of other expedients for +embellishing a discourse. Thus it is that a simple and unaffected style +is not without beauty, but it is a beauty entirely pure and natural, +such as is admired in women. Beauty is also annexed to propriety and +justness of expression, and this beauty is the more elegant as it shows +but little care. There is an abundance that is rich, an abundance that +smiles amidst the gaiety of flowers, and there is more than one sort of +power, for whatever is complete in its kind can not be destitute of its +proper strength and efficacy.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="COMPOSITION_AND_STYLE" id="COMPOSITION_AND_STYLE"></a>COMPOSITION AND STYLE</h2> + +<p>I well know that there are some who will not sanction any care in +composition, contending that our words as they flow by chance, however +uncouth they may sound, are not only more natural, but likewise more +manly. If what first sprang from nature, indebted in nowise to care and +industry, be only what they deem natural, I admit that the art of +oratory in this respect has no pretensions to that quality. For it is +certain that the first men did not speak according to the exactness of +the rules of composition; neither were they acquainted with the art of +preparing by an exordium, informing by a narration, proving by +arguments, and moving by passions. They were deficient in all these +particulars, and not in com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>position only; and if they were not allowed +to make any alterations for the better, of course they would not have +exchanged their cottages for houses, nor their coverings of skins for +more decent apparel, nor the mountains and forests in which they ranged +for the abode of cities in which they enjoy the comforts of social +intercourse. And, indeed, what art do we find coeval with the world, and +what is there of which the value is not enhanced by improvement? Why do +we restrain the luxuriance of our vines? Why do we dig about them? Why +do we grub up the bramble-bushes in our fields? Yet the earth produces +them. Why do we tame animals? Yet are they born with intractable +dispositions. Rather let us say that that is very natural which nature +permits us to meliorate in her handiwork.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE POWER OF SKILFUL COMPOSITION</h3> + +<p>How can a jumble of uncouth words be more manly than a manner of +expression which is well joined and properly placed? If some authors +weaken the subjects of which they treat, by straining them into certain +soft and lascivious measures, we must not on that account judge that +this is the fault of composition. As the current of rivers is swifter +and more impetuous in a free and open channel than amidst an obstruction +of rocks breaking and struggling against the flow of their waters, an +oration that is properly connected flows with its whole might, and is +far preferable to one that is craggy and desultory by reason of frequent +interruptions. Why, then, should it be thought that strength and beauty +are incompatible, when, on the contrary, nothing has its just value +without art,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> and embellishment always attends on it? Do not we observe +the javelin which has been cleverly whirled about, dart through the air +with the best effect; and in managing a bow and arrow, is not the beauty +of the attitude as much more graceful as the aim is more unerring? In +feats of arms, and in all the exercises of the palæstra, is not his +attitude best calculated for defense or offense, who uses a certain art +in all his motions, and keeps to a certain position of the feet? +Composition, therefore, in my opinion, is to thoughts and words what the +dexterous management of a bow or string may be for directing the aim of +missive weapons; and I may say that the most learned are convinced that +it is greatly conducive not only to pleasure, but also to making a good +impression on others. First, because it is scarcely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> possible that +anything should affect the heart, which begins by grating on the ear. +Secondly, because we are naturally affected by harmony, otherwise the +sounds of musical instruments, tho they express no words, would not +excite in us so great a variety of pleasing emotions. In sacred +canticles, some airs are for elating the heart into raptures, others to +restore the mind to its former tranquillity. The sound of a trumpet is +not the same when it is the signal for a general engagement, and when on +defeat it implores the conqueror's mercy; neither is it the same when an +army marches up to give battle, and when it is intent on retreating. It +was a common practise with the Pythagoric philosophers, on arising in +the morning, to awake their minds by an air on the lyre, in order to +make them more alert for action; and they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> had recourse to the same +musical entertainment for disposing them to sleep, believing it to be a +means for allaying all tumultuous thoughts which might in any way have +ruffled them in the course of the day.</p> + +<p>If, then, so great a power lies in musical strains and modulations, what +must it be with eloquence, the music of which is a speaking harmony? As +much, indeed, as it is essential for a thought to be exprest in suitable +words, it is equally necessary for the same words to be disposed in +proper order by composition, that they may flow and end harmoniously. +Some things of little consequence in their import, and requiring but a +moderate degree of elocution, are commendable only by this perfection; +and there are others which appear exprest with so much force, beauty, +and sweetness, that if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> the order in which they stand should be changed +or disturbed, all force, beauty, and sweetness would vanish from them.</p> + +<h3>THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD COMPOSITION</h3> + +<p>There are three things necessary in every kind of composition, and these +are order, correction, and number.</p> + +<h3><i>1. Order</i></h3> + +<p>We shall speak first of order, which applies to words considered +separately or joined together. In regard to the former, care must be +taken that there be no decrease by adding a weaker word to a stronger, +as accusing one of sacrilege, and giving him afterward the name of +thief; or adding the character of wanton fellow to that of a highwayman. +The sense ought to increase and rise, which Cicero observes admirably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +where he says: "And thou, with that voice, those lungs, and that +gladiator-like vigor of thy whole body." Here each succeeding thing is +stronger than the one before; but if he had begun with the whole body, +he could not with propriety have descended to the voice and lungs. There +is another natural order in saying men and women, day and night, east +and west.</p> + +<p>Words in prose not being measured, as are the feet which compose verse, +they are, therefore, transferred from place to place, that they may be +joined where they best fit, as in a building where the irregularity, +however great, of rough stones is both suitable and proper. The happiest +composition language can have, however, is to keep to a natural order, +just connection, and a regularly flowing cadence.</p> + +<p>Sometimes there is something very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> striking about a word. Placed in the +middle of a sentence, it might pass unnoticed, or be obscured by the +other words that lie about it, but when placed at the end the auditor +can not help noting it and retaining it in his mind.</p> + +<h3><i>2. Connection</i></h3> + +<p>Juncture follows, which is equally requisite in words, articles, +members, and periods, all these having their beauty and faults, in +consequence of their manner of connection. It may be a general +observation that in the placing of syllables, their sound will be +harsher as they are pronounced with a like or different gaping of the +mouth. This, however, is not to be dreaded as a signal fault, and I know +not which is worse here, inattention or too great care. Too scrupulous +fear must damp the heat and retard the impetuosity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> speaking, while +at the same time it prevents the mind from attending to thoughts which +are of greater moment. As, therefore, it is carelessness to yield to +these faults, so it is meanness to be too much afraid of them.</p> + +<h3><i>3. Number</i></h3> + +<p>Numbers are nowhere so much lacking, nor so remarkable, as at the end of +periods; first, because every sense has its bounds, and takes up a +natural space, by which it is divided from the beginning of what +follows: next, because the hearers following the flow of words, and +drawn, as it were, down the current of the oration, are then more +competent judges, when that impetuosity ceases and gives time for +reflection. There should not, therefore, be anything harsh nor abrupt in +that ending, which seems calculated for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> respite and recreation of +the mind and ear. This, too, is the resting-place of the oration, this +the auditor expects, and here burst forth all his effusions of praise.</p> + +<h3>THE COMPOSITION OF PERIODS</h3> + +<p>The beginning of periods demands as much care as the closing of them, +for here, also, the auditor is attentive. But it is easier to observe +numbers in the beginning of periods, as they are not depending on, nor +connected with, what went before. But the ending of periods, however +graceful it may be in composition and numbers, will lose all its charm +if we proceed to it by a harsh and precipitate beginning.</p> + +<p>As to the composition of the middle parts of a period, care must be +taken not only of their connection with each other, but also that they +may not seem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> slow, nor long, nor, what is now a great vice, jump and +start from being made up of many short syllables, and producing the same +effect on the ear as the sounds from a child's rattle. For as the +ordering of the beginning and ending is of much importance, as often as +the sense begins or ends; so in the middle, too, there is a sort of +stress which slightly insists; as the feet of people running, which, tho +they make no stop, yet leave a track. It is not only necessary to begin +and end well the several members and articles, but the intermediate +space, tho continued without respiration, ought also to retain a sort of +composition, by reason of the insensible pauses that serve as so many +degrees for pronunciation.</p> + +<p>Cicero gives many names to the period, calling it a winding about, a +circuit, a comprehension, continuation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> and circumscription. It is of +two kinds; the one simple when a single thought is drawn out into a +considerable number of words; the other compound, consisting of members +and articles which include several thoughts.</p> + +<p>Wherever the orator has occasion to conduct himself severely, to press +home, to act boldly and resolutely, he should speak by members and +articles. This manner has vast power and efficacy in an oration. The +composition is to adapt itself to the nature of things, therefore, even +rough things being conceived in rough sounds and numbers, that the +hearer may be made to enter into all the passions of the speaker. It +would be advisable, for the most part, to make the narration in members; +or if periods are used, they ought to be more loose and less elaborate +than elsewhere. But I except such narra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>tions as are calculated more for +ornament than for giving information.</p> + +<h3>THE USE OF PERIODS</h3> + +<p>The period is proper for the exordiums of greater causes, where the +matter requires solicitude, commendation, pity. Also in common places +and in every sort of amplification; but if you accuse, it ought to be +close and compact; if you praise, it should be full, round, and flowing. +It is likewise of good service in perorations, and may be used without +restriction wherever the composition requires to be set off in a +somewhat grand and noble manner, and when the judge not only has a +thorough knowledge of the matter before him, but is also captivated with +the beauty of the discourse and, trusting to the orator, allows himself +to be led away by the sense of pleasure.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<p>History does not so much stand in need of a periodical flow of words, as +it likes to move around in a sort of perpetual circle, for all its +members are connected with each other, by its slipping and gliding along +from one subject to the next, just as men, strengthening their pace, +hold and are held, by grasping each other by the hand. Whatever belongs +to the demonstrative kind has freer and more flowing numbers. The +judicial and deliberative, being varied in their matter, occasionally +require a different form of composition.</p> + +<h3>FITTING EXPRESSION TO THOUGHT</h3> + +<p>Who doubts that some things are to be exprest in a gentle way, others +with more heat, others sublimely, others contentiously, and others +gravely? Feet composed of long syllables best suit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> grave, sublime, and +ornamental subjects. The grave will take up a longer space in the +pronunciation, and the sublime and ornamental will demand a clear and +sonorous expression. Feet of short syllables are more agreeable in +arguments, division, raillery, and whatever partakes of the nature of +ordinary conversation.</p> + +<p>The composition of the exordium will differ, therefore, as the subject +may require. For the mind of the judge is not always the same, so that, +according to the time and circumstances, we must declare our mournful +plight, appear modest, tart, grave, insinuating; move to mercy and +exhort to diligence. As the nature of these is different, so their +composition must be conducted in a different way.</p> + +<p>Let it be in some measure a general observation that the composition +ought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> to be modeled on the manner of pronunciation. In exordiums are we +not most commonly modest, except when in a cause of accusation we strive +to irritate the minds of the judges? Are we not copious and explicit in +narration; in arguments animated and lively, even showing animation in +our actions; in common places and descriptions, exuberant and lavish of +ornaments; and in perorations, for the most part weighed down by +distress? Of the variety which ought to be in a discourse, we may find +another parallel instance in the motions of the body. With all of them, +do not the circumstances regulate their respective degrees of slowness +and celerity? And for dancing as well as singing, does not music use +numbers of which the beating of the time makes us sensible? As our voice +and action are indeed expressive of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> our inner feelings in regard to the +nature of the things of which we speak, need we, then, be surprized if a +like conformity ought to be found in the feet that enter into the +composition of a piece of eloquence? Ought not sublime matters be made +to walk in majestic solemnity, the mild to keep in a gentle pace, the +brisk and lively to bound with rapidity, and the nice and delicate to +flow smoothly?</p> + +<h3>FAULTS IN COMPOSITION</h3> + +<p>If faults in composition be unavoidable, I should rather give preference +to that which is harsh and rough than to that which is nerveless and +weak, the results of an affected style that many now study, and which +constantly corrupts, more and more, by a wantonness in numbers more +becoming a dance than the majesty of eloquence. But I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> can not say that +any composition is good, however perfect otherwise, which constantly +presents the same form, and continually falls into the same feet. A +constant observing of similar measures and cadences, is a kind of +versification, and all prose in which this fault is discoverable, can +have no allowance made for it, by reason of its manifest affectation +(the very suspicion of which ought to be avoided), and its uniformity, +which, of course, must fatigue and disgust the mind. This vice may have +some engaging charms at first sight, but the greater its sweets are, the +shorter will be their continuance; and the orator once detected of any +anxious concern in this respect, will instantly lose all belief that has +been placed in him, and vainly will he strive to make on others' minds +the impressions he expected to make; for how is it to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> be expected that +a judge will believe a man, or permit himself to feel grief or anger on +account of one whom he observes to have attended to nothing more than +the display of such trifles? Some of the connections of smooth +composition ought, therefore, to be designedly broken, and it is no +small labor to make them appear not labored.</p> + +<p>Let us not be such slaves to the placing of words as to study +transpositions longer than necessary, lest what we do in order to +please, may displease by being affected. Neither let a fondness for +making the composition flow with smoothness, prevail on us to set aside +a word otherwise proper and becoming; as no word, in reality, can prove +disagreeable enough to be wholly excluded, unless it be that in the +avoiding of such words we consult mere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> beauty of expression rather than +the good of composition.</p> + +<p>To conclude, composition ought to be graceful, agreeable, varied. Its +parts are three: order, connection, number. Its art consists in adding, +retrenching, changing. Its qualities are according to the nature of the +things discust. The care in composition ought to be great, but not to +take the place of care in thinking and speaking. What deserves to be +particularly attended to is the concealing of the care of composition, +that the numbers may seem to flow of their own accord, and not with the +least constraint or affectation.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="COPIOUSNESS_OF_WORDS" id="COPIOUSNESS_OF_WORDS"></a>COPIOUSNESS OF WORDS</h2> + +<p>Eloquence will never be solid and robust, unless it collects strength +and consistence from much writing and composing; and without examples +from reading, that labor will go astray for lack of a guide; and tho it +be known how everything ought to be said, yet the orator who is not +possest of a talent for speaking, always ready to exert himself on +occasion, will be like a man watching over a hidden treasure.</p> + +<p>Our orator, who we suppose is familiar with the way of inventing and +disposing things, of making a choice of words, and placing them in +proper order, requires nothing further than the knowledge of the means +whereby in the easiest and best manner he may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> execute what he has +learned. It can not, then, be doubted that he must acquire a certain +stock of wealth in order to have it ready for use when needed, and this +stock of wealth consists of a plentiful supply of things and words.</p> + +<h3>THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE</h3> + +<p>Things are peculiar to each cause, or common to few; but a provision of +words must be made indiscriminately for all subjects. If each word were +precisely significant of each thing, our perplexity would be less, as +then words would immediately present themselves with things, but some +being more proper than others, or more ornamental, or more emphatic, or +more harmonious, all ought not only to be known but to be kept ready and +in sight, as it were, that when they pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>sent themselves for the +orator's selection, he easily may make a choice of the best.</p> + +<p>I know that some make a practise of classing together all synonymous +words and committing them to memory, so that out of so many at least one +may more easily come to mind; and when they have used a word, and +shortly after need it again, to avoid repetition they take another of +the same significance. This is of little or no use, for it is only a +crowd that is mustered together, out of which the first at hand is taken +indifferently, whereas the copiousness of language of which I speak is +to be the result of acquisition of judgment in the use of words, with +the view of attaining the true expressive force of eloquence, and not +empty volubility of speech. This can be affected only by hearing and +reading the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> things; and it is only by giving it our attention that +we shall know not only the appellations of things, but what is fittest +for every place.</p> + +<h3>THE VALUE OF HEARING SPEAKERS</h3> + +<p>With some eloquent compositions we may derive more profit by reading +them, but with some others, more by hearing them pronounced. The speaker +keeps awake all our senses, and inspires us by the fire that animates +him. We are struck, not by the image and exterior of things, but by the +things themselves. All is life and motion, and with solicitude for his +success, we favorably receive all he says, its appeal to us lying in the +charm of novelty. Together with the orator, we find ourselves deeply +interested in the issue of the trial and the safety of the parties whose +defense he has undertaken. Besides these we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> find that other things +affect us: a fine voice, a graceful action corresponding with what is +said, and a manner of pronunciation, which perhaps is the most powerful +ornament of eloquence; in short, everything conducted and managed in the +way that is most fitting.</p> + +<h3>THE ADVANTAGES OF READING</h3> + +<p>In reading, our judgment goes upon surer ground, because often our good +wishes for the speaker, or the applause bestowed on him, surprizes us +into approbation. We are ashamed to differ in opinion from others, and +by a sort of secret bashfulness are kept from believing ourselves more +intelligent than they are; tho indeed we are aware, at the same time, +that the taste of the greater number is vicious, and that sycophants, +even persons hired to applaud, praise things which can not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> please us; +as, on the other hand, it also happens that a bad taste can have no +relish for the best things. Reading is attended, besides, with the +advantage of being free, and not escaping us by the rapidity which +accompanies action; and we may go over the same things often, should we +doubt their accuracy, or wish to fix them in our memories. Repeating and +reviewing will, therefore, be highly necessary; for as meats are chewed +before they descend into the stomach, in order to facilitate their +digestion, so reading is fittest for being laid up in the memory, that +it may be an object of imitation when it is no longer in a crude state +but has been softened and elaborated by long meditation.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO READ MOST PROFITABLY</h3> + +<p>None, however, but the best authors, and such as we are least liable to +be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> deceived in, demand this care, which should be diligent and extended +even almost to the point of taking the pains to transcribe them. Nor +ought judgment to be passed on the whole from examining a part, but +after the book has been fully perused, it should have a second reading; +especially should this be done with an oration, the perfections of which +are often designedly kept concealed. The orator, indeed, often prepares, +dissembles, lies in wait, and says things in the first part of the +pleading which he avails himself of in the last part. They may, +therefore, be less pleasing in their place, while we still remain +ignorant of the purpose for their being said. For this reason, after a +due consideration of particulars, it would not be amiss to re-read the +whole.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p> +<h3>WHAT TO READ</h3> + +<p>Theophrastus says that the reading of poetry is of vast service to the +orator. Many, and with good reason, are of the same opinion, as from the +poets may be derived sprightliness in thought, sublimity in expression, +force and variety in sentiment, propriety and decorum in character, +together with that diversion for cheering and freshening minds which +have been for any time harassed by the drudgery of the bar.</p> + +<p>Let it be remembered, however, that poets are not in all things to be +imitated by the orator, neither in the liberty of words, nor license of +figures. The whole of that study is calculated for ostentation. Its sole +aim is pleasure, and it invariably pursues it, by fictions of not only +what is false, but of some things that are incredible. It is sure, also, +of meeting with partizans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> to espouse its cause, because, since it is +bound down to a certain necessity of feet it can not always use proper +words, and being driven out of the straight road, must turn into byways +of speaking, and be compelled to change some words, and to lengthen, +shorten, transpose and divide them. As for orators, they must stand +their ground completely armed in the order of battle, and having to +fight for matters of the highest consequence, must think of nothing but +gaining the victory.</p> + +<p>Still would I not have their armor appear squalid and covered with rust, +but retain rather a brightness that dismays, such as of polished steel, +striking both the mind and eyes with awe, and not the splendor of gold +and silver, a weak safeguard, indeed, and rather dangerous to the +bearer.</p> + +<p>History, likewise, by its mild and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> grateful sap may afford kind +nutriment to an oratorical composition. Yet the orator should so read +history as to be convinced that most of its perfections ought to be +avoided by him. It nearly borders upon poetry, and may be held as a +poem, unrestrained by the laws of verse. Its object is to narrate, and +not to prove, and its whole business neither intends action nor +contention, but to transmit facts to posterity, and enhance the +reputation of its author.</p> + +<p>In the reading of history there is another benefit, and indeed the +greatest, but one not relative to the present subject. This proceeds +from the knowledge of things and examples, which the orator ought to be +well versed in, so that not all his testimonies may be from the parties, +but many of them may be taken from antiquity, with which, through +history, he will be well ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>quainted; these testimonies being the more +powerful, as they are exempt from suspicion of prejudice and partiality.</p> + +<p>I shall venture to say that there are few which have stood the test of +time, that may not be read with some profit by the judicious. Cicero +himself confesses that he received great help from old authors, who +were, indeed, very ingenious but were deficient in art. Before I speak +of the respective merit of authors, I must make, in a few words, some +general reflections on the diversity of taste in regard to matters of +eloquence. Some think that the ancients deserve to be read, believing +that they alone have distinguished themselves by natural eloquence and +that strength of language so becoming men. Others are captivated with +the flowery profusion of the orators of the present age, with their +delicate turns,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> and with all the blandishments they skilfully invent to +charm the ears of an ignorant multitude. Some choose to follow the plain +and direct way of speaking. Others take to be sound and truly Attic +whatever is close, neat, and departs but little from ordinary +conversation. Some are delighted with a more elevated, more impetuous, +and more fiery force of genius. Others, and not a few, like a smooth, +elegant, and polite manner. I shall speak of this difference in taste +more fully when I come to examine the style which may seem most proper +for the orator.</p> + +<h3>QUALITIES OF CLASSIC WRITERS</h3> + +<h3><i>Homer</i></h3> + +<p>We may begin properly with Homer.</p> + +<p>He it is who gave birth to, and set the example for all parts of +eloquence, in the same way, as he himself says,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> as the course of rivers +and springs of fountains owe their origin to the ocean. No one, in great +subjects, has excelled him in elevation; nor in small subjects, in +propriety. He is florid and close, grave and agreeable, admirable for +his concise as well as for his copious manner, and is not only eminent +for poetical, but likewise oratorical, abilities.</p> + +<h3><i>Æschylus</i></h3> + +<p>Æschylus is the one who gave birth to tragedy. He is sublime, and grave, +and often pompous to a fault. But his plots are mostly ill-contrived and +as ill-conducted. For which reason the Athenians permitted the poets who +came after him to correct his pieces and fit them for the stage, and in +this way many of these poets received the honor of being crowned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> + +<h3><i>Sophocles and Euripides</i></h3> + +<p>Sophocles and Euripides brought tragedy to greater perfection; but the +difference in their manner has occasioned dispute among the learned as +to their relative poetic merits. For my part, I shall leave the matter +undecided, as having nothing to do with my present purpose. It must be +confest, nevertheless, that the study of Euripedes will be of much +greater value to those who are preparing themselves for the bar; for +besides the fact that his style comes nearer the oratorical style, he +likewise abounds in fine thoughts, and in philosophic maxims is almost +on an equality with philosophers, and in his dialog may be compared with +the best speakers at the bar. He is wonderful, again, for his masterly +strokes in moving the passions, and more especially in exciting +sympathy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p> + +<h3><i>Thucydides and Herodotus</i></h3> + +<p>There have been many famous writers of history, but all agree in giving +the preference to two, whose perfections, tho different, have received +an almost equal degree of praise. Thucydides is close, concise, and ever +pressing on. Herodotus is sweet, natural, and copious. One is remarkable +for his animated expression of the more impetuous passions, the other +for gentle persuasion in the milder: the former succeeds in harangues +and has more force; the other surpasses in speeches of familiar +intercourse, and gives more pleasure.</p> + +<h3><i>Demosthenes</i></h3> + +<p>A numerous band of orators follows, for Athens produced ten of them, +contemporary with one another. Demosthenes was by far the chief of them, +and in a manner held to be the only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> model for eloquence; so great is +his force; so closely together are all things interwoven in his +discourse, and attended with a certain self-command; so great is his +accuracy, he never adopting any idle expression; and so just his +precision that nothing lacking, nothing redundant, can be found in him. +Æschines is more full, more diffusive, and appears the more grand, as he +has more breadth. He has more flesh, but not so many sinews.</p> + +<h3><i>Lysias and Isocrates</i></h3> + +<p>Lysias, older than these, is subtle and elegant, and if it is enough for +the orator to instruct, none could be found more perfect than he is. +There is nothing idle, nothing far-fetched in him; yet is he more like a +clear brook than a great river. Isocrates, in a different kind of +eloquence, is fine and polished,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> and better adapted for engaging in a +mock than a real battle. He was attentive to all the beauties of +discourse, and had his reasons for it, having intended his eloquence for +schools and not for contentions at the bar. His invention was easy, he +was very fond of graces and embellishments, and so nice was he in his +composition that his extreme care is not without reprehension.</p> + +<h3><i>Plato</i></h3> + +<p>Among philosophers, by whom Cicero confesses he has been furnished with +many resourceful aids to eloquence, who doubts that Plato is the chief, +whether we consider the acuteness of his dissertations, or his divine +Homerical faculty of elocution? He soars high above prose, and even +common poetry, which is poetry only because comprised in a certain +number of feet; and he seems to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> me not so much endowed with the wit of +a man, as inspired by a sort of Delphic oracle.</p> + +<h3><i>Xenophon</i></h3> + +<p>What shall I say of Xenophon's unaffected agreeableness, so unattainable +by any imitation that the Graces themselves seem to have composed his +language? The testimony of the ancient comedy concerning Pericles, is +very justly applicable to him, "That the Goddess of Persuasion had +seated herself on his lips."</p> + +<h3><i>Aristotle and Theophrastus</i></h3> + +<p>And what shall I say of the elegance of the other disciples of Socrates? +What of Aristotle? I am at a loss to know what most to admire in him, +his vast and profound erudition, or the great number of his writings, or +his pleasing style and manner, or the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>ventions and penetration of his +wit, or the variety of his works. And as to Theophrastus, his elocution +has something so noble and so divine that it may be said that from these +qualities came his name.</p> + +<h3><i>Vergil</i></h3> + +<p>In regard to our Roman authors, we can not more happily begin than with +Vergil, who of all their poets and ours in the epic style, is without +any doubt the one who comes nearest to Homer. Tho obliged to give way to +Homer's heavenly and immortal genius, yet in Vergil are to be found a +greater exactness and care, it being incumbent on him to take more +pains; so that what we lose on the side of eminence of qualities, we +perhaps gain on that of justness and equability.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + +<h3><i>Cicero</i></h3> + +<p>I proceed to our orators, who likewise may put Roman eloquence upon a +par with the Grecian. Cicero I would strenuously oppose against any of +them, tho conscious of the quarrel I should bring upon myself by +comparing him with Demosthenes in a time so critical as this; especially +as my subject does not oblige me to it, neither is it of any +consequence, when it is my real opinion that Demosthenes ought to be +particularly read, or, rather, committed to memory.</p> + +<p>I must say, notwithstanding, that I judge them to be alike in most of +the great qualities they possest; alike in design, disposition, manner +of dividing, of preparing minds, of proving, in short in everything +belonging to invention. In elocution there is some difference. The one +is more compact, the other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> more copious; the one closes in with his +opponent, the other allows him more ground to fight in; the one is +always subtle and keen in argument, the other is perhaps less so, but +often has more weight; from the one nothing can be retrenched, neither +can anything be added to the other; the one has more study, the other +more nature.</p> + +<p>Still ought we to yield, if for no other reason than because Demosthenes +lived before Cicero, and because the Roman orator, however great, is +indebted for a large part of his merit to the Athenian. For it seems to +me that Cicero, having bent all his thoughts on the Greeks, toward +forming himself on their model, had at length made constituents of his +character the force of Demosthenes, the abundance of Plato, and the +sweetness of Isocrates. Nor did he only, by his application, extract<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +what was best in these great originals, but by the happy fruitfulness of +his immortal genius he himself produced the greater part, or rather all, +of these same perfections. And to make use of an expression of Pindar, +he does not collect the water from rains to remedy a natural dryness, +but flows continually, himself, from a source of living waters, and +seems to have existed by a peculiar gift of Providence, that in him +eloquence might make trial of her whole strength and her most powerful +exertions.</p> + +<p>For who can instruct with more exactness, and move with more vehemence? +What orator ever possest so pleasing a manner that the very things he +forcibly wrests from you, you fancy you grant him; and when by his +violence he carries away the judge, yet does the judge seem to himself +to obey his own voli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>tion, and not to be swept away by that of another? +Besides, in all he says there is so much authority and weight that you +are ashamed to differ from him in opinion; and it is not the zeal of an +advocate you find in him, but rather the faith and sincerity of a +witness or judge. And what, at the same time, is more admirable, all +these qualities, any one of which could not be attained by another +without infinite pains, seem to be his naturally; so that his +discourses, the most charming, the most harmonious, which possibly can +be heard, retain, notwithstanding, so great an air of happy ease that +they seem to have cost him nothing.</p> + +<p>With good reason, therefore, is he said by his contemporaries to reign +at the bar, and he has so far gained the good graces of posterity that +Cicero is now less the name of a man than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> name of eloquence itself. +Let us then keep him in view, let him be our model, and let that orator +think he has made considerable progress who has once conceived a love +and taste for Cicero.</p> + +<h3><i>Cæsar</i></h3> + +<p>If Cæsar had made the bar his principal occupation, no other of our +orators could better have disputed the prize of eloquence with Cicero. +So great is his force, so sharp his wit, so active his fire, that it +plainly appears he spoke with as much spirit as he fought. A wonderful +elegance and purity of language, which he made his particular study, +were a further embellishment of all these talents for eloquence.</p> + +<h3><i>Philosophers</i></h3> + +<p>It remains only to speak of those who have written on subjects of +philosophy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> Hitherto we have had but few of this kind. Cicero, as in +all other respects, so also in this, was a worthy rival of Plato. Brutus +has written some excellent treatises, the merit of which is far superior +to that of his orations. He supports admirably well the weight of his +matter, and seems to feel what he says. Cornelius Celsus, in the manner +of the Skeptics, has written a good many tracts, which are not without +elegance and perspicuity. Plancus, among the Stoics, may be read with +profit, for the sake of becoming acquainted with the things he +discusses. Catius, an Epicurean, has some levity in his way, but in the +main is not an unpleasing author.</p> + +<h3><i>Seneca</i></h3> + +<p>I have designedly omitted speaking hitherto of Seneca,—who was +proficient in all kinds of eloquence,—on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> of the false opinion +people entertained that I not only condemned his writings, but also +personally hated him. I drew this aspersion upon myself by my endeavor +to bring over eloquence to a more austere taste, which had been +corrupted and enervated by very many softnesses and delicacies. Then +Seneca was almost the only author young people read with pleasure. I did +not strive to exclude him absolutely, but could not bear that he should +be preferred to others much better, whom he took all possible pains to +cry down, because he was conscious that he had taken to a different +manner from their way of writing, and he could not otherwise expect to +please people who had a taste for these others. It was Seneca's lot, +however, to be more loved than imitated, and his partizans run as wide +from him as he himself had fallen from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> the ancients. Yet it were to be +wished that they had proved themselves like, or had come near, him. But +they were fond of nothing in him but his faults, and every one strove to +copy them if he could. Then priding themselves on speaking like Seneca, +of course they could not avoid bringing him into disgrace.</p> + +<p>His perfections, however, were many and great. His wit was easy and +fruitful, his erudition considerable, his knowledge extensive—in which +last point he sometimes was led into mistakes, probably by those whom he +had charged to make researches for him. There is hardly a branch of +study on which he has not written something; for we have his orations, +his poems, epistles, and dialogs. In philosophic matters he was not so +accurate, but was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> admirable for his invectives against vice.</p> + +<p>He has many bright thoughts, and many things are well worth reading in +him for improvement of the moral character; but his elocution is, for +the most part, corrupt, and the more dangerous because its vices are of +a sweet and alluring nature. One could wish he had written with his own +genius and another's judgment. For if he had rejected some things, if he +had less studiously affected some engaging beauties, if he had not been +overfond of all his productions, if he had not weakened the importance +of his matter by frivolous thoughts, he would have been honored by the +approbation of the learned rather than by the love of striplings.</p> + +<p>However, such as he is, he may be read when the taste is formed and +strengthened by a more austere kind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> of eloquence, if for no other +reason than because he can exercise judgment on both sides. For, as I +have said, many things in him are worthy of praise, worthy even of +admiration if a proper choice had been made, which I wish he had made +himself, as indeed that nature is deserving of an inclination to embrace +what is better, which has ability to effect anything to which it +inclines.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="KNOWLEDGE_AND_SELF-CONFIDENCE" id="KNOWLEDGE_AND_SELF-CONFIDENCE"></a>KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE</h2> + +<p>Knowledge of the civil law will, likewise, be necessary for the orator +whom we have described, and together with it knowledge of the customs +and religion of the commonwealth of which he may take charge, for how +shall he be able to give counsel in public and private deliberations if +ignorant of the many things which happen together particularly to the +establishment of the State? And must he not falsely aver himself to be +the patron of the causes he undertakes, if obliged to borrow from +another what is of greatest consequence in these causes, in some measure +like those who repeat the writings of poets? And how will he accomplish +what he has so un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>dertaken if the things which he requires the judge to +believe, he shall speak on the faith of another, and if he, the reputed +helper of his clients, shall himself stand in need of the help of +another?</p> + +<h3>THOROUGH INFORMATION INDISPENSABLE</h3> + +<p>But we will suppose him not reduced to this inconvenience, having +studied his cause sufficiently at home, and having thoroughly informed +himself of all that he has thought proper to lay before the judges: yet +what shall become of him when unforeseen questions arise, which often +are suddenly started on the back of pleadings? Will he not with great +unseemliness look about him? Will he not ask the lower class of +advocates how he shall behave? Can he be accurate in comprehending the +things then whispered to him, when he is to speak<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> on them instantly? +Can he strongly affirm, or speak ingenuously for his clients? Grant that +he may in his pleadings, but what shall be his fate in altercation, when +he must have his answer ready and he has no time for receiving +information? And what if a person learned in the law is not assisting? +What if one who knows little of the matter tells him something that is +wrong? And this is the greatest mischief in ignorance, to believe such a +monitor intelligent.</p> + +<p>Now, as we suppose the orator to be a particularly learned and honest +man, when he has made sufficient study of that which naturally is best, +it will give him little trouble if a lawyer dissents from him in +opinion, since even they are admitted to be of different opinions among +themselves. But if he desires to know their sentiments on any point<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> of +law, he need only read a little, which is the least laborious part of +study. If many men who despaired of acquiring the necessary talents for +speaking in public, have engaged in the study of law, with how much more +ease will the orator effect this, which may be learned by those who from +their own confession could not be orators?</p> + +<p>M. Cato was as much distinguished by his great eloquence as by his great +learning in the law. Scævola and Servius Sulpitius, both eminent +lawyers, were also very eloquent. Cicero not only in pleading never +appeared at a loss in knowledge of the law, but also began to write some +tracts on it. From all these examples it appears that an orator may not +less attend to the teaching than the learning of it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> +<h3>THE MANNER OF THE SPEAKER</h3> + +<p>I would not have him who is to speak rise unconcerned, show no change of +color, and betray no sense of danger,—if they do not happen naturally, +they ought at least to be pretended. But this sense should proceed from +solicitude for performing well our duty, not from a motive of fear; and +we may decently betray emotion, but not faint away. The best remedy, +therefore, for bashfulness, is a modest assurance, and however weak the +forehead may be, it ought to be lifted up, and well it may by conscious +merit.</p> + +<h3>THE NEED OF GOOD DELIVERY</h3> + +<p>There are natural aids, as specified before, which are improved by care, +and these are the voice, lungs, a good presence, and graceful action, +which are advantages sometimes so considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> as to beget a reputation +for wit. Our age produced orators more copious than Trachallus, but when +he spoke he seemed to surpass them all, so great was the advantage of +his stature, the sprightliness of his glance, the majesty of his aspect, +the beauty of his action, and a voice, not as Cicero desires it should +be, but almost like that of tragedians, and surpassing all the +tragedians I ever heard. I well remember that when he once pleaded in +the Julian Hall before the first bench of judges, and there also, as +usual, the four classes of judges were then sitting, and the whole place +rang with noise, he was not only heard distinctly from the four benches, +but also was applauded, which was a disparagement to those who spoke +after him. But this is the accumulation of what can be wished for, and a +happiness hard to be met with, and as it can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> not fall to every one's +lot, let the orator strive at least to make himself heard by those +before whom he speaks.</p> + +<h3>THE TEST OF AN ORATION</h3> + +<p>Above all, as happens to a great many, let not desire for temporary +praise keep our orator from having an eye to the interest of the cause +he has undertaken. For as generals in waging wars do not always march +their armies over pleasant plains, but often must climb rugged hills, +must lay siege to forts and castles raised on steep rocks and mountains, +and fortified both by nature and by art: so an orator will be pleased +with an opportunity to make great excursions, and when he engages on +champion ground, he will display all his forces so as to make an +exceedingly fine appearance; but if under the necessity of unraveling +the intricacies of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> some points of law, or placing truth in a clear +light from amidst the obscurity thrown around it, he will not then +ostentatiously ride about, nor will he use a shower of pointed +sentences, as missive weapons; but he will carry on his operations by +frustrating his enemy; by mines, by ambuscade, and by stratagem: all of +which are not much to be commended while they are being used, but after +they have been practised. Whence those men benefit themselves most, who +seem least desirous of praise; for when the frivolous parade of +eloquence has ceased its bursts of thunder among its own applauders, the +more potent applause of true talents will appear in genuine splendor; +the judges will not conceal the impressions which have been made on +them; the sense of the learned will outweigh the opinion of ignorance: +so true it is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> it is the winding up of the discourse, and the +success attending it, that must prove its true merit.</p> + +<h3>AVOIDING OSTENTATION</h3> + +<p>It was customary with the ancients to hide their eloquence; and M. +Antonius advises orators so to do, in order that they may be the more +believed, and that their stratagems may be less suspected. But the +eloquence of those times could well be concealed, not yet having made an +accession of so many luminaries as to break out through every +intervening obstacle to the transmission of their light. But indeed all +art and design should be kept concealed, as most things when once, +discovered lose their value. In what I have hitherto spoken of, +eloquence loves nothing else so much as privacy. A choice of words, +weight of thought, ele<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>gance of figures, either do not exist, or they +appear. But because they appear, they are not therefore to be displayed +with ostentation. Or if one of the two is to be chosen, let the cause +rather than the advocate be praised; still the issue will justify him, +by his having pleaded excellently a very good cause. It is certain that +no one else pleads so ill as he who endeavors to please, while his cause +displeases; because the things by which he pleases must necessarily be +foreign to his subject.</p> + +<p>The orator ought not to be so particular and vain as not to undertake +the pleading of the smaller kind of causes, as beneath him, or as if a +matter of less consequence should in any respect lessen the reputation +he has acquired. Duty indeed is a just motive for his undertaking them, +and he should wish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> that his friends were never engaged in any other +kind of suits, which in the main are set off with sufficient eloquence +when he has spoken to the purpose.</p> + +<h3>DO NOT ABUSE YOUR OPPONENT</h3> + +<p>Some are very liberal in abuse of the advocate of the opposing party, +but unless he has brought it upon himself, I think it is acting very +ungenerously by him, in consideration of the common duties of the +profession. Add to this that these sallies of passion are of no +advantage whatever to him who pleads, the opponent having, in his turn, +an equal right to abuse; and they may even be harmful to the cause, +because the opponent, spurred on to become a real enemy, musters +together all the forces of wit to conquer if possible. Above all, that +modesty is irrecoverably lost which procures for the orator so much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +authority and belief, if once departing from the character of a good +man, he degenerates into a brawler and barker, conforming himself not to +the disposition of the judge, but to the caprice and resentment of the +client.</p> + +<p>Taking liberties of this kind frequently leads the orator to hazard some +rash expressions not less dangerous to the cause than to himself. +Pericles was accustomed to wish, with good reason, that no word might +ever enter his mind which could give umbrage to the people. But the +respect he had for the people ought in my opinion to be had for all, who +may have it in their power to do as much hurt; for the words that seemed +strong and bold when exprest, are called foolish when they have given +offense.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p> +<h3>THOROUGH PREPARATION ESSENTIAL</h3> + +<p>As every orator is remarkable for his manner, the care of one having +been imputed to slowness, and the facility of another to rashness, it +may not be amiss to point out here a medium. Let him come for pleading +prepared with all possible care, as it must argue not only neglect, but +also a wicked and treacherous disposition in him, to plead worse than he +can in the cause he undertakes, therefore he should not undertake more +causes than he is well able to handle.</p> + +<p>He should say things, studied and written, in as great a degree as the +subject can bear, and, as Demosthenes says, deeply engraven, if it were +possible, on his memory, and as perfect as may be. This may be done at +the first pleading of a cause, and when in public judgments a cause is +adjourned for some time before it comes to a rehearsing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> But when a +direct reply is to be made, due preparations are impracticable; and even +they who are not so ready find what they have written to be rather a +prejudice to them if anything unexpectedly is brought forward; for it is +with reluctance that they part with what they have prepared, and keeping +it in mind during the whole pleading, they are forced to continually +wonder if anything can be taken from it to be included in what they are +obliged to speak extempore. And tho this may be done, there will still +be a lack of connection, and the incoherence will be discoverable from +the different coloring and inequality of style. Thus there is neither an +uninterrupted fluency in what they say extempore, nor a connection +between it and what they recite from memory, for which reason one must +be a hindrance to the other, for the writ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>ten matter will always bring +to it the attention of the mind, and scarcely ever follow it. Therefore +in these actions, as country-laboring men say, we must stand firmly on +our legs. For, as every cause consists of proving and refuting, whatever +regards the first may be written, and whatever it is certain the +opponent will answer, as sometimes it is certain what he will, may be +refuted with equal care and study.</p> + +<p>Knowing the cause well is one essential point for being prepared in +other respects, and listening attentively to all the opponent states, is +another. Still we may previously think of many particular incidents and +prepare the mind for all emergencies, this being of special advantage in +speaking, the thought being thereby the more easily transmitted and +transferred.</p> + +<p>But when in answering or otherwise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> there may be necessity for extempore +speaking, the orator will never find himself at a loss and disconcerted, +who has been prepared by discipline, and study, and exercise, with the +powers of facility, and who, as always under arms and ready for +engaging, will no more lack a sufficient flow of speech in the pleading +of causes than he does in conversation on daily and domestic +occurrences; neither will he ever, for lack of coming duly prepared, +decline burdening himself with a cause, if he has time to learn the +state of it, for with anything else he always will be well +acquainted.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2> + +<p>The orator having distinguished himself by these perfections of +eloquence at the bar, in counsels, in the assemblies of the people, in +the senate, and in all the duties of a good citizen, ought to think, +likewise, of making an end worthy of an honest man and the sanctity of +his ministry: not that during the course of his life he ought to cease +being of service to society, or that, endowed with such integrity of +mind and such talent of eloquence, he can continue too long in the +exercise of so noble an employment; but because it is fitting that he +should guard against degrading his character, by doing anything which +may fall short of what he has already<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> done. The orator is indebted for +what he is, not only to knowledge, which increases with his years, but +to his voice, lungs, and strength of body; and when the latter are +impaired by years, or debilitated by infirmities, it is to be feared +that something might be lacking in this great man, either from his +stopping short through fatigue, and out of breath at every effort, or by +not making himself sufficiently heard, or, lastly, by expecting, and not +finding, him to be what he formerly was.</p> + +<p>When the orator does sound a retreat, no less ample fruits of study will +attend on him. He either will write the history of his time for the +instruction of posterity, or he will explain the law to those who came +to ask his advice, or he will write a treatise on eloquence, or that +worthy mouth of his will employ itself in inculcating the finest moral +pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>cepts. As was customary with the ancients, well-disposed youth will +frequent his house, consulting him as an oracle on the true manner of +speaking. As the parent of eloquence will he form them, and as an old +experienced pilot will he give them an account of shores, and harbors, +and what are the presages of storms, and what may be required for +working the ship in contrary or favorable winds. To all this will he be +induced not only by a duty of humanity common to mankind, but also by a +certain pleasure in it; for no one would be glad to see an art going +into decay, in which he himself excelled, and what is more laudable than +to teach others that in which one is perfectly skilled?</p> + +<p>For all I know, the happiest time in an orator's life is when he has +retired from the world to devote himself to rest; and, remote from envy, +and re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>mote from strife, he looks back on his reputation, as from a +harbor of safety; and while still living has a sense of that veneration +which commonly awaits only the dead; thus anticipating the pleasure of +the noble impression posterity will conceive of him. I am conscious that +to the extent of my poor ability, whatever I knew before, and whatever I +could collect for the service of this work, I have candidly and +ingenuously made a communication of, for the instruction of those who +might be willing to reap any advantage from it: and it is enough for an +honest man to have taught what he knows.</p> + +<p>To be good men, which is the first and most important thing, consists +chiefly in the will, and whoever has a sincere desire to be a man of +integrity, will easily learn the arts that teach virtue; and these arts +are not involved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> in so many perplexities, neither are they of such +great number, as not to be learned by a few years' application. The +ordering of an upright and happy life is attainable by an easy and +compendious method, when inclination is not lacking. Nature begot us +with the best dispositions, and it is so easy to the well-inclined to +learn that which is good, that we can not help being surprized, on +making a due estimate of things, how there can be so many bad persons in +the world. For, as water is naturally a proper element for fish, dry +land for quadrupeds, and air for birds, so indeed it ought to be more +easy to live according to the prescript of nature than to infringe her +laws.</p> + +<p>As to the rest, tho we might measure our age, not by the space of more +advanced years, but by the time of youth, we should find that we had +quite years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> enough for learning, all things being made shorter by +order, method, and the manner of application. To bring the matter home +to our oratorical studies, of what significance is the custom which I +see kept up by many, of declaiming so many years in schools, and of +expending so much labor on imaginary subjects, when in a moderate time +the rules of eloquence may be learned, and pursuant to their directions, +a real image framed of the contests at the bar? By this I do not mean to +hint in the least that exercises for speaking should ever be +discontinued, but rather that none should grow old in any one particular +exercise for that purpose, for we may require the knowledge of many +sciences, and learn the precepts of morality, and exercise ourselves in +such causes as are agitated at the bar, even while we continue in the +state of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> scholars. And indeed the art of oratory is such as need not +require many years for learning it. Each of the arts I have mentioned +may be abridged into few books, there being no occasion to consider them +so minutely and so much in detail. Practise remains, which soon makes us +well skilled in them. Knowledge of things is increasing daily, and yet +books are not so many; it is necessary to read in order to acquire this +knowledge, of which either examples as to the things themselves may be +met with in history, or the eloquent expression of them may be found in +orators. It is also necessary that we should read the opinions of +philosophers and lawyers, with some other things deserving of notice.</p> + +<h3>TAKING TIME FOR STUDY</h3> + +<p>All this indeed may be compassed, but we ourselves are the cause of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +not having time enough. How small a portion of it do we allot to our +studies! A good part of it is spent in frivolous compliments and paying +and returning visits, a good part of it is taken up in the telling of +idle stories, a good part at the public spectacles, and a good part in +the pleasures of the table. Add to these our great variety of +amusements, and that extravagant indulgence we bestow upon our bodies. +One time we must go on a course of travels, another time we wish +recreation amidst the pleasures of rural life, and another time we are +full of painful solicitude regarding the state of our fortune, +calculating and balancing our loss and gain; and together with these, +how often do we give ourselves up to the intoxication of wine, and in +what a multiplicity of voluptuousness does our profligate mind suffer +itself to be im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>mersed? Should there be an interval for study amidst +these avocations, can it be said to be proper? But were we to devote all +this idle or ill-spent time to study, should we not find life long +enough and time more than enough for becoming learned? This is evident +by only computing the time of the day, besides the advantages of the +night, of which a good part is more than sufficient for sleep. But we +now preposterously compute not the years we have studied, but the years +we have lived. Tho geometricians and grammarians, and the professors of +other arts, spent all their lives, however long, in treating and +discussing their respective arts, does it thence follow that we must +have as many lives as there are things to be learned? But they did not +extend the learning of them to old age, being content with learning them +only, and they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> spent so many years not so much in their study as in +their practise.</p> + +<p>Now, tho one should despair of reaching to the height of perfection, a +groundless hope even in a person of genius, health, talent, and with +masters to assist him; yet it is noble, as Cicero says, to have a place +in the second, or third, rank. He who can not rival the glory of +Achilles in military exploits, shall not therefore have a mean opinion +of the praise due to Ajax, or Diomedes, and he who can not approach +Homer, need not despise the fame of Tyrteus. If men were to yield to the +thought of imagining none capable of exceeding such eminent persons as +went before them, then they even who are deemed excellent would not have +been so. Vergil would not have excelled Lucretius and Macer; nor Cicero, +Crassus and Hortensius; and no one for the future<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> would pretend to any +advantage over his predecessor.</p> + +<p>Tho the hope of surpassing these great men be but faint, yet it is an +honor to follow them. Have Pollio and Messala, who began to appear at +the bar when Cicero was already possest of the empire of eloquence, +acquired little dignity in their life-time, and left but a small degree +of glory for the remembrance of posterity? True it is that arts brought +to perfection would deserve very ill of human affairs if afterward they +could not at least be kept to the same standard.</p> + +<h3>THE REWARDS OF ELOQUENCE</h3> + +<p>Add to this that a moderate share of eloquence is attended with no small +advantage, and if measured by the fruits gathered from it, will almost +be on a par with that which is perfect. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> would be no difficult matter +to show from many ancient or modern examples that no other profession +acquires for men, greater honors, wealth, friendship, present and future +glory, were it not degrading to the honor of letters to divert the mind +from the contemplation of the most noble object, the study and +possession of which is such a source of contentment, and fix it on the +less momentous rewards it may have, not unlike those who say they do not +so much seek virtue as the pleasure resulting from it.</p> + +<p>Let us therefore with all the zealous impulses of our heart endeavor to +attain the very majesty of eloquence, than which the immortal gods have +not imparted anything better to mankind, and without which all would be +mute in nature, and destitute of the splendor of a perfect glory and +future remem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>brance. Let us likewise always make continued progress +toward perfection, and by so doing we shall either reach the height, or +at least shall see many beneath us.</p> + +<p>This is all, as far as in me lies, I could contribute to the promoting +and perfecting of the art of eloquence; the knowledge of which, if it +does not prove of any great advantage to studious youth, will, at least, +what I more heartily wish for, give them a more ardent desire for doing +well.</p> + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="ADVERTISEMENTS" id="ADVERTISEMENTS"></a>ADVERTISEMENTS</h2> + +<hr /> + +<h2>How to Read and Declaim</h2> + +<h4>A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN READING AND DECLAMATION HAVING AS ITS PRIME +OBJECT THE CULTIVATION OF TASTE AND REFINEMENT</h4> + +<h3>By GRENVILLE KLEISER</h3> + +<p class='center'><i>Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity School; Author +of "How to Speak in Public," etc.</i></p> + + +<p>This eminently practical book is divided into five parts:</p> + +<p>PART ONE—Preparatory Course: Twenty Lessons on Naturalness, +Distinctness, Vivacity, Confidence, Simplicity, Deliberateness, and +kindred topics.</p> + +<p>PART TWO—Advance Course: Twenty Lessons on Thought Values, Thought +Directions, Persuasion, Power, Climax, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>PART THREE—Articulation and Pronunciation.</p> + +<p>PART FOUR—Gesture and Facial Expression.</p> + +<p>PART FIVE—The most up-to-date and popular prose and poetic selections +anywhere to be found.</p> + +<p>It is a book to beget intelligent reading, so as to develop in the +student mental alertness, poise, and self-confidence.</p> + +<p class='center'><i>12mo, Cloth. $1.50, net; by mail, $1.65</i></p> + +<h4>FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, Publishers</h4> + +<h5>NEW YORK and LONDON</h5> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Kleiser's Complete Guide to Public Speaking</h2> + +<h3><i>By GRENVILLE KLEISER</i></h3> + +<p class='center'>Famous Author of many Practical Books and Courses</p> + + +<p>The only extensive, comprehensive, encyclopedic work of its kind ever +issued. How to speak, develop vocabulary, write, train memory, gesture, +etc. The best advice by the world's great authorities upon every phase +of Public Speaking.</p> + +<blockquote><p class='center'><i>Of Great Worth to the Public Speaker</i></p> + +<p>"I consider it a compendium of particularly valuable information to +all men who are called upon to address public +audiences."—<i>Josephus Daniels</i>, Secretary of the Navy.</p> + +<p>"Full of the best sort of instruction."—<i>Evening Sun</i>, New York.</p> + +<p class='center'><i>A Storehouse of Practical Information</i></p> + +<p>"In that one volume is stored an amazing amount of practical +information of success-winning sort."—<i>Hudson Maxim</i>.</p></blockquote> + +<p class='center'><i>Royal 8vo, Cloth, over 700 Pages, $5.00 net. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Training of a Public Speaker + +Author: Grenville Kleiser + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [EBook #18277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Morgan, Martin Pettit and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +THE TRAINING OF A PUBLIC SPEAKER + +BY GRENVILLE KLEISER + + +_Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity + School, Yale University. Author of_ "_How to Speak + in Public_," "_Great Speeches and How to Make + Them_," "_Complete Guide to Public Speaking_," + "_How to Build Mental Power_," + "_Talks on Talking_," _etc., etc._ + + +[Illustration: Publisher's logo] + +FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY + +NEW YORK AND LONDON + +1920 + + +COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY + +GRENVILLE KLEISER + +[_Printed in the United States of America_] + +Published, February, 1920 + + +Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the +Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 + + + + +PREFACE + + +The power of eloquence to move and persuade men is universally +recognized. To-day the public speaker plays a vital part in the solution +of every great question and problem. Oratory, in the true sense, is not +a lost art, but a potent means of imparting information, instruction, +and persuasion. + +Eloquence is still "the appropriate organ of the highest personal +energy." As one has well said, "The orator is not compelled to wait +through long and weary years to reap the reward of his labors. His +triumphs are instantaneous." + +And again, "To stand up before a vast assembly composed of men of the +most various callings, views, passions, and prejudices, and mold them at +will; to play upon their hearts and minds as a master upon the keys of +a piano; to convince their understandings by the logic, and to thrill +their feelings by the art of the orator; to see every eye watching his +face, and every ear intent on the words that drop from his lips; to see +indifference changed to breathless interest, and aversion to rapturous +enthusiasm; to hear thunders of applause at the close of every period; +to see the whole assembly animated by the feelings which in him are +burning and struggling for utterance; and to think that all this is the +creation of the moment, and has sprung instantaneously from his fiery +brain and the inspiration imparted to it by the circumstances of the +hour;--_this_, perhaps, is the greatest triumph of which the human mind +is capable, and that in which its divinity is most signally revealed." + +The aims and purposes of speaking to-day have radically changed from +former times. Deliberative bodies, composed of busy men, meet now to +discuss and dispose of grave and weighty business. There is little +necessity nor scope for eloquence. Time is too valuable to permit of +prolonged speaking. Men are tacitly expected to "get to the point," and +to be reasonably brief in what they have to say. + +Under these circumstances certain extravagant types of old-time oratory +would be ineffectual to-day. The stentorian and dramatic tones, with +hand inserted in the breast of the coat, with exaggerated facial +expression, and studied posture, would make a speaker to-day an object +of ridicule. + +This applies equally to speech in the law court, pulpit, on the lecture +platform, and in other departments of public address. The implicit +demand everywhere is that the speaker should say what he has to say +naturally, simply, and concisely. + +This does not mean, however, that he must confine himself to plain +statement of fact, with no manifestation of feeling or earnestness. Men +are still influenced and persuaded by impassioned speech. There is +nothing incompatible between deep feeling and clear-cut speech. A man +having profound convictions upon any subject of importance will always +speak on it with fervor and sincerity. + +The widespread interest in the subject of public speaking has suggested +this adaptation of Quintilian's celebrated work on the education of the +orator. This work has long been regarded as one of the most valuable +treatises ever written on oratory, but in its original form it is +ponderous and inaccessible to the average reader. In the present +abridged and modernized form it may be read and studied with benefit by +earnest students of the art of public speaking. + +A brief account of Quintilian says: "Quintilianus, M. Fabius, was born +at Calagurris, in Spain, A. D. 40. He completed his education at Rome, +and began to practise at the bar about 68. But he was chiefly +distinguished as a teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm in his +department from all his rivals, and associating his name, even to a +proverb, with preeminence in the art. By Domitian he was invested with +the insignia and title of consul, and is, moreover, celebrated as the +first public instructor who, in virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, +received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. He is supposed to +have died about 118. The great work of Quintilian is a complete system +of rhetoric, in twelve books, entitled _De Institutione Oratoria Libre +XII_, or sometimes _Institutiones Oratoriae_, dedicated to his friend +Marcellus Victorius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favorite at +Court. This production bears throughout the impress of a clear, sound +judgment, keen discrimination, and pure taste, improved by extensive +reading, deep reflection, and long practise." + +The text used for this condensation is from the version of J. Patsall, +A.M., London, 1774, according to the Paris edition by Professor Rollin. +Many parts of the original work have been re-written or abridged, while +several chapters have been entirely omitted. + + GRENVILLE KLEISER. +New York City, +August, 1919. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE 15 + +THE EXORDIUM OR INTRODUCTION 43 + +THE NARRATION 67 + +DIVISION AND ARGUMENT 85 + +THE PERORATION 99 + +PASSION AND PERSUASION 119 + +THE STUDY OF WORDS 133 + +ELEGANCE AND GRACE 145 + +COMPOSITION AND STYLE 173 + +COPIOUSNESS OF WORDS 197 + +KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE 229 + +CONCLUSION 247 + + + + +RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE + + +WHAT RHETORIC IS + +Rhetoric has been commonly defined as "The power of persuading." This +opinion originated with Isocrates, if the work ascribed to him be really +his; not that he intended to dishonor his profession, tho he gives us a +generous idea of rhetoric by calling it the workmanship of persuasion. +We find almost the same thing in the Gorgias of Plato, but this is the +opinion of that rhetorician, and not of Plato. Cicero has written in +many places that the duty of an orator is to speak in "a manner proper +to persuade"; and in his books of rhetoric, of which undoubtedly he does +not approve himself, he makes the end of eloquence to consist in +persuasion. + +But does not money likewise persuade? Is not credit, the authority of +the speaker, the dignity of a respectable person, attended with the same +effect? Even without speaking a word, the remembrance of past services, +the appearance of distress, a beautiful aspect, make deep impressions on +minds and are decisive in their favor. + +Did Antonius, pleading the cause of M. Aquilius, trust to the force of +his reasons when he abruptly tore open his garment and exposed to view +the honorable wounds he received fighting for his country? This act of +his forced streams of tears from the eyes of the Roman people, who, not +able to resist so moving a spectacle, acquitted the criminal. Sergius +Galba escaped the severity of the laws by appearing in court with his +own little children, and the son of Gallus Sulpitius, in his arms. The +sight of so many wretched objects melted the judges into compassion. +This we find equally attested by some of our historians and by a speech +of Cato. What shall I say of the example of Phryne, whose beauty was of +more service in her cause than all the eloquence of Hyperides; for tho +his pleading was admirable in her defense, yet perceiving it to be +without effect, by suddenly laying open her tunic he disclosed the naked +beauty of her bosom, and made the judges sensible that she had as many +charms for them as for others. Now, if all these instances persuade, +persuasion, then, can not be the end of rhetoric. + +Some, therefore, have seemed to themselves rather more exact who, in the +main of the same way of thinking, define rhetoric as the "Power of +persuading by speaking." It is to this that Gorgias, in the book above +cited, is at last reduced by Socrates. Theodectes does not much differ +from them, if the work ascribed to him be his, or Aristotle's. In this +book the end of rhetoric is supposed to be "The leading of men wherever +one pleases by the faculty of speaking." But this definition is not +sufficiently comprehensive. Many others besides the orator persuade by +their words and lead minds in whatever direction they please. + +Some, therefore, as Aristotle, setting aside the consideration of the +end, have defined rhetoric to be "The power of inventing whatever is +persuasive in a discourse." This definition is equally as faulty as that +just mentioned, and is likewise defective in another respect, as +including only invention, which, separate from elocution, can not +constitute a speech. + +It appears from Plato's Gorgias that he was far from regarding rhetoric +as an art of ill tendency, but that, rather it is, or ought to be, if +we were to conceive an adequate idea of it inseparable from virtue. This +he explains more clearly in his Phaedrus, where he says that "The art can +never be perfect without an exact knowledge and strict observance of +justice." I join him in this opinion, and if these were not his real +sentiments, would he have written an apology for Socrates and the +eulogium of those brave citizens who lost their lives in the defense of +their country? This is certainly acting the part of an orator, and if in +any respect he attacks the profession, it is on account of those who +make ill use of eloquence. Socrates, animated with the same spirit, +thought it unworthy of him to pronounce the speech Lysias had composed +for his defense, it being the custom of the orators of those times to +write speeches for arraigned criminals, which the latter pronounced in +their own defense; thus eluding the law that prohibited pleading for +another. Plato, likewise, in his Phaedrus, condemns the masters that +separated rhetoric from justice, and preferred probabilities to truth. + +Such are the definitions of rhetoric which have been principally set +forth. To go through all of them is not my purpose, nor do I think it +possible, as most writers on arts have shown a perverse dislike for +defining things as others do or in the same terms as those who wrote +before them. I am far from being influenced by a like spirit of +ambition, and far from flattering myself with the glory of invention, +and I shall rest content with that which seems most rational, that +rhetoric is properly defined as "The science of speaking well." Having +found what is best, it is useless to seek further. + +Accepting this definition, therefore, it will be no difficult matter to +ascertain its end, for if it be "The science of speaking well," then "to +speak well" will be the end it proposes to itself. + + +THE USE OF RHETORIC + +The next question is on the utility of rhetoric, and from this point of +view some direct the bitterest invectives against it, and what is very +unbecoming, exert the force of eloquence against eloquence, saying that +by it the wicked are freed from punishment, and the innocent opprest by +its artifices; that it perverts good counsel, and enforces bad; that it +foments troubles and seditions in States; that it arms nations against +each other, and makes them irreconcilable enemies; and that its power is +never more manifest than when error and lies triumph over truth. + +Comic poets reproach Socrates with teaching how to make a bad cause +good, and Plato represents Lysias and Gorgias boasting the same thing. +To these may be added several examples of Greeks and Romans, and a long +list of orators whose eloquence was not only the ruin of private +persons, but even destructive to whole cities and republics; and for +this reason it was that eloquence was banished from Sparta and so +restricted at Athens that the orator was not allowed to make appeal to +the passions. + +Granting all this as sound argument, we must draw this necessary +inference, that neither generals of armies, nor magistrates, nor +medicine, nor philosophy, will be of any use. Flaminius, an imprudent +general, lost one of our armies. The Gracchi Saturninus, and Glaucia, to +raise themselves to dignity, put Rome into an uproar. Physicians often +administer poisons, and among philosophers some have been found guilty +of the most enormous crimes. Let us not eat of the meats with which our +tables are spread, for meats frequently have caused disease. Let us +never go into houses; they may fall and crush us to death. Let not our +soldiers be armed with swords; a robber may use the same weapon against +us. In short, who does not know that the most necessary things in life, +as air, fire, water, nay, even the celestial bodies, are sometimes very +injurious to our well-being? + +But how many examples can be quoted in our favor? Did not Appius the +Blind, by the force of his eloquence dissuade the Senate from making a +shameful peace with Pyrrhus? Did not Cicero's divine eloquence appear +more popular than the Agrarian law he attacked? Did it not disconcert +the audacious measures of Cataline? And did not he, even in his civil +capacity, obtain by it honors that are conferred on only the most +illustrious conquerors? Is it not the orator who strengthens the +soldier's drooping courage, who animates him amidst the greatest +dangers, and inspires him to choose a glorious death rather than a life +of infamy? + +The example of the Romans, among whom eloquence always has been held in +the greatest veneration, shall have a higher place in my regard than +that of the Spartans and Athenians. It is not to be supposed that the +founders of cities could have made a united people of a vagabond +multitude without the charms of persuasive words, nor that law-givers, +without extraordinary talent for speaking, could have forced men to bend +their necks to the yoke of the laws. Even the precepts of moral life, +tho engraved on our hearts by the finger of nature, are more efficacious +to inspire our hearts with love for them when their beauty is displayed +by the ornaments of eloquent speech. Tho the arms of eloquence may harm +and benefit equally, we must not, therefore, look on that as bad which +may be put to a good use. Doubts of this kind may well be entertained by +such as make "the force persuasion the end of eloquence," but we who +constitute it "The science of speaking well," resolved to acknowledge +none but the good man an orator, must naturally judge that its advantage +is very considerable. + +Certainly, the gracious Author of all beings and Maker of the world, has +distinguished us from the animals in no respect more than by the gift of +speech. They surpass us in bulk, in strength, in the supporting of +toil, in speed, and stand less in need of outside help. Guided by nature +only, they learn sooner to walk, to seek for their food, and to swim +over rivers. They have on their bodies sufficient covering to guard them +against cold; all of them have their natural weapons of defense; their +food lies, in a manner, on all sides of them; and we, indigent beings! +to what anxieties are we put in securing these things? But God, a +beneficent parent, gave us reason for our portion, a gift which makes us +partakers of a life of immortality. But this reason would be of little +use to us, and we would be greatly perplexed to make it known, unless we +could express by words our thoughts. This is what animals lack, more +than thought and understanding, of which it can not be said they are +entirely destitute. For to make themselves secure and commodious +lodges, to interweave their nests with such art, to rear their young +with such care, to teach them to shift for themselves when grown up, to +hoard provisions for the winter, to produce such inimitable works as wax +and honey, are instances perhaps of a glimmering of reason; but because +destitute of speech, all the extraordinary things they do can not +distinguish them from the brute part of creation. Let us consider dumb +persons: how does the heavenly soul, which takes form in their bodies, +operate in them? We perceive, indeed, that its help is but weak, and its +action but languid. + + +THE VALUE OF THE GIFT OF SPEECH + +If, then, the beneficent Creator of the world has not imparted to us a +greater blessing than the gift of speech, what can we esteem more +deserving of our labor and improvement, and what object is more worthy +of our ambition than that of raising ourselves above other men by the +same means by which they raise themselves above beasts, so much the more +as no labor is attended with a more abundant harvest of glory? To be +convinced of this we need only consider by what degrees eloquence has +been brought to the perfection in which we now see it, and how far it +might still be perfected. For, not to mention the advantage and pleasure +a good man reaps from defending his friends, governing the Senate by his +counsels, seeing himself the oracle of the people, and master of armies, +what can be more noble than by the faculty of speaking and thinking, +which is common to all men, to erect for himself such a standard of +praise and glory as to seem to the minds of men not so much to discourse +and speak, but, like Pericles, to make his words thunder and lightning. + + +THE ART OF SPEAKING + +There would be no end were I to expatiate to the limit of my inclination +on the subject of the gift of speech and its utility. I shall pass, +therefore, to the following question, "Whether rhetoric be an art?" +Those who wrote rules for eloquence doubted so little its being so, that +they prefixt no other title to their books than "The art of speaking." +Cicero says that what we call rhetoric is only an artificial eloquence. +If this were an opinion peculiar to orators, it might be thought that +they intended it as a mark of dignity attached to their studies, but +most philosophers, stoics as well as peripatetics, concur in this +opinion. I must confess I had some doubt about discussing this matter, +lest I might seem diffident of its truth; for who can be so devoid of +sense and knowledge as to find art in architecture, in weaving, in +pottery, and imagine that rhetoric, the excellence of which we have +already shown, could arrive at its present state of grandeur and +perfection without the direction of art? I am persuaded that those of +the contrary opinion were so more for the sake of exercising their wit +on the singularity of the subject than from any real conviction. + + +IS ELOQUENCE A GIFT OF NATURE? + +Some maintain that rhetoric is a gift of nature, yet admit that it may +be helped by exercise. Antonius, in Cicero's books of the Orator, calls +it a sort of observation and not an art. But this opinion is not there +asserted as truth, but only to keep up the character of Antonius, who +was a connoisseur at concealing art. Lysias seems to be of the same +opinion, which he defends by saying that the most simple and ignorant +people possess a kind of rhetoric when they speak for themselves. They +find something like an exordium, they make a narration, they prove, +refute, and their prayers and entreaties have the force of a peroration. +Lysias and his adherents proceed afterward to vain subtleties. "That +which is the effect of art," say they, "could not have existed before +art. In all times men have known how to speak for themselves and against +others, but masters of rhetoric have been only of a late date, first +known about the time of Tisias and Corax; therefore oratorical speech +was prior to art, consequently it could not be the result of art, and +therefore, rhetoric is not an art." We shall not endeavor to enquire +into the time when rhetoric began to be taught, but this we may say, +that it is certain Homer makes mention not only of Phoenix, who was a +master, skilled in both speaking and fighting, but also of many other +orators. We may observe likewise from Homer, that all the parts of a +discourse are found in the speech of the three captains deputed to +Achilles, that several young men dispute for the prize of eloquence, and +that among other ornaments of sculpture on the buckler of Achilles, +Vulcan did not forget law-causes and the pleaders of them. + +It will be sufficient, however, to answer that "Everything perfected by +art has its source in nature." If it were not so, we should exclude +medicine from the catalog of arts, the discovery of which was owing to +observations made on things conducive or harmful to public health, and +in the opinion of some it is wholly grounded on experiments. Before it +was reduced to an art, tents and bandages were applied to wounds, rest +and abstinence cured fever; not that the reason of all this was then +known, but the nature of the ailment indicated such curative methods and +forced men to this regimen. In like manner architecture can not be an +art, the first men having built their cottages without its direction. +Music must undergo the same charge, as every nation has its own +peculiarities in dancing and singing. Now, if by rhetoric be meant any +kind of speech, I must own it prior to art; but if not everyone who +speaks is an orator, and if in the primitive ages of the world men did +not speak orator-like, the orator, consequently, must have been made so +by art, and therefore could not exist before it. + + +RHETORIC AND MISREPRESENTATION + +The next objection is not one so much in reality as it is a mere cavil; +that "Art never assents to false opinions, because it can not be +constituted as such without precepts, which are always true; but +rhetoric assents to what is false, therefore it is not an art." I admit +that sometimes rhetoric says false things instead of true, but it does +not follow that it assents to what is false. There is a wide difference +between assenting to a falsehood, and making others assent to it. So it +is that a general of an army often has recourse to stratagems. When +Hannibal perceived himself to be blocked up by Fabius, he ordered +faggots of brush-wood to be fastened about the horns of some oxen, and +fire being set to the faggots, had the cattle driven up the mountains in +the night, in order to make the enemy believe he was about to decamp. +But this was only a false alarm, for he himself very well knew what his +scheme was. When Theopompus the Spartan, by changing clothes with his +wife, made his escape out of prison, the deception was not imposed upon +himself, but upon his guards. Thus, when an orator speaks falsehood +instead of truth, he knows what he is about; he does not yield to it +himself, his intention being to deceive others. When Cicero boasted that +he threw darkness on the minds of the judges, in the cause of Cluentius, +could it be said that he himself was unacquainted with all the +intricacies of his method of confusing their understanding of the facts? +Or shall a painter who so disposes his objects that some seem to project +from the canvas, others to sink in, be supposed not to know that they +are all drawn on a plain surface? + + +THE OBJECT OF A SPEECH + +It is again objected that "Every art proposes to itself an end; but +rhetoric has no end, or does not put into execution the end it proposes +to itself." This is false, as is shown from what already has been said +concerning the end of rhetoric and in what it consists. The orator will +never fail to obtain this end, for he always will speak well. This +objection, therefore, can affect only those who make persuasion the end +of rhetoric; but our orator, and our definition of art, are not +restricted to events. An orator, indeed, strives to gain his cause; but +suppose he loses it, as long as he has pleaded well he fulfils the +injunctions of his art. A pilot desires to come safe into port, but if a +storm sweeps away his ship, is he, on that account, a less experienced +pilot? His keeping constantly to the helm is sufficient proof that he +was not neglecting his duty. A physician tries to cure a sick person, +but if his remedies are hindered in their operation by either the +violence of the disease, the intemperance of the patient, or some +unforeseen accident, he is not to be blamed, because he has satisfied +all the directions of his art. So it is with the orator, whose end is to +speak well; for it is in the act, and not in the effect, that art +consists, as I shall soon make clear. Therefore, it is false to say that +"Art knows when it has obtained its end, but rhetoric knows nothing of +the matter," as if an orator could be ignorant of his speaking well and +to the purpose. + +But it is said, further, that rhetoric, contrary to the custom of all +other arts, adopts vice, because it countenances falsehood and moves the +passions. Neither of these are bad practises, and consequently not +vicious, when grounded on substantial reasons. To disguise truth is +sometimes allowable even in the sage, and if a judge can not be brought +to do justice except by means of the passions, the orator must +necessarily have recourse to them. Very often the judges appointed to +decide are ignorant, and there is necessity for changing their wrongly +conceived opinions, to keep them from error. Should there be a bench, a +tribunal, an assembly of wise and learned judges whose hearts are +inaccessible to hatred, envy, hope, fear, prejudice, and the impositions +of false witnesses, there would be little occasion for the exertions of +eloquence and all that might seem requisite would be only to amuse the +ear with the harmony of cadence. But if the orator has to deal with +light, inconstant, prejudiced, and corrupt judges, and if many +embarrassments must be removed in order to throw light upon truth, then +artful stratagem must fight the battle, and set all its engines to work, +for he who is beaten out of the straight road can not get into it again +except by another turnabout. + + +ELOQUENCE ACQUIRED BY STUDY AND PRACTISE + +These are the principal objections which have been made against +rhetoric. There are others of less moment but derived from the same +source. That rhetoric is an art is thus briefly demonstrated. If art, as +Cleanthes thinks, is a power which prepares a way and establishes an +order, can it be doubted that we must keep to a certain way and a +certain order for speaking well? And if, according to the most generally +accepted opinion, we ought to call art, everything which by a +combination of agreeing and co-exercised principles conducts to a useful +end, have we not already shown that nothing of all this is lacking in +rhetoric? Has it not, likewise, the two constituent parts of other +arts, theory and practise? Again, if dialect be an art, as it is +granted, for the same reason; so is rhetoric an art, the chief +difference lying not so much in the genus as in the species. But we must +not forget this observation, that art must be where a thing is done +according to rule, and not at random; and art must be where he who has +learned succeeds better than he who has not learned. But in matter of +eloquence not only will the ignorant person be surpassed by the learned, +but also the learned by the more learned; otherwise we should not have +so many rules nor so many excellent masters. This ought to be +acknowledged by all, but more especially by us who do not separate +eloquence from the man of integrity. + + + + +THE EXORDIUM OR INTRODUCTION + + +The exordium, or introduction, is that part of the discourse which is +pronounced before the subject is entered upon. As musicians make a +prelude for obtaining silence and attention before they play their +selections, so orators, before they begin their cause, have specified by +the same application that which they say by way of preface for securing +for themselves a kindly feeling in the listeners. + + +THE PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION + +The reason for an exordium is to dispose the auditors to be favorable to +us in the other parts of the discourse. This, as most authors agree, is +accomplished by making them friendly, attentive, and receptive, tho due +regard should be paid to these three particulars throughout the whole +of a speech. + +Sometimes the exordium is applicable to the pleader of the cause, who, +tho he ought to speak very little of himself, and always modestly, will +find it of vast consequence to create a good opinion of himself and to +make himself thought to be an honest man. So it is he will be regarded +not so much as a zealous advocate, as a faithful and irreproachable +witness. His motives for pleading must, therefore, appear to proceed not +from tie of kindred, or friendship, but principally from a desire to +promote the public good, if such motive can be urged, or any other +important consideration. This conduct will befit plaintiffs in a much +greater degree, that they may seem to have brought their action for just +and weighty reasons, or were even compelled to do it from necessity. + +As nothing else gives so great a sanction to the authority of the +speaker as to be free from all suspicion of avarice, hatred, and +ambition, so, also, there is a sort of tacit recommendation of ourselves +if we profess our weak state and inability for contending with the +superior genius and talents of the advocate of the other side. We are +naturally disposed to favor the weak and opprest, and a conscientious +judge hears an orator willingly whom he presumes not to be capable of +making him swerve from his fixt purpose of doing justice. Hence the care +of the ancients for concealing their talents. + + +IDEAS TO AVOID AND TO INCLUDE + +All contemptuous, spiteful, haughty, calumniating expressions must be +avoided and not so much as even insinuated to the defamation of any +particular person or rank, much less against those to whom an affront +would alienate the minds of the judges. To be so imprudent as to attack +judges themselves, not openly, but in any indirect manner, would be most +unwise. + +The advocate for the other side may likewise furnish sufficient matter +for an exordium. Sometimes honorable mention may be made of him, as when +we pretend to be in dread of his interest and eloquence in order to make +them suspected by the judges, and sometimes by casting odium on him, +altho this must be done very seldom. I rather think, from the authority +of the best authors, that whatever affects the orator, affects also the +cause he patronizes, as it is natural for a judge to give more credit to +those whom he more willingly hears. + +We shall procure the favor of the judge not so much by praising him, +which ought to be done with moderation, and is common to both sides, but +rather by making his praise fitting, and connecting it with the interest +of our cause. Thus, in speaking for a person of consequence, we may lay +some stress on the judge's own dignity; for one of mean condition, on +his justice; for the unhappy, on his mercy; for the injured, on his +severity. + + +STUDYING YOUR HEARERS + +It also would not be amiss to become acquainted, if possible, with his +character. For, according as his temper is, harsh or mild, pleasant or +grave, severe or easy, the cause should be made to incline toward the +side which corresponds with his disposition, or to admit some mitigation +or softening where it runs counter to it. + +It may happen sometimes, too, that the judge is our enemy, or the +opponent's friend. This is a circumstance requiring the circumspection +of both parties, yet I think the favored advocate should behave with +great caution, for a judge of a biased disposition will sometimes choose +to pass sentence against his friends, or in favor of those to whom he +bears enmity, that he may not appear to act with injustice. + + +AROUSING EMOTIONS + +Judges have also their private opinions and prejudices, which we must +either strengthen or weaken, according as we see necessary. Fear, too, +sometimes must be removed, as Cicero, in his defense of Milo, endeavors +to assure the judges that Pompey's army, drawn up about the Forum, is +for their protection; and sometimes there will be an occasion to +intimidate them, as the same orator does in one of his pleadings against +Verres. + +There are two ways of proceeding in this last case, the first plausible, +and frequently used, as when it is hinted to them that the Roman people +might entertain an ill opinion of them, or that there might be an appeal +from their judgment; the other desperate, and not so much used, as when +threatened with prosecution themselves if they suffer themselves to be +corrupted. This is a hazardous point, and is conducted with more safety +to the orator when in a large assembly where corrupt judges are +restrained by fear, and the upright have the majority. But I would never +counsel this before a single judge, unless every other resource was +wanting. If necessity requires it, I can not say that it is the business +of the art of oratory to give directions in the matter, any more than to +lodge an appeal, tho that, too, is often of service, or to cite the +judge in justice before he passes sentence, for to threaten, denounce, +or indict may be done by any one else as well as the orator. + +If the cause itself should furnish sufficient reason for gaining the +good will of the judge, out of this whatever is most specious and +favorable may be inserted in the exordium. It will be unnecessary to +enumerate all the favorable circumstances in causes, they being easily +known from the state of facts; besides, no exact enumeration can take +place on account of the great diversity of law-suits. It is the cause +itself, therefore, that must teach us to find and improve these +circumstances; and, in like manner, with a circumstance that may make +against us the cause will inform us how it may either be made entirely +void, or at least invalidated. + +From the cause compassion also sometimes arises, whether we have +already suffered or are likely to suffer anything grievous. For I am not +of the opinion of those who to distinguish the exordium from the +peroration, will have the one to speak of what is past and the other of +what is to come. They are sufficiently distinguished without this +discrimination. In the exordium the orator ought to be more reserved, +and ought only to throw out some hints of the sentiments of compassion +he designs to excite in the minds of the judges; whereas in the +peroration he may pour out all the passions, introduce persons speaking, +and make the dead to come forth, as it were, out of their graves, and +recommend to the judges the care of their dearest pledges. All these +particulars are seldom executed in the exordium. But the manner just +pointed out, it will be very proper to observe in it, and to wear down +all impressions to the contrary made by the opposite side, that as our +situation will be deplorable if we should be defeated in our +expectations, so, on the other hand, the behavior of our opponent would +be insolent and haughty. + + +MATERIAL FOR THE INTRODUCTION + +Besides persons and causes, the exordium likewise is sometimes taken +from their adjuncts, that is, from things relating to the cause and +persons. To persons are applicable not only the pledges above mentioned, +but affinities, friendships, sometimes cities and whole countries are +also likely to suffer by the person's misfortunes. + +Theophrastus adds another kind of exordium, taken from the pleading of +the orator who speaks first. Such seems to be that of Demosthenes for +Ctesiphon, in which he requests the judges to please permit him to +reply as he thinks suitable rather than to follow the rules prescribed +by the accuser. + +As the confidence observable in some orators may easily pass for +arrogance, there are certain ways of behavior which, tho common, will +please, and therefore ought not to be neglected, to prevent their being +used by the opposing side: these are wishing, warding off suspicion, +supplicating, and making a show of trouble and anxiety. + +The judge's attention is secured by inducing him to believe that the +matter under debate is new, important, extraordinary, or of a heinous +nature, or that it equally interests him and the public. Then his mind +is to be roused and agitated by hope, fear, remonstrance, entreaty, and +even by flattery, if it is thought that will be of any use. Another way +of procuring attention may be to promise that we shall take up but +little of their time, as we shall confine ourselves to the subject. + +From what has been said, it appears that different causes require to be +governed by different rules; and five kinds of causes are generally +specified, which are said to be, either honest, base, doubtful, +extraordinary, or obscure. Some add shameful, as a sixth kind, which +others include in base or extraordinary. By extraordinary is understood +that which is contrary to the opinion of men. In a doubtful cause the +judge should be made favorable; in an obscure, docile; in a base, +attentive. An honest cause is sufficient of itself to procure favor. +Extraordinary and base causes lack remedies. + + +TWO TYPES OF INTRODUCTIONS + +Some, therefore, specify two kinds of exordiums, one a beginning, the +other an insinuation. In the first the judges are requested openly to +give their good will and attention; but as this can not take place in +the base kind of cause, the insinuation must steal in upon their minds, +especially when the cause does not seem to appear with a sufficiently +honest aspect, either because the thing itself is wicked, or is a +measure not approved by the public. There are many instances of causes +of unseemly appearance, as when general odium is incurred by opposing a +patriot; and a like hostility ensues from acting against a father, a +wretched old man, the blind, or the orphan. + +This may be a general rule for the purpose, "To touch but slightly on +the things that work against us, and to insist chiefly on those which +are for our advantage." If the cause can not be so well maintained, let +us have recourse to the goodness of the person, and if the person is not +condemnable, let us ground our support on the cause. If nothing occurs +to help us out, let us see what may hurt the opponent. For, since to +obtain more favor is a thing to be wished, so the next step to it is to +incur less hatred. + +In things that can not be denied, we must endeavor to show that they are +greatly short of what they are reported to be, or that they have been +done with a different intention, or that they do not in any wise belong +to the present question, or that repentance will make sufficient amends +for them, or that they have already received a proportionate punishment. +Herein, therefore, it will be better and more suitable for an advocate +to act than for the person himself; because when pleading for another he +can praise without the imputation of arrogance, and sometimes can even +reprove with advantage. + +Insinuation seems to be not less necessary when the opponent's action +has pre-possest the minds of the judges, or when they have been fatigued +by the tediousness of the pleading. The first may be got the better of +by promising substantial proofs on our side, and by refuting those of +the opponent. The second, by giving hopes of being brief, and by having +recourse to the means prescribed for making the judge attentive. In the +latter case, too, some seasonable pleasantry, or anything witty to +freshen the mind will have a good effect. It will not be amiss, +likewise, to remove any seeming obstruction. As Cicero says of himself, +he is not unaware that some will find it strange that he, who for so +many years had defended such a number of people, and had given no +offense to anyone, should undertake to accuse Verres. Afterward he shows +that if, on the one hand, he accuses Verres, still, on the other, he +defends the allies of the Roman people. + + +HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT BEGINNING + +The orator should consider what the subject is upon which he is to +speak, before whom, for whom, against whom, at what time, in what place, +under what conditions, what the public think of it, what the judges may +think of it before they hear him, and what he himself has to desire, and +what to apprehend. Whoever makes these reflections will know where he +should naturally begin. But now orators call exordium anything with +which they begin, and consider it of advantage to make the beginning +with some brilliant thought. Undoubtedly many things are taken into the +exordium which are drawn from other parts of the cause or at least are +common to them, but nothing in either respect is better said than that +which can not be said so well elsewhere. + + +THE VALUE OF NATURALNESS + +There are many very engaging things in an exordium which is framed from +the opponent's pleading, and this is because it does not seem to favor +of the closet, but is produced on the spot and comes from the very +thing. By its easy, natural turn, it enhances the reputation of genius. +Its air of simplicity, the judge not being on his guard against it, +begets belief, and tho the discourse in all other parts be elaborate and +written with great accuracy, it will for the most part seem an +extempore oration, the exordium evidently appearing to have nothing +premeditated. + +But nothing else will so well suit an exordium as modesty in the +countenance, voice, thoughts, and composition, so that even in an +uncontrovertible kind of cause, too great confidence ought not to +display itself. Security is always odious in a pleader, and a judge who +is sensible of his authority tacitly demands respect. + +An orator must likewise be exceedingly careful to keep himself from +being suspected, particularly in that regard; therefore, not the least +show of study should be made, because all his art will seem exerted +against the judge, and not to show this is the greatest perfection of +art. This rule has been recommended by all authors, and undoubtedly with +good reason, but sometimes is altered by circumstances, because in +certain causes the judges themselves require studied discourses, and +fancy themselves thought mean of unless accuracy appears in thought and +expression. It is of no significance to instruct them; they must be +pleased. It is indeed difficult to find a medium in this respect, but +the orator may so temper his manner as to speak with justness, and not +with too great a show of art. + + +THE NEED OF SIMPLICITY OF EXPRESSION + +Another rule inculcated by the ancients is not to admit into the +exordium any strange word, too bold a metaphor, an obsolete expression, +or a poetical turn. As yet we are not favorably received by the +auditors, their attention is not entirely held, but when once they +conceive an esteem and are warmly inclined toward us, then is the time +to hazard this liberty, especially when we enter upon parts the natural +fertility of which does not allow the liberty of expression to be +noticed amidst the luster spread about it. + +The style of the exordium ought not to be like that of the argument +proper and the narration, neither ought it to be finely spun out, or +harmonized into periodical cadences, but, rather, it should be simple +and natural, promising neither too much by words nor countenance. A +modest action, also, devoid of the least suspicion of ostentation, will +better insinuate itself into the mind of the auditor. But these ought to +be regulated according to the sentiments we would have the judges imbibe +from us. + +It must be remembered, however, that nowhere is less allowance made than +here for failing in memory or appearing destitute of the power of +articulating many words together. An ill-pronounced exordium may well +be compared to a visage full of scars, and certainly he must be a bad +pilot who puts his ship in danger of sinking, as he is going out of +port. + +In regard to the length of the exordium, it ought to be proportionate to +the nature of the cause. Simple causes admit of a shorter exordium; the +complex, doubtful, and odious, require a longer exordium. Some writers +have prescribed four points as laws for all exordiums,--which is +ridiculous. An immoderate length should be equally avoided, lest it +appear, as some monsters, bigger in the head than in the rest of the +body, and create disgust where it ought only to prepare. + + +"TYING UP" THE INTRODUCTION + +As often as we use an exordium, whether we pass next to the narration, +or immediately to the proofs, we ought always to preserve a connection +between what follows and what goes before. To proceed from one part to +another, by some ingenious thought which disguises the transition, and +to seek applause from such a studied exertion of wit, is quite of a +piece with the cold and childish affectation of our declaimers. If a +long and intricate narration must follow, the judge ought naturally to +be prepared for it. This Cicero often does, as in this passage: "I must +proceed pretty high to clear up this matter to you, which I hope, +gentlemen, you will not be displeased at, because its origin being known +will make you thoroughly acquainted with the particulars proceeding from +it." + + + + +THE NARRATION + + +There are causes so short as to require rather to be proposed than told. +It is sometimes the case with two contending sides, either that they +have no exposition to make, or that agreeing on the fact, they contest +only the right. Sometimes one of the contending parties, most commonly +the plaintiff, need only propose the matter, as most to his advantage, +and then it will be enough for him to say: "I ask for a certain sum of +money due to me according to agreement; I ask for what was bequeathed to +me by will." It is the defendant's business to show that he has no right +to such a debt or legacy. On other occasions it is enough, and more +advisable, for the plaintiff to point out merely the fact: "I say that +Horatius killed his sister." This simple proposition makes known the +whole crime, but the details and the cause of the fact will suit better +the defendant. Let it be supposed, on the other hand, that the fact can +not be denied or excused; then the defendant, instead of narrating, will +best abide by the question of right. Some one is accused of sacrilege +for stealing the money of a private person out of a temple. The pleader +of the cause had better confess the fact than give an account of it. "We +do not deny that this money was taken out of the temple. It was the +money of a private person, and not set apart for any religious use. But +the plaintiff calumniates us by an action for sacrilege. It is, +therefore, your business, gentlemen, to decide whether it can properly +be specified as sacrilege." + + +THE TWO KINDS OF NARRATION + +There are two kinds of narration in judicial matters, the one for the +cause, the other for things belonging to it. "I have not killed that +man." This needs no narration. I admit it does not; but there may be a +narration, and even somewhat long, concerning the probable causes of +innocence in the accused, as his former integrity of life, the +opponent's motives for endangering the life of a guiltless person, and +other circumstances arguing the incredibility of the accusation. The +accuser does not merely say, "You have committed that murder," but shows +reasons to evince its credibility; as, in tragedies, when Teucer imputes +the death of Ajax to Ulysses, he says that "He was found in a lonely +place, near the dead body of his enemy, with his sword all bloody." +Ulysses, in answer, not only denies the crime, but protests there was +no enmity between him and Ajax, and that they never contended but for +glory. Then he relates how he came into that solitary place, how he +found Ajax dead, and that it was Ajax's own sword he drew out of his +wound. To these are subjoined proofs, but the proofs, too, are not +without narration, the plaintiff alleging, "You were in the place where +your enemy was found killed." "I was not," says the defendant, and he +tells where he was. + + +HOW TO MAKE THE CONCLUSION + +The end of the narration is rather more for persuading than informing. +When, therefore, the judges might not require information, yet, if we +consider it advisable to draw them over to our way of thinking, we may +relate the matter with certain precautions, as, that tho they have +knowledge of the affair in general, still would it not be amiss if they +chose to examine into every particular fact as it happened. Sometimes we +may diversify the exposition with a variety of figures and turns; as, +"You remember"; "Perhaps it would be unnecessary to insist any longer on +this point"; "But why should I speak further when you are so well +acquainted with the matter." + +A subject of frequent discussion is to know whether the narration ought +immediately to follow the exordium. They who think it should, seem to +have some reason on their side, for as the design of the exordium is to +dispose the judges to hear us with all the good will, docility, and +attention, we wish, and as arguments can have no effect without previous +knowledge of the cause, it follows naturally that they should have this +knowledge as soon as it can conveniently be given to them. + + +PURPOSES OF THE NARRATION + +If the narration be entirely for us, we may content ourselves with those +three parts, whereby the judge is made the more easily to understand, +remember, and believe. But let none think of finding fault if I require +the narration which is entirely for us, to be probable tho true, for +many things are true but scarcely credible, as, on the contrary, many +things are false tho frequently probable. We ought, therefore, to be +careful that the judge should believe as much what we pretend as the +truth we say, by preserving in both a probability to be credited. + +Those three qualities of the narration belong in like manner to all +other parts of the discourse, for obscurity must be avoided throughout, +and we must everywhere keep within certain bounds, and all that is said +must be probable; but a strict observance of these particulars ought to +be kept more especially in that part wherein the judge receives his +first information, for if there it should happen that he either does not +understand, remember, or believe, our labor in all other parts will be +to no purpose. + + +THE QUALITIES NEEDED FOR SUCCESS + +The narration will be clear and intelligible if, first, it be exprest in +proper and significant words, which have nothing mean and low, nothing +far-fetched, and nothing uncommon. Second, if it distinguishes exactly +things, persons, times, places, causes; all of which should be +accompanied with a suitable delivery, that the judge may retain the more +easily what is said. + +This is a quality neglected by most of our orators, who, charmed by the +applause of a rabble brought together by chance, or even bribed to +applaud with admiration every word and period, can neither endure the +attentive silence of a judicious audience, nor seem to themselves to be +eloquent unless they make everything ring about them with tumultuous +clamor. To explain simply the fact, appears to them too low, and common, +and too much within the reach of the illiterate, but I fancy that what +they despise as easy is not so much because of inclination as because of +inability to effect it. For the more experience we have, the more we +find that nothing else is so difficult as to speak in such a manner that +all who have heard us may think they could acquit themselves equally as +well. The reason for the contrary notion is that what is so said is +considered as merely true and not as fine and beautiful. But will not +the orator express himself in the most perfect manner, when he seems to +speak truth? Now, indeed, the narration is laid out as a champion-ground +for eloquence to display itself in; the voice, the gesture, the +thoughts, the expression, are all worked up to a pitch of extravagance, +and what is monstrous, the action is applauded, and yet the cause is far +from being understood. But we shall forego further reflections on this +misguided notion, lest we offend more by reproving faults, than gratify +by giving advice. + +The narration will have its due brevity if we begin by explaining the +affair from the point where it is of concern to the judge; next, if we +say nothing foreign to the cause; and last, if we avoid all +superfluities, yet without curtailing anything that may give insight +into the cause or be to its advantage. There is a certain brevity of +parts, however, which makes a long whole: "I came to the harbor, I saw a +ship ready for sailing, I asked the price for passengers, I agreed as to +what I should give, I went aboard, we weighed anchor, we cleared the +coast, and sailed on briskly." None of these circumstances could be +exprest in fewer words, but it is sufficient to say, "I sailed from the +port." And as often as the end of a thing sufficiently denotes what went +before, we may rest satisfied with it as facilitating the understanding +of all other circumstances. + +But often when striving to be short, we become obscure, a fault equally +to be avoided, therefore it is better that the narration should have a +little too much, than that it should lack enough. What is redundant, +disgusts; what is necessary is cut down with danger. I would not have +this rule restricted to what is barely sufficient for pronouncing +judgment on, because the narration may be concise, yet not, on that +account, be without ornament. In such cases it would appear as coming +from an illiterate person. Pleasure, indeed, has a secret charm; and the +things which please seem less tedious. A pleasant and smooth road, tho +it be longer, fatigues less than a rugged and disagreeable short cut. I +am not so fond of conciseness as not to make room for brightening a +narration with proper embellishments. If quite homely and curtailed on +all sides, it will be not so much a narration as a poor huddling up of +things together. + + +GETTING YOUR STATEMENTS ACCEPTED + +The best way to make the narration probable is to first consult with +ourselves on whatever is agreeable to nature, that nothing may be said +contrary to it; next, to find causes and reasons for facts, not for all, +but for those belonging to the question; and last, to have characters +answerable to the alleged facts which we would have believed; as, if one +were guilty of theft, we should represent him as a miser; of adultery, +as addicted to impure lusts; of manslaughter, as hot and rash. The +contrary takes place in defense, and the facts must agree with time, +place, and the like. + +Sometimes a cause may be prepared by a proposition, and afterward +narrated. All circumstances are unfavorable to three sons who have +conspired against their father's life. They cast lots who shall strike +the blow. He on whom the lot falls, enters his father's bed-chamber at +night, with a poniard, but has not courage to put the design into +execution. The second and the third do the same. The father wakes. All +confess their wicked purpose, and by virtue of a law made and provided +for such case, they are to be disinherited. But should the father, who +has already made a partition of his estate in their favor, plead their +cause, he may proceed thus: "Children are accused of parricide, whose +father is still alive, and they are sued in consequence of a law that is +not properly applicable to their case. I need not here give an account +of a transaction that is foreign to the point of law in question. But if +you require a confession of my guilt, I have been a hard father to them, +and rather too much occupied in hoarding up the income of my estate, +which would have been better spent in necessaries for them." Afterward +he may say that they did not form this plan by themselves, that they +were instigated to it by others who had more indulgent parents, that the +result clearly showed they were not capable of so unnatural an action, +that there was no necessity for binding themselves by oath if in reality +they could have had such an inclination, nor of casting lots if each did +not want to avoid the perpetration of such a crime. All these +circumstances, such as they are, will be favorably received, softened in +some measure by the short defense of the previous propositions. + + +THE ORDER OF THE NARRATION + +I am not of the opinion of those who think that the facts ought always +to be related in the same order in which they happened. That manner of +narration is best which is of most advantage to the cause, and it may, +not improperly, call in the aid of a diversity of figures. Sometimes we +may pretend that a thing has been overlooked, so that it may be better +exprest elsewhere than it would be in its own order and place; assuring +the judges at the same time that we shall resume the proper order, but +that the cause in this way will be better understood. Sometimes, after +explaining the whole affair, we may subjoin the antecedent causes. And +thus it is that the art of defense, not circumscribed by any one +invariable rule, must be adapted to the nature and circumstances of the +cause. + +It will not be amiss to intimate that nothing enhances so much the +credibility of a narration as the authority of him who makes it, and +this authority it is our duty to acquire, above all, by an +irreproachable life, and next, by the manner of enforcing it. The more +grave and serious it is, the more weight it will have. Here all +suspicion of cunning and artifice should, therefore, be particularly +avoided, for the judges, ever distrustful, are here principally on their +guard, and, likewise, nothing should seem a pure fiction, or the work of +study, which all might rather be believed to proceed from the cause than +the orator. But this we can not endure, and we think our art lost unless +it is seen; whereas it ceases to be art if it is seen. + + + + +DIVISION AND ARGUMENT + + +Some are of the opinion that division should always be used, as by it +the cause will be more clear and the judge more attentive and more +easily taught when he knows of what we speak to him and of what we +intend afterward to speak. Others think this is attended with danger to +the orator, either by his sometimes forgetting what he has promised, or +by something else occurring to the judge or auditor, which he did not +think of in the division. I can not well imagine how this may happen, +unless with one who is either destitute of sense or rash enough to plead +without preparation. In any other respect, nothing else can set a +subject in so clear a light as just division. It is a means to which we +are directed by the guidance of nature, because keeping in sight the +heads on which we propose to speak, is the greatest help the memory can +have. + + +THE MISTAKE OF TOO MANY DIVISIONS + +But if division should seem requisite, I am not inclined to assent to +the notion of those who would have it extend to more than three parts. +Indeed, when the parts are too many, they escape the judge's memory and +distract his attention; but a cause is not scrupulously to be tied down +to this number, as it may require more. + + +DISADVANTAGES OF DIVISIONS + +There are reasons for not always using division, the principal reason +being that most things are better received when seemingly of extempore +invention and not suggestive of study, but arising in the pleading from +the nature of the thing itself. Whence such figures are not unpleasing +as, "I had almost forgotten to say"; "It escaped my memory to acquaint +you"; and "You have given me a good hint." For if the proofs should be +proposed without something of a reputation of this kind, they would +lose, in the sequel, all the graces of novelty. + +The distinguishing of questions, and the discussing of them, should be +equally avoided. But the listeners' passions ought to be excited, and +their attention diverted from its former bias, for it is the orator's +business not so much to instruct as to enforce his eloquence by emotion, +to which nothing can be more contrary than minute and scrupulously exact +division of a discourse into parts. + + +WHEN THE DIVISION IS DESIRABLE + +If many things are to be avoided or refuted, the division will be both +useful and pleasing, causing everything to appear in the order in which +it is to be said. But if we defend a single crime by various ways, +division will be superfluous, as, "I shall make it clear that the person +I defend is not such as to make it seem probable that he could be guilty +of murder; it shall also be shown that he had no motives to induce him +to do it; and lastly, that he was across the sea when this murder took +place." Whatever is cited and argued before the third point must seem +quite unnecessary, for the judge is in haste to have you come to that +which is of most consequence, and the patient, will tacitly call upon +you to acquit yourself of your promise, or, if he has much business to +dispatch, or his dignity puts him above your trifling, or he is of a +peevish humor, he will oblige you to speak to the purpose, and perhaps +do so in disrespectful terms. + + +PITFALLS IN ARGUMENT + +Many doubt the desirability of this kind of defense: "If I had killed +him, I should have done well; but I did not kill him." Where is the +occasion, say they, for the first proposition if the second be true? +They run counter to each other, and whoever advances both, will be +credited in neither. This is partly true, for if the last proposition be +unquestionable, it is the only one that should be used. But if we are +apprehensive of anything in the stronger, we may use both. On these +occasions persons seem to be differently affected; one will believe the +fact, and exculpate the right; another will condemn the right, and +perhaps not credit the fact. So, one dart may be enough for an unerring +hand to hit the mark, but chance and many darts must effect the same +result for an uncertain aim. Cicero clears up this matter in his defense +of Milo. He first shows Clodius to be the aggressor, and then, by a +superabundance of right, adds that tho he might not be the aggressor, it +was brave and glorious in Milo to have delivered Rome of so bad a +citizen. + +Tho division may not always be necessary, yet when properly used it +gives great light and beauty to a discourse. This it effects not only by +adding more perspicuity to what is said, but also by refreshing the +minds of the hearers by a view of each part circumscribed within its +bounds; just so milestones ease in some measure the fatigue of +travelers, it being a pleasure to know the extent of the labor they have +undergone, and to know what remains encourages them to persevere, as a +thing does not necessarily seem long when there is a certainty of coming +to the end. + + +ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ARGUMENT + +Every division, therefore, when it may be employed to advantage, ought +to be first clear and intelligible, for what is worse than being obscure +in a thing, the use of which is to guard against obscurity in other +things? Second, it ought to be short, and not encumbered with any +superfluous word, because we do not enter upon the subject matter, but +only point it out. + +If proofs be strong and cogent, they should be proposed and insisted on +separately; if weak, it will be best to collect them into a body. In the +first case, being persuasive by themselves, it would be improper to +obscure them by the confusion of others: they should appear in their +due light. In the second case, being naturally weak, they should be made +to support each other. If, therefore, they are not greatly effective in +point of quality, they may be in that of number, all of them having a +tendency to prove the same thing; as, if one were accused of killing +another for the sake of inheriting his fortune: "You did expect an +inheritance, and it was something very considerable; you were poor, and +your creditors troubled you more than ever; you also offended him who +had appointed you his heir, and you know that he intended to alter his +will." These proofs taken separately are of little moment, and common; +but collectively their shock is felt, not as a peal of thunder, but as a +shower of hail. + +The judge's memory, however, is not always to be loaded with the +arguments we may invent. They will create disgust, and beget distrust +in him, as he can not think such arguments to be powerful enough which +we ourselves do not think sufficient. But to go on arguing and proving, +in the case of self-evident things, would be a piece of folly not unlike +that of bringing a candle to light us when the sun is in its greatest +splendor. + +To these some add proofs which they call moral, drawn from the milder +passions; and the most powerful, in the opinion of Aristotle, are such +as arise from the person of him who speaks, if he be a man of real +integrity. This is a primary consideration; and a secondary one, remote, +indeed, yet following, will be the probable notion entertained of his +irreproachable life. + + +THE BEST ORDER OF THE ARGUMENT + +It has been a matter of debate, also, whether the strongest proofs +should have place in the beginning, to make an immediate impression on +the hearers, or at the end, to make the impression lasting with them, or +to distribute them, partly in the beginning and partly at the end, +placing the weaker in the middle, or to begin with the weakest and +proceed to the strongest. For my part I think this should depend on the +nature and exigencies of the cause, yet with this reservation, that the +discourse might not dwindle from the powerful into what is nugatory and +frivolous. + +Let the young orator, for whose instruction I make these remarks, +accustom himself as much as possible to copy nature and truth. As in +schools he often engages in sham battles, in imitation of the contests +of the bar, let him even then have an eye to victory, and learn to +strike home, dealing moral blows and putting himself on his defense as +if really in earnest. It is the master's business to require this duty, +and to commend it according as it is well executed. For if they love +praise to the degree of seeking it in their faults, which does them much +harm, they will desire it more passionately when they know it to be the +reward of real merit. The misfortune now is that they commonly pass over +necessary things in silence, considering what is for the good of the +cause as of little or no account if it be not conducive to the +embellishment of the discourse. + + + + +THE PERORATION + + +The peroration, called by some the completion, by others the conclusion, +of a discourse, is of two kinds, and regards either the matters discust +in it or the moving of the passions. + +The repetition of the matter and the collecting it together, which is +called by the Greeks recapitulation, and by some of the Latins +enumeration, serves for refreshing the judge's memory, for placing the +whole cause in one direct point of view, and for enforcing in a body +many proofs which, separately, made less impression. It would seem that +this repetition ought to be very short, and the Greek term sufficiently +denotes that we ought to run over only the principal heads, for if we +are long in doing it, it will not be an enumeration that we make, but, +as it were, a second discourse. The points which may seem to require +this enumeration, however, ought to be pronounced with some emphasis, +and enlivened with opposite thoughts, and diversified by figures, +otherwise nothing will be more disagreeable than a mere cursory +repetition, which would seem to show distrust of the judge's memory. + + +RULES FOR THE PERORATION + +This seems to be the only kind of peroration allowed by most of the +Athenians and by almost all the philosophers who left anything written +on the art of oratory. The Athenians, I suppose, were of that opinion +because it was customary at Athens to silence, by the public crier, any +orator who should attempt to move the passions. I am less surprized at +this opinion among philosophers, every perturbation of the mind being +considered by them as vicious; nor did it seem to them compatible with +sound morality to divert the judge from truth, nor agreeable to the idea +of an honest man to have recourse to any sinister stratagem. Yet moving +the passions will be acknowledged necessary when truth and justice can +not be otherwise obtained and when public good is concerned in the +decision. All agree that recapitulation may also be employed to +advantage in other parts of the pleading, if the cause is complicated +and requires many arguments to defend it, and, on the other hand, it +will admit of no doubt that many causes are so short and simple as to +have no occasion in any part of them for recapitulation. The above rules +for the peroration apply equally to the accuser and to the defendant's +advocate. + +They, likewise, use nearly the same passions, but the accuser more +seldom and more sparingly, and the defendant oftener and with greater +emotions; for it is the business of the former to stir up aversion, +indignation, and other similar passions in the minds of the judges, and +of the latter to bend their hearts to compassion. Yet the accuser is +sometimes not without tears, in deploring the distress of those in whose +behalf he sues for satisfaction, and the defendant sometimes complains +with great vehemence of the persecution raised against him by the +calumnies and conspiracy of his enemies. It would be best, therefore, to +distinguish and discuss separately the different passions excited on the +parts of the plaintiff and defendant, which are most commonly, as I +have said, very like what takes place in the exordium, but are treated +in a freer and fuller manner in the peroration. + + +PURPOSES OF THE PERORATION + +The favor of the judges toward us is more sparingly sued for in the +beginning, it being then sufficient to gain their attention, as the +whole discourse remains in which to make further impressions. But in the +peroration we must strive to bring the judge into that disposition of +the mind which it is necessary for us that he should retain when he +comes to pass judgment. The peroration being finished, we can say no +more, nor can anything be reserved for another place. Both of the +contending sides, therefore, try to conciliate the judge, to make him +unfavorable to the opponent, to rouse and occasionally allay his +passions; and both may find their method of procedure in this short +rule, which is, to keep in view the whole stress of the cause, and +finding what it contains that is favorable, odious, or deplorable, in +reality or in probability, to say those things which would make the +greatest impression on themselves if they sat as judges. + +I have already mentioned in the rules for the exordium how the accuser +might conciliate the judges. Yet some things, which it was enough to +point out there, should be wrought to a fulness in the peroration, +especially if the pleading be against some one universally hated, and a +common disturber, and if the condemnation of the culprit should redound +as much to the honor of the judges as his acquittal to their shame. Thus +Calvus spoke admirably against Vatinius: + +"You know, good sirs, that Vatinius is guilty, and no one is unaware +that you know it." Cicero, in the same way, informs the judges that if +anything is capable of reestablishing the reputation of their judgment, +it must be the condemnation of Verres. If it be proper to intimidate the +judges, as Cicero likewise does, against Verres, this is done with +better effect in the peroration than in the exordium. I have already +explained my sentiments on this point. + + +HOW TO AROUSE EMOTIONS + +In short, when it is requisite to excite envy, hatred, or indignation +there is greater scope for doing this to advantage in the peroration +than elsewhere. The interest in the accused may naturally excite the +judge's envy, the infamy of his crimes may draw upon him his hatred, +the little respect he shows him may rouse his indignation. If he is +stubborn, haughty, presumptuous, let him be painted in all the glaring +colors that aggravate such vicious temper, and these manifested not only +from his words and deeds, but from face, manner, and dress. I remember, +on my first coming to the bar, a shrewd remark of the accuser of +Cossutianus Capito. He pleaded in Greek before the Emperor, but the +meaning of his words was: "Might it not be said that this man disdains +even to respect Caesar." + +The accuser has recourse frequently to the arousing of compassion, +either by setting forth the distrest state of him for whom he hopes to +find redress, or by describing the desolation and ruin into which his +children and relations are likely thereby to be involved. He may, too, +move the judges by holding out to them a prospect of what may happen +hereafter if injuries and violence remain unpunished, the consequence of +which will be that either his client must abandon his dwelling and the +care of his effects, or must resolve to endure patiently all the +injustice his enemy may try to do him. + +The accuser more frequently will endeavor to caution the judge against +the pity with which the defendant intends to inspire him, and he will +stimulate him, in as great a degree as he can, to judge according to his +conscience. Here, too, will be the place to anticipate whatever it is +thought the opponent may do or say, for it makes the judges more +circumspect regarding the sacredness of their oath, and by it the answer +to the pleading may lose the indulgence which it is expected to receive, +together with the charm of novelty in all the particulars which the +accuser has already cleared up. The judges, besides, may be informed of +the answer they should make to those who might threaten to have their +sentence reversed; and this is another kind of recapitulation. + +The persons concerned are very proper objects for affecting the mind of +the judge, for the judge does not seem to himself to hear so much the +orator weeping over others' misfortunes, as he imagines his ears are +smitten with the feelings and voice of the distrest. Even their dumb +appearance might be a sufficiently moving language to draw tears, and as +their wretchedness would appear in lively colors if they were to speak +it themselves, so proportionately it must be thought to have a powerful +effect when exprest, as it were, from their own mouths. Just so, in +theatrical representations, the same voice, and the same emphatic +pronunciation, become very interesting under the masks used for +personating different characters. With a like view Cicero, tho he gives +not the voice of a suppliant to Milo, but, on the contrary, commends his +unshaken constancy, yet does he adapt to him words and complaints not +unworthy of a man of spirit: "O my labors, to no purpose undertaken! +Deceiving hopes! Useless projects!" + +This exciting of pity, however, should never be long, it being said, not +without reason, that "nothing dries up so soon as tears." If time can +mitigate the pangs of real grief, of course the counterfeit grief +assumed in speaking must sooner vanish; so that if we dally, the auditor +finding himself overcharged with mournful thoughts, tries to resume his +tranquility, and thus ridding himself of the emotion that overpowered +him, soon returns to the exercise of cool reason. We must, therefore, +never allow this kind of emotion to become languid, but when we have +wound up the passions to their greatest height, we must instantly drop +the subject, and not expect that any one will long bewail another's +mishap. Therefore, as in other parts, the discourse should be well +supported, and rather rise, so here particularly it should grow to its +full vigor, because that which makes no addition to what has already +been said seems to diminish it, and a passion soon evaporates that once +begins to subside. + +Tears are excited not only by words but by doing certain things, whence +it is not unusual to present the very persons who are in danger of +condemnation, in a garb suitable to their distress, together with their +children and relations. Accusers, too, make it a custom to show a bloody +sword, fractured bones picked out of wounds, and garments drenched in +blood. Sometime, likewise, they unbind wounds to show their condition, +and strip bodies naked to show the stripes they have received. These +acts are commonly of mighty efficacy, as fully revealing the reality of +the occurrence. Thus it was that Caesar's robe, bloody all over, exposed +in the Forum, drove the people of Rome into an excess of madness. It was +well known that he was assassinated; his body also lay in state, until +his funeral should take place; yet that garment, still dripping with +blood, formed so graphic a picture of the horrible murder that it seemed +to them to have been perpetrated that very instant. + +It will not be amiss to hint that the success of the peroration depends +much on the manner of the parties in conforming themselves to the +emotions and action of their advocates. Stupidity, rusticity, and a want +of sensibility and attention, as it is said, throw cold water on a cause +against which the orator can not be too well provided. I have, indeed, +often seen them act quite contrary to their advocate's instructions. Not +the least show of concern could be observed in their countenance. They +laughed foolishly and without reason, and made others laugh by some +ridiculous gesticulation or grimace, especially when the heat of a +debate exhibited anything akin to theatrical action. + +An orator of slender ability will acquit himself better if he allows the +judges by themselves to feel the compassion with which his subject may +naturally inspire them, especially since the appearance, and voice, and +studied air of the advocate's countenance are often ridiculed by such as +are not affected by them. Let the orator make an exact estimate of his +powers, therefore, and be conscious of the burden he undertakes. Here +there is no middle state; he must either make his hearers weep, or +expect to be laughed at. + +It should not be imagined, as some have thought, that all exciting of +the passions, all sentimental emotions, ought to be confined to the +exordium and peroration. In them they are most frequent, yet other parts +admit them likewise, but in a shorter compass, as their greatest stress +should be reserved for the end. For here, if anywhere, the orator may be +allowed to open all the streams of eloquence. If we have executed all +other parts to advantage, here we take possession of the minds of the +judges, and having escaped all rocks, may expand all our sails for a +favorable gale; and as amplification makes a great part of the +peroration, we then may raise and embellish our style with the choicest +expressions and brightest thoughts. And, indeed, the conclusion of a +speech should bear some resemblance to that of tragedy and comedy, +wherein the actor courts the spectator's applause. In other parts the +passions may be touched upon, as they naturally rise out of the subject, +and no horrible or sorrowful thing should be set forth without +accompanying it with a suitable sentiment. When the debate may be on the +quality of a thing, it is properly subjoined to the proofs of each thing +brought out. When we plead a cause complicated with a variety of +circumstances, then it will be necessary to use many perorations, as it +were; as Cicero does against Verres, lending his tears occasionally to +Philodamus, to the masters of ships, to the crucified Roman citizens, +and to many others. + + + + +PASSION AND PERSUASION + + +It may well be imagined that nothing else is so important in the whole +art of oratory as the proper use of the passions. A slender genius, +aided by learning or experience, may be sufficient to manage certain +parts to some advantage, yet I think they are fit only for instructing +the judges, and as masters and models for those who take no concern +beyond passing for good speakers. But to possess the secret of forcibly +carrying away the judges, of moving them, as we please, to a certain +disposition of mind, of inflaming them with anger, of softening them to +pity, so as to draw tears from them, all this is rare, tho by it the +orator is made most distinguished and by it eloquence gains empire over +hearts. The cause itself is naturally productive of arguments, and the +better share generally falls to the lot of the more rightful side of the +question, so that whichever side wins by dint of argument, may think +that so far they did not lack an advocate. But when violence is to be +used to influence the minds of the judges, when they are to be turned +from coolly reflecting on the truth that works against us, then comes +the true exercise of the orator's powers; and this is what the +contending parties can not inform us of, nor is it contained in the +state of their cases. Proofs, it is true, make the judges presume that +our cause is the better, but passion makes them wish it to be such, and +as they wish it, they are not far from believing it to be so. For as +soon as they begin to absorb from us our passions of anger, favor, +hatred, or pity, they make the affair their own. As lovers can not be +competent judges of beauty, because love blinds them, so here a judge +attentive to the tumultuous working of a passion, loses sight of the way +by which he should proceed to inquire after the truth. The impetuous +torrent sweeps him away, and he is borne down in the current. The effect +of arguments and witnesses is not known until judgment has been passed, +but the judge who has been affected by the orator, still sitting and +hearing, declares his real sentiments. Has not he who is seen to melt +into tears, already pronounced sentence? Such, then, is the power of +moving the passions, to which the orator ought to direct all his +efforts, this being his principal work and labor, since without it all +other resources are naked, hungry, weak, and unpleasing. The passions +are the very life and soul of persuasion. + + +QUALITIES NEEDED IN THE ORATOR + +What we require in the orator is, in general, a character of goodness, +not only mild and pleasing, but humane, insinuating, amiable, and +charming to the hearer; and its greatest perfection will be if all, as +influenced by it, shall seem to flow from the nature of things and +persons, that so the morals of the orator may shine forth from his +discourse and be known in their genuine colors. This character of +goodness should invariably be maintained by those whom a mutual tie +ought to bind in strict union, whenever it may happen that they suffer +anything from each other, or pardon, or make satisfaction, or admonish, +or reprimand, but far from betraying any real anger or hatred. + +A sentiment very powerful for exciting hatred may arise when an act of +submission to our opponents is understood as a silent reproach of their +insolence. Our willingness to yield must indeed show them to be +insupportable and troublesome, and it commonly happens that they who +have desire for railing, and are too free and hot in their invectives, +do not imagine that the jealousy they create is of far greater prejudice +to them than the malice of their speech. + +All this presupposes that the orator himself ought to be a good and +humane man. The virtues which he commends, if he possibly can, in his +client, he should possess, or be supposed to possess, himself. In this +way will he be of singular advantage to the cause he undertakes, the +good opinion he has created of himself being a prejudice in its favor. +For if while he speaks he appears to be a bad man, he must in +consequence plead ill, because what he says will be thought repugnant to +justice. The style and manner suitable on these occasions ought, +therefore, to be sweet and insinuating, never hot and imperious, never +hazarded in too elevated a strain. It will be sufficient to speak in a +proper, pleasing, and probable way. + +The orator's business in regard to the passions should be not only to +paint atrocious and lamentable things as they are, but even to make +those seem grievous which are considered tolerable, as when we say that +an injurious word is less pardonable than a blow, and that death is +preferable to dishonor. For the powers of eloquence do not consist so +much in forcing the judge into sentiments which the nature of the matter +itself may be sufficient to inspire him with, as they do in producing +and creating, as it were, the same sentiments when the subject may seem +not to admit them. This is the vehemence of oratorical ability which +knows how to equal and even to surpass the enormity and indignity of the +facts it exposes, a quality of singular consequence to the orator, and +one in which Demosthenes excelled all others. + + +THE SECRET OF MOVING THE PASSIONS + +The great secret for moving the passions is to be moved ourselves, for +the imitation of grief, anger, indignation, will often be ridiculous if +conforming to only our words and countenance, while our heart at the +same time is estranged from them. What other reason makes the afflicted +exclaim in so eloquent a manner during the first transports of their +grief? And how, otherwise, do the most ignorant speak eloquently in +anger, unless it be from this force and these mental feelings? + +In such passions, therefore, which we would represent as true copies of +real ones, let us be ourselves like those who unfeignedly suffer, and +let our speech proceed from such a disposition of mind as that in which +we would have the judge be. Will he grieve who hears me speak with an +expressionless face and air of indifference? Will he be angry when I, +who am to excite him to anger, remain cool and sedate? Will he shed +tears when I plead unconcerned? All this is attempting impossibilities. +Nothing warms nor moistens but that which is endued with the quality of +heat or moisture, nor does anything give to another a color it has not +itself. The principal consideration, then, must be that we, ourselves, +retain the impression of which we would have the judges susceptible, and +be ourselves affected before we endeavor to affect others. + + +THE POWER OF MENTAL IMAGERY + +But how shall we be affected, the emotions or passions being not at our +command? This may be done by what we may call visions, whereby the +images of things absent are so represented to the mind that we seem to +see them with our eyes and have them present before us. Whoever can work +up his imagination to an intuitive view of this kind, will be very +successful in moving the passions. + +If I deplore the fate of a man who has been assassinated, may I not +paint in my mind a lively picture of all that probably happened on the +occasion? Shall not the assassin appear to rush forth suddenly from his +lurking place? Shall not the other appear seized with horror? Shall he +not cry out, beg for his life, or fly to save it? Shall I not see the +assassin dealing the deadly blow, and the defenseless wretch falling +dead at his feet? Shall I not picture vividly in my mind the blood +gushing from his wounds, his ghastly face, his groans, and the last gasp +he fetches? + +When there is occasion for moving to compassion, we should believe and, +indeed, be persuaded that the distress and misfortunes of which we speak +have happened to ourselves. Let us place ourselves in the very position +of those for whom we feel sorrow on account of their having suffered +such grievous and unmerited treatment. Let us plead their cause, not as +if it were another's, but taking to ourselves, for a short time, their +whole grief. In this way we shall speak as if the case were our own. I +have seen comedians who, when they have just appeared in a mournful +character, often make their exit with tears in their eyes. If, then, the +expression given to imaginary passions can affect so powerfully, what +should not orators do, whose inner feelings ought to sympathize with +their manner of speaking, which can not happen unless they are truly +affected by the danger to which their clients are exposed. + + +RULES FOR PRACTISE + +In the declamatory exercises of schools it would be expedient, likewise, +to move the passions and imagine the scene as a real one in life, and +it is the more important as there the part is performed rather of a +pleader against some person, than an advocate for some person. We +represent a person who has lost his children, or has been shipwrecked, +or is in danger of losing his life, but of what significance is it to +personate such characters, unless we also assume their real sentiments. +This nature, and these properties of the passions, I thought it +incumbent on me not to conceal from the reader, for I, myself, such as I +am, or have been (for I flatter myself that I have acquired some +reputation at the bar), have often been so affected that not only tears, +but even paleness, and grief, not unlike that which is real, have +betrayed my emotions. + + + + +THE STUDY OF WORDS + + +What now follows requires special labor and care, the purpose being to +treat of elocution, which in the opinion of all orators is the most +difficult part of our work, for M. Antonius says that he has seen many +good speakers, but none eloquent. He thinks it good enough for a speaker +to say whatever is necessary on a subject, but only the most eloquent +may discuss it with grace and elegance. If down to the time he lived in, +this perfection was not discoverable in any orator, and neither in +himself nor in L. Crassus, it is certain that it was lacking in them and +their predecessors only on account of its extreme difficulty. Cicero +says that invention and disposition show the man of sense, but eloquence +the orator. He therefore took particular pains about the rules for this +part, and that he had reason for so doing the very name of eloquence +sufficiently declares. For to be eloquent is nothing else than to be +able to set forth all the lively images you have conceived in your mind, +and to convey them to the hearers in the same rich coloring, without +which all the principles we have laid down are useless, and are like a +sword concealed and kept sheathed in its scabbard. + +This, then, is what we are principally to learn; this is what we can not +attain without the help of art; this ought to be the object of our +study, our exercise, our imitation; this may be full employment for our +whole life; by this, one orator excels another; and from this proceeds +diversity of style. + + +THE PROPER VALUE OF WORDS + +It should not be inferred from what is said here that all our care must +be about words. On the contrary, to such as would abuse this concession +of mine, I declare positively my disapprobation of those persons who, +neglecting things, the nerves of causes, consume themselves in a +frivolous study about words. This they do for the sake of elegance, +which indeed is a fine quality when natural but not when affected. Sound +bodies, with a healthy condition of blood, and strong by exercise, +receive their beauty from the very things from which they receive their +strength. They are fresh-colored, active, and supple, neither too much +nor too little in flesh. Paint and polish them with feminine cosmetics, +and admiration ceases; the very pains taken to make them appear more +beautiful add to the dislike we conceive for them. Yet a magnificent, +and suitable, dress adds authority to man; but an effeminate dress, the +garb of luxury and softness, lays open the corruption of the heart +without adding to the ornament of the body. In like manner, translucent +and flashy elocution weakens the things it clothes. I would, therefore, +recommend care about words, but solicitude about things. + +The choicest expressions are for the most part inherent in things, and +are seen in their own light, but we search after them as if always +hiding and stealing themselves away from us. Thus we never think that +what ought to be said is at hand; we fetch it from afar, and force our +invention. Eloquence requires a more manly temper, and if its whole +body be sound and vigorous, it is quite regardless of the nicety of +paring the nails and adjusting the hair. + + +THE DANGER OF VERBIAGE + +It often happens, too, that an oration becomes worse by attending to +these niceties, because simplicity, the language of truth, is its +greatest ornament, and affectation the reverse. The expressions that +show care, and would also appear as newly formed, fine, and eloquent, +lose the graces at which they aim, and are far from being striking and +well received, because they obscure the sense by spreading a sort of +shadow about it, or by being too crowded they choke it up, like +thick-sown grain that must run up too spindling. That which may be +spoken in a plain, direct manner we express by paraphrase; and we use +repetitions where to say a thing once is enough; and what is well +signified by one word, we load with many, and most things we choose to +signify rather by circumlocution than by proper and pertinent terms. + +A proper word, indeed, now has no charms, nothing appearing to us fine +which might have been said by another word. We borrow metaphors from the +whims and conceits of the most extravagant poets, and we fancy ourselves +exceedingly witty, when others must have a good deal of wit to +understand us. Cicero is explicit in his views in this respect. "The +greatest fault a speech can have," says he, "is when it departs from the +common way of discourse and the custom of common sense." But Cicero +would pass for a harsh and barbarous author, compared to us, who make +little of whatever nature dictates, who seek not ornaments, but +delicacies and refinements, as if there were any beauty in words without +an agreement with things, for if we were to labor throughout our whole +life in consulting their propriety, clearness, ornament, and due +placing, we should lose the whole fruit of our studies. + + +ACQUIRING A PRACTICAL VOCABULARY + +Yet many are seen to hesitate at single words, even while they invent, +and reflect on and measure what they invent. If this were done +designedly to use always the best, this unhappy temper would still be +detestable, as it must check the course of speaking and extinguish the +heat of thought by delay and diffidence. For the orator is wretched, +and, I may say, poor, who can not patiently lose a word. But he will +lose none who first has studied a good manner of speaking, and by +reading well the best authors has furnished himself with a copious +supply of words and made himself expert in the art of placing them. Much +practise will so improve him afterward that he always will have them at +hand and ready for use, the thought fitting in naturally with the proper +manner of expression. + +But all this requires previous study, an acquired faculty, and a rich +fund of words. For solicitude in regard to inventing, judging, and +comparing, should take place when we learn, and not when we speak. +Otherwise they who have not sufficiently cultivated their talents for +speaking will experience the fate of those who have made no provision +for the future. But if a proper stock of words is already prepared, +they will attend as in duty bound, not so much in the way of answering +exigencies as always to seem inherent in the thought and to follow as a +shadow does a body. + + +HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT WORDS + +Yet this care should not exceed its due bounds, for when words are +authorized by use, are significant, elegant, and aptly placed, what more +need we trouble ourselves about? But some eternally will find fault, and +almost scan every syllable, who, even when they have found what is best, +seek after something that is more ancient, remote, and unexpected, not +understanding that the thought must suffer in a discourse, and can have +nothing of value, where only the words are commendable. Let us, +therefore, pay particular regard to elocution, yet, at the same time be +convinced that nothing is to be done for the sake of words, they having +been invented solely for the sake of things. The most proper words +always will be those which are best expressive of the ideas in our mind, +and which produce in the ideas of the judges the effect we desire. Such +undoubtedly will make a speech both admirable and pleasing, but not so +admirable as are prodigies, nor pleasing by a vicious and unseemly +pleasure, but a pleasure reflecting dignity with praise. + + + + +ELEGANCE AND GRACE + + +The orator will recommend himself particularly by the embellishments he +adopts, securing in other ways the approbation of the learned, and in +this also the favor of popular applause. + +Not so much with strong as with shining armor did Cicero engage in the +cause of Cornelius. His success was not due merely to instructing the +judges, and speaking in a pure and clear style. These qualities would +not have brought him the honor of the admiration and applause of the +Roman people. It was the sublimity, magnificence, splendor, and dignity +of his eloquence that forced from them signal demonstrations of their +amazement. Nor would such unusual eulogies have been given him if his +speech had contained nothing extraordinary, nothing but what was common. +And, indeed, I believe that those present were not completely aware of +what they were doing, and that what they did was neither spontaneous, +nor from an act of judgment, but that filled with a sort of enthusiasm, +and not considering the place they were in, they burst forth with +unrestrained excitement. + + +THE VALUE OF BEAUTY OF EXPRESSION + +These ornaments of speech, therefore, may be thought to contribute not a +little to the success of a cause, for they who hear willingly are more +attentive and more disposed to believe. Most commonly it is pleasure +that wins them over, and sometimes they are seized and carried away with +admiration. A glittering sword strikes the eyes with some terror, and +thunder would not so shock us if its crash only, and not its lightning, +was dreaded. Therefore Cicero, with good reason, says in one of his +epistles to Brutus: "The eloquence which does not excite admiration, I +regard as nothing." Aristotle, too, would have us endeavor to attain +this perfection. + +But this embellishment, I must again and again repeat, ought to be +manly, noble, and modest; neither inclining to effeminate delicacy, nor +assuming a color indebted to paint, but glistening with health and +spirits. + +Let none of those who build up their reputation on a corrupt manner of +eloquence, say that I am an enemy to such as speak with elegance. I do +not deny that it is a perfection, but I do not ascribe it to them. Shall +I think a piece of ground better laid out and improved, in which one +shall show me lilies and violets and pleasing cascades, than one where +there is a full harvest or vines laden with grapes? Shall I esteem a +barren planetree and shorn myrtles beyond the fruitful olive and the elm +courting the embraces of the vine? The rich may pride themselves on +these pleasures of the eye, but how little would be their value if they +had nothing else? + +But shall no beauty, no symmetry, be observed in the care of fruit +trees? Undoubtedly there should, and I would place them in a certain +order, and keep a due distance in planting them. What is more beautiful +than the quincunx, which, whatever way you look, retains the same direct +position? Planting them out so will also be of service to the growth of +the trees, by equally attracting the juices of the earth. I should lop +off the aspiring tops of my olive; it will spread more beautifully into +a round form, and will produce fruit on more branches. A horse with +slender flanks is considered handsomer than one not framed in that +manner, and the same quality also shows that he excels in swiftness. An +athlete whose arms from exercise show a full spring and play of the +muscles, is a beautiful sight, and he, likewise, is best fitted as a +combatant. Thus the true species is never without its utility, as even a +meager judgment easily may discern. + + +DEVELOPING VARIETY OF STYLE + +But it will be of more importance to observe that this decent attire +ought to be varied according to the nature of the subject. To begin with +our first division, the same style will not suit equally demonstrative, +deliberative, and judicial causes. The first, calculated for +ostentation, aims at nothing but the pleasure of the auditory. It, +therefore, displays all the riches of art, and exposes to full view all +the pomp of eloquence; not acting by stratagem, nor striving for +victory, but making praise and glory its sole and ultimate end. Whatever +may be pleasing in the thought, beautiful in the expression, agreeable +in the turn, magnificent in the metaphor, elaborate in the composition, +the orator will lay open for inspection and, if it were possible, for +handling, as a merchant exposes his wares; for here the success wholly +regards him and not the cause. + +But when the serious part of a trial is on hand, and the contest is +truly in earnest, care of reputation ought to be the orator's last +concern. For this reason, when everything in a way is at stake, no one +ought to be solicitous about words. I do not say that no ornaments ought +to have place in them, but that they should be more modest and severe, +less apparent, and above all suited to the subject. For in deliberations +the senate require something more elevated; the assemblies of the +people, something more spirited; and at the bar, public and capital +causes, something more accurate. But a private deliberation, and causes +of trivial consequence, as the stating of accounts and the like, need +little beyond the plain and easy manner of common discourse. Would it +not be quite shameful to demand in elaborate periods the payment of +money lent, or appeal to the emotions in speaking of the repairs of a +gutter or sink? + + +THE CHOICE OF WORDS + +As the ornament, as well as perspicuity, of speech consists either in +single words or in many together, we shall consider what they require +separately and what in conjunction. Tho there is good reason for saying +that perspicuity is best suited by proper words, and ornament by +metaphorical, yet we should always know that an impropriety is never +ornamental. But as many words very often signify the same thing, and +therefore are called synonymous, some of these must be more sublime, +more bright, more agreeable, and sweeter and fuller in pronunciation +than others. As the more clear-sounding letters communicate the same +quality to the syllables they compose, so the words composed of these +syllables become more sonorous, and the greater the force or sound of +the syllables is, the more they fill or charm the ear. What the +junction of syllables makes, the copulation of words makes also, a word +sounding well with one, which sound badly with another. + +There is a great diversity in the use of words. Harsh words best express +things of an atrocious nature. In general, the best of simple words are +believed to be such as sound loudest in exclamation, or sweetest in a +pleasing strain. Modest words will ever be preferred to those that must +offend a chaste ear, and no polite discourse ever makes allowance for a +filthy or sordid expression. Magnificent, noble, and sublime words are +to be estimated by their congruity with the subject; for what is +magnificent in one place, swells into bombast in another; and what is +low in a grand matter, may be proper in a humble situation. As in a +splendid style a low word must be very much out of place and, as it +were, a blemish to it, so a sublime and pompous expression is unsuited +to a subject that is plain and familiar, and therefore must be reputed +corrupt, because it raises that which ought to find favor through its +native simplicity. + + +THE MANNER OF DELIVERY + +I shall pass now to the construction of words, observing that their +ornamental use may be considered from two points of view; first, as it +regards the elocution we conceive in our minds; second, the manner of +expressing it. It is of particular consequence that we should be clear +as to what ought to be amplified or diminished; whether we are to speak +with heat or moderation; in a florid or austere style; in a copious or +concise manner; in words of bitter invective, or in those showing placid +and gentle disposition; with magnificence or plainness; gravity or +politeness. Besides which it is equally important to know what +metaphors, what figures, what thoughts, what manner, what disposition, +are best suited for effecting our purpose. + + +FAULTS OF EXPRESSION TO AVOID + +In speaking of the ornaments of a discourse, it may not be amiss to +touch first upon qualities contrary to them, because the principal +perfection consists in being free from faults. We, therefore, must not +expect ornament that is not probable, in a discourse. Cicero calls that +kind of ornament probable which is not more nor less than it ought to +be. Not that it should not appear neat and polished, for this is a part +of ornament, but because too much in anything is always a fault. He +would have authority and weight in words, and thoughts that are +sensible, or conformable to the opinions and manners of men. These +inviolably retained and adhered to, he makes ample allowance for +whatever else may contribute to illustrate a discourse. And thus it is +that metaphors, superlatives, epithets, compound, and synonymous words, +if they seem to express the action and fully represent things, seldom +fail to please. + +We should avoid the fault which makes a sentence appear not full enough, +on account of something defective, tho this is rather a vice of +obscurity than want of ornament in speech. But when it is done for some +particular reason, then it becomes a figure of speech. We should +likewise be aware of tautology, which is a repetition of the same word +or thought, or the use of many similar words or thoughts. Tho this does +not seem to have been much guarded against by some authors of great +note, it is, notwithstanding, a fault, and Cicero himself often falls +into it. + +Similarity of expression is a still greater vice, because the mind is +wearied by lack of the graces of variety, and the discourse being all of +one color, shows a great deficiency in the art of oratory. It, besides, +creates loathing, and at length becomes insupportable, both to the mind +and ear, through the tedious repetition of the same cold thoughts, +figures, and periods. + +There is another fault, that of being over-nice, which is caused by +extreme anxiety to be exact, but which is as far distant from exactness +as superstition is from true religion. In short, every word that +contributes neither to perspicuity nor ornament, may be called vicious. + +A perverse affectation is faulty in all respects. All bombast, and +flimsiness, and studied sweetness, and redundancies, and far-fetched +thoughts, and witticisms, fall under the same denomination. Thus +whatever stretches beyond the bounds of perfection, may be called +affectation, and this happens as often as the genius is lacking in +judgment, and suffers itself to be deceived by an appearance of good. It +is the worst of vices in matters of eloquence, for even when others are +avoided, this is sought after, and its whole trespass is against +elocution. There are vices incident to things, which come from being +devoid of sense, or from being common, or contrary, or unnecessary, and +a corrupt style consists principally in impropriety of words, in their +redundancy, in their obscure import, in a weak composition, and in a +puerile hunting after synonymous or equivocal words. But every perverse +affectation is false in consequence of its idea, tho not everything that +is false is an affectation, the latter saying a thing otherwise than as +nature will have it, and than it ought to be, and than is sufficient. + + +USE OF VIVID DESCRIPTION + +There can not be a greater perfection than to express the things we +speak of in such lively colors as to make them seem really to take place +in our presence. Our words are lacking in full effect, they assume not +that absolute empire they ought to have, when they strike only the ear, +and when the judge who is to take cognizance of the matter is not +sensible of its being emphatically exprest. + +One manner of representation consists in making out of an assemblage of +circumstances the image we endeavor to exhibit. An example of this we +have in Cicero's description of a riotous banquet; he being the only one +who can furnish us with examples of all kinds of ornaments: "I seemed to +myself to see some coming in, others going out; some tottering with +drunkenness, others yawning from yesterday's carousing. In the midst of +these was Gallius, bedaubed with essences, and crowned with flowers. The +floor of their apartment was all in a muck of dirt, streaming with wine, +and strewed all about with chaplets of faded flowers, and fish-bones." +Who could have seen more had he been present? + +In this manner pity grows upon us from hearing of the sacking of a town. +Undoubtedly he who acquaints us of such an event, comprehends all the +incidents of so great a calamity, yet this cursory piece of intelligence +makes but a languid impression upon the mind. But if you enter into +descriptive pictures of all that was included in one word, as it were, +flames will appear spreading through houses and temples; the crash of +falling houses will be heard; and one confused noise formed out of all +together. Some will be seen striving to escape the danger, but know not +where to direct their flight; others embracing for the last time their +parents and relations; here the dismal shrieks of women and piercing +cries of children fill one with pity; there the sighs and groans of old +men, lamenting their unhappy fate for having lived so long as to be +witnesses of their country's desolation. A further addition to these +scenes of woe is the plunder of all things, sacred as well as profane; +the avidity of the soldier prowling after and carrying away his prey; +the wretched citizens dragged away in chains before their haughty +conquerors; mothers struggling to keep with them their children; and +slaughter still exercising its cruelties wherever there is the least +expectation of booty. Tho all these details are comprehended in the idea +of the sacking of a town, yet it is saying less to state merely that the +town was sacked than to describe its destruction in this circumstantial +manner. + +Such circumstances may be made to appear vivid if they retain a likeness +to truth. They may not have happened in reality, yet, as they are +possible, the descriptive evidence is not objectionable. The same +evidence will arise also from accidents, as in the following examples: + + + ... me horror chills, + Shudd'ring, and fear congeals my curdling blood. + TRAPP. + + + ... to their bosoms press'd, + The frighted mothers clasp'd their crying babes. + TRAPP. + + +This perfection, the greatest, in my opinion, a discourse can have, is +very easily acquired by only considering and following nature. For +eloquence is a picture of the happenings of human life, every one +applying to himself what he hears, by making the case in some measure +his own, and the mind receives very willingly that with which it has +become familiar. + +To throw light, also, upon things, similes have been invented, some of +which by way of proof are inserted among arguments, and others are +calculated for expressing the images of things, the point we are here +explaining. + + + ... Thence like wolves + Prowling in gloomy shade, which hunger blind + Urges along, while their forsaken whelps + Expect them with dry jaws. + TRAPP. + + + ... Thence with all his body's force + Flings himself headlong from the steepy height + Down to the ocean: like the bird that flies + Low, skimming o'er the surface, near the sea, + Around the shores, around the fishy rocks. + TRAPP. + + +HOW TO EMPLOY SIMILES AND METAPHORS + +We must be exceedingly cautious in regard to similitudes, that we do not +use such as are either obscure or unknown. For that which is assumed for +the sake of illustrating another thing, ought indeed to be clearer than +that which it so illustrates. + +In speaking of arguments I mentioned a kind of similitude which, as an +ornament to a discourse, contributes to make it sublime, florid, +pleasing, and admirable. For the more far-fetched a similitude is, the +more new and unexpected it will appear. Some may be thought commonplace, +yet will avail much for enforcing belief; as, "As a piece of ground +becomes better and more fertile by cultivation, so does the mind by good +institutions." "As physicians prescribe the amputation of a limb that +manifestly tends to mortification, so would it be necessary to cut off +all bad citizens, tho even allied to us in blood." Here is something +more sublime: "Rocks and solitudes echo back the melody, and the +fiercest beasts are often made more gentle, being astonished by the +harmony of music." But this kind of similitude is often abused by the +too great liberties our declaimers give themselves; for they use such as +are false, and they do not make a just application of them to the +subjects to which they would compare them. + +In every comparison the similitude either goes before, and the thing +follows; or the thing goes before, and the similitude follows. But the +similitude sometimes is free and separate: sometimes, which is best, it +is connected with the thing of which it is the image, this connection +being made to aid and correspond mutually on both sides. Cicero says in +his oration for Murena: "They who have not a genius for playing on the +lyre, may become expert at playing on the flute (a proverbial saying +among the Greeks to specify the man who can not make himself master of +the superior sciences): so among us they who can not become orators, +turn to the study of the law." In another passage of the same oration, +the connected comparison is conceived in a sort of poetical spirit. "As +storms are often raised by the influence of some constellation, and +often suddenly and from some hidden cause which can not be accounted +for, so the stormy agitations we sometimes behold in the assemblies of +the people are often occasioned by a malign influence easily +discoverable by all; and often their cause is so obscure as to seem +merely the effect of chance." There are other similes, which are very +short, as this, "Strolling and wandering through forests like beasts." +And that of Cicero against Clodius, "From which judgment we have seen +him escape naked, like a man from his house on fire." Such similes +constantly occur in common discourse. + +Of a similar kind is an ornament which not only represents things, but +does so in a lively and concise manner. Undoubtedly a conciseness in +which nothing is lacking, is deservedly praised; that which says +precisely only what is necessary, is less estimable; but that which +expresses much in a few words is of all the most beautiful. + +Eloquence does not think it enough to show of what it speaks, in a clear +and evident manner; it uses, besides, a variety of other expedients for +embellishing a discourse. Thus it is that a simple and unaffected style +is not without beauty, but it is a beauty entirely pure and natural, +such as is admired in women. Beauty is also annexed to propriety and +justness of expression, and this beauty is the more elegant as it shows +but little care. There is an abundance that is rich, an abundance that +smiles amidst the gaiety of flowers, and there is more than one sort of +power, for whatever is complete in its kind can not be destitute of its +proper strength and efficacy. + + + + +COMPOSITION AND STYLE + + +I well know that there are some who will not sanction any care in +composition, contending that our words as they flow by chance, however +uncouth they may sound, are not only more natural, but likewise more +manly. If what first sprang from nature, indebted in nowise to care and +industry, be only what they deem natural, I admit that the art of +oratory in this respect has no pretensions to that quality. For it is +certain that the first men did not speak according to the exactness of +the rules of composition; neither were they acquainted with the art of +preparing by an exordium, informing by a narration, proving by +arguments, and moving by passions. They were deficient in all these +particulars, and not in composition only; and if they were not allowed +to make any alterations for the better, of course they would not have +exchanged their cottages for houses, nor their coverings of skins for +more decent apparel, nor the mountains and forests in which they ranged +for the abode of cities in which they enjoy the comforts of social +intercourse. And, indeed, what art do we find coeval with the world, and +what is there of which the value is not enhanced by improvement? Why do +we restrain the luxuriance of our vines? Why do we dig about them? Why +do we grub up the bramble-bushes in our fields? Yet the earth produces +them. Why do we tame animals? Yet are they born with intractable +dispositions. Rather let us say that that is very natural which nature +permits us to meliorate in her handiwork. + + +THE POWER OF SKILFUL COMPOSITION + +How can a jumble of uncouth words be more manly than a manner of +expression which is well joined and properly placed? If some authors +weaken the subjects of which they treat, by straining them into certain +soft and lascivious measures, we must not on that account judge that +this is the fault of composition. As the current of rivers is swifter +and more impetuous in a free and open channel than amidst an obstruction +of rocks breaking and struggling against the flow of their waters, an +oration that is properly connected flows with its whole might, and is +far preferable to one that is craggy and desultory by reason of frequent +interruptions. Why, then, should it be thought that strength and beauty +are incompatible, when, on the contrary, nothing has its just value +without art, and embellishment always attends on it? Do not we observe +the javelin which has been cleverly whirled about, dart through the air +with the best effect; and in managing a bow and arrow, is not the beauty +of the attitude as much more graceful as the aim is more unerring? In +feats of arms, and in all the exercises of the palaestra, is not his +attitude best calculated for defense or offense, who uses a certain art +in all his motions, and keeps to a certain position of the feet? +Composition, therefore, in my opinion, is to thoughts and words what the +dexterous management of a bow or string may be for directing the aim of +missive weapons; and I may say that the most learned are convinced that +it is greatly conducive not only to pleasure, but also to making a good +impression on others. First, because it is scarcely possible that +anything should affect the heart, which begins by grating on the ear. +Secondly, because we are naturally affected by harmony, otherwise the +sounds of musical instruments, tho they express no words, would not +excite in us so great a variety of pleasing emotions. In sacred +canticles, some airs are for elating the heart into raptures, others to +restore the mind to its former tranquillity. The sound of a trumpet is +not the same when it is the signal for a general engagement, and when on +defeat it implores the conqueror's mercy; neither is it the same when an +army marches up to give battle, and when it is intent on retreating. It +was a common practise with the Pythagoric philosophers, on arising in +the morning, to awake their minds by an air on the lyre, in order to +make them more alert for action; and they had recourse to the same +musical entertainment for disposing them to sleep, believing it to be a +means for allaying all tumultuous thoughts which might in any way have +ruffled them in the course of the day. + +If, then, so great a power lies in musical strains and modulations, what +must it be with eloquence, the music of which is a speaking harmony? As +much, indeed, as it is essential for a thought to be exprest in suitable +words, it is equally necessary for the same words to be disposed in +proper order by composition, that they may flow and end harmoniously. +Some things of little consequence in their import, and requiring but a +moderate degree of elocution, are commendable only by this perfection; +and there are others which appear exprest with so much force, beauty, +and sweetness, that if the order in which they stand should be changed +or disturbed, all force, beauty, and sweetness would vanish from them. + + +THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD COMPOSITION + +There are three things necessary in every kind of composition, and these +are order, correction, and number. + + +_1. Order_ + +We shall speak first of order, which applies to words considered +separately or joined together. In regard to the former, care must be +taken that there be no decrease by adding a weaker word to a stronger, +as accusing one of sacrilege, and giving him afterward the name of +thief; or adding the character of wanton fellow to that of a highwayman. +The sense ought to increase and rise, which Cicero observes admirably +where he says: "And thou, with that voice, those lungs, and that +gladiator-like vigor of thy whole body." Here each succeeding thing is +stronger than the one before; but if he had begun with the whole body, +he could not with propriety have descended to the voice and lungs. There +is another natural order in saying men and women, day and night, east +and west. + +Words in prose not being measured, as are the feet which compose verse, +they are, therefore, transferred from place to place, that they may be +joined where they best fit, as in a building where the irregularity, +however great, of rough stones is both suitable and proper. The happiest +composition language can have, however, is to keep to a natural order, +just connection, and a regularly flowing cadence. + +Sometimes there is something very striking about a word. Placed in the +middle of a sentence, it might pass unnoticed, or be obscured by the +other words that lie about it, but when placed at the end the auditor +can not help noting it and retaining it in his mind. + + +_2. Connection_ + +Juncture follows, which is equally requisite in words, articles, +members, and periods, all these having their beauty and faults, in +consequence of their manner of connection. It may be a general +observation that in the placing of syllables, their sound will be +harsher as they are pronounced with a like or different gaping of the +mouth. This, however, is not to be dreaded as a signal fault, and I know +not which is worse here, inattention or too great care. Too scrupulous +fear must damp the heat and retard the impetuosity of speaking, while +at the same time it prevents the mind from attending to thoughts which +are of greater moment. As, therefore, it is carelessness to yield to +these faults, so it is meanness to be too much afraid of them. + + +_3. Number_ + +Numbers are nowhere so much lacking, nor so remarkable, as at the end of +periods; first, because every sense has its bounds, and takes up a +natural space, by which it is divided from the beginning of what +follows: next, because the hearers following the flow of words, and +drawn, as it were, down the current of the oration, are then more +competent judges, when that impetuosity ceases and gives time for +reflection. There should not, therefore, be anything harsh nor abrupt in +that ending, which seems calculated for the respite and recreation of +the mind and ear. This, too, is the resting-place of the oration, this +the auditor expects, and here burst forth all his effusions of praise. + + +THE COMPOSITION OF PERIODS + +The beginning of periods demands as much care as the closing of them, +for here, also, the auditor is attentive. But it is easier to observe +numbers in the beginning of periods, as they are not depending on, nor +connected with, what went before. But the ending of periods, however +graceful it may be in composition and numbers, will lose all its charm +if we proceed to it by a harsh and precipitate beginning. + +As to the composition of the middle parts of a period, care must be +taken not only of their connection with each other, but also that they +may not seem slow, nor long, nor, what is now a great vice, jump and +start from being made up of many short syllables, and producing the same +effect on the ear as the sounds from a child's rattle. For as the +ordering of the beginning and ending is of much importance, as often as +the sense begins or ends; so in the middle, too, there is a sort of +stress which slightly insists; as the feet of people running, which, tho +they make no stop, yet leave a track. It is not only necessary to begin +and end well the several members and articles, but the intermediate +space, tho continued without respiration, ought also to retain a sort of +composition, by reason of the insensible pauses that serve as so many +degrees for pronunciation. + +Cicero gives many names to the period, calling it a winding about, a +circuit, a comprehension, continuation, and circumscription. It is of +two kinds; the one simple when a single thought is drawn out into a +considerable number of words; the other compound, consisting of members +and articles which include several thoughts. + +Wherever the orator has occasion to conduct himself severely, to press +home, to act boldly and resolutely, he should speak by members and +articles. This manner has vast power and efficacy in an oration. The +composition is to adapt itself to the nature of things, therefore, even +rough things being conceived in rough sounds and numbers, that the +hearer may be made to enter into all the passions of the speaker. It +would be advisable, for the most part, to make the narration in members; +or if periods are used, they ought to be more loose and less elaborate +than elsewhere. But I except such narrations as are calculated more for +ornament than for giving information. + + +THE USE OF PERIODS + +The period is proper for the exordiums of greater causes, where the +matter requires solicitude, commendation, pity. Also in common places +and in every sort of amplification; but if you accuse, it ought to be +close and compact; if you praise, it should be full, round, and flowing. +It is likewise of good service in perorations, and may be used without +restriction wherever the composition requires to be set off in a +somewhat grand and noble manner, and when the judge not only has a +thorough knowledge of the matter before him, but is also captivated with +the beauty of the discourse and, trusting to the orator, allows himself +to be led away by the sense of pleasure. + +History does not so much stand in need of a periodical flow of words, as +it likes to move around in a sort of perpetual circle, for all its +members are connected with each other, by its slipping and gliding along +from one subject to the next, just as men, strengthening their pace, +hold and are held, by grasping each other by the hand. Whatever belongs +to the demonstrative kind has freer and more flowing numbers. The +judicial and deliberative, being varied in their matter, occasionally +require a different form of composition. + + +FITTING EXPRESSION TO THOUGHT + +Who doubts that some things are to be exprest in a gentle way, others +with more heat, others sublimely, others contentiously, and others +gravely? Feet composed of long syllables best suit grave, sublime, and +ornamental subjects. The grave will take up a longer space in the +pronunciation, and the sublime and ornamental will demand a clear and +sonorous expression. Feet of short syllables are more agreeable in +arguments, division, raillery, and whatever partakes of the nature of +ordinary conversation. + +The composition of the exordium will differ, therefore, as the subject +may require. For the mind of the judge is not always the same, so that, +according to the time and circumstances, we must declare our mournful +plight, appear modest, tart, grave, insinuating; move to mercy and +exhort to diligence. As the nature of these is different, so their +composition must be conducted in a different way. + +Let it be in some measure a general observation that the composition +ought to be modeled on the manner of pronunciation. In exordiums are we +not most commonly modest, except when in a cause of accusation we strive +to irritate the minds of the judges? Are we not copious and explicit in +narration; in arguments animated and lively, even showing animation in +our actions; in common places and descriptions, exuberant and lavish of +ornaments; and in perorations, for the most part weighed down by +distress? Of the variety which ought to be in a discourse, we may find +another parallel instance in the motions of the body. With all of them, +do not the circumstances regulate their respective degrees of slowness +and celerity? And for dancing as well as singing, does not music use +numbers of which the beating of the time makes us sensible? As our voice +and action are indeed expressive of our inner feelings in regard to the +nature of the things of which we speak, need we, then, be surprized if a +like conformity ought to be found in the feet that enter into the +composition of a piece of eloquence? Ought not sublime matters be made +to walk in majestic solemnity, the mild to keep in a gentle pace, the +brisk and lively to bound with rapidity, and the nice and delicate to +flow smoothly? + + +FAULTS IN COMPOSITION + +If faults in composition be unavoidable, I should rather give preference +to that which is harsh and rough than to that which is nerveless and +weak, the results of an affected style that many now study, and which +constantly corrupts, more and more, by a wantonness in numbers more +becoming a dance than the majesty of eloquence. But I can not say that +any composition is good, however perfect otherwise, which constantly +presents the same form, and continually falls into the same feet. A +constant observing of similar measures and cadences, is a kind of +versification, and all prose in which this fault is discoverable, can +have no allowance made for it, by reason of its manifest affectation +(the very suspicion of which ought to be avoided), and its uniformity, +which, of course, must fatigue and disgust the mind. This vice may have +some engaging charms at first sight, but the greater its sweets are, the +shorter will be their continuance; and the orator once detected of any +anxious concern in this respect, will instantly lose all belief that has +been placed in him, and vainly will he strive to make on others' minds +the impressions he expected to make; for how is it to be expected that +a judge will believe a man, or permit himself to feel grief or anger on +account of one whom he observes to have attended to nothing more than +the display of such trifles? Some of the connections of smooth +composition ought, therefore, to be designedly broken, and it is no +small labor to make them appear not labored. + +Let us not be such slaves to the placing of words as to study +transpositions longer than necessary, lest what we do in order to +please, may displease by being affected. Neither let a fondness for +making the composition flow with smoothness, prevail on us to set aside +a word otherwise proper and becoming; as no word, in reality, can prove +disagreeable enough to be wholly excluded, unless it be that in the +avoiding of such words we consult mere beauty of expression rather than +the good of composition. + +To conclude, composition ought to be graceful, agreeable, varied. Its +parts are three: order, connection, number. Its art consists in adding, +retrenching, changing. Its qualities are according to the nature of the +things discust. The care in composition ought to be great, but not to +take the place of care in thinking and speaking. What deserves to be +particularly attended to is the concealing of the care of composition, +that the numbers may seem to flow of their own accord, and not with the +least constraint or affectation. + + + + +COPIOUSNESS OF WORDS + + +Eloquence will never be solid and robust, unless it collects strength +and consistence from much writing and composing; and without examples +from reading, that labor will go astray for lack of a guide; and tho it +be known how everything ought to be said, yet the orator who is not +possest of a talent for speaking, always ready to exert himself on +occasion, will be like a man watching over a hidden treasure. + +Our orator, who we suppose is familiar with the way of inventing and +disposing things, of making a choice of words, and placing them in +proper order, requires nothing further than the knowledge of the means +whereby in the easiest and best manner he may execute what he has +learned. It can not, then, be doubted that he must acquire a certain +stock of wealth in order to have it ready for use when needed, and this +stock of wealth consists of a plentiful supply of things and words. + + +THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE + +Things are peculiar to each cause, or common to few; but a provision of +words must be made indiscriminately for all subjects. If each word were +precisely significant of each thing, our perplexity would be less, as +then words would immediately present themselves with things, but some +being more proper than others, or more ornamental, or more emphatic, or +more harmonious, all ought not only to be known but to be kept ready and +in sight, as it were, that when they present themselves for the +orator's selection, he easily may make a choice of the best. + +I know that some make a practise of classing together all synonymous +words and committing them to memory, so that out of so many at least one +may more easily come to mind; and when they have used a word, and +shortly after need it again, to avoid repetition they take another of +the same significance. This is of little or no use, for it is only a +crowd that is mustered together, out of which the first at hand is taken +indifferently, whereas the copiousness of language of which I speak is +to be the result of acquisition of judgment in the use of words, with +the view of attaining the true expressive force of eloquence, and not +empty volubility of speech. This can be affected only by hearing and +reading the best things; and it is only by giving it our attention that +we shall know not only the appellations of things, but what is fittest +for every place. + + +THE VALUE OF HEARING SPEAKERS + +With some eloquent compositions we may derive more profit by reading +them, but with some others, more by hearing them pronounced. The speaker +keeps awake all our senses, and inspires us by the fire that animates +him. We are struck, not by the image and exterior of things, but by the +things themselves. All is life and motion, and with solicitude for his +success, we favorably receive all he says, its appeal to us lying in the +charm of novelty. Together with the orator, we find ourselves deeply +interested in the issue of the trial and the safety of the parties whose +defense he has undertaken. Besides these we find that other things +affect us: a fine voice, a graceful action corresponding with what is +said, and a manner of pronunciation, which perhaps is the most powerful +ornament of eloquence; in short, everything conducted and managed in the +way that is most fitting. + + +THE ADVANTAGES OF READING + +In reading, our judgment goes upon surer ground, because often our good +wishes for the speaker, or the applause bestowed on him, surprizes us +into approbation. We are ashamed to differ in opinion from others, and +by a sort of secret bashfulness are kept from believing ourselves more +intelligent than they are; tho indeed we are aware, at the same time, +that the taste of the greater number is vicious, and that sycophants, +even persons hired to applaud, praise things which can not please us; +as, on the other hand, it also happens that a bad taste can have no +relish for the best things. Reading is attended, besides, with the +advantage of being free, and not escaping us by the rapidity which +accompanies action; and we may go over the same things often, should we +doubt their accuracy, or wish to fix them in our memories. Repeating and +reviewing will, therefore, be highly necessary; for as meats are chewed +before they descend into the stomach, in order to facilitate their +digestion, so reading is fittest for being laid up in the memory, that +it may be an object of imitation when it is no longer in a crude state +but has been softened and elaborated by long meditation. + + +HOW TO READ MOST PROFITABLY + +None, however, but the best authors, and such as we are least liable to +be deceived in, demand this care, which should be diligent and extended +even almost to the point of taking the pains to transcribe them. Nor +ought judgment to be passed on the whole from examining a part, but +after the book has been fully perused, it should have a second reading; +especially should this be done with an oration, the perfections of which +are often designedly kept concealed. The orator, indeed, often prepares, +dissembles, lies in wait, and says things in the first part of the +pleading which he avails himself of in the last part. They may, +therefore, be less pleasing in their place, while we still remain +ignorant of the purpose for their being said. For this reason, after a +due consideration of particulars, it would not be amiss to re-read the +whole. + + +WHAT TO READ + +Theophrastus says that the reading of poetry is of vast service to the +orator. Many, and with good reason, are of the same opinion, as from the +poets may be derived sprightliness in thought, sublimity in expression, +force and variety in sentiment, propriety and decorum in character, +together with that diversion for cheering and freshening minds which +have been for any time harassed by the drudgery of the bar. + +Let it be remembered, however, that poets are not in all things to be +imitated by the orator, neither in the liberty of words, nor license of +figures. The whole of that study is calculated for ostentation. Its sole +aim is pleasure, and it invariably pursues it, by fictions of not only +what is false, but of some things that are incredible. It is sure, also, +of meeting with partizans to espouse its cause, because, since it is +bound down to a certain necessity of feet it can not always use proper +words, and being driven out of the straight road, must turn into byways +of speaking, and be compelled to change some words, and to lengthen, +shorten, transpose and divide them. As for orators, they must stand +their ground completely armed in the order of battle, and having to +fight for matters of the highest consequence, must think of nothing but +gaining the victory. + +Still would I not have their armor appear squalid and covered with rust, +but retain rather a brightness that dismays, such as of polished steel, +striking both the mind and eyes with awe, and not the splendor of gold +and silver, a weak safeguard, indeed, and rather dangerous to the +bearer. + +History, likewise, by its mild and grateful sap may afford kind +nutriment to an oratorical composition. Yet the orator should so read +history as to be convinced that most of its perfections ought to be +avoided by him. It nearly borders upon poetry, and may be held as a +poem, unrestrained by the laws of verse. Its object is to narrate, and +not to prove, and its whole business neither intends action nor +contention, but to transmit facts to posterity, and enhance the +reputation of its author. + +In the reading of history there is another benefit, and indeed the +greatest, but one not relative to the present subject. This proceeds +from the knowledge of things and examples, which the orator ought to be +well versed in, so that not all his testimonies may be from the parties, +but many of them may be taken from antiquity, with which, through +history, he will be well acquainted; these testimonies being the more +powerful, as they are exempt from suspicion of prejudice and partiality. + +I shall venture to say that there are few which have stood the test of +time, that may not be read with some profit by the judicious. Cicero +himself confesses that he received great help from old authors, who +were, indeed, very ingenious but were deficient in art. Before I speak +of the respective merit of authors, I must make, in a few words, some +general reflections on the diversity of taste in regard to matters of +eloquence. Some think that the ancients deserve to be read, believing +that they alone have distinguished themselves by natural eloquence and +that strength of language so becoming men. Others are captivated with +the flowery profusion of the orators of the present age, with their +delicate turns, and with all the blandishments they skilfully invent to +charm the ears of an ignorant multitude. Some choose to follow the plain +and direct way of speaking. Others take to be sound and truly Attic +whatever is close, neat, and departs but little from ordinary +conversation. Some are delighted with a more elevated, more impetuous, +and more fiery force of genius. Others, and not a few, like a smooth, +elegant, and polite manner. I shall speak of this difference in taste +more fully when I come to examine the style which may seem most proper +for the orator. + + +QUALITIES OF CLASSIC WRITERS + +_Homer_ + +We may begin properly with Homer. + +He it is who gave birth to, and set the example for all parts of +eloquence, in the same way, as he himself says, as the course of rivers +and springs of fountains owe their origin to the ocean. No one, in great +subjects, has excelled him in elevation; nor in small subjects, in +propriety. He is florid and close, grave and agreeable, admirable for +his concise as well as for his copious manner, and is not only eminent +for poetical, but likewise oratorical, abilities. + + +_AEschylus_ + +AEschylus is the one who gave birth to tragedy. He is sublime, and grave, +and often pompous to a fault. But his plots are mostly ill-contrived and +as ill-conducted. For which reason the Athenians permitted the poets who +came after him to correct his pieces and fit them for the stage, and in +this way many of these poets received the honor of being crowned. + + +_Sophocles and Euripides_ + +Sophocles and Euripides brought tragedy to greater perfection; but the +difference in their manner has occasioned dispute among the learned as +to their relative poetic merits. For my part, I shall leave the matter +undecided, as having nothing to do with my present purpose. It must be +confest, nevertheless, that the study of Euripedes will be of much +greater value to those who are preparing themselves for the bar; for +besides the fact that his style comes nearer the oratorical style, he +likewise abounds in fine thoughts, and in philosophic maxims is almost +on an equality with philosophers, and in his dialog may be compared with +the best speakers at the bar. He is wonderful, again, for his masterly +strokes in moving the passions, and more especially in exciting +sympathy. + + +_Thucydides and Herodotus_ + +There have been many famous writers of history, but all agree in giving +the preference to two, whose perfections, tho different, have received +an almost equal degree of praise. Thucydides is close, concise, and ever +pressing on. Herodotus is sweet, natural, and copious. One is remarkable +for his animated expression of the more impetuous passions, the other +for gentle persuasion in the milder: the former succeeds in harangues +and has more force; the other surpasses in speeches of familiar +intercourse, and gives more pleasure. + + +_Demosthenes_ + +A numerous band of orators follows, for Athens produced ten of them, +contemporary with one another. Demosthenes was by far the chief of them, +and in a manner held to be the only model for eloquence; so great is +his force; so closely together are all things interwoven in his +discourse, and attended with a certain self-command; so great is his +accuracy, he never adopting any idle expression; and so just his +precision that nothing lacking, nothing redundant, can be found in him. +AEschines is more full, more diffusive, and appears the more grand, as he +has more breadth. He has more flesh, but not so many sinews. + + +_Lysias and Isocrates_ + +Lysias, older than these, is subtle and elegant, and if it is enough for +the orator to instruct, none could be found more perfect than he is. +There is nothing idle, nothing far-fetched in him; yet is he more like a +clear brook than a great river. Isocrates, in a different kind of +eloquence, is fine and polished, and better adapted for engaging in a +mock than a real battle. He was attentive to all the beauties of +discourse, and had his reasons for it, having intended his eloquence for +schools and not for contentions at the bar. His invention was easy, he +was very fond of graces and embellishments, and so nice was he in his +composition that his extreme care is not without reprehension. + + +_Plato_ + +Among philosophers, by whom Cicero confesses he has been furnished with +many resourceful aids to eloquence, who doubts that Plato is the chief, +whether we consider the acuteness of his dissertations, or his divine +Homerical faculty of elocution? He soars high above prose, and even +common poetry, which is poetry only because comprised in a certain +number of feet; and he seems to me not so much endowed with the wit of +a man, as inspired by a sort of Delphic oracle. + + +_Xenophon_ + +What shall I say of Xenophon's unaffected agreeableness, so unattainable +by any imitation that the Graces themselves seem to have composed his +language? The testimony of the ancient comedy concerning Pericles, is +very justly applicable to him, "That the Goddess of Persuasion had +seated herself on his lips." + + +_Aristotle and Theophrastus_ + +And what shall I say of the elegance of the other disciples of Socrates? +What of Aristotle? I am at a loss to know what most to admire in him, +his vast and profound erudition, or the great number of his writings, or +his pleasing style and manner, or the inventions and penetration of his +wit, or the variety of his works. And as to Theophrastus, his elocution +has something so noble and so divine that it may be said that from these +qualities came his name. + + +_Vergil_ + +In regard to our Roman authors, we can not more happily begin than with +Vergil, who of all their poets and ours in the epic style, is without +any doubt the one who comes nearest to Homer. Tho obliged to give way to +Homer's heavenly and immortal genius, yet in Vergil are to be found a +greater exactness and care, it being incumbent on him to take more +pains; so that what we lose on the side of eminence of qualities, we +perhaps gain on that of justness and equability. + + +_Cicero_ + +I proceed to our orators, who likewise may put Roman eloquence upon a +par with the Grecian. Cicero I would strenuously oppose against any of +them, tho conscious of the quarrel I should bring upon myself by +comparing him with Demosthenes in a time so critical as this; especially +as my subject does not oblige me to it, neither is it of any +consequence, when it is my real opinion that Demosthenes ought to be +particularly read, or, rather, committed to memory. + +I must say, notwithstanding, that I judge them to be alike in most of +the great qualities they possest; alike in design, disposition, manner +of dividing, of preparing minds, of proving, in short in everything +belonging to invention. In elocution there is some difference. The one +is more compact, the other more copious; the one closes in with his +opponent, the other allows him more ground to fight in; the one is +always subtle and keen in argument, the other is perhaps less so, but +often has more weight; from the one nothing can be retrenched, neither +can anything be added to the other; the one has more study, the other +more nature. + +Still ought we to yield, if for no other reason than because Demosthenes +lived before Cicero, and because the Roman orator, however great, is +indebted for a large part of his merit to the Athenian. For it seems to +me that Cicero, having bent all his thoughts on the Greeks, toward +forming himself on their model, had at length made constituents of his +character the force of Demosthenes, the abundance of Plato, and the +sweetness of Isocrates. Nor did he only, by his application, extract +what was best in these great originals, but by the happy fruitfulness of +his immortal genius he himself produced the greater part, or rather all, +of these same perfections. And to make use of an expression of Pindar, +he does not collect the water from rains to remedy a natural dryness, +but flows continually, himself, from a source of living waters, and +seems to have existed by a peculiar gift of Providence, that in him +eloquence might make trial of her whole strength and her most powerful +exertions. + +For who can instruct with more exactness, and move with more vehemence? +What orator ever possest so pleasing a manner that the very things he +forcibly wrests from you, you fancy you grant him; and when by his +violence he carries away the judge, yet does the judge seem to himself +to obey his own volition, and not to be swept away by that of another? +Besides, in all he says there is so much authority and weight that you +are ashamed to differ from him in opinion; and it is not the zeal of an +advocate you find in him, but rather the faith and sincerity of a +witness or judge. And what, at the same time, is more admirable, all +these qualities, any one of which could not be attained by another +without infinite pains, seem to be his naturally; so that his +discourses, the most charming, the most harmonious, which possibly can +be heard, retain, notwithstanding, so great an air of happy ease that +they seem to have cost him nothing. + +With good reason, therefore, is he said by his contemporaries to reign +at the bar, and he has so far gained the good graces of posterity that +Cicero is now less the name of a man than the name of eloquence itself. +Let us then keep him in view, let him be our model, and let that orator +think he has made considerable progress who has once conceived a love +and taste for Cicero. + + +_Caesar_ + +If Caesar had made the bar his principal occupation, no other of our +orators could better have disputed the prize of eloquence with Cicero. +So great is his force, so sharp his wit, so active his fire, that it +plainly appears he spoke with as much spirit as he fought. A wonderful +elegance and purity of language, which he made his particular study, +were a further embellishment of all these talents for eloquence. + + +_Philosophers_ + +It remains only to speak of those who have written on subjects of +philosophy. Hitherto we have had but few of this kind. Cicero, as in +all other respects, so also in this, was a worthy rival of Plato. Brutus +has written some excellent treatises, the merit of which is far superior +to that of his orations. He supports admirably well the weight of his +matter, and seems to feel what he says. Cornelius Celsus, in the manner +of the Skeptics, has written a good many tracts, which are not without +elegance and perspicuity. Plancus, among the Stoics, may be read with +profit, for the sake of becoming acquainted with the things he +discusses. Catius, an Epicurean, has some levity in his way, but in the +main is not an unpleasing author. + + +_Seneca_ + +I have designedly omitted speaking hitherto of Seneca,--who was +proficient in all kinds of eloquence,--on account of the false opinion +people entertained that I not only condemned his writings, but also +personally hated him. I drew this aspersion upon myself by my endeavor +to bring over eloquence to a more austere taste, which had been +corrupted and enervated by very many softnesses and delicacies. Then +Seneca was almost the only author young people read with pleasure. I did +not strive to exclude him absolutely, but could not bear that he should +be preferred to others much better, whom he took all possible pains to +cry down, because he was conscious that he had taken to a different +manner from their way of writing, and he could not otherwise expect to +please people who had a taste for these others. It was Seneca's lot, +however, to be more loved than imitated, and his partizans run as wide +from him as he himself had fallen from the ancients. Yet it were to be +wished that they had proved themselves like, or had come near, him. But +they were fond of nothing in him but his faults, and every one strove to +copy them if he could. Then priding themselves on speaking like Seneca, +of course they could not avoid bringing him into disgrace. + +His perfections, however, were many and great. His wit was easy and +fruitful, his erudition considerable, his knowledge extensive--in which +last point he sometimes was led into mistakes, probably by those whom he +had charged to make researches for him. There is hardly a branch of +study on which he has not written something; for we have his orations, +his poems, epistles, and dialogs. In philosophic matters he was not so +accurate, but was admirable for his invectives against vice. + +He has many bright thoughts, and many things are well worth reading in +him for improvement of the moral character; but his elocution is, for +the most part, corrupt, and the more dangerous because its vices are of +a sweet and alluring nature. One could wish he had written with his own +genius and another's judgment. For if he had rejected some things, if he +had less studiously affected some engaging beauties, if he had not been +overfond of all his productions, if he had not weakened the importance +of his matter by frivolous thoughts, he would have been honored by the +approbation of the learned rather than by the love of striplings. + +However, such as he is, he may be read when the taste is formed and +strengthened by a more austere kind of eloquence, if for no other +reason than because he can exercise judgment on both sides. For, as I +have said, many things in him are worthy of praise, worthy even of +admiration if a proper choice had been made, which I wish he had made +himself, as indeed that nature is deserving of an inclination to embrace +what is better, which has ability to effect anything to which it +inclines. + + + + +KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE + + +Knowledge of the civil law will, likewise, be necessary for the orator +whom we have described, and together with it knowledge of the customs +and religion of the commonwealth of which he may take charge, for how +shall he be able to give counsel in public and private deliberations if +ignorant of the many things which happen together particularly to the +establishment of the State? And must he not falsely aver himself to be +the patron of the causes he undertakes, if obliged to borrow from +another what is of greatest consequence in these causes, in some measure +like those who repeat the writings of poets? And how will he accomplish +what he has so undertaken if the things which he requires the judge to +believe, he shall speak on the faith of another, and if he, the reputed +helper of his clients, shall himself stand in need of the help of +another? + + +THOROUGH INFORMATION INDISPENSABLE + +But we will suppose him not reduced to this inconvenience, having +studied his cause sufficiently at home, and having thoroughly informed +himself of all that he has thought proper to lay before the judges: yet +what shall become of him when unforeseen questions arise, which often +are suddenly started on the back of pleadings? Will he not with great +unseemliness look about him? Will he not ask the lower class of +advocates how he shall behave? Can he be accurate in comprehending the +things then whispered to him, when he is to speak on them instantly? +Can he strongly affirm, or speak ingenuously for his clients? Grant that +he may in his pleadings, but what shall be his fate in altercation, when +he must have his answer ready and he has no time for receiving +information? And what if a person learned in the law is not assisting? +What if one who knows little of the matter tells him something that is +wrong? And this is the greatest mischief in ignorance, to believe such a +monitor intelligent. + +Now, as we suppose the orator to be a particularly learned and honest +man, when he has made sufficient study of that which naturally is best, +it will give him little trouble if a lawyer dissents from him in +opinion, since even they are admitted to be of different opinions among +themselves. But if he desires to know their sentiments on any point of +law, he need only read a little, which is the least laborious part of +study. If many men who despaired of acquiring the necessary talents for +speaking in public, have engaged in the study of law, with how much more +ease will the orator effect this, which may be learned by those who from +their own confession could not be orators? + +M. Cato was as much distinguished by his great eloquence as by his great +learning in the law. Scaevola and Servius Sulpitius, both eminent +lawyers, were also very eloquent. Cicero not only in pleading never +appeared at a loss in knowledge of the law, but also began to write some +tracts on it. From all these examples it appears that an orator may not +less attend to the teaching than the learning of it. + + +THE MANNER OF THE SPEAKER + +I would not have him who is to speak rise unconcerned, show no change of +color, and betray no sense of danger,--if they do not happen naturally, +they ought at least to be pretended. But this sense should proceed from +solicitude for performing well our duty, not from a motive of fear; and +we may decently betray emotion, but not faint away. The best remedy, +therefore, for bashfulness, is a modest assurance, and however weak the +forehead may be, it ought to be lifted up, and well it may by conscious +merit. + + +THE NEED OF GOOD DELIVERY + +There are natural aids, as specified before, which are improved by care, +and these are the voice, lungs, a good presence, and graceful action, +which are advantages sometimes so considerable as to beget a reputation +for wit. Our age produced orators more copious than Trachallus, but when +he spoke he seemed to surpass them all, so great was the advantage of +his stature, the sprightliness of his glance, the majesty of his aspect, +the beauty of his action, and a voice, not as Cicero desires it should +be, but almost like that of tragedians, and surpassing all the +tragedians I ever heard. I well remember that when he once pleaded in +the Julian Hall before the first bench of judges, and there also, as +usual, the four classes of judges were then sitting, and the whole place +rang with noise, he was not only heard distinctly from the four benches, +but also was applauded, which was a disparagement to those who spoke +after him. But this is the accumulation of what can be wished for, and a +happiness hard to be met with, and as it can not fall to every one's +lot, let the orator strive at least to make himself heard by those +before whom he speaks. + + +THE TEST OF AN ORATION + +Above all, as happens to a great many, let not desire for temporary +praise keep our orator from having an eye to the interest of the cause +he has undertaken. For as generals in waging wars do not always march +their armies over pleasant plains, but often must climb rugged hills, +must lay siege to forts and castles raised on steep rocks and mountains, +and fortified both by nature and by art: so an orator will be pleased +with an opportunity to make great excursions, and when he engages on +champion ground, he will display all his forces so as to make an +exceedingly fine appearance; but if under the necessity of unraveling +the intricacies of some points of law, or placing truth in a clear +light from amidst the obscurity thrown around it, he will not then +ostentatiously ride about, nor will he use a shower of pointed +sentences, as missive weapons; but he will carry on his operations by +frustrating his enemy; by mines, by ambuscade, and by stratagem: all of +which are not much to be commended while they are being used, but after +they have been practised. Whence those men benefit themselves most, who +seem least desirous of praise; for when the frivolous parade of +eloquence has ceased its bursts of thunder among its own applauders, the +more potent applause of true talents will appear in genuine splendor; +the judges will not conceal the impressions which have been made on +them; the sense of the learned will outweigh the opinion of ignorance: +so true it is that it is the winding up of the discourse, and the +success attending it, that must prove its true merit. + + +AVOIDING OSTENTATION + +It was customary with the ancients to hide their eloquence; and M. +Antonius advises orators so to do, in order that they may be the more +believed, and that their stratagems may be less suspected. But the +eloquence of those times could well be concealed, not yet having made an +accession of so many luminaries as to break out through every +intervening obstacle to the transmission of their light. But indeed all +art and design should be kept concealed, as most things when once, +discovered lose their value. In what I have hitherto spoken of, +eloquence loves nothing else so much as privacy. A choice of words, +weight of thought, elegance of figures, either do not exist, or they +appear. But because they appear, they are not therefore to be displayed +with ostentation. Or if one of the two is to be chosen, let the cause +rather than the advocate be praised; still the issue will justify him, +by his having pleaded excellently a very good cause. It is certain that +no one else pleads so ill as he who endeavors to please, while his cause +displeases; because the things by which he pleases must necessarily be +foreign to his subject. + +The orator ought not to be so particular and vain as not to undertake +the pleading of the smaller kind of causes, as beneath him, or as if a +matter of less consequence should in any respect lessen the reputation +he has acquired. Duty indeed is a just motive for his undertaking them, +and he should wish that his friends were never engaged in any other +kind of suits, which in the main are set off with sufficient eloquence +when he has spoken to the purpose. + + +DO NOT ABUSE YOUR OPPONENT + +Some are very liberal in abuse of the advocate of the opposing party, +but unless he has brought it upon himself, I think it is acting very +ungenerously by him, in consideration of the common duties of the +profession. Add to this that these sallies of passion are of no +advantage whatever to him who pleads, the opponent having, in his turn, +an equal right to abuse; and they may even be harmful to the cause, +because the opponent, spurred on to become a real enemy, musters +together all the forces of wit to conquer if possible. Above all, that +modesty is irrecoverably lost which procures for the orator so much +authority and belief, if once departing from the character of a good +man, he degenerates into a brawler and barker, conforming himself not to +the disposition of the judge, but to the caprice and resentment of the +client. + +Taking liberties of this kind frequently leads the orator to hazard some +rash expressions not less dangerous to the cause than to himself. +Pericles was accustomed to wish, with good reason, that no word might +ever enter his mind which could give umbrage to the people. But the +respect he had for the people ought in my opinion to be had for all, who +may have it in their power to do as much hurt; for the words that seemed +strong and bold when exprest, are called foolish when they have given +offense. + + +THOROUGH PREPARATION ESSENTIAL + +As every orator is remarkable for his manner, the care of one having +been imputed to slowness, and the facility of another to rashness, it +may not be amiss to point out here a medium. Let him come for pleading +prepared with all possible care, as it must argue not only neglect, but +also a wicked and treacherous disposition in him, to plead worse than he +can in the cause he undertakes, therefore he should not undertake more +causes than he is well able to handle. + +He should say things, studied and written, in as great a degree as the +subject can bear, and, as Demosthenes says, deeply engraven, if it were +possible, on his memory, and as perfect as may be. This may be done at +the first pleading of a cause, and when in public judgments a cause is +adjourned for some time before it comes to a rehearsing. But when a +direct reply is to be made, due preparations are impracticable; and even +they who are not so ready find what they have written to be rather a +prejudice to them if anything unexpectedly is brought forward; for it is +with reluctance that they part with what they have prepared, and keeping +it in mind during the whole pleading, they are forced to continually +wonder if anything can be taken from it to be included in what they are +obliged to speak extempore. And tho this may be done, there will still +be a lack of connection, and the incoherence will be discoverable from +the different coloring and inequality of style. Thus there is neither an +uninterrupted fluency in what they say extempore, nor a connection +between it and what they recite from memory, for which reason one must +be a hindrance to the other, for the written matter will always bring +to it the attention of the mind, and scarcely ever follow it. Therefore +in these actions, as country-laboring men say, we must stand firmly on +our legs. For, as every cause consists of proving and refuting, whatever +regards the first may be written, and whatever it is certain the +opponent will answer, as sometimes it is certain what he will, may be +refuted with equal care and study. + +Knowing the cause well is one essential point for being prepared in +other respects, and listening attentively to all the opponent states, is +another. Still we may previously think of many particular incidents and +prepare the mind for all emergencies, this being of special advantage in +speaking, the thought being thereby the more easily transmitted and +transferred. + +But when in answering or otherwise there may be necessity for extempore +speaking, the orator will never find himself at a loss and disconcerted, +who has been prepared by discipline, and study, and exercise, with the +powers of facility, and who, as always under arms and ready for +engaging, will no more lack a sufficient flow of speech in the pleading +of causes than he does in conversation on daily and domestic +occurrences; neither will he ever, for lack of coming duly prepared, +decline burdening himself with a cause, if he has time to learn the +state of it, for with anything else he always will be well +acquainted. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +The orator having distinguished himself by these perfections of +eloquence at the bar, in counsels, in the assemblies of the people, in +the senate, and in all the duties of a good citizen, ought to think, +likewise, of making an end worthy of an honest man and the sanctity of +his ministry: not that during the course of his life he ought to cease +being of service to society, or that, endowed with such integrity of +mind and such talent of eloquence, he can continue too long in the +exercise of so noble an employment; but because it is fitting that he +should guard against degrading his character, by doing anything which +may fall short of what he has already done. The orator is indebted for +what he is, not only to knowledge, which increases with his years, but +to his voice, lungs, and strength of body; and when the latter are +impaired by years, or debilitated by infirmities, it is to be feared +that something might be lacking in this great man, either from his +stopping short through fatigue, and out of breath at every effort, or by +not making himself sufficiently heard, or, lastly, by expecting, and not +finding, him to be what he formerly was. + +When the orator does sound a retreat, no less ample fruits of study will +attend on him. He either will write the history of his time for the +instruction of posterity, or he will explain the law to those who came +to ask his advice, or he will write a treatise on eloquence, or that +worthy mouth of his will employ itself in inculcating the finest moral +precepts. As was customary with the ancients, well-disposed youth will +frequent his house, consulting him as an oracle on the true manner of +speaking. As the parent of eloquence will he form them, and as an old +experienced pilot will he give them an account of shores, and harbors, +and what are the presages of storms, and what may be required for +working the ship in contrary or favorable winds. To all this will he be +induced not only by a duty of humanity common to mankind, but also by a +certain pleasure in it; for no one would be glad to see an art going +into decay, in which he himself excelled, and what is more laudable than +to teach others that in which one is perfectly skilled? + +For all I know, the happiest time in an orator's life is when he has +retired from the world to devote himself to rest; and, remote from envy, +and remote from strife, he looks back on his reputation, as from a +harbor of safety; and while still living has a sense of that veneration +which commonly awaits only the dead; thus anticipating the pleasure of +the noble impression posterity will conceive of him. I am conscious that +to the extent of my poor ability, whatever I knew before, and whatever I +could collect for the service of this work, I have candidly and +ingenuously made a communication of, for the instruction of those who +might be willing to reap any advantage from it: and it is enough for an +honest man to have taught what he knows. + +To be good men, which is the first and most important thing, consists +chiefly in the will, and whoever has a sincere desire to be a man of +integrity, will easily learn the arts that teach virtue; and these arts +are not involved in so many perplexities, neither are they of such +great number, as not to be learned by a few years' application. The +ordering of an upright and happy life is attainable by an easy and +compendious method, when inclination is not lacking. Nature begot us +with the best dispositions, and it is so easy to the well-inclined to +learn that which is good, that we can not help being surprized, on +making a due estimate of things, how there can be so many bad persons in +the world. For, as water is naturally a proper element for fish, dry +land for quadrupeds, and air for birds, so indeed it ought to be more +easy to live according to the prescript of nature than to infringe her +laws. + +As to the rest, tho we might measure our age, not by the space of more +advanced years, but by the time of youth, we should find that we had +quite years enough for learning, all things being made shorter by +order, method, and the manner of application. To bring the matter home +to our oratorical studies, of what significance is the custom which I +see kept up by many, of declaiming so many years in schools, and of +expending so much labor on imaginary subjects, when in a moderate time +the rules of eloquence may be learned, and pursuant to their directions, +a real image framed of the contests at the bar? By this I do not mean to +hint in the least that exercises for speaking should ever be +discontinued, but rather that none should grow old in any one particular +exercise for that purpose, for we may require the knowledge of many +sciences, and learn the precepts of morality, and exercise ourselves in +such causes as are agitated at the bar, even while we continue in the +state of scholars. And indeed the art of oratory is such as need not +require many years for learning it. Each of the arts I have mentioned +may be abridged into few books, there being no occasion to consider them +so minutely and so much in detail. Practise remains, which soon makes us +well skilled in them. Knowledge of things is increasing daily, and yet +books are not so many; it is necessary to read in order to acquire this +knowledge, of which either examples as to the things themselves may be +met with in history, or the eloquent expression of them may be found in +orators. It is also necessary that we should read the opinions of +philosophers and lawyers, with some other things deserving of notice. + + +TAKING TIME FOR STUDY + +All this indeed may be compassed, but we ourselves are the cause of our +not having time enough. How small a portion of it do we allot to our +studies! A good part of it is spent in frivolous compliments and paying +and returning visits, a good part of it is taken up in the telling of +idle stories, a good part at the public spectacles, and a good part in +the pleasures of the table. Add to these our great variety of +amusements, and that extravagant indulgence we bestow upon our bodies. +One time we must go on a course of travels, another time we wish +recreation amidst the pleasures of rural life, and another time we are +full of painful solicitude regarding the state of our fortune, +calculating and balancing our loss and gain; and together with these, +how often do we give ourselves up to the intoxication of wine, and in +what a multiplicity of voluptuousness does our profligate mind suffer +itself to be immersed? Should there be an interval for study amidst +these avocations, can it be said to be proper? But were we to devote all +this idle or ill-spent time to study, should we not find life long +enough and time more than enough for becoming learned? This is evident +by only computing the time of the day, besides the advantages of the +night, of which a good part is more than sufficient for sleep. But we +now preposterously compute not the years we have studied, but the years +we have lived. Tho geometricians and grammarians, and the professors of +other arts, spent all their lives, however long, in treating and +discussing their respective arts, does it thence follow that we must +have as many lives as there are things to be learned? But they did not +extend the learning of them to old age, being content with learning them +only, and they spent so many years not so much in their study as in +their practise. + +Now, tho one should despair of reaching to the height of perfection, a +groundless hope even in a person of genius, health, talent, and with +masters to assist him; yet it is noble, as Cicero says, to have a place +in the second, or third, rank. He who can not rival the glory of +Achilles in military exploits, shall not therefore have a mean opinion +of the praise due to Ajax, or Diomedes, and he who can not approach +Homer, need not despise the fame of Tyrteus. If men were to yield to the +thought of imagining none capable of exceeding such eminent persons as +went before them, then they even who are deemed excellent would not have +been so. Vergil would not have excelled Lucretius and Macer; nor Cicero, +Crassus and Hortensius; and no one for the future would pretend to any +advantage over his predecessor. + +Tho the hope of surpassing these great men be but faint, yet it is an +honor to follow them. Have Pollio and Messala, who began to appear at +the bar when Cicero was already possest of the empire of eloquence, +acquired little dignity in their life-time, and left but a small degree +of glory for the remembrance of posterity? True it is that arts brought +to perfection would deserve very ill of human affairs if afterward they +could not at least be kept to the same standard. + + +THE REWARDS OF ELOQUENCE + +Add to this that a moderate share of eloquence is attended with no small +advantage, and if measured by the fruits gathered from it, will almost +be on a par with that which is perfect. It would be no difficult matter +to show from many ancient or modern examples that no other profession +acquires for men, greater honors, wealth, friendship, present and future +glory, were it not degrading to the honor of letters to divert the mind +from the contemplation of the most noble object, the study and +possession of which is such a source of contentment, and fix it on the +less momentous rewards it may have, not unlike those who say they do not +so much seek virtue as the pleasure resulting from it. + +Let us therefore with all the zealous impulses of our heart endeavor to +attain the very majesty of eloquence, than which the immortal gods have +not imparted anything better to mankind, and without which all would be +mute in nature, and destitute of the splendor of a perfect glory and +future remembrance. Let us likewise always make continued progress +toward perfection, and by so doing we shall either reach the height, or +at least shall see many beneath us. + +This is all, as far as in me lies, I could contribute to the promoting +and perfecting of the art of eloquence; the knowledge of which, if it +does not prove of any great advantage to studious youth, will, at least, +what I more heartily wish for, give them a more ardent desire for doing +well. + + + + + * * * * * + +ADVERTISEMENTS + + * * * * * + +How to Read and Declaim + +A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN READING AND DECLAMATION HAVING AS ITS PRIME +OBJECT THE CULTIVATION OF TASTE AND REFINEMENT + +By GRENVILLE KLEISER + +_Formerly Instructor in Public Speaking at Yale Divinity School; Author +of "How to Speak in Public," etc._ + + +This eminently practical book is divided into five parts: + +PART ONE--Preparatory Course: Twenty Lessons on Naturalness, +Distinctness, Vivacity, Confidence, Simplicity, Deliberateness, and +kindred topics. + +PART TWO--Advance Course: Twenty Lessons on Thought Values, Thought +Directions, Persuasion, Power, Climax, etc., etc. + +PART THREE--Articulation and Pronunciation. + +PART FOUR--Gesture and Facial Expression. + +PART FIVE--The most up-to-date and popular prose and poetic selections +anywhere to be found. + +It is a book to beget intelligent reading, so as to develop in the +student mental alertness, poise, and self-confidence. + +_12mo, Cloth. $1.50, net; by mail, $1.65_ + +FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, Publishers + +NEW YORK and LONDON + + * * * * * + +Kleiser's Complete Guide to Public Speaking + +_By GRENVILLE KLEISER_ + +Famous Author of many Practical Books and Courses + + +The only extensive, comprehensive, encyclopedic work of its kind ever +issued. 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